{"page": 1, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 2, "printed_page": null, "text": "\\ J^(A\n\ni*t*\n\ni\n\n$\\ ^ c;\n\n"}
{"page": 3, "printed_page": null, "text": "Digitized by the Internet Archive\nin 2007 with funding from\nMicrosoft Corporation\n\nhttp://www.archive.org/details/addressesproce1893nafiu0ft\n\n"}
{"page": 4, "printed_page": null, "text": "*\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 5, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 6, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 7, "printed_page": null, "text": "PROCEEDINGS\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nINTERNATIONAL\nCONGRESS\nOF EDUCATION\n' f6\n\nOF THE\n\nWORLD'S\n\nCOLUMBIAN\n\nI\n\nEXPOSITION\n\nChicago, July 25-28, 1893\n\nUXDER\n\nNATIONAL\n\nTHE\n\nCHARGE\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nUNITED\n\nTHE\n\nASSOCIATION\nSTATES\nf\n\nPUBLISHED\n\nBY\n\nTHE\n\nNEW\n\nYORK\n1894\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSfcfe\n\n"}
{"page": 8, "printed_page": null, "text": "i\n13\n\nN. E. A.\nNOT THINGS,\n\nTHE\n\nWORLD'S\n\nWorld's\n\nJULY\n\n25-28.\n\nBUT MEN.\n\nCONGRESS\n\nAUXILIARY\n\nOF THE\n\n<,\n\nColumbian\n\nExposition op 1893.\n\nNOT\n\nBUT\n\nMATTER,\n\nMIND.\n\nPresident, CHARLES C. BONNEY.\nVice-President, THOMAS B. BRYAN.\nTreasurer, LYMAN J. GAGE.\nBENJ. BUTTERWORTH.\nsecretaries,} f clarence\nk YOUNG.\n\nTHE\n\nWOMAN'S BRANCH OF THE AUXILIARY,\nPresident, Mrs. POTTER PALMER.\nVice-President, Mrs. CHAS. HENROTIN.\n\nPress of J. J. Little & Co\nAstor Place, New York\n\n"}
{"page": 9, "printed_page": null, "text": "PREFACE.\nIn connection with the World's Columbian Exposition, held at Chicago\nin the summer of 1893, to celebrate the four hundredth anniversary of the\ndiscovery of America, a series of World's Congresses was planned. In the\nwords of the chairman of these congresses, the object was \"to provide\nfor the proper presentation of the intellectual and moral progress of the\nworld by a series of international conferences of the leaders in all the\nchief departments of human achievements.\" The programme set apart\nappropriate sessions for each class of interests, the series commencing in\nMay. Perhaps the most wonderful of all these congresses, in the magnitude of its undertaking and the readiness of response on the part of invited\nrepresentatives from all parts of the world, was the Religious Congress, or\nthe \" Parliament of Religions,\" held early in September. It can safely be\nclaimed that the Educational Congresses of the latter part of July held the\nnext place in interest, and in numbers and character of representation.\nIn response to the request of Mr. Bonney, chairman of the World's\nCongress Auxiliary, the National Educational Association of the United\nStates appointed a committee of arrangements to invite representative\neducators from the different parts of the United States and from foreign\nnations to participate in this, and to make up a programme for the occasion. In the various stages of progress the Committee of Arrangements had\noccasion to congratulate themselves on the readiness and courtesy with\nwhich distinguished educators, at home and abroad, lent their support to\nthe movement. This will be seen both by the lists printed in this volume\ncontaining the names of those Avho accepted the title of honorary vicepresident, and more especially by the names of those who were present\nand assisted in the discussions, or presented valued papers.\nThe Committee of Arrangements appreciated the importance of selecting questions of international interest for discussion, questions that affect\nthe management of schools in all parts of the world.* The efforts of the\ncommittee in this regard were responded to in a hearty manner by the delegates who visited the Congress, and nearly all of the questions proposed\nwere discussed with unusual thoroughness. As a result of these joint\nefforts, the committee is able to present more than one hundred and fifty\nwell-prepared papers treating on all the many subjects that have exercised\nthe minds of men in the higher schools or in the elementary schools of\nthe civilized world.\n* On pages\n20 selection\nto 30 of ofthis\nReport\nwill be found' a fuller statement of the views that guided the\ncommittee\nin the\ntopics\nfor discussion.\n\n"}
{"page": 10, "printed_page": null, "text": "iv\n\nPREFACE.\n\nIt is believed by tbe Committee of Arrangements tbat the collection of\npapers herewith presented will be found to be noteworthy not only for tbe\npresence of tbose of high merit, but for the conspicuous absence of that\nclass of weak and pointless writings which so often fill the volumes of proceedings ofteachers' associations. Many of the papers here collected will\nbe found to deserve a high place for their value as special treatises.\nDr. Calkins has explained in a prefatory note printed herewith that\nsome condensation has been found necessary to reduce the size of the volume to the limits prescribed by the committee of the National Educational Association which he represents. I have asked him to print a\nstatement in the table of contents opposite each item showing extent\nand character of the abridgment, and I hope that it will be found that\nnothing has been omitted which affects the value of any one of the several\ncontributions.\nThere were fifteen department congresses. Of these departments, those\nfor Higher Education, Secondary, Elementary, School Supervision, Professional Training of Teachers, Kational Psychology, Educational Publications, and' Business Education represented what has long been\nestablished, and their discussions went largely to explaining and justifying work that is in process of accomplishment. On the other hand, the\ndepartments of Kindergarten Education, Instruction in Art, Vocal Music,\nTechnological Instruction, Industrial and Manual Instruction, Physical\nEducation, Experimental Psychology in Education, were devoted more\nespecially to setting forth what is new and desirable in education, and\nurging its adoption into the school system. As a result, the educational\nproblems have all been discussed in the light of these two tendencies.\nIt is well understood that each nation has a trend of its own somewhat\ndifferent from those of its neighbors. In consequence of this it assigns to\nits school system the accomplishment of a peculiar problem, different in\nsome respects from the problems assigned to the school systems of other\nnations. To forget this fact in making out the programme is to neglect\nthe interest of the foreign delegates present. It is a matter of congratulation to the committee that the discussions herewith presented offer proof\nthat the questions proposed were in no case mere local ones.\nThe value of this volume is enhanced by an alphabetical index,* giving\nnames, places, institutions, and themes discussed, and in the case of the\nproceedings of certain departments, an analysis of topics treated.\nSo far as known, this is the largest international educational congress\nthat has yet been held. The civilized countries of the world were more\ngenerally and fully represented, and the total of attendance was larger\nthan at previous congresses.\nIt is hoped that this volume may find its way into all libraries at home\nand abroad ; and it is recommended to special students of education\n* Prepared by Dr. L. R. Klemni, of the Bureau of Education.\n\n"}
{"page": 11, "printed_page": null, "text": "PREFACE.\n\neverywhere as a useful collection of special treatises on the live questions\nin education at this time.\nIn closing this prefatory note, the Committee of Arrangements desire to\nplace on record their obligations to the President of the World's Congress\nAuxiliary, the Hon. C. C. Bonney, for his uniform courtesy and his\ngenerous and efficient cooperation.\nW. T. Harris,\nChairman Committee of Arrangements.\n\n"}
{"page": 12, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 13, "printed_page": null, "text": "NOTE\n\nBY\n\nTHE\n\nEDITOR.\n\nThe undersigned having been appointed by the Executive Committee of the National\nEducational Association to edit this volume, and instructed by said Committee that the\nProceedings of the International Congress of Education must be limited to a single volume of a thousand pages when published, and its early publication having been prevented byconditions beyond control, deems it appropriate to make explanatory statements as to the chief hindrances to an earlier completion of the work, and also as to the\nnature of the abridgments necessary to bring the volume within the prescribed limits.\nFirst. — About one-fourth of the papers presented before the congresses could not be\nobtained by the Secretary, for various reasons wholly beyond his control, during the\ntime of the meetings. It was found difficult to secure them after the writers had\nreturned to their homes. Several papers were sent directly to the Chairman of Arrangements, and the Secretary forwarded to him, about the 15th of September, all the papers,\nreports, and discussions that he had been able to collect.\nSecond. — The first package of these papers reached the editor on Christmas-eve ;\nothers arrived during January. Those of the department latest received were delivered\nto him April 10th. Several single papers were received still later. Beside, many papers\nof delegates from foreign countries had to be translated. The extended index could\nnot be completed until all the papers were in type and paged.\nThird. — The very large number of papers submitted, with about four hundred pages of\nreported discussions, and the lengthiness of some papers, together with the limits of a\nsingle volume, rendered it necessary that portions of this material should be abridged, or\nvaluable papers omitted entirely. These conditions made reading and discrimination\nindispensable. The material submitted has been diminished by excluding some papers\nsent to the editor which were neither read nor considered before the Congress ; also by\nleaving out a few which did not seem necessary to the completeness of the volume.\nAbridgments have been necessary where two or more papers were written upon the\nsame subject ; slight abridgments have been made in cases where matter incidentally\nrelated to the subject did not appear essential to the writer's treatment of it. This class\nincludes a large majority of those slightly abridged. In all cases care has been taken\nto retain the exact language of the writers in the papers thus printed. In many instances\nthe papers marked \"abstract\" in the volume were sent to the editor in the form used.\nWhere abridgments have been made in the papers published the extent and character\nof the abridgments are indicated within brackets in connection with the titles in the\nfollowing table of contents.\nChanges have been made in language in a few instances where the writers are not\naccustomed to speak or write English.\nRe-writing was found indispensable in some of the reported discussions and in minutes\nof meetings. In these cases, where possible, the language of the writer or speaker has\nbeen retained.\nIt is hoped that an examination of this volume, in view of the facts above stated, may\noverbalance all disappointment from its late reception, and be accepted as a reasonable\nexplanation of any omissions.\nN. A. Calkins.\nMay 15, 1894.\n\n"}
{"page": 14, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 15, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONTENTS\nPAGE\n\nPreface,\n\niii\n\nNote by the Editoe,\n\nvi\n\nGeneral Congress of Education,\nCommittee of the National Education Association in Charge of the International Congress of Education, .......\nSubjects Presented in the Preliminary Programme for Discussion by the\nInternational Congress of Education,\nList of Honorary Vice-Presidents,\nAddresses of Welcome and Eesponses :\n\n5-66\n5\n6\n12\n\nCharles G. Bonney, President of the World's Congress Auxiliary,\n.\nRt. Rev. Samuel Fallows, Chairman of General Committee on Educational Congresses,\nMrs. Charles Henrotin, Vice-President of the Woman's Branch of the\nWorld's Congress Auxiliary,\nMrs. Henry M. Wilmarth, Chairman of the Woman's General Committee on the Educational Congresses,\n......\nDr. Selim H. Peabody, Chief of the Department of Liberal Arts, .\nHon. Win. T. Harris, Chairman Committee of Arrangements, National\nEducational Association,\n.\nAlbert G. Lane, President National Educational Association, .\n.\nAddress. By Dr. James B. Angell, Permanent Chairman, ...\nAddress. By Prince Serge Wolkonsky, Delegate of Russia, ...\nAddress. By B. Buisson, Delegate of France, .....\nAddress. By Hon. G. W. Ross, Minister of Education, Ontario, .\n.\nThe Relation between Educational Methods and Educational Ends. By\n' Rt. Rev. John J. Keane, Rector of the Catholic University of America, Washington, D. C\nLegal Education in the United States.\nBy Professor L. Dimscha, of St.\nPetersburg University, Russia\nThe Present Situation of Education in France.\nBy M. Gabriel Com pay re,\nPresident of the French Commission on Education,\n....\nA Perfect Physical Education Indispensable to an Ideal Education.\n[Abstract.]\nBy Dr. L. M. Torngren, Stockholm,\n....\nAddress.\nBy M. Ergraff Kovalevsky, Russia,\nJoseph Peter Varela and the Progress of Education in Uruguay [Abstract],\nPresent Condition of the Public Schools of Uruguay.\nBy SeHor Alberto\nGomez Ruano, Commissioner of Education,\nTraining of Teachers in High Schools in Sweden.\nBy Dr. Edward Osterberg, of Sweden,\nCongress of School Supervision,\nList of Honorary Vice-Presidents,\nHow to Improve the Work of Inefficient Teachers.\nBy Frank A. Fitzpatrick, Superintendent of Schools. Omaha, Neb.,\n....\n\n17\n20\n22\n23\n23\n26\n30\n34\n37\n39\n40\n\n43\n48\n53\n54\n55\n56\n58\n60\n\n67-86\n68\n71\n\n"}
{"page": 16, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONTENTS.\n\nDiscussion. — Appointment and Tenure of Office of Superintendents —\nProfessor Hinsdale and others, ........\nWho shall Appoint Teachers, and on Whose Nomination ? By II. S.\nTarbell, Superintendent of Schools, Providence, R. I.,\n.\n.\nDiscussion.\n[Slightly abridged.] — Superintendent C. B. Gilbert, St. Paul.\nDiscussion. — Should the Law Require the Attendance of all Pupils in\nSchool Between the Ages of Eight and Fourteen ? Hon. T. B.\nStockwell, Rhode Island, A. G. Lane, Chicago, and others,\n.\n.\nGrading and Classification. By Mrs. Ella P. Young, Assistant Superintendent, Chicago,\n\n77\n78\n81\n82\n83\n\nCongress of Higher Education.\n87-176\nList of Honorary Vice-Presidents\n89\nOpening Address. By the Chairman, Daniel C. Gilman, LL.D., President of the Johns Hopkins University,\n94\nHow far is it Desirable that Universities should be of One Type ? By\nPresident Martin Kellogg, of the University of California, .\n. .\n104\nThe Division of Labor in the University.\nBy Professor Giuseppe Allievo,\nof the University of Turin, Italy,\n109\nShould an Antecedent Liberal Education be Required of Students in Law,\nMedicine, and Theology ? By Professor Woodrow Wilson, Princeton, 112\nGeneral Discussion,\n...........\n117\nShould Greek be Required for the Degree of Bachelor of Arts ? By Professor W. G. Hale, University of Chicago,\n118\nTelegrams and Letters,\n125\nGeneral Discussion,\n135\nWhat Signs of Improvement are Visible in the Undergraduate Life of\nAmerican Students ? By Bradford Paul Raymond, President of\nWesleyan University, Middletown, Conn.,\n142\nGeneral Discussion,\n145\nAddress on the Relation of Professional Schools to the University.\nBy\nHon. Seth Low, President of Columbia College, New York,\n.\n.\n146\nThe Evolution of Liberal Education.\nBy Professor Andrew P. West, of\nPrinceton University,\n150\nGeneral Discussion,\n•\n154\nOn What Conditions should the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy be given?\nBy William 0. Sproull, Dean of the University of Cincinnati, Ohio,\n156\nGeneral Discussion,\n159\nThe Relation of our Colleges and Universities to the Advancement of our\nCivilization.\nBy Rt. Rev. John J. Keane, D.D., LL.D., .\n.\n161\nClosing Address.\nBy the President,\n164\nThe Study of English Literature in French Universities. By M. Andre\nL. Chevrillon, Professor of English Literature in the Faculte des\nLettres of Lille, and Delegate from the Minister of Public Instruction,\nFrance,\n168\nCongress of Secondary Education,\n,\n177-242\nList of Honorary Vice-Presidents,\n178\nOpening Address.\nBy Ray Green lluling, Cambridge, Mass.,\n.\n.\n181\nSupervision of Private Schools by the State or Municipal Authorities.\nBy Rev. James C. Mackenzie, Ph.D., Dead Master of the Lawrenceville School, New Jersey,\n183\n\n"}
{"page": 17, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONTENTS.\n\nxi\nPAGE\n\nGeneral Discussion,\n.\nThe Course of Study in Secondary Schools.\nBy G. N. Carman, Dean of\nthe Morgan Park Academy of the University of Chicago, .\n.\nShould the Amount of Time given to Languages in our Secondary Schools\nbe Diminished in order to make Room for a more Extended Course in\n\n190\n193\n\nPhysics, Botany and Chemistry ? By Dr. Cecil F. P. Bancroft, Principal of Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass.,\nShould Language Studies be Limited in Secondary Schools in the Interests of the Sciences ? By Dr. D. W. Abercrombie, of Worcester\nAcademy, Worcester, Mass.,\nGeneral Discussion,\nThe Secondary Education of Girls in France. By Mile. Marie Dugard,\nProfessor at the Lycee Moliere, Paris, and Member of the French\nCommission on Secondary Education,\nGeneral Discussion,\nThe Professional Training of Teachers for Secondary Schools. By Miss\nE. P. Hughes, Principal of the Cambridge Training College for\nTeachers, at Cambridge, England,\nGeneral Discussion. — Thesis: Should Algebra or Geometry come first in\nthe Course of Study of Secondary Schools ? W. N. Hailmann and\nothers,\nHigh Schools for Girls in England.\n[Abridged very slightly.]\nBy Mary\nGurney and Rose Kingsley, of England,\nDiscussion. — Thesis: In Cases where a Choice should be made, which\nshould come first, Latin or some Modern Language, in the Course of\nStudy of Secondary Schools ? By Dr. C. W. Pearson, Beloit, Wis., .\nWhich should come first, Latin or some Modern Language ? By W.\nWilberforce Smith, Englewood, N. J.,\nGeneral Discussion,\nCongress of Elementary Education,\n\n.\n\n196\n\n199\n205\n\n211\n217\n\n217\n\n221\n225\n\n234\n235\n241\n243-319\n\nList of Honorary Vice-Presidents,\nOpening Address by the Chairman, Gen. John Eaton, Ex-Commissioner\nof Education,\nEssentials in a Course of Study for Children, by Joseph L. Pickard, LL. D.,\nIowa City, Iowa,\nDiscussion.\nBy L. H. Jones, Superintendent of Schools, Indianapolis,\nInd., also by Dr. B. A. Hinsdale, University of Michigan, .\n.\nWhat should be the Curriculum in Public Schools ? Some Aspects of the\nQuestion in France.\nBy M. B. Buisson, Delegate from the Ministry\nof Public Instruction in France,\nWhat should be Added to the Essential Branches of the Elementary\nCourse of Study to Meet the Industrial Needs of the Localities ? By\nProfessor C. M. Woodward, of Washington University, St. Louis,\n.\nWhat should be Added to Elementary Branches ? By Albert P. Marble,\nSuperintendent of Schools, Worcester, Mass.,\nDiscussion. — Race Characteristics.\nByG. W. Wicks, Inspector of Schools,\nJamaica, West Indies,\nWhat Special Work should be Undertaken in the Elementary Schools to\nPrepare the Pupils for the Duties of Citizenship? By Win. A. Mown,\nSuperintendent of Schools, Salem, Mass.,\n\n244\n247\n251\n25?\n260\n\n262\n\n266\n268\n272\n\n273\n\n"}
{"page": 18, "printed_page": null, "text": "Xll\n\nCONTENTS.\n\nThe Value of the Elementary School for the Social Virtues and for Training in the Right Exercise of the Duties of Citizenship. [Slightly\nabridged.]\nBy Miss Catharine II. Spence, South Australia,\n.\n.\nMethods of Teaching History to Children. By Mrs. Mary H. Peabody, of\nNew York\nSchool Savings Bank in the United States.\nBy J. II. Thiry, of Long\nIsland City, N. Y.,\nSchool Savings Bank in France.\nBy M. Gustave Serrurier, of Havre,\nFrance,\n.\nThe Public Educational System of Sweden. By N. G. W. Lagerstedt,\nPh.D., Teacher at the Secondary School of Ostermalm, Stockholm,\nSweden,\nReligion in the School.\nBy Dr. E. E. White, of Columbus, Ohio, .\n.\nDiscussion,\nAdaptation of Methods of Instruction to Special Conditions,\n.\n.\n.\nShould Rural Schools Introduce Agriculture, Chemistry, Agricultural\nBotany, or Arboriculture?\nBy Ergraff de Kovalevsky, Delegate of\nthe Minister of Public Instruction of Russia,\nConfucius and His Educational Ideas.\nBy Dr. Hidesaburo Eudo, Delegate from the Royal Educational Society of Japan,\n....\nThe Use of Magic Lanterns in Schools.\nBy Gustave Serrurier, France.\nSchools for Neglected Children.\nBy James Stormont Small, Truant Inspector, Auckland, New Zealand,\n.......\nCongress of Kindergarten Instruction,\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n278\n284\n286\n287\n\n289\n295\n300\n301\n\n304\n308\n314\n315\n321-381\n\nList of Honorary Vice-Presidents,\nOpening Address, Mrs. Ada M. Hughes, Toronto, Ontario,\n.\n.\n.\nShall Reading and Writing be Taught in the Kindergarten ? By Mrs.\nAlice H. Putnam, Chicago,\nChanges in Kindergarten Plays and Games.\n[Slightly abridged.]\nBy\nMiss Sarah A. Stewart, Philadelphia, Pa., .\nThe Song in the Kindergarten — Its Place, and the Dramatic Element.\nBy Miss Constance Mackenzie, Director of Public Kindergartens,\nPhiladelphia,\nThe Organic Union of Kindergarten and Primary School.\nBy Mrs.\nSarah B. Cooper, of San Francisco,\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\nDiscussion. — Modifications in the Primary School. By B. Pickman Mann.\nPreparations of the Kindergartner.\n[Abridged.]\nBy Mrs. Louisa Parsons Hopkins, of the Board of School Supervisors, Boston, Mass.\n.\nThe Kindergarten as a Basis for Life.\n[Translation slightly abridged.]\nBy Frau Henrietta Schrader, of Berlin\nStory Telling in the Kindergarten.\nBy Mary T. Ilotchkiss, of Milwaukee.\nTo What Extent is the use of Symbolism Justifiable in the Kindergarten?\nBy Earl Barnes, Professor of Education, Leland Stanford, Jr.,\nUniversity, California, 355 ; and by Mrs. Eudora L. Hailmann, Ind.\nFroebel's Educational Principles in England.\nBy Emily A. E. Shirreff,\nPresident of the Froebel Society, London,\nThe Kindergarten in Austria.\nBy Mrs. Ottilia Bondy, of Vienna, .\n.\nThe Real Nature of Education.\nBy Hermann Poesche, Educational\nInspector of the Orphan Administration in Berlin, .\n.\n.\nPrevention of Criminal Idleness.\nBy Miss Emma Marwedel, California,\n\n323\n320\n327\n328\n\n331\n336\n342\n344\n346\n351\n\n356\n360\n366\n369\n372\n\n"}
{"page": 19, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONTENTS.\n\nxm\n\nCongress of Professional Training of Teachers,\n\n383^154\n\nPAGE\n\nList of Honorary Vice-Presidents,\nOpening Address.\nBy the Chairman, Dr. E. A. Sheldon, Principal of the\nOswego State Normal and Training School,\nThe Value of Practical Work in Model and Training Schools. By Miss\nFannie S. Guptill, Minneapolis, Minn.,\nHow should Normal School Pupils Acquire Methods of Teaching ?\n[Abridged.] By Signor Giacomo Oddo Romafede, Director of Normal School, Alvellino, Italy,\nMethods of Training Teachers at the Westminster Training College, England. By Joseph H. Cowham, Lecturer on Education and Master of\nMethods, Westminster Wesleyan Training College, ....\nGeneral Discussion,\nImportant Necessities in Present Normal Schools. By George A. Walton,\nState Agent of the Board of Education of Massachusetts, .\n.\n.\nGradation of Normal and Training Schools. By Thomas Kirkland, Principal of the Normal School, Toronto, Ontario,\nHistorical Development of Normal and Training Schools in France.\nBy\n\n384\n387\n391\n\n399\n\n401\n405\n408\n410\n\nEugene Martin, Directeur de L'Ecole Primaire Superieure, Paris,\n.\nNormal Schools in the State of New York.\n[Abridged.]\nBy Francis J.\nCheney, Principal of the State Normal School at Cortland, N. Y.,\n.\nA Sociological Ideal View of Normal Schools.\nBy Daniel Fulcomer,\nPresident of Michigan College, Grand Rapids, Mich.,\n.\n.\n.\nShould the Course of Study in Normal Schools be wholly Professional ?\n[Abridged.] By Francis B. Palmer, Principal of the State Normal\nSchool, Fredonia, N. Y.,\nHow Normal School Work Differs from Work in Secondary and Higher\nEducation. [Slightly abridged.] By Dr. M. Mac Vicar, Brooklyn, N.Y.\nGeneral Discussion,\nWhat should be Required of, and upon Whom is to be Conferred, the\nDegree of Doctor of Pedagogy ?\nDiscussed by Jerome Allen, Ph.D., Professor of Pedagogy, University of\nthe City of New York, and by Dr. Edward R. Shaw of the School\nof Pedagogy, University of the City of New York, 436 ; and by Dr.\nCharles McMurray, Illinois State Normal University,\n.\n.\n.\nHigher Academic Degrees in Pedagogy.\nBy Prof. S. G. Williams, Cornell University,\nDiscussion.\n[Abridged.]\nBy T. B. Stowell, Ph.D., Potsdam, N. Y.,\n.\nThe Candidate for the Degree of Doctor of Pedagogy should be able to make\nOriginal Investigations in Psychology. [Abridged.] By Edgar Duds\nShimer, School of Pedagogy, University of the City of New York,\n.\nShould Original Investigation be Required in some Branch of Child Study\nfor the Doctor of Pedagogy Degree ? By Earl Barnes, Professor of\nEducation, Leland Stanford, Jr., University, California, .\n.\n.\nChild Study in Connection with the Professional Training of Teachers.\nBy Margaret K. Smith, Oswego State Normal Training School,\n.\nThe Ideal Normal School.\nBy Dr. Edward Brooks, Superintendent of\nPublic Schools, Philadelphia, Pa.,\nCongress of Art Instruction,\nList of Honorary Vice-Presidents,\n\n415\n418\n422\n\n428\n430\n432\n434\n\n438\n440\n442\n\n444\n\n446\n447\n451\n\n455-506\n456\n\n"}
{"page": 20, "printed_page": null, "text": "xiv\n\nCONTENTS.\nPAGE\n\nDrawing from the Flat to Learn the Technique of Representation.\nBy\nHenry T. Bailey, Supervisor of Drawing for the Stale ol Mass., .\nImportance of the ^Esthetic Aim in Elementary Instruction in Drawing.\nBy L. W. Miller, Principal of the School of Industrial Art, Philadelphia,\nDevelopment\nof Art Instinct.\nBy J. Ward\nStimson, Educational\nDirector of the New York Institute for Artist-Artisans,\n.\n.\n.\nDiscussion.\nBy E. P. Fenollosa, of the Boston Art Museum, .\n.\n.\nHow Pupils should Study and Analyze Works from the Great Masters.\nBy Dr. Alfred Emerson, Associate Professor of Classical Archaeology,\nCornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.,\nMethods of Art Education for the Cultivation of Artistic Taste.\nBy J.\nM. Hoppin, Professor of the History of Art, Yale University,\n,\nDoes Art Study Concern the Public Schools ? [Slightly abridged.]\nBy\nMrs. Mary Dana Hicks, Boston, Mass.,\nWith What should Drawing Begin ? Discussed. By Miss Josephine C.\nLocke, Chicago, 111., 491; by Mrs. Hannah Johnson Carter, Director\nArt Department, Drexel Institute, Philadelphia.,\n....\nDiscussion : Painting and Sculpture.\nBy Professor W. M. R. French,\nDirector of the Art Institute of Chicago,\nThe Self-Correcting System of Drawing.\nBy Miss Annie R. Osborne\nMoore of England,\nGeneral Discussion,\nShould Pupils Draw from the Flat ? By Helen Bondy, a Graduated\nTeacher, Vienna, Austria,\n\n458\n\n462\n466\n472\n\n473\n476\n487\n\n495\n497\n500\n504\n505\n\nCongress op- Instruction in Vocal Music,\n507-523\nList of Honorary Vice-Presidents,\n.\n.\n508\nOpening Remarks.\nBy the Chairman, Professor F. W. Root, Chicago, .\n510\nLearning to Read Musical Notation.\nBy Charles H. Greene, Peoria, 111., 510\nGeneral Discussion,\n512\nPhysiology and Hygiene of the Vocal Organs. By John Howard, of New\nYork,\n514\nGeneral Discussion,\n519\nThe Functions of Teachers of Vocal Music. [Slightly abridged.] By J. E.\nLightner, Sharpsburg, Pa.,\nc\n520\nDiscussion,\n521\nCongress of Technological Instruction-,\n525-587\nList of Honorary Vice-Presidents,\n526\nOpening Address.\nBy the Chairman, General Francis A. Walker, President of Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston,\n.\n.\n.\n528\nTechnological Schools : their Purpose and its Accomplishment.\nBy\nRobert II. Thurston, Director Sibley College, Cornell University,\n.\n534\nGeneral Discussion\n549\nTraining for Scientific Professions.\nBy Professor John M. Onlwav.\nTulane University, New Orleans, .......\n554\nEducational Value of Exact Measurement.\nBy Professor Alfred M.\nMayer, of Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, N. J.,\n.\n.\n558\nThe Educational Value of Applied Mathematics, including Engineering.\nBy F. R. Hutton, C. E., Ph.D., Professor of Mechanical Engineering, School of Mines, Columbia, .\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n560\n\n"}
{"page": 21, "printed_page": null, "text": "xv\nCONTEXTS.\nPAGE\n\nDiscussion.\n\nProfessor Robert H. Thurston, Ithaca, N. Y.,\n\n.\n\n.\n\n,\n\nShop Work and Drawing as Means of Developing Slow Pupils.\nBy Professor R. H. Richards, of Boston, Mass.,\nThe Educational Process of Training an Engineer.\n[Slightly abridged.]\nBy Professor G. Lanza, of Massachusetts Institute of Technology,\n.\nDiscussion,\nEducational Value of Applied Mathematics and Engineering. By Henry\nT. Eddy, C. E., Ph.D., President of Rose Polytechnic Institute,\nTerre Haute, Indiana,\n■\nGeneral Discussion,\n\n565\n567\n569\n582\n\n583\n586\n\nCongress of Industrial and Manual Instruction,\n580-614\nList of Honorary Vice-Presidents,\n590\nIntroductory Address.\nBy Professor John D. Runkle, of the Institute of\nTechnology, Boston, and President of the Department,\n.\n.\n.\n592\nNew Demands upon Schools by the World's Industries.\nBy Professor\nC. M. Woodward, of Washington University, St. Louis, Mo.,\n..\nThe French System of Industrial and Manual Instruction.\nDiscussion by\nProfessor C. M. Woodward,\nSloyd for Elementary Schools contrasted with the Russian System of\nManual Training.\nBy Gustaf Larsson, Principal ( f Sloyd Training\nSchool, Boston, Mass.,\nManual Training in Russia.\nBy Egraff de Kovalevsky, Russia,\n.\n.\nGeneral Discussion,\nIndustrial and Manual Training in the School Course.\nBy W. B. Powell,\nSuperintendent of Schools, Washington, D. C,\n.\n.\n.\n.\nGeneral Discussion,\n\n594\n597\n\n599\n604\n605\n606\n613\n\nCongress of Physical Education,\n615-678\nList of Honorary Vice-Presidents,\n616\nOpening Address.\nBy the Chairman, Dr. Edward M. Hartwell, Boston. 618\nSome Unsolved Problems in Physical Education.\n[Abstract.]\nBy T. D.\nWood, M.D., California,\n621\nTraining of the Human Body.\nBy Dr. Angelo Mosso, Professor of\nPhysiology, University of Turin, Italy,\n623\nPsychological Aspect of Exercises with and without Apparatus. By\nG. W. Fitz, M.D., Instructor in Physiology and Hygiene, Harvard\nUniversity, Cambridge, Mass.,\n626\nPhysical Exercises for School Purposes — how Selected and Graded. By\nJ. Gardner Smith, M.D., Special Instructor Physical Training,\nPublic Schools, New York City,\n631\nThe Relation of Athletic Sports in Colleges.\nBy R. Tait McKenzie,\nB.A., M.D., Director of McGill University Gymnasium, Montreal, 636\nEnglish Experiences in Providing the Poor of Cities with Parks, Gardens.\nGymnasia, and Playgrounds. By the Right Honorable the Earl\nof Meath, London,\n641\nPhysical Training of Criminals. By H. D. Wey, M.D., State Reformatory, Elmira, N. Y.,\n646\nThe North American Turner-Bund — its History, Aims, and Achievements. By Hugo Muench, Ex-President North American TurnerBund, St. Louis, Mo.,\n.\n.\n657\nDiscussion.\nBy Miss L. Garde, Providence, R. L,\n660\n\n"}
{"page": 22, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONTENTS.\n\nThe Royal Central Institute of Gymnastics in Stockholm.\n\nBy L. If,\n\nTorngren, Director of the Institute, .\n. '\nHistory of Physical Education in Denmark. By Joakim Larsen, Superintendent of the Frederickberg Schools, Copenhagen,\n.\n,\n.\nGymnastics in the Kingdom of Saxony — a Historical Review. By Professor Moritz Zettler, Saxony,\nPhysical Education of the Deaf and Dumb.\n[Abstract.]\nBy Albert\n\n662\n664\n670\n\nGutzman, Berlin,\n.\n.\n. '\n674\nCongress of Rational Psychology,\n.\n679-711\nList of Honorary Vice-Presidents,\n680\nReality — What Place it should Hold in Philosophy.\nBy Dr. James\nMcCosh, Ex-President Princeton University,\n682\nCan Psychology be Founded upon the Study of Consciousness alone, or\nis Physiology Needed for the Purpose ? By Professor Josiah Royce,\nof Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.,\n687\nGeneral Discussion\n.\n692\nThe Soul as the Basal Concept of Rational\nPsychology.\n[Slightly\nabridged.]\nBy Professor G. T. Ormond, of Princeton University,\n.\n693\nGeneral Discussion,\n699\nThe Theory of the First Principle in the Eleventh Book of Aristotle's\nMetaphysics. [Slightly abridged.] By Dr. Augustine F. Hewit, Washington, D. C\nSelf-Activity in Education.\n[Slightly abridged.] By Dr. J. G. Schurman,\nPresident Cornell University,\nGeneral Discussion,\n\n703\n705\n\nWundt's Psychology of the Will.\n[Introduction omitted.]\nE. B. Titchener, Cornell University,\nDiscussion,\n\n705\n711\n\nBy Professor\n\nCongress of Experimental Psychology in Education,\n.\n.\n:\n.\nList of Honorary Vice-Presidents,\n,\nChild Study as a Basis for Psychology and Psychological Teaching. Abstract of Opening Address by the Chairman, G. Stanley Hall, President of Clark University, Worcester, Mass.,\nChild Study as a Basis of Pedagogy. ' Abstract of Paper by William\nH. Burnham, Clark University, Worcester, Mass.,\n.\n.\n.\n.\nThe Dominant Seventh in Education.\n[Slightly abridged.]\nBy Miss\nHattie E. Hunt, Ph.D., Hartford, Conn.,\nMental Waste and Economy.\n[Slightly abridged.]\nBy Professor G. T.\nW. Patrick, State University of Iowa,\nGeneral Discussion,\nDreaming and Poetic Invention.\nBy Professor James Sully, London,\nEngland,\nThe Language of Children.\n[Slightly abridged.]\nBy F. Tracy, of\nClark University, Worcester, Mass.,\nApplication of the Laws of Physical Training for the Prevention and\nCure of Stuttering.\nBy Dr. E. M. Hartwell, Boston, Mass.,\n.\n.\nGeneral Discussion,\nObservation and Study of Movement and Mental Status. By Francis\nWarner, M.D., F.R.C. P., London, England, Physician to the London Hospital,\n\n...',.\n\n700\n\n713-785\n715\n717\n718\n720\n725\n729\n730\n737\n739\n750\n\n750\n\n"}
{"page": 23, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONTEXTS.\n\nxvn\nPAGE\n\nSome Association Tracks Involved in Reading and Writing.\nBy Thomas\nM. Balliet, Superintendent Schools, Springfield, Mass.,\n.\n.\n.\nGeneral Discussion,\nConstitutional\nBad Spellers.\nBy Adelaide E. Wyckoff,\nthe Packer\nInstitute, Brooklyn, N. Y„\nThe Theological Life of a California Child. [Slightly abridged.] By Professor Earl Barnes, of Leland Stanford, Jr., University, California, .\n\n756\n700\n762\n765\n\nGeneral Discussion,\n.\n.\n.\n. • .\n'\nThe First Two Years of the Child.\n[Slightly abridged.]\nBy Miss Millicent W. Shinn, Editress of Oberlin Monthly,\nA Plea for Special Child Study.\n[Slightly abridged.]\nBy Professor W.\nL. Bryan, University of Indiana,\nReport on Eye and Ear Mindedness. By Professor W. L. Bryan, University of Indiana,\nThe New Psychology in the Normal Schools. [Slightly abridged. ] By Miss\nLillie A. Williams, State Normal School, Trenton, N. J., .\n.\nGeneral Discussion,\n\n771\n773\n779\n779\n781\n784\n\nCongress of Business Education,\n.'\n787-807\nThe Evolution of Business Colleges.\nAbstract of Opening Address.\nBy\nS. S. Packard, President Dept. Congress Business Education, .\n.\n788\nPractical Advantages of a Commercial College Training.\n[Abstract of\npaper.]\nBy George Soule, New Orleans, La.,\n791\nThe Relation of Business Instruction to Industrial, Commercial, and\nFinancial Interests.\n[Abstract.]\nBy A. D. Wilt, Dayton, Ohio,\n.\n793\nThe Higher Aspects of Business Education.\n[Abstract of paper.] By R.\nE. Gallagher, Hamilton, Ontario\n796\nStenography and Typewriting as Branches of Business Education. [Abstract of paper.] By Isaac S. Dement, Chicago, 111., .\n. .\n798\nThe World's Need of Business Women.\n[An abstract.] By Mrs. Sara A.\nSpencer. Washington, D. C,\nReciprocal Relations and Benefits of Business and Other Departments of\nEducation.\n[Abstract of paper.] By Dr. Ira Mayhew, Detroit, Mich.,\n\n803\n\nA Business Man's Education.\nPhiladelphia,\n\n805\n\n[Reported.]\n.\n•\n\n800\n\nBy Dr. James Macalister,\n\nCongress of Educational Publications,\nPresent Ideals in Educational Journalism.\n[Abstract of paper.]\nBy C.\nC. Rounds, Plymouth, N. H\nEducational Journalism in New England.\n[Abridged.] By W. A. Mowry,\nSalem, Mass.,\nDoctor Barnard's American Journal of Education.\nS. Monroe, California,\nThe Purpose and Reward of Educational Journals.\n\n[Abridged.]\n\nBy Will\n\n[Abstract.]\n\nBy Amos\n\n809-851\n810\n811\n822\n\nM. Kellogg, New York,\n'825\nGeneral Discussion\n825\nEducational Journals in New York.\n[Abstract.]\n826\nEducational Journalism in Ohio.\n[Abstract.]\nBy Samuel Findley,\n.\n828\nEducational Journalism in Indiana.\n[Abridged.]\nBy George F. Bass,\nIndianapolis,\n829\nSchool Journalism in Michigan.\n[Abridged.]\nBy Professor Henry A.\nFord, Detroit\n831\n\n"}
{"page": 24, "printed_page": null, "text": "xviii\n\nCONTENTS.\n\nI'AGE\n\nEducational Journals in Illinois. [Slightly abridged.]\nBy John W.Cook,\nNormal\nEducational Journalism in Iowa. [Slightly abridged.]\nBy Henry Sabin,\nState Superintendent of Iowa\nThe Educational Papers of Missouri. [Abridged.] By II. A. Gass, Jefferson City, Mo.,\nEducational\nJournalism\nin Utah, Colorado, and Kansas.\n[Slightly\nabridged.]\nBy John MacDonald, Topeka, Kan.,\n....\nEducational Journalism in Prance. [Abstract ; translation.] By Gabriel\nCompayre,\nAppendix,\nUniversity Education for Women in England.\nFawcett,\nA few Words of Retrospect and Forecast.\n\n833\n840\n842\n843\n845\n853-914\n\nBy Mrs. Millicent Garret\n853\n[Slightly abridged.]\n\nBy\n\nDorothea Beale, Ladies' College, Cheltenham, England,\n.\n.\n.\nUniversity Association of Women Teachers. By Constance Elder, Honorary Secretary, .\n.\n.\n.\nt\nElementary Education in England. [Abridged.] By Rosamond Davenport Hill,\nNational Education in Scotland. [Slightly abridged.] By Flora Stevenson, Member of Edinburgh School Board,\nWomen Students in the Scottish Universities.\n[Slightly abridged.]\nBy\nMiss Louisa Stevenson,\nConvent Education.\nBy F. M. L., Principal of a Training College,\n.\n\n862\n865\n870\n874\n877\n879\n\nWoman's Education in New Zealand.\n[Abridged.]\nBy Mrs. Steadman\nAldis,\nEducational Work for Women in Australia, chiefly New South Wales. By\n\n883\n\nLouisa McDonald, Principal Women's College, University of Sydney.\nRecent Developments on Education for the Women and Girls of India.\nBy E. A. Manning\nEnglish Orphanage and Training School in Rosnia. 1869-1892.\n[Slightly\nabridged.]and Secondary\nBy Miss A. Education\nT. Irby in Cape Colony, Africa.\nElementary\n[Slightly'.\nabridged.]\nBy Miss May Bengough, ,\nPublic Instruction in Italy.\n[Slightly abridged.]\nBy Dr. Egisto Rossi,\nRome,\nNeedlework in the Public Schools of Stockholm, Sweden.\nBy Mrs. Hulda\nLudin, Superintendent of Needlework,\nConstitution of the National Educational Association, ....\n\n890\n900\n903\n907\n911\n\n917-921\n\nCalendar of Meetings,\nList of Officers for 1893-94,\nNational Council of Education,\n\n887\n\n922\n.\n\n.\n\n923\n925\n\nLife Directors and Life Members,\n\n926\n\nAnnual Membership,\n\n931\n\nIndex to Proceedings of the International Congress of Education, and\nDepartments,\n947-1005\nAnnouncements of Volumes of Proceedings of the National Educational\nAssociation, 1870-1893\n1006\n\n"}
{"page": 25, "printed_page": null, "text": "COMMITTEE OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION IN CHARGE OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS\nOF EDUCATION.\nIN\n\nWilliam\n\nGENERAL\n\nT. Harris,\nCommissioner\n\nCHARGE\n\nchairmen\n\n:\n\nof Education, U. S.\n\nDEPARTMENTS\n\nHall\nC\n\nI\n\nHigher Education :\nProf. Nicholas Murray Butler,\nColumbia College, New York City.\nProp. A. F. West, of Princeton University,\nSecretary.\nSecondary Education :\nPrincipal Ray Greene\n\nHuling,\nNew Bedford, Mass.\n\nElementary Education :\nInspector James L. Hughes,\n\nToronto, Ont.\n\nKindergarten Instruction :\nMrs. W. N. Hailman,\n\nLa Porte, Ind.\n\nSchool Supervision :\nSupt. W. H. Maxwell,\n\n,,,,\n\nBrooklyn, N. Y.\n\npresiding\n\nDr. James B. Angell, President of Michigan\nUniversity, presides at general sessions.\n\nDr. University.\nD. C. Gilman,\n\n89\n\nat the sessions :\n\nPresident Johns Hopkins\n\nRev. J. C. Mackenzie, Head Master, Lawrenceville School, New Jersey.\n\nW\n\nGeneral John Eaton, Ex-Commissioner\nEducation, United States.\n\nC.\n\nMrs. A- M. Hughes, of Toronto, Ontario.\n\n4\n\nHon. Thos. B. Stockwell,\n\nof\n\nProvidence, R. I.\n\nProfessional Training of Teachers :\nPrincipal E. O. Lyte,\nMillersville, Pa.\n\nDr. E. A. Sheldon, Principal State Normal\nSchool, Oswego, N. Y.\n\nInstruction in Art :\nPrks. James MacAlister,\nDrexel Institute, Philadelphia.\n\nProf. Halsey C. Ives, Director of Art School,\nWashington University, St. Louis, Mo.\n\nInstruction in Vocal Music :\nDirector N. Coe Stewart,\n\n31\n\nProf. F. W. Root, of Chicago.\n\nTechnological Instruction :\nProf. Henry Morton,\nStevens Institute, Hoboken, N. J.\n\n24\n\nGeneral\n\nIndustrial and Manual Instruction :\nDr. Andrew J. Rickoff,\nNew York City.\n\n6\n\nProf. J. D. Runkle,\nBoston, Mass.\n\n29\n\nCol. George\nSoule,\nness College,\nNew President\nOrleans, of\nLa.Soule's Busi-\n\nPhysical Education :\nProf. D. A. Sargent,\nHarvard University, Cambridge, Mass.\n\n26\n\nRational Psychology in Education :\nPres. J. G. Schurman,\nCornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.\n\nProf. Edward\nM. Hartwell, Director of\nPhysical Education in Public Schools, Boston, Mass.\n\n27\n\nDb. University.\nJames McCosh,\n\nExperimental Psychology in Education :\nProf. Gkorgb T. Ladd,\nYale University, New Haven, Conn.\n\n20\n\nDr. G. Stanley Hall, President Clark University, Worcester, Mass.\n\nEducational Publications :\nMr. C. W. Bardeen,\n\n21\n\nDr. Hknry Barnard, Editor The American\nJournal of Education, Hartford, Conn.\n\nBusiness Education :\nPres. R. C. Spencer,\n\nCleveland, O.\n\nMilwaukee, Wis.\n\nSyracuse, N. Y;\n\nOFFICERS\n\nOF THE\n\nFrancis A. Walker, President Institute of Technology, Boston, Maw.\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL\nFOR 1893-94.\n\nInstitute\n\nEx-President\n\nTechnology,\n\nPrinceton\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nAlbert G. Lane, President, Chicago, 111.\nE. H. Cook, Vice- President, Flushing, N. Y.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary, Winona. Minn.\nJ. M. Greenwood, Treasurer, Kansas City, Mo.\nN. A. Calkins, Chairman of Board if Trustees, New York City.\n\n"}
{"page": 26, "printed_page": null, "text": "SUBJECTS PRESENTED IN THE PRELIMINARY PROGRAMME\nFOR DISCUSSION BY THE INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS\nOF EDUCATION.\nHIGHER\n\nEDUCATION.\n\nThesis : Ought a distinction to be maintained between collegiate and university\nmethods of instruction ? Discussion.\nThesis : Is it desirable that universities\nshould be of one type ? Discussion.\nThesis : Should an antecedent liberal\neducation be required of students in law,\nmedicine, and theology ? Discussion.\nThesis : Is it desirable that professional\nschools should be closely connected with\nuniversities and colleges ? Discussion.\nGeneral subject : Colleges.\nThesis : Conditions of admission ? Discussion.\nThesis : Should Greek be required for\nthe degree of B.A. ? Discussion.\nThesis : What signs of improvement in\nthe undergraduate life of American students ? Considered under the topics of\nathletics, morals, student organizations,\ninternational courtesies, relations to instructors. Discussion.\nThesis : The degree of doctor of philosophy— on what conditions should it be\ngiven.\nDiscussion.\nThesis : On the relations of colleges and\nuniversities to the progress of civilization.\nDiscussion.\nSECONDARY\n\nEDUCATION.\n\nThesis : The supervision of all secondary education in public high-schools, private schools, and endowed academies, by\nthe State or municipal authority. Discussion.\nThesis : The course of study in secondary schools designed simply to prepare\npupils for life (or designed as a finishing\nschool) — should it be different from that\ndesigned to prepare students for college or\nthe professional school ? Discussion.\nThesis : (a) Should the amount of time\ngiven to mathematics in secondary schools\n(as they are) be diminished ? (b) Should\nthe amount of time given to languages in\nour secondary schools (as they are) be\ndiminished, in order to make room for a\nmore extended course in physics, botany,\nand chemistry ? Discussion.\nThesis : Should art studies, including\n\ndrawing, painting, and modeling, form a\npart of the prescribed course for all pupils\nin secondary schools ? Discussion.\nThesis : Should algebra or geometry\ncome first in the course of study of secondary schools ? Discussion.\nThesis : In cases where a choice should\nbe made, which should come first, Latin\nor some modern language, in the course\nof study of secondary schools? Discussion.\nELEMENTARY\n\nEDUCATION.\n\nThesis : Should morals, language, numbers, geography, history of the country,\nwriting, and drawing be considered the essentials ofthe course of study for the eight\nyears of elementary instruction, the pupils\nbeing from six to fourteen years of age ?\nDiscussion.\nThesis : What should be added to the essential branches of the elementary course\nof study to meet the industrial needs\nof localities or race characteristics? For\nexample, should city schools introduce\nbranches relating to commerce or manufactures, or should rural schools introduce\nagriculture, chemistry, and botany ? Discussion.\nThesis : Improvement in methods of\nteaching\nDiscussion.geography in the public schools.\nThesis : Physiography as related to geology. Discussion.\nThesis : The relation which may and\nshould exist between the National Geographical Society and the public schools.\nDiscussion.\nNational Geographical Society.\nAddress : Arctic Explorations. By General A. W. Greely, U. S. A.\nGeneral topic: Morals, religion, and\ncitizenship.\nThesis :.Is it possible to separate religious\nand.\nmoral\" instruction\nShould\ninstruction\nbe introduced? into\nthe religious\npublic or\ncommon schools, and taught either by the\nregular teacher or by clergymen ? Should\nthe Bible be read as a religious exercise ?\nIn how far can the discipline of the school\nbe relied upon to secure moral habits?\nDiscussion.\nThesis : How far should moral education\n\n"}
{"page": 27, "printed_page": null, "text": "SUBJECTS\n\nPRESENTED\n\nIN PRELIMINARY\n\nbe made to include courtesy and social\netiquette ? What school exercises are the\nbest to promote education for citizenship ?\nIn what ways can the studies of the common\nschool, such as history and literature, be\nmade to develop the sentiment of patriot*\nism ? What special work should be undertaken in the elementary school to prepare\nthe pupils for the duties of citizenship ?\nDiscussion.\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nINSTRUCTION.\n\nGeneral topic of the first session : The\nessential characteristics of the kindergarten\nas distinguished from the primary school,\nand the practical adjustment of the former\nto the latter.\n1. Thesis : (1) The essential characteristics of a kindergarten. (2) Its gifts and\noccupations, (3) Should the kindergarten\nattempt to teach reading or writing ? (4)\nShould the plays and games which Froebel\ninvented, be modified ? Should substitutions be made for any of them, or others be\nadded ? (5) What is the place and value\nof the song in the kindergarten, and the\ndegree of dramatic element which should\naccompany the song ?\nThesis : (1) The organic union of kindergarten and primary school. (2) What\nmodifications in the primary school are\nnecessary or desirable in order to adapt it\nto continue the work of the kindergarten\nand reap the advantages of the training\nalready received ? (3) What are the essential differences in discipline and instruction\nthat should characterize the primary school\nand distinguish it from the kindergarten ?\nThesis : (1) Preparation of the kindergartner for her work. (2) Should all kindergarten teachers be required to pass\nexamination in secondary studies, including such as algebra, geometry, modern or\nancient languages, general history, natural\nscience, psychology, and English literature\nor the literature of the native country ?\n(3) What training in Froebel's philosophy\nshould be prescribed in a professional\ncourse of training for the kindergartner ?\n(4) What work in the gifts and occupations, the plays and games, theoretically\nand practically, should be required for the\ngraduate from a kindergarten training\nschool ?\nThesis : (1) Educative value of handwork in the kindergarten. (2) Cautions to\nbe observed as to the limits of certain\nof the occupations, such, for example, as\npricking paper, and other work that is\nliable to strain the eyes if too long continued. (3)The Froebel system of drawing, in contrast to free-hand drawing.\n(4) The characteristic mental and physical\nconditions of the first seven vears of child-\n\nPROGRAMME.\n\nhood, which determine the special educative value of hand- work in the kindergarten.\nThesis : (1) To what extent is the use of\nsymbolism justifiable in the kindergarten ?\n(2) Is there any validity to the claim often\nurged that the child under seven years of\nage is to be distinguished in psychological\ndevelopment from the child of more than\nseven years of age, through his greater\ndependence upon symbolic modes of instruction ? Is the distinction a valid one,\nbetween symbolic and conventional studies, conventional studies being understood\nto mean reading, writing, written arithmetic, and appliances useful in intercommunication but not emblematic or symbolic of a second and higher meaning ?\nThesis : What should be the character\nof the stories told in the kindergarten, and\nto what extent should stories be told ?\nSCHOOL\n\nSUPERVISION.\n\nThesis : Teachers' examinations, certificates, and licenses. What scholastic\nknowledge should be required from teachers before being permitted to enter on u\nterm of probationary service — In English ?\nIn languages other than English ? In\nnatural science ? In physics and chemistry ? In mathematics ? In art ? Discussion.\nThesis : How to improve the work of\npoor teachers.\nDiscussion.\nThesis : How to interest a corps of\nteachers in the study of psychology and\nits application to the work of the schoolroom. Discussion.\nThesis : University participation for\nteachers.\nDiscussion.\nThesis : Appointment and tenure of office of superintendents.\nDiscussion.\nThesis : Who shall appoint teachers, and\non whose nomination ? Discussion.\nThesis : At what point in the course\nof study should departmental or special\nteachers be employed in elementary\nschools ? Discussion.\nThesis : Should the law require the attendance of all pupils in school between\nthe ages of eight and fourteen ? Discussion.\nPROFESSIONAL\nTRAINING\nTEACHERS.\n\nOF\n\nGeneral topic of discussion : Schools of\npractice or ' ' model \" schools connected\nwith the schools for the professional training of teachers.\nThesis: (1) The kind and degree of preparation required before coming to the school\nof practice. (2) The time in the course of\npreparation when the practice should be\ntaken. (3) The value and extent of observation work in the model school. (4)\n\n"}
{"page": 28, "printed_page": null, "text": "INTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nAmount and character of criticism to be\nrecommended. (5) Value of practice work\nin tilling temporary vacancies caused by\nthe absence of the regular teacher (called\n\"substituting\"). (6) Value of teaching\npractice within the normal school, the lessons being given to classes composed of one's\nfellow-classmates. (?) Shall the instructors of branches be the critics in their own\nbranches ? (8) Shall the critic be always\npresent ? (9) How much practice shall be\nrequired each day, and how long continued?\n(10)changed\nHow often\n\"should\nclasses\ntaught\nbe\n? (11)\nWhatthedegree\nof perfection in teaching shall be required in order\nto entitle the candidate to a diploma ?\n(12) Is the plan a good one to have a paid\nteacher in charge of each class in the school\nof practice, said teacher doing a portion of\nthe work of teaching and, in addition,\ncriticising the work of the pupil teachers ?\n(13) The value of sending pupils out into\nneighboring schools to observe and occasionally take charge of classes.\nDiscussion.\nGeneral topic : Schools for the professional training of teachers.\nThesis : (1) The classification of the several grades of normal and training schools.\n(2) Professional schools for the training of\nteachers for the work of higher education\nin normal schools, colleges, and universities. (3)For the training of teachers for\nsecondary schools. (4) For the training of\nteachers for elementary schools. (5) For the\ntraining of teachers for kindergartens. (6)\nFor the training of teachers for rural schools.\n(7) The standards required in these different grades, (a) as to scholastic instruction,\n(b) as to psychological and technical instruction, (c)as to practice teaching under\ncriticism.\nDiscussion.\nThesis : Should the course of study in\nnormal schools be wholly professional, or\nshould it include work in the elementary\nand secondary branches, even where proficiency in these branches is required as a\ncondition for admission ; if so, to what\nextent ? Discussion.\nThesis : How does the typical normal\nschool work differ in method from that of\nsecondary or higher education ? Discussion.\nGeneral topic : What should be required\nof one upon whom is to be conferred the\ndoctor's degree of pedagogy ?\nThesis : (1) Should such requirements\nbe confined to scholastic instruction ?\nWhat should be required in the way of\nteaching ability, experience, and skill ?\n(2) Should original investigation be required in some branch of child study ? (3)\nOr in some phase of the history of education ? (4) Or in some branch of experimental psychology with a view to determine questions in regard to the educational\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nvalue of some branch or branches in the\ncurriculum of elementary or secondary\nschools ? Discussion.\nThesis : What value should be attached\nto the formal study of children in the\ntraining of teachers ? Discussion.\nART INSTRUCTION.\ning.\nGeneral topic : Methods of teaching drawThesis: Whether the pupil shall first\ntake a course of drawing from the flat in\norder to learn the technique of representation ? Discussion.\nThesis : How early shall the pupil begin\nto use models ? Discussion.\nThesis : Should the objects to be drawn\nas models be artistically beautiful, or shall\nthe pupil practice drawing real objects\nwithout reference to the aesthetic question ?\nDiscussion.\nGeneral topic : All art study should aim\nfirst to familiarize the pupil with the chief\ntypes of the great works of art with a view\nto cultivating the artistic taste.\nThesis : The pupil should study and\nanalyze a series of works from the great\nmasters, describing in language in the\nform of essays the general theme and the\nmethods adopted of making the work of\nart tell its own story ; the technical difficulties and successful devices of the artist\nin completing his work of art. Discussion.\nThesis : The pupil should copy or make\na drawing of the work of art which he has\nlearned to analyze, and his exercise should\nbe criticised by fellow-pupils and teacher,\nmaking clear the respects wherein he has\nfailed to seize the motives of the artist, or\nto reproduce his (the artist's) devices of\nrepresentation.\nDiscussion.\nThesis : Works of sculpture after being\nstudied analytically and reproduced in\ndrawings should be modeled in clay, and\nworks of painting after such preliminaries\nshould be copied in painting by the pupil.\nDiscussion.\nThesis : Connected with the learning to\nmodel in clay, wax, or other material, the\nfmpil should have a series of lessons on the\nimitations belonging to the arts of painting and sculpture, and discuss what subjects can properly be treated in sculpture\nand what more properly belong to painting.\nDiscussion.\nThesis : Should drawing commence from\nthe beginning with light and shade, or\nshould it be outline drawing for the first\nyear or more ? Discussion.\nINSTRUCTION\n\nIN VOCAL\n\nMUSIC.\n\nGeneral topic : The course of study, or\nwhat the pupil should learn of vocal music\n\n"}
{"page": 29, "printed_page": null, "text": "SUBJECTS\n\nPRESENTED\n\nIN PRELIMINARY\n\nin Hie elementary schools for children aged\nfive to fifteen years.\nIn what grades of the elementary school\nshould the children learn pieces of music\nby rote (or by ear only), and in what grades\nshould they commence to learn to read\nmusical notation ? Discussion.\nIn what grades or at what ages should\npupils be required to take up part singing,\nor learn other parts besides the soprano or\nmelody ? Discussion.\nWhat music is especially adapted to\nchildren from five to ten, and what from\nten to fifteen years ? What rule should\nguide the selection from popular songs ?\nfrom classic composers? A discussion of\nthe characteristics of the compositions of\nsuch song-writers as H. G. Nageli, Fr.\nSilcher, C. H. Rink, Fr. Kuecken, and\nthe higher classical composers, Beethoven, Mozart, Mendelssohn, Schubert, Von\nWeber, Handel, Schumann, Kreutzer, Abt,\nHaydn, Rossini, and others, who furnish\nthe best selections for pupils in their\nfifteenth year and upwards.\nThe feasibility of forming a library of\npieces of music of permanent value for the\ndifferent ages of youth — say, for example,\nselections from such composers as Nageli\nfor pupils from five to ten years, and from\nsuch as Mendelssohn for pupils from eleven\nto fifteen years.\nDiscussion.\nThe danger of confining the course of\nstudy in music for a too long period to\nreading and singing mere mechanical exercises devoid of artistic merit and empty\nof all thought and feeling.\nDiscussion.\nThe importance of includingin the child's\nmusical course popular songs of a permanent character, such as the national patriotic airs, the great religious hymns, the\nemotional utterance of pure sentiments,\nlike love of home, friendship, generosity,\nindustry, sobriety, respect for others, selfdenial, and general right doing. Discussion.\nGeneral topic: The qualifications requisite for a teacher of vocal music.\nHis knowledge of the physiology and\nhygiene of the vocal organs ; the degree of\nstrain that the vocal chords will bear without injury, at the periods of growth from\nfive years to fifteen years.\nDiscussion.\nHis ability to accompany the voice with\nsome instrument, say the piano or violin.\nDiscussion.\nHis knowledge of classic music and of\nthe best course of study to lead up to it.\nDiscussion.\nHis knowledge of methods of instruction.\nDiscussion.\nIs a knowledge of the higher science of\ncounterpoint essential to the special teacher\nof vocal music, in view of the alleged fact\nthat if he lacks such knowledge he will not\n\nPROGRAMME.\n\nbe able to direct the course of musical study\nprogressively from the elements toward a\nsufficiently high goal ? Discussion.\nWhat musical studies in the great masters should the teacher keep up from year\nto year for the sake of his own improvement and culture ? Discussion.\nGeneral topic : The methods of teaching and learning vocal music.\nWhat are the respective functions of the\nregular class teacher and the special teacher\nof vocal music ? Discussion.\nThe relative importance of correcting\nerrors in musical enunciation ; in keeping\ntime ; in proper expression ; in proper posture of the body ; opening the mouth ;\nbreathing ; in attempting to sing notes of\ntoo high or too low a pitch for the degree\nof physical development.\nDiscussion.\nThe danger of laying too much stress on\nthe mechanical part of singing, to the neglect of musical expression.\nDiscussion.\nThe systems of musical notation — tonic\nsol-fa — \"tems.movable\nDiscussion.do\" and \"fixed do'\" sysWhat pupils, if any, should be excused\nfrom the musical exercises of the schoolroom ? Discussion.\nTECHNOLOGICAL\n\nINSTRUCTION.\n\nAddress by General Francis A. Walker,\nPresident of the Department.\nThesis : How far do the technological\nschools, as they are at present organized,\naccomplish the training of men for the\nscientific professions, and how far and for\nwhat reasons do they fail to accomplish\ntheir primary purpose ? Discussion.\nGeneral topic : Educational value of\ntechnical study. \"\nThesis: Workshop practice as an educational means. Discussion.\nThesis : The educational value of the\nstudy and practice of chemistry. Discussion.\nThesis: The early history and organization of the Sheffield Scientific School at\nNew Haven.\nDiscussion.\nThesis : The educational value of laboratory work in exact measurement.\nDiscussion.\nThesis: The educational value of the laboratory study of electricity.\nDiscussion.\nThesis : The educational value of work\nin mechanical drawing and architectural\ndrawing.\nDiscussion.\nThesis : Shop-work and drawing as a\nmeans of developing slow pupils. Discussion.\nThesis: The educational value of natural\nscience.\nDiscussion.\nThesis: The educational value of applied\nmathematics, including engineering. Discussion.\n\n"}
{"page": 30, "printed_page": null, "text": "10\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nThesis : On the educational value of\npure mathematics.\nDiscussion.\nThesis: On the educational process of\ntraining an engineer.\nDiscussion.\nINDUSTRIAL AND MANUAL\nINSTRUCTION.\nIntroductory address by the President\nof the Department, Prof. J. D. Runkle.\nThesis : The new demands which the\nworld's industries make upon the elementary schools. This question will be considered under the heads of ethics, education, economics. Discussion.\nThesis : In courses of mechanic arts,\ninstruction in wood and metals, consider\nthe relative educational values of:\n(a) A series of graded models embracing\nthe fundamental principles of the art.\n(6) A series of completed, and more or\nless useful, articles.\n(c) A shorter course in the arts, and\nthen a specialization with reference to\nsome definite industrial pursuit, as in the\nFrench schools.\nDiscussion.\nThesis : The claims of the two systems\nof manual training known as :\n(a) The Russian.\n(b) The Swedish or Sloid.\nDiscussion.\nThesis : Since all industrial products\ninvolve form, it follows that all industrial\ninstruction should have an aesthetic basis,\nor the study of the general principles\nwhich underlie all tasteful and graceful\nforms, and this study should be regarded\nand ranked as of equal educational value\nwith the mechanic art processes. Discussion.\nThesis : Primary Schools — Into what\ngrades and with what subjects should industrial and manual instruction be introduced ? Discussion.\nThesis : Primary Schools — In these\ngrades should boys and girls receive the\nsame instruction ? Discussion.\nThesis : Grammar Schools — Should boys\nand girls have the same industrial and\nmanual instruction in all the grades ? If\nnot, what should the difference be ? Discussion.\nThesis : Mechanic Art High Schools\n— The place such schools hold in a public\neducational system. If they are regarded\nas special technical schools, to what extent\nmay they be used as fitting schools for industrial pursuits ? Discussion.\nBUSINESS EDUCATION.\nThesis : Evolution of the business college.\nThesis : Practical advantages of business\ncollege training.\nDiscussion.\nThesis : Business college teachers and\ntheir equipment.\nDiscussion.\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nThesis : Reciprocal relations and benefits\nof business colleges and other departments of education.\nDiscussion.\nThesis : The relation of business college\ninstruction to industrial, commercial, and\nfinancial interests.\nDiscussion.\nThesis : Graded courses in business education. Discussion.\nThesis : Limitations of business college\ninstruction. Discussion.\nThesis : Business college training in\ncounting-room work.\nDiscussion.\nThesis : Higher aspects of business education. Discussion.\nThesis : Business colleges and the art of\nwriting.\nDiscussion.\nThesis : The business woman as daughter, wife, mother, and friend. Discussion.\nThesis : The value of a business education to women.\nDiscussion.\nThesis : Business\ntraining for the world's\ncharities.\nDiscussion.\nThesis : Stenography and typewriting as\nbranches of business education. Discussion.\nThesis : Teaching morals and manners\nthrough shorthand instruction. Discussion.\nThesis : What stenographers and the\nbusiness community demand of business\ncolleges in shorthand and typewriting instruction.\nThesis : Economics and social science in\nbusiness education.\nThesis : A merchant's view of the business college. Discussion.\nThesis : A banker's view of the business\ncollege.\nDiscussion.\nx\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION.\n\nAddress by Dr. Edward M. Hartwell,\nDirector of Physical Training, Public\nSchools, Boston, Mass., President of the\nDepartment.\nThesis : Some unsolved problems in physical education. Dr. T. D. Wood, Professor of Hygiene and Physical Training,\nLeland Stanford Junior University, Palo\nAlto, Cal.\nDiscussion.\nThesis : The cultivation of the human\nbody. Dr. Angelo Mosso, Professor of\nPhysiology, University of Turin, Turin,\nItaly. Discussion.\nThesis : The psychological aspects of exercise with and without apparatus. Dr.\nG. W. Fitz, Instructor in Physiology and\nHygiene, Harvard University, Cambridge,\nMass.\nDiscussion.\nThesis : Should medical schools teach\nphysical training ? Dr. Lena V. Ingraham,\nBoston, Mass.\nDiscussion.\nThesis : Supervision of school gymnastics by qualified physicians. Dr. Helen\nC. Putnam, Providence, R. I. Discussion.\n\n"}
{"page": 31, "printed_page": null, "text": "SUBJECTS\n\nPRESENTED\n\nIN PRELIMINARY\n\nThesis : The Royal Central Gymnastic\nInstitute of Stockholm — its aims and work.\nProf. L. M. Torngren, Director of Royal\nCentral Gymnastic Institute, Stockholm,\nSweden.\nDiscussion.\nThesis : How should physical exercises\nfor school purposes be selected and graded ?\nDr. J. Gardner Smith, Supervisor of Physical Training in Public Schools, New\nYork City.\nDiscussion.\nThesis : The revival of Greek gymastics\nin Germany. Jaro Pawel, University\nTeacher, Vienna, Austria.\n, Thesis : The movement for promoting\npopular and youthful sports in Germany.\nJames L. Hughes, Inspector of Schools,\nToronto, Ontario.\nDiscussion.\nThesis : English experience in providing\nthe poor of cities with out-of-door facilities\nfor exercise. The Rt. Honorable the\nEarl of Meath, London, England. Discussion.\nThesis : The athletic movement in\nFrance. Baron Pierre de Coubertin, Paris,\nFrance.\nDiscussion.\nThesis : The observation and study of\nmovement and mental states. Dr. Francis\nWarner, Physician to London Hospital,\nLondon, England.\nThesis : The relation of physical trainfa ing to other forms of education.\nDr. G.\nStanley Hall, President Clark University,\nWorcester, Mass.\nDiscussion.\nThe physical training of deaf-mutes.\nA. Gutzmann, Instructor in City Institute for the Deaf and Dumb, Berlin,\nPrussia.\nThesis : The physical training of criminals. Dr. H. D. Wey, State Reformatory, Elmira, N. Y. Discussion.\nThesis : The North American Turnerbund ; its history, aims, and achievements.\nII. Muench, ex-President N. A. Turnerbund, St. Louis, Mo.\nThesis : The normal school of the N. A.\nTurnerbund. J. Toensfeldt, St. Louis,\nMo.\nThesis : The physiology of the German\nsystem of gymnastics. Hans Ballin, Sandusky, O.\nThesis : School gymnastics in the Kingdom of Saxony. Moritz Zettler, Teacher\nin Gymnasium in Chemnitz, Saxony.\nThesis : Swedish school gymnastics in\nEngland. Mme. Bergman Oesterberg,\nLondon, England.\nDiscussion.\nThesis : Swedish military gymnastics.\nCapt. Carl Silow, Instructor Royal Central\nGymnastic Institute, Stockholm, Sweden.\nDiscussion.\n1 Thesis : The laws of muscular and nervous fatigue and their relation to physical\neducation. Dr. Warren P. Lombard, Professor of Physiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.\nDiscussion.\n\nPROGRAMME.\n\n11\n\nThesis : Physical education in the South.\nDr. William A. Lambeth, University of\nVirginia, Charlottesville, Va.\n* Thesis : Physical education in Canada.\nDr. R. Tait Mackenzie, McGill University,\nMontreal. Canada.\nDiscussion : How far is it desirable to\nattempt to secure State legislation (in the\nUnited States) making physical training\ncompulsory in the public schools ?\nRATIONAL\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\nEDUCATION.\n\nIN\n\nAddress by the President of the Department, Rev. James McCosh, D. D. Topic :\nReality — what place has it in philosophy ?\nDiscussion.\nThesis : Can psychology be founded on\nconsciousness alone, or does it need physiology ? Discussion.\nThesis : Perception, conception, and\nprimitive truth.\nDiscussion.\nThesis : Aristotle's doctrine of a first\nprinciple, as set forth in the Xlth book of\nhis Metaphysics.\nDiscussion.\nThesis : Self-activity in education. Discussion.\nThesis : Wundt's psychology of the will.\nDiscussion.\nEXPERIMENTAL\nPSYCHOLOGY\nEDUCATION.\n\nIN\n\nGeneral topic : Child study.\nAddress by the President of the Department, Dr. G. Stanley Hall : Child study as\na basis for psychology and psychological\nteaching.\nDiscussion.\nThesis : The imaginations of children.\nDiscussion.\nThesis : Exercise of the will in children.\nDiscussion.\nThesis : A study of children's theology.\nDiscussion.\nThesis : Child study as a basis for pedagogy. Discussion.\nThesis : The new psychology in normal\nschools. Discussion.\nThesis : Constitutionally bad spellers.\nDiscussion.\nThesis : Systematic cultivation of selfconsciousness in children.\nDiscussion.\nThesis : Development of motor ability in\nschool-children.\nDiscussion.\nThesis : A pedagogical experimental\nneed.\nDiscussion.\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPUBLICATIONS.\n\nAddress of welcome by Dr. Henry Barnard, President of the Department.\nThesis : Present ideals in educational\n\n"}
{"page": 32, "printed_page": null, "text": "u\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nThe history of educational jourjournalism\nfrom\nthe\nsuperintendent's Thesis (•ermany.\nDiscussion.\npoint of view.\nDiscussion.\nnalism in\nPilosis : The educational press and the Thesis The history of educational jourDiscussion.\npublic.\nDiscussion.\nnalism in Italy.\nThe history of educational jourGeneral topic : The history of educa- Thesis : Mexico.\nDiscussion.\ntional journalism.\nnalism in\nThesis: The history of educational jour- Thesis: The history of educational jourDiscussion.\nnalism in France.\nDiscussion.\nnalism in the United States.\n\nLIST OF PERSONS ACCEPTING THE OFFICE OF HONORARY\nVICE-PRESIDENT\nOF THE GENERAL\nCONGRESS.\nAFRICA.\nM. B. Buisson, Director of the Normal School of.\nTunis, Tunisie.\nAUSTRALASIA.\nHon. W. P. Reeves, Minister of Education, Wellington, New Zealand.\nMiss C. II. Spence, South Australia.\nAUSTRIA.\nProf. Joh. von Radinger, Rector Polytechnicum,\nVienna.\nHerr Ed. Scholz, Stale School Inspector, Vienna.\nARGENTINE REPUBLIC.\nSefior Dr. F. de la Barra. Member of National\nCouncil of Education, Buenos Ayres.\nSenor C. Guido F. Spano, Member of National\nCouncil of Education, Buenos Ayres.\nSefior Felix Martin y Herrera, Member of National\nCouncil of Education, Buenos Ayres.\nSefior B. Zorrilla, President of the National Council of Education, Buenos Ayres.\nSefior Julio A. Garcia, Member of National Council of Education, Buenos Ayres.\nBELGIUM.\nSon\n\nExcellence M. J. de Burlet, Minister of the\nInterior and of Pubic Induction, Brussels.\nDr. Eugene Janssens, Brussels.\nCHILI.\nSua Excelencia Don Pedro Montt, Santiago.\nCOSTA RICA.\nM. Gustav Michaud, San Jose.\nCUBA.\nSenor Vietorio R. Ventura y Fernandez, Havana.\nCANADA.\nHon. S. D. Pope, LL.D.. Secretary, Council of\nPublic Instruction, Victoria, British Columbia.\nHon. J. R. Inch, Chief Superintendent of Education, Frederieton, New Brunswick.\nHon. A. H. Mackay, B. A., B.Sc. LL.D., F. R. S. C,\nSuperintendent of Education for Nova Scotia,\nHalifax.\nDr. James A. MeLellan, Principal, School of Pedagogy and Iuspectorof Normal Schools, Toronto,\n\nOntario.\n\nHon. Gedeon Onimct, Superintendent of Public\nInstruction, Quebec. Quebec.\nHon. J. G. Hodgins, M.A., LL.D., Toronto, Ontario.\n\nHon. G. W. Ross, LL.D., Minister cf Education,\nToronto, Ontario.\nProf. Goldwin Smith, Toronto, Ontario.\nRev. Principal G. M. Grant, Queen's University,\nKingston, Ontario.\nECUADOR.\nSenor Rafael Barabona, Professor of the Faculty\nof Medicine, University of Quito. Quito.\nSefior Fr. Ignacio Salazar, Archivo del Poder Legislative, Quito.\nFINLAND.\nSenator Chas. Etnile Ignatius, Helsingfors.\nFRANCE.\nM. Berthelot, Vice-President of the Superior Council of Public Instruction, Paris.\nM. F. Buisson, Director of Primary Instruction in\nthe Ministry of Public Instruction. Paris.\nM. Michel Breal. Member of the \" Institut,\" Professor \" College de France,\" Paris.\nM. A. Carnot, Superior National School of Mines,\nParis.\nM. G. Compayre, Rector of the Academy of Poitiers, Poitiers.\nSuperior General Frefe Joseph (M. Josseraud),\nInstitute of the Brothers of the Christian\nSchools, Paris.\nGERMANY.\nHerr A. Berthelt, Oberschulrath, Chief Councilor\nof Education, Dresden.\nDr. Brandenberg, R. Inspector of District and City\nSchools, Cologne.\nDr. Rud. Buddensieg, Director Teachers' Seminary,\nDresden.\nProf. Dr. Johann Conrad, University of Halle.\nProf. Dr. Ilerm. Colin, Ph.D., University of Breslau.\nProf. Dr. Dittmar Finkler, Imperial Royal Commissioner of the German Exhibits, World's\nColumbian Exposition, Bonn.\nFrl. Helene Lange, Central Committee, Berlin.\nFranWeimar.\nLoeper-Housselle, Editor \"Die Lehierin,\"\nHerr Fr. Junge, Headmaster, Kiel.\nDr. Nokk, President of the Ministry of Justice,\nPublic Worship and Instruction, Karlsruhe.\nProf. Dr. Wilhem Preyer, University of Berlin.\nProf. Dr. Win. Rein, Pedagogical Seminary, Jena.\nProf. Dr. Ludw. Sirflmpell, University of Leipzig.\nProf. Dr. Stephan Waetzoldt, Imperial Royal Commissioner of German Educational Exhibits,\nWorld's Columbian Exposition, Berlin.\nProf. Dr. Weyrauch, Rector of Polytechnicum,\nStuttgart.\nProf. Dr. Wiener. Dir. Polytechnicum, Karlsruhe.\nProf. Dr. Theo. Ziegler, University of Strassbnrg.\n\n"}
{"page": 33, "printed_page": null, "text": "13\nLIST OF HONORARY\n\nVICE-PRESIDENTS.\n\nGUATEMALA.\n\nSPAIN.\n\nSefior G. E. Guzman, Director of General Statistics, Guatemala.\n\nSenor Don Manuel Ruiz de Quevedo. President of\nthe Association for the Instruction of Women,\nMadrid.\nSenor Don Federico de Botella, President of\nRoyal Geographical Society, Madrid.\nSefior Don Nunez de Arce, Madrid.\nSefior Don Rufael Maria de Labra, Madrid.\n\nHUNGARY.\nProf. Imre, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, BudaProf.pest.\nI. Pauer, Budapest.\nITALY.\nSignor Qnintino Carrera, Director of the Public\nLibrary, Turin.\nSignor Fedele Lampertico, Member of the Superior\nStatistics, Vicenza.\nSua~ Council\nAltezza of\nla Principessa\nStrongoli, Naples.\nSignor Dr. Egisto Rossi, Rome.\n\nSWITZERLAND.\nProf. F. Bluntschli, Architect, Zurich.\nURUGUAY.\nSefior Dr. F. A. Berra, Montevideo.\nSefior Honore Roustan, Director of General Statistisc, Montevideo.\n\nJAPAN.\nMr. S. Tejima, Imperial Japanese Commissioner\nfor the World's Columbian Exposition. Tokyo.\nTsudji Shindji, Minister of Education, Tokyo.\nGREAT\n\nBRITAIN.\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES.\n\nALABAMA.\nCol. N. II. R.Dawson, Ex-Commissioner of Bureau\nof Education, Selma.\nCALIFORNIA.\n\nMiss London.\nDorothea Beale, Cheltenham Ladies' College,\nRev. Dr. Henry Boyd, Vice-Chancellor, Oxford.\nProf. James Br.vce, Oxford University, Oxford.\nJ. G. Fitch, Esq., London.\nProf. Fr. Max M tiller, Oxford University, Oxford.\nDr. T. J. Barnardo, Home for Destitute Children,\nLondon.\nRev. Hugh Price Hughes, M.A., London.\nT. Scott Keltie, Assistant Secretary to the Royal\nGeographical Society, London, W. C.\nHon. A. J. Mundella, M.P., London.\nSir Bernhard Samuelson, M.P., London.\nSwire Smith, Lowfield, Keighley, National Association for the Promotion of Technical and Secondary Education.\nHon. Lyulph Stanley, MP., London.\nProf. Silvanua P. Thompson, London.\n\nHubert H. Bancroft, the Bancroft Library, San\nFrancisco.\nDISTRICT\n\nOF COLUMBIA.\n\nProf. A. Graham Bell, Washington.\nDr. J. L. M. Curry, Agent Peabody Fund, Washington.\nDr. E.\nM.Gallaudet, President National Deaf Mute\n\nRt. Hon. Sir Patrick J. Keenan, Commissioner of\nNational Education, Dublin.\n\nCollege, Washington.\nProf. G. Brown Goode, Director National Museum,\nWashington.\nRt. Rev. John J. Keane, Rector Catholic University of America, Washington.\nEdwin Willets, Department of Agriculture, Washington.\nBishop T. M. D. Ward, D.D., Washington.\nDr. T. C. Mendenhall, Superintendent Coast and\nGeodetic Survey, Washington.\nProf. Alex. A. Oldrini, Washington.\nGEORGIA.\n\nNETHERLANDS.\n\nRt. Rev. A. Grant, A. M. E. Church, Atlanta.\nRt. Rev. H. M. Turner, A. M. E. Church, Atlanta.\n\nIRELAND.\n\nDr. P. F. Hubrecht, Secretary General of the Ministry of the Interior, The Hague.\n\nILLINOIS.\n\nNORWAY.\n\nRt. Rev. J. L. Spalding, D.D.. Bishop of Peoria.\nMiss Frances E. Willard, Evanston.\nMrs. H. N. Wilmarth, Chicago.\nBrother Maurelian, De La Salle Institute, Chicago.\n\nDr. D. F. Knudsen, Chief of the Department of\nPublic Instruction, .Christiania.\nPORTUGAL.\nDom Ignacio Fr. Silveira da Mota. Secretary-General of Ministry of Justice and Ecclesiastical\nAffairs, Lisbon.\nRUSSIA.\nMonsieur L. de Dimseha, Professor agrege attached to the University of St. Petersburg,\nDelegate of the Ministry of Public Instruction\nat the World's Columbian Exposition, St.\nPetersburg.\nMonsieur Ergraff Kovalevsky, Delegate of the Ministry of Public Instruction at the World's\nColumbian Exposition, St. Petersburg.\nPrince Serge Wolkonsky, Delegate of the Ministry\nof Public Instruction at the World's Columbian Exposition, St. Petersburg.\n\nINDIANA.\nHon. W.N. Hailmann, Superintendent of Schools,\nLa Porte.\nIOWA.\nDr. City.\nJ. L. Pickard, LL.D., State University, Iowa\nKANSAS.\nRt. City.\nRev. J. A. Handy, A. M. E. Church, Kansas\nKENTUCKY.\nJudge Wm. Beckner, Winchester.\nMARYLAND.\nHis Eminence Cardinal Gibbous, Baltimore.\n\n"}
{"page": 34, "printed_page": null, "text": "14\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nMASSACHUSETTS.\n\nOHIO.\n\nEdward Atkinson, Boston.\nGeorge W. Cable, Northampton.\nMrs. Ednah D. Cheney, Jamaica Plain, Boston.\nHon. George F. Hoar, U. S. Senate, Washington,\nDC.\nMrs. Mary A. Livermore, Melrose.\nMrs. Mary Hemenway, Boston.\nEdwin D. Mead, Boston.\n\nHon. Vincent A. Taylor, House of Representatives,\nWashington, D. C.\nRt. force.\nRev. D. A. Payne, A. M. E. Church, Wilber-\n\nMINNESOTA.\nHis Grace John Ireland, Archbishop of Minnesota,\nSt. Paul.\nNEBRASKA.\n\nPENNSYLVANIA.\nHon. D. B. Brnnner, House of Representatives,\nWashington, D. C.\nDr. H. L. Wayland, Editor of the \"National Baptist,\" Philadelphia.\nSOUTH\n\nCAROLINA.\n\nRt. Rev, M. B. Salter, A. M. E. Church, Columbia.\n\nBishop J. P. Newman, Omaha.\n\nTENNESSEE.\n\nNEW\n\nHon. B. A. Enloe, Chairman of Committee on Education,House of Representatives, Washington,\nD. C.\n\nHAMPSHIRE.\n\nHon. H. W. Blair, Ex-Chairman Senate Committee\non Education, Washington, D. C.\nNEW\n\nYORK.\n\nRev. New\nLyman\nYork.Abbott, Editor of \" Christian Union,\"\nProf. Vincenzo Botta, Columbia College, New York.\nDr. Hamilton W. Mabie, Office of the \"Christian\nUnion,\" New York.\nDr. David Murray, New Brunswick.\nHon. T. L. Morgan, New York.\nHon. Hugh S. Thompson, New York.\nDr. Anson J. Upson, Chancellor of University of\nthe State of New York, Albany.\n\nTEXAS.\nRt. Rev. B. F. Lee, A. M. E. Church, Waco.\nVIRGINIA.\nHon. George D. Wise, House of Representatives,\nWashington, D. C.\nWYOMING.\nHon, J. M. Carey, Chairman of Senate Committee\non Education, Washington, D. C.\n\n"}
{"page": 35, "printed_page": null, "text": "INTERNATIONAL\nCONGRESS\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION.\n\nTHE GENERAL\n\nSESSIONS.\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nREPORT.\n\nFIRST DAY'S PROCEEDINGS— 3 o'clock p.m.. July 25, 1893.\nThe first general session of the International Congress of Education was held in the\nHall of Columbus, in Memorial Art Palace, Chicago, at 3 o'clock p.m., Tuesday, July\n25, 1893. It was called to order by Hon. Charles G. Bonney, President of the World's\nCongress Auxiliary.\nRev. P. A. Noble, D.D., of Chicago, opened the meeting by prayer.\nPresident Bonney, of the World's Congress Auxiliary, gave an address of welcome.\nAmong the eminent educators upon the platform there were present the following :\nGeneral John Eaton, ex-Commissioner of Education, U. S. A. ; Dr. Stephen Waetzoldt,\nProfessor in the University of Berlin ; Dr. Dittmar Finkler, Professor in the University\nof Bonn ; Dr. L. M. Torngren, Director of Royal Central Gymnastic Institute, Stockholm ;Prof. L. Dimscha, St. Petersburg University, Russia ; Dr. Selim H. Peabody,\nChief of Department of Liberal Arts, World's Fair ; Prince Serge Wolkonsky, Delegate\nof Bussian Ministry of Public Instruction ; Dr. Edwin Osterberg, Delegate from Sweden ;\nDr. N. G. W. Lagerstedt, Delegate from Sweden ; \"M. B. Buisson, Delegate from\nFrance ; Dr. G. W. Ross, Minister of Education, Ontario, Canada ; John Millar, B.A.,\nDeputy Minister of Education, Ontario ; Dr. N. A. Calkins, Chairman Board of Trustees of National Educational Association, New York ; Prof. Irwin Shepard, Secretary\nNational Educational Association, Winona, Minn. ; Dr. B. A. Hinsdale, Professor of\nthe Science and Art of Teaching, University of Michigan ; Dr. James C. Mackenzie,\nLawrenceville. N. J. ; Dr. E. Ribera, Professor of Institute de la Universidad, Valencia, Spain ; Dr. J. M.- Harper, Quebec; Dr. Paul Hoffman, Assistant Superintendent of\nNew York City Schools ; William Jenkins, Superintendent of Illinois School Exhibit,\nMendota, 111. ; Zalmon Richards, Washington, D. C. ; William A. Obenchain, President of Ogden College, Bowling Green, Ky.\nThe Rt. Rev. Samuel Fallows, Chairman of the General Committee of the Educational Congress, gave additional words of welcome.\nMrs. Charles Henrotin, Vice-President of the Woman's Branch of the World's Congress Auxiliary, gave further words of welcome ; Mrs. Henry M. Wilmarth, Chairman\nof the Woman's General Committee on the Educational Congress, followed.\nDr. Selim H. Peabody, Chief of the Department of Liberal Arts, extended the welcome\nin behalf of the \"White City\" in Jackson Park, and invited the members to visit the\nLiberal Arts Building at 3 o'clock p.m., Thursday, July 27th.\nHon. William T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education, and chairman of\nthe committee appointed by the National Educational Association to take special\ncharge of the International Educational Congress, which opens this day, presented the\nReport of the Committee.\n\n"}
{"page": 36, "printed_page": null, "text": "16\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nHon. Albert G. Lane, as Superintendent of Public Instruction for the City of\nChicago, welcomed teachers to the city ; and as President of the National Educational\nAssociation introduced Dr. James B. Angell, of the University of Michigan, as President of the General Sessions of this Congress.\nOn taking the chair, President Angell expressed his thanks for the honor conferred on\nhim, and, in behalf of the Congress, tendered appreciation and gratitude to those who\nhad made such careful provision for these meetings.\nThe following resolution, offered by President Lane, was unanimously adopted :\nResolved, That as members of the National Educational Association, and of the International Congress of Education now assembled, we return our thanks to Dr. Selim H.\nPeabody, Chief of the Department of Liberal Arts, for his cordial invitation to visit the\nExposition and the Educational Exhibit at 3 o'clock on Thursday afternoon next, and\nthat we do hereby accept the same.\nPresident Angell then announced the appointment of Irwin Shepard, Secretary of the\nNational Educational Association, as the General Secretary of the World's International\nCongress of Education, and that all secretaries and stenographers of the fifteen department congresses are requested to report to the General Secretary.\nThe meeting then adjourned to 8 o'clock p.m., Tuesday, July 25th.\nEVENING SESSION-July 25th.\nThe second general session of the International Congress of Education was held in the\nHall of Columbus at 8 o'clock p.m., Tuesday, July 25th. The meeting was called to\norder by President Angell, who gave the first address of the evening. Addresses were\nalso given by Prince Serge Wolkonsky, of Russia ; by M. B. Buisson, of France ; Hon. G.\nW. Boss, of Ontario, and by Dr. Stephen Waetzoldt, of Germany. This last address was\ndelivered in German, and the manuscript was not furnished for publication. Owing to\nabsence of Sir Truman Wood, Secretary of the Royal Commission of Great Britain,\nand also of M. Gabriel Compayre, of France, neither of their papers was presented.\nThe meeting adjourned to meet Friday, July 28th, at 8 o'clock p.m.\nTHIRD\nGENERAL SESSION.\nThe closing meeting of the general sessions of the International Congress of Education was held in the Hall of Columbus at 8 o'clock p.m., Friday, July 28, 1893.\nThe meeting was called to order by President Angell, who introduced Miss E. P.\nHughes, Principal of the Cambridge Training College for Teachers. The subject of her\npaper was, \" The Professional Training of Teachers for Secondary Schools.\"\nThe Rt. Rev. John J. Keane, of Washington, D. O, addressed the Congress upon\n\" The Relation between Educational Methods and Educational Ends.\"\nProf. L. Dimscha, of St. Petersburg, Russia, gave an address on \"Legal Education\nin the United States.\"\nM. Gabriel Compayre, President of the French Commission on Education, gave an\naddress on \"The Present Situation of Education in France.\"\nDr. L. M. Torngren, of Stockholm, Sweden, spoke on the subject, \"A Perfect\nPhysical Education is indispensable in order to produce an Ideal Education.\"\nM. Ergraff Kovalevsky, Delegate of ihe Russian Ministry of Public Instruction, made\na brief address.\nA paper by Dr. Alberto Gomez Ruano, of Uruguay, was read. Subject: \"Joseph\nPeter Varela and the Progress of Education in Uruguay.\"\nDr. Edward Osterberg, of Sweden, gave an address on \"Training of Teachers in\nHigh Schools in Sweden.\"\nClosing remarks were made by President Angell, Dr. Harris, and C. G. Bonney.\n\n"}
{"page": 37, "printed_page": null, "text": "ADDRESSES\nADDKESS\n\nBY\n\nCHAELES\n\nOF\n\nWELCOME.\n\nG. BONNET,\nPRESIDENT\nCONGRESS\nAUXILIARY.\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nWORLD\n\nS\n\nFriends of Universal Education ; Educators of Many Lands : I bid\nyou welcome to the International Congress of Education.\nThe Special Educational Congresses which have occupied the past eight\ndays are closed, and the International Congress of Education, in which\nthe leading departments of education will have appropriate presentation,\nis about to open. That the eighty-six sessions of the fourteen congresses\nheld in this building during the time specified have more than realized\nthe expectations entertained in regard to them, is agreed by all whose\nopinions I have heard expressed. We have enjoyed a series of gratifying\nsurprises in the attendance given, the interest manifested, and the high\ncharacter of the proceedings. Most noteworthy has been the spirit of\npeace and progress which has reigned supreme. Distinguished educators\nfrom many countries have met together as old friends to consider common\ninterests and aims.\nIf the Special Congresses have been so satisfactory, what may we not\nexpect from the International Congress of Education, in which all will\ntake a part, with its fifteen separate department congresses, presenting a\nprogramme with forty-seven sessions ?\nThe original announcement of the \"World's Congresses of 1893, issued in\nSeptember, 1889, included, among other subjects, \" Educational systems,\ntheir advantages and their defects, and the means by which they may\nbest be adapted to the enormous increase in all departments of knowledge.\"\nThe educational systems of the past have been outgrown. This fact is\nso obvious that it needs neither argument nor illustration. Those systems\nwere but local and temporary, and could not permanently endure. The\nold education had no place for those important departments which are the\npeculiar glory of the new. The kindergarten, manual and art training,\ntechnological instruction, business education, practical psychology, are\nnew gifts to the educational world.\nModern science is itself a new world, created within the memory of\nliving men. In all of the old branches of learning there has been a\nwonderful increase of knowledge. There is now more of language and\n2\n\n"}
{"page": 38, "printed_page": null, "text": "18\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nliterature ; more of natural science ; more of political and social science ;\nmore of moral and intellectual science ; more of technological and constructive science, and more of other important branches of knowledge, than\ncan be mastered during the school years.\nWhat can be done to meet this emergency ?\nThe cruelty of cramming has been tried and abandoned as worse than\nutterly useless. The liberty of election has been enlarged and reenlargcd\nwithout fully satisfactory results. But the difficulty not only remains ; it\nincreases. We cannot meet it by suppressing knowledge ; we must endeavor to do so by enlarging the means and improving the system of education.\nThe old curriculum was a pamphlet ; the new curriculum is a volume,\ngrowing larger from year to year.\nWhile the learned world ponders the new educational problems and\nseeks a means of their solution, a new and tremendous influence enters the\nfield and asks attention. It is the spirit of the new age, demanding international fraternity and cooperation in every department of civilized life.\nThe institutions of learning have more than willingly responded to this\ncall, and have manifested a desire to accede to it so far as sound reason\nmay lead the way. A true and enduring educational system must have\nits national and international as well as its local relations.\nThe time has come to discriminate the universal from the particular,\nthe requirements of all from the needs of the few, and form an educational\nsystem in which those discriminations will be preserved. The programmes\nof the Educational Congresses held during the past eight days, and those\nwhich are now to follow, show that the elements of a true educational\nsystem are at last at command. To some extent, the characteristics of\nthe new education may already be discerned.\n(1) While in the primary schools the kindergarten and the first rudiments of manual and art training will lay the foundation for future\nculture, the instruction will, for the most part, be limited to such knowledge as is universally necessary for intelligent human relations. In a\nword, the instruction imperatively demanded for the eveiy-day needs of\nall classes will be the chief object of the primary schools.\n(2) In the secondary schools will be given a knowledge of the existence\nand nature of all the sciences, arts, and callings, so far as may be necessary\nto enable the learner to select those in which he will be most likely to find\nhis appropriate life-work. The learner must know that there is such a\nscience as chemistry, such an art as engineering, and their general nature\nand scope, to enable him to decide whether in either of them, or in some\nother pursuit, he will be likely to be most serviceable to himself and his\nfellow-men.\n(3) In the higher institutions of learning will naturally be given that\nthorough and prolonged culture in a carefully selected course of study,\nchosen with reference to a proposed life-occupation ; that careful and\n\n"}
{"page": 39, "printed_page": null, "text": "ADDRESS\n\nLS OF\n\nWELCOME.\n\n19\n\nefficient training and discipline which will qualify the student for the best\ndischarge of the duties of that occupation.\n(4) In the professional and technological schools there will be given both\na theoretical and a practical training for the particular requirements and\nduties of a selected calling, such as law, medicine, engineering, agriculture, or any other.\nThus may be secured, in a rational order, that general knowledge\nwhich intelligent persons in all countries should possess ; that mental\nculture and discipline of the brain which correspond to the skill and\naccuracy of the artisan's accomplished hand, and that special and adequate preparation required for the successful pursuit of a special\ncalling.\nAmong the signs of the times which distinguish the new education from\nthe old, a few may be briefly noticed.\nFirst in order and importance I name the kindergarten, which for the\nfirst time in the whole history of the race actually established in the world\nthe great idea that the schoolroom can and should be made a place of\ndelight, and that a love of learning is vital to its attainment.\nNext may be mentioned the training of the hand to perform what\nthe mind has been taught to conceive and plan, thus providing against\nthat \"pathetic helplessness\" sometimes found in very learned men.\nAnother important sign of substantial progress is in the introduction\nof practical psychology, to give both teacher and student that knowledge\nof the mind, its constitution, faculties, and operations, without which\nserious errors cannot be avoided.\nEqually important is the idea, now well established, that the farmer,\nthe manufacturer, the merchant, or other business man, needs a thorough\neducation for his calling quite as much as do the professional classes for\ntheirs. Modern experience has abundantly shown that a farm abandoned\nby ignorant incompetence as worn out and worthless can be made to\nblossom like the rose under an application of intelligent skill and scientific\nknowledge such as the higher institutions of learning impart.\nOf vast importance and significance is the new movement of colleges\nand universities, under the name of University Extension, to ally themselves with the people. That alliance will prove of inestimable value to\nboth.\nIn the highest sense, there is but one education, of which all schools\nand all instruction should form appropriate parts. If one cannot be\na master of philology, or astronomy, or geology, or architecture, or\nengineering, it should, nevertheless, be his privilege to know enough\nof each to follow with pleasure and with benefit the achievements of its\nleaders.\nIn the new education we shall miss many things with which we have\nbeen familiar in the old. Among them will be the incredible folly of\n\n"}
{"page": 40, "printed_page": null, "text": "20\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nattempting to eradicate the natural differences of mental endowment, and\nto reduce all to the dead level of the average attainments.\nWe shall miss the barbaric system of rewards and punishments, under\nwhich the most heroic efforts to overcome natural deficiencies were visited\nwith humiliation, while merely natural gifts, without merit in their application, were conspicuously rewarded.\nThe new education will endure, because it will rest upon correct and\neternal principles ; because it will be supported by an enlightened public\nopinion, and by the settled public policy of the enlightened nations of the\nworld. The basis of this public policy is the truth that the true wealth\nof nations is in their men ; and that as a mere matter of self-interest\nthey must provide for all, even the humblest, enough education to stimulate the development of latent genius.\nThe new education, extended as it will be throughout the world, will do\nas much as, if not more than, any other agency to promote the unity and\npeace of mankind. For by education we mean not merely the training\nof the intellect ; we mean also the culture of the heart and the hand.\nThe golden circle of education embraces not only literature, science, and\nart, but it includes as well the whole broad domain of virtue, morals, and\nreligion.\nIn conclusion, I extend to this World's Educational Congress my\nhighest wishes for its success in every department, with many regrets that\nthe arrangements for the congresses to be held during the month of\nAugust will prevent me from attending the sessions, in the proceedings\nof which I shall nevertheless feel a profound interest.\n\nADDRESS\n\nBY\n\nTHE\nRT. REV.\nSAMUEL\nFALLOWS,\nCHAIRMAN\nCOMMITTEE\nON EDUCATIONAL\nCONGRESSES.\n\nOF\n\nGENERAL\n\nMr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen : We have been doing a little skirmishing the past few days preparatory to bringing on the general educational engagement. The light artillery has been doing its duty, and we\nshall very soon hear from the heavy guns. I can only hope that we may go\non in the good way in which we have begun, and that this International\nEducational Congress, under the auspices of that grand National Educational Association, may end in the spirit in which the Congress of Education has begun.\nMr. Bonney in his excellent address has referred to the old and the new\nin education. I am a very firm believer in the old as well as in the new.\nMr. Ruskin somewhere said that respect for antiquity is the salvation\nof art. I can say that respect for antiquity is the salvation of truth\nitself, and respect for antiquity must always be in the mind and heart\nof the enlightened educator.\nI think if our old friend Socrates were\n\n"}
{"page": 41, "printed_page": null, "text": "ADDRESSES\n\nOF WELCOME.\n\n21\n\nhere to-day in this gathering, which represents the very culmination of\nall the educational gatherings of the world, he would not find himself\nout of place. I think if he were to restate some of the things which he\nused to state, we should find that they would be the things which we\ninsist upon as belonging par excellence to the new education. I think we\nshould learn something from him about the value of object lessons ; I\nthink we should learn something about the power of the personality of the\nteacher. I think we should learn something of the way in which specific\ncharacters are to be specifically treated. And if we could bring a Plato\non the one side and a Xenophon on the other, a man of the deepest and\nthe highest philosophy, and a man having the most intensely practical\ninterests in the affairs of life — if we could bring corresponding specimens\nof our new education as a result, just as he brought forth the result of the\nold education, we should be very well satisfied.\nNow I bid you welcome on behalf of Chicago. We in our struggle to\ngain the supremacy among the cities of the United States have been putting victory on the run and keeping fame out of breath ; but we are not\nhere to boast of our numbers, our increasing miles of streets, our office\nbuildings that are climbing up higher and higher toward the sky until\nthe city council has said they shall not climb any higher ; but we have the\nright, I think, to boast of our public schools in spite of some little criticism\nwhich has been made upon them. In the other room corresponding to\nthis we were told a day or two ago that we had sixty thousand children in\nthis city who could find no seats in the rooms of our public schools. Why\nis this ? Simply because the people from every part of the globe have\nbeen crowding in upon us, and we have not been able to overtake the\nneeds and necessities of our common-school children. But I pledge you on\nbehalf of this great city of Chicago, that just as soon as possible we will\nhave the amplest provision for every child within our limits ; and if they\nare not able to go to school because not sufficiently or properly clad, they\nwill be taken care of in that respect.\nWe are glad this congress is to be held in our city, so that our instructors\nmay find their hands strengthened and the purposes of their hearts confirmed to make the school system of the city of Chicago second to none in\nthe world.\nJust one thought about the old, and I close. Glorious John Milton\nsaid that prose was his left hand, but I submit to you that the most eminent modern educator never wrote with the cunning right hand a truer\nmeaning of education than John Milton wrote in the seventeenth century:\n\"I count that a complete and generous education which fits a man to perform skilfully, justly, and magnanimously all the offices, both public and\nprivate, of peace and war.\" Who can surpass that definition of education ?\nAll the papers which are to be read at this congress, and all the discussions\nhad upon them, will simply elucidate this idea. I know that the results\n\n"}
{"page": 42, "printed_page": null, "text": "22\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nof this congress will be to throw a flood of light upon this subject, and\nthe old and the new will be bound together as they never have been in the\npast in the education and' lighting up of the moral powers of the child that\nis placed within our limits.\n\nADDRESS\n\nBY MRS. CHARLES\nBRANCH\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nHENROTIN,\nWORLD'S\n\nVICE-PRESIDENT\nCONGRESS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nWOMAN'S\n\nAUXILIARY.\n\nMr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen : The president of the Auxiliary,\nin his excellent address, to my mind did not mention the greatest factor\nin the new education. I see by the smiles on the faces of my sisters\nthat they have divined what it is. That is the entrance of woman into\nthe educational arena. She is found as the link between the child and the\nuniversity, stretching out her hand, it is true, for the cap and the gown, but\nholding tight with the other hand the little child in the nursery. To my\nmind the entrance of woman means practicality in education. The kindergarten ishere to stay with ber. Manual training, sanitary conditions\nof schools are here, and while the universities will still flourish, the kindergarten will be all over the land.\nAs I have spoken of woman's practical influence, I shall confine myself\nfor my part to two practical suggestions. One is that you visit and carefully study those wonderful educational exhibits at Jackson Park. We as\na composite race can there see what is so essential to the development of\nour schools — England with her exact classical education, France so beautifully generous, always to art, and Germany Avith her scientific and technical training. It is invidious really to mention any, they have all been\nso splendidly generous toward us. The study of them will help us greatly,\nbecause we need not only thought, but the thought of all nations, for our\nharmonious and right development. .\nThen another practical thought. In attending all these sessions I have\nbeen impressed with the cry of each one that there is no standard of education to start from. Uniformity is a word tremendously abused in the\npast ; but in all humility, to such an assembly as this I submit this\nsuggestion, that the National Educational Association shall endeavor to\nestablish in each city, whether under the State or the government, a Bureau\nof Education, in which every person who aspires to teach, whether in the\nprivate school or public school, shall obtain a license. That is the system\nadopted in France with splendid results, and I think if it were once inaugurated in our land it would give us a firmer basis on which to establish\nthe newer education. And I will tell you for Chicago that you can say\nhere just what you please. We have no prejudices to be shocked. In fact,\nwe are very much like Athens of old, eager to see and hear always some\nnew thing.\n(Applause.)\n\n"}
{"page": 43, "printed_page": null, "text": "ADDRESSES\n\nADDRESS\n\nBY MRS.\nHENRY\nGENERAL\nCOMMITTEE\n\nM.\n\nON\n\nOF\n\nWELCOME.\n\n23\n\nWILMARTH,\nCHAIRMAN\nOF THE WOMAN'S\nTHE EDUCATIONAL\nCONGRESSES.\n\nLadies and Gentlemen : The state has no more important function than\nto care for the education of its children. What the result of this education should be is matter of general agreement : that it should train the\nindividual to reasonable thinking and adequate expression, to right estimate of values and to wise choices, to habits of right thinking and of\nright doing. The debatable ground, then, is only one of methods. For\nthe ascertainment of these methods and what is best in them, the United\nStates has had for more than thirty years a most able advisory counsel\nin the corporate body of this National Educational Association. This\nbody, while neither executive nor administrative, and perhaps, therefore,\nthe broader in its deliberations, and the firmer, has yet maintained its\nrelation with the government, with the States, and with the cities, by\nincluding in its membership officially the representative heads of the\ngovernment. And this Association has carefully provided on all points\nagainst excess and defect. In every department of education the National\nAssociation has had its representatives. The International Congress of\n1893 could have no happier fortune than being able to secure the alliance\nof this body, and it has no greater gift to offer to the nations of the earth\nthan the results of its deliberations.\n\nADDRESS\n\nBY\n\nDR.\n\n<SELIM\n\nH.\n\nPEABODY,\nLIBERAL\n\nCHIEF\nARTS.\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF\n\nMr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen, and Fellow-Teachers: I come\nhere charged with a special and personal message to each one of you.\nPlease keep it as special and personal, and be careful that you do not give\nit away to your friends. While you are engaged here in this magnificent\ncongress, this coruscation of congresses, I want to say to you that there\nis an annex to this arrangement, further south upon the lake. It is\nsometimes spoken of as \" The White City.\" Its location is between Hyde\nPark and Windsor Park, and it is the wonder of the present age. When\nI first saw this city, only two years ago last February, it was simply a succession of sand hills, separated by streams of water, and a marsh. The\nengineer brought his instruments therein, the dredge followed and\ngathered up the sands from a portion and elevated the surface of the\nremainder. The architect followed, and covered the whole surface with\nstructures whose magnificence has never been surpassed. The sculptor\nhas adorned these edifices, and painting has glorified them. The Acropolis, the Duomo of Florence, the buildings of the Champs de Mars, the\n\n"}
{"page": 44, "printed_page": null, "text": "24\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nTrocadero, and multitudes of others have gathered themselves together\non the banks of a new Venice, and produced what we call the \" White\nCity.\" Its beauty, its glory have come up like the hallucinations of a\ndream, and we mourn that in a few months we shall have only the barren\nsurface again when these buildings are gone.\nThere have been gathered from all the portions of this round world, from\nevery country and every clime, the material illustrations of every occupation, of every science, of every art of mankind at the close of this nineteenth century, and these have filled those buildings with such a grandeur\nof material as makes even the buildings themselves of minor significance.\nYou may go for your lifetime and wander over the entire surface of the\nworld, and you shall not find more than you can to-day find under the roofs\nof Jackson Park.\nEach one of you will be earnestly and heartily welcomed to this place.\nWe know that your first thoughts will be centered upon the congresses\nwhich are here, but in your leisure hours you may find at Jackson Park\nthat which will fix your attention, such as can be found nowhere else.\nYou will ask me, where is the educational exhibit of the Fair? I\nanswer you that it is all over Jackson Park, that such an education is\nthere as has never been before brought to the men and women of this\ncentury ; but there is in a specific place in this exhibit something which\nhas more particularly the character of an educational exhibit, showing\nwhat educators are doing, what are their methods, and what the limits\nthey attain. It covers a space more than double that which has ever been\noccupied in a similar way before. There was much and earnest effort to\nsecure for this department a separate edifice and a special recognition. I\nhave felt and earnestly appreciated all this effort, but I find to-day that\nthe educational exhibit occupies the central place in the general exhibit\nthat is found at Jackson Park. There is no place more worthy or fitting\nthan this, which I say is the central place, which has round about it all\nthe other material elements of the exhibit. There was a time when some\nof my friends, as they afterward wrote me, feared there would be no educational exhibit. That moment never occurred to me. I believed I knew\nthat we should succeed in presenting to the teachers of America a full and\nrounded exhibit of this character.\nIt is not my place to speak of this further than to give you such\nthoughts as I have in regard to its extent and its position. I could\nexplain some of the devious ways through which we passed before we were\nable to come out to the clear light and the broad field which the educational exhibit now occupies, but it is sufficient to say that in the vernacular\nof the time we \"got there.\"\nI have spoken of an invitation for you to come to examine, study, and\nmake yourselves thoroughly familiar with this educational exhibit. I do\nnot mean to suggest that you shall not cover the entire field of exhibits in\n\n"}
{"page": 45, "printed_page": null, "text": "ADDRESSES\n\nOF\n\nWELCOME.\n\n25\n\nyour endeavor to make yourselves familiar with what is there shown, but\nI am sure that you wish to give more special attention to what belongs\nmore peculiarly to your own work. A general invitation is of very little\nconsequence and of slight significance ; I therefore, with the consent of\nthe officers of this Association, who I understand have made a vacancy on\nThursday afternoon for this special purpose, wish to invite all within the\nsound of my voice to come to Jackson Park on Thursday afternoon. Will\nyon make the Administration Building the center at which you will\ngather at as near to the hour of three o'clock as possible ? The Director\nGeneral will be present to welcome you, and other officers of the Association will unite in assuring you of the great honor they will feel in your\nrecognition ; and then we may wander through the portion of the great\nLiberal Arts building which is given to the educational exhibit. Let\nevery one kindly accept this invitation.\nHon. William T. Harris, Chairman of the Committee of the\nNational Educational Association having special charge of the International Educational Congress, was introduced by Charles Gr. Bonney in the\nfollowing words :\nAmong the eminent ministers of education by whom the educational\ninterests of nations are disseminated there are few, if any, who are more\nwidely known or more distinguished for their success in administration\nthan the Hon. Dr. William T. Harris, Commissioner of Education of the\nUnited States. His eminence in this field might seem to suffice for\nthe ambition of any man, but fortunate it is for him and his associates\nthat, when wearied with administrative duties, he seeks the retirement and\nthe recreation which are to be found in the mountains of philosophy, and\nthe brethren who dwell there, as they see him approach, hail and welcome\nhim not only as brother but as chief.\nThe relations of Dr. Harris to the National Educational Association\nof this country, said to be the largest in numbers and the most potent in\ninfluence of any organization of the kind in any country, have been of\nthe most intimate and cordial kind. When this Association learned of the\nproposal to hold this Educational Congress of 1893, they generously gave\nup their meeting for this year, appointed their committees, and instructed\nthem to report programmes for 1894. In pursuance of that arrangement\na special committee of organization was appointed, of which Dr. Harris\nwas the executive head, to take especial charge, in cooperation with the\nofficers of the World's Congress Auxiliary, of the organization of this\nInternational Educational Congress of 1893.\nI have now the honor and the pleasure of presenting to you Dr. Harris,\nwho will make to you a report of the organization of this congress and\nkindred matters.\n\n"}
{"page": 46, "printed_page": null, "text": "20\n\nREPORT\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nOF COMMITTEE\n\nASSOCIATION,\nHON.\nWILLIAM\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nOF ARRANGEMENTS,\n\nNATIONAL\n\nON INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS\nT. HARRIS,\nCHAIRMAN.\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nOF EDUCATION,\n\nBY\n\nTo the World's Congress Auxiliary of the World's Columbian Exposition :\nThe Committee on International Congress of Education, appointed at\nyour suggestion by the National Educational Association of the United\nStates, beg leave herewith to report that they have extended due invitations to the friends of education and the workers in its several fields, in\nall foreign countries, and in the several States and Territories of the\nUnited States. Sympathetic response has been made everywhere to these\ninvitations, and the number of those expressing intention to be present is\nlarger than we had reason to hope, when we consider the number of\nforeign delegates enrolled at world's congresses hitherto held ; and this,\ntoo, without making any deduction for the much greater distances to be\npassed over to reach Chicago than to reach London, or Brussels, or Paris,\nor New York, from the centers of population.\nIn preparation for the discussions to take place this week, the committee has endeavored to select questions of international interest —\nquestions that affect the management of schools in all countries, wherever\nthey are. And the renewed and increasing interest in school education\nin all civilized countries at this time is an occasion for congratulation\namong all friends of human progress.\nThe central place of school education among the great regenerating\nmovements of modern civilization is obvious when one looks over the list\nrepresented in the series of congresses which have held their sessions in\nthis edifice since its opening in May, or are to follow between this and the\nmiddle of October. The common characteristic of movements that help\nforward civilization is that they increase self-help in the individual.\nThere is no institution that does so much for increasing the power of selfhelp as the good school. It uses the time of youth — the time not yet of\nfull value for productive industry, and yet most fruitful for growth in\nintellect and power of will. Education gives directive power — the power\nto combine things, and the power to combine men.\nIt is therefore with a strong show of reason that the teachers of our\nschools point to the exhibits in the vast aggregate of the World's Fair,\nand claim a large share in the development of the producing causes that\nhave furnished the display of industry and skill and taste.\nIt is confidently hoped that the discussions of these congresses will help\nmake clear to us not only the strong points of our school systems, but\nalso the needs and defects which exist and prevent the highest achievement.\nThe fifteen departments of this congress, which hold their sessions in\n\n"}
{"page": 47, "printed_page": null, "text": "ADDRESSES\n\nOF\n\nWELCOME.\n\n27\n\nthe mornings of Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday of this week, represent, in eqnal proportions, the new and the old ; one half devoted to\nunderstanding and explaining what is already established and in vogue,\nthe other half devoted to showing the claims of what is new, and urging\nits adoption into the school system. The educational problems are all to\nbe discussed, if wisely discussed, in the light of these two sides or tendencies. The committees on programmes have kept this in view.\nIn the department of higher education the distinction between the\ncollege and the university is brought prominently forward, and the relation of a course of study such as the old college furnished ; namely, for\ndiscipline, and for giving the student a survey of the whole field of\nhuman learning — the relation of this to the specialization of the activities\nof the student in lines of original research. One party in higher education will contend that the old college course should be retained, and held\nto its purpose of giving unity and consistency to the knowledge of the\nstudent before he enters on his specialties, whether law, medicine, divinity,\nor some special branch of science or art ; the other party will contend for\na policy that discounts the so-called liberal education, and the boasted\nadvantages of a prolonged study of the classical languages and pure\nmathematics, and contend for the earlier introduction of specialization.\nThe department congress of technology has prepared for itself a\nhighly valuable series of discussions on the educational value of such\nbranches as workshop practice, laboratory work in exact measurement, in\nchemistry, in electricity ; what the student gets from mechanical and\narchitectural drawing, and from pure and applied mathematics; what\nfrom natural science, and what from his training for an engineer. These\nstudies in educational values have a direct bearing on the most fundamental question of higher education — the question whether the course of\nstudy in our colleges merits the high claims made for it as being one of\na specially high educational value ; as being, in fact, the course that\nenlightens the student, and gives him balance of mind and a judicial habit\nof thought.\nTo this great question in higher education, also, the congress of secondary education contributes its quota by setting in the foreground questions\nof the practical value of science as an educative study as compared with\nlanguage, and, furthermore, the value of the modern languages as compared with Latin and Greek.\nThis question of the educational value of the classic and modern studies,\nof the languages versus the sciences and mathematics, is not a local one\nof interest only to our people, but a question more and more coming to\nthe front in France and England, and even in Germany ; and we are fortunate in having with us distinguished delegates from all those countries\nwho have weighty words to say in its discussion.\nA kindred question occupies a portion of the programme of the congress\n\n"}
{"page": 48, "printed_page": null, "text": "28\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nof elementary education. What branches of science and what branches\nof industrial instruction should be introduced into the elementary schools,\nand how far may the old course of study in language, numbers, geography,\nand history be made to recede to give room for the new branches ? The\ndepartment congresses of industrial and manual instruction, together with\nthe congresses on art instruction and music, emphasize this question in\nelementary education, and repeat in many new phases the demand for\nbroadening the course of study in elementary schools.\nThe National Geographical Society has been invited to occupy the programme of Thursday in the elementary department, and valuable discussions are provided to bring out the needs and defects of the present\nmethods of instruction, together with the desired remedies.\nBut the discussions of the third day in the elementary congress relate\nto the most important of all topics : that of citizenship and morals.\nThose familiar with the work of the directors of popular education\nabroad, especially in England, France, and Germany, know the stress that\nis laid on morals and citizenship, and the interest that is shown in questions of religious education as an essential item on the programmes of the\nschools. There are two parties of earnest men and women, the one holding that the separation of church and state should be carried so far as to\nmake the schools entirely secular, and the other holding that instruction\nin religion should be placed on the programme side by side with instruction in language and science.\nSomewhat related to this question of ethical and civic instruction are\nmost of the questions taken up in the kindergarten congress. The kindergarten attempts to provide a course of instruction that is half school\nand half family nurture, in order that the rigid discipline in obedience to\nlaw and order which characterized, and, I may say, still characterizes, the\nold-time primary school, may not have the effect of chilling the enthusiasm\nof the young child and arresting his- development along lines of growth\nthat tend to a completer individuality and a higher type of manhood and\nwomanhood. In the discussions of the week there is a large space given\nto the very important differences between the epochs of childhood, say\nfrom four to six years, and the epoch of youth, say from seven to fourteen\nyears. The transition of the mind from the so-called symbolic stage of\nchildhood to the stage in which the child can readily learn the conventional methods of representing language and numbers is the topic which\nneeds most illumination in the study of methods of the primary school.\nThe kindergarten, moreover, as containing the beginnings of all that is to\nbe unfolded in the later schools, takes up again the question of the educative value of hand occupations, so often discussed in other departments\nand found to be so attractive a topic in the educational conferences of all\nnations.\nThe congress on the professional training of teachers has as its most\n\n"}
{"page": 49, "printed_page": null, "text": "ADDRESSES\n\nOF WELCOME.\n\n29\n\nimportant topic the difference between the normal school which prepares\nteachers for the work of the elementary schools, and the college or university which gives the degree of Doctor of Pedagogy. The course of study\nin the regular normal school, on the other hand, is defined by contrast\nwith the ordinary high school or academy (secondary schools), and it is\nclaimed that the normal school introduces comparative study — like the\ncollege, seeking to understand each branch in the light of the other\nbranches of human learning — while secondary education usually teaches\nits branches as steps to higher studies, and not by a comparative method.\nThe college or university course in pedagogy, it is contended, should\nmake its degree stand for original work of investigation in the lines of the\nliterature and history of education as well as in lines of investigation into\nthe growth or development of the child physically and mentally.\nNo more important topics than these are on the programme for the\nweek as regards the improvement of our teachers.\nBut there are two department congresses auxiliary to this department of\nprofessional training, the one on rational psychology, which considers the\ntransient and permanent characteristics of mind, seeks to discover the fundamental characteristics which contradistinguish mind from mere biological phenomena — the mind as knowing primitive truth and as pure selfactivity. The other congress, that of experimental psychology, devotes\nall its discussions to questions of child-study in physical, emotional, intellectual, and volitional aspects.\nThe teacher, it is said, should understand psychology because he deals\nwith the growth of the mind. It is quite recent that a great revival has\nbegun in this country of the study of psychology.\nThe supervision of schools, which becomes every day more important\nas people come to live more and more in cities and villages, discusses\nthe questions relating to the organization of schools, especially such as\nrelate to the examination of teachers and the improvement of their\nwork.\nAn interesting question, especially interesting in the presence of this\ngreat World's Exposition of the products of human industry, is that of the\nrelation of technical skill and manual processes to the training of the\naesthetic sense — the cultivation of the taste for the beautiful.\nThis question is brought out in many of its phases in the congress on art\ninstruction, and still more of its phases are taken up in the congress on\nindustrial and manual instruction.\nThe difference between the great systems of training — those of the\n.Swedish Slojd, the Russian school-shop, and the French system — will be\nbetter understood, it is believed, at the close of these discussions, and that\nthis will lead to more profitable methods of preparation for our industries.\nThe department congresses of physical education, of educational publications, ofvocal music, and of business education, have prepared pointed\n\n"}
{"page": 50, "printed_page": null, "text": "30\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nquestions relating to methods and modes of management, and their programmes will invite large audiences of interested teachers.\nWith this brief sketch of the points in the programme herewith presented, beg\nI\nleave to thank you, Mr. President of the World's Congress\nAuxiliary, and through you your aids and assistants in the local committees ofeducation, for your uniform kindness and helpfulness in arranging the details of this congress. I thank you in behalf of the Committee\nof Arrangements, and in behalf of the National Educational Association.\n\nADDRESS BY HON\". ALBERT G. LANE, PRESIDENT OF THE NATIONAL\nEDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, AND\nSUPERINTENDENT\nOF PUBLIC\nINSTRUCTION\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nCITY\n\nOF\n\nCHICAGO,\n\nPRESENTING\n\nB. ANGELL, PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY OF\nPERMANENT\nCHAIRMAN\nOF THE\nGENERAL\nSESSIONS.\n\nDR.\n\nJAMES\n\nMICHIGAN,\n\nAS\n\nFellow- Teachei's : I extend to you greeting in behalf of the city of\nChicago, and of the National Educational Association.\nChicago, which has been noted in the history of the world for its marvelous growth in population and material wealth, and which was the recipient of your loving charity when the great conflagration utterly destroyed\nall of the business section of the city, extending from Harrison Street on\ntne south to Lincoln Park on the north, and between the lake and the\nriver, greets yon, the educational representatives of every State in this\nUnion and every country on the Western Continent, with the official\nrepresentatives of the great powers of Europe, the governments of Africa\nand Asia.\nAt the time of the great fire in 1871 Chicago had a population of\nabout three hundred and fifty thousand. A city which had been laid\nwaste needed to be rebuilt. Chicago appealed to you for money to aid\nher, and one hundred millions of dollars was placed at our disposal to\nrebuild in greater beauty and on more permanent foundations our business blocks, our public halls, our residences, and our schoolhouses. The\nsons and daughters of New England, of Old England, of the countries of\nEurope, and even Asia, heard of us, and came to increase our population\nand to contribute to our wealth. Twenty-one years have passed, and we\nhave called you to visit us. We come to render an account of our stewardship. Behold a city with a population increased one million souls.\nIn 1871 we were slightly known to the world as the young city of corn\nand pork. We come to you now with forty miles of magnificent boulevards, connecting six parks of nearly eighteen hundred acres of land ;\nwith our three public libraries which will attract the students of this\ncontinent, our three technical training-schools, our three universities, all\nendowed to the amount of twelve millions of dollars.\n\n"}
{"page": 51, "printed_page": null, "text": "ADDRESSES\n\nOF\n\nWELCOME.\n\n31\n\nI must also present our grand public school system, with two hundred\nand twenty-five schoolhonses, thirty-five hundred teachers, and a spirit\nin the people and the youth which fire cannot destroy.\nChicago welcomes you all to the World's Exposition. Our material\nadvancement has given us the opportunity to consider those higher attainments which mark the intellectual growth of a people.\nAfter the magnificent architectural structures of the White City have\nbeen removed, the thoughts and ideas, the social, economic, and educational problems which have been discussed from these halls, will find realization in the lives of the people and will culminate in history.\nThe National Educational Association, which was organized in Philadelphia in 1857, has been a means of disseminating broader ideas of education. It has been an agent in shaping school legislation, and has\nbrought together the men who are molding educational thought. During recent years the Association has commanded the attention of the\nwhole country through the great conventions which have been held in\ndifferent sections. Six years ago over ten thousand teachers gathered in\nthe old Exposition Building, which stood on this spot. To-day it affords\nme great pleasure to extend greeting to the foreign representatives of\neducation.\nIn behalf of the National Educational Association of the United States,\nI bid you all — Welcome !\nYou have come with the material exhibits of your countries. You\nhave also come to take into consideration all of those higher and greater\ndepartments of human effort which relate to social conditions and to the\nrealm of men and minds rather than to things and matter.\nOf the many congresses that have already convened in this Memorial\nArt Palace of the Art Institute, and which may convene during the coming months, there is none that can surpass in its far-reaching effects this\nCongress of the Educators of the Youth of the World.\nThere was a time when men stood unable to cope with the wind and\nwave, the light and heat and all the wondrous forces of nature. Once\nthey bowed and trembled before them; now they face them and say : Be\nstill, be subdued !— and the winds and the waves are brought to do man's\nbidding and to serve his purposes. The conquest of such forces leads us\nto think that the words and acts of the Great Teacher are to be reproduced. He said : \" Believe, for all things are possible/'\nAgitation, unrest, social convulsions, conflict between capital and labor,\nthe struggle for self-government, characterize the life and history of the\nnations of the earth. The irrepressible conflict is the struggle of mankind against all opposing forces to attain to that which i3 highest and\nbest.\nThe stability of this country, which is a \"government of the people,\nfor the people, and by the people,\" rests upon popular education; yea, pop-\n\n"}
{"page": 52, "printed_page": null, "text": "32\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nular education is essential to the perpetuity and well-being of any people.\nThis principle is recognized by all the leading nations of the world. The\nmagnificent educational exhibits at Jackson Park, from the different\ncountries of the world, indicate the struggle of the people toward a\nhigher knowledge.\nThe programmes of the various departments present to you the great\nquestions relating to all phases of education. Important questions upon\nwhich there is a difference of public opinion are presented for your consideration.\nThere is a wide difference of opinion as to the limit of public instruction\nfor the masses. In this northwest territory, of which Chicago is the great\ncenter and metropolis, by the Ordinance of 1787 and subsequent acts of\nCongress, lands have been devoted to educational purposes, including\nelementary, secondary, and higher education ; and in the States of\nIndiana, Michigan, Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, and other Western States, provision has been made by which any child who may choose\nto do so may receive instruction at public cost from the primary school\nto the university.\nIt seems fitting that the representatives of the universities, which have\ndone so much for the world, and from whose institutions have come the\neducational thinkers, should have the most prominent and active place in\nthis body ; and it is with great pleasure that I present to this convention\na man who stands at the head of the greatest university in the world\nsustained by a public tax, voluntarily imposed by its citizens, to be the\npresident of this International Congress of Education.\nBy direction of the Committee on Programme, and the Executive\nCommittee of the National Educational Association, I take pleasure in\npresenting James B. Angell, President of the University of the State of\nMichigan, as president of this congress.\nREMARKS\n\nBY\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nANGELL\n\nON\n\nTAKING\n\nTHE\n\nCHAIR.\n\nMr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen : I desire to express my thanks\nto the gentlemen for the high honor they have bestowed upon me by\ncalling me to this honored position. I am sure your cooperation will\nmake the duties very simple and very easy and very agreeable. I assure\nyou I will not forget that the duty of a presiding officer is not to make\nspeeches, but to hear them. In an association like this the president has\nthe simple duty of asking others to speak, and also the unpleasant duty\n•of asking them not to speak too long. The committee informed me that\nit is expected a speaker will not exceed the time of fifteen minutes.\nI am sure I cannot take my seat, with propriety, without expressing\nyour gratitude to our distinguished friend Mr. Bonney, who has labored\n\n"}
{"page": 53, "printed_page": null, "text": "ADDRESSES\n\nOF\n\nWELCOME.\n\n33\n\nso long and so assiduously in preparing the way for these congresses ; and\nalso to his very industrious coadjutors, both gentlemen and ladies, of\nwhose toil it has been ray fortune perhaps to know something more than\nmany of you can know. I assure you that you are more indebted to them\nthan you perhaps can fully appreciate at this time, for the very thoughtful\nand careful provision they have made for your comfort, for your entertainment, and for your instruction. I am sure you will excuse me, at\nthis time, from indulging in further remarks.\n3\n\n"}
{"page": 54, "printed_page": null, "text": "34\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nSECOND\nTuesday,\n\nCONGRESS\n\nGENEKAL\nJuly\n\n25th,\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nSESSION.\n8 o'clock\n\np.m.\n\nADDRESS.\nBY\n\nDR.\n\nJAMES\n\nB.\n\nANGELL,\n\nPERMANENT\n\nCHAIRMAN.\n\nI think you will all agree with me that the work of these educational\ncongresses underlies, in some sense, the work of all the other congresses\nwhich have been or which may be held at this time. Perhaps I might\nbetter say that the work of this congress overarcbes, enfolds, and encompasses the work of all the other congresses, as tbe sky encompasses and\nenfolds the earth ; for all art, and all sciences — what hope of progress\nhave these, what hope of perpetuity have they, except as the moral and\nintellectual discipline which we are engaged in cultivating is preserved ?\nAs we walk through the avenues of the \" White City,\" and stand fascinated and enchanted with the splendid architecture upon the right hand\nand upon the left, and behold the marvelous collection of the works of\nindustry and of art from all parts of the civilized and from many parts\nof the uncivilized world, think you there is not one of us who has not\nat times felt the inexpressible pathos of the thought which has brought\ntears to so many eyes — the thought that in four short months all this\narchitecture, and all this marvelous collection of all the treasures of\nindustry and of art, shall have vanished forever, like the unsubstantial\nfabric of a vision, leaving not a rack behind ? But the intelligence\nwhich has formed them, the genius which has fashioned them, the great\nideas which are incorporated in them — these abide and shall abide forever\nand forever ; and it is to these that you and I and every teacher address\nour work day by day. We work in that which is eternal and which shall\nnever pass away. Therefore it is, I think, that the interest in education\nis so abiding, is so widespread, is so universal to-day in every part of the\ncivilized globe. Therefore it is that to-day our distinguished friends come\nto us, having made the dreary voyage across the wide waste of seas, and\nhaving made the journey across half the continent, to speak to us, in sympathy and in love, of those things which are dear to us and dear to them.\nWe are glad for. their presence here to-night ; we desire to thank them for\ntheir kindness in coming to us. The names and works of some of them\nhave long been known to us, and we give them thanks, and we give God\n\n"}
{"page": 55, "printed_page": null, "text": "ADDRESSES\n\nOF WELCOME.\n\n35\n\nthanks that now their faces and their voices are to be familiar to us, to\ngive us an inspiration, here and now, which shall be with us as a joyous\nmemory and a help for evermore.\nNever before was interest in educational things so widespread within\nthe borders of our own land. The last two decades have been creative\ndecades in the work of education. Even in the South, which so long\nlagged behind the North and the West, what a change there has been\nsince the war ! Out of the very depths of a misery and a poverty which\nwe in the North cannot begin to understand, they too have taken up these\ngreat ideas of public education, and have taxed themselves, with a generosity which we cannot but admire, for the education both of the white\nand the black.\n(Applause.)\nIt was not long since that I had a conversation with a gentleman who\nhas done more than almost any other for the promotion of education in\nthe South; a prolonged conversation, running until midnight, discussing\nthe practical and difficult problems of the South with a pathos and an\nearnestness which I shall never forget. At the close of the hours I said\nto him : \" What remedy have you for these terrible problems with which\nyou are confronted there ?\" He arose, with an expression of anguish,\nthrough which yet there was a ray of hope in his face, and with a fervor\nand an earnestness which I shall never forget, stamping his foot upon the\nfloor, said : \"It is very dark ; we can hardly see an arm's length before\nus ; but one thing I know : it must be eternally right to educate the\nnegro, to educate and Christianize the negro.\"\n(Applause.)\nIn no subject has there been greater advancement made in the last two\ndecades than in education : how it has been studied historically ; how it\nhas been studied psychologically ; how it has been studied experimentally.\nScientific education has been really created in the United States within\nthe last thirty years. The changes in the college methods of education\nhave been so great within thirty years as to be described by no other\nname, justly,5 except that of revolution. Now all the larger colleges and\nuniversities are bending their energy to the cultivation of graduate work,\nthat we may achieve something that may truly be called university work\nin our larger and stronger institutions. And now I hope, as we have come\nhere, we shall get many results from this meetiug.\nNever was there a programme, I believe, prepared with such care and\nwith such promise as that into which our distinguished friend, Dr.\nHarris, has thrown his genius and his labor. (Applause.) Where, if ever,\nhas there been such an assemblage of men and women distinguished by\nexperience and study, to instruct us in the discussion of the subjects of that\nprogramme ? And I hope that among all the other results that we shall\ngain we shall gain this one, viz. : to feel the common consciousness of unity\namong all the grades and ranks of teachers from the highest to the lowest. Let us feel that our work is one work.\nWe have wrought too much\n\n"}
{"page": 56, "printed_page": null, "text": "36\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nin this country in sections, and at cross purposes, and with a lack of common consciousness and unity of aim.\nThe old-fashioned college, when I was a boy, was a sort of mythical\ninstitution that stood away in the clouds, remote from connection with\nthe common schools, and even with the secondary schools ; and the great\nmass of boys and girls had not a much more distinct idea of what went on\nwithin its walls than they have of what goes on in the mosque at Mecca\nto-night. Thank God that day of isolation of the college is passed. But\nwe still have room to draw the ranks closer together all the way from the\nwomen in the kindergarten up to the very highest teacher in the university, and to have a consecutiveness of purpose and of aim and methods\nthat shall bring us all to one result. For my own part, I never looked upon\na woman teaching a primary class of twenty pupils, or a woman teaching a\nclass of a like number in the kindergarten, without having a feeling akin\nto reverence for her in her work ; and I have often said that it seems to\nme that many of them display more genius than I have ever been able to\nshow in trying to manage a university. I have great respect for them,\nand I hope that we shall go out from these meetings with a stronger feeling than we have ever had before, that our work is one work from the\nbeginning to the end. Therefore let us go back to our schoolhouses and\nto our classrooms with a strength and an inspiration of that mighty consciousness that we are, every one of us, a part of the great army whose\nthundering tread is shaking the land. Let us go feeling this power, and\nthat we are working as a part of it. (Applause.)\nI want even our humble teachers to have some higher appreciation of\nthe honor and dignity that belongs to their work. As they come here\nand see the noble army of men and women who are engaged in it, I cannot but think that they may return to their work with some new pride in\nit. Let them reflect for a moment what is the dignity and grandeur of\nthe material upon which they work.. It is the soul, the mind of the child,\ninfinitely nobler than the canvas on which Raphael painted the Madonna\nwith a purity born in the heaven ; purer and nobler than the whitest\nItalian marble from which Michael Angelo freed from its imprisonment\nthe form of a Moses or of a David. The materials with which they work\nare not the mere pigments of the painter or the chisel of the sculptor;\nbut the humblest \" schoolmarm,\" the humblest kindergartner that is\ntrying to teach her child some idea of geometrical forms, should remember that she is planting forever in his mind one of the great ideas by\nwhich God has builded the world. The humblest \" schoolmarm\" in the\nremotest log-house in northern Michigan or Wisconsin should remember\nthat when she is teaching the A-B's to the stammering boy at her feet\nshe is placing before him a ladder on which he may yet climb to the\nstars. That is the work in which you are engaged. Be proud of it !\nNever be ashamed of it ! The rewards in money are small, but the\n\n"}
{"page": 57, "printed_page": null, "text": "ADDRESSES\n\nOF WELCOME.\n\n37\n\nrewards in gratitude and love of your disciples are beyond the purchasing\npower of gold. The teacher's profession is a fountain of youth. I have\nseen many a teacher with gray hairs, and some with bald heads, but I\nnever saw an old teacher yet. The smile and play of youth are ever on\nhis face, because he is ever associated with the child and thinking the glad\nand happy thoughts of children.\nWe are apt to think that our work is too transitory and that to-morrow\nit is forgotten ; but please remember that the most enduring institutions\nwhich the human race has ever established on earth are the schools,\ncolleges, and universities. Great royal houses have risen and fallen, but\nschools have survived them. Winchester and Eton, Oxford and Cambridge have survived how many a royal line in England ! The educational\ninstitutions of France have outlived how many a change of government,\nmonarchical and republican ! The educational institutions of Europe have\nseen the map of that country made and remade how many times! Everything in Europe has changed over and over again except the great schools,\ncolleges, and universities ; but there they stand, and there they are destined to stand so long as civilization endures.\nI hope that I am right as a prophet when I venture to predict that even\nthough nothing else shall endure in these United States, beyond all the\nchanges of political parties, beyond all the changes of society, beyond all\nthe changes of other human affairs, the one thing that is to endure, in\nmy judgment, is our great, free, generous system of public instruction.\n(Applause.) Parties may come and parties may go, but woe be to any\nparty or any company or any society that with ruthless and profane hands\ndares to lay hold of that institution for its injury or destruction ! (Applause. )\nAnd, my friends, we are proud to come here to-night, representative of\nmany lands, representative of many States in this land, all fired with the\nsame love of this one great theme. May all see the vision of blessings to\ncome in the future from our toil ! Let us, I pray you, address ourselves\nto this work in this high and hopeful spirit to-night, believing that God's\nblessing will rest with it even to the end.\n(Applause.)\n\nADDRESS.\nBY PRINCE\n\nSERGE\n\nWOLKONSKY,\nDELEGATE\nOF THE\nINSTRUCTION\nOF RUSSIA.\n\nMINISTRY\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLadies and Gentlemen : Two days ago I had the honor of being asked\nto welcome the present congress ; I have not had the time for preparing\nanything substantial that should, in some way, justify your kind applause.\nThis is why I hope you will excuse me if I say but a very few words.\n\n"}
{"page": 58, "printed_page": null, "text": "38\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\n1 wish to greet and to congratulate the International Educational\nCongress, but I will not address my congratulations to an apparently\ninsignificant thing. I will not congratulate it upon the fact that it has\nthe honor of being presided over by a man of such merits as Dr. Harris ;\nI will not congratulate it upon the brilliant names that constitute the long\nlist of its members, nor upon the extensiveness of its programmes, or the\nvariety of its subjects. I wish to congratulate it simply upon its name :\n\" International, Educational.\" May these two words be written in fiery\nletters on the dark sky of this summer night, so as to shine for every one\nwho will attend the sessions of this congress. Then he who will treat an\neducational question will remember that, even in the case when it has\narisen from purely national considerations, it must have in its results a\nvalue from the \"international\" point of view; for education, if not aiming to inspire humanitarian feelings of international brotherhood, is but a\ndead letter. And he who will preach theories of \"international \" equality\nof men will remember that this equality should be obtained by way of\n\"education\" — that is, by way of arising, of building up ; by way of noble\nemulation in improving, in learning, in accepting and assimilating things\nthat others have discovered ; in one word, international equality should be\nobtained by way of acquiring and not by way of restricting ; for tendencies of equality, if not inspired by motives of education, must bring\nhumanity back to the animal equality of the beasts. And so the union of\nthese two words, \"international\" and \"educational\" — may it be blessed ;\nmay it resound in the hearts of all who will be present here ; may it\ninspire the words and acts of the congress with great ideas of universal\nimpartiality ; may it loudly proclaim that every one of us belongs, first, to\nhumanity, and, secondly, to one or another nation ; may it teach that there\nis more honor for any one of us in being a man than in being an American,\nor a Kussian, or a German, or an Italian, or a Greek, or a Japanese, or\nwhatever else it may be.\nNow, if we ask ourselves what is the surest way of obtaining universal\nimpartiality, we will answer that it consists in observing this rule : That\na smaller thing should not hide a greater one ; that a partial question\nshould not obstruct the view of its whole. In the physical world the\nperception of dimensions is relative ; a house, when we stand near it,\nappears greater than the mountain in the distance ; a small button, if\nheld close to our eye, may obstruct the view of the sunshine and hide the\nwhole universe ; but in the moral and intellectual domain we must not\nallow the same phenomena ; we must not allow that discussions between\nMethodism and Presbyterianism should obstruct Christianity. We should\nnot suffer that interests of a town or of a community should grow bigger\nthan interests of a State ; that rivalry between one nation and another\nshould make us forget humanity.\nThese are the wishes I make in congratulating the congress upon the\n\n"}
{"page": 59, "printed_page": null, "text": "■\n\nADDRESSES\n\nOF\n\nWELCOME.\n\n39\n\nopening of its sessions, and these are the reasons why I repeat once more :\nMay the union of these two words be blessed — \" International \" — \" Educational 1\"\n\nADDRESS.\nBY\n\nB.\n\nBUISSON,\n\nDELEGATE\n\nOF THE MINISTER\nFRANCE.\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nOF\n\nLadies and Gentlemen .• In the absence of M. Compayr§, I think it is\nfitting that a word of thanks to this congress and the authorities who have\norganized it should be said this evening. I regret the illness which prevents M. Compayre from being here, for he was anxious to express to you,\nin the name of the cause of public instruction of France, how much interest we take in the work of this congress, and how we delight to study\nyour beautiful exposition in Jackson Park. You may be sure, ladies and\ngentlemen, that M. Compayre desires to extend to you our sympathy and\nappreciation of this beautiful work of yours. I also bring you here warm\nand hearty messages of sympathy from the great body of teachers of\nFrance. They are a modest and very hard-working, pains-taking body of\nmen and. women, devoted sons and daughters of our republican institutions ;which means that they are very great admirers of your grand\nKepublic of the United States, or, I should rather say, of your forty-four\nrepublics in the New World. I may add that, in admiring your Republic,\nthey cherish some hope that your example will help us to bring about the\nrealization of that dream of our great national poet, Victor Hugo — I mean\nthe federation of the United States of Europe in imitation of the United\nStates of America.\nOf course I am traveling away from the programme, and I must come\nback to the subject of the congress and to your beautiful exposition. It is\ntoo early yet for us to try to pass judgment on it, but we may already say very\nemphatically there never has been any exhibition of education so large,\nso beautiful, as the one which we may see at Jackson Park. I believe that\nnever before have the organizers of an exposition given so much room to\neducation, and treated it with so much honor and so much interest. I\nbelieve that this great increase of favor on the part of the organizers of expositions toward education brings a new and increased duty to the educators.\nWe must answer this question in confidence which is shown to us by the\ngeneral public. We must try to show that we are ready to make education\nmore and more adapted to the wants of the times, to make it more and more\npractical ; to fit and equip the children for the struggle of life. We must\ntry to make education the means of bringing the children and the men\nand women more and more together in federation and fraternity.\nBut I\n\n"}
{"page": 60, "printed_page": null, "text": "40\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nam mistaken if I come to preach enthusiasm to the city of Chicago. It\nis as if I were bringing coal to Newcastle, or water to the Michigan Lake.\nI know it is not enthusiasm which is lacking here, and especially in this\nbeautiful assembly of progressive educators. I will close my remarks by\nsaying that I feel a very great emotion that I have the honor and pleasure\nof seeing men whom for a long time I have been accustomed to admire.\nI was happy when I saw that pioneer in education whose works are standard works of education ; I mean the venerable Dr. Barnard. (Applause.)\nAnd then I saw my friend, General Eaton ; and I also had the great\npleasure of seeing that leader in thought, the great philosopher, Dr.\nHarris. (Applause.) To these gentlemen, and to those who have the\nhonor to preside and direct your beautiful, your grand educational association, we are accustomed to look in France as the luminaries in this\nland of liberty and progress, and regard it an honor and pleasure to meet\nthem and have intercourse with them ; and this we think is ample compensation for the fatigue of our journey.\n\nADDRESS.\nBY\n\nHON.\n\nG.\n\nW.\n\nROSS,\n\nMINISTER\nOF\nCANADA.\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nOF\n\nONTARIO,\n\nLadies and Gentlemen : Two years ago I had the pleasure, on behalf of\nthe Province of Ontario, as a Canadian, to take part in the proceedings\nof the Educational Association of America at its session held in the city\nof Toronto. To-day, as a Canadian, I am even more pleased, if that were\npossible, to take part in this international congress of greater dimensions,\nrepresenting not simply the two Anglo-Saxon races of this continent, and\nthe only races that have any position in shaping the affairs of this\ncontinent — but in this congress, representing all the national elements\nwhich go to make up the civilization of the nineteenth century.\nAs a Canadian I am glad to know that I am to receive instruction here\nfrom those who have organized that wondrous system in Germany, so\nmuch appreciated for her educational institutions among the nations of\nthe world. I am glad to know that Russia is doing her duty in promoting the general education of the masses ; that France, in her anxiety\nto establish republicanism, does not forget that the foundation of all\ndemocracy is the education of the people. (Applause.) I am glad that\neven here, in this great city, in this nineteenth century, there has been\ndone so much to bring together the nations of the world, and in keeping\nbefore us the thought that there is a community of relationship, a community of interest in educational matters, just as potent, just as useful in\nadvancing our civilization and in shaping our international life — just as\n\n"}
{"page": 61, "printed_page": null, "text": "ADDRESSES\n\nOF\n\nWELCOME.\n\n41\n\nimportant as bringing together the commercial products of the nations of\nthe world and exhibiting them. From all of this we can learn that in\neducating the people of all nationalities we are bringing about that happy\ntime when our swords shall be beaten into plowshares.\nWe have in the province which I have the honor to represent about nine\nthousand teachers, and about half a million school children in a population\nsay twice the size of the city of Chicago. We are not ambitious to excel\nthis great city in point of population, but we are anxious to excel it, if\npossible, in educational matters. The first feature of our system is that\nwe are educationally a unit, from the kindergarten to the university.\nThe Department of Education determines what shall be the course in the\nkindergarten, what shall be the course of study in the elementary schools,\nand what shall be the course in the public high-schools, and, practically,\nwhat shall be the course in the provincial university. The child who\nripens in the kindergarten goes to the elementary school, and from that\nthere is a uniform examination held all over the province to determine\nwhen that child is fit to enter the high-school, without which examination\nhe cannot enter it. There the department determines when he is fit to\nenter the university, and, except in a limited degree, without that\nauthority he is not admitted into the university. We believe that this\nsystem is a saving of time, money, and educational force.\nWe separated, a few years ago, the professional from the non-professional training-school for teachers. Formerly our normal schools did both.\nLatterly the training of our teachers has been relegated to our highschools with very satisfactory results. We believe that has added to the\nefficiency of the high-schools, to their usefulness, to their importance. We\nbelieve that the liberal training of the teachers has not suffered in the\nleast because that work has been relegated to the high-schools, because all\nour high principals are graduates of a university. We hold in check their\ntraining, and having that in hand we are not afraid to trust the non-professional training of our teachers. Besides, the professional training of\nour teachers begins with the kindergarten ; that is a two years' course.\nNo teacher can teach in a kindergarten without that training ; therefore\nthe kindergarten system stands side by side with the public schools and\nthe university.\n(Applause.)\nIn our elementary schools we have two courses of training. Firstly,\nwe have in the Province fifty-eight of what we call model schools, where\nteachers for four months receive instruction in methods. From there the\nteacher is sent on probation for a period of three years, under the control\nand observation of our inspectors, who are supposed to assist the young\nteacher in perfecting himself for the important duties of his profession.\nWhen such teachers have taught one year, if the work is approved by the\ninspector, the teacher is admitted to the provincial normal school, where\nhe receives additional instruction, such as is given in your own normal\n\n"}
{"page": 62, "printed_page": null, "text": "42\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nschool and the German normal schools which I had the pleasure of visiting last year. Also, after six months, if his course of instruction is satisfactory, orif he passes an examination required by the department, he is\nauthorized to teach. That certificate supplies what you would call our\nsecond-grade teachers ; but we do not stop there. These teachers, together\nwith a limited number of higher grade still, cover the whole field of elementary work.\nFive years ago we had only what you here would call a normal college,\nand what we call a school of pedagogy, organized very much as yours, in\nsome respects after the German method, where we gave instruction in\npsychology, which is the foundation of all true teaching. You will see,\ntherefore, what the Province of Ontario has done in the great work of\nteaching ; and while we think we have reached high achievements, yet we\nbelieve we must develop the study aud teaching of psychology — a professional qualification, advocated by such men as M. Compayre and by Dr.\nHarris, and the eminent educators on this continent and Europe. If we\nhave not reached our ideal it is not because we have not made the attempt,\nand we are proceeding, we trust, with some degree of speed in that direction.\nThere is just one other feature of our system : our schools are controlled,\nas I have said, in every department ; and we believe they should be controlled especially as to the kind of text-book they use. In Ontario we\nbelieve that the publisher is made for the schoolroom and not the schoolroom for the publisher. We believe in the first place that a good textbook cannot be prepared except by a good teacher, and regard no other\ntext-book as suitable for our schools except such as are prepared by the\nmost accomplished teachers in the Province. We have no confidence in\nbookmakers per se ; but a man who has taught a subject, and taught it\nwell, who has the literary standing necessary, will, in nine cases out of ten,\nprepare text-books which are better than those prepared by some stranger\nto the work. Your text-books in this country are in harmony with your\n, history and your institutions, and so we say that our text-books shall\nreflect Canadian sentiment, a sentiment which I trust will ever be synonymous with liberty and progress. Then we say our text-books shall be\ncontrolled, as to their publication, by the department, so that frequent\nchanges, embarrassing and expensive changes, cannot take place, and that\nthe price cannot be fixed higher than the educational department shall\nthink proper. And no text-book can be put upon the market unless it is\naccepted as to its binding and typography by the educational department.\nNo text-book can be used in the Province of Ontario unless it is approved\nas to its matter, its method, and all that goes to make up a text-book.\nAll this is to the advantage of our public schools in the way of regulating\nthe price, the quality of the text-book, and promoting the efficiency of\nthe school.\nYou may say that system would not suit you ; but it is not\n\n"}
{"page": 63, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATIONAL\n\nMETHODS\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nENDS.\n\n43\n\ndesigned to suit anybody but ourselves, and it does suit us admirably; it\nhas met the approval of our whole people. It is so managed in the Province\nof Ontario that the average cost of text-books per unit of the school population is but thirty-eight cents, and in that respect we believe we save\nmoney to our people, we promote the efficiency of our schools, and we\nbelieve the system is useful to us.\nNow these are but three features of our system, and that is all with\nwhich I propose to deal in my limited time. I shall simply conclude by\nsaying that I trust this international gathering, which I suppose represents the progressive methods of all countries — that its deliberations will\ncement more strongly these international ties which bind humanity\ntogether in this war against ignorance and those baser elements which disturb international peace, which promote disunion and discord, the absence\nof which ties have set loose a feeling of hostility in times bygone. I\ntrust that the sentiments which prevail here will be that the public school\nis the citadel of the intelligence of this age. We had universities long\nbefore we had public schools, but the watchword of the nineteenth century\nis, Educate the masses ! We trust from this international congress will go\nforth a cry louder and stronger than was ever heard before : Go, educate\nthe masses, educate these people who are so soon to control the destinies\nof the nation ; and educate the teachers so that they shall rise to a higher\nplane, that when they enter upon their varied duties they shall feel that\nthe highest duty of the teacher is not simply to educate the child in the\nrudiments of the English, French, and German education, but to educate\nhim in the duties of citizenship, in those higher qualities of head and\ncharacter and heart, and thus to fit him for the citizenship which some\nday he must discharge, fit him for taking his place in the nation, where he\nmay discharge those duties in such a way as to make that nation progressive, and make it powerful in the direction in which a civilized nation\nshould be powerful.\n\nTHE\n\nBY\n\nET.\n\nRE LA TION BETWEEN ED UCA TIONAL\nEDUCATIONAL ENDS.\nREV.\n\nJOHN\n\nMETHODS\n\nJ. KEANE,\nEECTOE OF THE\nCATHOLIC\nOF AMERICA, WASHINGTON, D. C.\n\nAND\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nMr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen : During four days this congress\nhas been employed in studying the best educational methods, and other\ncongresses before this were engaged in the same occupation. We can all\ntestify from our own experience that the study has been full of interest,\nfull of instruction, full of importance and of profit ; but all through\nthese days there is one thought that has been running through my mind,\n\n"}
{"page": 64, "printed_page": null, "text": "44\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nand which I would to-night like to ask your attention to ; that is, the\nrelation between educational methods and educational ends. I have asked\nmyself repeatedly during the congress, What do we mean by educational\nmethods ?\nLet us ask, What do we mean by method ? A method is a way to do a\nthing ; a method is a means to an end. It involves therefore two ideas,\ntwo things — a thing, and the way to do that thing; an end, and the means\nto attain that end. Moreover, a method always presupposes the end.\nMethods are regulated by ends, not ends by methods ; and although in\nexecution the means may precede the end, yet in thought the end precedes\nthe method. Therefore it behooves. us who are studying educational\nmethods to ask what is the end of education in order that we may devise\nthe best educational methods. What is the end of education ? In the\narmy, private soldiers are not expected to know the end and plan of the\ncampaign. It is their business really to do what is given to them. It\nbelongs to the general and to a few trusted officers to know the plan, to\nknow the end. The end is to be kept from the knowledge of the enemy.\nBut in our work there is no enemy. In our work there is no reason why\nthe end should be reserved to the few. In our army of educators, every\neducator ought to know the end of education, in order that the work that\nthe educator is engaged in may be done more understandingly, may be\ndone more reasonably, may be done more successfully.\nWhat is, then, the end of education ? What is the end toward which all\nour methods should tend ? Socrates found long ago that it was much\neasier to ask questions than to have them answered, or •even to answer them\nhimself ; and if Socrates were to come into our midst this evening, to quiz\nus as he used to quiz the people in Athens, he probably would puzzle us\na great deal and receive a great variety of answers. What would the\nanswers probably be ? The most obvious and elementary answer that\nwould be given to Socrates would-be, that the end of education is to\nimpart knowledge, to communicate information, to see that information\nis acquired by the young, either from instruction of the people, or from\nbooks which are studied under the teacher's care. We know that this\nimparting of knowledge makes up the work of most of the teachers, and\nit would not at all be singular if some should suppose that that was the\nend and the all of education. With that end in view, what would be the\nmethod of education ? The best educational methods would aim, first, at\nimproving memory ; secondly, at calling out from the great multitude\nof facts those which are typical and generic ; thirdly, seeing that these\ntypical and generic facts are learned by students, and then in trying to\ndevise systems by which what has been learned should be retained and not\nforgotten. That would be the end of that method. Now, is this the end ?\nIn our experience we doubtless have sometimes met men who are living\nencyclopedias of natural information, and yet who have indifferent powers\n\n"}
{"page": 65, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATIONAL\n\nMETHODS\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nENDS.\n\n45\n\nfor the practical application of it. But our acquaintance with such men\nsuffices to convince us that that is not the ideal of humanity, and that the\nproduction of such results is not the end and aim of education. In a practical world like ours we must look for something more practical.\nVery well, the next one in answer to Socrates would say, let us be practical, that the end of education is to prepare the young for their part in\nthe struggle of life, or, to speak plainly, to prepare them to make a living,\nto prepare them to take their place in the great economical and industrial\nlife of the world. With that end of education in view, what would be the\nmethod of education ? It would be to see that the young were as well\nversed as possible in the three R's ; to see that to this was added some\nmanual training ; and all this with a view of preparing them for their\nplace in the ranks of labor. And then, if their qualities and their positions, their starting in life, gives reason to believe that they can take their\nplaces in the ranks of capital, they must, in addition, be trained in those\nbranches of science upon which the development of their line of industry\ndepends. Now, our world is so practical, and human life so largely taken\nup in the struggle for a living, that it is no wonder that many should be\ninclined to think this is the end and the object of education. And there\nhave been economic writers who have pictured the world as a great industrial machine, and human life as a great economic endeavor. But all over\nthe world to-day we hear the warning that this is not enough, that there\nis more than that in human life. We hear the warnings in whispers of\nwisdom, and we hear the warnings in cries of anger ; and we cannot\nafford to ignore them. There is more than that in life ; and if education\nis to make the world what it ought to be, it must be wider, it must aim\nat more than that.\nVery well, then, our next answer in reply to Socrates would be, let us\ninclude more in the end and aim of education. Let us insist that education also aims at making a man of understanding, making a man fit for\nall his rights, all his duties and obligations as a social being. Then the\nmethod of education will be, in addition to what has just been mentioned,\nto give a man a sufficient acquaintance with the political and social knowledge that will fit him for his place in the world as a citizen ; to make him\nalso sufficiently acquainted with those matters of physiology and hygiene\nwhich will correct many of the evils under which the masses suffer ; and,\nin fine, to cultivate a public opinion and a public spirit which will gradually bring about better social and civil conditions. All this is unquestionably good ; all this is unquestionably necessary.\nWe have lately had a study of all the endeavors in that direction in\none of the most charming essays that I have ever read, the essay on the\nhistory of political economy by Professor Ingraham, an article on political\neconomy in the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Professor Ingraham, after\nstudying the economic conditions, the social conditions of the world, and\n\n"}
{"page": 66, "printed_page": null, "text": "46\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nall the tendencies that are now at work for their improvement, concludes\nthat oyer and above mere learning, over and. above political and social\ntraining, over and above civil improvements, there is needed in the life\nof humanity, and for the solution of humanity's problem, an altruistic\nphilosophy of divine authority, and of divine persuasiveness, which will\nguarantee among men the observance of truth, and of justice, and of\ncharity in human relationship. And he concludes that the solution of\nall the problems of the world, which the world's education has tried to\nsolve, must in the last chiefly depend upon the spiritual powers in the\nworld. And, says he, the aim of the political economist ought therefore\nto be to establish universal authority, the word and power of the old spiritual influences now existing, or to make some spirit influence to take\ntheir place. Fortunately, the whole task may well be dispensed with. But\nthe solution arrived at by Professor Ingraham, after the most philosophical\nstudy of the history of economics that I have ever read, is the one I have\njust mentioned to you.\nSome, however, will find fault with that.\nAnother will answer old Socrates and say : No, it is not there that the\nsolution is to be found ; the solution of human ills is to be found in the\nadvance of science; and in proportion as we bring human life into harmony with the great scheme of evolution, peace and prosperity will reign\nin the world. And therefore the method of education is to train the youug\nto study nature ; train them to be discoverers ; train them to be investigators train\n;\nthem to acquire facts and classify them, in order to bring\nhuman life into harmony with the great cosmic development. Fortunately, we have within the last few weeks had a verdict passed upon this\ndoctrine by a man who, perhaps more than any other man in the world, is\ncompetent to pass judgment upon it — Mr. Huxley, in a lecture which he\ndelivered at Oxford last May, on the application of the cosmic development to the realities of human life ; and he acknowledged that the scientific development, or cosmic development, proved a dead failure when it\ncame to be a standard for the practical affairs of human life. For, said\nhe, in the cosmic evolution the two great elements are the struggle for\nexistence, and the survival of the fittest. But now, said he, let me impress upon you that the survival of the fittest does not always mean the\nsurvival of the best. On the contrary, said he, the survival of the fittest\noften means the survival of the meanest and the lowest. For instance,\nsaid he, \"if by some cosmic change the temperature of our globe could\nbe lowered a certain number of degrees, the survival of the fittest would\nmean there would remain alive only the lowest forms of vegetable and\nanimal life that could subsist in such a climate. If, on the contrary, by\nsome cosmic development the atmosphere of our globe could be raised in\ntemperature, there would be found only the gigantic development of the\ntropical region. Therefore,\" said he, \"the survival of the fittest does not\nmean the survival of the best ; generally quite the contrary.\nConse-\n\n"}
{"page": 67, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATIONAL\n\nMETHODS\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nENDS.\n\n47\n\nquently,\" said he, \"the struggle for existence leaves no room for the\nethical element. It has no place to come in.\" Then he holds up his\nhands in despair and says : \"Where, then, are we to find provision for\nthe best, and for the ethical ?\" And he concludes with the suggestion we\nhave been accustomed to hear from the heart of poor John Stuart Mill,\nthat since human life cannot get along without the best, and without the\nethical, then we must hope that humanity may be able to find it somewhere else than in the cosmic evolution. Then we have got to look for it\nsomewhere else.\nIn the winter before last a number of gentlemen assembled in Philadelphia to look for the solution of human ills, under the auspices of one of\nthe societies of learning of that city. Three eminent men studied at\nthis question : How can the ethical element, which makes for the best, be\nintroduced into our system of education ? these three gentlemen, one\nof them the president of a distinguished college ; the second, a professor\nof one of our leading universities ; the third, a superintendent of schools\nin one of our principal cities. The college president, in order to find a\nplace for ethics in man and in education, studied man as a psychological\nbeing, and he tried to find the ethical in psychological tendencies, psychological needs, psychological development. He concluded that there was\nin each individual a subjective tendency toward the ethical that needed to\nbe regulated by an external rule, coming from the excellence of another\nbody, or some psychological machine. He left him in this rather nebulous\ncondition. The second speaker, the university professor, tried to clear\nthe clouds a little, and he brought it down to this. He said : \" I do not\nbelieve one bit in that subjective or internal tendency toward the ethical \" ;\ntherefore, he would make the ethics of the world depend entirely upon an\nexternal rule. Then the superintendent of the public school, recognizing\nthat the thing was left in such a strange psychological muddle that he\nwould not know how to tell this to the schools of the State, asked this\nquestion, and the multitude listened: \"Cannot I teach ethics to the\nyoung men under my charge, and bring in a notion of God as the motive\nfor their aiming at what is good and what is the best ?\" Said he : \"I\nacknowledge, after the discussion of this evening, that I shall not try\nto answer the question ; I must leave it to others to decide.\" If Professor\nlngraham were there he would say : \" Look here, gentlemen, why are you\nmaking such a muddle out of very plain things ? Why are you trying to\ninvent a system of ethics, when there is a system of ethics in the world\nthat was here before you were born, and that will be here when you are\ndead, which meets all the world's requirements ?\"\nAnd if old Socrates were among them, he would say : \" Look here,\ngentlemen, why are you making fogs to befog the public mind ? Do you\nnot recognize, as I said and declared to the people of my age, who were\nalso mixed up in this notion of cosmic development — did I not demon-\n\n"}
{"page": 68, "printed_page": null, "text": "48\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nstrate that you must mount to philosophy, and from philosophy you must\ngo to religion ?\" Aud that demonstration which Socrates wrote out in\nhis day, and for the truth of which he laid down his life, is just as true\nand just as necessary in our day as it was in the days when Socrates\ntaught it to the Athenians.\nFriends, there are three great books that education must teach mankind to read — the book of Nature, the book of Humanity, and the book\nof Divinity ; the book of Science, the book of Philosophy, the book of\nReligion. You cannot separate them. Humanity demands them all.\nHuman life cannot get along with them if they are divorced one from\nanother. The end of education is to teach humanity to read these three\nbooks. And therefore, as education goes on from the elementary to the\nsuperior, leading the young from an elementary acquaintance with these\nthree great books, it will lead them to a more perfect knowledge of all the\nthree. But in order that human life may be symmetrical, in order that\nit may be able to stand solidly, development in the three is essential.\nThe end and aim of education cannot exclude or ignore any one of the\nthree. Human life, in order to stand solidly, must not be one-sided,\nmust not be lop-sided. A life that is one-sided, lop-sided intellectually,\nmust tumble over some precipice eventually. But in order that it may\nnot be one-sided, and that it may not be lop-sided, that it may stand\nfirmly, it must stand upon this tripod — the tripod, the emblem of\nsolidity : the natural, the human, and the divine. If old Socrates were\nhere to-night, this is what he would insist upon. May the spirit of\nSocrates be among us all the time and keep us in mind of this great\ntruth, of what is the real aim of education, of what are the methods of\neducation we should always aim to attain ; and not only keep us in mind\nof it, but keep us ever faithful to it.\n\nLEGAL\nBY\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN THE\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES.\n\nPROFESSOR\nL. DIMSCHA, OF ST. PETERSBURG\nUNIVERSITY, AND\nDELEGATE OF THE MINISTRY\nOF PUBLIC\nINSTRUCTION\nOF RUSSIA.\n\nMr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen : If, notwithstanding my limited\nknowledge of the English language, I take the liberty of requesting your\nkind attention to-night, I do it because of the interest and respect I\nfeel for the educational system of your country. In gradually getting\nacquainted with general and special education in the United States I came\nacross some peculiarities that characterize the higher education in the\nNew World. These peculiarities involuntarily conveyed to my mind a\ncomparison between European and American ways of resolving important\n\n"}
{"page": 69, "printed_page": null, "text": "LEGAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN THE\n\nUNITED STATES.\n\n49\n\neducational problems. Amongst these the question of legal education\noccupies a first rank — the learning by the younger generation of that\nscience which Romans used to call \" the notion of human and divine,\nthe knowledge of what is just and unjust \" ; the science which was\nregarded by legists of all centuries as the summit of wisdom ; the science\nwhich teaches us the complicated laws of human coexistence, which\nshows us the limits of the permitted and the prohibited. A rational and\npractical teaching of this science interests at present the whole civilized\nworld, especially the pedagogues of all countries who direct the sacred\ntask of educating the younger generation for obtaining ideal and material\nwealth.\nBut if legal education is of a great value for all civilized countries, it has\na quite special importance for the United States, where the Federal Constitution accords to the legal power a more prominent place than in any\nother country ; where the most eminent statesmen, the majority of the\nCongress, are lawyers by profession. Thus life itself points out the necessity of raising, as far as possible, the cause of legal instruction, especially\nfor United States law schools. This necessity is felt in Europe, where the\nbest universities endeavor to give to the young men who devote themselves\nto study the juridical and social sciences the possibility of learning these\nmatters in their whole.\nThe second half of this century abounds in literature tending to vivify\nthe juridical sciences, since the study of the conditions of social and\npolitical life has raised the significance and conception of right up to\nits very highest place ; since the legal science is not any more a collection\nof terms and codes ; since it received an independent position as a science\nthat develops itself historically and parallel with practical life. From\nthis time the task of the legist, judge, and lawyer become different: they\nhave not any more to learn the juridical terms and their appliance; they\nhave to study the historical development of their country's codification in\nits relation to the laws of other countries, and this brings the necessity\nof the study of legal philosophy and encyclopedia that enables them to\ndescend from general abstract legal principles to single juridical cases.\nSince the time of Auguste Comte and Ihering the legal science ceased\nto be a dead knowledge, and it goes hand in hand with life. Modern\nlife in its various functions becomes more complicated every day. The\nlegislative power of social and political associations has to follow the\nnecessities of the present time, while the legal science is called to regulate\nthese activities of life, to encourage, criticise, and improve them. Thus,\nin the contemporary state, we may observe a complete cooperation of life\nand science of law. The exigencies of the first are formulated by the\nrepresentatives of the latter, and are executed by the complex mechanism\nof administrative and juridical powers.\nThis is why a great atteutiou is drawn everywhere to the question of\n4\n\n"}
{"page": 70, "printed_page": null, "text": "50\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nhigher juridical education. In Europe, legislative committees and faculties of universities watch with attentiveness its progress, its systems,\nand the consecutiveness of different teaching methods. In the United\nStates numerous law schools and universities attend separately to this\nwork. A new committee on legal education has been founded with the\naim of promoting this question.\nEurope has passed through many different periods in the history of\njuridical education. There were times of narrow, literal comprehension\nof law and of mechanical learning of its terms. Then came a passive\nworship of Eoman law, that had for its result a complete atrophy of the\nindependence and originality in investigating and studying of native law.\nThen at last the scientific men and pedagogues of Europe came, by way\nof experience, to logical and practical methods of law teaching that are\nnow applied in the universities of Continental Europe.\nThe principal points of this matter are the following : Unity of educational system, consecutiveness of teaching law subjects, and the adoption\nof a minimum of academical years.\nThe first point secures a homogeneous law teaching in all universities of\nthe same country ; all universities are controlled by one highest institution, adepartment or a ministry, which has the charge of directing them\naccording to the latest acquisitions of science and life. The advantages\nof this system are, that the presidents and the whole educational body of\nuniversities have always present to their minds the exigencies of one\ncommon statute. This makes impossible the existence of that free will in\nprogrammes that gave such pernicious results in the teaching.\nAs to the consecutiveness in lecturing on juridical subjects, its necessity\nfollows out the very nature of legal science, which is not an absolute or\napplied knowledge, but an abstract notion formed by history parallel to\nthe vital exigencies of human coexistence. Legal science, more than any\nother, must be taught with strict consecutiveness in ascending from\ngeneral conceptions to single cases. You cannot profitably lecture to a\nstudent on terms concerning acquisition of property, unless you give him\npreviously a due knowledge of property as a legal institution. You\ncannot lecture on law without having given to the listener preliminary\nnotions of the origin of law and its ethical bindings, and so on.\nIn virtue of these considerations, the instruction of law is taught in\nRussia, as in other European countries, with a system of scientific consecutiveness.\nFirst of all, the history of philosophy and encyclopedia of right are laid\nout before the student. The first of these sciences gives to the listener a\ncomplete picture of the progressive historical evolution of human thought,\nin the formation of legal conceptions and the ethical foundation of its\nobligations. The encyclopedia of right makes the young student attentive\nto the general harmony and system of legal institutions, and compels him\n\n"}
{"page": 71, "printed_page": null, "text": "LEGAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN J HE\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES.\n\n51\n\nto classify the juridical conceptions in diverse sections, according to their\nimportance in life.\nNext to that comes the history of Roman law and the history of the\nactual law of one's native country, in connection with the law history of\nall civilized nations. After having listened to the history of Eoman law,\nthe student must learn a dogmatical course of this law that was one time\nthe prototype of all civil codes, and is now the most perfect example and\nwritten foundation of civil law in general. Then and only then can the\nstudent pass over to a conscious acquaintance with the general, civil, and\ncommercial law of his country. The same order is observed in the study\nof public law. The student first learns the history of his own country's\nlaw, and only after that is he considered able to study its actual public law\nin the different branches of criminal, administrative, finance, ecclesiastical,\nand general state law.\nInternational law, too, is taught according to the historical method:\nfirst, the history of treaties ; secondly, the theory of international right.\nIn the same way law proceedings, medical jurisprudence, etc. This\nenables the student to assimilate gradually, with full consciousness, the\nintricate propositions of various branches of law science. Under a similar\nsystem of teaching, legal conceptions form in the student's mind a harmonious construction from the solid foundations of law in general, through\nthe different states of their historical development up to the special and\nperfect knowledge of contemporary law.\nThe last exigency of European universities is that the course should\nlast at least four years. This is a consequence of the above explained conditions. In fact, a complete historical and theoretical study of law cannot be made in less than eight half-years ; if we consider that, except other\noptional lectures are held in interesting and important branches of legal\nscience, the above mentioned exigency of the university statute will\nappear even more comprehensive. Besides that, these demands are justified by another consideration. The time spent by a young man in the\nuniversity must never be deemed lost, and the later he leaves it the more\nintellectual force will he have for beginning his struggles for life. It is\none acknowledged fact, founded on experience, that all curtailing of\nhigher education produces a general lowering of the intellectual level of\nthe given generation. These are fundamental principles of legal education in Russia and in the universities of Continental Europe.\nNone of these conditions have found application either in the law\nschools or in the universities of the United States. There is no unity in\nthe system of legal education ; every university fixes its own programmes.\nThere is no central organ to regulate the general exigencies of instruction.\nWe have under our eyes fifty-six juridical programmes of different law\nschools and universities. And there are not two of them similar. Every\ninstitution establishes its own exigencies.\n\n"}
{"page": 72, "printed_page": null, "text": "52\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nWe must say the same as to the consecutiveness of teaching. Most of\nthese faculties begin right off with a dogmatic course of common law without teaching beforehand either general, theoretical, or any explanatory historical notions. Every American university is actuated as to that by its\nown considerations. So the law school of the University of Alabama\nbegins the study of legal science with a course of international and constitutional law. The Northwestern University Law School begins its course\nwith practice in cases of law. The Hasting College of the Law, University of California, begins with persons and persons' rights, thus starting\nfrom a part of civil law without having given a general and theoretical\ncourse of this law. We could emphasize the number of examples proving\nthe absence of any general system of teaching.\nFinally, as to the duration of university courses, the American law\nschools essentially differ from the European ones. In the sixty-four universities of the United States the duration of the course is the following :\nIn seven of them it is of one year ; in forty others it is two years, with permission insome of them of finishing the same course in the space of one\nyear ; and only twenty-seven universities consider it necessary to accord\nto the study of jurisprudence a time of three years.\nFrom this short comparison you may see, ladies and gentlemen, what\nan essential difference characterizes the legal education in the United\nStates and in Europe ; although scientific men and pedagogues of both\ncontinents pursue the same aim, tending to obtain the best results in this\ndomain.\nWhich is the best of the two ways ? I will not judge. I am too little\nacquainted with the results that you obtain. I am afraid of generalizing\ntoo promptly.\nBut if the aim we pursue is one, the means of obtaining it must be\none. The civilized nations began that period of their development in\nwhich educational ideas appear in many ways as similar, and they must\nobtain them by way of honorable contention. To favor this contention, to\nacquaint one another with obtained results — this is one of the great problems of this International Congress that has assembled on American soil\nthe scientific men and eminent pedagogues of all countries.\nMay this intercourse of thought, and the great ideas proclaimed from\nthis chair by so many men of science and progress, enrich the world\nand your country with new benefits in the way of educating younger\ngenerations.\n\n"}
{"page": 73, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE PRESENT\n\nTHE PRESENT\nBY\n\nM.\n\nGABRIEL\n\nSITUATION\n\nSITUATION\nCOMPAYRE,\nON\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nIN FRANCE.\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nPRESIDENT\nOF\nEDUCATION.\n\nTHE\n\nFRENCH\n\n53\n\nIN FRANCE.\nCOMMISSION\n\nMr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen : As the official representative\nof the Ministry of Public Instruction in France, in the quality of President of the French Delegation to the World's Congresses and Columbian\nExposition, I feel proud and honored to say a few words of thanks before\nthis eminent and numerous assembly. It has afforded us a very great\npleasure to take part in the highly interesting proceedings of these congresses, where all pedagogical matters have been so thoroughly and competently discussed.\nThe government of the French Eepublic has clearly shown the great\ninterest it takes in these international gatherings in sending over to attend\nthem as many as eight delegates, five of whom are still present here\nto-night at this last session. These eight were originally : MM. Steeg,\nDirector of the Pedagogical Museum, Paris ; H. F. Haller, Professor of\nChemistry at the Nancy Institute and University; B. Buisson, Director\nof the Normal School in Tunis ; Mile. M. Dugard, Professor of Psychology at the Lycee Moliere, Paris ; MM. A. Chevrillon, Professor at\nthe University of Lille ; E. Martin, Director of a High School (France) ;\nG. Lerrurier, Director of an Elementary School (Havre) ; and myself,\nwho has been honored with the title of President.\nIn the numerous discussions in which these different members had an\nopportunity of presenting their views, you may have appreciated their\ndegree of competency. They tried to give you a clear idea of the present\nsituation of education in all its branches throughout France. Much has\nbeen done during the last twenty years toward improving or reorganizing\nour whole school system. Nevertheless, France does not pretend to take\nin pedagogical matters the first rank among all nations — the first rank is\nin the distant ideal ; but she wishes everybody to acknowledge her strenuous efforts, and she is firmly convinced that she is abreast with every\nother country.\nIn elementary instruction we have just fulfilled the most sanguine\nexpectations of our forefathers of the grand revolution of 1893, as your\nveteran educator, Dr. Barnard, told us this morning, in his hearty\nspeech that nearly moved us to tears. We made instruction compulsory,\nand we made it free, also, to every one, just as your ancestors had done in\nAmerica as far back as the seventeenth century. At the same time we\nestablished in every district special schools for higher primary and manual\ntraining education.\n\n"}
{"page": 74, "printed_page": null, "text": "54\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOP El) V CATION.\n\nIn secondary instruction we uphold firmly the study of Greek and\nLatin, without which it seems to us that humanity would suffer a\ndiminutio capitis; but at the same time we have organized a modern\ninstruction especially based upon the study of sciences, literature, and\nforeign languages, as well for girls as for boys.\nFor higher education we have built magnificently a new Sorbonne, in\nwhich has been introduced at the same time a new spirit of greater liberty\nand scientific researches.\nOur provincial universities also have been reorganized and highly\nimproved. But it is not in our universities only that we find higher\nintellectual life. Let us take as an example three well-known names in\nthese last few years — Chevreul, Claude Bernard, and Pasteur.\nThe first, Chevreul, was a professor at the Natural History Museum in\nParis. The second, Claude Bernard, accomplished his great works in the\nCollege de France laboratories. The third, Pasteur, whom a highly authorized American voice recently termed in this building a \" benefactor of\nhumanity,\" made all his important discoveries in the laboratory of the\nEcole Normale of the rue d'Ulm.\nBut so much for us. We did not come here to boast of what good\nthere may be in our own institutions, but to study yours carefully and\ntake back with us what we most admire in them.\nWe heartily offer you our thanks for your hearty welcome ; we firmly\nintend not to sever the ties of friendship we have formed with so many of\nyou, and we assign to you a \" rendezvous \" in our next international\nexhibition at Paris in 1900.\n\nA PERFECT PHYSICAL EDUCATION IS INDISPENSABLE\nIN ORDER\nTO PRODUCE AN IDEAL\nEDUCATION\nBY\n\nDR.\n\nL.\n\nM.\n\nTORNGREN,\n\nDIRECTOR\n\nINSTITUTE,\n\nOF\n\nROYAL\n\nCENTRAL\n\nGYMNASTIC\n\nSTOCKHOLM.\n\n[Abstract. 1\n\n\" Mens sana in eorpore sano.\"\n\nAll civilized countries at the present time endeavor to awaken a\ndesire for physical perfection. By this is understood a development of\npower of health that will give a good foundation to the mental development.\nIf we wish to bring the human plant to the highest possible perfection,\nwe must lake its totality into consideration — we must develop the whole\nbeing.\n\n"}
{"page": 75, "printed_page": null, "text": "ADDRESS.\n\n55\n\nTt would be a great loss if education were to be so arranged that intelligence and moral power should not be diffused through coming generations.\nIf we examine circumstances about us it will easily be found that where\nthere is a defect in the wanted harmony, discord is the consequence.\nHealth hangs upon organic life — the organs act and react, and must be\nmade to do that in the best way, in order to obtain perfect health, which\nis the result of such an ideal development. Our means are many. For\nthe sake of brevity I will call them good habits, intending now to insist\nonly on a more effective physical development by the use of the body itself\n— its power represented by ability of movements.\nThe different movements act in different ways, and must be considered\nwhen exercises are used for developing the body. Such exercises have\nbeen called rational exercises, or gymnastics.\nGymnastics, put in use for educational purposes, must be rational.\nEducation or preparation for life should be made in the home. Parents\nand friends should be the educators.\nPhysical education is a necessity in the schools. Gymnastics should be\ngiven as much time and space as other school-work.\n\nADDRESS.\nBY\n\nM.\n\nERGRAFF\n\nKOVALEVSKY, DELEGATE\nOF THE\nPUBLIC\nINSTRUCTION.\n\nRUSSIAN\n\nMINISTRY\n\nOF\n\nLadies and Gentlemen : The great French writer, Victor Hugo, once\nuttered this beautiful sentence : \" To instruct is to construct.\" Nothing\nis more true.\nPedagogues and all persons connected with public instruction will easily\nunderstand the grand truth conveyed in these words, so simple and yet so\nsignificant. The idea of universal and compulsory instruction was proclaimed in America for the first time in the year 1642, in the place where\nnow is the State of Massachusetts. These two hundred and fifty years\nhave not been lost. Thanks to the liberal subsidy of the Congress which\ngranted a large amount of land, worth many millions of dollars to-day,\nand for private and liberal contributions, in money and labor, by means\nof which public instruction has now attained brilliant results in the\nUnited States. Every one will be convinced of this after having visited\nthe splendid Columbian Exposition. This exposition is a great suggestive\nschool for those who visit it ; and at the same time, so to say, a universal\n\n"}
{"page": 76, "printed_page": null, "text": "56\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nacademy, in which they will find a variety of precious and interesting\ninformation. It is an inexhaustible source of practical knowledge, by which\nall can profit according to their inclination. Certainly it is beyond contradiction that there is little resemblance between this grand institution\nand the log-schools built in the seventeenth century ; but if it had not\nbeen for these humble primary schools, for these secondary and professional\nschools, for these universities, could we have had the opportunity to assist\nat the show of all these treasures of science which are so intensely attractive ? No. An illiterate man is a blind man, and with the blind there can\nbe no progress.\nHaving visited the American schools and studied the marvels of the\nColumbian Exposition, we cannot sufficiently express our admiration for\nthe valiant efforts of American pedagogues, these spiritual builders of\nmodern progress in the United States.\nInspired by the sentiment of this admiration, and profoundly touched\nby the sympathetic and cordial welcome we strangers have met with in\nthe United States, allow me to propose a toast in the name of Russia,\nfor the prosperity of the American school and of all its representatives.\nAllow me, therefore, to express in the name of all Russian pedagogues\nand my own, the feeling of the greatest sympathy and admiration for the\ngreat American nation, and especially for the progress of education in the\nUnited States.\n\nJOSEPH\n\nA\n\nPAPER\n\nSUBMITTED\n\nCHARGE\nMISS\n\nPETER\nV A RE LA AND\nTHE PROGRESS\nEDUCATION IN URUGUAY.\n\nANNA\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nBY\n\nALBERTO\n\nGOMEZ\n\nRUANO,\n\nEXHIBIT\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nCONDIT,\n\nOF\n\nCHICAGO.\n\nOF\n\nCOMMISSIONER\n\nURUGUAY\n\n; READ\n\nIN\nBY\n\n%\nIn the history of the nations as well as in the history of man, sentiment\nhas always been the life-giving breath of all great ideals, the generator of\nall noble actions, and the most honest and purest executor of justice and\nhuman gratitude. This will explain to you why I have come to you as\nfar as from Uruguay to occupy your kind attention.\nUruguay keeps written upon the pages of her brilliant history, engraved\non her stone and metal monuments, the name of an illustrious man, a name\nthat lives in the hearts of all his countrymen, because its bearer sacrificed\neverything for public education. Uruguay owes to the country of Washington, to the native land of Horace Mann, the honor of having in her\nmidst one more son worthy of her history, and it also owes to the United\nStates her standing as one of the foremost countries in the march of public\neducation and instruction.\n\n"}
{"page": 77, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOSEPH\n\nPETER\n\nVARELA\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATION 'IN URUGUAY.\n\n57\n\nIn Montevideo, the capital of the Oriental Republic of Uruguay, on the\n19th of March, 1845, there was born Joseph Peter Varela, who, from his\ngreat influence in the development and progress of education in his native\ncountry, became known as the \" Uruguayan Horace Mann/' In 1867 he\nmade a trip to the United States of America, where he met Hon. D.\nF. Sarmiento, Minister of the Argentine Republic to the United States.\nThese two men visited the public schools of the United States, and derived\ngreat benefit for the cause of public education in their own countries.\nIn the year 1868 J. P. Varela returned to Montevideo an enthusiastic\nadmirer of the United States, after having studied her political institutions, her administration, the freedom of her press, her natural wealth,\nher industrial power and energy.\nVarela drew from all this the conviction that the cause of the prosperity and grandeur of the United States was — Primary Education. With\nmuch earnestness Varela appealed to the young people of his country to\nhelp him in arousing the citizens of Uruguay to give attention to a needed\nreformation in education. An early result of his appeals was the organization of \" The Society of Friends of Popular Education.\" At that time\nthere was hardly any literature or pedagogy in Uruguay ; with rare\nexceptions, the school teachers were incompetent, and for all these things\nthe \" Society of Friends of Education \" had to provide.\nJustly it may be said here that J. P. Varela was the soul of this institution, for he was its president; he had to devise the programmes, had to\narrange for the proper schoolbooks, and for the instruction of the teachers. He had to write the annual reports, and thus inaugurated a tireless\npropaganda to show the people that civil war and misery could only be\navoided by founding public schools. In 1874 this enthusiastic and able\npromoter of public education prepared, in two volumes, \" The Education of the 'People.\" The second volume of this work was a treatise on\npractical pedagogy. This work was published by the \" Society of Friends\nof Education,\" which also published two other volumes, which Varela translated into Spanish : \" The Manual of Object Lessons,\" by N. A. Calkins ;\nand \"The Manual of Methods,\" by H. Kiddle, T. F. Harrison, and N.\nA. Calkins.\nFortunately, and to the honor and welfare of Uruguay, J. P. Varela,\non the 29th of March, 1876, was appointed Superintendent of Public\nInstruction, an office which at that time was without a salary. It required\nan iron will and a heart abounding with love for his country and education to accept this position in an epoch where all the schools were wanting\nin method, pedagogical applications, and the necessary information of the\ninstructors, and even the spirit of the masses, which showed a marked\nindifference to everything meaning progress.\nIn August, 1877, the new law of public education was passed, and from\n\n"}
{"page": 78, "printed_page": null, "text": "58\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nthat time the office of \"General Supcrintendency of Public Instruction\"\nwas created, and school inspectors were appointed. School administration and regulation replaced the former disorder ; proper school plans\nwere adopted, and the teachers had to pass an examination as to their\ncapability. Schoolhouses, furniture, and materials were changed ; school\nlibraries were provided, and gymnastics introduced ; an official school\njournal was published, and Varela edited an \" Encyclopedia of Education,\" a work composed of reports, critical essays, and other scientific\nwork for the use of school-teachers. Varela's task may be summed up\nthus : He changed the school system, changed the methods, reformed the\nschoolbooks, reduced the cost of instruction, doubled the number of\npublic schools, created a higher standard for the school-teacher ; and this\ntransformation was rapid, sound, and national. And much as Varela\nwas the soul of the Society of Friends of Education, just as much he was\nthat of the Superintendency of Public Instruction. Varela was everything :\nlegislator, examiner, chief of the office, and even copyist whenever his\nemployes were tired out. His activity and love of work gave him\nstrength to accomplish all these things. During his leisure hours J. P.\nVarela submitted to his government several reports of the work accomplished, amongst which the second distinguished itself ; it covers the\nperiod from August 24, 1877, to December 31, 1878, and is a work considered tobe a true monument of public instruction. His delicate health\nbeing undermined through excessive work, and the bitter moments he\nhad to pass through in the exercise of his duties, he edited his last\npublications while prostrated on the sickbed, availing himself of the few\nmoments free from physical pains.\n\nPRESENT\n\nCONDITION\n\nSTATEMENTS\n\nMADE\n\nBY\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nSENOR\n\nOF ■ THE PUBLIC\nUR UG UA Y.\nALBERTO\nTHROUGH\n\nGOMEZ\nHIS\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nRUANO,\n\nOF\n\nCOMMISSIONER\n\nINTERPRETER.\n\nThe Oriental Republic of Uruguay and South America brings with its\nnational exhibit a carefully prepared statement of what its people have\ndone for the boys and girls as well as in teacher training. They have had\ntheir Horace Mann as well as the Republic of the United States. Seflor\nJoseph Peter Varela must certainly have been a reformer with the true\nprinciple of education at heart, for out of the movement set on foot by\nhim as late as 1877, has come a school system so entirely on the line of\nthe Froebelian method as to be perfectly amenable to all that is newest\nand best.\n\n"}
{"page": 79, "printed_page": null, "text": "PRESENT\n\nCONDITION\n\nOF PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nOF URUGUAY.\n\n59\n\nNor has the knowledge of the multitude of problems which at present\noccupy the attention of the principal nations of the world been neglected ;\nfor the scholastic authorities have sent to Europe various commissioners\nto study the organization- of normal schools, of classes for manual work,\ngymnastics, music, modeling, writing, etc.\nWith regard to the present position of school-teaching, though susceptible of improvement, it is decidedly satisfactory, if the state of anarchy\nin which the schools were left in 1876 be taken into account, as well as\nthe vicissitudes the country has experienced, the scarcity of resources, and\nthe many reforms that have been required to remove from the minds of\nthe people old prejudices in favor of systems which, happily, to-day are\nno longer maintained by any one.\nThe methods generally adopted are either analytical or synthetical,\naccording to the requirements of the subjects included in the school programme. The teaching thus acquires a character eminently educational\nin the lower classes, and active always, so that the child thinks and executes at the same time.\nAs regards procedure, form, and manner of teaching, they are such as\nare recommended by modern pedagogism, in which intuition and oral\ninstruction take the first place.\nThus it results that the character of the teaching given in the public\nschools of Uruguay is educational, rational, appropriate, rigorously\ngraded, and therefore progressive, complete, harmonious, lively, agreeable, and, above all, practical, so that said teaching is grounded upon solid\nbases.\nFinally, as the public schools are eminently popular, both rich and\npoor alike attend them, without the least distinction of any kind being\nmade. Thus, by the side of a child of the white race another may be seen\nof the African race, so that, in infancy, ideas of equality and democracy\nare inculcated.\nSince the promulgation of the Law of General Education, numerous\nreforms have been carried out : at one time effecting improvements in the\ncondition of the schoolhouses ; at another, drawing up rules to enforce\nbetter service in scholastic administration. Besides this, the school programmes have been modified, three pedagogic congresses have been celebrated, two normal schools have been founded — one for females and the\nother for males — in which establishments about a hundred young people\nare in training to become teachers.\nVery important also has been the establishing of a deaf mute school,\nwith the newest methods in the training of speech.\nThe exhibit in the Agricultural Building at the World's Fair is a complete statement in substance of the condition of the Uruguayan schools.\nLarge cases of beautiful photographs show the development of the schoolhouses from kindergarten to the pedagogical museum, with everything in\n\n"}
{"page": 80, "printed_page": null, "text": "60\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nworking order. Although the kindergarten has been adopted but three\nyears, as a part of their public school .system, they are erecting special\nbuildings, and have already begun the manufacturing of the materials at\nthe expense of the government. The hand-work shown will bear careful\ncriticism in the most part. A case of clay-modeling done by the children\nthemselves, consisting of seventy pieces, carefully packed, and brought to\nthe Columbian Exposition, proves the real appreciation they have of the\nnewer methods. There are fifty studies in hand -work applied in some\npractical form. Also, numerous portfolios of weaving, paper-folding,\ncutting, and designing ; studies in color, however, are limited entirely to\ninadequate color materials, in which considerable help is needed.\nThere are over seven hundred children in the kindergartens, which is a\ngood percentage, when we realize that the entire Republic of Uruguay does\nnot contain one-half as many inhabitants as the city of Chicago. The\nteachers for this special work were trained in Germany and Belgium, sent\nthere by the government, and have now adapted the knowledge attained\nto their national conditions and the Spanish tongue, and are now training\nmany of their native sisters in the beautiful work of the kindergarten.\nThe general training-schools are fast turning out well-equipped teachers,\nthe great purpose being to reduce the number of children under individual\ninstruction.\n\nTRAINING\nBY\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS\nIN\nSWEDEN.\n\nHIGH-SCHOOLS\n\nDR.\n\nEDWARD\n\nOF\n\nOSTBRBERG,\n\nIN\n\nSWEDEN.\n\nThe teacher is the school. Whatever may be the size and the style of\nthe school-building, the ornaments, of the schoolroom, the excellence of\nthe materials used for the instruction of the pupils, the teacher is the\nsoul ; he gives life to the surroundings, and he can, if need be, do wonders\nwith the poorest means.\nWe have just heard this evening, in the excellent address of Miss\nHughes, from Cambridge, England, the question debated about the qualities which constitute a good teacher. My object is only to give a contribution to the answering of this question : How shall a good teacher be\nprocured ? How should teachers be trained ? And I purpose to give that\ncontribution, not by general remarks, but simply by stating to you how we\nhave worked out this problem in Sweden. I confine myself to giving an\naccount of how we train our teachers in the high-schools ; only in passing\nwill 1 mention that the teachers in board-schools, or what you would call\nprimary and grammar schools, are trained in seminaries, and that their\ntraining course lasts four years.\n\n"}
{"page": 81, "printed_page": null, "text": "TRAINING\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\nIN HIGH-SCHOOLS\n\nIN SWEDEN\n\n61\n\nOur high-schools have no connection with the board-schools, or primary\nschools. Their work is to a certain extent parallel with the work of the\nlatter. The boys — for I am sorry to say we have ho public high-schools\nfor girls ; high-schools for girls are all private, some of them supported\nby government grants — the boys enter the high-schools when nine or ten\nyears old. They must then have acquired the principles of the three R's, the\nfirst elements of Swedish geography, etc. The aim of the high-school is to\ngive a complete liberal education, and those boys who pass through the nine\nclasses of the high-school and pass an examination before certain censors,\nappointed by the government among the professors of the universities, are\nadmitted to the universities. The education in a high-school in Sweden\nthus covers the grammar school, the high-school, and one or two years of\na college course in America.\nSo much for the high-schools themselves. Let us now pass over to the\ntraining of their teachers.\n(1) The first thing we require from the teachers in these schools is that\nthey should be university men.\nWe do not want them to be taught all their wisdom in colleges or seminaries. They shall have a taste for scientific study ; they shall have\nlearned how to study independently of masters. We do not want them to\nbe accustomed to jurare in verba magistri, and we wish them to bring\ntheir independent spirit with them in the classroom, to make their teaching fresh, lively, and suggestive.\nThe freedom of study is complete in our universities, although the\nauthorities offer their help to the students, for the better use of that freedom. Having studied a few subjects of his own free choice thoroughly,\nthe undergraduate, after careful examination, receives his first degree as\nBachelor of Arts. Now, that degree is required of all teachers in our public high-schools, but on the condition that the subjects chosen are four or\nfive of those which are taught in our schools. For those teachers who\nwish to be employed in the four higher classes of the school, where the\nboys are of an average age of fifteen to nineteen years, it is required that\nthey should be licentiate of arts ; that is, they shall have passed through\nthe most essential work for the Ph.D. degree. (To become Ph. Doctor,\nhe is required to have published and publicly defended a scientific treatise.)\n(2) Now I come to the peculiar institution which is the essential point\nin the education of our high-school teachers ; that is, a year's training at\na public high -school.\nDuring that year the candidates have to make themselves familiar with\nall branches of school-work. They have, as it were, to repeat their own\nschool life for a year ; but this time not as pupils, but as lookers-on and\ncritics. They have now to attend the lessons, any lesson they wish ; to\ngive lessons in turn and in prescribed order; to discuss the lessons with\nthe different teachers ; to take and to give advice in brotherly union with\n\n"}
{"page": 82, "printed_page": null, "text": "62\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nthe principal, the teachers, and the young fellow-candidates. To any one\nwho is anxious to be a good worker in his future calling this is a year of\nthe greatest interest.\nThree large high-schools in Stockholm, and two in Uppsala and Lund,\nthe towns of our two oldest complete universities, are in this way open to\nthe candidates. Ten candidates are sent to each college. The candidates\nchoose at least three subjects, the teaching of which they intend to study\nand practice. The principal of the high-school makes up a plan for each\nof the candidates, showing the time he has to give lessons in the different\nclasses. The work is in that way meted out for the year, so as to escape\nfrictions and collisions in the ordinary school work. The principal also\nattributes to each candidate his tutor among the teachers of the. school.\nThese tutors have, each in his subject, to watch the candidate, give him\nadvice, and assist him as a. friend and more experienced teacher.\nFrom this you can easily understand, ladies and gentlemen, how the\nwork is carried on. The candidate enters his tutor's class. He listens to\nthe lessons. He discusses the lessons with the teacher, and very often\nthe teacher receives good suggestive remarks from the young candidate.\nHe gives lessons himself in the presence of the teacher, having discussed\nthe plan beforehand, and he gives lessons without previous prescriptions\nfrom the teacher, leading the hour in his own independent way. One or\ntwo of these last-mentioned lessons he gives in the presence of the principal, the tutor, and his fellow-candidates. Certain hours every week are\nreserved for discussion of the lessons, when all the candidates freely give\ntheir opinions, often very animated and instructive discussions. Having\nfinished his course in one class, the young candidate moves to the next\nstep, the next class, possibly under another tutor. In the subjects he has\nchosen, one after another, he thus treads over the whole field of the\nschool, although not necessarily in all classes.\nWhen the year is gone, a committee of those teachers who have had\nhim under their care give him a certificate, stating his ability as a\nteacher in each subject, and his aptitude for teaching generally.\nAs I said before, it is only in certain high-schools this work is carried\non, in the capital and the university cities. In these cities there are\na great number of schools of different kinds, and the candidates are\nencouraged to visit the best teachers in these schools, and so take the\nbetter advantage of their training year.\nThis system has an advantageous effect not only upon the future\nteachers, but also upon the high-schools themselves where those candidates attend. The teachers in these schools feel their responsibility iu a\nhigher degree ; they are stimulated by the young to a higher standard of\nwork ; watching the young, they are bound to keep a watching eye upon\nthemselves ; they must always be prepared to have a critic present at their\nlessons, and, you know, these young men, fresh from university studies,\n\n"}
{"page": 83, "printed_page": null, "text": "TRAINING\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\nIN HIGH-SCHOOLS\n\nIN SWEDEN\n\n63\n\nare severe critics. So the teachers are obliged to bring their knowledge\nfrom fresh springs; no stagnation is allowed.\nBut is it not injurious to the boys in these schools to have such interference in the regular work of the ordinary teacher ? Of course, to a\ncertain extent, it may be so. But whatever the boys, in one way or other,\nmay suffer is counteracted by the higher skill of teaching that must be\nthe effect of the system. So much for the practical part of the training.\nThere is also a purely theoretical part.\nTo each of the towns where training is given, the government appoints\na competent man, a professor at the universities or a man otherwise qualified, to lead the theoretical part of the training. He has freedom to\narrange the forms of his teaching according to his own views. He generally lectures on the history of education, the methods of education, etc.,\nand he combines his lectures with discussions. Certain evenings arc\ndevoted to round-table conferences, discussions about certain chapters of\nsuch works as Spencer's on Education, Hiffing's educational works, and\nothers. Before the year is completed the candidate has to write an essay\non an educational subject, chosen by himself with the approval of the\nprofessor. And a note of this is entered in his teacher's certificate.\n. This is the training year of the future teacher. The candidate is now\nfree to apply for appointment as an ordinary teacher or settled master in\na public high-school. But, owing to circumstances, which I hope will\nsoon disappear, we have at present in Sweden not a few assistant teachers,\nappointed only for the year, although in most cases the appointment is\ncontinued as long as the assistance of the teacher is needed. And, on the\nother hand, the number of young men who wish to work as teachers is\ngreat, so that the competition here, as in other branches of work in the\nold countries, is extremely keen. As a rule, therefore, the teacher has to\nwork many years as an assistant teacher, and even these years may be\nconsidered as a period of training, before he enters a school with the full\nresponsibility as an independent and settled master. Another result of\nthat competition is that the university standard of the teachers generally\nis above that which the law requires.\nBut I only wanted to give you an account of the training year, and I\nhave finished. I only wish to add that our system works well. I have\nmyself passed through my training year in Uppsala, and I shall always\nremember with gratitude what I believe I have gained by it. Afterward\nI have for many years been a teacher at one of the above mentioned highschools in Stockholm, and I have always been impressed by the earnestness, often enthusiasm, of the teachers aud the creditable work of the\ncandidates. Of course I will not contend that our system is perfect, but\nit is a good and effective system. It is a work in the right line. For it\ndraws out and develops the individuality of the teachers ; it proves to them\nthe necessity of further study ; it is an illustration of the maxims we heard\n\n"}
{"page": 84, "printed_page": null, "text": "64\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nthe other day : Earnest study makes a good teacher, and the best teacher\nis the best method.\nOn behalf of my colleague, Doctor Lagerstedt, and the other Swedish\nrepresentatives, I thank you, Mr. Chairman, for the kind words which\nyou have addressed to us, and I thank you, ladies and gentlemen, for the\ncordial way in which you have received them. I am glad to be able to\nexpress to you the feelings of friendship, respect, and sympathy with\nwhich we are accustomed to think of you in our country. For we often\nthink of you ; we are in constant communication with yon. Every year\nthere is a constant stream of our countrymen, men and women whom we\nshould be glad to keep at home, to whom you give a hearty welcome and\nthe valuable gift of citizenship in this commonwealth ; men and women\nwho, leaving the comparatively small country in the north of Europe,\nprefer to work out their life's problem in this powerful country, with its\nimmense forests, and rich, fertile plains, unlimited possibilities, and boundless hopefulness. Yes, Sweden may be a small, in some respects an unimportant country, but in the spiritual world we claim equality. And not\nleast in the educational work of nations have we been happy enough to\ngive as well as we are eager to receive.\nIn an eloquent speech a week ago Mr. Barnard mentioned the name of\na great educator of ours, who also is well known in America, Per Siljestran. He could bear me testimony as a man who has learned from you,\nand whose experience, I have no doubt, has left behind many traces in\nAmerican schools. And, to omit a great many other things, look at the\nimpulse of rational physical education and manual training, the value of\nwhich cannot be exaggerated ! These impulses have come to a large extent\nfrom Sweden, and by being spread and practiced among other nations, by\nmutual giving and taking, I am sure they will be more fully and practically developed.\nThus nations by friendly intercourse are able to mutually inspire each\nother, though separated by so many natural and artificial barriers. I\nknow, Mr. Chairman, this is not the occasion to raise a thorny question.\nBut I cannot withhold a suggestion, not to the Americans and the Englishmen here assembled, but to the representatives of other nations. Let\nus join here, and acknowledge a fact, the fact that the English language\nis developing, in spirit and in geographical extension, to become the\nlanguage of mankind. Let us as true educators be quick to grasp this\nfact. Thus we would hasten the speed of civilization. The native language issacred ; it shall always be the first in our veneration ; but, in my\nopinion, we should do good and practical work if we all would agree to\nput the English language in the second place in our curriculum. Thus\nnot a few privileged but the great masses of people should have the\nadvantage of free and easy communication with other nations ; we should\nall be led to a better and fuller understanding of each other, and we should\n\n"}
{"page": 85, "printed_page": null, "text": "CLOSING\n\nREMARKS.\n\n65\n\nbe able the better to foster good will among men and peace upon earth.\nWe should not only work better for our national welfare, but we should in\na higher degree be able to further the progress of humanity.\n\nCLOSING\nBY\n\nTHE\n\nREMARKS.\n\nCHAIRMAN\n\nAND\n\nOTHERS.\n\nChairman Angell : \"Now we have reached the end of the programme,\nwhich is the last of the general sessions of this congress. I am sure we\ncannot close, however, after having heard the voices from these different\nnations to-night, without realizing that this is rather an unique scene. I\nventure to believe that no such scene has ever been witnessed before at\nany educational congress in this country, where the stage has been occupied almost wholly by representatives from foreign lands ; and I am sure\nthat I do but express your deep-seated feelings when I venture to return\nto our friends from foreign lands our heartfelt gratitude for their\nkindness in coming to address us and to encourage us here to-night.\n(Applause.) Before we close I am sure there is one man to whom we all\nfeel indebted, and you would hardly pardon me if I did not ask him to\nspeak one word of farewell, and that is our good friend, Hon. William T.\nHarris, Commissioner of Education of the United States.\nDr. Harris said : I take this opportunity to thank the delegates\nfrom home, and the delegates from abroad who have come three thousand\nmiles, and some of them six or eight thousand miles over the ocean, and\nthen traveled twelve hundred miles inland to this city. I thank them\nheartily in the name of the Committee of Arrangements for their presence.\nChairman- Angell : Here is a man to whom we owe a debt of gratitude for these congresses, Mr. Bonney, and I am sure we must make our\nbow to him.\nHon. C. C. Bonnet, President of the World's Congresses, said :\nNot to me, but to those who have supported me in this work, and\nto Him who has inspired and guided it, the success which has crowned\nthese endeavors is due. I do come before you with the greatest pleasure,\nand extend my congratulations on the brilliant attainments of the last\ntwo weeks. Never before in the world's history was education so broadly\nand so splendidly represented as it has been during these past two weeks.\nI believe that the new movement which has thus been inaugurated is\ndestined to go on until it embraces every people in the world in its great\nand comprehensive sweep. In majesty of purpose, in solemnity of declaration, in comprehensiveness of expression, no legislative act of ancient or\nmodern times surpasses that which is known as the Ordinance of 1787 for\n5\n\n"}
{"page": 86, "printed_page": null, "text": "66\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nthe government of the territory northwest of the Ohio River. The third\narticle of that legislative declaration contains these words :\n\"Religion, morality, and knowledge, being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education\nshall forever be encouraged.\"\nThis is a noble declaration of the wisest governmental policy on the\nsubject of education. This basis of a universal system of education,\nleading to the universal fraternity of learning and of virtue, the New\nWorld offers to the Old World. And with this concluding sentiment as to\nthe common basis on which we can all agree and go forward to greater and\nhigher achievements, I bid you welcome and farewell, and declare the\neducational congresses of 1893 now closed.\n\n"}
{"page": 87, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n[\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nSUPERVISION.\nREPORT.\n\nSESSION— July 26, 1893.\n\nThe Department of School Supervision of the International Congress of Education\nmet in Hall No. 4, Wednesday a.m., July 26, 1893. In the absence of the president of\nthis department— Superintendent A. S. Draper— T. B. Stockwell, of Rhode Island, was\nchosen president.\nSuperintendent Powell, of Washington, D. C, who was to discuss the thesis on\n\"Teachers' Examinations, Certificates, and Licenses,\" not being present, a paper on\n\" How to Improve the Work of Poor Teachers\" was read by Superintendent N. A.\nFitzpatrick, of Omaha, Neb. This paper was discussed by W. S. Sutton, of Houston,\nTex.; Mrs. Martin, a county superintendent in California; Superintendent J. M.\nGreenwood, of Kansas City, Mo. ; Superintendent Amsden, Wheeling, W. Va. ; Amos\nTown, of Mobile, Ala.; State Superintendent Sheats, of Florida; and Superintendent\nDelano, of Chicago.\nSuperintendent E. P. Seaver, of Boston, Mass., being absent, the discussion on the\nthesis, \" University Participation for Teachers,\" was opened by Superintendent J. M.\nGreenwood, of Kansas City, Mo. He was followed by Mr. Ormsby, of Chicago ; Superintendent W. S. Monroe, of Leland Stanford Jr. University; Mr. Sutton, of Texas;\nDr. Cheney, of Cortland, N. Y. ; Superintendent Blodgett, of Syracuse, N. Y.; Superintendent N.C. Dougherty, of Peoria, 111. ; Superintendent Bright, of Cook County, 111. ;\nSuperintendent Shawan, of Columbus, O. ; and Superintendent Stockwell, of Rhode\nIsland.\nThe meeting adjourned to Thursday, July 27.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— July 27, 1893.\n\nThe second session of the Department of School Supervision was held on Thursday\na.m., July 27, 1893. In the- absence of Colonel F. W. Parker, of the Cook County\nNormal School, the thesis, \" Appointment and Tenure of Office of Superintendents,\"\nwas discussed by Dr. B. A. Hinsdale, of Ann Arbor, Mich.; Superintendent Powell,\nof Washington, I). C; Superintendent Buehrle, of Manchester, Pa.; State Superintendent Fitch, of Michigan; Superintendent Shawan, of Columbus, 0.; Superintendent Sheats, of Florida ; Dr. Hinsdale, of Michigan. This discussion was followed\nby a paper on \" Who shall appoint Teachers, and on whose Nomination ?\" by H. S.\nTarbell, Superintendent of Schools, Providence, R. I. Superintendent C. B. Gilbert,\nof St. Paul, Minn., followed with a paper upon the same subject — \" Who shall appoint\nTeachers, and on whose Nomination ?\"\nThis subject was discussed by Mrs. Mumford, a member of the Board of Education of\nPhiladelphia, Pa., and Superintendent Tarbell, of Providence, R. I.\n\n"}
{"page": 88, "printed_page": null, "text": "68\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nTHIRD\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nSESSION— July 28, 1893.\n\nThe third session of the Department Congress of School Supervision was called to\norder Friday, at 10 o'clock a.m., July 28, 1893, President Thomas B. Stockwell presiding.\nThe thesis, \"Should the Law require the Attendance of all Pupils in School between\nthe Ages of Eight and Fourteen ? \" was discussed by Hon. Thomas B. Stockwell,\nof Rhode Island ; Superintendent Albert G. Lane, of Chicago ; A. E. Winship, of the\nJournal of Education, Boston; Superintendent J. A. Shawan, of Columbus, 0. ;\nSuperintendent Sutcliffe, of Houston, Tex. ; and Superintendent Wise, of Baltimore.\nMd. ; after which this department of the congress adjourned.\n\nLIST OF PERSONS\n\nACCEPTING\n\nVICE-PRESIDENT OF THE\nSCHOOL SUPERVISION.\n\nTHE\n\nOFFICE\n\nOF HONORARY\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF\n\nAUSTRIA.\nDr. Konrad Jarz, State School Inspector, Gratz,\nStyria.\nCANADA.\nJohn Millar, B.A., Deputy Minister of Education,\nToronto, Ontario.\nCHILI.\nSenor Don Abelardo Nunez, Inspector-General of\nPrimary Instruction, Santiago.\nFRANCE.\nM. Eugene Carriot, Director of Primary Instrrction, Department of the Seine, Paris.\nMonsieur Jost, Paris.\nGERMANY.\nHerr A. Berthelt, School Inspector, Dresden.\nHerr Haase, City and District School Inspector,\nBerlin.\nHerr Heyse, School Councilor, Breslan.\nDr. Hippauf, School Councilor, Ostrowo, Posen.\nHerr Israel, School Councilor and Director of\nTeachers' Seminary, Zschopau, Saxony.\nHerr Th. Junghenn, School Director and City School\nInspector, Hanau, Hessen-Nassau.\nDr. Kessler, City School Councilor and District\nSchool Inspector, Diisseldorf, Rheinprovinz.\nHerr A. Kuhlgatz, District School Inspector, Kiel,\nSchles. -Hoist.\nHerr H. Scherer, School Inspector, Worms, Hessen.\nDr. Smitz, School Inspector, Coesfeld.\nHerr A. SchOppa, District School Inspector, Tondern, Schles.-Holst.\nHerr Wagner, School Inspector, Altona, Schles.Holst.\nGREAT BRITAIN.\nENGLAND.\n\nJ. R. Blakiston, Esq., Chief Inspector of Schools,\nSheffield.\nRev. Dr. Dale, Birmingham.\nJ. R. Diggle, Chairman of London School Board,\nLondon.\n\nW. R. Molloy, Secretary National Educational\nBoard, Dublin.\nA. Purser, Esq., Head Inspector of Schools, Dublin.\nM. Galway.\nSullivan, Esq., Head Inspector of Schools,\nINDIA.\nJohn Van Somnen Pope, Director of Public Instruction, Rangoon, Burma.\nJAMAICA.\nThomas Capper, Inspector of Schools, Kingston.\nJAPAN.\nMr. Nishimura Tadashi, School Inspector, Tokyo.\nNETHERLANDS.\nDr. D. de Groot, School Inspector, Utrecht.\nSefiora Doila Matilda del Real y Mijares, Inspectress\nof Municipal Schools, Madrid.\nURUGUAY.\nSefior D. Urbano Chucarro, Inspector of Primary\nInstruction,\nand Montevideo.\nDelegate to World's Colum\nbian\nExposition,\nDon Jose H. Figueira, Inspector Tecnico de Instruccion Publica, Montevideo.\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES.\n\nCALIFORNIA.\nJames D. Graham, Superintendent Public Schools.,\nPasadena.\nC. S. Young, San Francisco.\nCOLORADO.\n\nSCOTLAND.\n\nN. B. Coy, State Superintendent Public Instruction, Denver.\n\nHenry Craik, Esq.. Secretary Scotch Education\nDepartment, Edinburgh.\nJohn Kerr, Esq., M.A., LL.D., Chief Inspector of\nSchools, Edinburgh.\nA. E. Scougal, Esq., Inspector of Schools, Edinburgh.\n\nEugene Bouton, Superintendent Public Schools,\nBridgeport.\nD. N. Camp,\nex-State\nSuperintendent,\nNew\nBritain.\n\nCONNECTICUT.\n\n"}
{"page": 89, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIST OF HONORARY\nV. G. Curtis, Superintendent Public Schools, New\nHaven.\nC. D. Hine, Secretary State Board of Education,\nHartford.\nDELAWARE.\nD. W. Harlan, Superintendent Public Schools,\nWilmington.\nFLORIDA.\nW. N. Sheats, State Superintendent Public Instruction, Tallahassee.\nGEORGIA.\nW. F. Slaton, Superintendent Public Schools,\nAtlanta.\nIDAHO.\nB. Byron Lower, Boise City.\nILLINOIS.\nDr.\n\nNewton\nBateman,\nex-State Superintendent\nPublic Instruction, Galesburg.\nDr. Richard Edwards,\nex-State Superintendent\nPublic Instruction, Garlinville.\nE. A. Gastman, Superintendent Public Schools,\nDecatur.\nA. G. Lane,\nSuperintendent\nPublic Schools,\nChicago.\nA. F. Nightingale, Superintendent High Schools,\nChicago.\nAlbert R. Sabin, Assistant Superintendent\nof\nSchools, Chicago.\nJames P. Slade, ex-State Superintendent\nPublic\nInstruction, East St. Louis.\nINDIANA.\nJ. S. Irwin, Superintendent Public Schools, Ft.\nWiiyne.\nL. H. Jones, Superintendent Public Schools, Indianapolis.\nW. H. Wiley, Superintendent Public Schools,\nTerre Haute.\nIOWA.\nHenry Sabin, State Superintendent Public Instruction, Des Moines.\nKANSAS.\nWilliam M. Davidson, Superintendent Public\nSchools, Topeka.\nH. N. Gaines, Topeka.\nH. C. Speer, ex-State Superintendent Public Instruction, Topeka.\nLOUISIANA.\nWarren Easton, Superintendent City Schools, New\nOrleans.\nW. O. Rogers, Tulane University, New Orleans.\nMAINE.\nA. J. Padelfoid, Superintendent Public Schools,\nCalais.\nMARYLAND.\nE. B. Prettymun, State Superintendent Public Instruction, Baltimore.\nMASSACHUSETTS.\nT. M. Balliet, Superintendent Public Schools,\nSpringfield.\nJ. W. Diekinson, Secretary State Beard of Education, Boston.\nS. T. Dutton, Superintendent Public Schools,\nBrookline.\nJ. G. E'lgerly, Superintendent Public Schools,\nFitchburg.\n\nVICE-PRESIDENTS.\n\n69\n\nMICHIGAN.\nStuart MacKibben, Superintendent Public Schools,\nMarshall.\nState Superintendent Public InII. R. Pattengill,\nstruction, Lansing.\nW. S. Perry, Superintendent Public. Schools, Ann\nArbor.\nW. E. Robinson, Superintendent Public Schools,\nDetroit.\nMINNESOTA.\nS. S. Parr, Superintendent Public Schools, St. Cloud.\nMISSISSIPPI.\nJ. R. Preston, State Superintendent Education,\nJackson.\nMISSOURI.\nE. H. Long, Superintendent Public Schools, St.\nLouis.\nL. E.Jefferson\nWolfe, State\nCity. Superintendent Public Schools,\n* NEBRASKA.\nFrank\nA. Fitzpatrick,\nSuperintendent\nPublic\nSchools, Omaha.\nFrankLincoln.\nStrong, Superintendent\nPublic Schools,\nNEW\n\nJERSEY.\n\nU. Orange.\nW. Cntts, Superintendent Public Schools,\nC. M. Davis, Superintendent Public Schools, Bayonne.\nJ. Aug. Dix, Superintendent Public Schools, Elizabeth.\nB. C. Gregory, Supervising Principal, Trenton.\nNEW\n\nYORK.\n\nEdward Burgess, Superintendent Schools, Poughkeepsie.\nGeorge Griffith, Superintendent Schools, Utica.\nNEW\n\nMEXICO.\n\nAmado Chavez, Superintendent Public Instruction,\nSanta Fe.\nNORTH\n\nDAKOTA.\n\nJohn Ogden, State Superintendent Public Instruction, Bismarck.\nOHIO.\n0. T. Corson, State Superintendent, Columbus.\nC. C. Miller, Superintendent Schools, Hamilton.\nE. E. White, ex-Superintendent Schools, Cincinnati.\nOREGON.\nE. B. McElroy, State Superintendent Fuhlic Instruction, Salem.\n1. W. Pratt,\nSuperintendent Public Schools, Portland.\nMiss land.\nElla Sabine, ex-Superintendent Schools, PortPENNSYLVANIA.\nEdward Brooks. Superintendent Public Schools,\nPhiladelphia.\nII. K. Buehrle, Superintendent Public Schools, Lancaster.\nL. O.burs;.\nFoose, Superintendent Public Schools, HarrisD. J. Waller. Jr., State Superintendent Public Instruction, Harrisburg.\n\n"}
{"page": 90, "printed_page": null, "text": "10\n\nINTERNATIONAL\nRHODE\n\nCONGRESS\n\nISLAND.\n\nT. B. Stockwell, Commissioner of Public Schools,\nProvidence.\nH. S. Tarbell, Superintendent\nPublic Schools,\nProvidence.\nSOUTH\n\nCAROLINA.\n\nH. P. Archer, Superintendent Schools. Charleston.\nA. Coward, ex-State Superintendent of Education.\nW. D. Mayfield, State Superintendent of Education,\nColumbia.\nTENNESSEE.\nA. T. Barrett, Superintendent Public Schools, Chattanooga.\nW. R. Garrett, State Superintendent Public Schools,\nNashville.\nH. D. Wyatt, Professor in Charge Normal Department, U. S. Grant University, Chattanooga.\nTEXAS.\nO. H. Cooper, Superintendent Schools, Galveston.\nVIRGINIA.\nHon. J. L. Buchanan, ex-State Superintendent\nPublic Instruction, Randolph-Macon College,\nAshiund.\n\nOF EDUCATION'.\n\nHon.Richmond.\nW. F. Fox, Superintendent Public Schools,\nHon. E. C. Glass, Superintendent Tublic Schools,\nLynchburg.\nHon. John E. Massey, State Superintendent Public\nInstruction, Richmond.\nHon. W. H. Ruffner. ex-State Superintendent Public Instruction, Lexington.\nWASHINGTON.\nHon. F.J. Barnard, Snp< rintendent Public Schools,\nSeattle.\nHon. C. W. Bean, State Superintendent Public Instruction, Olympia.\nWEST\n\nVIRGINIA.\n\nHon.Wheeling.\nW. H. Anderson, Superintendent Schools,\nWISCONSIN.\nHon. George W. Peckham, Superintendent Public\nSchools, Milwaukee.\nHon. O. C. Seelye, Superintendent Public Schools,\nRacine.\nHon. J. N. Stone, Superintendent Public Schools,\nNeenah.\n\nWyoming;\nJames O. Churchill, Superintendent Public Instruction, Cheyenne.\n\n"}
{"page": 91, "printed_page": null, "text": "SCHOOL\n\nSUPERVISION.\n\nHOW\n\nTO\n\nIMPROVE\n\nTHE\nWORK\nTEA CHERS.\n\nBY FRANK\n\nA.\n\nFITZPATRICK,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nOF\n\nINEFFICIENT\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nOMAHA,\n\nNEB.\n\nThts is an ever-present problem to the superintendent. It is commonly found that not more than thirty-three and one-third per cent, of\na corps of teachers are excellent ; about thirty-three and. one-third per\ncent, may be classified as fair to good ; and thirty-three aud one-third per\ncent, may be classified as from poor to fair. Only favored school systems,\nwith great advantages and the best supervision, reach this average in\nclassification. It is an eud and aim of all good supervision to raise the\nteaching character of the two lower divisions.\nThere are six different and differing avenues of approach to the solution\nof this problem :\nFirst. The general meeting of all the teachers in a system. This\nmeeting should be utilized to create an esprit tie corps ; to give an impulse\nin the direction of general culture ; to give right direction to the schools\nin the immediate locality. Such meetings should not be allowed to\ndegenerate into complaint meetings, and should have in each meeting\nsome central thought tending to develop enthusiasm and foster a general\ndesire for culture. From the objects of this general meeting, it may be\nreadily inferred that it should be reasonably infrequent, and not wearying\nby a too long session.\nSecond. The grade meeting, which, gathering together teachers engaged in the same class of work, having a common object, should have\nspecific ends and aims, some one topic being taken up, presented, developed, and afterward discussed during an appreciably short period. As\nthe weaker teachers are always slow to present difficulties which they have\nencountered, a query box, in which they can deposit their queries and\nconceal their identity, is a great help in bringing up matters that are\nhindering successful effort.\nThird. Weekly meetings of the teachers in each school under the\ndirection of the principal. At these meetings general directions may be\ngiven, some pointed article from an educational journal read and com-\n\n"}
{"page": 92, "printed_page": null, "text": "72\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nmerited upon, and the meeting closed with the reading of some general\nculture book.\nFourth. The giving of model lessons by the supervisor in the room and\nunder the eye of the weak teacher ; the object being to present a standard\nwhich can be unconsciously referred to by the teacher in the future,\ntoward which she can work.\nFifth. Visiting the classes of teachers who are strong in the points in\nwhich the visiting teacher is weak, these visits being made under specific\ndirection of the supervisor.\nSixth. Frequent visits of the supervisor to the weak teacher ; pointing\nout at each visit some specific error in teaching or discipline, together\nwith the remedy, and following up each correction with insistence until\nit is grafted upon the teaching and managing ability of the teacher.\nIn practice, each and all of these methods should be used. Little\nreliance, however, can be placed upon the general meeting, because of its\ngeneral character ; little upon the grade meeting, because its objects comprehend so many other items that the work done here must be general in\nits application, and therefore not available for the purpose of materially\naiding a teacher who is not yet conscious that she needs help.\nMore may be expected from the weekly meetings held in each school ;\nbut this meeting tends more to develop the individual's general strength\nand power, while it is specific help that is needed.\nI have little confidence in the giving of model lessons. It is a gratuitous assumption that the supervisor is able to give a model lesson in each\nbranch and class under his supervision. Indeed, it requires an amount of\negotism and assurance on the part of the supervisor, that is happily not\noften found, to maintain that he is the supervisor of each and all of his\nassociates in the art of teaching specific topics. Wise supervisors know\nthat in every department under their supervision they have teachers who\ncan teach better and secure better results than they.\nThey also know that the way to assist teachers is to graft upon the\nteaching power already possessed additional elements, thereby gradually\neliminating the bad and adding consciously to the good.\nTherefore there remains as the most effective means of helping teachers\nthat of individual work in the classroom and in their presence. The tender, courteous, definite, systematic, wise, and skillful supervisor points out\nthe error and applies the remedy ; always in such a way as to lead the\nteacher to help herself, and to see that while helping herself she is\nworking with less friction and yet securing better results.\nIn performing this work, the duties of a supervisor are analogous to\nthose of a physician who, in his treatment of a patient, first makes his\ndiagnosis, which gives him the information relative to the kind of a disease with which the patient is afflicted ; and, second, the application of\nthe remedy or remedies after the discovery and classification of the\n\n"}
{"page": 93, "printed_page": null, "text": "HOW\n\nTO IMPROVE\n\nTHE\n\nWORK\n\nOF INEFFICIENT\n\nTEACHERS.\n\n73\n\ntrouble. Add to this the fact that, while the physician is called in by\nthe patient himself, who is conscious that he is ill, or by friends who,\nwithout any medical training, have had their suspicions excited by the\nprevalence of plain symptoms of trouble and disorder, the supervisor must\ndiscover that his patient is sick nigh unto death, when the patient is\noften unconscious of his danger, and, indeed, refuses to believe that he is\nill ; and we have a fair conception of the difficulties in the way of relief.\nThe latter difficulty is a very real one. To grapple with it the supervisor must have a clear conception of the application of the science and\nart of teaching under its various phases and multiform environments ; he\nmust have a clear grasp over the essentials, and be able to brush aside\nfrom his vision the alluring non-essentials. Unless he does this, he will\nfind himself deceived again and again by many of the counterfeit presentments of good teaching.\nThe essential element of a good school is the free self-activity of the\npupils and of each individual pupil. If this is not present, there may be\na delightful school atmosphere, a teacher with a charming personality,\nan excellent recitation ; beautiful flowers in the windows, magnificent\npictures on the walls, beautiful writing and elegant drawings on the\nblackboards, botanical and geological specimens on every desk, and evidence of natural science vagaries on every hand, and yet the teacher may,\npedagogically, have never had a well day in her life.\nIt is the business of the supervisor to analyze below this surface work\nand teach the teacher to reconstruct her school upon a proper basis. For\nthis purpose all teaching may be classified under two heads : (1) The\npresentation of the idea to the pupil ; (2) the fixing of the idea in the\npupil. Therefore, given qualification on the part of the teacher, her\nerrors will lie in one of the above planes.\nErrors of the first type are very easily detected by the supervisor, provided that certain general principles are observed. These are axioms :\nA supervisor must reduce his personal influence over the children in any\ngiven room to the lowest point for the time being. It is a high compliment to a supervisor's strength and sagacity to have the teacher say : \" My\npupils behave worse when you are in the room than at other times.\" He\nmust have his associates understand that visits are made to the room to\ninspect the work of the pupils, not to visit and chat with the teacher.\nHe should not, therefore, rush across the room to shake hands with the\nteacher, or permit her to stop her work to greet him or offer him a chair.\nThe supervisor's object there is to catch a glimpse of the work in the room\nas it is when he is not there, and if he permits the distortion of conditions, he can no more diagnose the case than a physician can of a patient\nwho ran up and down stairs a few times just before it was necessary to\nfeel the patient's pulse. Therefore the teacher should go on with her\nwork just as if the supervisor had not appeared ; as it is the object of all\n\n"}
{"page": 94, "printed_page": null, "text": "74\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\ngood supervision to develop the strength of the individual teacher, that\nthe schools will approximate more and more to that condition when they\nwill be self-supervised. He should not break into any teaching exercise\nto show an error without first asking permission of the teacher ; the\nweaker the teacher, the more defereuce he should pay her in the presence\nof the pupils.\nHe should also avoid a too critical attitude toward the teacher or the\npupil who is reciting; endeavoring, as far as possible, to maintain an\napparent well-bred impassivity toward the exercise. The production of a\nnote-book and the jotting down of a word or two will often bring about\nthe same kind of a collapse to a sensitive, conscientious teacher that\nwould come to a patient if, before an operation, the surgeon flourished\nhis knife in artistic circles before the eyes of his victim.\nThe skillful supervisor enters the schoolroom in a quiet, unobtrusive\nmanner ; sees at a glance the general condition of the room ; notes rapidly\nthe programme of exercises, whether this programme is being followed ;\nsees the general attention of the class that is reciting ; takes in what is\ngoing on in the teaching exercise with his ears, while with his eyes he\ngrasps the general attention of the studying or non-reciting class ; looking at the work that is being done, its character and excellence ; paying\nstrict attention all the time, through his ears, to the other class exercise.\nBy the time that he has in this quiet manner noticed the work on the\nblackboards, the temperature and ventilation of the room, the condition\nof the floor, the value of the busy-work, or study-work, the net value of\nthe attention to work by the non-reciting class, the novelty of his presence has worn off, and both teacher and pupils have regained their equilibrium, and normal conditions exist. From this time on, close attention\nmay be given to the teaching exercise. Is the teacher conversant with\nher subject, or is she poring over the text-book to find the next question ?\nIs she in sympathy with her class, or is her questioning listless ? Is she\nputting her questions definitely or ambiguously ? Is she questioning mainly\n,the brighter portion of the class, or is she aiming to reach each and every\npupil ? Does she take advantage of the answer of this pupil to bring in the\nevidently apt illustration which is within the pupil's range of knowledge\nto fix the principle in a related thought ? Does she see that this pupil who\nhas failed, and who has had his failure pointed out by a fellow-pupil, has\nthe opportunity to make the correct statement himself, thus completing\nthe criticism ? Does she relate the work developed in this lesson to essentials gone before, or is her work in this respect isolated and unrelated ?\nIf she is a weak teacher, many requisites of good teaching will be wanting. The problem then presented calls for the exercise of good judgment\nas to which of these requisites by its lack is most destructive to her success as a teacher. This is bound up in the other question as to the teacher's general make-up and professional strength.\nWhen these problems are\n\n"}
{"page": 95, "printed_page": null, "text": "HOW\n\nTO IMPROVE\n\nTHE\n\nWORK\n\nOF INEFFICIENT\n\nTEACHERS.\n\n75\n\nsolved, and the good supervisor will solve them instantaneously, he should\nthen and there, in an undertone, point out the specific weakness and suggest the remedy. Whether the remedy should be applied at once is a\nquestion that cannot be determined in advance. Sometimes the remedy\nis not understood ; if not, after asking permission, audibly, of the teacher,\nthe supervisor may take the class, and by adroit questioning lead up to\nthe difficulty and apply the remedy. Even a trifling defect once shown,\nwith its remedy clearly apprehended by the teacher, may work an entire\nuplifting of the teacher in the scale of artistic work. It must never be\nforgotten by the supervisor, that the great value of his criticism and\nremedy lies not so much in the suggestion itself as in what it suggests\nto the teacher.\nA skillful teacher tells me that she dates her improvement as a teacher\nto a question in a teaching exercise on the greatest common divisor. She\nhad presented the subject fairly well ; had had the children fix the\nprinciple by solving several problems, and was about to dismiss the class\nwhen I asked her how she supposed the children would know that the\nnumber obtained was the greatest common divisor. She did not understand ;so, asking permission, I took the class and led them up to the\npoint when they redivided the numbers given by the discovered greatest\ncommon divisor, thus verifying the operation. This trifling suggestion\nshe related back to her teaching in other topics, and it was, as she put it,\na revelation to her.\nAfter the supervisor has made his criticism, pointed out the remedy, seen\nthat the teacher understands what has been done, he should leave the room,\ngiving the teacher time to reflect upon the criticism at her leisure, with\nample opportunity for puttiug it into practice. To remain longer would\nbe to invite disaster by putting a restraint upon the teacher, by not giving her time to thoroughly grasp the purport of the suggestion, and by\nexercising even unconsciously an undue influence over her pupils.\nThe next day, or soon, her room should be visited again, with the\ndefinite and exclusive purpose of seeing that she is putting into practice\nthe suggestion given ; and until this has been done, no other criticism\nshould be made. Afterward, however, one by one, other defects should\nbe corrected in a similar manner. A supervisor should never fail to show\nthe teacher in subsequent visits, if he sees that the error is corrected,\nthat he is equally ready to praise her for improvement as to criticise for\ndeficiencies.\nTo fix the idea thus presented to the pupil, the teacher should have\ncontinually before her the principle of unification of studies, and also\nhave a grasp over the related essentials in any one study. The general\nmeeting and principal's meeting must furnish- the necessary general\nculture basis for the comprehension of these generalizations. Given this\nbasis, one of the surest ways to develop this power is to banish stereotyped\n\n"}
{"page": 96, "printed_page": null, "text": "76\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nreviews by making each lesson a review of related essentials. The much\nabused written examination is also an efficient means of directing attention to essentials. The limits of this paper will not allow further treatment of this phase of teaching.\nSo far as discipline is concerned, it is well to view it under two phases :\n(1) The order of the reciting class ; (2) the order of the non-reciting\nclass. As a rule, disturbances in a schoolroom presided over by a weak\nteacher occur in the non-reciting class. Disorder here usually occurs\non account of defects like untrained ears and eyes on the part of the\nteacher, improper assignment of lessons, faulty arrangement of the\nprogramme, and lack of poise on the part of the teacher.\nThe teacher's faulty position in the room is frequently the source of\nmuch trouble. Weak teachers should place themselves in such a position\nin the room that every pupil's face may be seen without turning the head.\nThe efficient teacher disciplines easily, simply because she keeps pupils at\nwork, and she is so vigilant that she detects beginnings of disorder. It is\nof great assistance to a weak teacher to get her accustomed to stand on\nthe side of the room occupied by the studying or non-reciting class; her\nphysical presence, as she moves up and down that side of the room, will\nunconsciously have a restraining influence over the disorderly spirits. A\nvoice that is keyed too high is also often productive of disorder in a room ;\nthe proper assignment of lessons, the preparatory instruction for study,\nare matters that are not acquired in the early stages of a teacher's career.\nThe proper assignment of the programme, so as to tend to the greatest\nefficiency with the least frictiou, is a matter in which the supervisor can\nbe of the greatest assistance to the teacher. The principles underlying\nthe construction of a proper working programme of exercises are still\nundiscovered, if we are to judge from the miserable specimens contained\nin some of the latest and most highly praised books on teaching and\nschool management.\nIt may be suggested here that neither drawing nor writing is a proper\nsubject with which to begin work after an intermission or recess, and that\neven a limited acquaintance with schoolwork should reprehend the following of one teaching exercise, in arithmetic or grammar, by an exercise\non the same topic for the other class.\nAs a rule, weak teachers fail in discipline by attempting to cure too\nmany evils at the same time. It is the part of the supervisor to point out\nthe most destructive evil, with its remedy, and, himself shouldering the\nresponsibility for the other troubles, insist upon the necessary steady\npressure to eradicate this evil before allowing any steady effort in other\ndirections.\nIn correcting errors in controlling pupils, the plan of operations falls\ninto the same plan with that outlined heretofore, each and all leading up\nto that sort of restraint which will lead inevitably to a wise self-restraint.\n\n"}
{"page": 97, "printed_page": null, "text": "DISCUSSION.\n\n77\n\nAnd in this respect the first lesson taught by the supervisor should be\nthat of increasing the power of vision and of hearing to an abnormal\ndegree, while restraining herself to less than the normal interference with\npupils who are disorderly. The weak teacher, in the first place, does not\nsee the beginnings of disorder ; she should be made to see them. Second,\nshe does not make any distinction between the accidental commission of\na wrong, and a willful, malicious crime. Third, in the use of remedial\nagents she makes no distinction between the punishment that, being\nproper for a crime, would not be suitable for a misdemeanor. Her obliquity of vision in these respects partakes of the weakness of childhood and\nundeveloped characters. So long as a teacher will demote a pupil for bad\nbehavior, keep in a whole class because she cannot discover the guilty\nculprit, and mete out blindly, stupidly, and uniformly the same punishment for the same class of offences, she has her horizon as close to her as\nit was to her barbarian forefathers.\nThe supervisor will detect improvement in any one respect before the\nteacher herself ; and, never forgetting to encourage her for the progress\nmade, he will have the satisfaction of noting the cessation of talking and\nscolding, and the advent of a government through the silent forces which\nthe development of conscious power in the teacher puts into operation.\nIt is the happy province of the supervisor to dissipate this fog in which\nall weak teachers are walking, and thus gradually lead them to a broader\nview of their work, its methods and aims. In doing this he must, as the\nteacher improves, draw himself more and more into the background, substituting graditally general directions for specific directions ; teaching her\nself-reliance by magnifying the value of her own efforts and minimizing\nthe value of his own suggestions.\nIt is along such a pathway that all apprentices must travel before they\ncan hope to become master-workmen.\n\nDISCUSSION.\nThesis : \" Appointment and tenure of office of superintendents.\"\nDoctor B. A. Hinsdale, Professor of Pedagogy, University of Michigan, Ann\nArbor, Mich.: In the city of Buffalo, N. Y., the superintendent of schools is elected\nby the people. I think it is a poor way. In Cleveland the present plan is : A director,\nwho works with the Hoard of Education, appoints the superintendent of schools, to\nhold office during good behavior. He can be removed for cause. The superintendent\nhas power to nominate all teachers to the Board of Education, which simply confirms\nor rejects his nominees. This scheme centralizes the power, and the people know whom\nto hold responsible.\nThe most usual way of choosing school superintendents is appointment by the school\nboard for a term of one or more years. One year is too short a time to work out any\ngood policy. More security should be given superintendents as to tenure of office. In\nGermany teachers are elected to serve until they shall be removed for educational\nreasons.\nOur country could profit by her example.\n\n"}
{"page": 98, "printed_page": null, "text": "78\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nSuperintendent W. B. Powell, Superintendent of District of Columbia schools :\nWe should make an educational campaign for better teachers. Two much stress is\nplaced upon methods and we lose s ght of the fact that teachers must know a thing\nbefore they can teach it. The great need is for better-educated teachers. Teachers\ncannot teach English grammar when they do not know English. Arithmetic is not\npractically taught. Superintendents should choose all teachers. The superintendent\nmust make the schools.\nSuperintends T Buehrle, of Manchester, Pa., in answer to the question, \"What\nStates have laws requiring definite qualifications for school superintendents ?\" said :\nIn Pennsylvania the law requires: Eirst, a superintendent must have been a teacher\nwithin three years. Second, he must hold a certain grade of certificate for teaching,\nor he must be a graduate of a college, or he must be examined by the state superintendenthe\n; must lie a person of good moral character.\nState Superintendent Fitch, of Michigan : In Michigan a city superintendent\nmust hold a first grade county certificate, and in small towns, a second grade certificate.\nSuperintendent Shawan. of Columbus. O. : In Ohio, each city or town has a local\nboard\nof examiners\nfor granting\nteachers'\nlicenses.should\nSuperintendents\nthe teaching\nfraternity.\nThe Board\nof Education\nbe elected forarea chosen\nterm of from\nfive\nyears instead of two years.\nState Superintkndent Sheats, of Florida : In Florida, county superintendents\nare elected for four years. The county school boards are elected by the people ; the\nschool boards appoint teachers.\n\nWHO\nBY\n\nH.\n\nSHALL\nS.\n\nTARBELL,\n\nAPPOINT TEACHERS,\nNOMINATION?\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nON\n\nWHOSE\n\nPROVIDENCE,\n\nR.\n\nI.\n\nTo me there seems to be but one answer to the first part of this question.\nTeachers should be appointed by the school board or school committee in\nwhose hands this matter usually rests by law and the general consent of\nthe American people.\nThe conspicuous instances of appointment of teachers by the superintendent have not yet justified the plan. The success of this method in\nBuffalo is not such as to be a commendation of the plan. It failed in\nCincinnati. Its recent adoption in Cleveland under favorable conditions\nis of too brief duration and under conditions too exceptional to form the\nbasis of an argument.\nIf the plan succeeds in Cleveland, as it doubtless will, the argument is\nbut little affected thereby. The rest of us, who work under more ordinary,\nnot to say normal, conditions, must still struggle to make the best of difficult circumstances.\nThe second part of the question — On vhose nomination? — leads us\ninto the heart of the matter. And yet this is not the most important question that may be asked in this connection, for the great purpose is to\nsecure the best teachers ; and the class of applicants from which such selections shall be made, and the conditions under which that class is constituted, are matters of more importance than who shall make the individual\nselection.\n\n"}
{"page": 99, "printed_page": null, "text": "WHO\n\nSHALL\n\nAPPOINT\n\nTEACHERS?\n\n79\n\nKeferring in this paper to graded schools in cities of ten thousand or\nmore inhabitants, the most important question connected with their welfare is the constitution of the class of applicants from which appointments\nare made.\nThis approved or eligible list should contain the names of those only\nwho had graduated with full diplomas from the city high-school, or an\ninstitution of equivalent rank, or had passed an examination, conducted\nby the superintendent, which indicated an equivalent scholarship.\nThe conditions of age, school record, experience, etc., should be so\nadjusted that this list shall be somewhat, but not much, larger than sufficient to supply the required number of teachers. If the list be too small,\nthe tendency to appoint teachers not on the list cannot well be resisted.\nIf it be too large, then the struggle of the friends of applicants to secure\ntheir appointment through favoritism will find ample opportunity for\nactivity and the appearance of justification.\nIf it be taken for granted, as I suppose we are all agreed, that entrance\nto a position in city schools should be by way of successful experience in\nteaching elsewhere, or through the training school, the question is an\nimportant one whether the entrance to the training school should be\nguarded by a gate of appointment, or whether the entrance should be free\nto all complying with the necessary conditions, and the gate be placed\nbetween the training school and the position of the teacher.\nThe latter plan has the advantage of increasing the influence of the\nschool faculty and the superintendent upon the question of appointment.\nIt likewise diminishes the tendency, so strong at the East, to appoint\nlocal candidates only.\nSuperintendent Shortridge, who founded in their graded form the\nschools of Indianapolis, used to say that he earned his salary by his selection of bright teachers from other towns to fill Indianapolis vacancies.\nFor the last twenty years, however, the tendency of the training school\nin Indianapolis has been, as elsewhere, to secure to the local candidates\nthe school places.\nWell, who shall finally nominate the teachers ? There is among superintendents amischievous opinion that the superintendent should do this\n— mischievous because it leads to struggle or backing down. Now the\nsuperintendent ought to do neither of these things. He ought to stand\nbefore the school committee and the public as an acknowledged expert,\nwhose opinion must be taken upon school questions as the city solicitor's\nis upon legal ones. If he is to be criticised, and every now and then\nbeaten upon a point which he tried to carry and could not, or did not\nhave courage sufficient to try to carry, then, like Samson shorn of his\nlocks, he \" becomes weak, like another man.\"\nWhen public opinion asks the superintendent to assume this responsibility, let him take it modestly and courageously ; but when the sentiment\n\n"}
{"page": 100, "printed_page": null, "text": "80\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nis strongly adverse to such placing of responsibility, his demand for it will\nbe attributed to desire for power or patronage ; he will be beaten, and\nloss to the schools will ensue.\nIt would take a long time to discuss all the plans adopted for the\nnomination of teachers. Perhaps there is none worse than to have the\nnomination come from the local committee in whose district the vacant\nplace is found. This is well if the local committeeman happens to be just\nthe right man ; but occasionally, if not often, a local committeeman will\nbe subject to local pressure for this or that friend of this or that local\npolitician, or advocated by this or that church or local influence. These\nthings are hard to withstand ; they warp the judgment of even good men,\nministers even, and lead to acts for which a man must apologize to his\nconscience. Better a small committee of men recognized as high-minded,\nwho shall represent the city at large, and appoint or transfer teachers for\nthe good of the whole system.\nWith such men, a superintendent, if he be the right man, as it must\nbe assumed he is, can work in close harmony, and through them have a\npower greater than if he stood the pressure of candidates as the one solely\nresponsible.\nThere is little difficulty in getting good men upon such a committee.\nIf the general school committee is corrupt it will keep appointments in\nsome way in the hands of individual members or local groups. If the members are high-minded enough to put power out of their own hands, they\nwill prefer to trust their best men.\nAll appointments of teachers new to the system should be temporary,\ntrial only for one year, unless sooner relieved. During this trial year\nthe superintendent should become well acquainted with these teachers,\nand at the end of the year should recommend those satisfactory for permanent or regular appointment. Only those so recommended should be\neligible for regular appointment. This is a safeguard of more importance than the power to nominate teachers, and one which can be more\nreadily obtained. This is defensible ground. The superintendent can\nsay : \"I have seen ; I have investigated ; I know.\"\nIn reaching such a conclusion the superintendent will naturally and\nproperly give the opinion of the principal great weight. What has been\nsaid in this paper has had chief reference to the appointment of the rank\nand file of teachers in cities of considerable size.\nIn special cases, such as the appointment of assistant superintendents,\nof supervisors of instruction, of training teachers, and others in whom\nspecial personal and professional fitness is required, and who come into\nintimate relation with the superintendent in the management of the\nschools — in such cases the superintendent cannot be true to himself nor\nthe schools without taking the initiative and nominating such candidates\nhimself.\n\n"}
{"page": 101, "printed_page": null, "text": "DISCUSSION.\n\n81\n\nDISCUSSION.\nC. B. Gilbert, Superintendent of Schools, St. Paul, Minn. : The highest duty of\neach generation of mankind is the improving of the coming generation, for upon this\nalone does the world's progress depend. This is primarily the duty of the parent, who\nis by nature the child's guardian and associate. If, however, for any cause the state\nassumes this duty, it becomes at once its gravest responsibility. To assume it, and then\nto treat it lightly or in a niggardly spirit, is national suicide. Compared with it, problems of finance, of trade, even of war, are insignificant.\nOnly the wisest and the best should be intrusted with education. Of all the duties\nthat devolve upon those charged with the administration of educational affairs, incomparably the greatest is that of the selection of teachers. The child's teacher is his\ncounselor, his companion, and inevitably his model. Who is too good or too wise or\ntoo great for such an office ? The status of public education in this country is so full\nof anomalies and paradoxes that it is almost impossible to characterize it. The people\nview the public school system with a sort of superstitious awe ; they have a vague\nnotion that it is in some way connected with what they are pleased to call their liberties,\nthat it is a sort of first-cousin to Bunker Hill Monument, the Declaration of Independence, Liberty Bell, and other revered works of antiquity, upon the possession of which\nthe great American citizen hugs himself.\nBut even this admiration, ignorant as it is, is confined to the system considered as an\nabstract whole ; for when the American citizen of the American city comes to treat a\nparticular school or school system, it is with no more awe, of even the superstitious\nsort, than is displayed by the Chinese for his demon god. to which at one moment he\nburns incense, and which at the next he chastises because it has allowed him to lose in\ngambling.\nIn most American cities the school system is the fag end of local politics. Frequently\nlarge sums are voted from taxes, and when the citizen has paid his share he thinks he\nhas done his duty. Then it is turned over to the school board, and allowed to be kicked\nabout as the foot-ball of the ward politician. Positions on the board are obtained in\npayment of petty political debts, or as stepping-stones to the more exalted position of\nward alderman, or even, in case of a very bright man, of street commissioner. I\nremember a man who sought an election to the school board, and openly stated as his\nreason that he desired it as a stepping-stone to the position of night watchman on the\npolice force. He attained both his ends. These people, whom the average citizen\nwould not trust even with the management of the simplest business transaction, have\nthe power to appoint teachers and formulate courses of study — that is, to determine\nboth the associations and the employments by which the next generation is to be trained.\nThis is a disheartening picture, but it is scarcely exaggerated.\nI do not need to say that the most important of all the duties that can possibly devolve\nupon school authorities is the appointment of teachers, determining who shall be the\nguides and associates of the young while their plastic minds are receiving impressions\nfor time and eternity. And yet it has been and is the common practice in the large\ncities of this land to appoint teachers on any and all grounds except that of fitness —\npersonal friendship, sympathy for poverty, and in some cases money, or worse.\nThe main effort of those who would reform our schools has been devoted to attempts\nat removing this evil and securing the appointment of teachers on the ground of fitness\nalone.\nThese attempts are interesting mainly for their futility.\nAmong the earliest was that made in Cincinnati a few years ago, when the appointment\nof teachers was placed absolutely in the hands of the superintendent, and for one year\nin that city teachers were honestly appointed. But as the appointment of the superintendent was as absolutely in the hands of the school board, his term of office lasted just\none year. This indicated the need of a more far-reaching remedy. The most striking\nand radical of all attempted remedies is that made in Cleveland. This method has much\npromise, and is excellent in that it follows certain principles that have come to be\nrecognized by schoolmen, the most important of which is that the power to appoint\nand remove teachers should be vested in some responsible authority who is an expert\njudge of teachers, and that he should be protected in his office and held responsible\nmerely for results.\nThese, undoubtedly, are fundamental principles, and their recognition in Cleveland\nis encouraging and will be watched with great interest as an experiment.\nA political ring or gang may rob the city and squander its funds, and the worst result\nis the neglect of public improvement or the loss of money.\nThe people become indig-\n\n"}
{"page": 102, "printed_page": null, "text": "82\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nnant, turn out the gang, and for a time secure better administration, until in due time\nthe new gang takes the place of the old and itself needs to be turned out. This is disagreeable and annoying, but not vital. No fundamental interests are affected. But if\nthe schools of a city become bad, the evil is immeasurably great. It affects the very\nlife of the city, and the effect is permanent ; yet nobody appears to see and feel it.\nI am speaking from experience when I say that the strongest demand for the appointment of incompetent teachers comes not from the politician but from the citizen who\nis interested in this pitiable case, or in that friend, and prefers to see the city provide a\nplace in the public schools for the support of an indigent family rather than do it himself out of his own pocket.\nThere are two things which, I think, may be attempted in the present stage of public\neducation with a reasonable prospect of success. They are, first, that the superintendent of schools, who is supposed to be an educational expert, shall certify and\nnominate teachers ; and, second, that none shall be appointed without his certificate of\nqualification and his nomination. Even this requires lhat he himself be made quite\nsecure in his tenure of office. The power to keep out and drop out at regular intervals\nthe totally unfit is a great power, and it is all that the American citizen will stand at\npresent.\nBut I would urge that for the present we exert such influence as we may have, upon\nthose who are legislating for the improvement of the schools, toward securing the following simple ends: First, small boards of education instead of large ones, either elected at\nlarge or appointed by the head of the city government. My own judgment is in favor\nof the former method. Second, a long term of office for the members of the board,\nwith never more than a very small minority retiring at one time. Third, either long\ntenure or unlimited tenure for the superintendent of schools, with power to certify and\nnominate teachers to the board, who shall not appoint without his certificate and\nnomination, and possibly with the further power of transferring teachers according to\nhis judgment. This would be so great a gain over the present condition in most\ncities that we could all heartily rejoice, and it is certainly better to attempt the possible\nand succeed than to attempt the impossible and fail.\nMrs. Mumford, Member of the Board of Education, Philadelphia, Pa.: Schools\nshould be removed entirely from politics. Superintendents should be absolute in their\ndepartment. School boards should be small. In Philadelphia the judges are elected by\nthe people for a term of ten years. These judges appoint the members of the school\nboard.\nH. S. Tarbell : In Providence the superintendent does not nominate the teachers ;\nand I like our system. Any one of good judgment can nominate a good teacher, but\nexpert judgment should come in to determine whether or not a teacher is successful.\n\nDISCUSSION.\nThesis : \" Should the law require the attendance of all pupils in\nschool between the ages of eight and fourteen ?\"\nHon. Thomas B. Stockwell, Commissioner of Schools for Rhode Island: It is the\nduty of the state to educate the masses. The greatest good to the state demands\nthe education of its citizens. The good to the state is of prime importance ; and should\nthis greatest good be opposed or thwarted by parents, the authority of the state should\nprevail in its own protection. In states where chddren under fourteen years of age are\nnot permitted to work, those children should be compelled to go to school.\nThe congregation of children in the streets and alleys is a great source of vice and\ncrime, and should be prevented by the state. Childhood is the character-forming\nperiod, and it is for the good of the state that character be correctly formed.\nThe state should educate its children, because of its economic value. Ignorance is\nalways a menace to a community, financially. Prevention of crime is far cheaper than\npunishment of crime. Again, the prosperity of our institutions demands that ignorance\nshall be reduced to a minimum. It is the duty of educators to form public sentiment in\nfavor of universal education.\n\n"}
{"page": 103, "printed_page": null, "text": "83\n\nGRADING\n\nAND\n\nCLASSIFICATION.\n\nAlbert G. Lane, Superintendent of Schools, Chicago, 111. : People are not inclined\nto put upon the statute books all cases of \"Thou shalt not.\" The parent is responsible\nfor a child's being, and for his physical and moral training. Society is endangered\nwhen the parent does not meet his responsibility. Laws have no terror to the lawabiding. When parents refuse or neglect to give the child all the rights that the wellbeing of the state and of the child demand, the state should step in and assume its\nauthority, and provide that its own well-being is justly subserved and the rights of the\nchild are respected. In many cases the state now steps in and takes charge of the child,\nand assumes the authority which the parent neglects ; it also assumes the parent's\nresponsibility and educates the child.\nLet the law cover those cases only where parents fail to educate and to look after\nthe morals of their children, and thereby cause them to become a menace to society.\nThe law is to protect and aid parents in their duties to their children. First let law\neducate those children who are in the hands of the law, and whose parents are helpless\nto do anything with them.\nThe superintendents of schools in large cities often are appealed to by parents who\nhave done everything they can in the control and government of their children. Let\nschools be provided to aid parents in educating such children, and become to them\nwhat a parent ought to be. When people understand this need of such schools, there\ncan be no reasonable opposition to them, or to the state stepping in to assist the parent\nin making his child a good man or a good woman.\nA. E. Winship, Editor Journal of Education, Boston : In order to make compulsory\nlaw operative it must come from the people. Massachusetts has the best laws on this\nsubject in the Union. The people believe in universal education. Education should\nbe distinct from politics. This question should be put to the people on its own merits,\nand it would then certainly be carried.\nJ. A. Shawan, Superintendent of Schools, Columbus, 0. : We have many parents\n(foreigners) who do not understand what education is needed to make good American\ncitizens. The home education of such is entirely inefficient. The children should be\nbrought in contact with teachers who understand this matter, that the children may\nbecome Americanized as well as educated. The time has come when every child in\nthis republic should be educated, whether the child or the parent desires it or not.\nSuperintendent Sutclippe, Houston, Texas : The country is not making provision\nfor its children as thoroughly as it should. Better teachers and more seats in school\nare greatly needed.\n\nGRADING\nBY\n\nMBS.\n\nELLA\n\nF.\n\nYOUNG,\n\nAND\n\nCLASSIFICATION.\n\nASSISTANT\n\nSUPERINTENDENT,\n\nCHICAGO.\n\nBut a few years had elapsed after the general adoption of the graded\nsystem by the public schools of this country, before questions concerning\nthe necessity, desirability, and possibility of frequent reclassifications\nWithin the grades were made the subject of much discussion.\nNotwithstanding the notes of warning sounded at that time by the\nthoughtful, so marked has been the tendency toward the development of\na perfect mechanical movement of the eight or twelve graded wheels, that\nit is eminently fitting to consider again the arguments advanced twenty\nyears ago. Nothing new can be presented, so exhaustively was the subject treated at that time by the originator of the discussion, Dr. William\nT. Harris.\nThat arrangement of a course of study which so grasps the divisions of\nthe branches taught that there shall be a relation and a harmony between\n\n"}
{"page": 104, "printed_page": null, "text": "84\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nthe various parts, benefits both teacher and pupils. The teacher's work\nof preparation from day to day is within such limits that greater power\nmay be brought to bear on the fewer objective points. There is variety in\nthe pupils' lessons, yet no yawning gulf separating the different subjects ;\neach helps the other. It is but a step further to the conclusion that this\ncarefully planned course of study will result in a classification of pupils\nbased upon their mental powers and attainments.\nThe theory upon which the subjects in a course of study are grouped ;\nand the theory upon which children in a school are classified, presuppose\nthe same conditions, viz.: the possession by the pupils of information\non the same topics, and the command of their mental powers within about\nthe same limits. Judging from the sharp criticisms made upon the leveling effect of training in the graded schools, and from the disproportionately large percentage that do not complete the course, it is a fair inference that in many schools there is a radical disagreement between the\nconditions and the theories.\nThe main cause of the trouble is the monotonous routine, induced\nlargely by the plan of keeping classes intact, and moving them from grade\nto grade at long and regular intervals of time. A person devoting the\nsame amount of time, year after year, to the accomplishment of a given\namount of work may acquire mechanical skill, but not that spiritual discernment which helps souls to rise to the fullest use of their powers.\nIn the steady march of classes through the grades, all keeping step to\nthe same time, the distinction between studies for information and those\nfor power to take up higher lines of work is lost sight of ; the varying\ndegree of strength in different classes, and of classes within classes, is not\nrecognized. To dwell upon this phase of the influence of fixed intervals\nof time between the promotions of all classes is not to wander from the\nsubject under consideration; it is to present the explanation of an element\nof weakness which pervades the teaching corps of the graded schools.\nIt is claimed by many that the plan of making what are known as individual promotions — that is, the transferring of the one or two best scholars\nin a grade to the next higher grade at any time during the year — makes a\nsystem flexible. These individual promotions include two classes of pupils:\n(1) New-comers prepared to enter a grade, with the exception of one\nsubject to which they need to devote extra attention for a short time.\n(2) The few remarkably bright children who are able to skip a large\namount of consecutive work.\nThough many ignore the existence of these two classes, yet the recognition of this right of the few does not imply flexibility in the instruction\nand classification of a school.\nTrue flexibility necessitates a frequency of classification and reclassification that shall so bring together knowledge and power that the time and\nenergy expended on any subject shall be in direct ratio to the ability of\n\n"}
{"page": 105, "printed_page": null, "text": "GRADING\n\nAND\n\nCLASSIFICATION.\n\n85\n\nthe class, not that the time spent shall be the same that has been and will\nbe spent by all other classes. One of the impediments to this flexibility\nin classification, as well as in instruction, is the general opinion that all\nclasses must be nearly equal in membership. A class composed of the\nfew that have dropped behind because of illness, or of the few needing a\nrapid review, or of those capable of making a rapid advance, will always\nbe smaller than the class made up of average pupils.\nThe custom of promoting classes at long intervals of time results in the\ncongregating of the truants and the indifferent in the middle grades of the\nelementary schools. The problem of helping these children to maintain\nthemselves in doing work suited to their maturer minds has two solutions :\nOne is the establishment of an ungraded room with a very small membership, and with the best teacher in the building, who shall give individual\ninstruction. The other and the better solution is the throwing off of the\nlong interval promotions, and the taking on of a flexible form of classification that will result in classes separated by such short intervals of time\nthat the child, with the added power of age, will be able to move more\nrapidly.\nIn advocating this rapid movement it is with a full consciousness that\nmany minor exercises will not receive much attention from the truants\nreturning to the fold, from the foreign-born lacking a knowledge of the\nEnglish language, from the semi-invalid just recovering health and interest,\nor from the indifferent who are able to think but unwilling to work. The\nfact that ungraded rooms are largely composed of boys serves to strengthen\nthe opinion, based upon years of observation, that the plan of grading\nwith long intervals between classes is more detrimental to the boys than to\nthe girls ; that it results in the withdrawal of many boys from the public\nschools.\nThe number of reclassifications is necessarily greater in the lower or\nprimary grades than in the upper or grammar grades. In early childhood\nthe training and attention given by parents make more and greater variations in the degrees of rapidity with which children take up the school\nwork than are found in the higher grades. There the school influence is\nmore marked than the home influence in connection with things learned\nin school. Another cause of the frequent differences in power and mental\ngrowth of children between the ages of six and ten years is the prevalence\nof children's diseases and the greater susceptibility to colds and indigestion.\nAbsence during several consecutive weeks interferes from time to time.\nWhat shall be done when the absentee returns ? He may be placed in the\nclass to which he formerly belonged. This course assumes that the teaching during the child's absence was of an exceedingly poor quality. Or, in\nreturning him to his class, the requirement of extra attention to the\nlessons lost may be made. This added pressure on the physical and\nmental powers of the enfeebled little one cannot be condemned too\n\n"}
{"page": 106, "printed_page": null, "text": "86\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nseverely. He may he obliged to defer his return to school until the stated\ntime, some mouths hence, for a new class to take up the work where he\nleft it. Last and best of all, he may belong to a school in which these\ninevitable and frequent interruptions, together with the varying rapidity\nof development in children, are recognized. If he is so fortunate as to\nbelong to a school of this kind, there will be classes separated by short\nintervals of progress, and he will be placed where he is able to work with\nthe maximum of ease and profit.\nIt is a mistake that admissions to high-schools are made yearly only.\nTwo causes have determined the yearly plan : (1) In the past the colleges and universities have admitted students in the autumn only; (2)\nhigh-school teachers, as a rule, have the same tendency to inertia that\nprevails in the elementary corps. The introduction of the mid-year plan\nof admission to the high-schools would benefit them as well as the\nelementary schools. Some supervisors, theorizing that the rigidity of the\ngraded system will not disappear unless a grade is reclassified whenever\na teacher thinks a class is ready to enter a new grade, have advanced\nclasses at intervals of a month or six weeks. Experience has shown that\nthe average teacher loses sight of the intervals, and, as a result, that the\nclasses in a grade soon settle down to work in the same place. The\ntheory has no weight when put into practice.\nIf greater flexibility be desired, and if the whole matter of changing\nthe grade of classes be left in the hands of the principal of each school, it\nwill be found upon examination that in the majority of the schools in that\nsystem the comfortable plan of yearly promotions will be followed ; the\nschools thus being machines turning out their products at long intervals\nof time, regardless of the many variations attendant upon the movements,\neither physical or mental, of a band of wide-awake children.\nThat grading, classifying, and transferring which keep a school flexible, which meet the needs of the individual pupils, will not be found in\na school where a specialty holds sway. There children will be detained\nin their grades in order that it may be shown that first grade children\ncan read well in the second reader ; that second grade pupils can observe\nas well as fourth grade pupils observe in other schools ; that sixth grade\npupils can quote from encyclopedias as well as high-school pupils sometimes quote.\nFlexibility in grading and classification will be found in that school in\nwhich the principal has a personal knowledge of the work of the various\nclasses, and of the ability and growth of each child. It will be found in\nthat system of schools in which the superintendent has a personal knowledge of the work of each teacher, and develops, all along the line, correct\nthinking about the dangers attendant upon mechanism in education.\n\n"}
{"page": 107, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\nCONGRESS OF HIGHER EDUCATION.\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nREPORT.\n\nSESSION— Wednesday,\n\nJuly 26, 1893.\n\nThe Department Congress of Higher Education was held in Hall VII. of the Art\nPalace, Chicago. It was called to order at 9.30 a.m., Wednesday, July 26, 1893, by\nthe general Chairman of the Department Congress of Higher Education, D. C. Gilman. President of Johns Hopkins University.\nOn motion, the hour for opening each morning session was fixed at half -past nine\no'clock, and the hour of adjournment at noon.\nThe opening address was made by the Chairman, D. C. Gilman. This was followed\nby an address on the theme, \"How far is it desirable that Universities should be of\nOne Type ? \" by President Martin Kellogg, of the University of California. This subject was discussed by Professor David Fiske, of the University of Chicago ; President\nCanfield, of the University of Nebraska ; Professor W. O. Sproull, Dean of the University of Cincinnati; Professor H. C. Cameron, of Princeton University; and Melvil\nDewey, Secretary of the Regents of the University of the State of New York.\nThe next theme \" How should we cope with the Problem of Excessive Specialization in University Studies ? \" was considered in a paper by Professor Giuseppe Allievo,\nof the University of Turin, Italy, an abstract translation of which was read.\nThe subject considered next was, \" Should an Antecedent Liberal Education be\nrequired of Students of Law, Medicine, and Theology ?\"\nProfessor Wood row Wilson, of Princeton University, read a letter from Professor\nJames Barr Ames, of Harvard University, upon this subject, and then presented his\npaper, treating the subject at length. The subject was further discussed by President\nGilman, of Johns Hopkins University ; Mr. Melvil Dewey, of Albany, N. Y. ; President Baker, of the University of Colorado ; Dr. Imelmann. of the Joachimsthal Gymnasium, Berlin ; and President H. T. Eddy, of the Polytechnic Institute, Terre\nHaute, Ind.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Thursday, July 27, 1893.\n\nPresident James B. Angell, of the University of Michigan, occupied the chair. The\nvenerable ex-President of Princeton University, Dr. McCosh, was presented to the\nCongress by President Gilman.\nDr. McCosh said :\n\" I must express in a sentence or two our great obligation for the great place given\nto education in connection with the Columbian Exposition. I do not think there is\nany great public exhibition, and I have been in several, which has given so much attention to education. We are under great obligation to Dr. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education, for giving such place to all the varied departments taught in\nthis country and taught in other countries.\nI am much obliged for the honor you\n\n"}
{"page": 108, "printed_page": null, "text": "88\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nhave done me. I feel the deepest interest in your work, and, as I depart, allow me to\nwish you well and all success.\"\nM. Andre Chevrillon, of the French Educational Delegation to the World's Columbian Exposition, was introduced and said :\n\" My visit to America is made in order to study what I can of American universities.\nI have gathered a great deal to remember, and observed much that will excite admiration when reported in France. The present question in France is how to reconstitute\nthose old historical institutions which were the French universities. While the university, strictly speaking, does not exist in France in full formal organization, yet\nhigher education does exist. In re-forming the old groups of scattered faculties so\nthat complete universities may be coordinated, it becomes desirable to study what\nother nations have done; and the American universities, among others, contribute\nsomething helpful toward carrying out this idea.\"\nProfessor W. G. Hale, of the University of Chicago, read a paper on the question,\n\"Should Greek be required for the Degree of Bachelor of Arts ?\" and supplemented\nhis paper with telegrams and other communications upon this subject. The subject was\ndiscussed by Professor A. F. West, of Princeton University ; Professor Whipple, of\nWheaton College, Illinois ; President David Starr Jordan, of Leland Stanford University, California ; Dr. Imelmann, of Berlin ; Professor Paul Shorey, Professor T. C. Chamberlin, and Professor Hale, of the University of Chicago.\nPresident Raymond, of the Wesleyan University, of Connecticut, followed with an\naddress on \"The Signs of Improvement visible in the Undergraduate Life of American Students.\" This subject was discussed by President Blanchard, of Wheaton College, Illinois, and Rev. Dr. Payne, of New York City.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION— Friday, July 28, 1893.\n\nPresident Low, of Columbia College, New York, occupied the chair, and made the\nopening address on \"The Relations of Professional Schools to the University.\"\nThis address was followed by a paper on the topic, \"The Evolution of Liberal\nEducation,\" by Professor A. F. West, of Princeton University.\nThis subject was discussed by Professor Hale, of the University of Chicago ; Professor^West, of Princeton University ; President Jordan, of Leland Stanford University,\nCalifornia ; President Blanchard, of Wheaton College, Illinois ; and Professor Sanford,\nof the Stanford University, California.\n\"On what Conditions should the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy be given ?\" was\nread by Professor W. 0. Sproull, Dean of the University of Cincinnati. This subject\nwas discussed by President Gates, of Iowa College, Iowa ; Professor Fisher, of Wheaton\nCollege, Illinois ; Professor Hale, of the University of Chicago ; President Gilman. of\nJohns Hopkins University, Baltimore ; and President Blanchard, of Wheaton College.\nResolutions were passed by the Congress appointing a committee to cooperate with\nother bodies in protecting the significance of the Doctor's degree. The Committee was\nconstituted as follows: President Gilman, of Johns Hopkins, Chairman; Presidents\nDwight, of Yale, Patten, of Princeton, Harper, of Chicago, Low, of Columbia, and\nAngell, of Michigan.\nThe last paper was read by Bishop Keane, of the Catholic University, of Washington,\nD. C, on \"The Relation of our Colleges and Universities to the Advancement of our\nCivilization.\"\nThe closing address was made by President Angell, of the University of Michigan.\nAfter closing remarks by President Gilman, of the Johns Hopkins University, and President Harper, of the University of Chicago, the Congress adjourned sine die.\n\n"}
{"page": 109, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIST OF HONORABY\n\nVICE-PRESIDENTS.\n\n89\n\nLIST OF PERSONS ACCEPTING THE OFFICE OF HONORARY\nVICE-PRESIDENT OF THE DEPARTMENT CONGRESS OF\nHIGHER EDUCATION.\nARGENTINE\n\nCHINA.\n\nREPUBLIC.\n\nSefior Luis Silveyra, University of Buenos Ayres,\nBuenos Ayres.\n\nRev. hai.\nW. B. Bonnell, Anglo-Chinese College, ShangCUBA.\n\nAUSTRALASIA.\nAUSTRALIA.\n\nThe Venerable Archdeacon George Henry Farr,\nM.A., LL.D., Vice-Chancellor University of\nAdelaide. Adelaide.\nRev. John Kinross, B.A., D.D., Principal St. Andrew's College, Sydney, New South Wales.\nH. C. Russell, Sydney Observatory, Sydney. New\nSouth Wales.\nMiss Julie Rapiport, East Melbourne.\nProf. T. P. Anderson Stuart, University of Sydney,\nNew South Wales.\nHenry Chamberlaine Russell, Vice-Chancellor of\nthe University of Sydney, Sydney, New South\nWales.\nJ. B. Lillie Mackay, President Gordon Technical\nCollege, Gee Long, Victoria.\nTASMANIA.\n\nDr. W. L. Dobson, Chancellor of the University of\nTasmania, Hobart.\nNEW\n\nSefiorHavana.\nRaimundo Cabrera, Abogado, Galiano 79,\nDon Jose M. Carbonell y Ruiz, Havana.\nECUADOR.\nSefior Carlos R. Tobar. Dean of the Faculty of\nPhilosophy and Literature, Central University\nof Ecuador, Quito.\nFRANCE.\nBaron Pierre de Coubertin, Paris.\nM. Hermitev Professor at the Ecole Pratique des\nHautes Etudes, Paris.\nProf. M. E. Levassenr, Member of l'lnstitut, Paris.\nM. E. H. Martin, French Delegate to the World's\nFair Educational Department, Chicago, Paris.\nM. Milne- Edwards, Museum of Natural History,\nParis.\nM. G. Monod, Professor at the Ecole Pratique des\nHautes Etudes, Paris.\n\nZEALAND.\n\nMiss Lilian Edgar, Auckland.\nAUSTRIA.\nProf. Dr. A. Bauer, Hofrath Imperial Royal Technical High School, Vienna.\nProf. Sigmund Exner, University of Vienna,\nVienna.\nProf. Dr. H. B. Lambl, Rector Bohemian Polytechnicum, Prague.\nBELGIUM.\nProf. Adolf Cenleneer, University of Gand, Gand.\nProf. M. V. Dwelshauvers-Dery, University of\nLidge, Liege.\nDr. Galopin, Rector University of Liege.\nM. xelles.\nLeon Leclere, Professor University of BruM. Eugene Monseur, Professor Comparative Philology, University of Bruxelles.\nM. xelles.\nA. Prins, Professor l'Universite Libre, BruM. Emile Vinck, Revue Universitaire, Brussels.\nBRAZIL.\nDr. Agostin Jose de Souza Lima, Professor at the\nFaculty of Medicine, Rio de Janeiro.\nCANADA.\n\nGERMANY.\nProf.\n\nDr. Clemens\nBaeumker,\nUniversity\nof\nBreslau.\nProf. Dr. Wilh. Blasius, Rector Ducal Polytechnicum, Braunschweig.\nProf. Rudolph Eucken, University of Jena.\nProf. G. Herrmann, Privy Councilor, Rector Polytechnicum, Aix-la-Chapelle.\nProf.berg.\nDr. Hermann Jacoby, University of KOnigsProf. W. His, University of Leipzig.\nProf.sen.\nDr. Fred. Kattenbusch, University of GiesProf. Kohliausch, Rector Academy of Technology\nor Technical High School, Hanover.\nProf. Dr. Franz v. Liszt, University of Halle.\nHerr Geo. v. Mayr, Under-Secretary and Private\nDocent, University of Strassburg.\nProf. Ed. Pfliiger, University of Bonn.\nProf. Dr. W. Rein. University of Jena.\nProf. Dr. Th. Ricliter, Director Royal Mining\nAcademy, Freiberg.\nProf. Dr. Hugo Sachse, University of Rostock.\nPiof. Dr. Christ, v. Sigwart, University of Tllbingen.\nProf.WTiirzburg.\nCarl Freiherr v. Stengel, University of\nGREAT\n\nBRITAIN.\n\nENGLAND.\n\nRev. Halifax.\nJohn Forrest,\nN. S. President DalhousieLTniversity,\nProf. J. G. MacGregor, Dalhousie University, Halifax, N. S.\nWilliam Mulock, M.A., LL.D., Vice-Chancellor\nUniversity of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario.\nDr. Theodore II. Rand, McMaster University,\nToronto, Ontario.\nProf. James Loudon. University College, Toronto.\nProf. Charles\nsor, N. S. G. D. Roberts, King's College, WindProf. Ramsey Wright, M.A., B.Sc, University of\nToronto, Torouto.\n\nMrs. Elizabeth Garret Anderson, M.D., London.\nJohn Eric Erichseu, President University College,\nLondon.\nDr. field.\nW. Ripper, Rector Technical School, ShefR. D. Roberts, Secretary to the London Society for\nthe Extension of University Teaching, London.\nWT. Wales,\nWhys Roberts,\nBangor. University College of North\nProf. G. J. Romaues, F.R.S., Christ Church,\nOxford.\n\n"}
{"page": 110, "printed_page": null, "text": "90\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nM. B. Sadler, Oxford University, Oxford.\nJ. E.ham.\nSymes, Director University College, NottingJ. Viriama Jones, Director University College of\nSouth Wales, Cardiff.\nMrs. Sophie Bryant, D. Sc, London.\nR. C. Jebb, Springfield, Cambridge University.\nDr. Gerald H. Rendall, Principal of University College, Liverpool.\nMiss E. Welch, Girton College, Cambridge.\nMiss Edith C. Wilson, Manchester.\nSCOTLAND.\n\nProf. D'Arcy W. Thompson, B.A., University College, Dundee.\nMiss Janet A. Galloway, Queen Margaret College,\nGlasgow.\nSir William Muir, K.C.S.I., Ph.D., Vice-Chancellor\nand\nburgh.Principal Edinburgh University, EdinProf. George F. Savage Armstrong, Queen's College, Cork.\nMiss H. M. White, Lady Principal Alexandra College, Dublin.\nThos.fast.Hamilton, President Queen's College, BelJames\nCork.W. Slattery. President Queen's College,\nMiss Margaret Byers, Victoria College, Belfast.\nProf. D. J. Cunningham, M.D., Sc.D., Dublin.\nProf. E. Dowden, LL.D., Litt. D., University of\nDublin, Dublin.\nHUNGARY.\nProf.burg.\nDr. Lajos Felmeri, University of KlausenITALY.\nProf. Giuseppe Allievo, University of Turin.\nProf. GiacomoBarzellotti, University of Naples.\nProf. Carlo Cantoni, Rector of University at Pavia.\nProf. Alphonse Cossa, Director R. School of Application for Engineers. Turin.\nProf. Raffaele Garofalo, University of Naples.\nProf. E. Gondolfo, Rector University of Cagliari.\nDr. Filippo Povena, Professor University of Messina and Councilor of the Geographical Society,\nMessina.\nProf. Pellegrini Strobel, Rector University of\nParma.\nJAPAN.\nProf. Naiba Kanda, Imperial University of Japan,\nTokyo.\nProf. R. Yatabe, Imperial University of Japan,\nTokyo.\nMEXICO.\nSeilor Fernando Ferrari Perez, General Secretary\nand\nDelegate Mexican World's\nFair Subordinate\nCommission, Tacubaya.\nNETHERLANDS.\nProf. J. H. Gallee, University of Utrecht.\nProf. J. Ten Brink, University of Leiden, Leyden.\nProf. W. Van der Veugh, University of Leiden.\nPORTUGAL.\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nProf. Alex. Tirsow, Kazan.\nMme.Warsaw.\nLa Comtesse\nWanda\nvon\nSczawinska,\nProf. Dr. Carl Erdmann, University of Dorpat.\nSERVIA.\nProf. P. Sretcovics, University of Belgrade.\nSPAIN.\nDon Manuel Torres Campos, Professor University\nof Granada.\nExcmo. Dr. D. Mames Esperabe Lozano, Rector\nUniversity of Salamanca.\nEmilia Serrano, Baroness de Wilson, Barcelona.\nSWEDEN.\nProf. Dr. Thorden, R. University of Upsala.\nProf. O. Ferd. Myrberg, University of Upsala.\nProf . Johannes Paulson, University of Gothenburg.\nProf. Victor Rydberg, University of Stockholm.\nProf. L. M. TOrngren, Royal Central Institute for\nGymnastics, Stockholm.\nSWITZERLAND.\nFrau Dr. Emilie Kempin, University of Zurich.\nProf. Herm. Eichhorst, University of Zurich.\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES.\n\nALABAMA.\nDr. A. S. Andrews, President Southern University,\nGreensboro.\nDr. Richard C. Jones, President University of\nAlabama, University.\nDr. B. F. Riley, President Howard College, East\nLake.\nARIZONA.\nDr. Theo. B. Comstock, President University of\nArizona, Tucson.\nARKANSAS.\nRev.Conway.\nA. C. Millar, President Hendrix College,\nCALIFORNIA.\nMrs. Mary Sheldon Barnes, Leland Stanford Jr.\nUniversity, Palo Alto.\nMrs. Mary Roberts Smith, Leland Stanford Jr.\nUniversity, Palo Alto.\nDr. Berkeley.\nJoseph Le Conte, Professor State University,\nDr. Berkeley.\nH. Herm. Behr, Professor State University,\nA.M. Elston, A.M., President Hesperian College,\nWoodland.\nMartin Kellogg, A.M., President University of\nCalifornia, Berkeley.\nMrs.College.\nC. T. Mills, President Mills College, Mills\nDr. Samuel B. Morse, President California ColOakland.\nDr. Homerlege, B.\nSprague, New Peralta Hall, San\nFrancisco.\nDr. James W. Strong, President Carlton College,\nPasadena.\nRev.Avenue).\nP. C. Yorke, San Francisco (1,100 Franklin\n\nDom technical\nJ. d'Azevedo\nAlbuquerque,\nAcademy,\nof Oporto. Professor Poly-\n\nCOLORADO.\n\nRUSSIA.\nM. P. Bessonov, Professor University of Kharkof.\nM. Anatole Bogdanov, Prof. Emer., University of\nMoscow.\n\nDr. James H. Baker, President University of Colorado, Boulder.\nDr. William F. McDowell, President University of\nDenver, University Park.\nDr. William F. Slocum, Jr., President Colorado\nCollege, Colorado Springs.\n\n"}
{"page": 111, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIST OF HONORARY\n\nVICE-PRESIDENTS.\n\n91\n\nCONNECTICUT.\n\nKENTUCKY.\n\nDr. Timothy Dwight, President Yale University,\nNew Haven.\nDr. B. P. Raymond, President Wesleyan University,\nMiddletown.\nDr. William G. Sumner, Professor Yale University,\nNew Haven.\nDr. William D. Whitney, Professor Yale University, New Haven.\n\nDr. L. H. Blanton, President Central University,\nRichmond.\nRev. David Fennessy, President St. Mary's ColDr. William\nG. Frost, President Bcrea College,\nBerea.lege, St. Mary's.\nDr. Charles L. Loos, President Kentucky University, Lexington.\nWilliam A. Obenchain, A.M., President Ogden\nCollege, Bowling Green.\nDr. W. S. Ryland, President Bethel College,\nRussell vi lie.\nLOUISIANA.\n\nDISTRICT\n\nOF COLUMBIA.\n\nJ. H. Richards, President Georgetown University,\nWashington.\nDr. J. E. Rankin, President Howard College,\nWashington.\nDELAWARE.\nDr. A. N. Ranb, President Delaware College,\nNewark.\nGEORGIA.\nDr. Horace Bumstead, President Atlanta University, Atlanta.\nDr. W. A. Candler, President Emory College,\nOxford.\nILLINOIS.\nDr. Franklin W. Fisk, President Chicago Theological Seminary, Chicago.\nDr. William C. Roberts, President Lake Forest\nUniversity, Lake Forest.\nDr. William R. Harper, President University of\nChicago, Chicago.\nDr. Henry W. Rogers, President Northwestern\nUniversity, Evanston.\nDr. Martha Foote Crowe, Professor University of\nChicago, Chicago.\nCharles A. Blanchard, President Wheaton College, Wheaton.\nDr. J. M. Coulter, President Lake Forest University, Lake Forest.\nDr. Holmes Dysinger, President Carthage College,\nCarthage.\nDr. T. C. Chamberlin, Professor University of\nChicago, Chicago.\nJ. H. Finfey, President Knox College, Galesburg.\nDr. A. A. Kendrick, President Shurtlefl College,\nUpper Alton.\nRev. P. J. Muldoon, Chicago.\nRev. Olof Olsson, President Augustana College,\nRock Island.\nDr. William H. Wilder, President Illinois Wesleyan\nUniversity, Bloomington.\nDr. Harry Pratt Judson, Professor University of\nChicago, Chicago.\nINDIANA.\nDr. George S. Burroughs, President Wabash College. Crawfordsville.\nDr. D. W. Fisher, President Hanover College,\nHanover.\nProf. Harriet Noble, Irvington.\nDr. John P. D. John, President De Pauw University, Greencastle.\nDr. John\nHill. H. Martin, Moore's Hill College, Moore's\nDr. J. J. Mills, President Earlham College, Richmond.\nDr. W. T. Stott, President Franklin College,\nFranklin.\nIOWA.\nA. M. Beal, A.M., President Western College,\nToledo.\nRev. William M. Brooks, President Tabor College,\nTabor.\nDr. William F. King, President Cornell College,\nMount Vernon.\nDr. George A. Gates, President Iowa College,\nGrinnell.\nDr. James Marshall, President Coe College, Cedar\nRapids.\nDr. Charles A. Schaeffer, President University of\nIowa, Iowa City,\n\nProf. Jno. R. Ficklen, Tulane University, New\nOrleans.\nProf. Alcee Fortier, Tulane\nUniversity, New\nOrleans.\nDr. William Preston Johnston, President Tulane\nUniversity, New Orleans.\nDr. E. C. Mitchell, President Leland University,\nNew Orleans.\nMrs. Evelyn W. Ordway, Tulane University, New\nOrleans.\nDr. Robert Sharp, Professor\nNew Orleans.\nMAINE.\n\nTulane University,\n\nDr. William De Witt Hyde, President Bowdoin\nCollege. Brunswick, Me.\nRev. B. L. Whitman, President Colby University,\nWaterville.\nMARYLAND.\nMrs. Christine Ladd Franklin, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore.\nDr. Herbert B. Adams, Professor Johns Hopkins\nUniversity, Baltimore.\nDr. Ira Remscn, Professor Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore.\nDr. Edward P. Allen, President Mt. St. Mary's College, Mt. St. Mary's.\nDr. Thomas Fell, President St. John's College,\nAnnapolis.\nDr. Jno.\nF. Goucher, President Woman's College of\nBaltimore.\nMASSACHUSETTS.\nRev. C. E. Amaron. President French Protestant\nCollege, Springfield.\nDr. College.\nE. H. Capen, President Tufts College, Tufts\nRev. Edward I. Devitt, President Boston College,\nBoston.\nMrs. E. S. Mead, President- Mt. Holyoke College,\nSouth Hadley.\nDr. L. Clark Seelye, President Smith College,\nNorthampton.\nDr. J. R. S. Sterrett, Amherst.\nProf. W. J. Rolfe, Cambridge.\nDr. Merrill E. Gates, President Amherst College,\nAmherst.\nDr. William F. Warren, President Boston University, Boston.\nDr. Charles W. Eliot, President Harvard University, Cambridge.\nDr. Charles C. Everett, Professor Harvard University, Cambridge.\nJohn H. Wright, A.M., Professor Harvard University, Cambridge.\nDr. Wellesley.\nHelen A. Shafer, President Wellesley College,\nDr. Edmund C. Sanford, Professor Clark University, Worcester.\nProf.ley.\nKatherine Com.-m, Wellesley College, WellesMiss Alia W. Foster, Hotel Eliot, Boston Highlands.\nMrs Ellen H. Richards, Institute of Technology,\nBoston.\nDr. Francis A. Walker, President Mass. Institute\nof Technology, Boston.\n\n"}
{"page": 112, "printed_page": null, "text": "92\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nMICHIGAN.\nDr. James B. Angell, President State University,\nAnn Arbor.\nDr. Henry C. Adams, Professor State University,\nAnn Arbor.\nRev. M. P. Dowling, President Detroit College,\nDetroit.\nDr. L. R. Fiskc, President Albion College, Albion.\nJ. F. McCulloch, President Adrian College, Adrian.\nDr. Geo. F. Mosher, President Hillsdale College,\nHillsdale.\nDr. A. G. Sloctim, President Kalamazoo College,\nKalamazoo.\nMINNESOTA.\nDr. Geo. H. Bridgman, President Hamline University, Hamline.\nRev. T. N. Mohn, President St. Olaf College,\nNorthfield.\nDr. Cyrus Northrop, President State University,\nMinneapolis.\n\nMiss Ella Weed, Barnard College, New York City.\nDr. N. L. Andrews, Dean Colgate University,\nHamilton.\nProf. Pietro Cianelli, New York.\nDr. D. H. Cochran, President Polytechnic Institute,\nBrooklyn.\nRev. P. V. Cavanagh, CM., Niagara University,\nSuspension Bridge.\nDr. R. B. Fairbairn, President St. Stephen's College, Annandale.\nVery Rev. John M. Farley, D.D.. New York.\nRev. Thomas McMillan, Church of St. Paul the\nApostle, New York.\nDr. Alpheus B. Hervey, President St. Lawrence\nUniversity, Canton.\nProf. C. Wellman Parks. Rensselaer Polytechnic\nInstitute, Troy.\nDr. Geo. W. Samson, President Rutgers Female\nCollege, New York ( It?.\nDr. Clinton.\nM. W. Stryker, President Hamilton College,\nDr. James M. Taylor, President Vassar College,\nPoughkeepsie.\nNORTH\n\nMISSISSIPPI.\nRev. Walter Hillman, Central Female Institute,\nClinton.\nDr. C. E. Libby, President Rust University, Holly\nSprings.\nDr. R. A. Venable, President Mississippi College,\nClinton.\nMISSOURI.\nDr. Winfleld S. Chaplin, Chancellor Washington\nUniversity, St. I.ouis. Mo.\nDr. J. P. Greene, President William Jewell College, Liberty.\nDr. J. D. Hammond, President Central College,\nFayette.\nDr. Richard H. Jesse. President State University of\nMissouri, Columbia.\nDr. ville.\nL. M. McAfee, President Park College, ParkRev. J. A. Thompson, President Tarkio College,\nTarkio.\nMONTANA.\nRev. James Reid, President College of Montana,\nDeer Lodge.\nNEBRASKA.\nDr. James H. Canfield, President University of\nNebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska.\nDr. D. R. Kerr, President University of Omaha,\nBellevue.\nNEVADA.\nDr. Stephen A. Jones, President University of\nNevada, Reno.\nNEW\n\nJERSEY.\n\nDr. Francis L. Patton, President College of New\nJersey, Princeton.\nDr. C. W. Shields, Professor College of New Jersey,\nPrinceton.\nDr. Andrew F. West, Professor College of New\nJersey, Princeton.\nNEW YORK.\nProf. Adolphe Cohn, Columbia College, New York\nCity.\nProf. C. Speranza, Columbia College, New York\nCity.\nRev. Brother Anthony, President of Manhattan\nCollege, New York City.\nDr. Hjalmar Hjorth Boyesen, Professor Columbia\nCollege, New York.\nDr. H. M. McCracken, Chancellor University of\nthe City of New York, New York.\nProf. Lucy M. Salmon, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie.\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nCAROLINA.\n\nDr.\n\nGeo. T. Winston,\nPresident University of\nNorth Carolina, Chapel Hill.\nDr. John F. Crowell, President Trinity College,\nDurham.\nDr. D. J. Sanders, President Biddle University,\nCharlotte.\nDr. C. E. Taylor, President Wake Forest College,\nWake Forest.\nNORTH\n\nDAKOTA.\n\nW. Merrifield, A.M., President University of North\nDakota.\nOHIO.\nDr. Wm. G. Ballantine, President Oberlin College,\nOberlin.\nDr. O. Cone, President Buchtel College, Akron.\nDr. William O. Sproull, Dean University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati.\nDr. J.\nR. H. Latchaw, President Findlay College,\nFindlay.\nDr. D. A. Long, President Antioch College, Yellow\nDr. Springs.\nT. P. Marsh, President Mt. Union College,\nAlliance.\nDr. S. T. Mitchell, President Wilberforce University, Wilberforce.\nDr. John A. Peters, President Heidelberg UniverTiffin.\nDr. D. B. sity,\nPurinton,\nPresident Denison University,\nGranville.\nDr. Thorn. J. Sanders, President Otterbein UniverWesterville.\nDr. S. F. sity,\nScovel,\nPresident University of Wooster,\nWooster.\nDr. John W. Simpson, President Marietta College,\nMarietta.\nDr. Theo. Sterling, President Kenyon College,\nGambier.\nDr. Chas. W. Super, President Ohio University,\nAthens.\nDr. W. O. Thompson, President Miami University,\nOxford.\nDr. Charles F. Thwing, President Western Reserve\nUniversity, Cleveland.\nDr. Ely V. Zollars, President Hiram College, Hiram.\nOREGON.\nDr. Geo. Whitaker, President Willamette University, Salem.\nPENNSYLVANIA.\nDr. Charles M. Andrews, Professor Bryn Mawr\nCollege. Bryn Mawr.\nDr. E. B. Bierman, President Lebanon Valley College, Annville.\n\n"}
{"page": 113, "printed_page": null, "text": "93\nLIST OF HONORARY\nDr. Charles De Garmo, President Swarthmore College, Swarthmore.\nDr. W. J. Holland, President Western University\nof Pennsylvania, Allegheny.\nDr. Edmund J. James, Professor University of\nPennsylvania, Philadelphia.\nDr. James E. Rhoads, President Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr.\nDr. Theo. L. Seip, President Muhlenberg College,\nAllentown .\nDr. Isaac Sharpless, President Haverford College,\nHaverford.\nDr. John S. Stahr, President Franklin and Marshall\nCollege, Lancaster.\nDr. M. Carey Thomas, Bryn Mawr.\nDr. E. D. Warfield, President Lafayette College,\nEaston.\nDr H. W. McKnight, President Pennsylvania College, Gettysburg.\nRev. John T. Murphy, President Holy Ghost College, Pittsburg.\nMiss Ida Wood, Philadelphia.\nRHODE\n\nISLAND.\n\nDr. E. Benjamin Andrews, President Brown University, Providence.\nSOUTH\n\nCAROLINA.\n\nDr. L. M. Dunton, President Claflin University,\nOrangeburg.\nDr. G. W. Holland, President Newberry College,\nNewberry.\nDr. W. M. Grier, President Erskine College, Due\nWest.\nJoseph W. Morris, A.M., President Allen University, Columbia.\nDr. H. E. Shepherd, President College of Charleston, Charleston.\nSOUTH\n\nDAKOTA.\n\nJoseph W. Manck, A.M., President University of\nSouth Dakota, Vermilion.\nTENNESSEE.\nDr. J. Braden, President Central Tennessee College, Nashville.\nDr. S. W. Boardman, President Maryville College,\nMaryville.\nDr. E. M. Cravath, President Fisk University, Nashville.\nDr. Thos. F. Gailor, President University of the\nSouth, Sewanee.\n\nVICE-PRESIDENTS.\nDr. L. C. Garland, Chancellor Vanderbilt University, Nashville.\nDr. Lebanon.\nN. Green, President Cumberland University,\nDr. George Summey, President Southwestern\nPresbyterian University, Clarksville.\nTEXAS.\nDr. R. C. Burleson, President Baylor University,\nWaco, Texas.\nVERMONT.\nDr. Ezra\nBrainerd, President Middlebury College,\nMiddlebury.\nVIRGINIA.\nDr. J. D. Dreher, President Roanoke\nCollege,\nSalem.\nDr. J. A. Harrison, Professor Washington and Lee\nUniversity, Lexington.\nProf. W. Gordon McCabe, Petersburg.\nDr. Richard Mcllvaine, President Hampden-Sidney\nCollege. Hampden-Sidney.\nDr. Wm. W. Smith, President Randolph-Macon\nCollege, Ashland.\nDr. Wm. M. Thornton, Chairman of the Faculty,\nUniversity Charlottesville.\nWASHINGTON.\nRev. B. Held, O.S.B., Spokane.\nRev. Jas. F. Eaton, President Whitman College,\nWalla Walla.\nWISCONSIN.\nDr. Edward D. Eaton, President Beloit College,\nBeloit.\nDr. Rufus C. Flagg, President Ripon College,\nRev. Ripon.\nP. A. McDermott, C.S.Sp., Green Bay.\nDr. Wm. C. Whitford, President Milton College,\nMilton.\nDr. Richard T. Ely, Professor University of Wisconsin, Madison.\nWYOMING.\nDr. A. A. Johnson, President University of Wyoming, Laramie.\nHon. J . W.\nHoyt, Laramie.\nMrs. J. W. Hoyt, Laramie.\n\n"}
{"page": 114, "printed_page": null, "text": "HIGHER\nOPENING\nBY\n\nTHE CHAIRMAN,\n\nEDUCATION.\nADDRESS.\n\nDANIEL C. GILMAN, LL.D., PRESIDENT\nHOPKINS\nUNIVERSITY.\n\nOF THE\n\nJOHNS\n\nIt is fair to presume that an intelligent foreigner, like Professor von\nHoist, now one of our colleagues ; Professor Bryce, the most philosophical observer of American society since De Tocqueville (not even excepting Francis Lieber) ; or Professor Levasseur, the accomplished member\nof the Institute of France, now visiting this country, if he were asked his\nimpressions respecting the state of higher education in the United States\nof America, would reply that the public show an amount of interest in\nuniversities and colleges unequalled, and perhaps unapproached, in England, France, or Germany. If he were asked for particulars we might\nfind that his impression was not wholly derived from the notices that\nappear in the public journals, nor from the increased attendance in our\nhalls of learning, nor from frequented conferences like this, but from the\nreadiness with which the people in many of the States tax themselves for\nthe support of seminaries of learning, and from the munificence with\nwhich private individuals contribute to the endowment of old and new\nfoundations. Yet this friendly observer would doubtless add, if he felt\nat liberty to speak with caudor, that American ideas in respect to higher\neducation are undeveloped. The diversity of scope, methods, purposes,\ndegrees, names, is confusing. No established churches exercise either\nlegal or traditional control. No central, national authority has any right\nof superintendence, oversight, or inspection. Each separate State has\nits own organization. There is not even a consensus as to the province\nof the '•' State universities/' For example, compare Michigan and New\nYork. Where such institutions are established, other universities may\nflourish side by side. Academic titles have no significance unless the\nsource is known from which they are derived. Anybody who chooses\nmay call himself \"a professor,\" and the only penalty that he incurs is the\ngentle rebuke of his neighbors. The word university has often been\napplied to institutions of the humblest character ; for example, it was\na title frequently bestowed upon the schools for the emancipated blacks,\nestablished in the decade just following the civil war. Indeed, if the\nintelligent foreigner were to seek, either in our usages or in our educational\nliterature, for the received idea of a university, he would often be amused.\n\n"}
{"page": 115, "printed_page": null, "text": "OPENING\n\nADDRESS.\n\n95\n\nHe would hardly know whether Lowell was in jest or earnest when he\ntold Dr. Walker that \"a university is a place where nothing useful is\ntaught \" ; nor would he be quite sure what Garfield meant when he said,\nin substance, that \"a log with Mark Hopkins at one end of it and a\nstudent at the other would be a seat of learning.\"\nAbout fifty years ago, one of the most gifted and one of the most influential men produced in this country projected what might be called a university ofhis own. Naming several of his associates, Ralph Waldo Emerson\nsaid to a correspondent: \"Do you not see that with one or two chosen\npersons we might make a puissant faculty and front the world without\ncharter, diploma, corporation, or steward ? Do you not see that if such\na thing were well and happily done for twenty or thirty students only at\nfirst, it would anticipate by years the education of New England ?\" All\nthis, from a European point of view, is abnormal, untraditional, and\nunconstitutional. It is hardly comprehensible by those who are only\nfamiliar with the ways of their own lauds. They know the difficulties\nencountered in securing a charter for the Victoria University in England,\nor in establishing a teaching university in London, and the close restriction of the term university in France, and the orderly government and\naffiliations of the universities of Germany. Undoubtedly (the friendly\nobserver might remind us) there is in this country much wasteful expenditure of force, much overlapping, much rivalry, much error that might\nbe avoided, much misleading of the public, and even much injury to the\nrising generation.\nWith criticisms like these, the leaders of higher education in this country would probably concur. In rejoinder, they might ask the intelligent\nobserver from other lands to remember that the diversity which seems to\nhim like confusion is almost an inevitable result of that local self-government upon which all our institutions depend. If our universities aro\nsuffering from excessive spontaneity, they are free from every form of\nintellectual despotism. Separate institutions may indeed be governed by\nthe enactments of a legislature or the regulations of a religious denomination, but, as a whole, the higher education of this country is absolutely\nfree from political and ecclesiastical control. Any attempt to regulate\nthe universities by forces outside of themselves would certainly be\nthwarted — could hardly be thought of. Americans prefer the lesser to\nthe greater evils. At the same time it is unfortunate that there should\nbe so much reduplication. Every one knows to what extent in his own\nneighborhood this manifolding process has gone on. It is like the paralleling of railroads, where the doctrine seems to be, \" If a line is doing a\ngood work, duplicate it, even if yon ruin it, so as to get a share of the\nprofits.\" Many years ago, President White, of Cornell University, in an\naddress which ought to be kept in constant circulation, urged that there\nshould be concentration upon a few strong universities, not multiplication\n\n"}
{"page": 116, "printed_page": null, "text": "96\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nof feeble projects.\nStill, the contrary tendency prevails, and every decade\nsees its new progeny.\nNevertheless American scholars may review with satisfaction the history of their highest institutions of learning. Not one of those established in colonial days has disappeared. Two of the three oldest have\nmade unvacillating progress, and are now first, not only in years, but\nin resources, comprehensiveness, and scholarship. In each successive\ngeneration they have adapted their methods to the requirements of the\ntimes, and have never been more useful, more honored or more beloved,\nand never more closely studied than since 1876. Such examples are\ninspiring. They encourage those who are laying new foundations —\nperhaps in regions rescued within the last half-century from the wilderness, perhaps in States that were slow to recognize the value of higher\neducation. If any foreign observer, if any domestic censor is inclined to\npoint out the limitations of American universities, let him remember the\nwords of an English don to his younger and opposing colleague : \" We\nare none of us infallible ; not even the Junior Fellows ! \" It is no disparagement of the new foundations — on the contrary, it should be to\nthem an incitement — to recall the honest financial administration, the loyal\ndevotion of professors to their callings, the increasing liberality of opinions, and the unfailing interest in public affairs shown from the beginning\nby Harvard and Yale. Even a foreigner, if he looks below the superficial,\ncan hardly fail to discover what admirable results have followed from the\nvoluntary principle, what generous gifts have been made, what large\nincomes have been secured, what excellent libraries have been brought\ntogether, what observatories and laboratories and museums have been\nprovided, what contributions have been made to literature and science by\nteachers and graduates, what excellent citizens have been trained up for\nthe service of church and state, for the maintenance of religion and\npatriotism, and for the diffusion of knowledge throughout the land.\nBefore proceeding to discuss more in detail, in the presence of this international congress, the condition of American universities, it may not be\namiss for us to pause and consider what are the legitimate functions of\nall universities ; for amid the diversities of origin and the differences\nof administration it is probable that we recognize unanimously four functions that pertain to every vigorous establishment. I do not mean the\nmaintenance of four faculties. The number of departments in a university may be numerous, or the teaching force may constitute a single\nfaculty; or there may be a faculty of philosophy leading up to professional\nschools, or coordinate with them, or a sharp distinction may be maintained between science and letters. These are municipal distinctions,\ndependent upon traditions and ideas not universally accepted ; but the\nfunctions to which I refer are general.\n\n"}
{"page": 117, "printed_page": null, "text": "OPENING\n\nADDRESS.\n\n97\n\nThe first function of a university is the education of youth who have\nbeen prepared for advanced work by previous discipline in certain branches\nof knowledge. Whatever else the university undertakes, it is a place where\nthe choicest minds receive the best culture, are admitted to rare opportunities, and inspired by living examples of intellectual excellence. It is a\nsociety where thorough preparation for intellectual exertion is the condition of admission, and. lofty devotion to ideals the condition of honor.\nThe university to which no students resort, or in which the commonplaces\nalone are taught, is unworthy of the name. In the long run, the men who\nhave been trained by a university are the tests of its excellence.\nUniversity education as distinguished from collegiate implies that the\nstudent has formed already the habits of attention, memory, discrimination, classification, judgment. Maturity of mind is requisite for the freedom implied in advanced work. This training in our country has usually\nbeen acquired in college ; formerly it could only be there received. But\nhigh -schools, academies, and private seminaries in many places are now\nso thorough that they have virtually taken the places which early in the\nceutury were held by the colleges, and. the colleges, by raising their terms\nof admission, have occupied, the years which might otherwise be given to\nuniversity work. Consequently there is no agreement of opinion on the\nrelative spheres of the school, the college, and the university. It would be\nwell if Americans could agree on the proper limitations of the school and\nthe college. Doubtless when a report is received from the Committee of\nOne Hundred, appointed by this association, under the head of President\nEliot, we shall have a discussion as fruitful as it will be lively of this\nfundamental question.\nThe second function of a university is the conservation of knowledge.\nThis is accomplished by bringing together all the records of human experience, and by the engagement of scholars in the work of interpretation.\nThe university should be in truth a seat of learning. Within its walls\nthere should be comfortable stalls for those who are willing to devote their\nlives to the study of antiquity, whose pleasure it is to trace from their\norigin the language, the laws, the religions, the customs which we have\ninherited from our remote ancestry. There should be other chairs for\nthose who are able to collect, arrange, describe, and interpret all natural\nobjects which can be brought together in a museum. The fine arts, too,\n•should have their votaries, and the best that the world has produced in\narchitecture, sculpture, and the pictorial arts should be presented to the\neyes of impressionable youth, with such instruction as will enable them to\ndiscover and appreciate the merits. Libraries and museums are the dwelling-places ofuniversities.\nThe third function of a university is to extend the bounds of human\nknowledge. Call it research, call it investigation, call it scientific inquiry,\ncall it the seekiug for truth — never has the obligation been so strong as it\n7\n\n"}
{"page": 118, "printed_page": null, "text": "98\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nis now to penetrate the arcana of the world in which we dwell, to discover\nnew facts, to measure old phenomena, and to educe principles and laws\nthat were written in the heginning but have never yet been read by mortal\neye. Instruments of accurate measurement and for close observation are\nnow at command that were unthought of in the past generation. That\nprotean agency, the lens, has been enlarged and supplemented so that its\nefficiency has increased simultaneously with its adaptation to new purposes. Measurements are applied to the depths of the sea, the distances\nof fixed stars, the velocity of- light, the intensity of electric and magnetic\ncurrents, the reactions of the nervous system ; and facts which were once\nvaguely known, become clearly and accurately understood. To the progress of observation, measurement, and experiment, universities that are\nworthy of the name are bound to contribute.\nThe fourth function of a university is to disseminate knowledge. The\nresults of scholarly thought and acquisition are not to be treasured as\nsecrets of a craft ; they are not esoteric mysteries known only to the initiated they\n;\nare not to be recorded in cryptograms or perpetuated in private note-books. They are to be given to the world, by being imparted to\ncolleagues and pupils, by being communicated in lectures, and especially\nby being put in print, and then subjected to the criticism, hospitable\nor inhospitable, of the entire world. That institution has a restricted\nsphere that is unknown beyond the circle of its own alumni. It should\nnot claim to be a university. It is better to be the best of colleges than\nto be the worst of universities. Publication should not merely be in the\nform of learned works. The teachers of universities, at least in this\ncountry, by text-books, by lyceum lectures, by contributions to the magazines, by letters to the daily press, should diffuse the knowledge they\npossess. Thus are they sowers of seed which will bear fruit in future\ngenerations. One of the greatest of living naturalists has said that he\nwas attracted to the study of natural science by the lectures of Silliman; one of the most honored of university presidents has acknowledged that a speech of Francis Wayland's aroused him to a life of public\nservice; and the philosophical educator to whom this congress owes so\nmuch has shown in a recent volume how much he was quickened by the\nconversation of a peripatetic from Concord. The widespread demand\nfor university extension shows how intelligent persons, who for one\nreason or another have never received the advantages of university residence, are eager to get at the latest, the wisest, the most accurate instructions that can be brought within their reach. But learned publications,\ncontaining memoirs that are only meant for the scholar — positive contributions toknowledge — are the noblest fruits of academic culture.\nThese, then, are the tests of a university : the service it renders in the\neducation of youth; its skill in the perpetuation and interpretation of\nthe lessons of history ; its endeavors to extend the domain of science ;\n\n"}
{"page": 119, "printed_page": null, "text": "OPENING\n\nADDRESS.\n\n99\n\nand its readiness to promote the diffusion of knowledge. Science,\nanother name for truth, is its goal ; Imagination, or a vision of the ideal,\nis the allurement ; and Faith is the encouragement — faith in law, faith\nin man, faith in God.\nIn order to understand the organization of American universities, the\nforeign observer must be reminded of their origin. The colonists desired\nand established simple \" colleges/' corresponding closely with the colleges of Oxford and Cambridge. Harvard, Yale, Columbia, and the University of Pennsylvania belonged to this type. Upon this stem, which\nwas firmly rooted at the beginning of the present century, professional\nfaculties were afterward grafted. Such institutions, in their beginnings,\nwere more or less religious foundations, and they still bear the traces of\ntheir birth.\nSince the Revolution, State universities have been established, notably\nin the Southern States (where the University of Virginia bore the impress\nof Jefferson's familiarity with continental rather than British antecedents), and subsequently in the Western States, where large amounts of\npublic lands were set apart for their support. A third class of institutions are those which owe their existence to some great benefactor, like\nCornell, Johns Hopkins, Leland Stanford, Rockefeller, who has provided\nthe endowment and indicated more or less definitely the conditions by\nwhich the administration shall be governed.\nRecently there has been a return to ecclesiastical activity. The Catholic University and the Methodist University in Washington ; Sewanee,\nand the University Board of the Protestant Episcopal Church, are indications of denominational zeal.\nSince the civil war, institutions devoted to pure and applied science\nhave been successfully established, largely though not wholly as a consequence of the Morrill act and its supplement. Sometimes these new\nfoundations have been incorporated with universities, as the Sheffield\nSchool is a part of Yale University, and sometimes they have been independent institutions, like the Massachusetts Institute of Technology ; but\nin either case they must be included in any survey of higher education.\nThe actual workings of these five groups, however varied their origin,\nare very similar. Of course, they are more or less perfectly developed ;\nsome have but one faculty, and some have several. That which has an\nincome of one or two hundred thousand dollars is very different from\nthat which annually expends a million ; and two centuries or thereabouts\nof tradition and experience form a very different basis from a charter of\nto-day. Nevertheless, the family likeness is strong. Our educational\ninstitutions are decidedly American. Not one of them can be or would\nbe a German or an English or a Scotch or an Irish university. Suggestions, ideas, are welcomed as germs from other lands, but the plants grow\n\n"}
{"page": 120, "printed_page": null, "text": "100\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nup in our own soil and are the result of our laws, traditions, and wishes ;\nthey are like the vines of California, which bear the old names but produce a vintage with flavors of its own, not yet familiar to European\npalates, but pleasant and wholesome.\nIn all these institutions the idea of liberal education has been preserved.\nThe best of the technical schools provide generously for instruction in\nlanguages, and most of them for instruction in abstract science as well as in\nits practical application. The traditional notion of a college training antecedent to professional courses, and preliminary to advanced work, holds\nits own ; and indeed it seems to gain support by the emphasis that is given\nto the dividing line between undergraduates and postgraduates. There\nare many open questions as to the period of life which should be allotted\nto college studies, the proper terms of admission and graduation, and the\nadjustment of freedom in the choice of studies with the obligation to\nchoose wisely. But amid all the dissensions upon minor points, it is clear\nthat the love of college life is growing ; its methods are improving, and its\nrelation to professional and technical pursuits and to careers in science\nand literature is more and more clear.\nThere are many unsolved problems in respect to university education in\nthis country to which we may well direct our attention. Among them I\nmention, first, the establishment of a university in the Federal city. The\nopinions upon this subject may thus be grouped. There are those who advocate the endowment of a national university by the government, and consequently its administration by such boards as the government may institute.\nIn support of this principle, eminent authorities may be quoted from\nWashington to our own contemporaries. This view is vehemently opposed\nby those who dread the enlistment of Congress in services which it is\nclaimed pertain to the separate States and to private individuals. Meanwhile the Catholics and the Methodists have initiated universities and are\nacquiring the requisite funds for their maintenance. Other religious bodies\nare likely to follow their example, and it is not impossible that there will\nsoon be a group of institutions in Washington representing the principal\nChristian sects. There are those who claim, with much force, that the\ncharter of the Columbian University would be an excellent basis for a\nnational institution, and that money alone is requisite in order to secure\nthe highest efficiency. Still, again, there are those who believe that an\nindependent foundation by private donations will be more successful than\nany form of political or ecclesiastical endowment. Perhaps the problem\nwould be simplified if the idea could be eliminated that a university in\nWashington must of course be a place for the systematic education of\nyouth, and for the bestowal of academic degrees. This is indeed a usualfunction of American universities, but it is not essential. If the university in Washington could be so ordered that all the scientific resources of\n\n"}
{"page": 121, "printed_page": null, "text": "OPENING\n\nADDRESS.\n\n101\n\nthe nation were available for study, under the guidance of competent\npersons, without reference to honors, and without formal and prolonged\ncurricula, very many well qualified scholars — some who have graduated\nand some who have never been in college ; men and women ; foreigners\nand Americans ; some in early and some in later life — would there be\ngathered, and would be aided, taught, inspired by the opportunities and\ninfluences thrown open to them, in an amplitude worthy of the national\ncapital.\nThe last word has not been said in respect to the higher education of\nwomen. Three views are prevalent. At one extreme are those who\nwould not open the doors of any high school on the same terms to men\nand women. They believe that the sexes can be taught in a better way\nin separate institutions. They believe that, through a series of influences\nextending over many centuries, women in civilized countries — certainly in\ncircles where refinement, education, and religion are prevalent — have been\nprotected from the harsher and rougher influences of the world, and have\nbeen relieved from burdens which their fathers, brothers, husbands, and\nsons have been, as a rule, most willing to bear. To those who dwell upon\nthis aspect of the question, absolute coeducation seems to be a retrograde\nstep. It may, however, be conceded that ere long, perhaps henceforward, women are to have equal advantages with men in the pursuit of\nadvanced education ; and it is certainly demonstrated that their powers\nof acquiring knowledge are equal to those of men.\nAt the opposite extreme are those who claim that women will equal\nmen, if they have an opportunity, in the professions of law, medicine,\nand theology, and in scientific and literary pursuits ; that many are now\nprepared for and eager for university opportunities ; and that it would be\na waste of force, even if it were practicable at the moment, to duplicate\nsuch foundations as are open to men. To those who hold these opinions,\ncoeducation seems essential.\nBetween these extremes another view is held. The intermediates would\nopen to both sexes the advantages of university instruction, but would\ndo so under such arrangements as will secure to women the supervision\nand counsel of women, as to men the supervision and counsel of men.\nThe experience acquired in the colleges for women associated with the universities of Cambridge and Oxford, and in our own country the remarkable success which has attended what is called the Annex of Harvard\nUniversity, indicate to many the solution of the problem, unless, indeed,\naround such a foundation as Bryn Mawr or another woman's college the\nnot impossible nor undesirable university for women should be developed.\nIn comparison with the subjects already named, it may seem that the\nquestion of residence in a university is of very slight importance ; but is\nthis true in places where the education of youth, the development of character, and the formation of moral, mental, and social habits are deemed\n\n"}
{"page": 122, "printed_page": null, "text": "102\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nof prime importance ? Poverty, indifference, and inattention seemed to\nhave governed our usages hitherto. The original colleges brought hither\nfrom England the notions of a master's residence, a chapel, a common\ndining-hall, and lodgings over which the tutors exercised some supervision— arrangements which fascinate every visitor upon the Isis and the\nCam. But for some reason these usages degenerated in this country.\nThe halls of residence have become \"dormitories/' open to the outside\nworld by night and by day, without any tables or refectories.\nCommons were so badly managed that bread-and-butter rebellions were\nsometimes resorted to for relief, and commons were given up. The reaction has begun, certainly at Harvard and Yale. The evils that were\nattributed to dormitories, rightly or wrongly, led many of the newer\ninstitutions to abandon their use, or to refrain from introducing them.\nIn recent times in many places fraternities supply their members with the\ncomforts of private houses. In many places there is no general provision.\nYet one experiment remains to be tried : the establishment of a hall of\nresidence which shall be to the university what a college is to Oxford and\nCambridge, a hotel, with a scholar and his staff at the head of it ; with\nprivacy, comfort, oversight, and intellectual guidance ; where visitors may\nbe received and entertainments may be given, but where the dominant\npursuit is study, the society restricted to men of intellectual pursuits.\nProbably the next stage in the development of college residences will be a\nmodern home for students, with many of those charms which made conventual and subsequently collegiate life attractive, but with modern sanitary improvements, and modern comforts of a substantial but not of an\nextravagant character.\nIn the future some dangers are apparent. The spirit of rivalry, sometimes latent, sometimes avowed, threatens to restrict the usefulness of our\nhigher institutions. These powerful agencies for good should maintain\ntheir solidarity, solidarity of purpose and of influence, solidarity in the\ndiscovery, maintenance, and diffusion of the truth ; for the fields of research\nare as infinite as the heavens above, the needs of human society are as\nvaried as the lessons of human experience, and the youth qualified to profit\nby higher educations are more numerous than the throngs who frequented\nthe lectures of Abelard and the schoolmen, before the discoveries of Faust\nand Schoeffer. In every aspect of the harvest there is enough and to spare.\nIt is therefore as needless as it is foolish to engage in such rivalries as ought\nto be restricted, with the use of sensational advertisements, to the venders\nof patent medicine and the managers of dime museums. When all our\nstrong universities do their utmost, the work of education and of investigation will only be half done.\nThere is reason to fear that the distinctive \"college\" will be disprized,\nas technical schools increase in numbers and in excellence, as professional\n\n"}
{"page": 123, "printed_page": null, "text": "OPENING\n\nADDRESS.\n\n103\n\nschools show their readiness to fill up their benches with scholars who have\nnever had a proper preparation, and as permission is granted to anticipate during an undergraduate course those studies which are properly\nreserved for those who have taken their first degree in arts. The tendency\nto undervalue the American college is also shown by a disposition to offer\ngraduate, advanced, or university courses in places where the forces are\nonly equal, perhaps are barely equal, to the work of a college. The most\ncritical questions respecting higher education are now to be found in the\ncollege domain. I can only state them, leaving their discussion to others.\nWhat are the proper conditions of admission? Has it been wise to increase\nthe requirements, so that the ages of college students at entrance are\nnow almost synchronous with the age at graduation in the early part\nof this century ? By what method can the elective system be so regulated\nthat every student shall be rightly guided in his choice ? Ought not\ngreater emphasis be given to the old idea of a liberal education intermediate between that of the preparatory school and that of professional\nand technical schools ?\nIn respect to publications, there is this cause for complaint. Within the\nlast few years scores of new journals have been begun, bearing the names\nof the institutions in which they are issued. Many of them have a very\nlimited circulation. Articles of merit which appear in their pages are in\ndanger of the greatest of horrors — burial alive. They are only printed,\nnot published. Many of them occupy the field of other journals elsewhere published. There are no general indexes or reviews or year-books\nwhich collate the contents. It is extravagant for individuals, it is troublesome for libraries to take in all these journals. Where they are received,\nthey are liable to remain unread, perhaps uncut. All this belongs to the\nexuberance of adolescence. There must be a survival of the fittest.\nVarious schemes have been proposed for the accomplishment of a reform,\nbut they are too detailed for discussion here. However, it may not be\ndeemed discourteous to assert this thesis, that an institution does not win\nso much distinction from serials bearing its name, as it derives from the\nmemoirs, essays, and contributions to science or to literature produced by\nits faculty, which are read and acknowledged by the leading authorities at\nhome and abroad. A scholar in the most obscure village in the country\nmay light a fire or discover a jewel which will give him position everywhere but\n;\nhe must put his candle in a candlestick, and his jewel must\nbe mounted that it may be seen. He must not merely print ; he must\npublish.\nBut the prospect of dangers does not detract from the pleasures and\nexcitements of the voyage, or from the belief that there are regions rich in\ngold and wheat, in ivory and peacocks, yet to be visited by our caravels in\nlands beyond the sea. The universities and colleges of this country are\n\n"}
{"page": 124, "printed_page": null, "text": "104\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nthe hope of our future. Those who profit by their advantages, as a rule,\nwill be found taking the right attitude toward all public questions. The\nmore liberal their education and the more wise their teachers, the surer\nare they to be found on the side of liberty and good government, the more\nsteady will be their resistance to that conservatism which is afraid of progress, and to that radicalism which heeds not the voice of history. The\nday will come, if it has not already dawned, when professors of law will\nbe taken from our universities for arbitration and counsel in questions\naffecting the peace of nations ; when men of letters, or at least of academic\nculture, will be sent, as the best representatives of the American people, to\nthe most cultivated courts of Europe ; when the students of finance will be\nasked to leave their chairs of instruction and assist the officers of government in disentangling fiscal problems ; when the missionary, trained by his\nlinguistic discipline for the mastery of oriental tongues, shall become the\ninterpreter and introducer of western ideas into eastern countries ; when\nmen of science will be more and more relied on in the solution of the\nworld problems pertaining to life and force ; when philologians will interpret the texts upon which theologians will base their creeds ; when the\ndaily press will more and more readily open its columns to the matured\nopinions given out by learned men ; and when the barriers (slight and\ntransitory barriers, we may well believe) which have grown up between\nthe common schools and the universities will disappear from every part\nof the country; and when knowledge, accurate, scientific, comprehensive\nknowledge, will be regarded not only for its own sake but as the parent\nof wisdom and virtue. Am I speaking of the future or of the present ?\nHas not the day of universities dawned ? Have not our higher institutions\nwon that position that entitles them to the confidence, the admiration, and\nthe support of all the American people ? These five contributions they\nwill make to our civilization :— Science will take the place of empiricism ;\nthe power of sustained effort will be augmented ; good government will\nbe established ; encouragement will be provided for men of rare intellectual qualities ; and the noble enjoyment of leisure will be assured.\n\nHOW\n\nFAR IS IT DESIRABLE THAT UNIVERSITIES\nSHOULD BE OF ONE TYPE?\n\nBY PRESIDENT\n\nMARTIN\n\nKELLOGG,\n\nOF THE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nCALIFORNIA.\n\nIt is a time of rapid expansion in our leading institutions of learning.\nNo one of them is content with its offered facilities and its present\nendowments. Every one of them is working on some theory of further\ndevelopment.\nThere are two theories of university development :\n\n"}
{"page": 125, "printed_page": null, "text": "HOW\n\nFAR\n\nSHOULD\n\nUNIVERSITIES\n\nBE\n\nOF ONE\n\nTYPE?\n\n105\n\nFirst, As rapidly as possible to occupy every province of knowledge and\ninstruction.\nSecond, To aim at special excellence in certain portions of the field.\nEach of these theories has its exponents in this country. But the\ngreat majority of American universities seem to have adopted the first\nof these theories. In general, we may say that that is our American\nidea of university development. Nearly every university is trying to box\nthe educational compass. It aims to do, sooner or later, and as soon as\npossible, what would be demanded of it if it were a single national\ninstitution. It would equal or surpass the complex of faculties at Paris\nand Berlin. It would emulate the glory of England's twin capitals of\nuniversity life. Our universities are attempting to combine the full\nheritage of the past with all the new and ever-growing exactions of the\npresent. Every one must have the full range of classical learning, for\nthose who still believe in the old masters of civilization. It must add a\nknowledge of the chief languages and literatures of modern life. It must\nfollow the lines of ancient and mediaeval and modern history. It must\ndiscuss the governmental theories and practice of all civilized nations. It\nmust scan their ever-varying systems of philosophy. It must deal with the\nprotean shapes of so-called sociology. It must pay much attention to\nthe higher mathematics. Then the half has not been told. The natural\nsciences challenge a foremost place in every advanced institution, and\nclaim, year by year, new foundations for special investigations. Their\npursuit is costly, and adds enormously to the demands made on university\nfunds. Special graduate studies assume new importance both in science\nand in literature, making necessary a multiplication of investigators and\nteachers and an increase of appliances for advanced research. With the\nexception of theology in the State universities, schools for the old professions must be maintained, and schools for many new professions. The\ncalls for expansion are practically unlimited for every university working\non this American system.\nThat the evils of this procedure are not more fully realized is only\nbecause our American experiment is so new, and its results still inchoate.\nLocal pride and personal ambition have fostered boundless hopes. Our\nyoung communities have not yet measured themselves by the highest\nstandards of a universal culture. They do not realize the magnitude of\nthe task they have so bravely undertaken. They forget how many are\nthe provinces to be occupied, how rapidly these provinces are multiplying.\nIf a university could be fully equipped to-day for the whole round of\nknowledge, the swift-coming to-morrow of time would leave it in the\nbackground. But to-day finds no such assured foundations in our land.\nWith the richest, demand for increased resources far outruns supply.\nThe needed crop of great men, as investigators and teachers, will not\nspring from the mere sowing of gold.\nThere will be no university which\n\n"}
{"page": 126, "printed_page": null, "text": "106\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nin the next generation, at least, will achieve full and symmetrical preeminence on every possible side of university work. So unsatisfactory is\nthe first of our two theories of university development ; so sure, in almost\nall cases, to lead to disappointment and partial failure.\nLet us suppose the other theory to prevail, the theory which asks for\nspecial excellence in certain portions only of the wide field of knowledge.\nNo university would in that case abandon advantages already gained.\nNo one would cease to aim at a general understanding and presentation of\nthe learning and science of the age. Ambition to impart what is already\nknown is as important as ambition to enlarge the boundaries of knowledge. Said a college president in this State : \"You are eager to discover\nnew truth ; I am eager to develop new minds/' No narrow lines of\ninstruction should satisfy the aspirations of any university or college\nfaculty. But it is equally imperative to add to the sum of knowledge.\nInvestigation is the watchword of the highest education. \"What Professor\nHale calls creative scholarship is the stimulus needful to infuse fresh lifeblood ; it is the prize which brings the choicest fame.\nFor such productive work, is it not clear that special and limited ambitions are better than a general, all-embracing ambition ? So long as a\nuniversity insists on a full and symmetrical development, it will think\nmore of strengthening its weak sides than of making its strong sides\nstronger. But when it accepts large limitations, it will give its chief\nenergies to its most successful work. The circle of knowledge is growing\non every side, pushing its radii into the surrounding ignorance. \"Where\nwill the push be hardest ? Certainly where the greatest force is expended\nin a single direction. Any university, not cosmopolitan in equipment,\ncan most enlarge the boundaries of knowledge, most increase the light of\ntruth, by concentrating its energies on a few lines of investigation. If\nit is good for one man to have a hobby — I use the word in a higher sense\nthan Dr. Harris does ; I mean . by it a worthy specialty, enthusiastically\nfollowed — it is good for a university faculty to have an assortment of\n,hobbies. The individual worker finds a narrow choice essential to success; the university can make many more choices, but it, too, is under the\nlaw of limitation. There is a genius loci in all our American foundations.\nIt breaks forth in university competitions ; it shows itself in the celebration of public events ; none the less does it direct the patient work of the\nlaboratory and tlie classroom. It makes the great men of the university;\nand no university has enough of its great men to deal with all the vital\nbranches of knowledge.\nSo, for the sum total of beneficent results, it would be better that our\nuniversities should have each its peculiar aims, and that all should differ\nin their lines of excellence. \"We have already a few examples ; there are\nuniversities which have taken themselves out of the processinn, and trodden separate and more distinguished paths of their own.\n\n"}
{"page": 127, "printed_page": null, "text": "HOW\n\nFAR\n\nSHOULD\n\nUNIVERSITIES\n\nBE OF ONE\n\nTYPE?\n\n107\n\nIt is no small recommendation of this theory, that, if generally adopted,\nit would lessen, if not extinguish, a certain ungracious competition.\nUniversities which range equally the whole field of the higher education are\nreally rivals. With aims essentially the same and alike unbounded, they\nare tempted to make numbers the test of eminence, and to canvass the\nwhole country in order to swell their numbers. The competition is sometimes sharp. There is also a shame at being outclassed in any one line of\nprogress. A university seeing superior inducements elsewhere, in any\nimportant study, forthwith strives to make up the deficiency. If one\nleading institution makes a new departure, and establishes a \"school \" of\npolitical science, or philosophy, or biology, others strain every nerve to do\nthe same. It is a succession of races, to be run as often as a newcomer\nchallenges the field; and a veritable devil of disrepute is believed to lie in\nwait for the hindmost.\nWhat if every university should allow precedence to others in certain\nlines of excellence, and bid them a hearty Godspeed in their own peculiar\nwork ? It could at the same time strengthen its own strong redoubts,\nmake more sure its own acknowledged preeminence in some field of its\nown, and receive reciprocal congratulations. I can imagine so healthy a\ntone of university fellowship, so complete a comity of intercourse, that\nthe Apostolic injunction to individual good men would be realized by the\naggregations of good men in university faculties : boasting would be excluded, and in honor they would be ready to prefer one another ; yet\nabating no jot of effort in developing their own several departments of\nhonorable and useful work.\nThis comity should extend so far that a student with special wants,\nwho could do better elsewhere, would be advised to go elsewhere. That is\nnot, I am glad to say, a mere stretch of imagination. I have known such\ncases of honest advice.\nSuch an interchange of students would lead — would it not ?— to a\nfuller recognition of the work done in other reputable institutions. Why\nshould there not be a license of migration, akin to that of the German\nuniversities ?— not identical with that, but suited to the conditions of\nour own body of students.\nSuch a theory of university development would give larger honor and\nusefulness to many institutions which do not aspire to the name of universities. Itis but recently that some of our best universities have been\nrechristened. They were for a long time colleges, and it was as colleges\nthat they laid all the foundations of their present excellence.\nThere have been other colleges that gloried in great teachers, like Mark\nHopkins. There are colleges now possessing eminent names in their faculties. The want of means or a purposed limitation restricts them to fewer\nlines of excellence than are possible to the larger foundations of universities. But in their narrower field they may still achieve the most substantial\n\n"}
{"page": 128, "printed_page": null, "text": "108\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nsuccess. The college professor may conduct brilliant investigations in\nhistory, or philosophy, or philology ; he may, even with inferior equipment, make a new epoch in some branch of natural science. Chicago's\nastronomer, Burn ham, did much for science before he looked through the\ntelescope of the Lick Observatory. Intensity and genius are no exclusive\npossessions of the university.\nIf these views are just, we may say, it is desirable that our universities\nshould be so far of one type that in any one of them the ordinary student\nwill find his needs fully met. In them all the various branches of knowledge should be understood, in their most modern phases. All the most\nimportant of these branches should be taught, and well taught, in every\nuniversity. Or, again, we may say our universities should be of one\nspirit rather than of one type. A common spirit will stimulate them all\nto do new and valuable work. A common type is to be avoided, such as\nmust result from the attempt of all to do the same things by trying to do\neverything. And, finally, every university may most wisely have a type\nof its own. On its own proper lines of development, it should seek the\nhighest attainable character, imparting freshness and individuality, and\ngiving it a place of distinct, perhaps distinguished, honor in the galaxy\nof American institutions of learning.\nDISCUSSION.\nProfessor David Fiske, of the University of Chicago, favored the view that universities should not be of one type, inasmuch as the circle of knowledge is now so vast\nthat it is utterly impossible for any one faculty to encompass it, and that there was no\nreason why we should not have differentiation in universities as well as special professors in the departments of knowledge.\nPresident Canfield, of the State University of Nebraska, thought American institutions had not suffered by following pretty closely after one another, and cited the\nexample of one university which had remodeled and improved its school of history and\npolitical science because it was followed up by the pressure of other institutions in the\nsame field ; and thus, instead of being let alone, had been forced to develop by the\ncourse pursued by other schools of history and political science.\nProfessor Sproull, Dean of the Univei'sity of Cincinnati, said he was inclined to\nhave institutions specialized. All who had gone through universities in Germany know\nthat students stick to those institutions where the professors are prominent in certain\nlines. The students accordingly freely change their university from time to time in\norder to get under the best professor. If there were one institution where the best special\ntraining in some one subject could be acquired, it would save time and expense. Professor Sproull, while inclined to favor the specializing of universities, was opposed to\nthe specializing of colleges.\nProfessor H. C. Cameron, of Princeton University, spoke on the difference between\nthe English and German universities, expressing his preference for the German university of four faculties, and his conviction that the older American institutions are\nworking toward the German conception. He did not wish, without further thought,\nto commit himself fully on the subject.\nMr. Melvil Dewey, Secretary of the Regents of the University of the State of\nNew York, thought there was need of clear agreement as to what a university was before\nthe question could be satisfactorily discussed, and that a university properly meant\nan institution for research or special study in any line of human knowledge for those\nwho hav ecompleted preliminary work in the elementary schools ; that is to say, a four\nyears' course in the academy, and a four years' course in the college.\n\n"}
{"page": 129, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE DIVISION OF LABOR\n\nTHE DIVISION\nBY PROFESSOR\n\nGIUSEPPE\n\nOF LABOR\nALLIEVO,\n\nIN THE UNIVERSITY.\n\nIN THE\n\nOF THE\n\nUNIVERSITY.\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF TURIN,\n\n109\n\n*\nITALY.\n\nThe university is the studio of the universal encyclopedia ; it is the\nschool of the whole of human knowledge in its complete organization and\nin its highest ideal. The limitations of individual minds, to which universal knowledge is unattainable, led in earliest times to the division of\nuniversity learning into distinct and special groups, which, according to\nthe European system, take the names of faculties, such as those of medicine, law, mathematics, theology, philosophy, and letters. Each of these\nfaculties includes within itself several disciplines, which must be followed\nby all the students who aim at a special degree.\nThis ancient differentiation of studies, introduced from its origin into\nthe university, was maintained during several centuries. But in course of\ntime, and especially since 1600, the arts and sciences took a really wonderful development, so that in each faculty new branches of instruction were\ngradually added, in order to keep pace with the progressive development\nof knowledge. However, the young men enrolled under the various faculties felt themselves more and more powerless to apply successfully the\nentire material of study included within the limits of each faculty towards\nacquiring the culture suited to the exercise of that liberal profession to\nwhich they aspired. Therefore the ancient differentiation of university\nstudies into a few supreme groups termed faculties, or courses, was no\nlonger sufficient ; and the necessity was felt of introducing into each of\nthem new divisions of studies, and of conferring corresponding special\ndegrees. And, in fact, a few changes were made here and there in this\nsense ; but the need of further differentiations increases disproportionately, and while repeated attempts are being made to give to the university a new basis of organization corresponding to the requirements of the\ntime, public opinion is not yet unanimous as to the limits that should be\nset to this work of differentiation.\nWhile specialization is becoming ever more pronounced in the different\ndisciplines of the university, and also outside of the university in the liberal professions, another kind of scientific movement has become prominent within the circle of higher studies. In the past the study of theoretical science and the routine acquisition of professional skill were one\nand the same at the university, and young men passed directly from\ntheoretical studies to the practice of their profession. At present, students have made a division of the mental work : on one side the learned,\nwith their pure and disinterested love of their science ; on the other the\n* Title, La divutione del lavaro nelV Universitd.\nof Prirceton, N. J.\n\nTranslation made by Professor A. L. Frothingbam,\n\n"}
{"page": 130, "printed_page": null, "text": "110\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nprofessionals, with their learning practically applied to their specialty.\nFor the first class the university remained ; for the use of the second there\narose high special technical schools, separate from the universities.\nThe ancient university organism has therefore become dislocated. The\ngreat school of the universal encyclopedia, displaced from its center of\ngravity, has become disaggregated into a multitude of special schools\ndissident and solitary. We are spectators of a double antagonism. The\nuniversity is at war with itself, for it sees its ideal unity fall to pieces\nunder the blows of an immoderate specialism, which no longer puts any\nlimits to its advance. It is also at war with the special technical highschools, which, disdaining pure science, shut themselves up, each one, in\nthe idolatory of its own art specialty. In the field of thought, on the\none hand, the analytic process has divided and subdivided knowledge\ninto most minute disciplines, to so great an extent that whoever devotes\nhimself to the study of one alone loses sight of the bonds that join it\nwith all the others into a potent ideal unity. In the field of action the\nliberal professions are becoming specialized beyond all measure, and the\nstudents, treating science as a mere handmaid to their profession, obtain\nfrom study merely that smattering of theoretic knowledge which is\nabsolutely necessary to them in the practice of their profession, and look\nno further. Thus, on the one hand the mental exercise of the learned\nis becoming restricted to narrow and exclusive views, and lacks those\nbroad intuitions, those synthetic comprehensions of thought that discover\nnew horizons in the world of knowledge. On the other hand, the practice, of the professionals, no longer illumined, as it should be, by theory,\nno longer animated by the spirit of the idea, is degenerating into professionalism and being side-tracked into empiricism. This condition of things,\nwhich threatens the future of high social culture, is a grave subject for\nthought for all who have at heart the interest of public studies. In meditating upon this most dangerous fact, in order to ward off its deplorable\nconsequences it appears necessary, first of all, to reach an accord in the\nfollowing three points :\n(1) The division of university work by specialization of the scientific\ndisciplines and the higher schools is a necessity called for by the increased\ndevelopment of knowledge and the progress in the professions.\n(2) It is also necessary that the university should retain the unity of its\nideal organism, so that it remain for students the universal school of\nhuman learning (scibile) in its harmonious and synthetic integrity.\n(3) It is likewise necessary to maintain the suitable harmony between\ntheoretical study and practical application, between the science and the\npractice, in order that the disinterested and pure love of truth may\nnot be suffocated by the utilitarianism of life. All three of these points\nare incontestable. But a double problem at once arises : How can the\nnecessity of the division of labor be reconciled with the unity of the\n\n"}
{"page": 131, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE\n\nDIVISION\n\nOF LABOR\n\nIN THE\n\nUNIVERSITY.\n\nIll\n\nideal university organism ? How can the requisite harmony be maintained\nbetween pure science and professional practice in the high special technical\nschools ? With respect to the first part of this problem, it should be borne\nin mind that the university is the temple of pure and universal science,\nthe scbool of the human encyclopedia — that is, of all the disciplines coordinated in a systematic unity. This conception leads me logically to propose two courses, obligatory for all students, to whatever faculty or course\nthey belong ; that is : (1) A chair whose object is the encyclopedic classification ofthe sciences (of which Ampere gave a magnificent attempt in\nhis \" Essai sur la philosophie des sciences\"), conceived in such a way as\nto show the logical connections of all the disciplines ; (2) a chair whose\nobject is protology, or the study of the supreme and universal principles\nof all sciences.\nAttacking the second part of the problem, guided by the same conception, Iwould suggest two other courses, obligatory for all students of the\nvarious special technical schools ; that is, the creation of a chair of special\nphilosophy related to a certain group of sciences (for example, the philosophy of mathematics, the philosophy of medicine, the philosophy of jurisprudence, etc.), and a chair of logic considered as the supreme legislative\nscience of thought. It is self-evident that the purely doctoral and honorary degree should be preserved, as that which attests the disinterested\nand pure love of truth sought for its own sake, without regard to the\nimmediate and low utilities of life.\nI must remain satisfied with having barely proposed these measures,\nas the limits assigned to this paper make it impossible for me to develop\nmy idea as it should be developed. However, this argument of the division\nof labor leads me to this other problem, Whether, and within what limits,\nwoman also can take part in university studies. The different temper of\nmind and of body given by nature to man and woman appoints for them\na diverse social mission, and therefore requires a correspondingly different\neducation. (Of this I have spoken in my work, \" Studi Antropologici,\nVUomo ed il Cosmo,\" and also in my \"Studi pedagogici\") ' From this\nimpregnable principle of physiological science and of psychology, it follows logically that it is not in conformity with reason that young men and\nwomen should follow the same university course, and I am of the opinion\nthat only those courses of study are suited to girls which prepare them for\nthe career of teaching and education.\n\n"}
{"page": 132, "printed_page": null, "text": "112\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nSHOULD AN ANTECEDENT LIBERAL\nREQUIRED OF STUDENTS IN LAW,\nTHEOLOGY?\nBY\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nWOODROW\n\nWILSON,\n\nOF\n\nPRINCETON\n\nEDUCATION BE\nMEDICINE, AND\nUNIVERSITY.\n\n[Professor Wilson first read (he following letter from Professor James Barr Ames, of Harvard University,\nand then continued the discussion of the above subject :]\n\nNo one, I assume, thinks the time has yet come, if indeed it will ever come in this\ncountry, for us to imitate the Germans and make the college and the university professional school the only avenue to professional life. I should certainly be opposed to any\nlegislation making either an academic degree or a university professional degree a\nprerequisite to the practice of any one of the three old professions.\nBut whether a university professional school should, by way of improving the quality\nof its students, insist upon an academic degree from a college in good standing as a\nprerequisite to candidacy for its own professional degree, is an altogether different question. To one who believes that we must look to the voluntary action of the universities\nfor the elevation of the standard of professional education, this question admits of bat\none answer. Every university, in its own interest as well as in behalf of the community,\nshould, as soon as reasonably practicable, treat the degree of Bachelor of Arts. Literature, Science, or Philosophy as an indispensable condition of receiving: the higher\nprofessional degree. The university would in this way not only improve the quality of\nthe professional schools ; it would also help the college, by throwing the whole influence\nof the professional schools in favor of a college education .\nThe desired result .must, of course, come about gradually. The oldest and richest of\nAmerican universities has not yet adopted the policy here advocated in all its departments. College graduates alone can receive the Harvard degree in theology. The\nsame will be true of the degree in law after the academic year 1895-96. The faculty\nof the medical school would like to adopt a similar rule, but the percentage of college\ngraduates among its students is still so small that it is not thought wise to incur the\nrisk of a large reduction in the numbers of the school.\nTwo other considerations should be kept in mind. The principle here urged does not\nexclude from the professional schools those who are not college graduates. Those who\npass the moderate entrance examinations may be admitted as special students and\nreceive the benefit of the instruction.\nThe professional degree alone is denied to them.\nSecondly, much might be said in favor of a still further concession to special students\nof unusual ability, who have been deprived, through no fault of their own, of the\nadvantages of a college education. It might be provided, as is the case under the recent\nlegislation of the Harvard Law School, that a special student who resided at the professional school for the full course, and who obtained a mark within five per cent, of\nthat required for the honor degree, should be entitled to receive the professional degree.\nThese exceptional cases would, doubtless, be very few, but the concession would remove\nall objections on the score of hardship. I should hope that this exception in favor of\nspecial students would be only a temporary expedient, and that eventually the degrees\nin law, medicine, and theology would be given on the same terms as the Ph.D. or S.D.\nThis would give definiteness and coherence to our universities. The American university would be neither the English nor yet the German university, but an institution\nsui generis, the natural outgrowth of our peculiar conditions.\nRespectfully submitted.\nJames Barr Ames,\nHarvard Law School.\n\nWe shall, I think, escape entanglements if we note at the very outset\nthe twofold aspect of the subject. It may be discussed (1) from the point\nof view of the individual who is seeking professional instruction as a means\nof gaining a livelihood, or (2) from the point of view of society itself,\nwhich must wish to be well served by its professional classes. The community will doubtless be inclined to demand more education than the\n\n"}
{"page": 133, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIBERAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN LAW, MEDICINE,\n\nAND\n\nTHEOLOGY.\n\n113\n\nindividual will be willing to tarry for before entering on the practice of\nhis profession. To which shall we give greater weight, the self-interest\nof the individual or the self-interest of the community ? The community,\nif it be wise, will be anxious to see practical knowledge advanced all along\nthe line ; will wish the physician to be something more than an empiric,\ncapable himself of sure-footed search for the origins and determining conditions of disease ; will desire to find in the preacher something larger\nand more generous in temper and endowment than dogmatism — even the\nliberal spirit of a serious and withal practical philosophy ; will look for\ndignified parts of learning in the lawyer, something better than practical\nshrewdness and successful chicane, a capacity to rise at need to the point\nof view of the jurist, as if aware of the great and permanent principles of\nlarge-eyed justice. The average individual, on the other hand, will be\neager to make his way as rapidly as possible to business; and when once\nbusiness engagements begin to press upon him, his thought will adjust\nitself to them. If the habit of carrying special cases up into the region of\ngeneral principles — where alone the real light of discovery burns — be not\nformed during the period of preparation, it will hardly come afterward,\nwhen the special cases crowd fast and the general principles remain remote.\nOnly the pastor has any leisure then for the higher sort of study, and even\nhe is not likely to begin it then if he has never known before what it is\nand what it may do for him. The old women, and the young, will prevent his becoming studious if he be not already a confirmed student, safe\nin \" his pensive citadel.\"\nAn antecedent liberal education, it must of course be admitted, does\nnot necessarily disclose general principles ; is too often so t71iberal in its\nsurvey of subjects as to leave upon the mind no trace of the generalizing\nhabit. But usually it is liberal, at any rate, in being general ; and, without a survey of the field of knowledge, a various view of the interests of\nthe mind, it is hard to see how a man is to discern the relations of things,\nupon the perception of which all just thought must rest. It is something\nsimply to have traversed many fields of thought, to have seen where they\nlie, and how surrounded, with what coasts, what natural, what \"scientific''\nboundaries. It is something to have made \" the grand tour/' even under\nindifferent tutors ; something to have had a Wanderjahr, if only to see\nthe world of men and things. A man who has not had an antecedent\nliberal education can certainly never get a subsequent equivalent ; and,\nwithout it, he must remain shut in by a narrow horizon, imagining the\nconfines of knowledge to lie very close about him on every side. Such is\nthe \" practical \" physician, lawyer, or preacher who now rides us like the\nOld Man of the Sea, monarch of his little isle of expert knowledge until\nwe can drug and dislodge him.\nThe world woke once, in that notable fifteenth century, to find itself\nstanding in the clear dawn of the New Learning, and the light which then\n8\n\n"}
{"page": 134, "printed_page": null, "text": "114\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\ncame has never since been taken away. But we have played tricks with it ;\nwe have detracted it, distinguishing the lines of its spectrum with an\nextreme nicety exceeding that of the Rowland grating, and so have brought\nupon ourselves a New Ignorance. In our desire to differentiate its rays we\nhave forgotten to know the sun in its entirety — its power to illuminate, to\nquicken and expand. Knowledge has lost its synthesis, and lies with its\ncolors torn apart, dissolved. That New Learning, which saw knowledge\nwhole, shattered the feudal system of society ; this New Ignorance, which\nlikes knowledge piecemeal and in weak solution, has created a feudal system of learning. There is no common mastery, but everywhere separate\nbaronies of knowledge, where a few strong men rule and many ignorant\nmen are held vassals — men ignorant of the freedom of more perfect, more\nliberal knowledge. We need a freer constitution of learning. Its present\nconstitution only makes it certain that we shall have disorder and wasteful\nwar. To come to the matter immediately in hand, see to how many subjects the student of medicine must turn if he would master his single practical art. It is impossible he should understand the physical life of man\nwitheut understanding the physical life of the universe. He may not\nwisely stop short of the widest ranges of biology. And yet the physical\nlife of man is made distinctive, after all, by his singular mental life. He\nmay imagine himself into distemper and disease, and the physician will\nlose trace of causes of great moment to his own art if he know nothing of\nthe laws of the mind — of physiological psychology not only, but of pure\npsychology too. He cannot get this range of knowledge in the medical\nschool ; he must get it from an antecedent liberal education ; and it will\nbe sheer misfortune for him, even as a practical man, if that antecedent\ntraining bring him not out upon a plane of knowledge, a vantage ground\nof outlook and command, higher even and more invigorating than these\nspecial fields of science. The student of theology, it will be admitted, is\nbut a poor pretender if no serious survey of other subjects precede and\naccompany his direct preparation for the ministry. He, of all men, must\nunderstand mankind if he is to lead them into better ways of living and\nto a death of hope. And how can he understand modern society without a\nknowledge of the scientific standards and conceptions that condition all\nmodern thought ? How can he understand any society without knowing\naught of philosophy or politics or economy ? He will never reach any\nmotive unless he learn to read men and their life.\nThe student of law, too : what can he know but the forms and the\ntricks of the law if he know nothing of the law's rootage in society, the\nprinciples of its origin and development ; how it springs out of material\nand social conditions which it is the special task of economy and political\nscience to elucidate, out of elements which run centuries deep into the\nhistory of nations ? No mere technical training can ever make a firstrate lawyer.\nObserve, I do not say jurist — that, of course. I say that no\n\n"}
{"page": 135, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIBERAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN LAW,\n\nMEDICINE,\n\nAND\n\nTHEOLOGY.\n\n115\n\nfirst-rate lawyer can be made by merely technical training, no lawyer of\nmastery and real resource. General principles learned memoriter are as\nuseless for mastery as precedents learned memoriter. No man shall command them who does not know whence they came, and what like occasions must be made to yield new principles alike to bar and bench. Such\nis the practitioner who is armed cap-a-pie, to be feared by every opponent\nin the mere matter of winning cases. How shall a man who knows nothing of history, of economics, or of political science ever know more than\nthe technical rules of the law, which must for him he rules dead, inflexible, final ?\nAll this is plain enough, at least to every liberally educated man, and\nto every one who considers first of all the good of the community and the\nadvancement of the professions. But immediate self-interest, haste to\nget at the pecuniary rewards of his profession, to make a supporting business of it, will make the individual indifferent to these larger considerations. He is willing to leave the higher reaches of his calling to those\nwho have time to seek them. The physician is content to be a successful\nempiric, and learn useful practical lessons from his daily experience. The\nminister is satisfied if he please his congregation by agreeable sermons\nand still more agreeable pastoral visits. The lawyer does not aspire to be\nmore than an expert in a technical business. As many will go without a\n\" liberal education \" as the community will permit to do so. Public\nopinion does not act imperatively in the matter, because not all of the\npublic, at any rate here in the United States, has made up its mind that a\ngeneral training need precede professional training. Some communities\neven seem inclined to boast of their \" born\" preachers, and their lawyers\nwho have gained admission to the bar after only six weeks' study. There\nis among us a somewhat general skepticism as to the efficacy of college\ninstruction, and a very widely diffused belief in the sufficiency of natural\nendowments. And, of course, no one will claim that the colleges give a\nman all, or even any considerable part, of what he should have by way of\nequipment for one of the learned professions. All that we can say is that\nthe colleges can give him the point' of view, the outlook and the habit of\nmind, of the scholar; that, without an \"antecedent liberal education/'\nnot one man in a thousand will have the studies he ought to undertake so\nmuch as suggested to him. His little world will be flat, not round, shut\nin by an encompassing sea, bounded by the near horizon. A professional\nman ought to have a liberal education, if only to make him aware of his\nlimitations, careful net to blunder into fields of which he knows that he\nis ignorant.\nThe practical side of this question is certainly a very serious one in this\ncountry. That there should be an almost absolute freedom of occupation isa belief very intimately and tenaciously connected with the democratic theory of government, and our legislators are very slow to lay many\n\n"}
{"page": 136, "printed_page": null, "text": "110\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nrestrictions upon it. Our colleges and universities, and our law and medical and theological schools have seldom endowment enough to render\nthem independent of popular demands and standards. They are wholly\nindependent, however, of each other, and cannot be constrained to accept\nany common scheme or standard. Even if the public had made up its\nmind very definitely on this subject, no means are at hand to facilitate\nconcerted action. Reform must come piecemeal, and by example ; not\nall at once and by authority. The remedy for the present state of affairs\nin this country seems to me to lie in resolute independent experiment by\nindividual institutions. Let leading universities and colleges that have or\ncan get money enough to make them free to act without too much regard\nto outside criticism, first erect professional schools upon a new model of\nscholarship, and then close the doors of those schools to all who have\nnot a first-rate college training. It would not take the country long to\nfind out that the best practical lawyers and doctors and preachers came\nout from those schools — and the rest would be discredited., I believe that\nno medical or law or theological school ought to be a separate institution.\nIt ought to be both organically and in situation part of a university, a\nuniversity big and real enough to dominate it. It ought to be permeated\nwith the university atmosphere ; it ought to employ university methods ;\nit ought itself to exemplify the liberal spirit of learning. It would do little\ngood to the professions to send only college graduates to many of our\nseparate professional schools. They would find nothing but empiricism\nthere. To nothing there would their college training seem applicable. It\nis useless, too, to try to reform these separate schools as they stand.\nBuild a university over them and extend the university faculty into them,\nand they may be made to your mind ; but do not dream of making them\nlike universities in spirit, method, thoroughness in any other way. When\nuniversities put students trained in chemistry, biology, and psychology\ninto their own medical schools ; students drilled in history, in economics,\nin i)hilosophy, and in the natural history of society into their law schools ;\nstudents informed in the various thought of the age and read in the literature of all ages into their schools of theology, the country will begin to\nbe filled with real lawyers, capable physicians, powerful preachers once\nmore, and these great professions will once again deserve the name of\nlearned professions.\nThe separation of general and special training is an acute symptom of\nthe disease of specialization by which we are now so sorely afflicted. Our\nprofessional men are lamed and hampered by that partial knowledge which\nis the most dangerous form of ignorance. I would no more employ a\nphysician unacquainted with the general field of science than I would\nemploy an oculist who was ignorant of the general field of medicine.\nKnowledge is trustworthy only when it is balanced and complete. This\nis the reason why the whole of the question we are now considering is a\n\n"}
{"page": 137, "printed_page": null, "text": "117\nDISCUSSION.\n\nuniversity question. Knowledge must be kept together ; our professional\nschools must be uuiversity schools. Our faculties must make knowledge\nwhole. The liberal education that our professional men get must not only\nbe antecedent to their technical training ; it must also be concurrent\nwith it.\nNo more serious mistake was ever made than the divorce of technical\nor practical education from theoretical, as if principles could be made use\nof and applied without being understood. It is, indeed, true that a locomotive driver may handle his engine with dexterity and safety without\nbeing either a machinist or an engineer, but the body of knowledge of which\nthe physician or the lawyer or the preacher makes practical application is\nno machine. It is a body of thought; it does not stand alone ; it is not\neven true except in its proper relations to other thought. To handle it\nrequires not only skill, but insight also — a trained perception of relative\nvalues, a quick capacity for sifting and assessing evidence. As liberal an\neducation as possible is needed for such functions, if only to open the\neyes and accustom the faculties to a nice manipulation of thought. The\nempiric is the natural enemy of society, and it is imperative that everything\nshould be done — everything risked — to get rid of him. Nothing sobers\nand reforms him like a (genuine) liberal education.\nDISCUSSION.\nPresident Gilman said : I want to speak of one phase in this matter, that of medical\neducation, because my attention has been particularly called to it. Everybody knows\nthat a medical man ought to be well grounded in everything that pertains to biology, let\nus say. Now there is a school of medicine to be started in Baltimore. We have started\non the principle that nobody shall be admitted to it except those who are liberally educated. That seems very simple ; but how are we going to find out who are liberally educated ? You say the holders of the Bachelor of Arts degree. But on coming to scrutinize a\nlittle more closely, we find a great many young men graduate from colleges, and, although\nthey have diplomas, they come from institutions which have not the elements of good\neducation in them. Then, again, we find this difficulty, that many of these institutions\nwhich give bachelorate degrees already provide some instruction in physics, in chemistry,\nin botany, in zoology, and physiology, each of which ought to have its own place in a\nfinished medical course. How shall this difficulty be adjusted ? Let us say. then, it\nshall be those who have taken a bachelorate degree, provided their bachelorate degree\nincludes those items. I expect the result will be that a smaller number of scholars will\ncome, and the question is whether we shall be strong enough to stand it. That is the\ndifficulty in this whole problem. Generally speaking, the more that is done to require\nan education equivalent to that given by an ordinarily good college giving the bachelor's\ndegree, as antecedent to the study of law, medicine, and theology, the better it will be\nfor the country.\nMr. Dewey thought it would be unwise to forbid men by legislation to practice law\nor medicine without an antecedent college education, but that a public feeling against\nprofessional men devoid of a liberal education could be created by proper stimulation.\nA help against the admission of really uneducated students to professional schools would\nbe found when the too common system by which the pay of the professor is fixed and\nhis salary regulated by the fee, is done away with. The taking of fees is a constant\ntemptation to admit incompetent students. Take the fees away and it becomes the\ninterest of the professor to shut out incompetent students. Furthermore, the degreegiving power should not be lodged in detached professional schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 138, "printed_page": null, "text": "118\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nProfessor Baker, of the University of Colorado, deplored the present, state of the\nadmission requirements to schools of law and medicine. More than half of the law\nschools or medical schools of the country have no standard for admission whatever.\nProfessor Baker adduced cases he had observed of young men leaving the freshman class\nof college, where they had been unable to maintain any scholarly standing, and starting at\nonce to study law or medicine. There should be no admission to professional schools without at least a complete high-school education. To require the Bachelor of Arts degree,\nespecially if the degree be further improved in value, seems to be requiring too much.\nPerhaps somewhere between these two extremes will finally be found the solution of the\nproblem— that is, intermediate between the completion of a high-school education and\nthe completion of a college course.\nProfessor Imelmann, of the Joachimsthal Gymnasium, of Berlin. Germany, expressed\nhis satisfaction with the views of Professor Wilson. The question, however, was not an\nissue in German education, because the union of general and special culture, of liberal\nand professional training, is in itself the essential point, and perhaps the distinguishing\nfeature, of German universities. Furthermore, the German colleges or gymnasia have\nthe task of giving that general liberal education which serves as the best basis for preparation for admission to professional studies.\nPresident H. T. Eddy, of the Polytechnic Institute, Terre Haute, Indiana, thought\nthere had never been such an interest on the part of the whole community in the subject\nof viniversal education ; never before had such sums of money been expended for educational purposes in this country. It was important, therefore, to take advantage of this\ngeneral awakening of interest and see to it that the cause of sound liberal education\nantecedent to the professional culture should receive its share of benefit in connection\nwith this general awakening.\n\nSHOULD\n\nGREEK\nBY\n\nPE0FESS0E\n\nBE REQUIRED\nFOR\nTHE\nBACHELOR\nOF ARTS?\nW.\n\nG.\n\nHALE, UKIVEESITY\n\nOF\n\nDEGREE\n\nOF\n\nCHICAGO.\n\nThe practical solution of this question will, in the case of most men,\ndepend upon their intellectual make-up, and will not involve any larger\nsurvey of history than the memory of people in middle life supplies. Yet\nin order to be prepared, to weigh intelligently certain historical arguments\nthat are actually advanced by. the disputants on either side, it will be\nnecessary to trace rapidly the origin and later history of the degree of\nBachelor of Arts.\nOf the four institutions characterized by M. Compayre as the mothers\nof universities — namely, Bologna, Paris, Oxford, and Salamanca — the\nsecond, that of Paris, was founded in 1200. Only eight years later the\nconception of groups of related subjects appears in the wording of instructions sent to the university by Innocent III., which were addressed to\n\"all the doctors\" — i.e., teachers — \" of theology, canon law, and liberal\narts established at Paris.\" About half a century after this, the logical\nseparation of the university into departments began, taking the form not\nof a single act of organization, but of a setting-off first of one department\nand then of another from the general mass, the department of arts being\nfinally left as the residue. By the year 1275 the faculty of law, the\nfaculty of theology, the faculty of medicine (the study of which subject\n\n"}
{"page": 139, "printed_page": null, "text": "GREEK\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nDEGREE\n\nOF BACHELOR\n\nOF ARTS\n\n119\n\nhad been introduced at some time prior to 1251), and the faculty of arts\nwere recognized as distinct, and as together constituting the university.\nThe same general system is found in all the universities of the middle ages.\nUp to the fourteenth century no formal degree was given. The first approximation tosuch a degree took the shape of the granting of a license\nto teach, the licentia docendi. The title of \" master \" or \"doctor \"—i.e.,\n\" teacher \" — was not conferred, but was adopted, as a natural expression\nof his vocation, by the successful candidate.\nThe word \" bachelor,\" whatever may have been its origin, was at first\nused to indicate a young student preparing for his examination for the\nlicentiate ; or, as we should now say, an \" undergraduate.\"\nFor some time no test was imposed upon the would-be candidate.\nBut as early as 1275 (the date before which the division of the University\nof Paris into four faculties had been effected) a regular form of examination, called the determinance, had been established at that university.\nThe word is taken from a medieval use of the Latin word determinare,\nin the sense of fixing, settling. The determinance took the form of a\npublic settling of a point — i.e., of a public argument, followed by a questioning of the candidate. In the faculty of arts this test was not open\nto the student unless he had reached the age of fourteen, at the least, and\nhad pursued certain courses through two years, namely (in the University\nof Paris during the fourteenth century) Aristotle's works on logic (of\ncourse in a Latin version), Priscian's ' ' Grammatical Institutes/' Boethius's\n\"Divisions and Topics,\" Donatus's \"Barbarism,\" and the \"Six Principles\" of Gilbert de la Porree. Since the passing of this test proved that\nthe successful student had a right to reckon himself among the candidates for the licentiate — i.e., of the baccalaurei — the title of baccalaureus\nitself came in time to be granted. In the fifteenth century this title\nwas in full use, and the four degrees of Bachelor of Arts, Bachelor of\nTheology, Bachelor of Law, and Bachelor of Medicine were regularly\nconferred by the respective faculties. The status represented by these\ndegrees, it will be observed, was a preliminary or intermediate one.\nThe studies required for the licentiate in arts, — i.e., for the right to\nteach at the completion of the course in arts, demand a brief enumeration, from the fact that the requirements for the degree of bachelor came\nafterward to include them. They were, in addition to those already mentioned, Aristotle's works on ethics, psychology, and physics, together with\na hundred lectures on mathematics and astronomy.\nIn the university antedating the Renascence, then, the curriculum\nembraced Greek philosophy, ethics, psychology, and physics (of course in\nLatin versions), Latin grammar (with little literature), mathematics, and\nastronomy. All these subjects were taught from dictation, and in what,\nif we forget the scanty means at the disposal of the professors, and the\nnon-existence of printed books, we might too easily regard as a barren\n\n"}
{"page": 140, "printed_page": null, "text": "120\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nmanner. But the point which we ought especially to note is that two\ndirections of the development of later years, the humanistic and the\nscientific, were already apparent.\nInto these scholastic institutions there came, at the end of the fourteenth century and during the fifteenth, the influences of the Renascence.\nThe discovery and interpretation of Latin and Greek manuscripts gave\nnew play to the human mind, and created a new wealth of interests. The\nold course in arts became enlarged. In addition to Latin grammar, Latin\nliterature was studied. Tn place of the study of one group of manifestations of the Greek mind, namely, in logic, ethics, physics, and metaphysics— and that in Latin translations — all the manifestations of the\nGreek mind were studied, and that in the original texts. The degree of\nBachelor of Arts lost, therefore, nothing of its essential meaning; it only\ngained a richer significance. In later centuries, also, the degree gained\nwith respect to the other of its two original sides, but it gained more\nslowly, having to make its way against unjustifiable prejudice. In the\neighteenth century the universities were behind the outside world in the\ncultivation of the sciences. In the further expansion on the scientific side,\nand in the still later recognition of the importance of the study of modern\nlanguages, the curriculum has gained immensely, and the degree of\nBachelor of Arts has been still further enriched.\nBut the process could not go on indefinitely. The growth of modern\nscholarship made specialization inevitable if the student desired to do any\nserious work ; and the demands of specialization, strengthened by the\ndemand for the adaptation of the college course to the wants of the individual, produced what is known as the elective system. The elective system necessarily affected the amount of time given to Greek and Latin,\nwhich now reversed their older process of growth. Some of the subjects\nby the addition of which the old curriculum was enriched were, however,\nstill kept by the stronger universities, like Harvard, through the pushing\ndown of these or other subjects into the preparatory course ; so that it\nbecame possible for a student to enter with a good start in Greek, Latin, and\nmathematics, and with a start not so large in a modern language or in\nnatural science, and then, in his years of elective work, to turn his attention with considerable success to any field in which his tastes had shown\nthemselves to lie. This stage continues to be represented by many of our\nolder colleges. Before this process had reached its logical development\nwithin the university, however, the principle of election had been brought\ndown to the high-school curriculum, through the organization in many\ncolleges of four distinct courses, in arts, in philosophy, in letters, and in\nscience ; the first requiring Greek and Latin, the second requiring Latin,\nthe third substituting for Latin a considerable amount of modern languages, and the fourth emphasizing mathematics and natural science.\nCornell is a notable example of this system.\nThe degrees granted by Cor-\n\n"}
{"page": 141, "printed_page": null, "text": "GREEK\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nDEGREE\n\nOF BACHELOR\n\nOF ARTS.\n\n121\n\ncell, considerable as the temptation must have been to attract students by\ngiving to all of them the time-honored degree of Bachelor of Arts, were\nBachelor of Arts, Bachelor of Philosophy, Bachelor of Letters, and Bachelor\n)f Science, for the respective courses. Then the Johns Hopkins University, at her beginning in 1870, and Harvard somewhat later, carried the\nprinciple of limited election into the high-school curriculum in another\nray, requiring either Greek or Latin, and not both, but admitting the candidate on the same footing in either case, and giving the degree of Bachelor of Arts. The next step obviously suggested was to admit, and to\ngraduate, with neither Greek nor Latin, but to grant the degree in arts\nall the same ; and this step has been taken by the Leland Stanford\nUniversity.\nWhich of these various solutions of the problem is, then, in the light of\nthe history of the degree, the sound one : the requiring of Greek and\nLatin for the degree of Bachelor of Arts, the requiring of one of the two\nlanguages only, or the requiring of neither ?\nIf I have made myself clear in my brief historical sketch, I have shown\nthat, up to the middle of the '70s, the pressure of the scientific side of\nthe curriculum upon the humanistic, and of the new humanistic upon the\nold humanistic, had not reached a point that made separation necessary.\nIt is my own opinion that this point has not yet been reached, and that it\nnever will be reached ; that the educated man can and must still have a\ngeneral understanding of the aims and methods of both of these sides of\nhuman interest ; and that by the end of another century the dividing\nlines will be recognized to be not between classics and science, but between the liberal education, in which both literature, classical and ancient,\nand pure science will jilay a part, and the technical education, in which\nlanguages and pure science will play a part only as servants of applied\nscience. But if I am wrong, and the point has already been reached,\nthen it seems to me that, just as in the old mass of incompatible studies\nof the thirteenth century, theology, law, and medicine were parted off from\narts, and received different degrees, so, of the supposedly incompatible\nmass of studies that have come to crowd the course in arts — viz.: those\nthat deal with man, and those that deal with nature outside of man — the\nlatter, which involve a new conception of education, should take their\ndeparture from the old course in arts, and devise for themselves a corresponding new degree — which would naturally be the degree of Bachelor\nof Science.\nThe growth of the study of modern languages may be thought to call\nfor the setting off of a third scheme of study, with the degree of Bachelor\nof Letters for the evidence of its completion ; and still a fourth scheme\nmight be formed in which philosophy and kindred subjects should be\nregarded as the principal elements, and for the completion of which the\ndegree of Bachelor of Philosophy would be the proper evidence.\nThese\n\n"}
{"page": 142, "printed_page": null, "text": "122\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\ntwo schemes, however — though, as I have shown, they do in a number of\nplaces actually exist — seem to me to have no justification. Letters, philosophy, history, political economy, social science, and the like are all humanistic subjects ; and, even upon the narrowest view, the best preparation\nfor them must always include some study of the literature of the people\nwith whom the record of the intellectual life of Europe and America\nbegins. If, however, these courses are demanded by a public impatient\nof what some of us regard as wise thoroughness, then, in the institutions\nwhich are willing to meet this need, new degrees should be used for their\ngraduates.\nIt remains to notice briefly several arguments advanced by holders of\nthe opposite view, and then to formulate two considerations — one of them\nalready implied — which I regard as having weight on the side of the\nretention of the requirement of Greek.\n(1) It is urged that changes have already taken place, through the addition of the study of the modern languages, and the increased part which\nscience has come to play in the curriculum, so that the meaning of the\ndegree of Bachelor of Arts is already different from what it was. The\nanswer is that the process has been one of inclusion, not of exclusion ;\nthat the course has been enriched, not impoverished. And a further\nanswer, of great force, is that, though changes have indeed taken place,\nthey have taken place by slow and gradual processes, which have at no\ntime made a transformation of the meaning of the degree. Not until the\nopening of the Johns Hopkins University did any institution lop off at a\nblow one whole side — even if it were not, as in this case, the side supposed\nto be the most characteristic — of the significance of the degree.\n(2) It is urged that changes have already taken place, in that the elective system has made encroachments upon the amount of Greek formerly\nrequired. The answer is that while Greek has gained in quantity at one\ntime and lost in quantity at another, nevertheless a certain amount of it\nhas, until the rise of the present question, remained as the distinctive\nfeature of the degree.\n(3) It is urged that inasmuch as a man can even now enter many colleges\nwith little Greek and then drop it— as, for example, at Harvard — Greek\nforms no serious part of the curriculum, and should therefore not be\nrequired for the degree. But the same thing is true of Latin at Harvard,\nand of mathematics and French and German as well. In fact, there is no\nfixed requirement at Harvard for the continuance of a study taken before\nadmission, except of courses in English running through three years, and\nof a course in chemistry, consisting of a single lecture a week for a half of\nthe Freshman year. If, then, this third argument against Greek is sound,\nit follows that the only set requirement for the degree of A.B. should be\nEnglish and a short course of lectures on chemistry. This brings one,\nexcepting for the matter of the brief course in chemistry, to the exact\n\n"}
{"page": 143, "printed_page": null, "text": "GREEK\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nDEGREE\n\nOF BACHELOR\n\nOF ARTS.\n\n123\n\nposition of the Stanford University, which has no set requirement for the\ndegree of Bachelor of Arts, either after entrance or before, except in\nEnglish. The position is intelligible, and is approved by many ; but those\nwho, not taking it, would yet give up the requirement of Greek, should\nlook clearly at the inevitable issue of the step they advocate.\n(4) A fourth argument is that the essential character of what was best\nin Greek literature has passed into our modern civilization, so that we no\nlonger need to take time for the express study of it. The answer is that\nwhile much has indeed passed into our modern literature, it has had the\nsame fate as Greek architecture, which we see all around us, in monstrous\nmalformations, in the details of domestic and public architecture. What\nwould a school of architecture have to say to the proposition that the\ndiffusion of Greek architectural ideas is so great that we do not need to\ngo back to Greek originals for purity of form and chastened taste ?\n(5) An argument thought to have great weight is that it is an evil to\nmultiply degrees. The word \"evil \" is in any case far too strong. The\nmultiplication of degrees might conceivably go to a point at which it would\nprove to be an \" inconvenience.\" Up to our own time, however, this has\nnot been the case. The devising of the separate degrees in law, medicine,\ntheology, and arts to indicate a particular kind of training was, on the\ncontrary, a distinct convenience. The devising of the degrees of Civil\nEngineer and. Mechanical Engineer was a distinct convenience. To my\nmind, the differentiation of degrees to indicate under what kind of educational influences a man's mind has been molded is not an evil, but a good.\nsympathize very much with a business friend of mine — a man who finds\njollege graduates of the training of the older foundation to be, in the long\nfun, the most profitable persons to employ in electrical works — who complains that you cannot nowadays tell from a man's degree what kind of an\neducation he has had. It would, to my mind, be far more convenient if we\nmew that a Bachelor of Science had a foundation mainly scientific, that a\niachelor of Arts had a foundation in good part in Greek and Latin, and\nthat a Bachelor of Philosophy — if people will be satisfied with such a\n>urse — had a foundation in which Latin, looked at from the point of\nnew of immediate utility, was required. Far better, then, the reasonable\nmultiplication of degrees to meet new conditions, if they exist, than the\nconfusing of the meaning of a degree long established.\nOn the affirmative side of the question, on the other hand, the arguments seem to me not to admit of so easy an answer. The most important are as follows :\n(1) First, there is the old argument of meum and tuum. It is on this\nargument that the whole question really turns. People must not be\nimpatient with us of the older faith. Hackneyed as the argument is, we\ncannot turn aside from it. The Decalogue is not novel, but we have not\noutgrown the need of it, and we certainly are by no means yet in a condi-\n\n"}
{"page": 144, "printed_page": null, "text": "124\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCON Gil ESS OF EDUCATION.\n\nHon to dispense with that particular article which deals with the question\nof the rights of property. The degree of Bachelor of Arts has for certainly four centuries carried with it certain associations. It has meant an\neducation essentially founded upon the conception of humanistic culture\n— of a knowledge of the hest that has been thought and said in the world\nupon the subject of the most interesting of the world's products, man\nhimself. If there are people like myself who, though not conscious of a\nconservative turn of mind, believe that this humanistic training — enriched,\nas I have shown it to have been, by the addition of some training in\nnatural science — is, for a good many persons, the best training, then, no\nmatter how old-fashioned and simple-minded we may be, our degree, with\nthe associations which centuries of our way of thinking have woven around\nit, should be left to us. If a foundation which omits that which is most\ncharacteristic of our degree, and replaces it by some of the new studies, is\nbetter than the foundation which we believe in, then its advocates should\nbe proud that it should bear the name of these new studies. Not to do\nthis — to demand the use of a degree because of its associations, when, in\nthe very nature of things, the new course would inevitably create different\nassociations — seems to me not merely a plain invasion of vested rights, but\na palpable confusion of logic. If the case were reversed, if the dominant\nstudies had for centuries been in natural science, with a corresponding\ndegree of Bachelor of Science, I can hardly imagine that, upon the rise of\na demand for a training with a foundation primarily humanistic, people\nof my way of thinking would insist that we be allowed to use the degree\nof Bachelor of Scieuce, because of its centuries of associations of a different kind. And this I say, even though there would be some justification\nof such a demand in the fact that all work in language, so far as it falls\nwithin the domain of science, is carried on by scientific methods, and\nthat too large a proportion of us professors of languages are, in our own\ninvestigation and publication, men of science, and not men of the\nhumanistics.\n(2) The granting of the degree of Bachelor of Arts without Greek leads\nto a very serious injury to many men. Harvard and Johns Hopkins, in\ngiving up the requirement of Greek for that degree, did not intend that\nmen should be forced not to take Greek, but only that men should not be\nforced to take it. Yet the inevitable, no matter how illogical, result of\nthis action has been, for young men in countless high-schools in this\ncountry, precisely this, that, under the conditions of their life, they cannot get Greek at all. Greek has gone out of many schools on the ground\nthat it was useless to continue to provide instruction in a subject which\ntwo great universities no longer regarded as necessary for the degree of\nBachelor of Arts ; and it has also, for the same reason, stayed out of\nmany schools into which it would otherwise in time have entered. Far\nbetter would it be, to my miud, to run the risk that some men who might\n\n"}
{"page": 145, "printed_page": null, "text": "GREEK\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nDEGREE\n\nOF BACHELOR\n\nOF ARTS.\n\n125\n\nafterward prove to have no natural aptitude for Greek should spend a\npart of their time for two or three years upon a subject which, at the\nworst, would necessarily give them help in the use of their own tongue\nand in the understanding and devising of scientific nomenclature, and\nwhich would not be without value in forming habits of exact observation\nand logical inference.\nNow I regard an injury done to the study of Greek as an injury\ninflicted upon the one side of education which our American public,\neagerly engaged in commerce and industries, is most likely to disregard,\nand upon the one side of education of which, without knowing it, it is\nreally most in need. There is no danger that the sciences will not be\nvigorously pursued in America, at least to the very considerable extent to\nwhich their practical applications make it profitable to pursue them.\nThere is, on the other hand, a very natural danger, due to our youth as\na nation, and to the immense opportunities which our undeveloped\nresources afford, that the pursuit of studies more remotely practical will\nbe regarded as a waste of time. Yet the thing which we most need is, not\ngreater opportunities to make wealth, but a higher regard for the things\nwhich Greek civilization represents, and which the study of Greek literature and Greek life conveys. We need, in our triumphant Americanism,\na good deal more of Hellenism. For a great many men, as I myself\nbelieve, the one thing that is best worth knowing well, alongside of our\nown literature, is Greek literature, and the one spirit best worth comprehending intimately is the Greek spirit.\nMy own conclusion, then, is that, among excellent examples set us\nby Harvard University, of whose service to American education I, as one\nof her sons, am justly and deeply proud, and among excellent examples\nset us by Johns Hopkins University, to whose guiding spirits American\neducation owes a great debt, the example of granting the degree of\nBachelor of Arts without Greek is not to he reckoned.\nTELEGRAMS.\nI would retain Greek as requisite to the Bachelor of Arts degree.\nC. A. Young,\nProfessor of Astronomy in Princeton University.\nCite me for Greek in A.B. degree.\n\nA. C. Merriam,\n\nProfessor of Greek in Columbia College, New York City.\nGreek has too many and great educational values to be sacrificed.\nThe degree of\n.A., usually presupposing Greek, has a history, definite meaning,\nand commercial\nralue that should not be needlessly disturbed.\nOther degrees, existing or easily made,\nlould be given for curricula without Greek.\nTracy Peck,\nProfessor of Latin in Tale University.\n\n"}
{"page": 146, "printed_page": null, "text": "126\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nLETTERS.\nAs I shall not be able to be in Chicago this summer, I must miss not only the Columbian Exposition, but also seeing and hearing you. 1 don't know how much you care\nabout A, B, and C's view on the question of requiring Greek for the A.B. degree, but\n1 shall feel a little easier if I tell you why I still favor such requirement. I can do it\nvery briefly. It seems to me that Greek history, literature, art, and language still\nstand far enough outside of and away from our modern languages, literatures, and arts\nto furnish to the mind which busies itself with them that essential feature of culture,\nviz. : dnodjjtua. I grant that Latin and the modern languages and literatures do this\nto a far greater extent now than they could do it in the times of the Renascence and of\nIsaac Casaubon. But only Greek can do this, and is worthy to do this, supremely.\nThe modern languages and literatures are still too near us, too closely associated with\nour own, too identical with our own in countless molding influences. The Latin can\ndo it, and can do it better now than when Greek first gave Europe its new intellectual\nbirth. But the Latin cannot do it supremely well, because it is too closely woven into\nthe web of our scholastic and literary and intellectual life. The Latinist is not remote\nenough from the Germanist. And, besides all that, my instinct as a Quellenforscher\ndrives me to the Greek because it is the great Quelle, as well as because it is a supremely\ngood Qiielle.\nWhatever else I might say or write on this subject would be hardly more than an\namplification of this line of argument, and I suppose that even at Chicago in this\nculminating time, verb, will be sat. sap.\nB. Perrin,\nProfessor of Greek in Yale University.\nThe argument for requiring the study of Greek for the degree of Bachelor of Arts is\nwith me a brief one, because it comes of my personal experience.\nThe Greek I learned in college has been of immense service to me in my scientific\nwork. I look upon the study of Greek as of far greater importance to the student in\nscience than to those of any of the other professions except the theological. His scientific text-books, and all collateral works that he may study, are full of words of Greek\norigin, and such words are multiplying with every new advance of science. Greek is\nreally of more importance in this respect than Latin, but Latin is essential, not only for\nits general contributions to our language, but also because Greek words are usually put\ninto a Latin dress for introduction into English.\nBy the study of Greek I do not mean study according to the most approved of modern\nmethods, but with less of the refinements of grammar and more of English etymology.\nI would have each lesson in the translation of Greek a lesson also in the derivation of\nEnglish words. This could be easily accomplished by requiring at the recitation the\nstating of the derivations — the more the better — from the roots of words, not compound,\nthat may occur in the passages translated, the student finding them by the use of his\ndictionaries ; and also by asking for an explanation of the present meanings of the words,\nconsequent on their derivation.\nBy this method of instruction the study of Greek and English would go on together,\nand in a way that would be profitable to any student, whatever his future profession.\nWhether the candidate could acquire under this method sufficient Greek before entering\ncollege for a degree of Bachelor of Arts I do not undertake to say. He would certainly\nknow more than many college graduates under the existing method, for I have found\nlamentable ignorance in my geological class as to derivations, even of words that ought\nto be familiar.\n\n"}
{"page": 147, "printed_page": null, "text": "GREEK\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nDEGREE\n\nOF BACHELOR\n\nOF ARTS.\n\n127\n\nMy conclusion is that Greek ought to be required for the degree of Bachelor of Arts\nThe degree of Bachelor of Science is sufficient for the student that does not make his\nfoundation broad.\nYours sincerely,\nJames D. Dana,\nProfessor of Geology and Mineralogy in Yale University.\n. . . I cannot, therefore, write at length, although I am ready enough to say that I\nam in favor of the requirement of Greek in the A.B. course.\nMy reasons are partly traditional and partly based upon the intrinsic value of the\nGreek language and literature.\nThe A.B. course is either for men intending to enter the learned professions, in which\ncase there can be no question of the need of Greek, or for those who intend to enter upon\nbusiness, etc. In the latter case the value of a literary culture seems to me equally\ngreat, and if the foundations for it are not laid in college they never will be.\nAfter all, the great argument in my mind for both Greek and Latin is the value of\nthe literary tradition and the great importance of its continuity. If we gradually cut off\nthe Greek and Roman world we shall suffer in all sorts of ways, and shall fail to hand on\nto successive generations the sum of the culture behind them.\nYours sincerely,\nT. F. Crane,\nProfessor of Romance Languages in Cornell University.\nI am most decidedly in favor of requiring both Greek and Latin for the degree of\nA.B. Whatever the aim in life, we all agree that a sound preparatory education is the\nbest means to the end. The first demand we make of such an education is that it give\ncommand of our mother tongue and the power to enrich it in the line of our special\nstudies. It is not only facility, accuracy, and elegance in the use of English as it stands\ntoday, but also ability to enlarge and improve our stock of words that must be considered. This ability to create presupposes a knowledge of the sources, and the sources for\nthe scientist are limited to Greek and Latin.\nIn the biological sciences these languages are in everyday use, as our whole terminology is borrowed directly from them, and every addition comes from the same sources.\nThis is, in brief, the ground for my opinion. Of course there are many others which I\ndo not forget, but which I need not here refer to.\nSincerely yours,\nC. O. Whitman,\nProfessor of Biology in the University of Chicago,\nThe degree of A.B. seems to me to mark a man as possessing a certain kind of\neducation, which may not be the best education for the ordinary bright boy who has\nthe best chances in life, but which is at least definite in its method, and has been held\nso for centuries.\nCircumstances have changed greatly in the last century. The study of the classics is\nno longer of paramount importance. Other sciences must and should be pursued. For\nmany men the study of the modern languages is more important than that of the\nancient. But even if the culture afforded by the study of the modern classics is better\nthan that afforded by the ancients, it is not the same. 1 believe, then, that students\nwho have not studied Greek should not receive the degree of A. B. The advocates of\nthe modern culture, if that is superior to the old, should not seek the degree of A.B\nfor their followers, but should rather prefer another degree, that the two classes might\nnot be confused, but that the holders of the new degree might receive the higher honor.\n\n"}
{"page": 148, "printed_page": null, "text": "128\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nThis is not the time to discuss the special merits of the different systems, but I cannot\nsee why each should not receive its own degree and its own honor.\nSincerely yours,\nT. D. Seymour,\nProfessor of Greek in Tale University.\nIt seems to me that the degree of Bachelor of Arts is stripped of its meaning if it is\ngiven without Greek. Historically it can mean only that. We have taken the term\nfrom English universities, in which \"arts\" always includes Latin and Greek.\nMy second reason for keeping the degree of A.B. to designate the classical course is\nthat other courses of study have their appropriate designation, such as B.S., B.L.,\nPh.B. Or, if putting it in that way is begging the question, it is desirable, it seems to\nme, to make some discrimination between the degree conferred for studies that are\nscientific, semi-technical, and general, and that conferred for studies that are pursued\nmore for discipline and culture. Reduce the number of degrees to two, if you like, but\nlet the degree of A.B. stand, as it always has, for the education that is pursued for its\nown sake — in which Greek is the essential factor.\nMy third reason for giving the degree in arts only to those who have taken Greek\nis a prudential one.\nIn this land and this age, Greek has to contend against much\nprejudice.\nNow, if the A.B. degree has any prestige or value as a degree over other\nBachelor's degrees, is it not in the interest of good education to give this premium, so\nto say, to the classical course ? With those who would make Greek simply a luxury in\neducation, or a professional study, this reason would have no weight, nor would any\nother reason.\nVery truly yours,\nM. L. D'Ooge,\nProfessor of Greek in the University of Michigan.\nI have always been of the opinion that Greek is an essential feature of the A.B.\ncourse, for the reason that the A.B. degree, in distinction perhaps from the B.S.,\nrepresents to me culture rather than mere knowledge. And I do not see how culture can\nbe acquired without Greek. The Greeks were the first to have a clear perception of what\nis meant by a solid, well-rounded, spiritual development. They knew far less than we\nnow know, but it may be doubted if our faculties are as well trained. In my case, I\nfreely admit that I can remember nothing that so quickened my mind in college as the\nail-too imperfect rubbing up against Greek literary method. It is a kind of training\nthat I don't believe any modern literature, not even our own at its best, can give with\nquite the same delicate and firm touch. The ineffaceable stamp of Greek art is upon\nall that the race produced.\nBesides, there is a practical value which is fully as great as any mere theoretical\ntraining. It is this : All, or nearly all, modern thought and modern form have been\ninfluenced by Greek, either at first or second hand. The modern literatures that I\nknow best are German and English. Now, I do not know how to interpret the great\nEnglishmen and Germans without reference to Greek. In German, Goethe and Schiller\nare permeated with Greek methods and principles. Lessing's \" Laocoon \" and \" Dramaturgic \"(his most valuable writings in my eyes) are Greek through and through. In\nEnglish, how many of our best poets and prose writers have been influenced by Greek\nmodels! Tennyson was a life-long reader of Greek; his \"Idylls\" are full of reminiscences of Theocritus and the dramatists ; his isometric song is a direct imitation of\nTheocritus. Browning is also Greek in culture, although, perhaps, in a less degree.\nShelley is out-and-out Greek in his sympathies. So is Coleridge. So, perhaps, Wordsworth. Keats tried his best to become a Greek. As to the Elizabethan-Stuart period,\nthat whole literature is the avowed offspring of the Greco-Latin renascence.\nWhat is\n\n"}
{"page": 149, "printed_page": null, "text": "GREEK\n\nFOR\n\nTEE\n\nDEGREE\n\nOF\n\nBACHELOR\n\nOF\n\nARTS.\n\n129\n\none to do with Milton, for instance ? Even Shakespeare, so original in many respects,\nis best appreciated by one who approaches him from the Greek point of view. This is\nabundantly proved by Mr. Moulton's book. The only section of our literature that\ntried to cut loose from Greek methods was the Pope-Goldsmith school, and that is\nprecisely the least poetical, least imaginative section of the great whole.\nAfter all, is not the permanence, the immanence, of Greek thought and method and\nform a fact in our life ? Can it be argued away ? Is it not wiser and honester to admit\nit frankly, and make the best of it ? I am no fanatic. I grant you that a plowman,\nlike Robert Burns, may rise to the front rank of lyric poetry without a scrap of Greek.\nBut Robert Burnses do not abound. They are sporadic. The great mass of Literary\nmen for centuries have been molded by Greek influences. And if our colleges and\nuniversities are to expound our Anglo-American literature, to give the why and\nwherefore of literary movement, they must postulate Greek.\nAt least that is my view and my experience. More than once I have tried to dodge,\nor at least tried to help a pupil dodge, the Greek postulate. But it has always been a\nfailure. My own knowledge of Greek is anything but satisfactory. It has grown\nspmewhat musty with time. But poor as it is, I could not possibly afford to part with\nit. It keeps up my sense of form and mental sanity. It exorcises fads and fopperies.\nAnd fads and fopperies are our besetting danger.\nYours, as ever,\nJ. M. Hart,\nProfessor of Rhetoric and English Philology in Cornell University.\nDecember 21, 1893.\nMy dear Sir : I have to acknowledge the receipt of your favor of the 18th inst., in\nwhich you call my attention to the exact point raised in what I may call \"the Greek\ndiscussion \" in its present phase. It is whether the degree of Bachelor of Arts should\nbe given to candidates for that degree who have received no elementary training in\nGreek. You add that this point I did not argue in my \"College Fetich,\" and ask me\nto write a short statement of my opinion upon it. ♦\nIn its present common acceptance, as I understand it, the degree of A.B., as it is\ncalled, implies that the person receiving it has acquired a certain degree of proficiency\nin the classic tongues, especially Greek ; that is, he is one who has approached what I\nbelieve is respectfully, though somewhat pompously, known as the arcanum, by the\nclassic path.\nWould it be offensive, and do you think I should use too strong language, if I should\nsay that this venerable theory is to-day little else than a fraud, not to say a falsehood ?\nAlso, should I express myself with an undue lack of reverence if I asked you whether\nyou think it altogether proper for our leading seats of learning to lend themselves to\nfraud, if not falsehood ? Yet, on the other hand, can any person connected with those\ninstitutions truthfully assert that the amount of classic learning now achieved by at\nleast seventy-five per cent., if not more, of those on whom the degree of Bachelor of\nArts is annually conferred, amounts to any knowledge worthy of the name of either\nGreek or Latin ? Is it not the \" little Latin and less Greek\" of Ben Jonson ?\nHowever it may have been in the more or less remote past, 1 think you will agree\nwith me that there is not one institution of academic learning in the United States\nto-day, twenty-five per cent, of whose graduates — and I have put the figure, I think, very\nhigh — can. when the degree of Bachelor of Arts is conferred upon them, read at sight\none line of ordinary Greek, or a paragraph of simple Latin. If I am wrong in this\nestimate. I shall be glad to be corrected.\nNow, for reasons which I am unable fully to account for, as I have grown in years,\nand approached what is pleasantly designated as \" the afternoon of life,\" I find myself\n\n"}
{"page": 150, "printed_page": null, "text": "130\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nfilled with a greater and greater dislike of what, for want of a better term, and again\nnot speaking offensively, I will call cant. If the leading institutions of learning in this\ncountry, including Harvard, Yale, and other universities, were careful, in conferring the\ndegree of Bachelor of Arts upon their graduates, to ascertain by proper examination that\nthat degree was never conferred upon any one who did not have an adequate knowledge\nof the path through which it is alleged he has reached his right to that degree, I should\nhave the utmost respect for the degree, as well for the institutions which confer it ; but\nwhen, as I have every reason to believe, that degree simply lends itself to a falsehood, I\nfind it difficult to speak of it with that respect which should be its due.\nIf those who advocate thus conferring the degree of Bachelor of Arts are prepared to\ncome forward and assert that the degree is now habitually conferred upon those only\nwho have made themselves reasonably proficient in classic literature, I shall agree that\nthere is sense and reason in the limitation under which it is supposed to be given.\nUntil they do, I consider the burden of proof is not on me, but upon them, to show that\nthey and the universities are not lending themselves to what is at best an innocuous fraud,\nand innocuous because generally understood. In fact, a harmless tradition, except for\nthe false and injurious training it involves.\nI do not think it too much to ask of those upon whom a degree is conferred that they\nshould be fairly acquainted with the elementary principles of the learning in regard to\nwhich the degree in question is their certificate of proficiency. Neither do I consider\nthat the ability to read at sight the more simple books of either of the so-called classic\nlanguages constitutes an undue amount of elementary acquaintance with them.\nHow many of our institutions of learning would care to subject the large classes of\nstudents upon whom they annually confer the degree in question to the test I have indicated ? And what would be the result of so doing ?\nI remain, etc.,\nCharles Francis Adams,\nof Boston, Mass.\nMr. Adams brings forward an argument not produced or foreseen at the July meeting.\nI have therefore asked and obtained his permission to attempt an estimate of its value.\nLet me, at the outset, call attention to the fact that the question is not whether young\npeople should continue to be forced to study Greek or go without a college education,\nbut whether, if they do not study Greek, they should, nevertheless, demand the same\ndegree.\n(1) The principal aim of the study of classics has been, and is, to acquaint the student at first hand with a literary art which is of the highest kind, and which stands in\nthe most vital relation to the great literary art of our own language and of its sisters,\nand so to establish in his mental constitution a standard of expression at once vigorous\nand sane ; to give him a direct outlook upon the thought and feeling of two epochs in\nthe history of man which are of immense interest in themselves, and which stand in the\nmost vital connection with the thought and feeling of our own time, and so to forestall\nmental narrowness ; to give him, on the purely formal side, a clear understanding of\nthat manifestation of the human mind which we call language, an understanding best\ngot from the study of a highly developed inflected tongue ; and to train him to face\ndifficulties in his own thought, and in the interpretation of the thought of others, and\nso to establish habits of insistent clearness of vision and rigor of inference. If the study\nis carried only a short distance, the results are proportionately small. But so are they\nin the study of modern languages, or mathematics, or natural science. If the teaching\nis mechanical, the results are bad. But so also are the results of mechanical teaching\nin natural science, or mathematics, or modern languages.\nAs to the acquisition of the power of reading Greek and Latin at sight, desirable as it\n\n"}
{"page": 151, "printed_page": null, "text": "GREEK\n\nFOR\n\nTEE\n\nDEGREE\n\nOF BACHELOR\n\nOF ARTS.\n\n131\n\nis, and ardently as many of us have labored to have it made an aim in all preparatory\nand college work, the aim was not inherited by us from the generation before us, in\nwhose time the significance of the degree of Bachelor of Arts was undisputed ; nor has\nthe possession of the power been announced in college catalogues of this generation as\na condition for the granting of the degree. There have been no claims, and there is\nno fraud. Mr. Adams' phrase, \"generally understood,\" is a commentary upon his\nargument.\n(2) In the second place, it should be said that the picture which Mr. Adams has\ndrawn of the actual state of things is much too dark. In a respectable and constantly\nincreasing number of our universities, translation at sight forms a part of the test\napplied at entrance, while at Harvard and Chicago the admission examinations in the\nlanguages are wholly at sight. Much is also accomplished after admission. It is my\nopinion that a considerably larger proportion than one to three of the Bachelors of Arts\nof the colleges whose standards of admission and graduation Mr. Adams would select as\nworth founding an argument upon, are competent, on the day of graduation, not merely\nto \"read at sight one line of ordinary Greek or a paragraph of simple Latin,\" but to\ntake such a book as \" Xenophon's Hellenica,\" or an essay or oration of Cicero, and make\na good deal out of continuous pages.\n(3) Let us, however, suppose that our colleges did have the requirement that their\nBachelors of Arts should be able to read Greek and Latin of moderate difficulty at sight,\nand that not more than one man in four were, in fact, competent to do it. What then ?\nThe conclusion which I should myself draw would be, \" We must endeavor to correct\nour failure to reach an ideal commensurate with our degree.\" Mr. Adams' conclusion,\n\" Therefore we will confiscate your degree,\" seems to me a somewhat less reasonable one.\nIf there existed a degree of Bachelor of Natural Science and Mathematics, or something\nwhich had been understood to have this meaning, and three-quarters of the graduates\nof the better colleges fell short of an avowed ideal, it would not seem to me right that a\nnew course, founded principally upon modern languages, should demand to have the\ndegree of Bachelor of Natural Science and Mathematics, or its synonyme, conferred\nupon its graduates, even if they were able to read French and German at sight very\nrapidly indeed.\nBut a definite test of the validity of Mr. Adams' argument may easily be had. If all\nthe new-fledged A. B.'s of our better universities were to be set in June next to write\nthe entrance examination papers in mathematics one day, and in Latin the next, there\nis no question that they would do better on the second day. But does it follow that\nmathematics, which, though not the more characteristic, is yet an essential part of the\nwork associated with the degree of Bachelor of Arts, should be dropped from the requirements for that degree ?\nThe fact is simply that Mr. Adams has turned against one group of subjects an argument from the imperfect results of education which could equally well be turned against\nany other study.\nHis letter, nevertheless, seems to me in several ways to be of great value :\nFirst, as showing in the phrase, \"the false and injurious training which it involves,\"\na misconception of what is actually accomplished by classical training in the better colleges, and a somewhat non-judicial attitude of mind toward the whole problem. The\nview more commonly urged is, not that classical training is injurious, but that there are\nother trainings which are equally good, and at the same time more practical.\nSecond, as marking the discovery of a new \" college fetich.\" The Greek one has been\nexposed and broken up. Now Latin has been found out, and must go. But the old\ndegree, which, though founded on associations with this \"injurious training,\" is very\ngood, must stay. Harvard, for example, evidently ought to give the degree of Bachelor\nof Arts with neither Greek nor Latin.\nI have never been able to take the \" Stanford\n\n"}
{"page": 152, "printed_page": null, "text": "132\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nidea \" quite seriously, but it would seem to be intrenched even to the eastward of\nHarvard University.\nThird, as enforcing the old argument, the principal one of my paper, of meum and tuum.\nThe degree of A. B. , as Mr. Adams himself understands it, \" implies that the person receiving ithas acquired a certain degree of proficiency in the classic tongues, especially Greek.\"\nMr. Adams, in the \"afternoon of the day\" — a long and sunny afternoon, let us hope\n— dislikes cant. I also, though perhaps only at the meridian, am of his mind on this\npoint. But, as the sun begins to go down, I deprecate intellectual narrowness and the\nuntempered mind almost as much as I do cant. In this age of alarms, the ideally educated man of the future threatens to be blind either of his humanistic eye or of his scientificor,\n; if he is humanistic of both eyes, to be near-sighted. May my sun set before\nit shines upon a world so unsympathetic .\nWilliam Gardner Hale,\nProfessor of Latin in the University of Chicago.\nI do not in the least believe that a knowledge of Greek should be required for the\ndegree of Bachelor of Arts. The argument for its retention is entirely different from\nthat for the retention of Latin. There are other grounds for entertaining the view I do\nthan the one I am about to state, which is that the change is desirable for the sake of\nGreek itself. As a voluntary study it would be pursued more enthusiastically, and\ncarried infinitely further than is possible under present conditions. There is no more\ndepressing sight than the one now commonly seen, of a body of men interested in that\nparticular language and literature, and eager to make the most of their opportunities,\nperpetually held back by another body of men associated with them, who care nothing\nfor the subject, if they do not actually hate it. Such a state of things can only be\ndefended on the ground that a knowledge of Greek is somehow essential to a liberal education, and, that, if one cannot get the reality, one must at least make a pretense. Of\nall shams, I believe the least in any sham that dubs itself liberal education, which, it\nsometimes seems to me, must have received its name from the illiberality of the ideas\nexhibited by men who are supposed to possess it.\nWhatever may have been true of the past, I have heard but one argument for the\nretention of Greek as a required study in the present, which struck me as possessing any\nreal weight, and even that does not seem to me very important. This is, that if once\nmade an optional study, it would soon cease to be pursued at all, or pursued by so few\nthat it would come to be considered of no account. If this were true, it would be a most\ndamaging imputation upon the value of the subject. A branch of learning which needs\nto be maintained by artificial aids had better be dropped. Its disappearance would show\nthat it is entirely unsuited to the requirements of modern life. But I do not believe for\na moment that any such result would follow. I believe thoroughly in Greek, and am\nperfectly confident that the loss in the number knowing it would be immeasurably overbalanced bythe enthusiasm and proficiency of those who set out to know it. A language which has been the vehicle of one of the noblest literatures of the world will\nalways attract to its study the highest class of minds which are interested in literature\nitself. It will require no artificial stimulus to arouse the attention of such men to its\ninterest and importance ; and it itself will be relieved from the odium under which it\nnow suffers in consequence of its being forced upon those who are not interested and\ncannot be made to be interested in it, though they may be able, and may turn out eminently successful in other departments. It is because I believe in Greek that I want it\nreserved for those who need it most and will get most from it.\nVery truly,\nT. R. Lounsbury,\nProfessor of English in the Sheffield Scientific School, Yale University.\n\n"}
{"page": 153, "printed_page": null, "text": "GREEK\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nDEGREE\n\nOF BACHELOR\n\nOF ARTS.\n\n133\n\nThe degree of Bachelor of Arts as now awarded by our universities and colleges is\nunderstood to give proof that the recipient has completed, in a manner satisfactory to his\npreceptors, a college course which includes Greek language and literature. But to a\nconsiderable proportion of our young people this course is not the best, and in selecting\ntheir college studies they substitute for the Greek such as they believe will be more\ndirectly and immediately beneficial in their after life as they plan it. But their college\ncourse, if satisfactorily completed, ought to result in intellectual discipline equal to that\nexpected from the classical course, and their college honor ought not to be lower in\ngrade. But I do not understand that the degree such students may now claim is\nregarded by college authorities as in any sense inferior to that of Bachelor of Arts, or\nthat it fails to indicate equal intellectual discipline ; and it would seem that the fact\nthat it shows what college course was taken ought to be no objection. It is probable\nthat something like a public sentiment still regards the old college honor as most desirable, but this sentiment is changing, and if it works injustice now the remedy would\nseem to be to help along the change, instead of making the award of college honors\nwholly undistinguishing as between courses.\nThomas M. Coolet,\nProfessor of American History and Constitutional Law in the University of Michigan.\nShould Greek be required in American colleges as one of the prerequisites for the\nB. A. degree ?\nIf this question be considered on rational grounds alone, I have no hesitation in saying\nthat in my opinion the answer should be, distinctly, yes.\nThe arguments which lead to this conclusion have been so frequently and so well\nstated that I need not repeat them ; but some of the facts on which they proceed may\nbe simply mentioned. Study of the Greek language and literature, even though it be\nnot profound, gives one a view of the life, modes of thought, and customs of one of\nthe most gifted people of the race. The language itself affords material for the best\nkind of discipline. It is the source whence are derived many of the most valuable elements of our own language and literature. It is the source of much of the nomenclature of the learned professions, notably medicine. The various disciplines of science\nare having constant recourse to the Greek for names of newly-discovered phenomena\nwhich mark their progress. A knowledge of Greek is of incalculable advantage in\nacquiring the use of modern languages, and so on.\nBut my experience in teaching college students, extending over a period of more than\nthirty years, during which I have had under my instruction those who were pursuing\nthe B. A. course, and consequently were required to study Greek, as well as those who\nwere pursuing the B. S. course, in which Greek was not required, has shown, generally\nspeaking, that the former are more successful as students of pure science and its\napplications, as physics and chemistry, than the latter.\nDuring the first ten years of my experience as a college teacher, I also had under\nmy instruction students in medicine, many of whom were graduates in Arts, and consequently had some knowledge of Greek ; while others were not college graduates,\nalthough they had been trained in Latin. The difference in ability to grapple with\ndifficult subjects was always very markedly in favor of those who had some acquaintance with the Greek, and, so far as I have been able to follow the subsequent professional careers of these students, their superiority over their less fortunate classmates has\nbeen almost uniformly maintained.\nFor some years past I have been giving instruction in electrical science and its applications. Most of the students in this course, which, in connection with collateral\nstudies, may be termed a course in electrical engineering, have been graduates of\nPrinceton College or of other colleges.\nSome of them were graduates in Arts, and had\n\n"}
{"page": 154, "printed_page": null, "text": "134\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nstudied Greek; while others, graduates in Science, had not. Here, again, the difference\nin ability to meet and overcome difficulties is very conspicuously in favor of those who\nhave 'had the broader classical training. This is shown in their greater ability to\nappreciate nice distinctions and abstract statements, as well as in their greater facility of\nworking generally.\nIn view of the arguments which may be adduced from rational considerations, and\nespecially in view of my own experience and observation as a teacher of science, I should\nbe very sorry ever to see any considerable number of our colleges consenting to bestow\nthe B. A. degree, except on condition of requiring study of the Greek as a part of the\ncourse leading to that degree.\nC. F. Brackett,\nHenry Professor of Physics in Princeton University.\nAs I am neither a teacher, nor connected in any official way with education, I can\ncontribute to the \" Greek question \" nothing but the practical experience of a journalist\nwho earns his living with his pen, and whose calling requires a continuous observation\nof society. I frankly exclude from any conclusions on education, genius of the first\norder, whose brain difference from the average man, plus or minus education, I believe\nto be in even greater proportion than the relative rarity of his appearance, so that\neducation is with genius a neglectable quantity. Mere money getting I also exclude,\nsince it is a mechanic trade in which an early apprenticeship is, if not indispensable,\nstill a great advantage in acquiring a fortune, though education is needed to enjoy one.\nWhat I have to say deals with the needs of that great body of men who carry on the\nbusiness of being civilized, without which nations are mere herds of dumb driven\ncattle.\nFirst. In my own calling a generalized capacity f6r expression and observation is\nof first importance. Relative to the. number with and without the regular classical\ntraining, this capacity is earliest acquired and best used by those with this training.\nFor fifty years, for instance, at the point of greatest competition, New York City, an\noverwhelming majority of the men in charge of periodicals, daily, weekly, and monthly,\nhave been college men of the Greek course. The greatest have not been such ; but the\naverage is the other way. Next, the man with the old degree and required Greek rises\nfaster and holds his own more steadily. So far as my own personal experience goes, but\na small thing in a subject as broad as this, the value of the study of classic tongues,\nGreek in especial, to secure skill in the expression of thought and the use of language,\nhas long been to me past all discussion. Modern language study is mere gruel by the\nside of it.\nSecond. With the overwhelming drift of our day and time toward mere use as the\ntest of all value, cannot you who control education keep one degree which visibly stands\nfor devotion to the highest intellectual ideal, irrespective of wage-earning use ? Greek,\nand the education which the affirmative of the \" Greek question \" stands for, is, I believe,\nthe best for the stress of practical life in all of its walks which make the creation of mental and moral values their chief aim. But, aside from this, there ought to be one degree\nwhose requirements are avowedly arranged to meet the highest intellectual ideal, without compromise, conciliation, or concession. Where all substitutes are presented on the\nground that they are \" as good, as Greek,\" the practical conclusion is and must be that\nthe Greek standard is the best, by common agreement and a mutual exclusion. Let us\nhave one degree in the future, as A. B. has been in the past, whose distinct aim is not a\nchoice between advantages, but an uncompromising requirement of the best.\nLastly. Ours is a secondary civilization. Where in history has there been one which\ndid not owe such intellectual life as it had to the study of a classical field ? The permanent and mental tilths which the world's wider civilizations enjoy, all rest on the\n\n"}
{"page": 155, "printed_page": null, "text": "DISCUSSION.\n\n135\n\nstudy of a tongue analogous to Greek. I have wandered somewhat afield in Oriental\nstudy. I wish some man more competent than myself could be asked if the singular\nstaying power of the thought based upon the Chinese classics, on the Koran, on Sanskrit, and on the long succession recorded in Cuneiform, does not rest on the precise\nquality and character of thought developed and stimulated by the study of a great\nvehicle of expression which has ceased to be the means of ordinary human intercourse ?\nEven as to the Koran, classic and colloquial Arabic are far apart, and Arabic is the\ntongue of but a part, a small part, of militant and conquering Islam for six hundred\nyears. The others have all based their education on a language once great, but long\ndisused. The world is full of imposing monuments which we can neither describe nor\ndecipher because their civilization had no staying power, no \" bottom,\" for the long\nsteeple-chase of history. Is it an accident that all the civilizations which live and last\nare based in education on the study of dead languages and classics ?\nYours sincerely,\nTalcott Wiujams.\nEditorial Boom, PhiladelpJiia Press.\n\nDISCUSSION.\nProfessok A. F. West, of Princeton University, said : When Dana as a geologist\nand Young as an astronomer and Whitman as a biologist, tell us that we need Greek,\nwe may well cherish the hope that Greek will not have to \"go.\" The one thing\nwhich, as much as any other one thing, will help to hold Greek for the Bachelor's\ndegree in the immediate future, is the help that is coming from the great men in the\nnatural and physical sciences. If one should run over the list of American discoverers\nand investigators in the world of nature, it would be found that such a large proportion\nof them have been classically educated men that no explanation could be offered for the\nfact, except that classical culture contains something which helps to open the mind,\nthat is really liberalizing, that enfranchises thinking. It is a familiar fact that the same\nis true even in a greater degree in Germany, where the scientific men have been almost\nentirely produced in the classical gymnasium. The cause of Greek is the cause of pure\nscience. Furthermore, the requirement of Greek keeps away from our academic courses\nmany who ought to be kept away from them. It is a superb sieve. It strains out the\nutilitarian element, and with it those who insist on an answer to the question, What\nis all this worth ? before they will study anything. When we have to learn a thing\nwhich does not seem worth a great deal practically, we learn at least the noble lesson of\ndisinterestedness.\nProfessor Whipple, of Wheaton College, Illinois, thought Professor Hale's paper\nhad covered the whole case. Speaking as one who had been for many years a teacher\nof natural science, and who during his college course found the study of Greek irksome,\nProfessor Whipple stated that the result of his experience and observation in the classroom had changed his views entirely. The main reason for insisting upon the study of\nGreek, the principal advantage there is in it, is that, if properly pursued, it secures an\nexactness of expression and an exactness of thinking which is of immense value throughout life. The question may be asked : Why will not the study of modern languages do\nas well ? Several answers might be given, but it is sufficient to cite the fact that modern languages are so much easier that they do not yield the same discipline from their\nstudy which the classical languages yield.\nPresident Jordan, of Stanford University, California, considered Professor Hale's\npaper the best presentation of the affirmative side that he had ever heard, and yet was\n\n"}
{"page": 156, "printed_page": null, "text": "136\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nfree to say that, while agreeing with Professor Hale's facts, as far as he understood\nthem, he must disagree with every one of his conclusions, and that, too, in the interest\nof the study of Greek.\nNothing so weakens a study as to make it the subject of official pampering ; to put it\nin such a way that it is to be studied, not for the visible good it gives, but for some\npeculiar good which the student is taught he has not the ability to comprehend. Nothing has so hurt the study of the classics in this country as the divine sacredness with\nwhich we have tried to invest them. We have hurt science as much as the study of\nGreek by not putting Greek on its own merits in the same position, in regard to university\nwork, as other studies are put on in Harvard or Johns Hopkins. We certainly would\nnot name any other university than Harvard and Johns Hopkins, where higher work is\ndone, where Greek is studied for the good it gives, and not as a part of a divinely appointed\ncurriculum. Making Greek a requirement weakens it in all its relations, and the utilitarian spirit has not done one-twentieth as much harm as the spirit of pointing to Greek\nas something sacred. Accordingly, Greek should not be made a required subject for\nanything except Greek courses. A scientific study should not be required except in\npurely scientific courses. Let us change the form of the question from, Should Greek\nbe required for the degree of Bachelor of Arts ? to, Should we give the Bachelor of\nArts degree without Greek ? That is, shall we give a certain name to courses without\nGreek ? The question is one of name. It is not a very important question for that\nreason. It is, of course, desirable to have degrees that will tell what a man knows, as,\nfor example, an A.B. stating that he had Latin and Greek. It would be better if he\ncould be labeled A.B. in Anabasis, enumerating the books he had read, the places where\nhe had read them, and, better than all, the teacher under whom he had read them. It\nmight be still better to have different colored gowns to signify different degrees. Thus\nwe might have pink gowns for those who have read the Anabasis, and blue gowns for\nthose who have read something else. Then you could see a Greek man across the street\nand say, \" There goes a Greek man who has done an advanced piece of work. \" But we do\nnot care for that sort of thing. We do not want titles. It is not the American spirit.\nThis is the strongest reason for reducing all these degrees to one, and has not been\nreferred to by Professor Hale. Caligula wished all the Romans might have one neck\nso that he might cut it off at one stroke. Likewise, let all degrees have but one neck so\nthat they could all be cut off at one blow, for the whole thing is merely foolishness, as\nthe wearing of pink or blue or yellow gowns is all childishness. It is a step in the\nright direction when we either multiply degrees unduly, so that they will appear\nridiculous, or when we reduce them all to one.\nThe separation of degrees from B.A. is bound sooner or later to kill all degrees. It\nwill not kill the Greek, for which the degree stood, and the time is coming when Greek\nculture will be more and more appreciated. Not that there are not plenty of other kinds\nof culture, but there will always be Greek-minded men and Latin-minded men, for whom\nGreek and Latin will have value.\nThe degree of A.B. had meant such liberal culture as the colleges of the past were\nable to give. The colleges of the present were able to give a liberal culture in many\nmore directions. All academic words and terms are undergoing changes. The word\ndoctor and the word bachelor are not exempt from this. It would have been better\nto have found new names for every one of the new conditions. But all colleges cannot\nmeet the demands of all men, and it is not the business of any college to force upon any\nthat which is not for his best development. If an institution proposes to teach only\nclassically minded men the classics, very well. It is a noble field, and the work may\nbe nobly done. It strains out by that sieve a vast number of men who want training,\nand want it in other fields. Although in Germany, all scientific men of all kinds\nwere forced to go through a course in the German gymnasium, yet there is nothing in\n\n"}
{"page": 157, "printed_page": null, "text": "DISCUSSION.\n\n137\n\nucation so much criticised as the German gymnasium.\nIn this country it has been\ne that the great majority of scientific men were outside of the colleges altogether.\nt is not true now, by any means, but it was once true, that the men who had done\nork and made a name for American science were men outside of colleges, who reached\neir knowledge through other means, because they were strained out of colleges which\nreed them to do what they did not want to do.\n[Here Professor Sborey, of the University of Chicago, asked whether President Jordan\nould name some of the American men of science who had received their training outde of the colleges.]\nPresident Jordan said that he could mention in general almost all those who are\ngreat in zoology, such as Audubon, Wilson, and Lawrence. He could think of only two\nearly scientific men who were college graduates.\nHowever, all that class of men was\nof colleges ; not that a classical education would have hurt them, but that a\nIutside\nlassical education stood between them and what they wanted to do.\nMost of the scientific men whose letters were read by Professor Hale appealed to the\nalue of Greek from the utilitarian side, referring to its etymological advantages. But\nre know that the knowledge of Greek for etymological purposes is not the kind usually\naught in college, nor is the value of Greek to scientific men in giving them the meaning\nof scientific words of very great importance. In another letter read there was a reference to the fact that the intellectual tilths of this generation were largely on classical\nfields. As a matter of fact, they were largely in biological and psychological fields,\nmatters wholly outside of the classics. The intellectual tilths of this generation have\nbeen about the works and name of Darwin. They have dominated everything else, and\nif we are to apply the weight of evidence as to the value of Greek and Latin, we might\nappeal to Darwin, who says his time in the university was absolutely wasted, because it\nwas spent on subjects he had no use for.\nBut unfriendly criticism of Greek, as Greek, is not legitimate, because Greek and what\nGreek stands for will always have its importance. The question here is simply whether\nwe will take the name B.A. for a narrow field, or spread it over a wider one. In the\nstatement made in one of the letters, that modern languages are mere gruel beside Latin\nand Greek, the person simply gives himself away. A man who has read Goethe, Lessing,\nand other masters would never say that. Nothing is gruel if it is done in a worthy\nspirit. Advanced work in any subject will lead to strength. There is no conceivable\nsubject in which it will not. In closing, President Jordan asked when Greek became a\ndead language and ceased to be a means of human intercourse. He had supposed that\nquite a number of persons, who said they were Greeks and came from Greece, were still\nactually using Greek as a means of human intercourse. Greek is not a dead language,\nand even if it was it would not deserve any special consideration on account of its death.\nDr. Imelmaxn, of the Joachimsthal Gymnasium, Berlin, Germany, in reply to President Jordan said that the Greek question, which in America and England is in the first\nplace a university question, is in Germany primarily a college or gymnasial question.\nAs an old gymnasial teacher, he took the highest interest in this question and had studied\nthe literature on the subject: — an immense literature, indeed — with an unprejudiced\nmind. He was under the impression that the general bearings of the question in America and in Germany were quite analogous, and that the arguments pro and con were the\nsame. The problem itself appears to be an endless problem. This Greek question will\nnever be solved. Still, to occupy one's self with it, to study the question of Greek, is in\nitself of the highest value. Even those who oppose the classical system, whenever they\nstudy this question are studying Greek, too. It is, after all, more a question of personal\nexperience, and, so to say, of personal faith, — for a scientific final determination of this\nproblem is not possible.\nThose who have once lived, and, more so, those who are so\n\n"}
{"page": 158, "printed_page": null, "text": "138\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION.\n\nhappy as to live in a daily and intimate intercourse with the Greek language and\nliterature, with those old and immortal masters of European culture, know what they\nare and how rich they are. They know how much they themselves owe to the Greek\nspirit, to Hellenism, and it is their credo that there is no substitute for the study of\nGreek. It is their belief that the study of Greek literature, Greek philosophy. Greek\npoetry, and Greek science is much more, is unspeakably more than to learn a language,\nthan to read several authors. It is, so to say, to drink from the oldest, purest, richest\nsources of European civilization. It is to lay the most firm foundation for an idealistic\nview, for a high and broad view of life. It is perhaps the best way, the natural starting\npoint of an historical education, the best warrant of what the Germans call moral freedom— that is, the freedom of an unprejudiced and comprehensive mind.\nProfessor Shorey, of the University of Chicago, said : Man is not a logical animal, and questions of this kind are rarely decided by sheer stress of argument. But\nsince there is little which I could wish to add to the direct presentation of his thesis,\ngiven by my colleague, Professor Hale, I will venture, in the few words I have to say, to\ninflict a little of the dialectics of the subject upon you.\nWe all of us probably remember the scene in \"Daniel Deronda \" in which Sir Hugh\nMallinger remarks that he has forgotten all his Greek ; but still it did him good, it\nformed his English, which, by the way, is rather hesitating and faltering ; and we all\nremember the respectful silence that Daniel Deronda himself observed in the face of\nthis declaration. I generally feel inclined to preserve a similar respectful silence in\nthe presence of most of the arguments which it is my misfortune to hear in defence of\nGreek. The paper of to-day was a happy exception. Nevertheless, even in to-day's\ndebate it is to be noted that nearly every one of the very able and tellingly put points\nmade by the distinguished president of the scientific university in the West, were made\nagainst arguments in favor of Greek that will not bear scrutiny, arguments that\nfairly made me cringe when I heard them — the etymological argument, for example; a\nmere argumentative stop-gap employed in default of more serious reasons — or the idea\nthat Greek should be required of everybody as the one thing needful, a point that is\nnot seriously made by the true defenders of Greek. The real educational issue raised,\napart from those telling retorts against weak and indefensible arguments — the real\neducational issue he raised was the challenge to produce sufficient reason for establishing distinct degrees of B.S. and A.B., and sufficient, fair, and serious practical modern\neducational reasons for reserving one of these degrees as a distinctive degree for the\ncourse in which Greek plays an important part. That was the sole serious educational\nissue raised by his amusing persiflage of the \" blue and yellow gowns.\"\nI will ask you to watch me closely and see whether I do not answer this challenge\nbefore I have done. But before entering upon that matter I wish to clear the debate of\none or two irrelevancies constantly brought forward in the discussion of this question.\nIn the first place, it is proposed to compel nobody to study Greek. It is proposed by\nthe advocates of Greek to compel those who want the degree of A.B. to study Greek,\nthere being concurrent degrees of B.S. and Ph.B. Therefore all questions of compelling\nmen to study Greek are questions not relevant to the subject.\nSecondly, it is often stated (I am still clearing away irrelevancies) — the argument is\noften advanced that Greek is not practical. That is a question for a man to decide\nbefore he goes to college at all. The very idea of a liberal education iu this country,\nand I hope it will always remain so, is that a man has a certain amount of leisure for\ndisinterested culture ; and I should be very much interested, as Charles Lamb once\nsaid, to \" examine the bumps of the gentleman,\" and to investigate the processes of\nratiocination that would lead to the conclusion that Middle High German is a more\npractical study than Greek for a practicing attorney, and that the comparative anat-\n\n"}
{"page": 159, "printed_page": null, "text": "DISCUSSION.\n\n139\n\nomy of the invertebrates will help the wholesale grocer where Greek literature leaves\nhim in the lurch. No college studies are practical, if by practical you mean calculated\nto insure the kind of success won by Jay Gould. The practical course for men whose\nhearts are set upon this career is to begin as Jay Gould did, by sweeping out the office\nat fourteen, with the chance of remaining an office sweep forever, or of accumulating a\nfortune like Jay Gould's.\nSo with regard to the argument we often hear — an argument that has not been\nadvanced to-day, but which I am sure is in the minds of many present; — the argument\nthat whatever may be said of the delicacy and subtle precision of the Greek language,\nof the glory and beauty of Greek literature, the average student does not really attain\nto that. This is not a relevant argument, for it is simply an indictment of human\nnature and of our bad methods of teaching. When scientific men are together by\nthemselves, when modern language men come together and the history men are meeting, they will all admit that their own subjects are not taught according to the ideal\nmethod. We must be consistently optimistic or pessimistic when we are comparing the\nrelative educational values of subjects. We must either assume that all studies are to\nbe taught so as to bring out all there is in them, or we must accept the present low\nstandards for all. It is not relevant to say that the beauty of Greek literature is not\ngrasped by all students who pursue its study, unless you admit the same conditions\nwith regard to the peculiar discipline of science and other studies.\nSo, in the same way, some will say that Greek is forgotten. But I will venture to\naffirm that nobody in this assembly can have forgotten his Greek more absolutely than\nI have forgotten my old English history and my calculus. The fact is, no man\nremembers anything in detail unless he keeps it fresh by daily practice either as a profession or a hobby. But the general civilizing and refining effect of his study he does\nnot lose. And some subjects perhaps leave more of this civilizing after-effect than\nothers.\nNow, having attempted to clear away some of these irrelevancies that ought to be\nleft to audiences of another character, 1 will endeavor to state what I consider to be the\nreal educational issue. Are there, in the present state of education in the United\nStates — are there logical, practical educational reasons for bestowing more than one\ndegree as the stamp and seal of what is known as a general collegiate education ?\nSecondly, is there anything in the special claims of the study of Greek to make it\nreasonable that one of these alternative courses, one of these degrees, should be characterized bythe presence of Greek in its curriculum ? I think both of these questions can\nbe answered in the affirmative, and, if so, the question is settled so far as the logic of\ndebate can settle anything in a world admittedly not governed by logic.\nI think from the educational chaos of the time there emerge two or three distinct\ntypes of education. We all recognize that there is an education based essentially not\nmerely on knowledge of the results, but on discipline in the processes and methods of\nphysical science. That distinction (between methods and results) is not made often\nenough, but the distinction is all-important. All educated people may master some of\nthe results of science ; only a few can master scientific processes. If we try to master\nthe methods, we have to sacrifice liberal culture. If science means several hours daily\nin the laboratory (and our scientific brethren will accept nothing less), then science\nand the older literary and historic culture are for all but intellectual giants incompatible. We cannot have both, as Mill demanded — ceci tuera cela. This education in\nscience may be broadened in many ways, by free election of culture studies, or by prescribed courses that will widen the student's outlook ; but his main work must be done\nin the laboratory. It would be idle to attempt to ignore this type of education, in view\nof the part played by physical science in our modern civilization, and the many able\nmen whose powers are best developed by this discipline.\nIt must be recognized and\n\n"}
{"page": 160, "printed_page": null, "text": "140\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nstamped by the seal of the college with a degree, the degree of B.S. There is no question about that, and there is no necessity of compelling men who want this training\nand this degree to take another type of culture.\nThen (but of this I am somewhat doubtful) there is an intermediate, compromise\nform of education which certainly has been shown to meet a popular demand— i lie\ncourse that leads to the degree which the University of Chicago calls Ph.B. ; in which\nsome of the detailed knowledge of the processes and methods of modern science is\nsacrificed to make room for a certain infusion of the mental and moral sciences, history\nand Latin, and a certain modicum of the modern languages. This is the second type\nof education (possibly a transitional type) recognized, and for the present I think wisely\nrecognized, by the University of Chicago.\nAnd now we come to the third and last of my three types, what is known as the old\nclassical course, sometimes called the humanistic education, but which I prefer to define\nas an education, as my colleague says in the knowledge of the best that has been\nthought and said in the world, studied systematically and scientifically in its sources.\nThat education, I think, is a sufficiently marked distinctive type, and, what is more,\nthere is a distinctive type of mind adapted for that education. I hear a good deal of the\nunfortunate youth who is compelled to waste his time grubbing among Greek roots and\nanalyzing Greek optatives when he would rather be working in the laboratory ; but\nwhat of the youths who are forced to waste their time dissecting star-fish, and who\nare tortured with test-tubes and retorts, when they would rather be reading Sophocles ?\nThe argument is as strong on one side as on the other. I do not advocate compulsion\nin either direction. But the \" election \" of elementary physics and chemistry is not left\nto the caprice of the student of biology, and it is at least conceivable that there is a type\nof education in which the study of Greek should not be an accident.\nAnd now I come back to the main question, which I have not lost sight of : Why is\nit necessary to distinguish B.S. and B.A. ? What educational end is achieved by\nstamping the course that prescribes Greek with a special degree ? Why not have a free\nelective system, and allow students adapted to Greek to pursue Greek, and those adapted\nto science to pursue science ? The idea of the free elective system is very alluring. It\nresults, however, in chaos, unless intelligent pressure is put upon our students; and\nintelligent pressure is not put upon our students to choose their courses wisely where\nthe absolute free elective system exists.\nI am myself a son of Harvard, and I admire and love Harvard as much as anybody\nin this assembly, and yet my own course, considered a successful one, was not wisely\nchosen, and I believe that is the case in a far larger number of instances than appears in\noptimistic annual reports. What guidance and direction there is, is exercised in casual\nperfunctory interviews with deans and advisers, and may at anj time be counteracted\nby caprice, prejudice, a letter from home, or the last \"able editorial\" on the college\nfetich. That is not the way to plan a well-considered scheme of education. Such\nschemes should be elaborated by the collective wisdom of our university faculties. The\nuniversity should define in their broad outlines two or three main types of liberal education, and set up the corresponding distinct degrees as sign-posts to guide the student to\na definite goal. It will tell a student who wants a predominantly scientific training that\nhe must pursue certain studies, because such studies are, in the judgment of the entire\nscientific faculty, necessary for a properly coordinated scientific education ; and, similarly, ifhis tastes and capacities are for the historical culture, it may, without tyrannous\nrestriction on his freedom of election, tell him that it is well for him to read the\n\" Chanson de Roland,\" but it is indispensable for him to read the Iliad. By so doing,\nthe university will often save its students from false tendency, wasted effort, and vain\nregrets.\nEvery teacher of Greek is familiar with the experience which 1 have had repeatedly\n\n"}
{"page": 161, "printed_page": null, "text": "DISCUSSION.\n\n141\n\nduring the past year. Intelligent students have come to me who have discovered that\nthe education they want is the literary and linguistic. They do want to know the best\nthat has been thought and said in the world, and they do not want to work in the laboratory ;and they have been brought up in colleges, like some universities that have been\nrepresented here to-day, where they were prevented from studying Greek at the right\nseason ; and now they anxiously inquire whether it is too late for them to secure this key\nto the one domain of knowledge that attracts them most, and it is difficult to advise\nthem honestly. If the alternatives had been clearly put before them at the beginning,\nand they had been told that Greek was indispensable for the particular culture that they\nwished, they would have been spared their misdirected efforts and regrets. Here is the\ndistinct educational argument in favor of the division of degrees. It sets up a sign-post,\nas I have already said, to guide the student from afar, and forces upon his attention the\nproblem of distinguishing the two or three leading types of education, and choosing, with\nintelligent advice, the one for which he is best adapted. It is mere quibbling, and not a\nfair reductio ad absurdum, to argue that this principle would lead to a .dozen specific\ndegrees with a colored gown for each..\nI pass lightly over my other points. The second point is (assuming that it is desirable\nto bestow two or three distinct degrees) that Greek should mark such a type. The reasons for that have been developed repeatedly to-day, and I could not possibly do them\njustice in the brief time that remains. One strong reason familiar to the lips of all,\nalthough not believed and felt by all, is that the Greek literature is in itself intrinsically the most beautiful in the world. Unhappy those who think this is a mere superstition of Greek professors ! But if any here are thus skeptical of the imperishable\ncharms of Greek, how can I prove it to them in five minutes extempore discourse ? I\ncan prove it to any intelligent class of sophomores who have passed the first thorny\nhedge of grammar, and who will rea:l with me a masterpiece of Sophocles or Plato, and\nperhaps that is enough. But it is not solely or mainly on account of this charm that some\nknowledge of Greek must be the distinctive stamp of one form of culture, one type of\neducation. It is because, as was said in one of the letters read from this platform today, itis impossible to be a Quettenforscher without Greek, because Greek is indispensable\nfor the systematic and scientific knowledge of the history, philosophy, and religion and\npoetry of the West ; because the Greek spirit is the direct source of all that lives and\nmoves and has its being in the higher world of modern thought. True, the average student will not realize all this any more than he will appreciate the full significance of the\n\"scientific spirit.\" But the appointed custodians of Greek culture must not merely\naffirm, but believe and know it. In the daily routine of the classroom we must draw\nfor our students the subtle lines that link that exquisite past to all that is truly living in\nthe spiritual life of our own time. If that were done, we should have the students with\nus, whatever may be the opinion of the general public.\nProfessor T. C. Chamberlin, of the University of Chicago, said that in the past the\njatin-Greek-mathematical combination had presented a somewhat definite curriculum,\nind that this fact apparently justified the giving of a definite degree for that combination. He thought that the other curricula that had been presented in the past were\naferior, with the exception of some recently introduced, and that this seemed a sufficient reason for giving them other and distinctive degrees.\nThe present, however, is clearly a transitional period.\nNone of the old curricula are\niven in their former integrity.\nAll have undergone transitions.\nThe practice of givig a specifically definite course of study may be said to have passed away, and the\npractice of variation by individual election has taken its place.\nThe degree of variation is increasing, but as yet it has not progressed so far as to entirely destroy the\ndistinctness of the several courses in institutions which still retain the course svstem.\n\n"}
{"page": 162, "printed_page": null, "text": "142\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nAt present, therefore, it seems a matter of discretion to rest with the judgment of the\nseveral institutions whether they shall confer several degrees, or shall substitute a\nsingle baccalaureate degree. If old degrees are retained, it is perhaps best to follow as\nnearly as possible historical precedents, and to require Greek for the Bachelor of Arts.\nIf a single degree is substituted for the several degrees, it seems clear that Greek should\nnot be required, because it does not seem a necessary constituent of an excellent college\ncourse, and our practices do not at present make it a necessary constituent. As to the\nfuture, it seems clear that very soon the number of actual courses that will be taken by\nelection, or by other devices adopted by institutions, will become so great, and the combinations ofstudies will become so inextricably interwoven with each other, that there\nwill be no legitimate basis for discrimination free from arbitrariness and invidiousness.\nIt seems, therefore, that the coming practice will be the substitution, in place of the\npresent divers degrees, of the single degree, which shall signify simply the completion\nof a college course. The only alternative apparently open is the addition to such a\ngeneral degree of addenda which shall indicate the special study selected, or the special group of studies selected. This, however, seems more or less impracticable. It\nseems probable, on the whole, that the coming degree will be A.B., because it is easier to\nadapt an existing practice than to institute a new one. It would be better, however, to\ninstitute a new and different degree corresponding to the new significance.\nProfessor Hale, in closing the debate, said : My agreement with the last speaker is\nnearly complete, if I have apprehended his final statement rightly. With regard to\nPresident Jordan's argument much might be said, but I will take time only to dissent\nfrom a single expression, the word \"pamper.\" President Jordan charges us with\nwishing to \"pamper\" Greek. In point of fact, no odds are asked in behalf of Greek\nexcept those which in any other relation of life are called \" rights.\" On the other\nhand, it is either lack of frankness or lack of discrimination that keeps the advocates\nof the new scheme of education from seeing and admitting that, when they say that a\nnew degree is not good enough for their scheme, and that the old degree, with a broader\nmeaning, must be given it, it is they who are asking odds, and it is their scheme of\neducation for which the \" pampering\" is demanded.\n\nWHAT SIGN'S OF IMPROVEMENT ARE VISIBLE IN THE\nUNDERGRADUATE LIFE OF AMERICAN STUDENTS?\nBY\n\nBRADFORD\n\nPAUL\n\nRAYMOND,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nMIDDLETOWN,\n\nOF\n\nWESLEYAN\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nCONN.\n\nSeveral topics suggest themselves on the question before us : \" What\nsigns of improvement are visible in the undergraduate life of American\nstudents, in athletics, morals, student organizations, intercollegiate courtesies, and relations of students to instructors ?\"\nLet us begin with the subject of athletics. Apparently the thought in\nthe mind of the person suggesting this question was substantially this :\nAre we making a better type of manhood in our colleges to-day than we\nwere a few years ago ? Are there any indications to show that we are\n\n"}
{"page": 163, "printed_page": null, "text": "UNDERGRADUATE\n\nLIFE\n\nOF AMERICAN\n\nSTUDENTS.\n\n143\n\nadvancing in the quality and effect of our work upon those who attend\nour schools of learning ? I suppose this phase of the question may have\nbeen suggested because of the perils that confessedly are connected with\nathletics in our higher institutions of learning. It is certainly true there\nis peril to life and limb in some of the sports in which the college students\nengage. It is true, to a certain extent, the young men who are devoted\nto athletics have compromised their studies ; and true that there come\nperiods in these contests when the moral stamina of these men is put to\nthe severest tests. Nevertheless, I want to say at the outset that I am in\nfavor of athletics, and I believe that there are signs of progress in all of\nour colleges.\nThe opinions we form must come largely from our own institutions of\nlearning ; hence, perhaps, I shall represent only a local opinion, while very\nlikely many of you may differ from me in some of the things I may say.\nNevertheless, I believe that there are signs of improvement. I think the\nfact is that our college athletics are judged by what is to be seen on those\ndays when college teams meet for the college contests ; but this is evidently\nan unfair and an unjust basis from which to estimate the value and the\nsignificance of college athletics. You do not so study the significance\nof civic life. If you were to ask what is the value of civic life, and of our\nlaws and institutions, and what is being done to make good citizens, you\nwould not go to the polls on election day and stand there with your arms\nfolded to find how many profane men there were there, how many drunken\nmen there, how many who take bribes there. Not at all. You would\nsay these are extravagances, excrescences ; this is an abnormal manifestation which does not truly represent the heart of our civic life. You\nwould rather go through the country and study what is being done in\nmunicipal government, and in state and national legislatures ; you would\nnot study the effect of our national institutions upon the character of the\npeople as seen on an exceptional day, but as seen throughout the whole\nyear.\nI would study athletics just as I do civic life ; I would see what is going\non three hundred days in the year, not on an exceptional day. And if I\nfound that in the gymnasiums there is a process of training, with carefully\nplanned physical exercises under the care of competent directors being\npursued through the year, and that at the end of the college year the\nstudents were far better physical men than they were at the beginning\nof the college year, I would say that we had the best foundation laid for\ntheir development ; that athletics in our colleges are doing a great deal\nfor the development of physical men who must be able to stand the\nstress of hard business life, and of professional life, and to carry on with\nsuccess the enterprises which they take hold of. This much with reference to the method of investigation of the subject.\nI think there are signs of improvement in the college teams themselves.\n\n"}
{"page": 164, "printed_page": null, "text": "144\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nTake an instance which is characteristic. A few months ago, at a little\ngathering in my home, the captain of one of the teams came and said :\n\" You will have to excuse me ; I will have to retire ; it is ten o'clock.\" I\nsaid : \" Why do you have to retire at ten o'clock ?\" Said he : \"I make\nthe rules for the members of the team, and I have to obey them.\" And\nin a few minutes the men had all gone home. I say that is a good thing\nfor a man of force to say to twenty or thirty young men in college who\nare working on that team : \"You must retire at a given hour at night ;\nyou must live under such and such a regime\"; and for men to hold themselves to that regime means not only physical strength, but it means\nmoral control.\nIt does seem to me that this subject of physical training is one which\nhas been neglected in our whole land. If we compare ourselves with Germany in this respect, we see how little is done in our elementary schools,\nand how little has been done in our higher schools and colleges. We are\njust taking hold of the subject, and are realizing that it is of vast importance to a nation that men sent out to carry on national life should be\nmen of splendid physique, men of splendid constitutional force, and that\nwe should develop a physical constitution which will tell in our national\nlife. We need men of courage, and the man who goes on the foot-ball\nfield is the man who learns to develop the right kind of courage to meet\nthe difficulties of our great cities. Because of the excesses of comparatively few of the men in our colleges, which show themselves on certain\ndays, we have inclined to think college athletics generally are demoralizing. This much with reference to this question of athletics.\nThe next point is the question of student organizations.\nI can say only a word with reference to the fraternities. I am not a\nfraternity man. I wras educated in an institution where Greek-letter\nsocieties did not exist, and when I became connected with an institution\nwrhere they were somewhat numerous, I had some hesitation, and concluded that the best thing was to stand outside of these organizations\nand be in right relations with every one of them.\nI am prepared to say, after a few years' experience, that the best men\nin these fraternities are in control — the men of scholarship, the men of\nhighest ideals, the men of the best type of manhood ; and there is a pride\nin the members of their own societies leading them to work constantly\nfor the good of these societies. They are proud of their men who make\nfine records as scholars. And not only so ; they are interested in the\nmorals of men, and they labor w7ith them for good character as well as a\nhigh type of intellectual life. In this way, I believe there is an advance\nbeing made in the fraternity life of our colleges ; the best men are now\ntaking control of these societies, and they are running them for the best\ninterests, social, intellectual, moral, and religious.\nNow as to the question of morals.\nIt seems to me that there is a new\n\n"}
{"page": 165, "printed_page": null, "text": "DISCUSSION.\n\n145\n\nforce taking hold of our colleges, to make first of all the religious life,\naud, secondly, the moral life, more sensible, manly, and effective than ever\nin the past. It grows largely out of the newer sociological studies, and\nthat view of life which is turning Christian men out into the world and\nupon men. Take, for example, the work being done in our great cities —\nin New York City. What are we going to do ? Shall we go, as some of\nthe noble young college men have gone, down into the very depths, and\nthere accomplish something substantial for the advancement of society ?\nI want to say that that thought is being taken up in our colleges, and\nyoung men are becoming intensely interested, and are giving themselves\nto this work. Men in colleges are trying to raise money to support men\nwho want to go down in the slums, and so this study, which has ethics in\nit, is turning the thought of men everywhere to the external world for an\nexhibition of religious life.\nWe ought to say a word directly on the relation of students to instructors. It used to be the case that the students looked upon the faculty as\ntheir mortal enemies. That tradition is dying out. It dies hard, but\nthere is very good evidence that it is dying out. When students organize themselves for the purpose of suppressing dishonesty in examinations, it is a good indication of a growing, healthful, moral life ; when\nthey organize themselves for the suppressing of hazing, it is an indication\nof a higher moral standard, a sense of manhood, which did not prevail\nyears ago ; and when they are glad to associate themselves with the faculty\nfor the discussion and consideration of all those interests that pertain to\ncollege life, that, too, is an indication of a higher type of manhood.\nSo, then, looking generally over the wide field of influences at work\nupon the character of college students in our time, I am prepared to say\nthere are visible evidences of improvement in the undergraduate life of\nthe American student, in athletics and morals, in student organizations,\nintercollegiate courtesies, and the relations of students to their instructors.\n\nDISCUSSION.\nPresident Blanchaed, of Wheaton College, Illinois, dwelt on two points in President Raymond's paper, the question of university settlements in the degraded quarters\nof large cities, and the question of college fraternities. He thought that it was a mistake to expect any considerable regeneration of society as the result of university settlements. Individuals will be helped by it, but no general effect in the way of improvement is to be expected unless the perennial sources of degradation and evil are reached.\nIn regard to Greek-letter fraternities, he was sorry President Raymond did not speak\nmore fully in regard to their disadvantages as well as their advantages, and had not\nreferred to such facts as the killing of a student at Cornell University in 1874 at an\ninitiation, the death of another at Yale, the blood poisoning of another at Harvard two\nyears ago, and the branding which has just been made the subject of legislation in the\nState of Ohio. Take also the arrest and fining of two of the societies at Harvard for\nmaintaining a liquor nuisance. Are these things the abuses or the natural results of secret\n10\n\n"}
{"page": 166, "printed_page": null, "text": "146\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION\n\nsociety action ? A full examination of the record of secret societies in colleges would not\nshow that they are conducing to manhood or scholarship or excellence of any kind.\nIn this connection he called attention to the recent examination made by a committee\nof students in Chicago, through extended correspondence with the colleges of the\ncountry. In written reports from more than two hundred colleges, it was ascertained that\nin more than half of this number all fraternities were forbidden. It is also well known\nthat in the organization of the University of Chicago, the latest of our greater universities, after a full discussion, the faculty, while not positively prohibiting fraternities,\nyet gave their judgment against them, and urged the students not to form them. It is\none of the favorable signs of the times that more than a hundred of our higher institutions have forbidden the organization of Greek-letter societies.\nRev. Dr. C. H. Payne, of New York City, said he was disposed to take an optimistic\nview of the questions relating to the character and improvement of American college\nundergraduates. However, a precautionary word was necessary in reference to the\nquestion of professional or semi-professional athletics, as now existing in our colleges.\nAnything that will develop a strong physical manhood is to be encouraged, but it is\nvery doubtful whether professional athletics, as carried forward under our institutions\nto-day, encourage the development of physical manhood. It is more likely to be a\nhindrance to it. It does not reach the mass of the students. One or two college teams,\na base-ball nine, and a foot-ball team, in a college of a thousand students, are not enough\nto develop the whole body. Dr. Payne's observation was, that interest in the regular\ngymnastic training and work was not increased in proportion to the interest in these\nout-door sports, but rather the contrary. Several colleges could be named where the\ngymnasium has gone down in the presence of the greater interest manifested in the\nprofessional games. It is not enough to train a few students when we have a thousand\nof them.\nWe want some kind of physical training that will affect the whole.\nThe moral aspect of these great intercollegiate games is a most serious question. If\nwe are to follow President Raymond's principle of securing an environment for students which will make it hard to go wrong and easy to go right, then we shall adopt more\nvigorous rules within our institutions of learning concerning these games. He could\nnot quite agree with President Raymond that, at the places and days on which these\ngames come to the surface, the general public has a chance to see what is being done ;\nthese do not afford a fair criterion of the practical working of the system. It is to be\ndoubted whether any good result comes to the larger colleges which allow these games.\nIt is true that here and. there they put forth a man who is pretty good as a scholar, and\nhe is well advertised ; but it lies in the nature of things that if you allow a man to go\naway every week to play games, and sometimes twice a week, you are not going to help\nscholarship by his absence. It does not favorably affect scholarship, while it does tend\nto deteriorate the morals of the students. Dr. Payne said that for the last five years\nhe had given careful examination both before and afterward to the condition of things\nin connection with the great foot-ball game that comes off in New York on Thanksgiving Day, and gave a description of the excesses he had observed. He urged that\nthe deteriorating tendencies connected with these games be vigorously taken in hand by\ncollege authorities at once.\n\nADDRESS\nBY\n\nHON.\n\nSETH\n\nON THE\nSCHOOLS\nLOW,\n\nRELATION OF PROFESSIONAL\nTO THE\nUNIVERSITY.\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF\n\nCOLUMBIA\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nNEW\n\nYORK.\n\nMr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen : I am sure I share with you in\nthe keen regret that will be felt at the absence of the president of Princeton, the Eev. Dr. Patton, for he is a master in the domain of higher education, where I am only a learner ; and he has, moreover, the gift of\neloquent and interesting speech wherewith to express the thoughts which\nhe may have on any subject.\nI wish it had been possible for me to have\n\n"}
{"page": 167, "printed_page": null, "text": "RELATION\n\nOF PROFESSIONAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nTO THE\n\nUNIVERSITY.\n\n147\n\nbeen in the convention during its earlier sessions, so that I might have\nbeen able to gather something of the wisdom and something of the spirit\nthat always is to be found in such a meeting ; but I was, unfortunately,\nunable to reach Chicago until yesterday afternoon, so that I have come\ninto your midst as one hardly yet in touch with what has been thus far\nsaid and done. Nevertheless, I count it a high privilege to be called to\nbring you a word of fellowship and goodwill in these deliberations from\nthe city of New York.\nThe mistake will not be made in this gathering, I am sure, of thinking\nthat New York is notable only for its finance and manufactures. There\nhas been no time since the foundation of the ancient seat of learning with\nwhich I have the honor of being connected, when the city of New York\nwould not have been entitled to honorable place in any gathering held in\nthis country to consider the interests of higher education. Nevertheless,\nthe influence of the city upon this ancient institution of the higher education, Columbia College, has been singularly interesting.\nIn the first place, the cosmopolitan character of the city stamped itself\nupon the charter which was given to the college by George II. It was\nprovided in that charter that there should be an ex-officio membership in\nthe board of governors consisting of the principal clergymen in the city\nof New York as it then was. And I take it that it is due to that provision that Columbia College is the only one of the colleges dating back of\nthe Revolution, unless it may be the College of Philadelphia, which was a\ncity college, and which has never had any theological seminary in close\nconnection with it. At the same time, the charter of Columbia College\nprovided that no distinction whatsoever should be made toward students\non account of their religious belief, a provision which strikes me as\nsingularly worthy of note when one considers that the authorized oaths\nrequired of candidates who wished to attend Oxford and Cambridge were\nonly abolished as recently as about 1870. A hundred and fifty years ago\nthe atmosphere of this country was unfriendly to that sort of thing.\nThen the influence of the city upon the college, I think, appeared very\nshortly in another way. Columbia opened its doors in 1754, and in 1767\nit established the first medical faculty in the State of New York. In\nother words, the seed that was planted there was not simply the seed of a\ncollege, as we distinguish colleges and universities — not simply a seed that\nwould bring forth its fruit of liberal culture, but it was really the seed of\nthe university that was planted there.\nThen there came in 1797 the first chair of law ever established in New\nYork ; that was held by Chancellor Kent. And thus, from time to time,\none professional school after another has been thrown out from this\nancient root, until Columbia College to-day is, perhaps, better known\nthrough its professional and higher schools than by the work of its\nSchool of Arts, as we call the college proper.\n\n"}
{"page": 168, "printed_page": null, "text": "148\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nThe history of the connection of the college with these professional\nschools is also interesting. I refer to it, of course, not at all to tell you\nabout our college, but to illustrate this theme in regard to which I was\nto have spoken if I had been able to be with you in your meeting two\ndays ago. The first medical faculty was established in the college in 1767.\nIn 1807 the College of Physicians and Surgeons was established as an\nindependent medical school, as though medical instruction could be\nbetter given free from the entanglements of the university (as they might\nhave said in that day) rather than as an integral part of the work of the\nuniversity. That idea prevailed so strongly that six or seven years later\nthe medical faculty of Columbia was allowed to resign and become part\nof the faculty of Physicians and Surgeons, and there remained not even a\nnominal connection between Columbia and the medical work. In 1860\nColumbia once more gave degrees in medicine to the graduates of this\nschool ; and Avithin the last two years there has come about a complete\nreunion, and the College of Physicians and Surgeons is an integral part\nof Columbia College.\nThat is interesting because it shows that, from the time at which it\nwas supposed that medical education could be better given in an independent school, we have once more come into the time when it is\ngenerally believed that the best medical education is to be found inevitably, one might also say necessarily, in a university. The reasons, I\nthink, are not difficult to see. In the first place, medical education is\nlike all the higher education. It is impossible for it to be self-supporting\nin the higher grades. The medical professors, who are dependent upon\ntheir office, are able to give a medical education that is as good as can be\nmade self-supporting, but it can be no better. Therefore the endowment\nof the university is of the utmost consequence, it seems to me, in lifting\nup the course of medical instruction ; and it is now a part of our pride at\nColumbia that the medical instructors hold their chairs upon a salary as\nindependently of the fees of the students as any professors in the whole\nestablishment. That is one direction in which the university must be of\ngreat service to the professional school.\nIn the second place, I think the connection with the university has a\nvery strong influence upon the character of the instruction. If a professional school stands by itself, the inevitable tendency of the school is\nsimply to fit for practice of the profession. Now, surely a university\nwishes to fit its professional students for the practice of its profession,\nbut it wants to do something more than that. It wants to give them a\nscientific understanding of the principles and the knowledge upon which\nthe practice of their profession ought to rest. It ought to develop in the\nstudent not only the desire to investigate, but it ought to teach him how\nto do it, and to place at his service the facilities for doing such things ;\nnot that every student who comes out from school will become an\n\n"}
{"page": 169, "printed_page": null, "text": "RELATION\n\nOF PROFESSIONAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nTO THE\n\nUNIVERSITY.\n\n149\n\ninvestigator, but that some may. You perceive that unless the endowed\nuniversity offers these privileges and these opportunities, the privilege\nand the opportunity is not to be had anywhere. That the university\nshould stand for these high ideals is not to say that the professional\nschools unconnected with the universities have no value. They are\ndistinctly useful in a community like ours. They offer privileges of\nimmense value to many who are unable to attend the others.\nBut I fall back on the thought with which I started, as one never to be\nforgotten, that it is surely the duty of the university to offer to the community the best possible education, the best possible scientific education,\nin every professional direction.\nThen, if you look at the curriculum of a professional school, independent of a university, you will find it, I think, in almost every case, like\nthe old college curriculum : a certain fixed thing, which every student is\npledged to take. I take it that the university carries the idea of specialization into the professional school in a helpful way, further than it could\nbe when it is not connected with the university. Of course, there is the\nirreducible minimum with which every one who tries to practice the profession must be familiar, but it is outside of that that the university gives\nevery opportunity for specializing and carrying one's special talents into\nthe utmost reaches that are known. That again is a service that we\nmust look for entirely to the university. It alone has the facilities,\nthe library, the apparatus, and perhaps it alone can best command the\nmen who are capable of serving as guides in that direction. There is,\ntherefore, a freedom or largeness of opportunity, or ought to be, in connection with the professional schools attached to a university, that is not\nto be found outside.\nNow, as to how these schools of the universities should be most helpfully united — that is a question that I ought not to enter upon at the\npresent time. There is no opportunity to discuss that, nor would we find\nany unanimity of opinion on a point that involves so many details ; but\nI am sure that there would be no substantial difference among university\nmen as to the great service of the university.\nPerhaps there is one indefinite service that is not the least of all ; that\nis to say, that it leads men to study the profession in the same scholarly\natmosphere in which a man obtains his liberal education. It seems to me\nthat one of the most important effects that can be produced upon any man\ncomes from witnessing other men laboring just as hard and just as earnestly\nto learn something else of which he knows nothing, and for which he cares\nlittle or nothing, as he is laboring in the line of his chosen work. It\ngives a certain capacity of mind that is not to be found in any other way.\nTherefore, for all these reasons, I should say that the professional school\nin connection with the university docs offer, should offer, the best opportunity for obtaining a professional education.\n\n"}
{"page": 170, "printed_page": null, "text": "150\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nTHE\nBY\n\nEVOLUTION\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nANDREW\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nOF LIBERAL\nF. WEST, OF\n\nEDUCATION.\n\nPRINCETON\n\nUNIVERSITY.\n\nI.\nAn answer to the question, What properly constitutes a liberal education ? may, like solutions to other educational problems, be attempted in\nthree ways, which may be styled the practical, the theoretical and the\nhistorical. The first attempts the answer by examining present educational practice, including both the existing institutions and the operative\nideas therein embodied. Even if the enormous labor properly involved\nin collecting and classifying what is necessary to a true description of our\neducational practice were performed, the answer obtainable would be an\nunsatisfactory one. A view of the state of education at any one instant of\nhistory is too limited to serve as the basis of a theory which, to be true,\nmust comprehend all the salient facts of history ; and too limited also\nfor us to be sure that it is representative of the whole of history. Accordingly this method may be set aside, not as being useless, but as unpromising when taken alone.\nThe second way of attempting an answer is the theoretical. Theorizing\nis always pleasant, usually dangerous, but at intervals safe and necessary.\nIt cannot be ignored. If we are not seeking a sound theory of education,\nwe are not acting rationally, and our educational activity will suffer accordingly. Even if we should go so far as to concede that a comprehensive\ntheory of liberal education is at present unattainable, we might still hold\nwith Kant that \" we are not to consider the idea chimerical and denounce\nit as an idle dream, even when obstacles appear in the way of its realization.\" *\nWe do not yield to the notion that because there is as yet no doctrine\nof education which amounts to a science, the study of education does not\npromise well, and urge that the study of education is becoming a science\nand that education itself is already a great art, and therefore, from both\npoints of view, a fit subject for high ideal study. We may, however, freely\nadmit that the most convincing single method at the present time is not\nthe theoretical. For a theoretical solution, if it is to be a true one in education, must receive its data from the other sciences on which a science of\neducation will depend ; namely, physiology, psychology, and ethics ; and\nthese sciences, though constant contributors of late, have yielded a contribution insufficient for theoretical construction on any general scale. Nor\nmay we expect that they will begin to satisfy us until their own inductions are reduced to greater exactness and likewise made more extensive.\nIt is still early in the world's history to expect this.\n* \"Ueber 1'aedagogik.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 171, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nTHE EVOLUTION\n\nOF LIBERAL\n\nEDUCATION.\n\n151\n\nThe remaining method is the historical, and, for the problem of liberal\nducation, the most promising. The idea of liberal education emerged,\nearly in the history of Western culture, and we have a fairly continuous\nrecord of its outworking from its first manifestation to the present time.\nIt is reasonable to suppose that an idea which has been unfolding for\nnearly twenty-five centuries, and has been potent in preserving and diffusing enlightenment and stimulating the love of truth through all that time,\nshould afford us some light from its record both as to the ideal toward\nwhich its outworking tends and as to what are its constituent elements.\nII.\nThe concept of liberal education originated among the Greeks, and gives\ncontinuity to the history of liberal education since their time. They were\nthe first to coordinate what they called syuvuXioi naidsia, an \" allround education.\" By this they meant a training in selected studies of\nthe most central character, so as to secure harmonious wholeness or\nintegrity of intellectual culture. They sought a general gymnastic of the\nmind for the sake of the mind, and not for any extraneous utility. This\nview of the material and method of liberal education, however, was not\nthe whole of their concept. If it were, then there might be several, perhaps many kinds of general culture. But with that instinct for ideal\nunity and perfection which appears in everything they touched, they\ndetermined what ingredients should enter into their method and material\nof instruction by determining the ideal end of liberal education. This\nwas what we inexactly name Virtue (apery), or, as they meant it, the\nhighest manhood, or aperi} Kara yevos, the highest excellence of the\nindividual according to his kind — that is, as a man. If it could be\nascertained in what this highest excellence consisted, then the method\nand material of instruction which would develop it would be the method\nand material of liberal education. Now, to their best thinkers the attainment of apsTij was inseparable from knowledge. \"All men naturally\ndesire knowledge/' is Aristotle's opening sentence in his \" Metaphysics\"\nand a commonplace of philosophy ever since. The desire for knowledge is\nconstitutional, and on this the possibility of educating depends. But to\nbe liberalizing, knowledge must lead to virtue. The ideal knowledge,\nthen, was that fine blending of theory and practice which served the\nindividual both toward the understanding and the doing of the truth. It\nwas ffoqjia, Wisdom, the guide of thought and the guide of life. And\nso we can hardly wonder at their frequent identification of knowledge and\nvirtue, and wisdom and virtue. The divorce of theoretical and practical,\neither inside any sphere of knowledge or conduct, or between knowledge\nand conduct as wholes, would have seemed to them utterly irrational.\nThe discipline of youth in knowledge until they attained the character\nof enlightened and virtuous men, sure to go on spontaneously in the dis-\n\n"}
{"page": 172, "printed_page": null, "text": "152\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\ncovery and use of truth, being by that time imbued with cpikoGoqtia — the\nlove of it— was the Greek idea of the school training of youth which would\nlead to the best manhood. Their whole concept is indicated in the\nPythagorean saying, TIpo (piXoaocpla? naiSeia — first education, then philosophy. First discipline in the central categories of the best knowledge,\nthen free research into all knowledge. First the school, then the university.\nOut of these presuppositions there naturally grew up the idea of a logical sequence and coordination of studies to achieve this end — that is, of a\ncurriculum. That there should be one finest way of doing this, to which\nother ways were at best approximations, needed to them no demonstration.\n\" Truth is one and only one, and error is manifold,\" is their reasoning from\nPythagoras onward. The only question, then, remaining to settle was\nwhat studies properly fill out the form of this ideal curriculum. The\nGreeks discovered and determined the ideal form of liberal culture, and, if\nhistory means anything, they have determined the form once for all. The\nrace has been progressively determining the content ever since.\nThe first body of studies which thus gradually arranged itself passed\nover to Rome, and then crystallized with some shrinkage in the early middle ages into the famous \"seven liberal arts\" wherein all medieval education centered. Whatever condemnation is to be passed upon the barren\ntechnical subtleties of the medieval mind, let us not charge these defects\nto the seven arts, but to the natural behavior of minds exercising themselves almost solely on the forms of knowledge — a logical thing, by the way,\nin the evolution of the modern world. Nor should their defects be charged\nto Christianity ; scarcely to ecclesiasticism. The semi-barbarous European mind was beginning to be schooled de novo. The seven arts, while\ndevoid of the living expression of ancient liberal culture, presented at\nleast a recognizable outline of the features, and thus preserved some continuity. What were these arts ? Grammar, rhetoric, and logic were the\nfirst three to be pursued. By grammar, their best teachers, though not\nthe most of them, meant both strict grammar (Latin, of course) and the\nstudy of the literature. It was the inevitable first study, the nutrix infantim, the induction into the art of correct expression. Then came rhetoric,\nspringing out of grammar, leading to the study of style and also analysis\nof themes, and thus bridging the way to logic, the art of correct thinking. Such was in concept the trivium, a coherent arrangement corresponding to the order of a scholar's mental development and the sequence\nof ideas in the studies themselves. It combined the artes sermocinales,\nthe arts concerned with expression. Following the trivium came the four\narts, usually called \" disciplines \" or \" sciences,\" sometimes \" mathematics.\" They made the quadrivium. The opening study was arithmetic,\ndefined by Rabanus Maurus, the great preceptor of Fulda, as \" the study\nof numerical quantity,\" and the generic \" mathematical discipline.\"\nIt\n\n"}
{"page": 173, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE\n\nEVOLUTION\n\nOF LIBERAL\n\nEDUCATION.\n\n153\n\nbore the same introductory relation to the quadrivium which grammar\n>ore to the trivium. The others were music, geometry, and astronomy —\nlames which mean to us somewhat different things. For their scheme\n)f sciences on the nature side was of course hopelessly crude. Their\nrithmetic oddly but not unnaturally included chronology ; optics came\ninder geometry, geography under geometry, and acoustics under music\n-things afterward differentiated from what they had been awkwardly\nittached to at first. But though the scheme was in an embryonic stage,\nfcructural lines were appearing, and, most important of all, two distinctions were spontaneously recognized. The first was the distinction between the trivium, or the humanities, and the quadrivium, or the nature\nstudies, the artes reales.\nThe second was the order in which these were\nbe pursued as liberal studies, the humanistic studies coming before the\nsciences. The seven arts completed, then came \" philosophy,\" to com)ine and coordinate trivium and quadrivium in a higher union, thus constituting the great triad that lasts still.\nThe age of scholasticism was the best of the middle ages. It founded\nour universities. \" The priceless pearl of knowledge is sought in the\nscholastic field,\" is the characteristic opening of many a medieval university document. That ideal knowledge rested on the seven arts, and was\nihilosophy, and its language was Latin.\nWas not this outline, though meagerly bodied and crudely colored, a\nloble one ? At worst, was it not the damaged skeleton of the ancient living form, but still the reminder of its time structure ? New life had to be\n>reathed into these bones that they might live again, and in the Revival\nof Learning this happened.\nThe spirit of the Greeks revived, and humanism arose to clothe the\nlifeless skeleton with living tissues. But only in part. In its reaction\nigainst the barbarous Latin and barren formalism of scholasticism it\nplunged into Greek antiquity and filled literary studies with new life. It\nreally developed the trivium. Its legacy is the humanistic studies, and its\nlanguage is Greek. No new movement comparable to the humanistic\nrevival appears in the modern world until we approach the nineteenth century, the age of science. Modern sciences — physical, natural, social, political— are the educational material developed in our age. Science has\ndeveloped the quadrivium, formerly inchoate and feeble. Its gift to education isitself, and it speaks in the modern tongues.\nHere we may sum up our results. Western liberal education has gone\nthrough stages as marked as the stages of life in an individual or the\nhistory of types in biology. The ancient world spontaneously evolves a\nconcept of liberal education which it hands down to medieval times. The\nform lingered, though the spirit, if not dead, was sleeping. The ancient\nform consisted of the humanities and sciences coordinated in one scheme\nand issuing in philosophy. Scholasticism awakened the philosophic sense,\n\n"}
{"page": 174, "printed_page": null, "text": "154\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nusing Latin. The modern age first developed humanistic studies through\nthe medium of Greek, and then developed science with its polyglot corollary, of which the chief constituents are French, German and English.\nWe have, therefore, come to a time in the history of education when a\nscheme of studies must be followed either by synthesis from the lessons of\nhistory or by selection from that synthesis. Synthesis alone will give the\ncompletest culture, if evolution means anything. It is not a final or perfect\nsynthesis we seek, but a view of the best thus far. The only question to be\nsettled is a practical one, it seems to me. Have we time to do this ? If\nnot, we must make a selection out of our historical elements, and get\nalong with a recognizably imperfect scheme. But I believe we have time.\nMuch of school time is wasted now for those who would prepare for university studies. We can save enough to admit of a liberal culture including all the great historical elements. Keducing these to a tentative ideal\nscheme, we get the following curriculum for a liberal education :\nI. The humanities — consisting of the mother tongue and foreign languages and literatures. The foreign tongues include Greek and Latin,\nfundamental to Western culture as a whole, and the continental languages\nas useful to present culture.\nII. The sciences — mathematical, natural, sociological.\nIII. The elements of philosophy.\nSuch an education should be attempted whole, and kept separate, one,\ndistinguishable by its own degree.\nIt will vindicate itself.\nI have not touched, and do not mean here to enter upon, the boundless\ntheme of the influence of Christianity in liberal education. But is it\ntoo much to expect that, under the university charter-words of our faith:\n\" Whatsoever things are true, honest, just, lovely — think on these things,\"\nwe may see a new epoch, finer even than that time when, as Shelley\nbeautifully tells us, Freedom spoke —\n\" And like a sunrise from the sea\nAthens arose.\"\n\nDISCUSSION.\nProfessor Hale agreed with the results of the last paper. One question, however,\ntroubled him in regard to its practical solution. In a scheme which will embrace beginning in Greek and Latin, beginning in French and German, and beginning in science,\nmathematical, natural, and sociological, it is important to know how far the sciences\ncould be carried. This is a great practical problem. We cannot possibly have an\neducation which shall dispense with training on the scientific side, as it is called. However, using the word science in its ordinary sense, how far does Professor West think we\ncan go in requiring it for everybody who is to be liberally educated ?\nProfessor West thought it quite practicable, as well as necessary, to include a general\ndiscipline in science in any proposed scheme of liberal education. The question to be\nanswered is : What sciences, and how much of each of them, are to enter into such a\nscheme ? To settle this we must draw up a scale of the sciences, dividing them first\n\n"}
{"page": 175, "printed_page": null, "text": "155\nDISCUSSION.\ninto pure or theoretical sciences, and mixed or applied sciences. Then arranging the\ntheoretical sciences according to their historical development and logical connections,\nwe shall put first in the series mathematics, the science of abstract relations. Then\nbuilt on mathematics will come mechanics, serving as a bridge to that vast science we\ncall physics. Then on top of physics will come chemistry, and on top of chemistry, if\nit were as fully developed for teaching purposes, would be placed biology. The scale of\npure sciences is thus, roughly, mathematics, physics, chemistry, and biology. Then there\nare the mixed, or, as they might be styled, the applied sciences, such as astronomy and\ngeology. We must keep for the Bachelor's degree at least the elements of mathematics,\nmechanics, physics, chemistry; and as soon as biology reaches a development and attains\na body of doctrine so that its elements are capable of dogmatic inculcation, biology\nshould be included as a required subject for the Bachelor of Arts degree. Room can be\nfound for the elements of the pure or theoretical sciences as a complete body, but it is\ndoubtful whether there is room for any more.\nProfessor Hale wished to inquire whether it were possible to prepare a young man,\nsay in Chicago high-schools, for the strongest universities, giving him, besides his\nmathematics, classics, and modern languages, physics and chemistry also.\nMr. French, of the Hyde Park High School, answered that they were now attempting\nto do this in the high-schools.\nProfessor Hale thought that the saving of time which might be effected in the\nlower schools would yet make possible all that he hoped for, and Professor West asked\nfor, and thought that the solution would be found in this direction.\nPresident Jordan, of Stanford University, said he had listened with great interest\nto the discussion. He did not agree with the reader of the paper in regard to the lessons to be drawn for our own time. He did not agree with Professor West's remark\nthat instruction in biology would be suitable for his proposed course of study, when\nbiology became dogmatic, when it had a groundwork of doctrine which could be taught\nand learned by heart from a text-book. President Jordan referred to a paper which had\nrecently come under his notice, which took the ground that only those subjects are fitted\nfor training the mind which have no groundwork of dogma ; that is. in which the student must find out the truths and facts for himself. It is this which gives the undeveloped and unsettled sciences an enormous value for educational purposes over those\nwhich are settled.\nProfessor West said, in reference to the dogmatic teaching of science, that it was\ndifficult to conceive how anything could be learned at the start, even the alphabet,\nwithout its being in a sense dogmatically inculcated. It was difficult indeed to see how\nwe are to learn anything, without beginning with some body of provisionally received\ntruth. The atomic theory in chemistry, for example, like the elements of anything else,\nis to be received at the start as a working basis, or else the student must quit study.\nWhat he thus provisionally receives is to be tested by experience. Applying this to\nbiology, it does not seem to be the fact that the doctrine of evolution is yet formulated\nwith such precision that the elements of biology can be as profitably taught as the elements of the older sciences which have had completer development.\nPresident Blanchard, of Wheaton College, held that the likenesses among men were\nfar more important than their differences, and that the likenesses among men called for\nculture and training just as much as their differences. While every man is to have his\nspecial occupation, every man before he has an occupation ought to be a man, and ought\nnever to lose his general humanity in his profession. It does seem that a man who is\nto be a biologist, and is never compelled to learn anything in his preliminary education\nfor which he has not a natural aptitude and which he would not himself naturally\nchoose, is in danger of becoming a man with a narrow horizon. On the other hand, if\nwhile he is in the elementary stages of his training he could be required to learn some\nthings which naturally he would not choose to learn, and develop those parts of his\nmind where he is naturally weak, then he will in this way attain a certain intellectual\nsymmetry, and will by and by exert far more intellect ual power in his specialty than he\ncould possibly do if he were to omit everything which he does not wisli to study from\nthe beginning of his training.\nThe advocates of the old education do not at all object to special training. They do\nnot object to special courses for specialists ; but what they do object to is the present\n\n"}
{"page": 176, "printed_page": null, "text": "156\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\ntendency to omit all common elements, and undertake to train men on their differences. The duties of men in society, in the home, in the state, in their religious relations, are as important as the relations they sustain to one another as chemists, biologists, as instructors in technical schools, or practicers of any other technical art. If\nthis be so, then to begin by omitting all education of the general elements in humanity,\nand to lay out a line of instruction intended to develop only particular elements, in\nwhich each man may be superior to some of his fellows, is not an improvement in education, but a sort of return to barbarism.\nProfessor Sanford, of Stanford University, thought the whole question was whether\nwe ought to train for symmetrical development or for effective development. A good\ndeal could be said on the side of training a man where he will be worth more, instead\nof putting our application to develop powers he never had. It certainly makes a great\ndifference as to the effect of the work we do, whether we give him a chance to develop\nfaculties he has, or whether we try to make a mathematician of one who has not the\nmathematical sense at all. We all know that most men are weak in certain lines.\nThere is some line in which they have no taste, and in which they cannot do anything.\nThe result of years of training in mathematics may be such that some are heartily\nglad when they get through with it. When a man has studied anything four years\nand is glad to get through with it, it seems better for him never to have studied it at\nall. A study which will lead a man to dislike a subject, is a study that is bad.\nIn regard to the dogmatic teaching of science, it would be hard to find a good professor of science who would maintain that the general principles of a science must\nfirst be taught dogmatically, and afterwards be proved by experiment. This is not\nthe modern method.\nIt is not the feeling of teachers of science.\n\nON\n\nBY\n\nWHAT\nCONDITIONS\nSHOULD\nDOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY\nWILLIAM\n\n0. SPROULL,\n\nDEAN\"\n\nOF THE\nOHIO.\n\nTHE DEGREE\nBE GIVEN?\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nOF\n\nCINCINNATI,\n\nOf all literary degrees, that of Doctor of Philosophy carries with it the\ngreatest weight. It is generally believed that the possessor thereof has\ndone something to merit the distinction. On account of the importance\nwhich it bestows upon one, and on account of the vain custom now prevailing of addressing by the title Doctor those thus distinguished, many\nexert themselves to obtain this degree as quickly and as easily as possible.\nUnfortunately, there are institutions ready to meet this demand, which\nby their charters are authorized to confer all academic degrees. Unless\nsome check be applied, the degree of Ph.D. will become as common as\nsome others, and those who are justly entitled thereto will be far outnumbered by those who sought and obtained it in some expeditious way,\nsolely for the purpose of gratifying their vanity.\nThat this degree be not debased, two things are necessary : (1) That\nthere be essential agreement as to the conditions on which it should be\ngiven ; and (2) that only such institutions confer this degree as are properly manned and equipped.\nAs to the conditions, it will be best to refer to those laid down by\nthe universities of Germany. In general they are as follows : (1) The\ntriennum ; i.e., three years' residence at German universities. (2) The\npreparation of a dissertation, involving original work, afterward to be\n\n"}
{"page": 177, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE\n\nDEGREE\n\nOF DOCTOR\n\nOF PHILOSOPHY.\n\n157\n\nprinted. (3) An oral examination in one major and in two minor subjects.\nThere is not, however, uniformity in Germany. At Heidelberg no dissertation isrequired. At other places the dissertation need not be printed,\nbut the manuscript becomes the property of the university. In Berlin\nthe candidate must be prepared to discuss his dissertation publicly, and to\ndefend the theses appended. There are also other differences of less value.\nIf Professor Mommsen's charges, published in the Preussisches Jahrbuch\n(April, 1876, page 335), are true now, the degree can be procured from\nuniversities, which he names, merely on payment of the usual fees. Perhaps the following anecdote in circulation among German students confirms this : The birthday of Herr Johann Schmidt was approaching.\nHis wife was determined to make the occasion memorable, and to this\nend carefully saved up her pin-money. On the morning of the day, she,\nfollowed by the household, took her husband by the hand and led him\ninto the corridor. Exultingly, yet with certain solemnity, she handed\nhim a ponderous document, and pointed to a new door-plate on which\nwas engraved : \" Herr Johann Schmidt, Doctor der PhilosopMe.\" We\nshould suggest that the conditions already mentioned be modified as\nfollows, and be required by all institutions conferring the degree : (1)\nThe candidate must have received a Bachelor's degree. (2) A residence\nof two years. (3) The presentation and acceptance of a dissertation involving original work. This dissertation, if accepted, must be in every\ncase printed, bearing the names of the professors by whom it had been\naccepted. (4) An oral examination in one major and two minor subjects,\nto be conducted by at least three professors.\nTwo years' residence should be considered as the equivalent of the German triennum, for our college graduates are at least a year in advance\nof those leaving the German gymnasium ; and, moreover, American students take the degree in Germany in three years without great difficulty,\nalthough they may have gone thither without any previous knowledge of\nthe language.\nIn reality they may not have been able to devote more\nhan two years to their special studies.\nIn the third condition, it should be insisted upon that the dissertation\n:\ne printed with the names of those who accepted it. This last, we think,\nought never to be omitted. A professor can shield himself behind the\ncollege or university and deny responsibility. This cannot be done if the\ndissertation bear his name. It will make a great difference to many a\nprofessor, as to the acceptance or rejection of a manuscript, if it is to be\ndeposited in the archives, or given to the world with his indorsement.\nInasmuch as the degree Ph.D. has been for a long time given for attainments in philosophy, language, or science, it is not a good plan to increase\nthe number of degrees by such additions as Doctor of Science and Doctor\nof Letters.\nSeveral questions suggest themselves in connection with the fourth con-\n\n"}
{"page": 178, "printed_page": null, "text": "158\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\ndition : Should the examination be oral or written ? Should it be in one\nor two subjects ? Should these subjects be in the same or different departments ? Should the examination in the different subjects be conducted\nby different professors ? We answer : The examination should be oral,\nfor the dissertation is equivalent to a written one. It should be in three\nsubjects, so that the student, although specializing, may not become onesided in his specialty. The subjects should be in the same general field.\nThe examination, even in a minor, should not be delegated to one of the\nother examiners, although competent. It detracts from the dignity of the\noccasion and of the subject, that any other than the professor in charge\nshould perform this duty.\nIf these conditions were required of candidates by institutions properly\nqualified to engage in this advanced work, the dignity and worth of the\ndegree would be maintained and even enhanced.\nThe giving of the degree in ahsentia — i.e., after a certain amount of\nprivate study, and on the presentation of a dissertation — cannot be sanctioned. Although some would in this way do meritorious work, yet the\nopportunity for abuse is so great that no concession in this respect should\nbe made. Ought the degree to be given honoris causa f We answer No.\nOn the other hand, we cannot see why certain exceptions should not be\nmade. In many faculties there can be found professors without this\ndegree who, nevertheless, have done original work, who are authorities in\ntheir subjects, and who themselves pass upon candidates for this degree.\nIt would be ridiculous to expect them to comply with the conditions\nrequired of others.\nExceptions could properly be made in such cases.\nThe second proposition is by far the most important. It matters not\nwhat conditions are nominally imposed, this degree cannot be guarded so\nlong as an institution, without reference to its qualifications, can and does\nbestow it. This does not mean the outright selling of the degree. There\nare, however, so many colleges ambitious beyond, their ability, that they\nare not satisfied with any narrow bounds. Not only must a faculty consist\nof men competent to conduct this work ; it must also be large enough, so\nthat the proper amount of time and energy can be devoted thereto. If\nthe undergraduate classes occupy nearly all of a professor's time, he is not\nable, no matter how competent, to give to advanced students that individual attention they should have. Both of these cannot be done. If\nattempted, one or both will be slighted, and the institution will suffer.\nHow can a check be put upon such institutions ? No legal enactment\nis possible. It must be done by public opinion. There ought to be organized abody consisting of the presidents or executive heads of the leading\ninstitutions, which would meet at stated times to discuss and pass upon\nvarious questions connected with colleges and universities. Some journal\nor magazine should be selected as its organ, or, at least, medium of communication with the public.\nThis question, among the many others,\n\n"}
{"page": 179, "printed_page": null, "text": "DISCUSSION.\n\n159\n\nshould be discussed by that body and answered ; namely : What institutions in the United States are qualified to confer the degree of Doctor\nof Philosophy ? This list, increased or perhaps diminished from time to\ntime, is to be made known in the journal selected. Likewise there should\nbe published each year the names of all successful candidates, with the\nnames of the institutions respectively, the titles of the dissertations, and\nthe subjects in which examinations were held. Such action would be the\ngreatest check to the degradation of this degree. Candidates would hesitate long before applying to an institution which had not been approved\nby this board, and institutions would correct abuses, and seek to obtain\nits recognition. The public would be enabled in some degree to ascertain\nwho procured their degree in some mysterious way, and who, on the other\nhand, were adjudged worthy thereof by institutions properly accredited.\nThis organization should embrace also other institutions not conferring\ngraduate degrees, for most of the questions that need to be carefully\nconsidered pertain to undergraduate work. The organization should be\ncareful, however, to form rules for its own protection. It need scarcely\nbe said that this body could exercise no authority in the matter under\ndiscussion. Its duty would be to designate certain institutions competent\nin certain departments to do this higher work, without any reference to\nother institutions making the same claim. These latter may or may not\nask that their qualifications also be considered. If the actions of such a\nbody be conducted with great deliberation and fairness ; if its members\ncan judge questions without a bias in behalf of their own institutions ; if\nthey stand for and honestly act as representatives of higher education,\nand not as those seeking to further the interests of this or that college or\nuniversity, there will soon reign order instead of chaos ; their decisions\nwill be looked upon by the public as final, and higher education, with all\npertaining thereto, will be raised to a plane far above that on which it now\nstands.\nDISCUSSION.\nPresident Gates, of Iowa College, Iowa, thought the suggestion of the paper a bold\none, that we should so far depart from our American tradition as to form some kind of\nan organization, to have an organ, and determine what institutions shall confer the\ndoctor's degree, and which shall not. He did not know whether such a course was\nfeasible, but would be very giad if the discussion could take a line which would indicate\nsome such possibility.\nHe had looked into the possibilities concerning legal action. There is no hope\nin that direction. There seems to be nothing left but an informal, non-legal organization, such as has been recommended. Those who live in the East have, of course,\ntheir own problems to face, but they seem to be ignorant of the struggles which\neducators in the West have on hand at this point. They not only do not appreciate\nthe situation, but they do not seem to be aware of it. There are many people who\nhave in some way gotten the degree of Bachelor of Arts who could not get into the\nfreshman class of a respectable college.\nAs for the higher degree of Doctor, surely if there is a degree which in scholastic\ncircles should be honored by being kept pure, it is the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.\n\n"}
{"page": 180, "printed_page": null, "text": "ICO\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION.\n\nIt is being given unworthily ; it is being given for studies in absentia. There is an\ninstitution in the State of Illinois which has put out a paper saying that it will give the\ndegree for one or two years' work in absentia, sometimes with an oral examination, and\nsometimes without it. There is another institution in- Iowa, where the graduates, in\ntheir annual meeting, have had to implore the authorities to put a stop to the practice\nof giving the degree of Ph.D. for a little work, and the sending in of a thesis which\nmight be copied out of the magazines. Apparently the only way in which institutions\ncan at present protect themselves is to put after the degree the name of the institution\nconferring it.\nProfessor Fisher, of Wheaton College, Illinois, said he wished to emphasize the\nlast speaker's words. He unfortunately belonged to a college that had advertised this\ndegree for study in absentia, though he was happy to say that the conditions had been\nplaced so high that no one has come and asked that he might do the work and receive\nthe degree. There are institutions in Illinois that have conferred the degree for study\nin absentia, and they continue to do it. It would be well for the real universities of\nthe country to have some plan of concerted action so as to protect the colleges against\nthe importunities of degree seekers.\nProfessor Hale thought the evil had been pointed out fully and courageously.\nThere was no reason why we should not boldly mention names. He knew of two\ninstitutions, Syracuse University in New York and Allegheny College in Pennsylvania,\nwhich granted this degree without residence. The practice is absolutely indefensible,\nand is working great injury. Perhaps resolutions adopted by this body, if adopted by\nthe great majority, would be valuable.\nPresident Gilman called attention to the fact that the American Philological Association had passed resolutions endeavoring to arrest public attention and awaken public\nsentiment upon this matter. It might be well to appoint a committee of this Congress\nto correspond and co-operate with other bodies with a view to protecting the Doctor's\ndegree. The requirements for such a degree are, in a sense, matters of detail ; but it is\nclear that the degree, to be maintained in its dignity, ought to stand for higher work\ndono in our universities, through a prolonged period, under competent men, with\naccess to suitable laboratories and libraries.\nPresident Blanchard agreed in deprecating the too common practice of conferring\ndegrees upon persons who are unworthy of them. Still, the main stress of the\nargument in this matter did not, in his judgment, lie so much between residence and\nnon-residence at universities as between merit and demerit. If a degree is merited, it\nis a credit to the institution which confers it, and to the person who receives it, no\nmatter how he may have got the attainments which have called forth that recommendation ;and if a degree was not merited, it does not make any difference, for it is a discredit to the institution which confers it, and also to the person who receives it.\nOn motion of President Gilman, seconded by President Gates of Iowa College and\nProfessor Hale of the University of Chicago, the following resolution was then unanimously adopted :\nResolved, That a committee of this section be appointed to correspond and co-operate\nwith committees of other educational and scientific bodies, which have been or may be\nappointed, to protect the significance of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy and Doctor\nof Science.\nIt was moved by Professor West that the Chairmen printed in the programme of the\nsessions of this Congress be appointed such a committee, and that the committee have\npower to add to their number.\nThe motion was unanimously adopted. The members of the committee elected under\nthe resolution of the Congress are as follows :\nPresident Gilman, of Johns Hopkins University, Chairman j\nPresident Angell, of the University of Michigan ;\nPresident Dwight, of Yale University ;\nPresident Harper, of the University of Chicago ;\nI President Low, of Columbia College ;\nPresident Patton, of Princeton University.\n\n"}
{"page": 181, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE\n\nRELATION\n\nOF COLLEGES\n\nTO CIVILIZATION.\n\n161\n\nTHE RELATION OF OUR COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES\nTO THE ADVANCEMENT OF OUR CIVILIZATION.\nBY\n\nET.\n\nREV.\n\nJOHN\n\nJ.\n\nKEAlfS,\n\nD.D.,\n\nLL.D.\n\nDe. Davidson, in his excellent work on ''Aristotle as an Educator,\"\nhas clearly shown the difference between the notions attached to the words\ncivilization and education during the era of the Grseco-Roman civilization,\nand their meaning in the Christian era, or the era of Christian civilization.\nIn the Graeco-Roman era, civilization meant, as the etymology of the\nword indicates, advancement or perfection in the qualities which make a\ncitizen. Citizen was a higher notion than man; relation to the state was\nthe highest of human relationships. Accordingly, education meant the\ntraining of the young in those qualities which fit for citizenship. And as\ncitizenship was the privilege of the few, and citizens formed but a small\nproportion of the population, it followed that civilization and education\n, were limited to the few.\nChristianity brought into the world not a less noble notion of the citizen, but a far nobler notion of man ; and the notions of civilization and\nof education were modified accordingly. The immortality of man's soul,\nits direct relations with the infinite and eternal Cod, gave to man's being\nand destiny a dignity which the Gra?co-Roman mind had totally failed to\ngrasp. Man was still a social being, not as accidentally growing up\nthereto from savage or brutal conditions, but as meant and fitted for\nthat condition by his Creator ; and thus the character and the rights\nand the obligations of citizenship were invested with a sacredness far\nbeyond that involved in the Greek or Roman conception of the state.\nBut sacred and important as are man's relationships with his fellowmortals in those things which concern the welfare of their temporary\nsojourn here, still more important are those relationships shown to be\nwhich unite him with them and with his Creator in regard to those\nthings which concern man's eternal destiny. Man, therefore, means more\nthan the citizen ; human life means more and higher things than the relation to the state called citizenship. Citizenship had risen in dignity and\nsacredness, but man had risen incomparably higher.\nSo, too, has it been with the notions of civilization and education.\nCivilization has expanded beyond the boundaries of its mere verbal etymology, and has come to mean development, and, if possible, perfection\nin all those qualities which constitute the excellence and dignity of man.\nAnd, accordingly, education has come to mean the training of the young,\nnot only in those qualities which fit them for their rights and duties\nas citizens, but also in those which fit them for all their other relation11\n\n"}
{"page": 182, "printed_page": null, "text": "162\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nships as social beings, and in those which pertain to their immortal destiny and to their relationship with God ; in a word, it means cultivation in all those things which pertain to the fullest development of\nman, viewed in the light of all his being, all his relationships, all his\nrights, and all his duties. This development may require various agencies\nfor its accomplishment, but it is all included in the true notion of education as understood in Christian civilization ; and whatever the agencies\nco-operating toward it, they are all working for a common end, and ought\nto work together harmoniously. They are co-operating to make the good\ncitizen, but, more than that, they are co-operating for the fuller and\nhigher perfection that makes the good man ; and to such a degree does\nthe lower depend upon the higher, in which it is comprised, that the\nbest way to secure the highest civilization and the best citizenship is to\nbe careful for the development of the qualities which make the best man.\nThis idea, given in Christian civilization, has long had to struggle with\nthe surviving notions of the old civilization and of the barbarism which\noverthrew it. It is struggling with them in many parts of the world\nto-day. The glamour of martial glory that surrounded the old imperialism\nstill has its charm for certain minds, and authors more highly gifted\nwith imagination than with philosophy have bewailed the advent of\nChristianity as the introduction of a lower ideal. But clear-sighted\nreason must eventually shake itself free from every such fascination, and\nmust recognize that the ideal of man and of humanity, of the state and of\nall civil and social rights, duties, and relationships, which is presented\nby Christian civilization, is far higher than any ideal the world ever had\nbefore Christianity appeared on earth. To strive toward that ideal, no\nmatter how laboriously, no matter how slowly and through how many\ndifficulties, is the destiny of the world, and the duty of every nation, and\nevery community, and every individual that goes to make up the world.\nAdvance in its realization is advance in civilization.\nWithout any intention of inordinate self-exaltation, and still less with\nany intention of disparaging any other nation, we may still venture to\nassert, in all thankfulness to God, and to the good and noble men who\nwere His instruments in the formulation of our country and principles,\nthat the American ideal comes closer to the ideal embodied in Christian\ncivilization than does that of any other national organization that we\nknow of. The American ideal of the relation between the citizen and\nthe man is the truest ; therefore our ideals of civilization and of education\nshould also be the truest. Other nations may show more of artistic\ngenius and skill in bodying forth forms of beauty in marble, on canvas,\nor in artistic expression of lofty thoughts, whether in poetry or prose.\nNone of these things do we undervalue ; we acknowledge that they are\nintegral elements in the full development of civilization ; we are resolved\nnot to neglect them ; nay, more, in as far as they belong to real advance\n\n"}
{"page": 183, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE\n\nRELATION\n\nOF COLLEGES\n\nTO CIVILIZATION.\n\n163\n\nin civilization — for sometimes, alas ! they assume forms which indicate\nits decay— thus far, and, please God, no farther, we are trustfully determined, as our World's Fair sufficiently indicates, that we shall yet attain\nto such artistic excellence too. But meanwhile we are content to know\nthat these are only the external vesture and adornments of civilization ;\nthat its essence lies deeper and higher far than that ; and that essence we\nbelieve that we hold in our ideal of the citizen and the man.\nBut we have lately heard a note of warning which no American who\nloves his country can afford to ignore. The warning I allude to came to\nus from Mr. Gladstone. Viewing the magnificent proportions which our\ncountry is sure to assume within the next century, and forecasting the\ntremendous influence which she must necessarily exert on the civilized\nworld, he reminds us that this influence may be either a curse or a blessing to mankind, according to the spirit in which it is exerted. He asks\nwhich is it to be ? And he answers : \" This depends not on what sort of\na producer, but on what sort of a man, the American of the future is to\nbe.\" His answer is not only a forcible assertion of all that has just been\nsaid about the true notion of civilization, but is also a solemn warning lest\nwe overlook it ; perhaps, even, a friendly intimation of his dread lest, in our\neager, almost feverish, endeavor to master and develop our country's wondrous resources, \"we may have been intent on forming \" producers\" rather\nthan on forming \"men.\" This, we can easily recognize, would be the\ndestruction of the civilization which is our country's birthright and destiny. As man means more than citizen, a fortiori man means more than\nproducer. To forget this, to fall to so low an aim and ideal, would be\nnot only to fall back to the insufficient Graeco-Roman ideal, but to fall far\nbelow it. Our civilization depends on our bearing this in mind, and shaping our ideal and system of education accordingly.\nWhat, then, does all this mean practically ? We have seen that the difference inthe systems of civilization arises from their different estimate of\nman — from a difference of philosophy concerning man. Human action is\ngoverned by ideas : a wrong philosophy must be the bane of a people ; a\ntrue philosophy, in as far as action is shaped by it, is the security of\nnobleness and prosperity. Hence the all-important thing is to make sure\nthat we*hold the right philosophy concerning man, and that the rising\ngenerations be molded in it both as to their intellectual convictions and\nas to all their practical aims in life. But history and reason both show\nmanifestly that the only such philosophy concerning man is that which\nis embodied in the Christian religion. Therefore, practically, the right\nmolding of our people, the right shaping of our civilization, the right\ndirecting of our nation's energies, and the right attaining of her destiny\ndepend on this, that our people's ideas should be shaped and their lives\nmolded in the philosophy embodied in the Christian religion. If logic\nleads to any conclusion, it leads to this.\n\n"}
{"page": 184, "printed_page": null, "text": "164\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nBut now see the shape which this assumes for us college and university\nmen. During the period of primary education, this molding of ideas and\ncharacter, this shaping and directing of life, may largely be accomplished\nby the agencies of home and of Church. But in proportion as the youth\nadvances to manhood, and not only learns to think for himself, but insists\non thinking for himself, the result must largely, even chiefly, depend on\nthe agencies which train him to think, which supply him with most of\nwhat he thinks about, which with almost irresistible, all-pervading influence, gives shape and color and direction to his thinking ; and these\nagencies are, unquestionably, chiefly comprised in his college, his university. Nay, more, he who goes forth as the alumnus of a college or university of note must naturally be expected to be a man of more than\nordinary influence in the community. Of him we must ask what Gladstone asks about our country : What will be the manner of his influence on\nhis fellow-men ? And we must likewise answer : That depends on the\nkind of a man his university has made him. And thus we are led, by step\nafter step of inexorable logic, to the conclusion which so intimately concerns us, that the shaping of our civilization must very largely depend on\nour colleges and universities ; that the character of that shaping must\ndepend on the character of the philosophy which prevails in them ; that\nno philosophy can rightly mold humanity, save the philosophy of the\nChristian religion ; and that, therefore, the sound development of our\ncivilization must largely depend on the reign and influence of the Christian religion — from which that philosophy is inseparable — in our colleges\nand universities.\nHow to bring this into practical shape and working may often be rendered difficult by local circumstances. But there is a great advance toward\nthe solution of the momentous problem if these truths themselves are\nclearly and strongly grasped. We must aim at forming skilful producers ;we must aim at forming worthy and loyal citizens ; but above all\nthis, and as the means and condition for all this, we must aim at forming\nthe truest type of men ; and the only efficient way for the attainment of\nthis, the only way which, after all the experience of history, we ought to\nthink it worth our while to try, is the way which God has taught the\nworld through Jesus Christ.\n\nBY PRESIDENT\n\nJAMES\n\nCLOSING\n\nADDRESS.\n\nB. ANGELL,\n\nOF THE UNIVERSITY\n\nOF MICHIGAN\".\n\nThe committee, in communicating the invitation with which they\nhonored me, to occupy a few moments here to-day, intimated their desire\nthat whatever should be spoken should have more or less direct connection with the question of patriotism ; and it has seemed to me, especially\n\n"}
{"page": 185, "printed_page": null, "text": "CLOSING ADDRESS.\n\n165\n\nafter hearing the paper of Bishop Keane, which has laid so broad a foundation of the general subject of education, that perhaps I could not do better,\nespecially in this section devoted to higher education, than to drop two or\nthree hints upon the points which especially concern us who are connected\nwith college and university work. These hints have been stirred in my\nown mind by criticisms which I have often heard, and which I do not\ndoubt you have all heard, upon the great liberality with which institutions of higher learning have been established and supported, whether by\nprivate munificence or the resources of the state. I have heard it intimated more than once, by those who are so justly zealous in the support\nof our great and free system of public education, which we all believe is\ndestined to endure to the end of time, and in commendation of which no\nwords can be too strong — I have heard it intimated more than once, that\nwhile it may be very wise for the states and for citizens to pour out their\ntreasures in the support of these schools, which go to educate the great\nmasses of the people, and to give them that necessary outfit for citizenship\nwhich we all believe every person should possess, that these institutions of\nhigher education, if not an absolute luxury, have not that close relation\nwith the great duties of citizenship or with the prosperity and welfare of\nour country, that we so gladly ascribe to the system of our lower schools.\nNow, it seems to me that that is a most injurious and incorrect view of the\nsubject. I shall not attempt to discuss the points at length which I shall\nraise, because in this presence I am sure prolonged discussion of them is\nnot at all needful. You are all well aware — we may say this at the outset\nto such critics — you are all well aware that, historically, the great institutions of higher learning have in all lands preceded the growth of public\ncommon education. These are the fountains from which the streams have\nflowed forth and irrigated and fertilized these humble schools. That statement, Ithink, cannot be challenged.\nI wish, also, in the next place, to call your attention to this fact, that\nthere is a conception which seems to lie in many minds that the higher\neducation is a gift made to certain elect men and women especially, and\nwe might almost say it is viewed as though given solely for the help and\nelevation of these men and women, and that, therefore, this is not a blessing to the public in the same sense that an elementary education is. I say,\nI believe that this is a very erroneous conception. It is true that the men\nand women who have the good-fortune to secure a higher training themselves are built up and edified thereby, but I believe it is true that no men\nand no women who have truly reaped the benefits of higher education fail\nto give to the communities in which they dwell far more than they have\nreceived themselves. They are benefactors of the public even more than\nthey have been benefited by the public.\nEducation, learning, scholarship, is a thing which one cannot hoard up\nlike silver and gold.\nThe more you ask, the more there will be to give.\n\n"}
{"page": 186, "printed_page": null, "text": "166\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nThe more any one of us carries away from college or university, the more\nhe is constantly bestowing on all those who are about us.\nAnd to come a little more particularly to our present condition, I think\nwe may emphasize this statement with something more than ordinary\nforce. One might well say there have been eras in the history of our\ncountry when everything went on as it were by routine, when a few\nleaders led the people upon great public questions. When we had the\nold-fashioned Whig and Democratic party, nobody ever thought of having\nany ideas, except those who had inherited them, upon political questions,\nand he was pretty safe in sticking to them. And so it was in respect to\nmany ethical questions. So it was in respect to economic questions. Bat\nlook out on the world to-day, and see what a caldron it is in respect to\nall these questions ; how all political questions are stirred to the very\nbottom ; how even ethical positions that have been standing by prescription and tradition almost from the foundation of the world, are today challenged and made to stand up and answer for themselves, and\ntestify for themselves ; how the economic conditions which have come\ndown to us from the past are to-day, we may say, in a state of unstable\nequilibrium. The air is full of these questions concerning every sort of\nproblem, and if ever there was a time when we needed to have disseminated in all parts of our communities men and women with disciplined\nminds, who can take up these questions, and study them for themselves,\nand guide their children in the study of them, this is the time. The\nnation is full of the wildest agitators, preaching every sort of heresy on\nevery sort of theme. Where shall be found the sane, rational, and disciplined men and women to guide the multitude who have not been accustomed to consider such questions ? Why, the very theory of our republican form of government is that every man shall know how to meet these\nquestions that are thrown upon him. And therefore I say to you tp-day,\nas never before, is it true that not only in these great centres of population, but also in the smaller villages and in the hamlets, in the farming\ndistricts, which perhaps in some respects are particularly afflicted just\nnow with troubles of this sort, everywhere, if this nation is to stand,\nprosper, and go forward with sanity and reason, we must have all the\ntrained and disciplined men arid women we can possibly muster into the\nranks to go among them and teach. Now, that is what higher education\nis trying to do.\nOne more thought, and then I will relieve your patience. If there is\nany danger to this country, greater at this time than any other, if there\ncould be a position more dangerous than any other, it would be one\nin which we should have a small class of rich and educated men and a\ngreat class of poor and uneducated men and women. The gap is wide\nenough between these people to-day. In that gap there are perils to-day\ngreater than any of us can measure.\nThere is not one of us here who lies\n\n"}
{"page": 187, "printed_page": null, "text": "16?\nCLOSING\n\nADDRESS.\n\ndown at night without thinking, with solicitude and dread, of the possibilities that are before us in the presence of the great economic problems\ncentred right here, of the rich growing richer and the poor growing\npoorer in this country. And now, if you are to keep this up forever, and\nif you are to widen this gulf by saving the higher education for the rich\nalone, and remand the poor boys and girls to the wilderness of ignorance,\nGod have mercy on this land ! Who knows what is before us ? But if\nyou can make it possible, as it is still possible to-day, if you can open the\ndoors of the highest colleges and universities to a large number of poor\nboys and girls, as well as to the rich, you need not cherish longer this\nsolicitude. The poor boy, with the brains under his hat and crutch under\nhis arm, will soon vindicate his position and show that he is the equal of\nthe boys beside him on the bench. He will go forth with his mind calm,\nand his colleagues and friends in life will be soothed and calmed by the\nreflection that to nearly every one this path is also clear and open. And\nhere is one of the great justifications for making our higher education\nas free and open as it is possible to make it, to every boy and gfrl oh\nour soil. And when your rich friends are challenged because they are\njstowing their millions in the endowment of colleges and universities, I\nthink you need only call attention to this fact ; and when the states are\nchallenged because they are taxing their citizens for the support of higher\neducation, my answer is right there — it is for your poor boys and girls ;\nreally, it is for the same boys and girls you are taxing yourselves to support common schools, and that argument, in my judgment, is perfectly\nunanswerable.\nI fully respond to the words which my predecessor has uttered here today, about this large view of citizenship and manhood which is opened\nupon us in this Christian era, concerning education and concerning life.\nI believe that our public higher institutions of learning are doing their\nfull part in maintaining it. I cannot, therefore, but believe that, firm as\nis my faith in the durability of our public-school system, I cannot but\nrenewr my expression of the fullest faith that the day will never come when\n)ur people will be so blind to their highest interests, so blind to the highest interests of our pu\"blic schools themselves, as to cripple in any way our\nmiversities and our colleges.\nCLOSING\n\nREMARKS,\n\nBY\n\nPRESIDENTS\n\nG1LMAN\n\nAND\n\nHARPER.\n\nPresident Gilman : It has been a most inspiring thing to attend the\n3ongress, and see so many college presidents and so many college professors and so many representatives of the best seats of learning, the\noldest and the newest, assembled to consider what is wisest and best for\nAmerican education. I do not believe that such a gathering as has been\nheld in this room for the last three days had ever been seen in this country. There had been larger gatherings, there had been select gatherings,\n\n"}
{"page": 188, "printed_page": null, "text": "168\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nbut such a comprehensive representation of universities and colleges of the\nland had not been brought together. We are particularly indebted to Dr.\nHarris, Commissioner of Education at Washington, for the great pains he\nhas taken. Let us also remember the fact that the city of Chicago, which\nhad been engaged in endowing a great university, as well as organizing\nthe magnificent exhibit of the Columbian Exposition, had included in\nthat Exposition not only the industries and manufactures, but the results\nof human thought, of the liberal arts, and had also erected the beautiful\nbuilding in which the congress has been held, as a home of art and cultivation for the future.\nPresident Harper, of the University of Chicago, said : I have enjoyed\nthe discussions and papers of the congress greatly. The city of Chicago,\nwhich for the fifty years of its history had been doing educational work\nnot only in schools, but in the school of life, had lately added to its\nachievements the founding of its university. One thought, speaking as a\nuniversity man, I desire to express before the congress separates : In both\nthe colleges and universities which comprise our higher education,\nalthough we lay emphasis in the college upon discipline of mind, and lay\nemphasis in the university upon investigation and research, still the\ngreatest thing in both is character, and it is this in its strong sense that\nis to contribute to the progress of our civilization ; and college men,\nwhether college presidents or college professors, must remember that it is\nonly men who have character that can develop character. Should not all\nour institutions therefore see to it, above all things else, that there shall\nbe in every man who occupies a professor's chair this thing which means\nso much and which is so hard to describe — this thing called character ?\nOne of the greatest blessings to the city of Chicago in all its history has\nbeen this coming together of many congresses, and no congress has been\nmore welcome or more successful than that on higher education.\n\nTHE\n\nSTUDY\n\nBY M. ANDRE\nFACULTE\nOF\n\nPUBLIC\n\nOF\n\nENGLISH\nLITERATURE\nUNIVERSITIES*\n\nL. CHEVRILLON,\nDES LETTRES\n\nIN\n\nFRENCH\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nOF ENGLISH\n\nLITERATURE\n\nOF LILLE, AND\n\nDELEGATE\n\nFROM\n\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nTHE\n\nIN THE\n\nMINISTER\n\nFRANCE.\n\nM. Compayre has given a short sketch of the work of reorganization\nwhich our French universities f have gone through during the past twenty\nyears. In this work of reorganization, the study of foreign literatures\n* This paper, prepared for the Congress of Higher Education, was not read before that depp.rtment, by\nsome misunderstanding as to the time of the sessions, but it has been secured for publication in this\nReport.\nt Though the word university is used for the sake of brevity throughout this paper, there are no\nuniversities, properly speaking, in France, but sixteen groups of faculties located in the chief towns,\n\n"}
{"page": 189, "printed_page": null, "text": "ENGLISH\n\nLITERATURE\n\nIN FRENCH\n\nUNIVERSITIES.\n\n169\n\nhas not been forgotten, and perhaps in no other branch of the literary\nstudies has such progress been achieved.\nThe main function of the faculties of letters and sciences in our universities has been hitherto to prepare masters for the government lycees,\nso that the courses of studies in these faculties are shaped to meet the\nrequirements of our secondary education. Now the tendency of our\nsecondary education, that is to say, in those schools which form the minds\nand intellects of hundreds of thousands of Frenchmen, is at present to\ndevelop the study of foreign languages at the expense of the classical\nlanguages. A new Bachelor's degree* has just been created for which no\nGreek is required, whilst both English and German have been made necessary. In the usual public school courses either English or German must\nbe selected by the pupils. The tendency so far in those schools has been\nto select German, and among the men who have been through the lycees\nduring the last fifteen years, you will find two who can wade their way\nthrough German to one who can read English. This, I believe, seems now\nto have been a mistake ; and I think we may anticipate a reaction in favor\nof English, both in the public schools and in the universities. Indeed, in\nthe universities the balance is already in favor of English ; in Paris and\nat Lille the courses of English literature are now attended by a greater\nnumber of students than those of German, and I cannot help thinking\nthat this is very fortunate. In the first place, the very process of thinking is so different in a French and in a German mind, that for the French\nstudent too long a study of the German writers, too continuous an effort\nto adapt himself to the German habits of thought and of speech, may\nresult — as in the famous case of Henri Frederic Amiel — in a fatal twist of\nthe thinking faculties. The mental differences of the two races are so great,\nthat a healthy intellectual cross between them is hardly possible. The\nold French art of writing and reasoning with method and accuracy, that\nof which a Pascal in his Provincial Letters, a Condillac in his Langue des\nCalculs, a Taine in his Philosophy of Art, have been masters nearly as\nperfect as the Greek, will always remain the ideal towards which a\nFrench literary student is striving ; and this art is something so peculiar,\nso delicate, that a foreigner can hardly realize what it is, and that a\nFrench student who for years — as a candidate to the Agregation iVAllemand has to do — lived in Germany, and has been attempting to\nreproduce in his own brains the German process of thinking, must give\nup all hope of attaining this French ideal. To a Frenchman, however\ngreat his respect for the great geniuses of Germany, a German sentence\nwill always be like a railroad tunnel : there is light at the begiuning, and\neach group consisting of a faculty of letters, faculty of science, faculty of medicine, and faculty of\nlaw.\nThe general council of the faculties is for each group the common bond between the lour\nfaculties. Each of these groups is really a university, though the word is not used in Prance.\n* The \" baccalaureat modtrne.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 190, "printed_page": null, "text": "170\n\nLMERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nthere is light at the end, but in the middle there is nothing but darkness.\nSurely, every student must have been through a good many of those\ntunnels. He must have mastered German as a scientific instrument ; as a\nkey to vast stores of historical and philological knowledge ; and in that\nsense German is required from our candidates to all the higher degrees in\nhistory, philology, or philosophy. But again, the structure of the French\nmental eye is such that it cannot live for a long, continuous period in\nthose tunnels, make its usual abode in them, without danger to its own\npeculiar native faculties.\nOn the contrary, between the average English process of thought and\nthe French methods, the differences of thought are but slight. Whether\nthis is due to the Celtic element in the English blood, or to the Norman\nconquest, or to the combined influences of the French writers in England\nat the end of the seventeenth century, and of the English writers in\nFrance in the middle of the eighteenth, is not a question which I can\nenter upon now. But such writers as Addison, Swift, Pope, Hume, Gibbon, Eobertson, the best of the Edinburgh re-viewers, also Macaulay and\nStuart Mill, belong to the classical and Latin type of thinkers. The\nbuild of their sentences, the frame of their paragraphs, their mental\ntrains, constructions, and connections, are the same as ours. With these\nwriters a young French mind can live for years without any distortion of\nhis own national tendencies and personality.\nThe other great reason why English literature is now and will become\nmore and more in our universities the most important branch of foreign\nstudies is its superiority as a great literature. Only two other literatures\n— the Greek and the French — have had the same range, the same width,\nthe same variety, and, especially, the same continuity of development.\nOther literatures — the Latin, the German, the Italian — are broken by\nlong gaps which stretch sometimes over several centuries. With a short\neclipse in the fifteenth, the English literature from Beowulf to Eudyard\nKipling covers an uninterrupted twelve hundred years, during which, in\npoetry, in philosophy, in the drama, in history, in theology, in romance\nand novel writing, through Langland, Chaucer, Ascham, Sidney, Spenser,\nShakespeare, Bacon, Hobbes, Milton, Addison, Swift, Thomson, Fielding,\nBurke, Wordsworth, Shelley, Eliot, the Brownings, Carlyle, Tennyson,\nand let me add also the names of Longfellow, of Edgar Poe, of Hawthorne, of Emerson, of Lowell, to mention only the great landmarks\nwhich are planted along the tide of centuries, the Anglo-Saxon mind has\nmanifested itself and may be studied through all its variations, through\nall the stages of its development. To the philosopher and to the historian this is one of the most complete experiments which nature has\ncarried on, and one of the fields which afford the best opportunities for\nminute and connected observation.\n\n"}
{"page": 191, "printed_page": null, "text": "ENGLISH\n\nLITERATURE\n\nIN FRENCH\n\nUNIVERSITIES.\n\n171\n\nII.\nLet me now briefly sketch the educational progress which has been\nmade in our universities toward a more thorough understanding of\nEnglish writers. As I said before, the movement is recent and quite\nunknown abroad. The Englishman, Avho does not see the beam in his\nown eye more often than we do in ours, looks upon us as outrageously\nignorant of anything besides ourselves. I remember, a few years ago,\nreading an article in the great English Philistine paper — the\" Daily Telegraph \"— in which it was said that the great majority of French people\nthought that Shakespeare was a lieutenant of Wellington, who had\nhelped him to win the battle of Waterloo. Now, this was uufortunate,\nas not less than four plays of Shakespeare had just been performed in\nParis. But the prejudice under which the writer in the \" Daily Telegraph \"\nwas laboring is perfectly natural, when we notice that a nation never\nknows what its neighbor is, but what it was twenty years ago. Well,\ntwenty or thirty years ago French boys and students wrote better Latin\nverse than they do now, but of English literature they knew nothing, except the names of Shakespeare, Milton, and Byron. Our great archcritic, Sarcey, says that they made fun of Taine at the Flcole Normale\nbecause he was reading English. Foreign literatures were, indeed, supposed to be taught ; but any man who had graduated in classics, whether\nhe knew English or not, was supposed to be good enough for that kind\nof work. When he left the Ecole Normale, after a course of studies in\nPlato and Aristotle, he would receive notice that he was appointed professor of foreign literatures, and had to begin work at once. One of\nthese, I believe, it was who was complaining of the difficulties of his\ntask. \"What a language,\" he said, \"English is to pronounce! They\nwrite Boz and they pronounce Dickens.\" M. Ernest Lavisse, who has\nseen this generation of professors of English literature, was telling me, the\nother day, the following authentic and typical fact : When he was a\nstudent at Nancy, at the faculty of letters, he heard a lecture on the\nliterature of England in the sixteenth century. After three-quarters of\nan hour the professor had exhausted his subject, but his time was not up.\nIGentlemen,\" he said, pulling out his watch, \"we have a quarter of an\n•ur yet. We have time to do Shakespeare.\"\nLet us now go into some technical details that will allow us to realize\ne progress made in this department of literary studies. When a French\nuth leaves the lycee, after having passed his B.A., or baccalaureat\nlettres, for which one foreign language at least is demanded, and goes to the\nthe first degree he has to face is that of licentiate, for which a\nItiversity,\nurse of two years is necessary. At once he begins to specialize ; that is\nsay, that side by side with the classics he may take up English or Ger-\n\n"}
{"page": 192, "printed_page": null, "text": "172\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nman literature, philosophy, history, or classical philology. Every candidate for the licence has to write a French essay on French literature, a\nLatin essay on Latin literature. Then, according to the specialty he has\nselected, he writes papers on historical or philosophical subjects, or translations from French into English or German, or from English or German\ninto French. The viva voce examination consists, for all candidates, in\nquestions on French, Latin, and Greek literature, and extempore translations from the classics ; and for those of the candidates who make English\na special subject, in questions on English literature, and translations into\nEnglish and French of the French and English authors on the programme. As I said, the course of studies for the licence, which would\ncorrespond to your A. M., and which is usually taken at the age of\ntwenty-one or twenty-two, is of two years ; the first year consisting in\nstudy at the university, where the candidate attends the lectures of the\nprofessors of French, Latin, Greek, and English, if English is his special\npart. During this first year, the chief purpose of the English professor\nis not so much to acquaint him with the whole field of English literature\nas to give him an insight into the spirit, the genius, of English literature,\nand to make him feel the artistic element in the great writers. A French\nyouth, fresh from his Tacitus, his Eacine, and his Voltaire, cannot, unless\nhe has great natural talent, understand, or, rather, feel at once Carlyle or\nTennyson. This is done through minute translations, the aim of which\nis not to acquaint the student with new words or new constructions, but\nto teach him how to find those French forms that will best express something of the beauty peculiar to the original English text. The tendency is\nthus to develop the artistic sense in the student, and to give him a mastery\nof his own language. At the last examination for the licence, at Lille,\nthe English translation being Milton's \"II Penseroso,\" several candidates\nwere dropped who had understood every word and the literal meaning of\nthe text, but it was clear from their translations that they had not felt the\nspirit of Milton's poem, or had failed to express it. The second year,\npreparatory to the licence, is a special feature. An exhibition is given to\nthe most meritorious students ; they are simply turned out of the university and sent to England for twelve months. They remain correspondents\nof the university ; that is to say, they have to seud papers to the professors\nof French, Greek, and Latin, thus preparing themselves for those general\nparts of the licence which are demanded of all candidates to the degree\nWith the English professor they of course correspond also, and the main\nthing that he requires them to do is to steep themselves in English\nlife — to go to the theatres, sermons, public meetings, to see English uni\nversity life, to make English friends, to think in English, to assume Eng\nlish forms of habit and prejudices — in short, for one year to throw off\nthe Frenchman, to make themselves Englishmen, and to step out of the\nnatural limits of the national mind and sensibility.\nAfter this experi\n\n"}
{"page": 193, "printed_page": null, "text": "ENGLISH\n\nLITERATURE\n\nIN FRENCH\n\nUNIVERSITIES.\n\n173\n\nence, when they come back to France and settle into the old man again,\nthey have become able to look at English writers from the English point\nof view.\nAs you see, the licence is but a first step. During these two years the\nstudent has only began to specialize ; side by side with his English studies\nhe has carried on his literary studies in French, Greek, and Latin. He\nhas learnt English and developed a taste for English literature, but he is\nnot an English scholar yet. This he becomes when he prepares for the\nagregation. The agregation is the degree which will entitle him to\nbe appointed master, or, as we say, professeur, in one of the government's lycees for secondary education. The number of possible appointments being, of course, limited, the agregation is more of a competition\nthan of an examination, and the number of candidates increasing every\nyear, it has developed into a very severe test indeed. We have several\nkinds of agregation in the literary department— one for history, one for\nphilosophy, one for philology, one for helles-lettres and classics, one\nfor German, and one for English. Each of these examinations is strictly\nspecial. Let us see what the agregation for English consists of. The\ncourse of studies is at least of two years after the licence, and often more,\nas such a limited number of students get through. The list of authors\nfor the examination is changed every year, and as the lectures and papers\nduring the terms bear on the authors appointed for the examination at\nthe end of the year, every candidate, when he attempts the agregation,\nhas gone through two of those lists. The following is the programme of\nauthors for this year :\nWilliam Langland. — \"Piers the Plowman.\" The extracts given in\nSpecimens of Early English, by the Rev. Richard Morris and the Rev.\nWalter W. Skeat. (Part II. From Robert of Gloucester to Gower.)\nClarendon Press.\nSpenser. — \"Epithalamion,\" \" Prothalamion : \" \" Fowre Hymnes : An\nHymne in Honour of Love ; An Hymne in Honour of Beauty ; An\nHymne of Heavenly Love ; An Hymne of Heavenly Beauty.\"\nGreene. —\"Honourable History of Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay/'\nedited by A. W. Ward.\nClarendon Press.\nShakespeare. — \"Much Ado about Nothing.\"\nSir Thomas Browne. — \" Hydriotaphia : A Letter to a Friend, upon\noccasion of the Death of his Intimate Friend.\"\nPope.—\" The Rape of the Lock.\"\nCowper. — \"Letters.\"\n(Golden Treasury Series.)\nBurke. — \" Reflections on the Revolution in France.\"\nByron. — \" Cain.\nA Mystery.\"\nWalter Savage Landor. — \"Imaginary Conversations.\" (The Camelot\nClassics.)\n\n"}
{"page": 194, "printed_page": null, "text": "174\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\n\"The Lady of Shalott,\" \" Mariana in the South,\" \" Eleanore,\" \"CEnone,\"\n\" The Palace of Art,\" \" The Lotos Eaters,\" \"A Dream of Fair Women,\"\n\"The Brook.\"\nGeorge Meredith. — \" The Ordeal of Kichard Feverel.\"\nAs you see, this programme consists of representative authors, each of\nwhom is taken as a specimen from a group of writers belonging to the\nsame century and to the same literary species. Langland, for instance,\nbelongs to a group composed of Langland, Chaucer, Gower. Greene\nbelongs to a group composed of Marlowe, Peele, Greene ; Ford to a group\ncomposed of Webster, Massinger, Beaumont, Fletcher, etc. Near Smollett\nare Fielding, Sterne, Richardson ; near Byron are Shelley, Wordswort\nKeats, etc. Now, when a particular work of a particular writer is me\ntioned on the programme, it means that the candidate will be minutely\nexamined on that work and that writer, and generally on the authors\nbelonging to the same group. So that, when after two years the candidate has gone through two of those lists, he may be said to have a thorough knowledge of representative writers studied from the historical, the\ngrammatical, the artistic point of view, and a good general knowledge\nof the whole range of the literature. The examination consists (1) of an\nEnglish essay on some point of English philology, for which seven hours\nare allowed ; (2) of a French essay on some point of English literature,\nseven hours ; (3) of a written translation from English into French,\nfour hours ; (4) of a written translation from French into English, four\nhours.\nThe viva voce part consists (1) of a lecture in English on some point of\nEnglish philology connected with one of the authors on the programme ;\n(2) of a lecture in French on some point of literature connected with the\nprogramme ; (3) of translations into good French and good English ;\n(4) of an extempore translation from some German standard authors.\nThe courses of studies at. the university for candidates preparing the\ndegree consist of lectures in French and English on English literature and\nphilology, both by the students and by the professor ; of English and French\nessays ; of translations ; of a careful philological study of the works on\nthe programme. Some of the papers given this year at Lille were the\nfollowing: In French, \"Burke's Social Philosophy in his Reflections on\nthe French Revolution,\" \"Byron as a Dramatist,\" \"The Psychological Development of Madness in King Lear.\" In English, \"Langland',-;\nGrammar,\" \" Method of Metrical Tests applied to Shakespeare,\" \" Chief\nCharacteristics of English Prose Writing from Lily to Dryden.\" Translations were from Shakespeare, Ruskin, Tennyson, Carlyle, with a view to\nfurthering the student's command of French.\nSuch is the training given to students of English literature in the\nFrench universities, and we hope that it will have two great results. In\nthe first place, most of those young masters who have gone through the\n\n"}
{"page": 195, "printed_page": null, "text": "ENGLISH\n\nLITERATURE\n\nIN FRENCH\n\nUNIVERSITIES.\n\n175\n\nagregation do not leave their English studies, but, taking up a particular\npoint, write one of those careful, scholarly books which are the French\ntheses for the doctor's degree. These theses are not students' work, nor\nire they prepared at the university. They are the works of scholars who\nspend years over them, and who are not satisfied until they have exhausted\ntheir subject. Thus it is that my colleague at Lille, M. Angelier, has just\nissued his thesis, a book of twelve hundred thick pages, on the work, life,\n>nd surroundings of Robert Burns. M. Jusserand's book on English wayfaring life in the fourteenth century is a thesis. So is Professor Beljame's\nThe Public and the Men of Letters in England in the Eighteenth Cenlry.\" In the second place, from this university teaching, as from a\nhigher source, the knowledge of and the taste for English literature will\nspread through the secondary schools over the great reading middle class.\nNothing could be more fortunate. In these days, when the study of the\nclassics is threatened, what the study of German, upon which most of\nFrench boys have been thrown for the last twenty years, has failed to do,\nthe knowledge of English literature will accomplish. It will open to them\na vast field of interesting, often passionating, artistic literature, instinct\nwith the loftiest ideals, with the deepest human sympathy; full of pathos,\nof feeling, of life ; full of the sense of the good, of the righteous, of religious\nearnestness, as ours is full with the sense of the true and of the beautiful —\none of the most powerful to instill into a young mind the germs that will\ndevelop upwards. In France thousands of grown-up people of the\naverage cast, who are neither poets nor scientists nor philologists, do not\nknow what to do with what German they have painfully learned at school.\nThey have an occasional look at their Faust, at their Schiller, at their\nHeine ; but the German novelists and essayists are not numerous or conspicuous enough to tempt them to go on. But let the large public have a\ntaste of the modern English novel, and through Dickens, through Charlotte\nBronte, through Thackeray, through George Eliot, through Mrs. Gaskell,\nthrough Kingsley, through Mrs. H. Ward — through all these great artists\nand preachers, they will be enticed to read on. The demand for the English\nbooks of the Tauchnitz continental edition will become larger and larger.\nThe modern novels of England, the pure, idealistic utterings of a Carlvle,\nof a Tennyson, of an Emerson, are among the greatest means of education\nof the present time. Of course, the first thing for a Frenchman — for every\nman — is to remain in contact with his own race ; to read those writers of the\npast that have molded the soul and mind of his own nation, and those\nwriters of the present that discuss the problems which the people of\nhis own blood have to solve in order to live on and to transmit to their\nposterity the national inheritance. But when he has done that, let him\nturn to those foreign books in which he finds an ideal, a philosophy, an\naesthetics — views of life widely different from those that prevail in the\nFrench books of his own time.\nThe national ideal will then cease to\n\n"}
{"page": 196, "printed_page": null, "text": "176\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nappear to him as a central one toward which the whole universe ought to\nbe moved. On that day when he becomes able to enjoy a novel of Eliot\nas well as a novel of Flaubert — nay, on that day when he enjoys the very\ndifference between the two types of novel — let him be a business man or a\nbourgeois, he is a man of broader culture, in the true sense of the word,\nthan the scholar who, as Dr. Harris was saying the other day, devotes his\nlife to the study of the dative case.\n\n"}
{"page": 197, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\nCONGRESS OF SECONDARY\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nEDUCATION.\n\nREPORT.\n\nSESSION— Wednesday,\n\nJuly 26, 1893.\n\nThe Congress of Secondary Education met in Hall 22, at 10 o'clock a.m., Wedlesday, July 26, 1893. The meeting was called to order by Ray Greene Huling, of\nCambridge, Mass. He made an opening address, introducing the president of this\nlepartment, Dr. James C. Mackenzie, of Lawrenceville, N. J., who read a paper on\n\" Supervision of Private Schools by the State or Municipal Authority.\"\nThis subject was discussed by G. N. Carman, of Chicago, 111. ; by E. W. Coy, of\nCincinnati, Ohio ; by Charles C. Ramsey, of Fall River, Mass ; by H. L. Boltwood, of\nCvanston, 111. ; Miss Ziramern, of England ; Frank Plummer, of Des Moines, Iowa ; W.\nPoynter, Shelbyville, Ky. ; R. E. Cutler, of Chicago ; W. H. Bartholomew, of Louisille, Ky. ; and Charles E. Putney, of St. Johnsbury, Vt.\nDr. W. T. Reid, Head Master of the Belmont School, Belmont, Cal. , read a paper on\nle following thesis : \" The course of study in secondary schools designed simply to\narepare pupils for life (or designed as a finishing school) : should it be different from\nthat designed to prepare students for college or the professional school ? \" This paper\nras not furnished for publication. It was briefly discussed, and followed by a paper on\n\" The Course of Study in Secondary Schools,\" by G. N. Carman, Dean of the Morgan\n?ark Academy, of the University of Chicago ; after which the meeting adjourned to\nJuly 27th.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Thursday, July 27, 1893.\n\nThe second session of the Congress of Secondary Education was called to order by\nthe president, Dr. James C. Mackenzie, at 9.30 a.m., Thursday, July 27, 1893.\nThe\nirst paper was by Dr. C. F. P. Bancroft, of Andover, Mass., on the thesis : \"Should\nthe amount of time given to languages in our secondary schools (as they are) be diminshed, in order to make room for a more extended course in physics, botany, and chemtry ? \" Dr. Bancroft was unable to be present, and his valuable paper was read by\nIr. Huling.\nThis was followed with a paper by Dr. D. W. Abercrombie, of Worcester,\nlass., on \"Should Language Studies be limited in Secondary Schools, as they are, in\nle Interests of the Sciences ? \" The subjects of the papers by Dr. Bancroft and Dr.\nLbercrombie were discussed by W. T. Poynter, of Shelbyville, Ky. ; by Dr. Moses\nlerrill, Head Master of the Public Latin School of Boston, Mass. ; Mr. Boltwood, of\nSvanston, 111. ; by the chairman, Dr. Mackenzie ; by W. H. Snyder, of Worcester, Mass.;\njy R. E. Cutler, of Chicago ; by Dr. Edward Osterburg, of Sweden ; by Miss Cordelia\narkland, of San Francisco, Cal.\nA paper was read by Mile. Marie Dugard, of Paris, on \" The Secondary Education of\n12\n\n"}
{"page": 198, "printed_page": null, "text": "178\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nGirls in France.\" This paper was discussed by M. Buisson, of France ; by Dr. Mackenzie, of New Jersey ; and Will S. Monroe, of California. The meeting then adjourned\nuntil Friday morning, July 28th.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION— Thursday, July 28, 1893.\n\nThe third session of the Congress of Secondary Education was called to order at 9.30\na.m., Friday, July 28, 1893, by the president, Dr. Mackenzie.\nThe following thesis : \" Should algebra or geometry come first in the course of study\nof secondary schools ?\" was presented, and the discussion was opened by Superintendent\nW. N. Hartman, of La Porte, Ind. He was followed by AmyRayson, of New York ; by H.\nH. Spayd, of Minersville, Pa. ; by Edward G-. Howe, of Chicago ; by W. H. Bartholomew,\nof Louisville, Ky. ; W. T. Poynter, of Shelby ville, Ky. ; by Professor William E. Story,\nof Worcester, Mass. ; and by John H. Patrick, of Anderson, S. C.\nA paper prepared by Mary Gurney and Rose Kingsley, of England, on \" High school\nfor Girls in England,\" was read by Miss Zimmern. This paper was followed by a discussion on the following thesis: \"In cases where a choice should be made, which\nshould come first, Latin or some modern language, in the course of study of secondary\nschools ? \"\nThis discussion was opened by Dr. C. W. Pearson, of Beloit College, Wis. W. Wilberforee Smith, of Englewood, N. J., followed with a paper on \"Which should come\nfirst, Latin or some modern language ? \" This subject was further discussed by Ray\nGreene Huling, of Cambridge, Mass. ; by Dr. Mackenzie, of Lawrenceville, N. J. ; by Mr.\nBoltwood, of Evanston, 111.; by Mr. Poynter, of Shelbyville, Ky.; by Mr. Bartholomew,\nof Louisville, Ky., and by the Chairman. After which the session of the Congress of\nSecondary Education adjourned sine die.\n\nLIST OF PERSONS ACCEPTING THE OFFICE OF HONORARY VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE DEPARTMENT CONGRESS\nEDUCATION.\nOF SECONDARY\nAUSTRIA.\nDr. Ignaz Pokorny, Director State Gymnasium,\nBrunn.\nDr. J. K. Hackspiel, Director of Gymnasium,\nPrague.\nCANADA.\nRev. E. J. Rexford, B.A., Head Master High\nSchool of Montreal, Montreal.\nJohn Seath, Esq., B.A., High School Inspector,\nToronto, Ontario.\nCUBA.\nSefior Mannel Valdes Rodriguez,\nManuel,\" Havana.\nFINLAND.\n\nInstituto San\n\nFroken Elisabeth Blomqvist, Principal of \" Svenska Fruntimmers-Skolan ochFortbildungslaroverket\" (Principal of Swedish School for Women and Continuation Schools), Helsingfor6.\nFRANCE.\nM. Georges Edon, Lycee Henri IV., Paris.\nM. M J. Gaufrcs, Member of Municipal Council of\nParis.\nM. A. Godart, Director of \" Ecole Monge.\"\n\nM. Delaunay Selleville, President Chamber of\nCommerce, Paris.\nM. Ernest Lourdelet, Member of Chamber of Commerce, Paris.\nDr. tiers.\nGabriel Compayre, Rector Academy of PoiMile. M. Dugard, Prof. Lycee Moliere, Paris; Delegate of France.\nM. Gauthiot,\nLycee Henri IV., Paris.\nGERMANY.\nDr. Eitner, Director, Gymnasium, GOrlitz.\nProf. Dr. Th.Hartwig, Director Royal Gymnasium,\nFrankfort.\nDr. G. Holzmuller, Director Commercial School,\nProf.Hagen.\nF. Horneman, Lyceum of Hanover.\nDr. zig.\nO. Jaeger, Director of Friedrich-Wilhelm Gymnasium, Cologne.\nProf. Dr. Otto Kaemmel, Rector Gymnasium, LeipDr. W. Matthias, Director Real-Gymnasium, Diisseldorf.\nProf. Dr. G. E. Miiller, Councilor of Education,\nUniv. Gottingen.\nDr. Oesterien, Rector Eberh. Ludw. Gymnasium,\nStuttgart.\nProf. Dr. Rehmke, University, Greifswald.\n\n"}
{"page": 199, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIST OF HONORARY\nE. Schanenbur^. Director Gymnasium, Councilor, Crefeld.\nDr Hermann Schiller, Giessen.\nDr. Schlee, Director Real-Gymnasium, Altona.\nDr. Elberfeld.\nR. Schornstein, Director Girls' High School,\nDr. SchottmOller, Councilor, Berlin.\nDr. Wilh. Schrader, State Councilor and Curator at\nUniv. Halle.\nDr. Schumann. Rector Real-School, Stuttgart.\nDr. dorf.\nUellner, Director Girls' Hiyh School, DtlsselProf. Dr. G. Uhlig, Director Gymnasium and Prof.\nin Univ. Heidelberg.\nProf. Dr. D. Volkmann,\nRector Public School,\nPfort.i.\nDr. G. Schulze, Director R. Franz-Gymnasium,\nBerlin.\nGREAT\n\nBRITAIN.\n\nENGLAND.\n\nMr. Victor Betis, London.\nMiss Frances Buss, North London Collegiate School\nfor Girls.\nRev. G. D. Mathews, D.D., London.\nRev. H. W. Moss, M.A., Head Master Shrewsbury\nSchool, Shrewsbury.\nEdward Hale, Eton College.\nRev. H. A. James, Principal The College, Cheltenham.\nRev. E. C. Selwyn, Uppingham.\nC. Smith,\ndon. St. Thomas' Charterhouse School, LonT. J. Macnamara, Editor, Schoolmaster, London.\nRev. Dr. R. B. Poole, Bedford Modern School, Bedford.\nHoward Swan, Richmond.\nMiss A. J. Cooper, Head Mistress Edgbarton High\nSchool for Girls, Birmingham.\nRev. E. C. Wickham, M.A., Master Wellington\nCollege, near Workingham, Berkshire.\nRev. Edmond Warre, D.D., Head Master Eton College, Eton.\nRev. J. E. C. Welldon, M.A., Harrow School,\nHarrow.\n\nVICE-PRESIDENTS.\n\n179\n\nSWITZERLAND.\nHerr Pfarrer Jac. Christinger, School Inspector,\nHuttlingen.\nHerr Albert Lflscher, Rector Gymnasium, Berne.\nProf. Dr. Chr. Vogel, Rector Real-School, Geneva.\nURUGUAY.\nSeSor Don Claudio Williman, Montevideo.\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES.\n\nALABAMA.\nJ. H. Riddle, Ashland College, Ashland.\nARKANSAS.\nT. A. Futrall, Marianna Male and Female Institnte,\nMarianna.\nCALIFORNIA.\n. W. T. Reid, Belmont School, Belmont.\nCONNECTICUT.\nProf. E. H. Wilson, Preparatory School, Norwalk.\nJoseph Hall, Principal Public High School, Hartford.\nDELAWARE.\nIsaac Johnson, Wilmington.\nDISTRICT\n\nOF COLUMBIA.\n\nA. P. Montague, Ph.D., School of Latin, Columbian University, Washington.\nton.R. Lane, Principal High School, WashingDr. F.\nGEORGIA.\nRev. S. Graves, D.D., Atlanta.\nJ. L. Stewart, Jr., Marietta.\nILLINOIS.\n\nSCOTLAND.\n\nColin George Macrae, School Board, Edinburgh.\nGeorge R. Meny, High School, Dundee.\nIRELAND.\n\nMaurice C. Hine, Foyle College, Londonderry.\nHUNGARY.\nProf. Dr. Johan Koacsala, Lyceum of Pozsony,\nVaros.\nDr. J. H. Schwicker, Member Hungarian Parliament, Budapest.\nITALY.\nProf. F. Drocco, Lodi.\nProf. Enrico Mestica, Camerino.\nNETHERLANDS.\nProf. Dr. G. van Overbeck de Meyer, Utrecht.\n\nIra W. Allen, Allen Academy, Englewood, Chicago.\nProf. G. M. Carman, A.B., Dean of the University Academy. Morgan Park.\nMiss H. N. Haskell, Monticello Seminary, Godfrey.\nMiss Rebecca S. Rice, Woman's Commissioner on\nEducational Congresses, Chicago.\nINDIANA.\nMrs. Indianapolis.\nMay Wright Sewall, Girls\" Classical School,\nMrs. Delphine B. Wells, Westminster Seminary, Ft.\nWayne.\nIOWA.\nFrank E. Plummer, National League State Teacher's Bureau, Des Moines.\nRev. Jas. F. Zwemer, Orange City.\nLOUISIANA.\nProf. James H. Dillard, Tulane University, New\nOrleans.\nMAINE.\n\nSPAIN.\n\nRev. A. F. Chase, Ph.D., East Maine Conference\nSeminary, Bucksport.\nO. IIPittsfleld.\n. Drake, Principal Maine Central Institute,\nJ. H. Hanson. Principal Coburn Classical Institute,\nWaterville.\n\nSefior F. Giner de los Rios, \" Institucion Libre de\nEnsenanza,\" Madrid.\nDon Emilia Ribera, Institute of Secondary Instruction, Valencia.\n\nR. W. Silvester, President Maryland Agricultural\nCollege, College Park.\n\nRUSSIA.\nM. Moscow.\nAlexandre Jilinski, Prof, de l'Ecole Reale,\n\nMARYLAND.\n\n"}
{"page": 200, "printed_page": null, "text": "180\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nMASSACHUSETTS.\nD. W. Abercrombie, A.M., Principal Worcester\nAcademy, Worcester.\nB. T. Capen, Principal Classical School for Girls,\nNorthampton.\nJulia A. Eastman, Principal Dana Hall, Wellesley.\nAlbert Hale. Boston.\nRev. Endicott Peabody, LL.M., Principal Groton\nSchool, Groton.\nJ. B. Sewall, Principal Thayer Academy, South\nBraintree.\nJ. B. Taylor, Principal Berkeley School, Boston.\nC. F.over.\nP. Bancroft, Ph.D., Phillips Academy, AndWilliam C. Collar, Roxbury.\nRev. William Gallagher, Ph.D., Williston Seminary, Easthampton.\nArthur Gilman, M.A., The Cambridge School,\nCambridge.\nMoses Merrill, Public Latin School, Boston.\nJohn Tetlow, Girls' High School, Boston.\nMICHIGAN.\nCol. J. Sumner Rogers, Michigan Military Academy, Orchard Lake.\nMINNESOTA.\nEugene D. Holmes, M.A., Minneapolis Academy,\nMinneapolis.\nMISSOURI.\nDenham Arnold, Rugby Academy, St. Louis.\nNEBRASKA.\nRobert Doherty, S.T.D., Principal Brownell Hall,\nOmahn.\nAlexis C.Hart, A.M., Principal Franklin Academy,\nFranklin.\nNEW\n\nHAMPSHIRE.\n\nJ. A. Tufts, A.B., the Phillips Exeter Academy,\nExecer.\nNEW\n\nJERSEY.\n\nW. S. Eversole, Blair Presbyterial Academy,\nBlairstown.\nRev. Joseph E. Perry, A.M., Ph.D., Peddie Institute, Hightstown.\nDavid . A. Kennedy, Ph.D., Principal Dearborn\nMorgan School, Orange.\nW. W. Smith, Principal Englewood School for\nBoys. Englewood.\nS. A. Farrand, Principal Newark Academy, Newark.\nRev. George H. Whitney, D.D., Centenary Collegiate Institute, Hacket.tstown.\nNEW\n\nYORK.\n\nW. L. Cushing, Head Master Westminster School,\nDobbs Ferry.\nRev. Arthur H. Flack, A.M., President Claverack\nCollege, Claverack.\nCaskie Harrison, Brooklyn\nLatin School, New\nYork.\nAmy Ray son, New York.\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nProf. C. 11. Thurber, President Colgate University,\nHamilton, N. Y.\nW. McD. Halsey, Ph.D., Collegiate School, New\nYork.\nJ H. Morse, Principal Classical and English\nSchool, New York.\nJohn S. White, LL.D., Principal Berkeley School,\nNew York.\nNORTH\n\nCAROLINA.\n\nW. E. Allen, Military School. Scotland Neck.\nRobert\nville.Bingham, Principal Bingham School, AsheEdward E. Britton, Roxboro.\nOHIO.\nJoseph E. White, Franklin School, Cincinnati.\nJ. S. Wilhelm, Fostoria Academy, Fostoria.\nLawrence Rust, LL.D., Rector Kenyon Military\nAcademy, Gambier.\nPENNSYLVANIA.\nRev. Thomas W. Conn, Principal School of the\nLackawanna, Scranton.\nGeorge Eastburn, A.M., Ph.D., Principal Select\nSchool, Philadelphia.\nMrs. Henrietta Kutz, Principal West Walnut St.\nSeminary, Philadelphia.\nRev. R. L. Taylor, A.M., Ph.D., Principal Beaver\nCollege, Beaver.\nMiss N. J. Davis, Principal Mountain Seminary,\nBirmingham.\nWilliam Kershaw, Ph.D., Principal Germantown\nAcademy, Germantown.\nRHODE\n\nISLAND.\n\nW. W. Curtis, Pawtucket High School, Pawtucket.\nD. W. Hoyt, Principal High School, Providence.\nSOUTH\n\nCAROLINA.\n\nVirgiltown.\nC. Dibble, Principal High School, CharlesEdward S. Joynes, M.A., LL.D., South Carolina\nCollege, Columbia.\nTENNESSEE.\nA. M. Burney, A.M., President Howard\nFemale\nCollege, Gallatin.\nW. R. J. M. Webb, Principal Webb School, Bell\nBuckle.\nTEXAS.\nRev. Charles Carlton, President Carlton College,\nBonham.\nVERMONT.\nC. E. Putney, Ph.D., St. Johnsbury.\nHenry II. Ross, Vermont Episcopal Institute, Burlington.\nWASHINGTON.\nSister M. Perpetua, Academy of the Holy Cross,\nSeattle.\n\n"}
{"page": 201, "printed_page": null, "text": "SECONDARY\nOPENING\nJT\n\nRAT\n\nGREENE\n\nEDUCATION.\nADDRESS.\n\nHULING,\nHEA.D\nMASTER\nSCHOOL,\nCAMBRIDGE,\n\nOF THE\nMASS.\n\nCAMBRIDGE\n\nHIGH-\n\nLadies and Gentlemen : In behalf of the committee of arrangements,\ntnd as a member specially designated to take a particular interest in the\nCongress of Secondary Education, it gives me great pleasure to welcome\nyou to this first meeting. The secondary teachers of this country are not\na very large body, and their representation here naturally is not large at\nthe opening. But we may be very sure that in this discussion of papers\nwe are speaking to a much larger audience than can hear our words, and\nthat whatever of value shall be presented here will have a far-reaching\ninfluence among those who shall read what they cannot hear.\nSecondary education in our own country, it seems to me, has passed\nthrough a transition. No department has arisen more in general appreciation within the last twenty-five years than our own. In no department has there been a greater widening than that among the secondary\nteachers' own department. It has received a stronger appreciation from\nabove and from below. I can well remember, when I began to teach in a\nhigh-school, there seemed to be a wide, impassable gulf separating the\nteachers in that grade from the professors in the colleges. I have come\nto find the professors taking a deep interest in the secondary work, and\ndeclaring that their own work depeuds very largely upon the success\nof secondary teaching. I have come to see the professors and schoolteachers, men and women, united in discussing secondary subjects, and\nfind the men of colleges asking the opinions of those of the secondary\nschools concerning these difficult questions that relate to passages on one\nside or the other. I have seen teachers in high-schools and preparatory\nschools taking the heartiest interest in secondary education.\nThe gentlemen from abroad must look upon oar system of secondary\neducation with some degree of wonder. Accustomed to see orderly control from the lowest step to the highest grade in education, they come\nhere and find everything apparently fragmentary. The problems in\nsecondary education that we are most interested in appear to be those\ngrowing out of local control of schools.\nI am in hopes that the discus-\n\n"}
{"page": 202, "printed_page": null, "text": "182\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nsions in this department will contribute materially to making clear our\npaths and making stronger our work.\nConcerning the conduct of this department, the plan proposed is somewhat different from most educational gatherings. There are prepared\nintroductory papers ; simply that and nothing more. The greater time\nhas been left free for discussion. If you do not discuss these papers, we\nshall sit after the manner of our friends the Quakers, and think over\nwhat the papers have suggested to us.\nWe are fortunate to have with us this morning a goodly proportion of\nladies, as ought to be the case in every congress of secondary education.\nI hope these ladies will be free in a conversational way to give us their\nthoughts.\nAllow me now to present, as president of this department, one whom\nthe committee of arrangements were happily united in choosing ; one\nwhose reputation is national, and more than national — international, I\nmight say — Dr. James C. Mackenzie, of the Lawrenceville School, New\nJersey.\nEEMARKS\n\nOF\n\nDR.\n\nMACKENZIE\n\nON\n\nTAKING\n\nTHE\n\nCHAIR.\n\nLadies and Gentlemen, Fellotv- Teachers : I take great comfort from the\nremarks made by the general chairman of this series of congresses, who\nsaid yesterday that the duty of a chairman was not to make speeches,\nbut simply to introduce those who are to make them. However, I have\nbeen put at some disadvantage by the request, which comes to me with\nthe force and authority of United States Commissioner, Dr. Harris, that\nI would so far vary from this canon, laid down by Dr. Angell, as to\nmake some opening remarks. We talked over the subject, and it is\nrather the joint choice of Dr. Harris and myself that the subject\nwhich you find as the initial subject was chosen. Let me say, by way of\npreface to what I shall say further on, that I am unable to discuss all\nthe phases of this section of supervision of school work, including the\nhigh-schools and private day schools. I shall assume here that the highschools are under sufficient supervision. I shall use the term \"private\nschool \" as including both the strictly private school and endowed academies. With these explanations I invite your attention to the subject of\nthe paper.\n\n"}
{"page": 203, "printed_page": null, "text": "STATE\n\nOR MUNICIPAL\n\nSUPERVISION\n\nOF PRIVATE\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\nSUPERVISION' OF PRIVATE SCHOOLS BY THE\nOR MUNICIPAL AUTHORITIES.*\nBY\n\nEEV.\n\nJAMES\n\nC.\n\nMACKENZIE,\n\nLAWRENCEVILLE\n\nPH.D.,\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nHEAD\nNEW\n\nMASTER\n\nOF\n\n183\n\nSTATE\nTHE\n\nJERSEY.\n\nIn our zeal for the advancement of public school education it is to be\nfeared that we have ignored two facts : first, that in increasingly large\nnumbers everywhere, save in New England, our more prosperous citizens\nhave been sending their children not to the public schools, but to schools\nand academies essentially private ; and, second, that up to this hour no\norganized movement has been made looking to the systematizing and\nsupervising of these private and endowed schools, in which some two million American boys and girls are being educated. Change but a word\nhere and there, and what Horace Mann said of public school education\nfifty years ago is true of a large part of American education to-day :\n\"These schools are so many distinct, independent communities, each\nbeing governed by its own habits, traditions, and local customs. There\nis no common superintending power over them ; there is no bond of\nbrotherhood or family between them. The teachers are, as it were,\nembedded each in his own district, and they are yet to be excavated and\nbrought together, and to be established, each as a polished pillar of a holy\ntemple. As the system is now administered, if any improvement in principles or modes of teaching is discovered by talent or accident in one\nschool, instead of being published to the world it dies with the discoverer.\nNo means exist for multiplying new truths, or even for preserving old\nones.\" And that corypheus of our educational reform goes on to ask :\n\"Do we not need some new and living institution, some animate organization, which shall at least embody and diffuse all that is now known,\nand thereby save every year hundreds of children from being sacrificed to\nexperiments which have been a hundred times exploded ?\" We ask further :Must each generation of secondary schoolmasters, laying no tribute\nupon capitalized experience, begin its fortunes anew and exhaust all\npossible errors before arriving at the soundest principles of schoolwork ?\nHappily, America is the last of the highly civilized nations to give\nattention to this large department of the teaching work. Our friends\nhere from Germany, France, Russia, and Sweden will tell us what state\nsupervision has done for higher education in each of these countries, and\nrepresentatives of the British schools will, from the mixed practice in\nvogue in the United Kingdom, further irradiate the subject from their\npoint of view.\n* The term \" private schools,\" as used in this paper, includes all schools not under the state control—\ni.e., endowed and proprietary schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 204, "printed_page": null, "text": "184\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nTo simplify our subject, nothing will be said in this paper of the strange\nand hurtful isolation of the private schools and academies from the public\nhigh-schools — two classes of schools that should, in the necessities of the\ncase, have very much in common. They are both doing collegiate preparatory work, and pupils are constantly, in all parts of our land, being\ntransferred from one to the other, and usually with considerable embarrassment toboth pupils and teachers.\nLooking at the question before us in its entirety, it concerns two hundred and fifty thousand pupils in our public high-schools and two hundred\nthousand in private schools of secondary grade. Our •' brief,\" then, is in\nthe interests of nearly a half million boys and girls, many of whom are to\nswell the one hundred thousand enrollment of the five hundred American\ncolleges! Surely this is a leading question in the education of the day.\nBy necessary consequence, by unescapable implication, we are face to face\nwith some of the deeper questions of education, such as the age of admission, the contents of a course of secondary instruction, and the professional training of teachers.\nBut some one will say, directly you suggest supervision of what has\nbeen deemed private business : \" This is a republic. Long ago we burst\nthe bonds of a meddlesome paternalism. Intelligent individualism is the\nregulative principle, and we will not return to any of the forms of despotism.\" But this is hasty speech, and ignores the many forms in which\nwe voluntarily submit to authority in every relation of the citizen life.\nIf republican institutions \" do wake to life unexampled energies in the\nwhole mass of the people, and bestow upon the people unexampled power\nto work out their will,\" these same institutions should induce the highest\nself-control and guidance. It were a strange folly to add to the impulsive\nforces of a people without also adding to their regulating forces. If it be\nindeed true that the next generation shall contain a larger percentage of\nmen and women graduated from our higher institutions, men who in the\nnature of the case shall exert mighty influence in the affairs of the nation,\nit ill befits us to bandy words about private rights in a business that conditions so profoundly the welfare of the state. We create and maintain\na national Congress, convening annually, at incredible expense, to regulate the tariff, internal improvements, and currency ; we have State legislatures tolegislate about every conceivable subject ; we have courts, sitting\nand moving to adjudicate upon the rights of person and property of every\ndegree of importance ; and yet here is a large section, in some respects\nthe most important section of education, which has received literally\nnothing thus far in the way of organization and united effort.\nWe grant freely the high character, skill, and devotion of many worthy\nprivate school-teachers and proprietors, but it is straining unduly our\npoor human nature to ask it to work as well without as with direction,\nsupervision, and accountability.\nNor does it meet the objection to say\n\n"}
{"page": 205, "printed_page": null, "text": "STATE\n\nOR MUNICIPAL\n\nSUPERVISION\n\nOF PRIVATE\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\n185\n\nthat these private schools are under the supervision of parents, trustees,\nand the public. I know of a prominent private fitting school whose\nentire graduating class of some twenty-five members recently failed to\nsecure a sufficient number of credits to admit it to one of our lower-grade\ncolleges. This stunning disappointment was the first information parents\nor public had of the inferior instruction being given. The half-dozen\nlarger academies of the country, receiving pupils from every State in the\nUnion, know the deplorable standards that are tolerated all too generally\nin our private day- and boarding-schools. Unquestionably, some of these\nunsupervised schools are superior to the very best of our public schools ;\nmd yet I heard a member of the committee appointed by Harvard University to examine one of our most famous academies, say that if the report\nof his committee were to be published, it would make a great stir in the\nschool world.\nIt is passing strange that though you will not commit the care of your\nbody to an unlicensed physician, the care of your property to an unlicensed attorney, or the care of your soul to an unlicensed clergyman,\nyet you send your son and daughter, not merely for five or six hours a day,\n>ut for months and years, to a schoolmaster whose best qualification may\n>e only that he has mastered the art of advertising. With the exception\nof Great Britain, I believe we are the only enlightened nation that comlits such folly. Elsewhere the teacher — man or woman — must pass a\nprescribed examination, and thereafter his or her school must submit to\nsome form of supervision and control.\nFor a moment let us dwell upon a statement which may be made without fear of successful contradiction. It is this : Supervised education\nias always and everywhere proved good education; education without such\nsupervision has always proved inferior. I shall not detain you with the\nhistoric proofs of this proposition ; but many of you will recall the first\nmovements by the Jesuits for better schools — a body of teachers whose\nglaring faults in some particulars are readily admitted, and yet no less an\nauthority than Eobert Herbert Quick says : \" No other school system has\njeen built up by the united efforts of so many astute intellects ; no other\nhas met with so great success, or attained such widespread influence. No\nbody of men since the revival of learning has played so prominent a part\nin education. Their skill and capacity are attested by such high authorities as Bacon and Descartes. For more than one hundred years, nearly\nall the prominent men throughout Christendom — both among laity and\nclergy — received the Jesuit training, and for life regarded their old masters with reverence and affection.\" Now, the central excellence of this\nJesuit training was in the word \"system.\" The famous commission of\n1584 formed a closely articulated and minutely supervised system of education, extending over the period of our own secondary courses. It could\nalso be shown that the patronage and supervision of education under the\n\n"}
{"page": 206, "printed_page": null, "text": "186\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\ncaliphs of Bagdad and Cordova contributed in no small measure to the\nremarkable success of the Mohammedan schools that flourished with such\nsignal efficiency for fire centuries. In the schools of Bagdad, Damascus,\nCordova, Salamanca, and Toledo, grammar, chemistry, algebra, trigonometry, and astronomy were made to assume new forms, and made very\ngreat advances.\nComing to more recent times, the history of education in France and\nGermany is largely the history of organized, systematized, supervised\nwork. The French Convention of 1793 prepared the way for the ample\nreforms and systems inaugurated thirteen years later by Napoleon, and it\nis worthy of note that the best impulses of reform in the French schools\nstarted from the lyceums, or secondary schools. I need not dwell on the\nfundamental characteristics of the German schools. Suffice it to say that\nwe would almost accept the Army bill if thereby we could have the German gymnasia in our own land, or at least the capacity and efficiency of\nthese schools. Before completing our hurried glance at organized education, reflect for a moment upon the condition of the English schools.\nHere so much has been left to individual effort and denominational zeal\nthat the historian must record the verdict that education has made less\nprogress in England than in any other European state. Her theory and\npractice closely resemble our own. In our country, may I not with all\nprudence say that our public school system, taken in its entirety — explain\nthe fact as we may — is superior at every point to our haphazard, unsystematized private schools ? This is not due, as often charged, to the\ninability of some private school pupils to meet the demands of the public\nschools, for the vast majority of our private school pupils have at no time\nbeen connected with public schools. It has ceased to be a question in\nthousands of American homes whether or no the children shall attend the\npublic schools. They are foreordained to the all too tender mercies of the\n\"select school.\"\nIf what I have been trying to say be admitted, it is idle to deprecate\nsupervised schools because of the sure taint of politics. The genius and\nearnestness of our people may be trusted to stay the hand of this malign\ninfluence in the affairs of our schools. Enlarged responsibilities, including the care of the schools patronized by classes of citizens likely to be\nmore exacting and more influential, would indeed induce a higher sense\nof duty and less meddlesome methods on the part of the custodians of our\nschools. It is quite germane to our subject, as it seems to me, to call\nattention to that other form of governmental control of our schools\nexemplified in the national academies at West Point and Annapolis. The\ndirector of the English Military School at Woolwich volunteered to me the\nstatement that these two American schools were the best schools in the\nworld. This I believe to be true as regards all matters of organization\nand method.\nHorace Mann's predictions have not been fulfilled. A way\n\n"}
{"page": 207, "printed_page": null, "text": "STATE\n\nOR MUNICIPAL\n\nSUPERVISION\n\nOF PRIVATE\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\n187\n\nras fouud to supervise these national schools that made it possible to\n3cure princely teachers and to produce the highest educational results\nfet attained in the scholastic world. And the hour is at hand when the\n>est interests of our collegiate education, as represented primarily in our\n)rivate schools, can no longer be left to unaccredited, unsupervised masters\nid schools. The foreign nations that are copying our system of public\nschool education must be saved the present palpable defects in our unsysjmatized private schools. Of course, with the open-minded members of\nthe private school teaching force there would be every form of hospitality\na proper board of supervision. In each State a number of schools would\nmve nothing to fear and much to gain by this public accrediting of their\nrork. A long stride forward would be made in the work of professionalizing the teaching office, and, as one result, publishers, insurance companies,\nind general trade would find it more difficult to lure teachers from their\njhosen career. And another result of such a recognition of our work\nrould be the higher value and the greater permanency attaching to it.\nrhat anybody is able to do is not worth as much as that which only a\nlimited number are able or permitted to do. There are now too many\njgistered teachers at our agencies. There should be no employment\n)ureaus except for servants. Imagine a \"Lawyers' Agency,\" a \"Physicians' Bureau,\" or a \" Ministers' Employment Club.\"\nI am well aware that laws cannot save us from any of the evils that may\nthreaten. But with us — let us remember, for our comfort — the very idea\nof legislation is reversed. Once, the law prescribed the action and shaped\nthe wills of the multitude ; with us the multitude prescribe and shape the\niw. Legislators study the will of the people as philosophers study a\nvolcano — not with any idea of doing aught to the volcano, but to see what\nthe volcano is about to do to them. Therefore it is that we have no\nlonger the dread of the olden time of lawmakers, and we are the more\nwilling to reduce to operative and efficient forms the people's will. Let us\nlot hesitate to do this in the matter before us. An able lawyer of national\nmutation thinks that ample authority to make laws regulating education\n)f all kinds is given by the constitutional clause reading, \" Congress has\n)ower to lay and collect taxes . . . and provide for the common\niefense and general welfare of the United States.\" But this supreme\nwork of education is left to the several States, and to them the appeal for\n)roper regulation of the secondary schools must be made. If I cannot sell\nsour bread or hawk decayed fish without the interference of the board of\nlealth, why should I fear the \"paternalism\" in government, State or\ntunicipal, that bars me from giving an inferior quality of instruction ?\nI do not care here to consider at length the ways by which this regulation should be achieved. It would be amazing if our people, in view of the\nmanifold forms by which we now safely lay tribute upon national, State,\nid municipal authority, could not devise some amicable and effective\n\n"}
{"page": 208, "printed_page": null, "text": "188\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\narrangement — derived, if need be, from the fish-market, the present school\nboard, and the board of control of the West Point and Annapolis schools.\nI would not have the system of supervision by which our public schools\nare governed. Nor would I care to see another board of regents such as\ndirects public education in New York, excellent as that system may be in\nsome respects. There is at least one illustration of wbat might be done to\njustify the proposition of this paper. I venture to give it at some length,\nas set forth by William Allen Butler, Esq., in his plea before the legislature of New York :\nIn 1763 the Colonial legislature passed an act which organized the\nBoard of Wardens for the port of New York, and gave them the power to\nlicense pilots, making it compulsory on masters of vessels to accept their\nservices or pay half pilotage. Gradually a vicious element crept into the\nsystem. The Board of Wardens, appointed by the party in power in the\nState government, became infected with the virus of politics, which communicated itsbad influence to the pilots. The older pilots shirked their\nduty, and in the winter storms, instead of braving the dangers of the\ncoast, toasted their toes in comfortable quarters, while incoming emigrant\nvessels were signaling in vain for their aid.\nThe pilotage system became an intolerable monopoly. The Chamber\nof Commerce of New York, and the whole shipping interest, petitioned\nthe legislature against it. The licensed pilots opposed the repeal or\nalteration of the law ; and in reply to a call from the legislature, the\nport wardens reported that \"officially\" they knew of no existing evils.\nThe legislature rose without acting on the subject ; but a terrible lesson\nwas in reserve. On Sunday morning, the 27th of November, 1836, at\nnine o'clock, the passenger ship Bristol lay at the entrance of the port,\n\" with the usual signal flying for a New York pilot ; hut as none came\nout,\" she remained in the offing until about four o'clock, half an hour\nbefore night fell in, when she ' struck upon Rockaway Beach and was lost.\nOn Sunday morning, January 1, 1837, the bark Mexico, another passenger\nvessel, lay off the bar, with about thirty other square-rigged vessels, all\nhaving signals flying for pilots. The Mexico continued standing off and\non till midnight, and at night the whole fleet of ships displayed lanterns\nfrom their yards for pilots. Still no pilot came, and she was wrecked\nduring the night.\nA fearful number of lives were lost by each of these disasters. On the\nill-fated Mexico, one hundred and four passengers, two-thirds of their\nnumber being women and children, were frozen to death.\nA thrill of horror was caused by this awful sacrifice of life. Governor\nMarcy, in his annual message, three days subsequent to the loss of the\nMexico, invited the attention of the legislature to the subject of the\npilotage system. The legislature failed to act till 1845, when, in response\nto remonstrances and appeals, all pilotage laws then in existence in the\n\n"}
{"page": 209, "printed_page": null, "text": "STATE\n\nOR MUNICIPAL\n\nSUPERVISION\n\nOF PRIVATE\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\n189\n\nState were abolished, and Congress was petitioned by the State to make\nnational laws to regulate all pilotage. Failing in this direction, in 1846,\nthe merchants and underwriters of New York, under the pressure of loss\nof life and money, by voluntary cooperation organized a Board of Commissioners ofPilots — composed of five members, two of whom were elected by\nthe Chamber of Commerce and two by the Board of Underwriters, and\none appointed by the Secretary of the Navy — whose duty it was \" to\nexamine and issue certificates to as many persons to act as pilots for the\nport of New York as they may deem the navigation of the port requires/'\nThis purely voluntary board gradually built up an efficient pilotage service\nwhose benefits every transatlantic traveler still enjoys. And now follows\nthe instructive paragraph in this incident in the legal history of New\nYork.\nIn 1853, when it was proposed to deal with the subject by legislation,\nthe Chamber of Commerce and the leading marine underwriters dreaded\na return to the old monopoly, and remonstrated against any legislative\ninterference. But when the legislature's bill was matured, and when in\nJuDe, 1854, the act was passed, in one of those lucid intervals that come\neven to politicians and State legislators, it adopted the system devised by\nthe merchants and underwriters, and created a hoard of five commissioners, to he elected, three by the Chamber of Commerce and two by the\nBoard of Underwriters, identical with the then existing board, save as to a\nrepresentative of the Navy Department. The commissioners of the voluntary board were at once elected as members of the State board, and every\nme of them served in it until the day of his death.\nIn this way, by adopting and legalizing the action of the merchants and\nmderwriters, the legislature of 1853 well and wTisely divorced the Sandy\nlook pilotage service from politics and partisanship, and delegated to the\ntwo commercial bodies in the great metropolis best qualified for the trust,\nthe selection of the State officers who should administer the system. The\n>mpulsory features of the law excited opposition, and it was denounced\nmconstitutional by reason of the method it provided for the election of\nthe commissioners ; but the Court of Appeals held that it was a valid and\nconstitutional act.\nI have dwelt at length upon this pilotage system of New York, because\nbelieve it shows clearly a safe and efficient solution of precisely such a\nproblem as we have before us, and because it illustrates once more our\nimerican ingenuity in making the government our servant rather than\nappointing it as our master.\nA commission of six members in each\nitate could be named by the two or three leading colleges or universities.\n'his commission could be legally approved by the legislature to pass upon\nthe qualifications of all teachers in our private schools, and to examine\nthese schools at stated times, as is the practice in France. Such visitation by college professors and distinguished citizens would be primarily\n\n"}
{"page": 210, "printed_page": null, "text": "190\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION.\n\nfriendly, having in view the welfare of the schools and pupils. Worthy\nteachers would welcome such interest and the consequent cooperation of\njudicious educators. Each State would create its own standard of excellence in the teaching body and in the results to be attained, having\nregard to the conditions of education in its own locality.\n\nDISCUSSION.\nG. N. Carman, Dean of the Morgan Park Academy of the University of Chicago •\nMr. President — The last part of the paper we listened to reminded me of a recent experience. In considering the general question of qualifications of teachers in the State of\nMinnesota, during the past winter, and in endeavoring to determine the best way to\nbring about the desirable results to which our attention has been called this morning, Iremember, in a conversation with Dr. Kiehle, Superintendent of Instruction, that\nthis question of supervision was considered. We were then told, by those in position to\nanswer the question, that nothing of the kind could be done. The dilemma in which\nwe are placed in reference to the necessity of supervision in our secondary schools makes\nit desirable that some means should be at hand by which they could be properly supervised.\nAll those who listened to the paper of President Eliot, at Saratoga, will remember it\nwas right along the line of thought we have here this morning. In listening to the\ndiscussion of \" what the schools should teach,\" I was particularly interested in the\nwords of Colonel Parker, in which he mentioned to be encountered: difficulties due to\nthe indifference of the people, due to work of politicians, and the failure of the teachers\nthemselves to be influenced ; and it is just this last matter I wish to emphasize. If\nthe teachers themselves will only realize the necessity of more supervision, more system,\nand more efficient work, it is reasonable to believe that they will accomplish better\nresults through voluntary cooperation.\nE. W. Coy, Principal of the Hughes High School, Cincinnati, Ohio : I have been interested in the paper just read. I think, as intimated in the paper, there are two sides to\nthe question of supervision. I have been always connected with public schools that are\nsubjected to supervision. I have, oftentimes, felt like congratulating private schools that\nare free from supervision, on the opportunities they may have to do things we cannot do\non account of our supervision. There certainly is great room for improvement in the\nsupervision of our public schools. Whether it is desirable that the system of supervision\nof our public schools should be extended so as to embrace private schools, is to me a somewhat serious question. The attempt to provide any new system, as suggested, I don't\nthink is hopeful. If 1 remember correctly, it took ninety years to establish that supervision. remember\nI\ntalking some years ago with a gentleman who has since become a\nvery prominent bishop in the Methodist church. He told me that the public ought to have\nthe supervision of all the private as well as the public schools. The difficulty is in the\nway of practically carrying on such a plan. We are very much wedded in this country\nto local control. When I lived in a town in Massachusetts where they had the oldfashioned school district system, it was proposed to abolish it and introduce the town system, and it was finally carried ; but it came very near causing a revolution. If you\nattempt to pass from local to national control, it would be an immense step, and it\nwould take at least ninety years to take that step.\nCharles C. Ramsay, Master of the High School, Fall River, Mass. : It was not my\nprivilege to listen to the whole of the paper which has been read, so it may be that I am\nlaboring under some misapprehension. The point I have in mind was slightly touched\nupon by the last speaker. I have had some experience in both public and private school\nwork, and with some of those representing the hostile local influence. It might be said,\nwe each have something of that kind to contend with. The public high-schools have had\nfar more hostile influence in the community immediately about them than would besupEosed by those who have taught exclusively in private schools.\nIt takes many years, as\nas been suggested, to secure proper legislation ; and it will take many more years to\nsecure the enforcement of that legislation. The centralizing of public schools was brought\n\n"}
{"page": 211, "printed_page": null, "text": "DISCUSSION.\n\n191\n\nout last night by Dr. Ross, of Ontario. It was plainly seen that the advantage he\nenjoys by the power of appointment of teachers is an enormous advantage. Until we can\nin some way obviate the necessity of consulting the opinions of persons not expert, and\nperhaps not educated, and in some cases unreasonable, we cannot hope for great advancement in this matter.\nH. L. Boltwood, Principal of the High School of Evanston, 111. : I regret that I\ndidn't hear the paper, but the general subject of private schools and legislation calls to\nmind a little of my experience. I served the first seven years of my teaching life, after\ngraduating from college, in what is known in New England as a one-horse academy,\nwhere there is a great deal of work done by the horse, and where the idea of individual\ninstruction was carried to its maximum. But passing from that into the public highschool. 1 had a chance to contrast my experience. Now, as I look back to it. as a young\nteacher, full of experiments and conscious of the blunders that young teachers often\nmake, I confess that the individuality of the private school accomplishes more in proportion than the carefully superintended work of the graded high-school. I remember\nin a little New Hampshire academy, where I had sixty-five pupils, who came to me\nfrom country homes, with the spirit of hard work, and I think perhaps ten of the\nsixty-five made a decided success. Passing into graded work, where the number of\npupils the\nwas circumstances\nmuch larger, there\nwas no\noutcome.\ndon't\nknow\nthat went\ninto such\nthose proportionate\nindividual lives.\nWhen Ofa course\nschool I board\nis either directly elected by the people or is appointed by those who are chosen by the\npeople, and when a course of study cannot be upset by newspaper criticism, and when\nthe whole public sentiment is largely controlled by a certain element that is not well\ninformed, there are some dangers of supervision. I have seen it work admirably in the\nhands of men who had the true idea of supervision ; that is, to conduct the general\nlines of work, and hold the teachers accountable for the results. When these things\nare combined with the presence of a public that has sense enough to keep the school\nboard out of partisan politics, and allow the superintendent time to shape his school.\nThe trouble of supervision generally is the failure not to allow the individuality of the\nteachers, nor the individuality of the community, in the course of study. As an example:\na course of study prepared for a city like Chicago, which reaches out far into the country, with communities inside of our city limits which are engaged in farming, in gardening, and manufacturing communities, and places where the wealth is concentrated,\nyet one uniform course is insisted upon. So supervision looks to me as one of those\nquestionable things. Some of it is necessary ; too much supervision may entirely disregard the individuality of the teachers, and the wants of the local community, and, in\na certain sense, the individuality of the children. The course of study and graded system which is carried with such minuteness that the teacher is rebuked for anything\nthat he does which is not specified in the graded work, is of doubtful utility.\nLeroy Stevens, President of the Mount Pleasant Institute, Mount Pleasant, Pa. :\n1 want to express my appreciation of the paper. I have a very high appreciation of it,\nindeed. There are people here who represent other countries. I would like to hear from\nabroad.\nMiss Zimmekn, of England : I don't know as I have very much to add to what has\nbeen aid. I feel that I should like to say that we should be a great many years ahead\nof what we are in England if we had more supervision. You know, doubtless, in our\nelementary schools there are visitors. We have had supervision ; they call it inspections We have inspectors who are extremely popular with the teachers. They visit\nthem once a year, formally ; and informally oftener. In the country, they have little\ninformal meetings to which the inspectors invite the teachers. Many of the teachers\nhave told me how extremely valuable these meetings are.\nI teach what we call a high-school for girls. We have thirty-five schools, all under\nthe same management. These schools were started to give education to the girls of\nrather the higher class — to give them an education which should begin at the very\nbeginning, and carry them on till the time they want to go to college. These schools\nhave a very slight supervision, but they have a substitute for it. Every year they are\nexamined by a board from Oxford and Cambridge. Each year each school sends in an\naccount of the work that has been done. We have occasionally visits every two or\nthree years from those who technically are not called inspectors, but who occasionally\ncall on the schools and give a little advice. I think, however, if they would come once\nin three months, instead of once in three years, it would be better ; because in many\ncases they are men of considerable learning. I really think I speak for many English\nteachers when I say if we could have more supervision we should be very much better\n\n"}
{"page": 212, "printed_page": null, "text": "192\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION.\n\noff. We have this attempted supervision, which is all right among the actual private\nschools.\nThe schools started by one gentleman or one lady have no supervision at all, other\nthan a voluntary submitting of their pupils to outside examination. They often choose\nto do that in order to have a little outside light thrown into the school We feel that\nthat is not quite enough, and not quite the right thing, because it disturbs the schoolwork to have to send the pupils to an examination where some one else chooses the course\nof study. But more and more we are trying to get better graded work, and trying to\nlead pupils on from one class to another. 1 do think that instead of having to send the\npupils to these outside examinations, if we could have a little more supervision in the\nschool itself we should be benefited very much.\nFrank Plummer, of Des Moines, Iowa : In the main I desire to indorse the spirit of\nthis paper. The fact that one of the leading educators, now our president, in connection with the Commissioner of Education. Mr. Harris, has selected this subject for general discussion, shows that it has merit. That being true, I take the stand, because of my\nexperience, to say that supervision is absolutely necessary. This is an age of combinations and supervision, and if anything needs it, it is our schools. But how to get it is\nanother question.\nI wish to take exception to one remark in the paper. The speaker had something\nto say about teachers' bureaus not being necessary. I presume he meant at that ideal\ntime when we should have proper supervision. Possibly then they will not be necessary, but teachers now get places in hap-hazard way. If bureaus can come in and systematize things so that the teachers will get in the right place, then the bureaus may\nbe useful.\nW. T. Poynter, Principal of Science Hill School. Shelbyville, Ky. : I am connected\nwith a private school, entirely private. Nobody has any interest in it except myself. Iown the building and employ the teachers, and am responsible to nobody ;\nconsequently it may be proper for some one just in that condition to speak at this\nmoment. The whole paper resolves itself into one question, and that is, whether the\ngovernment shall do all that is done in the question of education, or whether it shall not.\nThat is the whole point in that paper. If you propose to say that the government commissioners shall come to me and supervise my school, I say that is an impertinence. I\nsay it is as much an impertinence as if you would send a commissioner to investigate\nthe editorial of the newspaper. The only question is, Shall the government supervise\nover education or not, and shall private schools exist ? That is a question for the public\nschools and not for us.\nR. E. Cutler, of the Northwest Division High School, Chicago : There is one\naspect of the question that has not been presented ; that is the influence of the people\nof the community. We have all heard of the influence that the New England town\nmeeting has had on making the American citizen. If the people have become more\nintelligent and more interested in their own affairs, it is because they come out and take\na part, at least once a year, in the legislation concerning their own local affairs ; they\nlearn thus something of government. A part of my lifetime has been spent at work in\nthe high-schools of Chicago. If municipal government, is the topic under consideration, Ithink we have it in Chicago, and I don't see how we could get alcng without it.\nMr. Boltwood mentioned some of the evils that we were made to suffer in Chicago on\naccount of the supervision of the schools being all under the same regulations, and yet\nnot all of them being under the same conditions. A part of my lifetime has been in\nthe charge of schools of a smaller town, and I have had a chance to study this question\nas presented there. I have had an opportunity to see how the people of a village take\npride in their schools, or, as they call it, \" our high-school,\" and how they have watched,\nwith jealous interest, \"our high school,\" and how they have looked to see whether the\nresults were praiseworthy or not ; and how they considered what they wanted in their\nhigh-school in order to meet the wants of the young people who are growing up in their\nparticular community. If we have State supervision, this thing will be taken out of the\nhands ot the people of the town or village, and, as a matter of course, they will lose some\nof their interest. This reflex influence by the school upon the people, causing the\npeople to have an interest in the school, it seems to me would be lost by State supervision, or anything outside of the village or town corporation supervision.\nW. H. Bartholomew, Principal of High School for Girls, Louisville, Ky. : I think\nthere is a danger lying along certain lines, and that danger is this, a tendency to get\n\n"}
{"page": 213, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE\n\nCOURSE\n\nOF STUDY\n\nIN SECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\n193\n\nthe power away from the people. My conception of it is, that the nearer we keep the\npower within the hands of the people, the better it will be. I am in favor of municipal\nsupervision.\nI believe in supervision, and it is not an argument against supervision to\niy that A or B or C, who is a superintendent, has crushed the individuality of the\nschool. It is an argument against a man who has administered the supervision. If\nyou mean to say you are going to stand against that kind of supervision, I say, I stand\nwith you. But supervision is a necessity ; an intelligent and wise supervision is a\nnecessity. The man that has the skill that you cannot describe, of awakening the\nenthusiasm of a body of teachers, so that he brings out the maximum of their individual\npower, is the wisest supervisor. I believe we have many of that kind of men in this\ncountry. In the city I hail from, we have municipal supervision. You cannot defeat\nthe tax for public schools in Louisville, Ky., to save your lives; if they would ask for\nseventy-five cents on the dollar (they are now giving thirty-three) the people would give\nit. Why ? Because supervision has brought them up to a state of efficiency.\nI feel we\nlust have supervision, but we must have men as supervisors who understand this\nwant.\nCharles C. Putney, Principal of St. Johnsbury Academy, Vermont : One of the\nspeakers said he spent his first years after graduating in a one-horse academy. My\nexperience was similar to his ; but for twenty years it has been my privilege to work in\na well-equipped academy. From my experience there, I have some convictions upon\nthe general subject. I am in favor of supervision to a certain extent. I do not see\nhow public schools, supported by the State, can be carried on except by supervision.\nBut these private schools, under judicious management, can carry on their work\nwithout supervision from the State. At request of the teachers in our academy, the\nboard of trustees appointed, among their number, a board of supervisors, the duty\nof which shall be to visit the school at least three times during the year, going through\nthe various departments and getting their impressions of the work, then reporting\nto the board of trustees at the close of the year. I am looking forward with a great\ndeal of interest to that kind of a supervision. But you will understand that that board\nis made up of membei's of the corporation and trustees. Every man is interested in\nhaving the school take the highest position in preparing the young men and women for\nthe duties of life, as well as for college ; and they are interested in having it maintain the very highest standard in the morale of the school. They will go into these\nrecitation rooms and watch the work with feelings of the utmost sympathy, I am sure.\n\nTHE\n\nCOURSE\n\nBY G. N. CARMAN,\n\nOF STUDY\n\nIN SECONDARY\n\nDEAN OF THE MORGAN PARK\nUNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO.\n\nSCHOOLS.\nACADEMY\n\nOF THE\n\nMr. Carman prefaced his paper essentially as follows : \" Four years ago the city of\nSt. Paul had a separate training-school. A building for a large municipal trainingschool was erected. Everything was ready for work except students. Two years ago\nthe manual-training school was incorporated with the old high-school. The parents\nwere unable to decide to which school they would send their children.\nThis is what led\nthe incorporation of the manual-training school with the high-school.\"\n\nIs there a course of study which is at the same time the best preparation for life and for college? The answer one might give depends on\nwhat is meant by course of study. If it means, as it usually does, certain studies taken in a prescribed order, the same in quantity and in time\ngiven to each, for all pupils, such a course is good for neither the fitting\nschool nor the finishing school. If course of study means everything\nthat is taught in the school, from which such studies may be selected for\n13\n\n"}
{"page": 214, "printed_page": null, "text": "194\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nthe pupil at such times and in such quantities as are best suited tohii\nas an individual, and are best calculated to fit him to succeed in what he\nsubsequently undertakes — such a course is good for the fitting school\nand good for the finishing school.\nWith reference to their attitude toward this question, secondary schools\nmay be classed, (1) as special schools, and (2) schools with special\ncourses. Boston, with its Latin high-school, English high-school, and\nmanual-training school, furnishes a good illustration of a city with special schools ; whereas most of the public high-schools, especially those of\nthe West, are schools with special courses, each course being calculated\nto fit for a special course in college, or for a special vocation.\nNeither the special schools nor the schools with special courses meet\nall of the demands of the case ; for what is wanted is a school with a\ncourse of study in which there may be found what is best suited for each\npupil, and from which selections may be made according to the changing needs and capacity of each pupil. This is the school founded on\nwhat President Eliot designates as \" the only truly democratic school\nprinciple — every grade to provide the best possible power-training for\nevery pupil at his stage of progress, no matter at what stage of progress\nhis education is to end.'\"\nThe academy or fitting school is the only special school that claims\nthat its course is good as a preparation for life and for college. We are\ntold in the announcement of one of these special fitting schools that the\nmain object at which it aims is to fit its pupils for the various occupations\nin life which they may afterward select. It claims that \" the subjects\nof study are so wide in their range as to interest all classes of minds, and\nprepare for many forms of more advanced work, but not so wide and miscel aneous asto produce distraction, superficiality, and impotence.\" The\nschool referred to offers nine years' work in foreign languages (Latin,\nGreek, and German), three years in mathematics (algebra and geometry),\none year in science (physics), one year in English, and one-half year in\nGreek and Eoman history. In this school a pupil will, on the average,\ngive one-half his time to foreign languages, one-quarter to mathematics,\nand the remaining quarter will be divided between English, science, and\nhistory. As a finishing school, this lacks completeness in range of subjects, and the time given to some subjects is out of proportion to that\ngiven to others. In order to maintain its claim of being a finishing\nas well as a fitting school, such a school must make provision for more\nwork in English, science, and history, and must add such other subjects\nas become necessary by reason of the changes that are taking place in the\ncondition of society.\nOur public high-schools, with their several special courses, have many\nof the limitations of the special schools, and by trying to carry on parallel courses of study, representing as many special schools as there are\n\n"}
{"page": 215, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE\n\nCOURSE\n\nOF STUDY\n\nIN SECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\n195\n\ncourses, with a limited teaching force and equipment, usually fail to do as\ngood work as the special school that confines itself to one set purpose.\nTheir college preparatory work is apt to be inferior to that of the academy\nthat fits for college, their scientific course inferior to the manual-training or technical high-school, and their commercial course inferior to the\nbusiness school. The pupil on entering the school faces the necessity\nof making a choice of courses, which means as much as selecting the\nkind of special school which he shall attend. The provision for several\ncourses is right in the assumption that there is a difference in what is\nsuited to pupils, but it makes the false assumption that pupils on entering the school know just what is best for them, and may be grouped\nto correspond with the previously arranged courses of study with all of\ntheir imposed limitations and restrictions. Such a school should break\ndown the artificial barriers between the several courses, and make as\nmany combinations as there are pupils, if this becomes necessary in\n\"the thorough exploration of all its pupils' capacities,\" to use another\nof President Eliot's expressive phrases.\nA school should know and acknowledge its limitations, and undertake\nto do no more than it can do, and do well. The distinctive character\nof a secondary school should depend on its equipment, the number of\nits pupils, and its location and constituency. All that can reasonably\nbe expected in the way of uniformity, all that should be attempted, is\nthat the common ground, the minimum requirement of all secondary\nschools, be made to include as much as possible, and be insisted on in\nall secondary schools. Every such school should do whatever is decided upon as a uniform minimum ; if it can do no more, let it stop there.\nA special secondary school should do the minimum, and so much more\nas is necessary for it to accomplish its set purpose. A complete secondary school should do the minimum, and in addition offer anything that\ncan be profitably undertaken by a pupil between the ages of fourteen\nand eighteen years, whatever his subsequent career may be. Thus we\nshould have three classes of secondary schools, each class doing the\nsame work, so far as the minimum is concerned, and distinctive by\nreason of the nature and quantity of the additional work offered.\nThe question of what may reasonably be required as a minimum in\nevery secondary school is a most important one for the consideration of\nthose in charge of secondary and higher education. I submit the following :Three years' work in a foreign language, preferably Latin ; two\nyears in mathematics (algebra and geometry), and one year in science,\npreferably physics ; two years in English (reading selections, and composition), and one year in general history.\nA complete secondary school should offer the following : Eleven\nyears' work in foreign languages (four in Latin, three in Greek, two in\nGerman, and two in French); three years in mathematics (algebra, geom-\n\n"}
{"page": 216, "printed_page": null, "text": "196\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\netry, and trigonometry) ; six years in science (botany, physiology, physics, chemistry, zoology, geology, and astronomy); four years in English\n(reading selections, composition, rhetoric, and literature); three years in\nhistory (general, English, United States), civil government, and political\neconomy ; four years in drawing, freehand and. mechanical ; four\nyears in shopwork in wood and metal ; two years in commercial subjects\n(bookkeeping and commercial law).\nA city with not less than one hundred thousand inhabitants may maintain a complete secondary school, and may conduct it in such a way as to\nprepare its pupils for life, for college, or for the professional school.\n\nSHOULD THE AMOUNT OF TIME GIVEN TO LANGUAGES\nIN OUR SECONDARY SCHOOLS (AS THEY ARE) BE\nDIMINISHED IN ORDER TO MAKE ROOM FOR A MORE\nEXTENDED COURSE IN PHYSICS, BOTANY, AND\nCHEMISTRY?\nBY\n\nDR.\n\nCECIL F.\n\nP.\n\nBANCROFT,\nPRINCIPAL\nANDOVER,\nMASS.\n\nOF\n\nPHILLIPS\n\nACADEMY,\n\nThis question is subsidiary to the larger question of the better definition of the field belonging to the secondary school. The tendency has\nbeen to give over to the secondary schools some subjects previously\nassigned to the higher education. The tendency to-day is to throw back\nupon the elementary schools some subjects heretofore assigned to the\nsecondary schools. The former tendency has reached its limit, and the\nreaction has set in. The latter is a growing tendency, and has to do\nwith the present discussion. Both have had one aim, and will reach one\nresult — the improvement of all our education.\nThe question as to the relative time due to languages on the one hand,\nand to natural sciences on the other, in the curriculum of the secondary\nschool, is confused by the circumstance that, as a rule, the secondary\nschool is providing for two separate groups of pupils, viz. : those who go\nup into the higher education, and those who do not. It is sometimes\nassumed, and sometimes elaborately argued, that one course of study\ncannot suit both. It is often forgotten that a compromise may be\npossible which is practically, and even theoretically, better for both than\nseparate courses would be, and that possibly the course designed expressly\nfor one group of pupils may be better for both than any attempt either at\ndivision or compromise. Once settle where the inevitable differentiation\nof studies should begin, and many questions are answered at once.\nOur particular problem is 'further confused by the circumstance that\n\n"}
{"page": 217, "printed_page": null, "text": "LANGUAGES\n\nIN OUR\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\n197\n\nthe higher education itself has been violently disrupted into two rival,\nnot to say opposing, schools, in one of which the accent is laid upon the\nphenomena and laws of the natural world, and in the other on the nature,\nthe phenomena, the history of mind. This opposition is happily passing\naway.\nBut neither in the diversity of the upper education, nor in the fact\nthat so few pupils go up from the secondary school to the university, is\nthere sufficient reason for abridging the time usually given to languages\nin the secondary schools.\nThe historic regard in which the languages have been held for immortal\ncenturies has been reinforced of late by the prevailing enthusiasm for\nmodern languages, especially for French and German, and most especially\nby the passion for our own noble but difficult tongue. There is no other\nexpression of thought so comprehensive, so subtle and precise, so universal, so euduring, as language. No other instrument answers so many\nends ; no other is so fully employed in doing the work of the world. To\nstudy language, to master language, to use language, is to acquire a\nknowledge, to attain a discipline, to practice an art more effective, more\nvital, more human than have been reached by other agencies. We cannot displace or abridge our language study without a break with tradition,\nthe sacrifice of experience to experiment, and the surrender of the true\nphilosophy of education.\nRoom has been made for the sciences by a surrender of time, and the\nlanguages have recovered the lost ground by an improved method. The\ndemand of the sciences accomplished two things : it won its own cause,\nand it stimulated the teaching in all other subjects. It has been found\npossible to do in less time an equal amount of good work. Science teaching, and the spirit of the times which demanded time and recognition\nfor the sciences in the secondary school programme, have made the\nlanguage teaching more rational, intense, and progressive. The laboratory has not excluded the lexicon ; on the other hand, the grammar and\nthe lexicon have demanded for themselves a laboratory, and the languages\nhave taken on methods as exact and scientific as botany, physics, and\nchemistry. It is now incumbent upon the sciences to make the most of\nthe time already conceded, and to make a gain by an improved method\nequal to that which the languages have made. Language teaching is\ngreatly indebted to the sciences for the scientific method, and it would be\neasy to show that the sciences, in turn, are greatly indebted to the\nlanguages, and to the methods of the language teachers. Opposition,\naccordingly, is developing itself into alliance. The classicists do not wish\nto deprive the scientists, nor do the sciences clamor for the whole field.\nImprovements in the teaching of certain sciences have been almost revolutionary. Itis possible to get still larger results without an increase of\nhours.\nA new adjustment will be required by and by, no doubt ; but it\n\n"}
{"page": 218, "printed_page": null, "text": "198\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nis not impossible that it will be not at the expense of hours now given to\nlanguages.\nThe sciences are likely to find, as has been already hinted, additional\nroom for themselves in the programme of the elementary school. The\nlanguage work there has been diversified by the study of other languages\nthan our own. The child mind has proved itself quick and capable also\nin apprehending the facts and using the methods of observation and\nexperiment. It is plain that the child mind develops with more strength\nand symmetry when it has a well-ordered variety of occupation. The\nnext victories of science teaching are to be sought and found in the\nelementary schools.\nThe sciences must be content with the time they now have in the secondary schools, on account of the large opportunity which they have when\nschool days are over. Certain studies must be pursued in school, or not\nat all. Certain other studies are forced upon us by the exigencies of our\noccupations. The classics, and the related subjects which are denominated classical, are seldom acquired except in schools and under the\ninstruction of a teacher. The sciences, on the other hand, are more\neasily and more frequently acquired without a master, under the invitation or the compulsion of favoring circumstance. Science studies, in our\nmaterial and practical age, have a great advantage over culture studies in\nthis respect : Commerce and the arts are fostering the scientific studies.\nThey are helping forward the culture studies also, but by no means so\ndirectly. It is the duty of the schools to give the larger place to those\nstudies which are almost sure to find no room in the wider world — especially those studies which lie at the basis of the best successes of the\nsciences themselves. The school is not, first of all, a workshop or a laboratory, but the center of intellectual life. Its business is to train the mind\nby every means, but chiefly by the orderly appropriation of useful knowledge, for a wide range of possibilities, for the immediate duties of citizenship, for the sharp competitions of business and society, for personal\nhappiness and self-realization ; but, above all and including all, for the\nfull and free exercise of every moral and intellectual power. In arranging\na school programme, as between the sciences and the literary studies, it is\nnecessary to keep in view the largeness of life, and the worth of man apart\nfrom all he does and all the influence he exerts. It is hard to find any\none versed in the new education who would at present displace an hour\nnow devoted to the sciences ; and it is, I think, harder than ten years ago\nto find an advocate of the sciences, who is also versed in the science, the history, and the art of education, who would withdraw from the secondary\nschools an hour of the time devoted to the languages. Time given at the\noutset grudgingly is now accorded willingly, and the disparagement of the\nold education has given place to a grateful recognition of its coordinate\nvalue in the training of the coming generation.\n\n"}
{"page": 219, "printed_page": null, "text": "LANGUAGE\n\nSTUDIES\n\nIN SECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\n199\n\nSHOULD\n\nLANGUAGE STUDIES BE LIMITED IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS AS THEY ARE IN THE INTERESTS\nOF THE SCIENCES?\n\nBY\n\nDR.\n\nD.\n\nW.\n\nABERCROMBIE,\n\nOF WORCESTER\nMASS.\n\nACADEMY,\n\nWORCESTER,\n\nGreat as has been the change in the courses of study of college preparatory schools in the last quarter of a century, all students of education\nwould agree that the changes noted during this period are merely prophetic of a greater development that is at hand — an impulse beginning in\nthe university, and working down through the lower strata of educational\ninstitutions. Such great awakenings are always from above, and when,\nmore than twenty-five years ago, Harvard University promulgated its\nscheme of elective studies, a current of influence was started that was\ndestined to revolutionize the conditions of education, not only in that\nancient seat of learning, but in all other colleges and universities, and also\nin the secondary schools that feed the higher institutions. This most\nimportant incident in the history of higher education in this country discovered to the college one of its chief functions, and assured it of one of\nits highest prerogatives. To outline and develop courses of study, to\nexercise leadership and do pioneer service in educational movements, is one\nof the principal avenues whereby the college is to make returns to the\ncommunity at large for its great endowments and opportunities. To\nexperiment, to prove, and then disseminate sound educational doctrine is\na far higher work for a great educational institution than merely to send\nforth each year a number of men who have completed its curriculum. So\ndoes it prove its wise stewardship of the large bounties it holds in trust.\nIn this way is its duty to the nation honorably met and its essential relation with lower institutions acknowledged. The high censorship in educational matters, so necessary among a people where there is so little coherent\npower that commits institutions of similar and different grades to the same\nwise policy, belongs to the university.\nWhile the different members of our educational body have been far from\nideal in their mutual relations, still there has been a sufficiently distinct\narticulation of the various parts to insure a marked response from all\nwhen the call came from Harvard summoning to a scheme of study that\nwas wisely progressive and safely liberal, and that sought to harmonize\neducational methods to the actual needs and practical life of this great\ncountry, to the end that the college graduate might not become un-American as a result of his college training, but that he might become a better\ncitizen, a wiser guide in the solution of the great problems that are to be\npresented to us. The great propaganda, then, that was boldly put forth\n\n"}
{"page": 220, "printed_page": null, "text": "200\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nby Harvard a generation ago not only ushered in the dawn of the new education in this country, but it definitely gave the leadership in education to\nthe university and college, and forced secondary schools to follow in a\nlarge way the course marked out by the higher institutions. While the\nsecondary school that has individuality — and to be excellent its personality\nmust be vivid — will always have a curriculum that will mark its identity,\nstill, from its very terminology and from its place in the scheme of education it is ever a preparatory school, following in a large degree the lines\nmarked out by the higher institutions. To be preparatory it must do\nmuch of its work with full reference to that more advanced life of the\nscholar into which it seeks to introduce its pupils in the college and\nuniversity. In other terms, the work of the college and university inevitably determines very largely the character of the work in the secondary\nschool. With the intimate relation between the higher and lower institution thus established, we draw near the statement of the first reason that\ncompels a readjustment of the studies in preparatory schools.\nWhen the writer passed the entrance examinations to Harvard University twenty-one years ago there was one prescribed way of admission, and\nonly one. His preparation was gained in the Cambridge Latin School,\nconfessedly as good a school as sent boys to Harvard at that time. The\nrequirements were as follows : The merest smattering of physical geography,\ngathered from verbatim recitations from a little manual, the time for which\nwas stolen from the first or last ten minutes of a three-quarter-hour recitation in Latin, Greek, or mathematics. This was the full extent of a boy's\ntraining in the sciences required for admission to Harvard twenty years\nago. To complete the course there were four years' study of Latin, three\nof Greek, a year's work in the classical history of Greece and Eome,\narithmetic through mensuration, algebra through quadratics, and plane\ngeometry. No French, no German, no English, no science ; for the requirement in physical geography, already referred to, cannot be mentioned seriously except to emphasize with a keen sarcasm the complete absence of\nall scientific training. This preparation admitted a boy to a college where\nthe elective system was already sufficiently in operation to dominate all of\nthe work of senior and junior years, and all but four hours a week of\nsophomore year, with the exception of three or four themes and forensics\na year.\nCould the Cambridge High-School, which may be fairly regarded a type\nof the schools of its class, be reasonably called a preparatory school to\nHarvard University, in view of the meagre preparation it gave a boy to\nmake a wise choice and selection of the rich volume of elective studies\ninvitingly spread before him on the university schedule ?\nBut it is to preparatory schools as they now are that our argument in\nbehalf of an extension of science studies and a limiting of language\nstudies is to be directed.\nIt will be found, however, that this same dis-\n\n"}
{"page": 221, "printed_page": null, "text": "LANGUAGE\n\nSTUDIES\n\nIN SECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\n201\n\nparity between preparation for scientific studies and the extensive field\nopened up to students on entering college, a disparity that amounts not\nto what is humorously called a \"college fit,\" but to a most distinct misfit\n— this disparity, I say, that existed twenty years ago, has not yet been\nremoved ; for while it is true that schools that pretend to give a boy a\nthorough preparation for college, a preparation that enables him to do the\nhigher work with ease and profit — while such schools have undoubtedly\nmade large additions to their courses of study in. the sciences, still the\ncolleges and universities have vastly developed the area covered by them\nin these subjects. So that in reality the gap between the amount of\nscience done in secondary schools and colleges to-day is as great as that\nwhich existed twenty years ago.\nThe point urged is this, that in view of the extension of the elective\nsystem in the higher institutions, and the remarkable development that\nhas been made and must continue in nature studies, the secondary school\ncannot be regarded a preparatory school unless it fits its pupils to enjoy\nthe large privileges offered to them in the sciences by the elective system\nas it now holds in college and university.\nPreparation for the elective system, then, makes necessary a considerable development of scientific rather than language study in the secondary school. Language studies, the humanities, never to be discarded or\nignored, have long held preeminent position in the curriculum of the\nschools. The enormous stimulus that all departments of knowledge have\nreceived in this century has been felt most sensibly in the sciences, not\nonly vastly extending the range of human knowledge, but revolutionizing\nmethods of study in all departments.\nThe elective system, while greatly enlarging the lines along which\nmen may push study and investigation, points for any one student in the\ndirection of specialization. Specialization means centralization, the focusing and massing of the powers of the mind to the prosecution of mental\nwork for which a man has special aptitude. It means to \"note well\nwherein kind nature meant us to excel,\" and when we have caught the\nplain hint from nature, to call into operation all resources to develop\nthis taste and follow this bent. It is the logical expansion, under the\ngreat increase of knowledge in these last days, of the wise dictum of\nAscham : \" Small area well cultivated.\"\nAgain, a wisely ordered scheme of study will inevitably apply a divining rod to the untouched and unsuspected mental resources of a pupil,\nbecause it will be inclusive, and from its very breadth will lie tangent to a\ngreater variety of types of mind.\nThis is not the folly of saying that any one course of study will create\nbrains where none exist, or touch gross stupidity and warm it into mental\nlife and activity. But it is the experience of every teacher that many\na pupil's mind has lain barren and unproductive, though the virgin soil\n\n"}
{"page": 222, "printed_page": null, "text": "202\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nwas far from sterile, because the seed has not been sown to which the\nconstitution of his mind was congenial. The elective system gives the boy\nthe needed opportunity to meet the true nature of the student's mind, to\ntouch its dormant powers, to awaken its sleeping life. To put the mind\nin motion is the teacher's first duty ; and is it not his highest art ? How\ninadequate has been the stereotyped curriculum of the past ! A just sentence lies against it for its procrustean rigidity and formal inflexibility.\nAmple, possibly, to furnish a man for the duties of the restricted and\nundiversified life of the days of monasticism and the cloister, but wofully\ndeficient to equip him for these days of enormous energies.\nThe unwisdom of the adjustment between secondary schools, and the\nhigher institutions has been among the marked defects in our educational\nsystem. This ill-adjustment has been apparent nowhere so much as in\nthe constant expansion of the elective system in the colleges, and the\nrigid holding to the old schemes of the secondary schools.\nThe lack of coherence between the two kinds of institutions has been\nglaringly apparent. Latin and Greek have barred the way to a larger\nand wiser educational career, to a degree harmful to different types of\nmind, and to an extent not required for the retention and cultivation of\nthese languages in school or in college. I instance these two languages\nbecause they have historically coerced other lines of study. No indictment can rest against French or German, and much less against our own\nmother tongue, for any such usurpation of the time due the prosecution\nof other subjects.\nI am among those lovers and teachers of the Greek language who feel\nthat its place in any scheme of study that would lead to a liberal and\nelegant education rests on far more substantial foundations than mere\ntradition and prescription, and that it will continue for intrinsic reasons\nof the greatest value to educate and train the mind of man as long as\nstudies are a delight and an honor.\nThat a pupil, then, may be ready to make choice of the liberal provisions\n, of an elective system, he should be given a wider range for sympathy, taste,\nand aptitude in the preparatory years of his school life. This amounts\nto saying, in other words, because of the traditional curriculum of the\nsecondary schools, that more room must be made for natural science.\nTo bring this about there must be a pruning of the time devoted to language studies. This adaptation of the course of studies in the secondary\nschool to the elective system has been seen to be attended by an advantage\nof very great value — the earlier opening up of a wider range of sympathy,\ntaste, and aptitude to the young student, that a teacher may not always be\n\"punishing nature in a scholar,\" as quaint Thomas Fuller phrases it,\nbut that the pupil may have a better chance to discover what tastes are\nnatural to his mind, and what acquired, through the larger variety of\nsubjects presented to him.\n\n"}
{"page": 223, "printed_page": null, "text": "LANGUAGE\n\nSTUDIES\n\nIN SECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\n203\n\nThere is a third reason of great value why a larger study of the sciences\nshould find its place in secondary schools at the expense of language\nstudies.\nThis reason is of special pedagogical interest.\nThe curse of much of the effort in education, whether in secondary\nschool or in college, has been in the past, and still is, that subjects have\nbeen so largely taught as mere matter of information. There can be no\ndoubt that it is well to be informed on as many subjects as possible, but\nit is a truism in pedagogics that information is not training and power.\nPossibly the reason for this serious fault in educational methods is very\nlargely found in the unpractical and theoretical character of the body of\nthe subjects that have filled up the schemes of study so generally in the\npast.\nThe recovery from this fault lies in the prosecution of nature studies.\nThey at once present facts of a different order ; phenomena appear ; we\nsee, handle, observe, infer, coordinate, classify, establish laws, generalize.\nImmediately we find how silly and inadequate would be any attempt to\nteach science and explore nature merely to see a fact. Facts present\nthemselves ; we note them, and do well to remember them, but in the use\nwe make of these facts lies great mental training. Attention, comparison,\njudgment are stimulated. The highest operations of the mind are called\ninto play, and we find the chief value of facts thus gleaned to be, to our\nminds and to those of our pupils, their disciplinary value and not their\nworth as isolated, disconnected facts. Education is training, discipline.\nAll that trains and disciplines educates. The great value of scientific\nstudy is that it induces and compels the alert and quickened sense. Perception isvivid. Language studies may be, can be — nay, more, should be —\ntaught as disciplinary subjects, but they are not so susceptible of this as\nscience studies are.\nSo fully are we of the Worcester Academy convinced of the great\nimportance of this fact, that we require a full year's work in laboratory\nphysics of every pupil who would finish our course, whether going to college or not, or to whatever college going. When fathers write us, asking\nwhether we \" coach \" for this college or that, remarking that physics is\nnot required for the college he wishes his son to enter, our uniform reply\nis that we \"coach \" for no college, and that as far as physics is concerned\nwe are a law unto ourselves. But we discover power in many a boy where\nit had not been suspected, and equally we find limitations of mind where\nLatin and Greek had not revealed them. There should be, then, an enlargement of the sciences as subjects that invite to disciplinary studies rather\nthan to studies of mere information. Then what may have been difficult\nmental processes become easy and familiar ; \" lines of least resistance \"\nare established ; careful observation, logical deductions, and accurate generalization become the habit of the mind by training. The power to\nobserve carefully, to collect facts, make comparison, and infer general laws\n\n"}
{"page": 224, "printed_page": null, "text": "204\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nis the highest work of the educated mind. President Hall, of Clark University, once humorously spoke of the career of the ordinary college undergraduate as a \" four years' exposure to the contagion of a liberal education.\"\nThere has been a large basis of fact for this witty satire. Much of the\noccasion for it is due to the character of the studies that have so imperiously controlled the college and school curriculum in the past, and to the\nunwise methods of instruction that have prevailed, by which so many subjects have been taught as information rather than disciplinary subjects.\nThe classics have exercised, leadership among the other studies of the\nschools, but this primacy is hereafter to be shared with other groups of\nsubjects.\nThere is a still further reason to be found in the very nature of the\nvarious sciences which should lead to the enlargement of their place in\nthe schools.\nWhile it is broadly true that the training to which reference has been\nmade should be sought very largely for itself, still there are other reasons\nthat suggest and command training in the sciences, that lie outside of the\nresulting mental discipline, and. relate to the use to which specialized\nstudy is to be put when the days of student life in school and college are\nover.\nElection and specialization in college should be determined not only by\nthe use to which the student may put his knowledge, in case he himself\nmay in turn become an instructor in his chosen department, but also by\nthe use which the student may make of his training in the commercial\nworld. Trade, commerce, manufactures, inventions are more and. more\nto require the specialized training of the schools. Schools of technology\nand the scientific schools of the great universities mean this, and mean\nthis alone ; and the secondary school should be in the line of promoting\nthis application of a wise and thorough study of physical laws and forces\nto the improvement of the conditions of human life.\nIn conclusion, the time needed for an expansion of the study of the\nsciences must come from the languages ; mathematics cannot supply it,\nfor mathematics have received only moderate development in the secondary schools during the past twenty years. Solid geometry is taught in\nsome schools, as is plane trigonometry, but in only a few relatively. The\ntime devoted to them cannot be curtailed, for instruction in the sciences,\nphysics notably, requires all the mathematics a boy can get outside of\ncollege, as studies are now arranged.\nThe languages must supply the needed time, and science study should\nbe developed.\n\n"}
{"page": 225, "printed_page": null, "text": "DISCUSSION.\n\n205\n\nDISCUSSION.\nMr. W. T. Poyxter, of Shelbyville, Ky. : I have another objection to the paper,\neside its tendency to add another burden to the preparatory school, already overburiened, and incompetent to do its work thoroughly.\nNow we are told, in order to\nsrepare for that wonderful elective system, that modern fad, we ought to take on a\nfhole lot of sciences in the preparatory school.\nGentlemen, it cannot be done.\nThat\nall there is about it. Down in my State I am known as rather progressive in reliion. but I am an old fogy in education.\nWhen you talk to me about your new eduition, I don't see it, and I don't believe it is there.\nI believe in this: The public\n3hools lay the foundation of education: the preparatory schools take up that work and\nit the pupils for college, with Greek, Latin, and mathematics.\nThe colleges take the\npupil and fit him for something higher ; and when he gets through with the college, they\nlet him go to the university, where he can make an election.\nBut the tendency to-day,\nfind out the affinities of the child of thirteen or fourteen years, and find out what\nlat child is going to be fitted for, is, and must be forever, a failure.\nEvery practical\nicher knows that a pupil coming into a school will pick out the easiest course of\ntudy, in the age in which he comes.\nDid you ever see a pupil who came into a school\nThere there were two or three courses of study, if left entirely to his own desires and\nlclinations, who would not take the easiest ? I have had hundreds of instances in my\n3hool, where girls have cried for a week because I forced them to go into Latin. And\nfterwards they thanked me that I forced them to take that study.\nDown in my\nauntry, a few years ago, it was an almost unknown thing for a girl to study Latin.\n7e have heard every year, — what good geometry is going to do a girl. And the idea\nof a girl studying Greek was not heard of. What we need in the primary and preparatory schools is fewer studies and more deference to those studies.\n1 have heard more\njut science since I came into this room than I have heard for years.\nDr. Moses Merrill, Head Master of the Public Latin School of Boston : It is very\nbrtunate for the last gentleman that he was not speaking in New England, or he would\n,ve been called a heretic. But he does not care for that. I agree with him, although\nam from New England. I was quite comforted by the way in which this question\nas arranged, as to whether the amount of time given to languages in our secondary\nschools (as they are) should be diminished in order to make room for a more extended\ncourse in physics, botany, and chemistry. I don't think we have ever had the question put in that form before; it is a good sign. Heretofore it has been, Ought not\nthese studies to be added to the course in the secondary school? I think the last gentleman is completely right. We cannot add; we must restrict. It seems to me, also,\nwe must settle in our own minds what the degree of A.B. is to stand for. It\nhas beep, until within a few years, supposed that it ought to stand for nothing but\nthe linguistic preparation for college, with a continuance of the classical studies in the\ncollege. And that was true, especially with the Eastern section of this country. That is\nnot the sentiment now. Therefore, what must be the preparation for college? It\nmust be divided. The school or parent must settle early in life the course of study the\nchild shall pursue to get a liberal education. I am very glad that things are getting\nualized The boys in New England are dropping Latin and Greek, and the girls of\ne Mississippi Valley are taking them up. So we shall have more equality as time\ngoes on. I believe thoroughly in the discipline that comes in the study of the languages. am\nI\nas much of an old fogy as the last speaker. I think I would have the\ngirls and boys begin their classical studies at eight or ten, and be prepared for entering college at sixteen or seventeen, and know something about languages, and not try\nto know only very little or nothing about a great many things.\nI think I would have a prescribed course continuing in a large measure in the\nearliest part of the college course. Still all these other subjects are very important,\nand perhaps, when it comes to practical life, the most important. The number of those\nis comparatively very small who, on entering into life, take up their vocations on the\npreparation in colleges and secondary schools that comes from a study of the classics.\nTherefore there must be a division. Secondary schools must be founded and carried\non on the plan of preparing children for college outside of the linguistic course. I\nhave in New England, I think, obtained evidence that the study of the classical languages, so called, is a very great advantage to boys and girls who are going to pursue\na scientific course.\nIt is certainly true in the institutes of technology.\nWe have\n\n"}
{"page": 226, "printed_page": null, "text": "206\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nobtained evidence that boys who enter the institute with a good knowledge of Latin are\nvery much better prepared for the work than those who have none or very little knowledge of Latin. The study of Latin must continue to be an important factor for the\npreparation of any school above the secondary school.\nIt seems to me we have got to change our reasoning in regard to this whole matter,\nand come back to the principle which I first laid down ; that is, that we must determine\nearly in life what the child shall do, as far as we can. And I think we are committing\nanother mistake in the present day in not insisting that the children shall do some work\nthat they do not exactly like. That when we start them in a course of study we are not\nto judge at once that they may not make good scholars or do good work because they do\nnot happen to like this study or that. I think one of the best things I ever heard is.\n\" Why, if you don't like that study, that is the very reason why you should take it\nand pursue it.\" I don't mean that that should be carried to the extreme: but this present idea that we have, that every child shall only do the work for which he has an\naptitude and liking, is a mistake in our system of education. I firmly believe that\nfor the first sixteen or seventeen years in the life of the child, the study of the child,\nthe instruction\nof the\nchild, should\nbe very\ndisciplinary.\nI don't\nwe can\npbssiby\nconfine\nthe work\nin secondary\nschools\nsimply\nto preparing\nfor think\ncollege.\nThat\nidea\nmakes the question very much broader, and I will not go into that, because it would\ntake too long to indicate the distinction between these schools.\nMr. Boltwood, of Evanston, 111. : I have yet to know of a high-school that was not\nalways thrusting its lack of scholarship on the grammar school. And I have yet to\nknow of a college that did not excuse its work because of the manner in which the preparatory or secondary school did its work. It means this : We are impatient for certain\nresults. We want to turn out good average scholarships for work. We want, as has\nbeen said, to work on the lines of the least resistance, and the teachers are just as lazy\nas the pupils.\nWhy give Latin and Greek so great a prominence in the educational course ? Partly\nfrom their value — and I would not underrate their value — and partly because with these\nthe teacher feels his foot is on a rock, away ahead of the pupil. And there is another reason. The apparatus of instruction is so simple. All it costs is to put into the\nhands of a child a grammar and a reader costing two dollars and twenty-five cents. If\nthey are going to teach physics, they will need to have a good laboratory. Now, do you\nknow, there is very little outcome from the study of physics and the sciences, largely for\nthe want of time. We don't carry it far enough to produce educational value.. When\nwe take up sciences, we give physics one year, and we give Latin four years. And when\nthe pupils pass into the colleges they are compared in the same way; that is, one year\nfor physics, with Latin four years.\nIn other words, we are not working to an end.\nThe. elective system has come into our colleges to stay. The question as to the time\nwhen the student shall elect is a very important one. Our friend from Boston says they\nmight begin at nine or ten years. A great part of our primary education in the preparatory school is necessary that the teacher may find out what the child is fit for. I\nbelieve that pupils should take languages that they don't like. When the election is\nmade at the end of the second year, 1 believe they make mistakes. In other wonl^.\nthere must be in all our preparatory work a certain foundation of general culture.\nNow, in the preparatory school, suppose you take Latin four years, and take Greek\ntwo or three years; it leaves two years for mathematics. That must be, of course, somewhat elective. 1 think it would be better to carry one longer. I notice in the German\nschools they very frequently carry a subject for six years, with only two recitations\na week. For example, French is carried five years. That same subject is taken up\nwith two subjects a week and carried six years. As it is in some of our schools the subject is taken up early in the course, then dropped out entirely and forgotten when the\npupil enters college.\nWe talk a great deal about what pupils can do. I believe that requiring a pupil to\ncarry three studies, and three only, is a mistake. I believe the average pupil can carry\nfour, if they are judiciously taught. Our pupils are not overworked. The trouble\nis that there are so many outside influences which cut into the time, that the mind is\nnot on the work as it ought to be. I notice in most schools whose courses I have examined, that three studies are considered proper. In my own I have three and a half. I\nhave a good deal of alternate work with drawing and English, so that the pupils carry\nfour daily exercises.\nNow take physics. Except early manipulation, which is like manual training, t he\nmaturity of the mind required to do much in physics is not to be found. I have been\ncompelled ,to put physics later in the course in the second year.\n1 found the pupils,\n\n"}
{"page": 227, "printed_page": null, "text": "207\nDISCUSSION.\nearly in the second year, were not mature enough to do what was expected of them.\nI have put it later, that they may have algebra and chemistry.\nI believe time can be found in the school for more work. I do not know whether it\nis to be at the expense of Latin or Greek. I am not prepared to say that I have very\npositive convictions, but I do say that, by the present standard of the Chicago University, we cannot spare one single lesson out of the year and do it as thoroughly as they\nexpect it to be done. We must do it by educating the public to the idea that the pupil's\ntime should be more thoroughly given to his work, and finding some place for four\ninstead of three recitations. And if anything is to be let go, it is that which will not be\nrequired for an admission to college.\nIn my own preparation for college I had one term in physics. That is more than\nmany of my class had. I had one term of instruction in physics, with the advantage of\nattending a good course of lectures in college. I found it valuable to me. We cannot\nin many of our colleges spare the time for Latin and Greek.\nThere is more demand for Greek in this region than there was three or four years\nago. The Chicago schools threw out Greek, but they put it back again. In my own\nschool many more now take Greek than a few months ago. The requirements of the\ncolleges are rising constantly. I don't object to that if they balance it up, and if they\ndon't insist very strongly on more English, and then only allow credit for one year. I\nthink the remedy is that the work must be done by carrying more subjects and distributing them over a longer length of time, so that the mind shall become more active\non the subject.\nThe Chairman: If Dr. Bancroft, of Andover, were here, I think he would follow his\npaper, in view of the discussion, with a single remark. He states distinctly that in his\nexperience it has been found that better methods have enabled the teacher to cover the\nrequired ground in less time. I recall a quarter of a century ago, when I was at\nPhillips Academy, they had no sciences and no drawing. That same academy is fitting boys in the maximum requirements for the Harvard University on the new scheme,\nand they do more work, and still find time for physics and chemistry and drawing.\nIt is very important that emphasis should be placed on the matter that Dr. Bancroft has\nso profitably presented, and a phase of the matter which has not been referred to by any\nperson who has spoken. Let us emphasize the truths of the princely men who have been\nteaching the classes and have laid tribute on the best things in teaching ; who do their\nwork better and in less time than those (thanks to the teachers of the sciences) who have\nput us on our mettle. Let us not, because these people are pressing for certain things,\nleel that we are necessarily compelled to surrender everything.\nDr. Harris has an idea which, if you will pardon me, I will throw out in connection\nwith this discussion. Speaking of the bifurcation that may be made in the courses of\nstudy, Dr. Harris insists that it should take place at the latest possible hour, because\nevery mortal human soul may be regarded as possessing many windows, and it is the\nbusiness of the school to open as many of these windows as possible ; and when you\nshut a boy off at nine or ten you have probably shut eternally a great many windows out\nof which that soul would like to look.\nW. H. Snyder, of the Worcester Academy, Worcester, Mass. : In our school two\nyears ago we decided that physics should be taught in the classical part of the school.\nWe decided that it was a study that ought to be taught regularly, and it was ingrafted\n■upon the junior year, already somewhat crowded, as an extra study. It was placed in\nthree afternoons of the week. During this time there was to be done the maximum\namount of work required for Harvard College, which consisted of forty experiments and\na great deal of text-book work. It consisted of a great deal of mathematical work to\npass examination. This was placed on the junior year, nothing being taken off. At\nfirst the boys considered that they were overworked. They worked very hard, and had\nto. At the end of the year they concluded that they were not overworked, and they\nwere glad that they had taken physics, because that opened for them entrance into any\ncollege in the United States. The next year we did the same thing, putting extra requirements ofEnglish on the boys. To make up for this, during the last part of one\nterm we dropped out one recitation in Latin, and one recitation in Greek for the first\npart of another terra. At the end of the school year the boys in the course, who at first\nvehemently protested against the scheme, came to me and thanked me, saying they had\nenjoyed it and were not overworked.\nNow, as to the use of scientific studies in our secondary schools. Our language studies\nhave been very much increased in the last ten years. To-day our best schools will take\nup as much Latin and Greek as»the colleges took up ten years ago.\nWe take Caesar and\n\n"}
{"page": 228, "printed_page": null, "text": "208\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nthe five orations of Cicero, and Virgil. We take part of his Bucolics, and we take\nSolon. We take up in our first year the Iliad. It is read in the secondary schools now,\nwhere it wasn't read in the colleges ten years ago. Now, if there is asked a little\nretrenchment, it should come from the time which does not belong to the classical\nwork. Principal Bancroft, in his paper, said that scientific work could be picked up\nafterward. Any teacher of science that has done anything in the sciences knows\nthat this is a fallacy. A man may take up a smattering of the sciences, so that he may\ngo out and expatiate on the beauties of nature ; but he will never get any accurate\nscientific knowledge himself unless he is an exceedingly scientific man. It is not the\nscience we are trying to ingraft in the present schools, but it is simply the old textbooks that somebody has discovered for you already.\nThere is no doubt but the elective system in our colleges lias come to stay. It is\nbeing placed in all our colleges ; while a few years ago it was only in the larger colleges,\ntc-day it is in the smaller colleges as well. Now take a boy from the secondary school\nwho goes to college without ever having known anything about the sciences. lie has\nno idea whether he has any capabilities for them or not. He knows he has passed the\nrequirements in Greek and mathematics and Latin, and there he will continue, thinking\nhe can carry them on, or else he will branch out for science, not knowing why he wants\nit. VVe call our school a preparatory school; yet we don't give them any preparation\nat all to judge of what they are best capable of doing. If young men are going to\nhigher institutions, and choose those things in the institutions which will be the host\nadapted for them, they must have some preparation before.\nI had an experience along this very line, and you will pardon me for this personal\nreference, because it applies to this point. A young man came to me who had graduated\nfrom a classical department, standing very high ; who had taken both chemistry and\nphysics. He was placed in the chemical laboratory, and given something to examine.\ntie got along while the experiments were described, but when he was put on qualitative\nwork he totally failed. For the first six or eight years he did hardly anything. It\nwasn't a memory subject ; it was simply a subject he must absolutely observe. He\ncould not do it. Suppose that boy had gone into college; he would have taken a high\nrank along one line, and an exceedingly low rank along another. Now, wasn't it far\nbetter that he should know what he would want, than to waste the time in his college\ncourse ? We must prepare for those things we are going to choose just before we go\ninto college.\nOur time is wasting. Our boys enter college late enough ; they graduate late enough ;\nthey enter life late enough ; if they are to choose rightly before they enter college they\nmust know something before they enter college. It is not going to be a complete waste\nof time if physics and languages are taught right. For instance, take English, a subject that is usually much talked of ; and we ought to know something about our own\nlanguage. I contend that English can be better taken in a course of experimental\nphysics than in any other way. The boy says, I have nothing to talk about; therefore\n1 cannot write. In a course of chemistry and physics the boy describes the experiment\nin his note-book ; and if he has done that he has written a composition, and he has told\nsomething he knows about, and expressed it rightly. He has not been verbose about it,\nand he has got some fine training in English. He is taught to observe ; he is taught\nto note ; he is taught to reason ; what more will he bo taught by other subjects ? We\nshall not lose much even if we take time for this from Latin and Greek. It cannot be\ntaken from mathematics. A boy must have mathematics in order to take up these\nsciences. It is utterly impossible for him to do the work of algebra and geometry without\nthem. This little time we add in can be given to us by slightly shortening these courses,\neven if it cannot be ingrafted.\nB. E. Cutler, of the Northwest Division High School, Chicago: Mr. President and\nFellow- Teachers — There has been one aspect of this subject that I was very anxious\nto see brought before this assembly : and, as the discussion seems to be passing without its being presented, I feel called upon to say a word. We have in most of our\nhigh-schools two courses — that is, in the larger high-schools. VVe have the college\npreparatory course, and the general course. Those high-schools that are n6t large\nenough to have the two courses usually have the general course, and dispense with the\npreparatory course. I want to say a word for the general course. It is an experience\nthat comes to me every year of my life, having charge of the fourth high-school of this\ncity. The students come to me for advice in regard to what they shall do without going\nto college after they have finished the high -school. Now, theorize as we may, the fact\nis before us that the ordinary student, before he enters the high-school, has not any\nidea whether he is going to college or not ; and usually it is the student who decides\n\n"}
{"page": 229, "printed_page": null, "text": "DISCUSSION.\n\n209\n\nthis question and not the parent. I grant that there may be exceptions to this, in some\nof the Eastern cities, where the parent plans for his boy from the time the boy is four or\nIve years old. I grant there may be exceptions to this where the parent is himself a\nallege man. The great majority are those who do not know whether they are going to\nlave a college education or are going to finish in the high-school.\nAnd this being the\nse, nine times out of ten they will take the general course.\nThe question comes to most students, Shall I go out into life with the preparation I am\ngetting in the high-school, or shall I go to the university, or to the college alone ? This\njuestion comes also : How will my high-school preparation fit me for another college ?\n^nd then, for the first time, the student is brought face to face with the fact that he\nis only one language, and the college requires two. And usually not less than three\n(rears in each of the two languages. The college requires German and Latin, or French\nmd Latin, or Greek and Latin ; and the student perhaps has had four years in German,\nor has had four years in Latin and has no Greek, or has only one language. Now,\ninder those circumstances, he has had his preparation of four years on one science or\nlother. And he has had his four years divided between mathematics and English,\nind such studies as algebra, chemistry, history, literature, and so forth. Under these\ncircumstances, if it is true, and I believe it is, that science is a culture study ; if it is\nrue that general history is a culture study, that the study of English authors is a\nculture study ; that it trains the mind and prepares one for the higher regions of\nthought and learning, why cannot the college accept the students as we make them in\n\"le\nschool\ninstead\nof sticking\nto the old-fashioned\nthat no\none\nlallfour-year\nenter their\ndoorscourse,\nwho does\nnot have\ntwo languages\n? It seems to idea\nme there\nshould\nup a cry to the colleges that they should have at least one of their courses in which\nthey would accept our ordinary high-school student.\nNow, I recall to mind two students who, during the last year, were freshmen in\nsloit College. They were good students. They said: \" Let us go, and try to make up\nehat is lacking.\" They were permitted to do so. They made up what was lacking,\n»nd they passed to the sophomore class in Beloit College. But you say that is a Western\ncollege. True. Probably that might not be done somewhere else. It is only remarkible students who can undertake to make up the language when the colleges require two\nmguages. This question is under discussion among the college faculties themselves,\nour own University of Chicago the question is a burning question there.\nI had\nconversation with one of the professors of the University of Chicago, presenting\nrery much the same thoughts I have presented to you. He said to me : \" Will you go\npith me to President Harper, iu order that we may present this same idea to him ? \"\nLnd I found from that conversation that they were considering this question. I don't\nrant them to merely consider the question. I want them to yield to this demand; and\nney certainly will be more apt to yield to this demand if that cry comes up from us.\ndon't want to say there shall not be any Latin ; I don't want to say there shall not be\niy Greek.\nI say, let them give our students a choice in some of those courses.\nThe Chairman : We have still some time left for the discussion for this thesis.\nMr. Boltwood : The Chicago University has made one move in the direction just\nidicated by Mr. Cutler. That is, they have in their last requirement thirteen credits,\nind the pupil who can make up his thirteen may have a very wide range. He is\nequired to make up his thirteen credits in that way, and that has added to the possibility of the pupil passing to the university from the high-school. The weak point is, that\nthey allow but one year's credit for English, no matter how thorough the course has\nbeen ; and it is one year to general history, when ancient history has the credit for\nhalf a year. There is some objection to this schedule. Their plan is, whatever the\npupil lacks of these requirements he should take up in college. The candidate has the\noption of the subject: he can make up anything that is on the list. I think the list\ntakes eighteen, or even more than twenty; but the list does not cover most of the\nlanguages taught in the high-school, so the pupil could make his thirteen credits. I\nunderstand that is substantially the plan adopted by the Stanford University.\nDr. Edward Osterburg, of Sweden : Ladies and Gentlemen — I rise with some hesitancy, because I am not sure that I shall be able to explain to you what I mean in a\ntongue that is not my own. It has been very interesting to listen to the discussions here,\nbut at the same time I cannot deny that it has been somewhat disappointing. When I\ncame from the other side, from the old country, and came here, I wanted to hear more\nadvanced ideas than I have heard hitherto. Yesterday, for instance, there was a discussion about the specialization of the schools; and there were a great many who advocated\n14\n\n"}
{"page": 230, "printed_page": null, "text": "210\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nthat in early years the parents of boys or girls should decide what course they should\ntake. I think that is to forget that boys and girls are all of the same kind for fourteen\nor fifteen years of their life. It is not a question of what they shall be developed to ; it\nis a question of what is the girl and what is the boy to have. When a boy or girl is\nfourteen or fifteen, it is time to think of specialization. Until that time, I think,\nthey ought to be educated almost in the same way.\nThen I come to the question that has been discussed to-day. There is the question\nabout the subjects that ought to be taught in the secondary schools. Now, I have\nsome difficulty to express my opinion in this respect, because we have no secondary\nschools in the same meaning that you have. It seems to be rather a conflicting system\nthat you have when you divide the instruction into primary schools and grammar\nschools, and then you put in the high-school, and then the college, and thereafter the\nuniversity. I think you might include in the secondary school two or three years of\nwhat you take in colleges. Thereafter I would recommend the destruction of all\ncolleges, and begin university life.\nWhat should be taught in secondary schools ? I say, first of all you should teach young\nboys and girls to know their surroundings ; that is, the sciences. They should know the\nlife of personality. They should study history ; they should study the languages. Of\ncourse, mathematics must be included. The study of language should be a very important part of the curriculum; and not language, but languages. 1 think the importance\nof a full study of the mother tongue cannot be exaggerated. It should be a study of\nthe literature, so that the boys and girls, when they once leave the school, know their\nown tongue, and know their own literature, and feel it is a pleasure in their literature\nto know the great authors, and know the great characters of literature. They should be\neducated in good penmanship. If you give the boys and girls these you will give them\nsomething that will be of the most intrinsic value in their lives. You should not lay\ntoo much stress on teaching many languages. If you have learned one language, and\nby that been able to learn the great thoughts of great men, why should you learn them\nover again for year after year? It is necessary, of course, for us to know at any rate one\nof the foreign languages, so that we can communicate with other persons. It may not\nbe so necessary for you Englishmen and Americans, whose language will become the\nlanguage of all mankind. (Applause.) But, anyhow, it may be necessary even to you,\nin order to be able to study your own language the better, to study one language, at any\nrate, of a foreign country. What foreign language should that be ? If it is a question\nof what language should be taught in the school, I should certainly say not Latin and\nnot Greek, but a modern language. We in our country are divided into two great\nparties, those who advocate Latin and Greek, and those who advocate the modern\nlanguages. I think of those who advocate Latin and Greek, the number has decreased.\nIn fact, Greek is almost excluded from our schools, and Latin is beginning to retreat\nmore and more. And so now I think there is a commission, in Sweden, to discuss whether\nLatin ought not to be delayed to the fifteenth or sixteenth year, so that only four years\nin our school should be given to the study of Latin. It lias been a very hard contest\nbetween these parties in Sweden, and I do not wish now to go into the details of that\ncontest.\nI am sure that it will not hurt, but it will advance, the progress in our schools if we\ndo not study too much of languages. I think that we should do well if we deferred the\nstudy of Latin and Greek to the later stages. But in the universities a great many\nsay, Can you expect the university to teach the rudiments of Latin and Greek ?\nAnd I say, yes ; and I know there are some who have been successful. I think the same\nexperiment has been made in England. I heard that Miss Bamsey had obtained the\ngreatest honors in the university course, and she had actually not taken her study of\nLatin and Greek before her seventeenth year, if I remember rightly. Now I think that\nwe, in Sweden, arc following the right course when we more and more delay the\nstudy of Latin and Greek, and defer them to the universities. By doing that, the\nstudy of Latin and Greek can be a really scientific study. But are you not cutting off\nthe historical continuity ? one might ask me. That is preserved by studying history.\nAnd when you study history you ought to study history of the old nations, and the\nhistory of their institutions.\nNow I think the people who recommend the study of Latin and Greek have invented\nseveral reasons. First, that Latin and Greek are more proper to develop logic. Don't\nyou think that the sciences and mathematics are more able to develop logic ? I think\nthat the reasons that have been invented afterwards are to be compared with the\nfortification that the general makes when he is ready to surrender. He binds the\nfortifications around him, and he 'cannot come out from them without surrendering\nthe place.\n\n"}
{"page": 231, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE\n\nSECONDARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF GIRLS\n\nIN FRANCE.\n\n211\n\n.Miss Cordelta Kirkland, of San Francisco : I would like, as no woman has spoken,\nto put in one word. And that is, that we are Americans, in the first place ; that our\nlanguage is English ; and, far more than the language of Sweden, our language comes\nfrom the Greek and the Latin. I don't believe we can ever leave them out of a firstclass English course. I think in our methods of study we are trying to keep one\nfoot on the new steam-engine and the other back on the old apple cart. Any one who\nhas had Latin and Greek feels it to be an immense importance to his English to have\nGreek as well as Latin. But how do we study the Latin and Greek ? By grinding\naway at the old grammars that, I think, Erasmus left us. Why not change the pronunciation, instead of grinding away on the old Greek grammars, and make Greek a\nlive language ? I am told that you can go with your knowledge of ancient Greek to\nAthens to-day and read the daily newspaper perfectly well, but that you cannot speak\nwith the modern Greek, because your pronunciation is so different. Is it not very\npossible to study Greek as they speak it in Athens to-day ?\n\nTHE\nBY\n\nSECONDARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF GIRLS\n\nMLLE. MARIE DUGARD, PROFESSOR AT THE\nAND MEMBER OF THE FRENCH COMMISSION\n\nIN FRANCE!.\n\nLYCEE MOLIERE, PARIS,\nON SECONDARY EDUCA-\n\nTION.\n\nI was honored with the request to give some account of the secondaryeducation of girls in France. This is a very large subject, so large that\nit is impossible to give a complete idea of it in a short discourse ; all that\nI can do is to present a general idea of the question.\nThe secondary education of girls is quite new in France, though it has\nbeen desired for a long time ; it was formed in 1880. Before this year\nwe had for our girls only primary schools, public and private. Some persons, feeling that girls have the right, as well as boys, to receive a higher\neducation, and also that the best way of expanding civilization is to increase instruction among women, tried to remedy this state of things, and\nopened private schools where the education, if not quite secondary, was\ncertainly above the primary teaching. In 18G7 Mr. Duruy, Minister of\nPublic Instruction, went further in introducing public lectures for the\nsecondary education of girls. These lectures met with a strong opposition on the part of a certain class of people who hold to traditions and\nthink that learning is not good for women, because it prevents them from\nfulfilling their duties as wives and mothers. In spite of this, the lectures\nsucceeded ; but they did not prove to be sufficient to comply with the\nwants of the time, and their best result was to show that we were ready\nfor a more thorough system of secondary education for girls. Another\nand decisive step was taken some time after, in 1880 ; the Parliament\npassed the Law Camille See — so called after the name of its promoter — to\nhave lycees for girls ; and almost immediately after the first lycee was\nopened in Montpellier. Now we have about fifty lycees or colleges, and\nfifty \" cours secondaires \" which are to be turned into lycees in a short\n\n"}
{"page": 232, "printed_page": null, "text": "212\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\ntime. Three of these lycees are in Paris,* and one of them is attended\nby some six hundred pupils.\nIt was not sufficient to have lycees ; we wanted teachers. A normal\nschool was opened in Sevres, for the training of teachers for girls' colleges. To enter this normal school, young women must be at least eighteen\nyears old, must possess either the higher grade of the primary education,\nviz. : the \" Brevet Superieur \" or the \" Baccalaureat,\" and must undergo\nsome severe examinations, for letters or sciences, according to their\nchoice. They remain three years in the school ; after the first two years\nthey have to pass an examination to obtain the \" Certificat d'aptitude a\nl'Enseignement Secondaire,\" and if they succeed, they have to pass next\nyear the \" Agregation,\" which enables them to be appointed as professors\nin a lycee for girls. Let me remark that it is not absolutely necessary to\nenter the normal school to become a teacher in a girls' college ; the essential condition is to have the \" Agregation,\" and it is not at all impossible to take this grade without the preparation in the normal school.\nWhat this Agregation is would take too long to explain ; it will be sufficient to say that — though it requires no Greek and Latin — it is a higher\ngrade than what is called here the B.A.\nWe not only have women to teach in our girls' colleges ; we have men,\nwho are generally teachers in lycees for boys at the same time. It is a\nquestion often discussed among us whether it is better for a girl's mind to\nbe trained by men or women. And if she is to be trained by men, when\nmust this training begin ? When a girl is twelve years old, younger or\nolder ? The question is not quite solved, but we generally think, and we\nact accordingly, that when a girl is fifteen or sixteen years old it is good\nfor her to be trained by both men and women ; b}r men, because she must\nacquire some of the strong qualities of man's mind, method, faculty of\nabstraction, power of grasping ideas and generalizing ; but not only by\nmen, because she might lose some of the qualities of her sex.\nSome words about the time devoted to work and the division of studies\nseem necessary now. The girls have generally two lessons of an hour each\nin the morning, and two in the afternoon. After the lessons, they can\nreturn home or stay in the lycee, where they have grounds to play, diningroom for their lunch, and studying rooms where they can prepare their\nlessons under the supervision of special teachers. In the evening, at six\nor half-past, they must return home, for, as a rule, we do not admit any\nboarders into our lycees for girls. The course of secondary education\nlasts five years, from the age of twelve to seventeen. The children are in\nthe \"preparatory classes\" connected with the lycee until they are twelve\nyears old ; then they are admitted, after an examination, into the second* Since this discourse was delivered, a fourth\nParis.\n\nlycee— the Lycee Lamartiue— has been founded in\n\n"}
{"page": 233, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE SECONDARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF G-IRLS IN FRANCE.\n\n213\n\nary classes. These classes are divided in two periods ; after the end of\nthe first, including three years, the pupils pass an examination which\ntakes place in the lycee. The examining committee comprises teachers of\nthe lycee itself, with teachers of other colleges : they deliver to the girls\na diploma called \" Certificat d'Etudes de Troisieme Ann6e.\" This certificate gives them the right to enter into the class of the second period,\nwhich consists of two years. Here the instruction is, of course, higher, and\nthe pupils may follow — not completely but in a certain measure — their own\ntastes and attend a more specially scientific or literary course. At the end of\nthese two years they can gain a diploma, delivered by a committee formed\nin the same manner as mentioned above ; this diploma, called \" Certificat\nd'Etudes de Cinquieme Annee,\" confers on its owner the same rights as\nthe \" Brevet Superieur \" of the primary education.\nWe have in many colleges a sixth class, attended generally by girls of\neighteen or twenty years, who wish to continue their studies, many of them\nwith the view of becoming teachers.\nSuch is, very briefly, our organization. A question arises now, far\nmore important :\n\"What do we teach ?\" Before answering this question I must speak\nof another, closely connected with it : \" What is our aim in giving a secondary education to our girls ? \" This aim is not to train the girl's mind\nlike a boy's ; not that we do not think her intelligent enough to go through\nthe same course of study, but because we think her destiny being not\nquite the same in the present life, it is better not to train her quite in the\nsame way. I know that many people — and among them remarkable philosophers— are of a different opinion. Who is right ? It does not behoove\nme to judge here. All that I can say is this : As long as a nation believes\nthat women ought not to be educated like men, she would be wrong to act\notherwise. Now, in France the majority think that women are made — I\ndo not say only, but especially — for home life ; that they must be before all\ngood wives, real companions to their husbands, ready to enter into his\nideas, to interest themselves in his preoccupations and his tastes ; that they\nmust also be mothers in the full meaning of the word, not only bringing\nchildren to physical existence, but to moral and intellectual life. To form\nsuch women is the main aim of our education, and to succeed it is not\nthought necessary to give them a thorough knowledge of sciences ; to cram\nthem, as boys too often are, with things required only for examinations\nand soon after forgotten. But it is necessary to develop their minds and to\ngive them, according to an expression of Moliere that we like to quote on\nthe subject, \" Des clartSs de tout\" — that is to say, some knowledge of\neverything — and also a sound moral training. It is in this spirit that our\nprogrammes have been formed. To give a full account of them would be\ncertainly useless ; it is sufficient to say that they embrace letters and science,\nFrench and general history, with a special study of the history of civ-\n\n"}
{"page": 234, "printed_page": null, "text": "214\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nilization, French and general geography, grammar, literature, ethics, psychology, law, modern languages, sometimes, but not always, the elements\nof Latin, mathematics, geometry, natural history, physics, chemistry,\netc., and drawing, singing, sewing, and gymnastics.\nWithout dwelling on each of these subjects, I must say, however, a\nword about some of them. The teaching of letters is in such a way as to\ndevelop and enlarge the minds of the girls, to stimulate their thought and\nform their judgment. With these views, the old methods of teaching have\nbeen put aside in our lycees. The teaching of history, for instance, is no\nmore the study of chronology of kings, the enumeration of battles and dates,\nbut the study of the great events of the life of nations, with their causes,\ntheir effects, and the lessons they give. The study of geography is no more\nthe memorizing of a dry list of mountains, rivers, towns, etc., but, being\nconnected with the study of the soil, climate, products, scenery, and character of the inhabitants, it has become a living and interesting science,\nwhich calls less to memory than to reasoning and imagination. The same\nspirit has transformed the teaching of grammar. Instead of requiring\nfrom the pupils, as formerly, a lot of exercises on conjugation, parsing, and\ndiagramming — without quite neglecting them, for they are useful in a\nway, we try to teach language chiefly by reading of classics, explanation\nof the most beautiful pages of prose or poetry, and lessons of historical\ngrammar ; that is to say, the history of our language and of its transformation through ages. They have also to translate some works of old French,\nas the \"■ Chanson de Roland/' \" La Conquete de Constantinople,\" by\nVillehardouin, \" Les Memoires de Joinville,\" etc.\nThis naturally leads me to the teaching of literature. We attach a great\nimportance to it, not only because of all studies this has the greatest\ninfluence for development of the mind, but also because the best way to\nlearn how to write is to learn to appreciate and love the works of the\ngreat writers.\nLiterature is taught even in the primary classes, but is studied more thoroughly in the secondary classes, when the girls are about twelve years\nold. Then they are given a general idea of our literary history; they read\nsketches and full works of the best authors, as \" Telemaque,\" by Fenelon;\nthe Fables of La Fontaine ; \"Esther,\" \" Iphigenie,\" \" Les Plaideurs,\" of\nRacine, etc. In the third year they attend lectures on French literature from its origin until the present day, read some of its chefs-d'oeuvre,\ndeliver short lessons or commentaries on the principal authors that they\nstudy, and write compositions on literary subjects. They are also given a\ngeneral outline of ancient literature. In the following period, from fifteen\nto seventeen years, they study again, but more thoroughly, French,\nGreek, and Latin literature ; also German or English, according to the\nmodern language that they learn. So their literary training is almost complete. Itmust be well understood that the teacher does not try to make\n\n"}
{"page": 235, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE\n\nSECONDARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF GIRLS\n\nIN FRANCE.\n\n215\n\nthem remember the names of all the authors and of their works, and to\ncram them with formula on each ; but by his lectures, his explanations of\ntexts, his counsels for their readings, he tries to awake their taste and their\nreasonings, sure that he develops more their minds when he makes them\nfeel the beauty of a description of Homer, Milton, or Chateaubriand than\nif he taught them many details about these authors.\nFar more important than the teaching of literature is the teaching of\nmorals.\nIn a way, it can be said that morals are taught in all the classes.\n[ave not all good lessons, either of history or literature, a moral influence ?\nJut besides this general teaching we have a special one. We give it in\nthe third and fourth years, when the girls are about fifteen or sixteen\npears old. In the third we teach practical morals — I mean duties of\nmn toward God, himself, his family, his brethren, his country, etc.. In\nthe fourth we teach theoretical morals.\nWe give an outline of the great\n^sterns of ethics — systems based either on sympathy or on the research of\njleasure or of utility — and we discuss them.\nThis teaching is entirely\njparated from religion, our lycees being quite independent from the\n3hurch.\nWe are often asked : \" How can you teach ethics without\nsligion ? You cannot separate them.\" I will not enter here into so oftliscussed a subject. I will say only that, according to my own experience,\nis well as that of others, it is possible to teach ethics without special\njligious dogmas.\n\" But what is the basis of your morals ?\" ask some\njople. It is the great ideas upon which all religions are founded — God,\nluty, spirituality and immortality of the soul. In developing these ideas\ntq carefully stop just at the point where our teaching would become secirian. Given in this way, I dare to say that our moral teaching is reliious ; however, it never hurts any peculiar feelings or any peculiar creed\n)f the girls, and has really proved attractive to them. So it is with\n)sychologv, which is said to be so hard to teach to boys.\nAre the girls\nlore interested in it because they are more fond of analysis and selfjxamination ? It is possible ; but whatever the cause may be, they feel a\n>;reat interest for this science. Though we do not go very deeply into it,\nre teach them the essential difference between mental and physiological\nphenomena, and some general notions about the processes of will, feeling,\nthought, reasoning, etc., always trying to draw practical advice for their\n>wn development and conduct, and for the training of children that most\n)f them will have to educate some day.\nI cannot leave the subject of letters without adding a word on the teaching of law and of modern languages. The teaching of law takes place in the\nlast year, one hour a week for six months.\nSometimes it is given by a\njecial teacher — a lawyer.* The aim of this teaching is not to leave women\n* In all the lyc6es of Paris it is given by Mile. Jeanne Chauvin, the only woman in France who has\nsen the grade of \" Docteur en Droit.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 236, "printed_page": null, "text": "216\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nignorant of all business questions; to make them understand the meaning\nof a contract, a sale, etc., and to enable them to manage their own property, if needed.\nModern languages are taught sometimes in the preparatory classes, and\nalways in the secondary classes ; there, during five years the girls have\nthree hours a week of German, English, or both ; and in some parts of\nFrance, of Spanish or Italian. The pupils are accustomed not only to\nread and write, but also to speak ; the lessons are never delivered in\nFrench, and, as a rule, French talking is strictly forbidden. Very often\nthe teachers ask the pupils to speak German or English during the time\nof recreation ; some of the girls do it willingly, and, after five years of\nthis training, they speak English or German fairly well.\nOf our teaching of sciences much could be said, and ought, perhaps ;\nbut, feeling not sufficiently entitled to speak about it, I will remark only\nthat our aim is to make the girls acquainted with the great principles of\nabstract and concrete sciences, and to give them, especially in mathematics, natural history, physics, and chemistry, the amount of knowledge\nuseful for a general development of mind and for practical life.\nI must conclude with the regret of saying nothing of drawing, which is\ntaught three hours a week, always from the casts ; of the teaching of\nsewing and cutting, which enables the girls to make their own dresses if\nthey choose ; of the teaching of singing and gymnastics. But I have\nalready said too much. I will conclude these remarks about our secondary education by saying that, when a girl leaves our colleges after the\ncompletion of her studies, her mind is alive to all the great ideas which\ncan interest a human being ; and, if she wishes to pass special examinations, her general training is such that she easily gets the special knowledge required. You must not think, however, that we consider our\nlycees as perfect ; far from it. They have many defects that we know\nand try to amend. Among the many reasons which attracted us here\nthis is even one of the strongest. We know that you have done for the\neducation of women more than any nation in the world ; we think that\nwe have much to learn from you. One of our writers, M. de Varigny,\nafter having studied America, said that the American woman was the\nwoman of the future, and would some day educate her European sisters.\nThis day seems to have come now ; and certainly, when we return to our\nown country, after all we have heard in the World's Fair Educational\nCongress, all we have seen of American schools and of American society, we\nshall be more able to see and correct the imperfections of our girls' education, and we shall understand better what is the ideal type of woman.\n\n"}
{"page": 237, "printed_page": null, "text": "TRAINING\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS\n\nFOR\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\n217\n\nDISCUSSION.\nM. Buisson, of France : I had not any idea of speaking on any question eonlected with the secondary education system. I was very happy to hear the paper which\nias just been read by Mile. Dugard. It has been a great advantage to send representto the World's\non this\nof will\nwoman's\n7e are ativessurely\nlearning Congresses,\na great deal especially\nhere, and surely\nour question\nattendance\nnot beeducation.\nfruitless,\nwould like to say a word on the question of Latin and Greek in the secondary education of boys. I heard an American lady who advocated very much the adoption of the\nlodern Greek in the teaching of that language. I am quite in favor of adopting it. and\ntry myself to conform to it, even now. I have found great pleasure in hearing Greek\nrentlemen talk of ancient Greek ideas in their own language, and I think we ought to\nidopt that in the schools.\nDr. Mackenzie : I am very glad to hear from Mile. Dugard the statement that\n>me things in the French schools are taught in the hours of leisure. 1 try to give the\njys a great deal to do in their leisure time, and so steal a very valuable march. This\nthesis as to the study of drawing, modeling, painting, and the like, suggests to me a\nrery much easier use which can be made of the leisure of the schoolboys and schooliris. Some of our children would be amused at thinking of learning such a language\nis English in the leisure time, but I am sure a great deal can be done in the leisure hours,\n[any a half hour can be used for drawing or modeling that would otherwise be absolutely lost ; and the modern schoolmaster or schoolmistress will show his or her skill\njy arranging the work so as to save those half hours from the waste time of the pupil,\nlow that is to be done must be left to the individual school and its individual circumstances. But I am very glad we can thus very considerably enlarge the work-time of the\npupil. One of the unsolved problems in our work is how to secure more intelligent oecuition of the rational thinking period of the day. I don't mean by that, adding more\nserious work to the pupil's schedule ; but I mean a friendly, fatherly, schoolmasterly\nccupation of time that is now not controlled by teaching. I have no special suggestion\nmake on this subject. There are people here who are specialists in this line of work ;\nbut I can, from my own point of view, speak very earnestly, and very positively, of\nseeking to get time for art studies by some such device as the paper has suggested, as\ntsed in France.\nWill S. Monroe, of Leland Stanford Jr. University : The delightful paper which\nthe lady from France has read to us I certainly have enjoyed. If there is one lesson\nwe can learn from these congresses, it is the extreme and delightful modesty of our\nfriends from across the water. There are a few things in which the sex line must\ndrawn. I believe the note of warning which the lady sounds in her paper. It\neems to me, in this matter of coeducation, we have not stopped to study certain scientific problems which nature has determined long before for us ; and we must take the\nword of warning to ourselves and investigate the problems.\n\nTHE\n\nJY\n\nMISS\n\nPROFESSIONAL\nTRAINING OF TEACHERS\nSECONDARY SCHOOLS*\nE.\n\nP.\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nHUGHES,\nFOR\n\nPRINCIPAL\nTEACHERS,\n\nAT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCAMBRIDGE,\n\nCAMBRIDGE\n\nFOR\n\nTRAINING\n\nENGLAND.\n\nI wish I could assume that, because two of the eleven addresses on the\nprogramme for to-night deal with the training of secondary teachers, the\nLtnerican educational world is fully convinced, first, that the training of\nsecondary teachers is necessary, and, second, that the question is one of\njcial importance.\nOptimist though T am, when I see that apparently\n* This paper was read ut the General Congress, but inasmuch as its theme relates to secondary educaion, it has been placed with the papers of that congress.\n\n"}
{"page": 238, "printed_page": null, "text": "218\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nthe public mind is more interested in kindergarten and primary education\nthan in secondary, and when I remember how few of our university graduate teachers have had any training except that which experience gives\nthem, I cannot make this assumption.\nPractically, at present our secondary teachers in America and in England consist of classes of graduate and non-graduate teachers. Taking\nthe former class, what equipment must a good teacher possess that it is\nunwarrantable to expect from the new graduate ? First, a fairly intimate\nknowledge of child-nature, based on study and actual contact with children. This, it is needless to say, is not included in a university course.\nSecond, a considerable knowledge of the results of the experience of other\nteachers. We need not begin as if we had no predecessors and must learn\neverything from experience. Third, a clear idea of the object of education and a high ideal of the work of the educator. Fourth, a certain\namount of skill and power in educating, which can only be gained experimentally. Our university course does not give this equipment. If a\ngraduate is to become a good teacher, he must either, laboring slowly, gain\nit himself at the expense of the children, or gain it at a professional\ncollege, where I maintain it can be done quickly, with no damage to the\nchildren. If the graduate is not properly equipped, the non-graduate is\ndeficient in additional directions. His knowledge and mental development are not on such a high level, which ought to cut him off from\ncertain spheres of education — he has not enjoyed the education of\ncollege life.\nI would suggest that we really require at present two kinds of secondary\ntraining colleges ; one for graduates, giving a short course for one year,\nand a second for non-graduates, giving a rather longer course of professional training, and also supplying the advantages of a college life. In\ncertain particulars I think that all colleges would differ. I have only\ntime to refer to a few points in connection with a college. for graduates.\nIt seems unnecessary to emphasize the point that such a college should\ngive only professional training. I have never heard it suggested that it\nshould give post-graduate instruction in non-professional subjects.\nIt seems also unnecessary to emphasize the desirability that such a college\nshould be in intimate connection with some of our best universities. I\nshould suggest that it should have a double connection : on the one hand\nwith universities from which the students have passed, and on the other\nhand with practical teachers in the thick of teaching-life towards which\nstudents are passing.\nThe profession of psychology could contribute to such a college some of\nthe latest discoveries in that science, and the practical teacher could contribute psychical problems and difficulties, and solve problems.\nWe have started a plan in Cambridge which seems likely to succeed. In\naddition to students learning to teach, we have something like Fellows,\n\n"}
{"page": 239, "printed_page": null, "text": "TRAINING\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\nFOR\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\n219\n\nteachers of considerable experience, who come to us for a short time, give\nus the benefit of their experience, help to keep us in touch with practical\ndetails, and in turn learn, themselves, of the newest thoughts and practices in education.\nDuring the last seven years I have studied the plans of training colleges\nin England and in several other countries, and I have always felt that\nwhere we fail most is in the means we employ to enable the students to\nget practical skill in teaching and governing. We have been experimenting in Cambridge quite freely and have been obliged to experiment. Our\nconditions have been very special, and as our plans have been transplanted\nto other colleges, I venture to refer to some of them.\nI am strongly opposed to any system of training which is purely theoretical. In order to learn how to teach, you must teach, as well as do several\nother things, besides learning some theory. I cannot enumerate some of\nour plans without emphasizing for a moment what appears to me to be the\nfundamental idea of teaching. If it is anything, it should be individual\nand original. If I give a good lesson, it must have enough of originality\nin it, so that no one else could have given it in the same way. We must\nall find out by experiment the best way for us to teach or to govern. I\nbelieve that imitation is more fatal in teaching than in anything else.\nThere are, of course, fundamental principles which all good teachers\nfollow ; but the applications of these principles are innumerable. To\nattempt to copy a good teacher is fatal ; the conditions are not the same.\nI do feel very strongly that the most important of all lessons to be taught\nyoung teachers is, Never imitate. Now, I find that young teachers are\nexceedingly apt to imitate, and one has to be on the alert to insist that they\nshall be individual ; that each student must find out for herself her own\nway of teaching. \" Then what is the use of a training college ?\" it may\nbe asked. Largely to foster individuality of teaching, to develop it in\nevery possible way, and especially to arrange the conditions, so that the\nteacher shall, as quickly as possible, find out her own way of teaching and\ngoverning, without any damage to the children. In consequence of holding this view of teaching, I object strongly to model lessons and to model\nschools. I believe that when an experienced teacher hears a good lesson\nshe learns much from it, but largely because she will not be inclined\nblindly to copy. There is a time when it is of the greatest importance\nto hear good teaching, but I do not think it comes early in the course.\nAs far as we have reached at present in Cambridge, we maintain the\nfollowing four stages in the practical work :\nFirst Stage. — The students begin their observation of children in school\nand out of school. We have organized a series of children's parties in order\nto provide for the latter. The observations for the schools are of two\nkinds ; first, observation of individual children ; second, observation of the\nwhole class. The students are advised not to listen to the teacher, but to\n\n"}
{"page": 240, "printed_page": null, "text": "220\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nsit in front of the class and watch the children ; not to add to the knowledge of child-nature, but to accustom students to observe children. During this stage I arrange that the students shall come in contact with some\nof our fine specimens of English teachers, not to hear them teach, but to\ntalk with them and catch their spirit. No model lessons, but a quiet talk\nwith a great teacher is about all, I think, we want.\nSecond Stage. — In the second stage the students continue to observe, and,\nin addition, have teaching exercises. The students now begin to teach, and\neach one begins where she is likely to find it easiest, as regards subject,\nclass of schools, age of pupils, etc., and under the easiest conditions that\nwe can arrange. Everything is done to make these first lessons a success,\nand during this stage we aim chiefly at enabling the student to get and\nkeep control over a class under easy conditions — to succeed, in fact. As\nsoon as she does succeed, something of the inspiring stimulus of success\ncatches hold of the teacher's spirit ; she passes to the third stage.\nIn the third stage no further observation of children is demanded, but\nit goes on, and many are the keen discussions among the students with\nreference to some of the children that we teach. The student having now\nbegun to succeed, we give her teaching under as varied conditions as possible, and her teaching and governing power is developed. In many\nschools she also has the opportunity of sometimes hearing lessons, especially byfellow-students, towards whom she is naturally critical, and by\nno means inclined to copy them.\nIn the fourth stage the teacher specializes in a direction.\nFirst, she teaches as far as possible*under those conditions under which\nshe will teach when she leaves college.\nSecond, she knows by this time in what directions she will best succeed,\nand will consequently to that end determine the kind of teaching that will\nbest help her to develop power in those directions.\nObservation of classes and- observation of schools are now carried on,\nand the student can listen with impunity and with advantage to lessons\nfrom experienced teachers, because there is no longer any danger that she\nwill make the fatal mistake of attempting to copy any one. At this point\nthe student has acquired considerable teaching skill, and an individual\nway of teaching, and has learned to adjust herself to many conditions.\nShe has learned to look critically at her own teaching, and to gain from her\nown experience and from the teaching of others ; in other words, she is\nnow capable of continuing her own training, and that is all we aim at.\nI will venture to plead for one moment with teachers of all classes, from\nthe presidents of colleges to the youngest teachers in the kindergarten. I\nwould plead that every teacher is concerned in the satisfactory professional\npreparation of our graduate teachers. I believe in an aristocracy as a\nfactor in rapid progress ; and by an aristocracy I mean the class who have\nprivileges that at present cannot be enjoyed by all. All species of educa-\n\n"}
{"page": 241, "printed_page": null, "text": "DISCUSSION.\n\n221\n\ntion are connected. The kindergarten lays the foundation of school education, and, if it be well laid, a good structure can be built on it, which\notherwise would have been impossible. Again, if the kindergarten has\nlaid a good foundation, naturally the kindergarten teacher ought to be\nvery much concerned as regards the structures erected, on it. But over\nand above this intimate connection there is a special relation between the\nbest equipped teachers and all others.\nIn England reforms speed more rapidly down the educational line than\nup it. Because the training was first given to our elementary teachers,\nit has been difficult to pass that reform to better educated teachers. It\nwould have been better had the reform been in an opposite direction. Any\nreform that can be effected in our secondary teachers will pass quickly to\nour grammar, primary, and kindergarten teachers. It is worth while to\nspend much money on secondary education, which ought to be in many\nways a model to primary education. I sympathize very strongly with the\ndemocratic tendencies of the age. But I fear that in matters educational\nwe shall be in danger of thinking only of primary education as the education of many, and of secondary education as an education of a few,\nthereby giving primary education an undue importance. For the sake of\nall, many and few, it is of importance that our secondary education shall\nbe excellent, and it seems most desirable that we should at once demand\nfrom our secondary teachers considerably stronger professional knowledge,\nwith professional interests and stronger professional skill, than from other\nteachers. \" To whom much has been given, of him much shall be\nrequired.\" At present normal colleges are not suitable for our best\neducated teachers. Other colleges must be provided. Our secondary\nteachers, with their better education, must come well to the front.\nI have suggested that individuality should be one of the watchwords of\nour training colleges. Let me suggest another — freedom ; freedom for the\nteacher of colleges and freedom for the students. No set methods, molds,\nruts, and grooves, and the hackneyed phases that have become threadbare.\nLet us have new ways and new ideas, connected with old ones, and Avhere\nthere are growth and rapid results we must have freedom. Freedom and\nindividuality — excellent watchwords !\nDISCUSSION.\nThesis : \" Should algebra or geometry come first in the course of study\nif secondary schools V*\nW. N. Hailmann, Superintendent of Schools, Laporte, Ind. : It will be impossible\njr me to give a decisive answer on the subject which has been intrusted to me for the\nake of opening the discussion. The only thing I can do, to settle you in giving your\nswn opinions, is to state the basis on which it seems to me the question should be solved\nind discussed.\nOf course the question is largely influenced by the aim of the secondary\n\n"}
{"page": 242, "printed_page": null, "text": "222\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nschool in which these two subjects, algebra and geometry, are to be taught. If the aim\nof the school is to prepare for the college, then it seems to me that the college may, to\na large extent, assume the responsibility of securing the organic union between tliese\ntwo subjects with the student, and of giving him full and practical control for life\nconduct of both these subjects. But if the aim of the secondary school, as is usually\nthe case in our public high-schools, is to use the studies of algebra and geometry for what\nthey are worth in securing a rounded education ; and when the secondary school does\nitself assume the responsibility, as it does in these high-schools, of dismissing the\nstudent with this organic union among the subjects well established, and with fairly\ngood control of the connections with the subjects of general life conduct, then the question becomes a different one. I have placed myself rather upon the latter of these\nstandpoints; and it has seemed to me of greater importance that we should examine\nthis question with reference to the aim which affects the public at large. I think it is\ntime that in this subject, as well as in regard to many others, the secondary public\nschools should abandon the practice of giving subjects in isolation to children, simply\nfor their own sake. They should strive to give more of its subjects in organic connection, one having necessarily a bearing upon the other.\nNow I would say the elementary school has to furnish, first of all, the conditions of\napperceptional development at the hands of well-regulated experience. In the second\nplace, it must enable the child to make orderly arrangement of all this experience in an\napproximately conventional and approximately scientific grouping. His mind must\nbe set in the direction of order. The business of the secondary school. I should say, is\nto give him the experiences and sciences of the race ; to place him squarely and firmly,\nconscientiously and intelligently upon the basis of the past, and upon the basis of\nachievements already attained. Giving to the pupil that which the race possessed in\nconventional, scientific attainment, and with reference to life conduct, seems to me has\nto be the predominant task, almost specific task, of the secondary public high-school.\nThe tertiary phase of education should then afford to the student an opportunity, on\nthe basis of this historic and scientific grasp of knowledge, for independent research.\nWith such a scheme of education no phase of it would be fragmentary. Wherever\nthe scholar leaves the school, and leaves the scheme, he leaves it well rounded with\nreference to his stage of development. Does he leave the school at the elementary\nstage, he goes out with his mind and his habits clearly set toward an appreciation and\nlove of the historical stage. Does he leave it at the historical stage, he leaves with his\nmind fully set toward the point of independent research, and in such a way that he\ncan be helped to self-culture. Yet, again, if he leaves the elementary school, and has\nno opportunity to do schoolwork in the secondary school, the attitude of his mind is in\nthat direction, and he will seek of his own accord to supply that which he has not\nobtained.\nWhat interests us to-day is to find what would be the natural place of algebra and\ngeometry in such a scheme. The highest phases of life conduct are certainly selfexpression, self-expression in benevolence, I say everything that is done must grow\nout of self-expression in benevolence. That which stimulates self-expression in the\nhistoric law of the race comes from literature and art. in its highest sense— technical\narts as well as representative arts. History is an account of the development of the\nfeelings of kinship among races.\nThe knowledge of physics and chemistry is a closed book until it is opened by mathematical studies ; until we can view it in the light of mathematics, of quantity and\nnumber. The study of numbers is the route, and it furnishes the key for all else. The\nstudy of geometry and the study of form will become clear to us only in the study\nof the rules of quantity. Of course algebra is a high development of the quantitative\nmathematics. Algebra is not a study of principles. It is a study of the laws and the\nfunctions of the laws. It is through algebra, or through the study of the functions of\nnumber, that we are enabled to appreciate the marvels of mathematics. And these facts\ncan be appreciated only at the hand of algebraic equation. Every form, every line,\nevery surface has its equation, and quantity reveals it. It is through equation that we\ncome to the soul of the form. If we have superficial geometry, which fills that external\nrelation and only the external phases, then possibly we might not need this algebraic\nform. But to get at the soul of it, and that which can never be changed by any consideration whatever, it must be reached through algebraic formula. In every stage, form\nstudy must rest upon quantity study ; and, in a general way, geometry must work up\non some corresponding phase of algebra, using this term in its very highest sense.\nWe sometimes see the mechanical way of drawing a circle by making a six-sided\nform, and then an octagon, and a thirty-two-sided form ; and then we have some\nresemblance to a circle ; but the life of a circle is not there.\nThe circle grows out from\n\n"}
{"page": 243, "printed_page": null, "text": "DISCUSSION.\n\n223\n\nthe center, under pressure, and it develops in the direction of the diameter, and we will\nstick to that point. In the circle there is always a central force. I would then say that\nin the elementary school the child must learn to analyze these forms and show the relation of these things to the creation of art. Then, at a subsequent stage, perhaps in the\nso-called grammar period, the child may well learn , as he learns the general laws of\narithmetic, each form connected between special arithmetic and algebra. He may learn\nconstructive geometry, a geometry in which he learns to discover certain inceptional\nlaws ; and which, on the other hand, teaches him to make up in definite, accurate,\nexact ways, with the help of an instrument, if you choose, certain forms in which he\nmay learn to draw the planes that are conceivable to him. If he then comes to the\nsecondary school, it seems to me, this question of which shall we take first, algebra or\ngeometry, will almost solve itself. We mil have to take them together. If we take\ngeometry we must have quantitative knowledge.\nLet us take alway geometric study in that form in which it is open to us by the algebra\nphich the child possesses. Whether or not the Euclidian geometry would answer that\njurpose I do not know. It seems to me it is a logical study rather than mathematical.\nIt is conceivable that a student may go through all the books of Euclid without going\nform. There is a phase which I have found that makes the Euclidian geometry a\nparticularly unfortunate form for the child to use. For instance, in drawing I have the\nchildren in the elementary departments draw the life of the plants, and the life of\nthe animal, thus telling me what they see ; and they give me a living representation\not the animal.\nI leave the question as open as it was before, simply because I cannot solve it. I\njave attempted to place before you certain considerations which should guide us in this\njroblem, that for a long time must remain a problem for us all.\nAmy Rayson, of New York : I have had some experience in both methods of educaion, both in the United States and England.\nIn the United States we always take,\nfar as I have observed it, algebra for two years and geometry for one.\nIn England,\nwhere for some nine or ten years I have been engaged in preparing pupils for the universities, we study both together.\nIn my own experience I am inclined to the idea that\nthat is probably the most thorough plan, because it gives a longer time for the mathematical ideas to enter the pupil's mind.\nTo get a due amount of theory distinctly it\neems to me the time must be allowed.\nIn a meeting in New York, about three months\nago, after a paper by Professor Stafford was read, a great many of the mathematical\neachers agreed that the preparation given to the pupils was not sufficient.\nThe correction for this was not that more subjects should be studied, but that a more thoraugh course should be taken.\nI think there should be a longer time.\nI would suggest three years.\nYou might begin algebra before geometry.\nTake algebra first for\nthe half year, or a whole year, and then begin geometry, and carry on the algebra,\n^hat makes me incline to this opinion is that children's minds move so very slowly.\nJut this would give them, taking the two together, more time for the ideas of both to\njet into their heads. As Emerson says, \" Knowledge comes, but wisdom lingers.\"\nProfessor H. H. Spa yd, Principal of Schools, Minersville, Pa. : I believe in the indication of the studies in the schools of our country. Call it by whatever name you\njlease. I have repeatedly asked teachers of geometry in the smaller towns in Pennsylvania whether their pupils comprehended what they were studying, or whether they\nsimply memorized. Many of the teachers confessed to me, professionally, that a great\nleal of it was memory work. The pupils did not see the life and soul of that which\nthey were studying. They saw merely the form, and they scarcely saw the form. They\ncommitted the demonstrations. I was pleased to hear from both speakers the idea of\ninventional geometry. I hope the day will come when we shall have unification on this\nsubject ; when we shall draw from nature, and geometry will come hand in hand with\nother studies.\nI have noticed again and again that the drawing we taught in our public schools was\nentirely ignored when the boys went to college. Now, I hope some mathematician will\ntake up this subject and give us a little book on the line of Spencer and Hill. I am\nwaiting for that book.\nI am also waiting for a book on algebra that will more fully\njver the subject and begin a little lower down.\nI think the day will come when we\nlall be compelled, not only in mathematics but in all our studies, to see them as a\ngrand whole, and not ten or fifteen, in the school machinery.\nIt is a sad confession\nKit many of our pupils leave our schools who have been taught so much and know so\nittle. I speak from sad experience — how much I was taught and how little I know !\n\n"}
{"page": 244, "printed_page": null, "text": "224\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGE\n\nESS OF EDUCATION.\n\nEdward G. Howe, of Chicago : I have come here to learn and not to speak. But\nthere is one thought that has come to me since these programmes were announced, and\nthat is, as Professor Hailmann has said, we must consider what has gone before and what\nis to come after. The first tiling the child is taught is arithmetic. He gets overwhelming numbers ; he finds how difficult they are to handle, and he wants some shorter\nmethod to handle those great numbers. It seems to me that algebra should precede\ngeometry. Still I know so well, and was very glad to hear Herbert Spencer's book\nmentioned, that inventional method in geometry can be given very early. How much it\nshould precede algebra I don't know. But let us not give these studies until we have\nbrought our children where the study shall have a use.\nThe Chairman : I will say, in my own school inventional geometry has been repeatedly taught before taking algebra. I think we should all be glad to know if there is\nany one here who has ever attempted to teach logical — that is, Euclidian — geometry\nbefore taking up the algebra ; it would be a matter of considerable interest to us all.\nI have never heard of it in this country.\nW. H. Bartholomew, of Louisville, Ky.: I have a certain conception in my own\nmind, as I understand it, of where there is a strong line of demarcation between the\nsecondary school and the grammar school. In other words, there is not anything in the\nsecondary school that ought to be in the grammar school. The grammar school has its\nfunction, and the secondary school has its function. The grammar school is to prepare\nfor the secondary school. Now, with this in view, I am decidedly of the opinion,\nthough I say that very cautiously, that there must be a certain preparation in the elementary schools, and this must be decided in some way or other before the student\nenters upon the work of the secondary school. Now, this question arises as this discussion has been mapped out for us : Which ought to precede the other ? We have been\nexperimenting in our school somewhat along this line, and we have reached about this\nconclusion : that what is known as elementary work — that part which lies very directly\nwith the study of arithmetic — should follow that first in order. And then, following\nthat, comes plane geometry, and then the higher forms of algebra ; and, following that,\nanalytical forms of geometry. I know the former plan was to take algebra for two\nyears, and then geometry. But this failed to satisfy ; and with the experience we had\nlast year, we find it is more satisfactory to carry these studies along together.\nW. B. Poynter, of Shelbyville, Ky. : I hope the gentleman who opened this discussion will not misunderstand me when I say I didn't understand anything he said. I\nget at questions from the practical side entirely, and then at the theories afterward.\nI liked him. But as to which subject should be taught first in the schools, I want to say\nfrom my own experience I have adhered to the old plan of letting algebra follow arithmetic— two years for algebra, and one for geometry. Never having tried any other, I\ncould not say that is the better way. But my judgment is entirely on that side. After\nalgebra, naturally following where arithmetic leaves off, and reviewing the principles of\narithmetic, you are gradually developing the mind of the pupil. That is what we are\nafter. All we want to do is to get pupils to think ; then have algebra come in between\narithmetic and geometry, giving the mind a little more strength when it comes to geometry, the great logical study of the preparatory school.\nDr. Hailmanx : You will permit me, perhaps, to say an additional word with reference to a view of the subject which the gentleman who has just spoken takes. Of course,\nin the view he takes, I presume he is right. In the view I have taken of that subject,\nhaving for geometry an entirely different aim — in that view he wouldn't be right.\nProfessor William E. Story, of Clark University, Worcester, Mass. : I should like\nto emphasize the importance of beginning algebra as early as possible. Algebra is not\na subject of itself ; it is arithmetic, and should be taken up as a part of arithmetic, as\nsoon as the child knows enough about the fundamental principle of numbers to understand what algebraic symbols mean. Where it is taken up in the course of arithmetic,\nwith the same problems, it could be treated by the so-called arithmetical algebraical\nprocess.\nJohn B. Patrick, Superintendent of Patrick Military Institute, Anderson. S. C. : Mr.\nPresident and Fellow- Teachers — In my earlier days I taught a school where the curriculum was regulated by State authorities. There it was a rule to complete arithmetic ;\nthen algebra was taken and completed, and then geometry was taken and completed.\n\n"}
{"page": 245, "printed_page": null, "text": "HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nFOR\n\nGIRLS\n\nIN\n\nENGLAND.\n\n225\n\nLater in life I began to manage a school for myself, and I do not follow that rule.\nWhen the boy is learning elementary arithmetic, and has taken up the higher forms of\npercentage, he begins to get into matters that he does not comprehend ; then if we give\nhim arithmetical algebra — that is, dealing with numbers in a different form — and lead\nhim on to understand equations in the second degree, it may be well to let him discontinue the study of algebra and take up plane geometry. And when he has completed\nthat, let him recur to algebra, and take it up with the higher form of geometry. My\nexperience has not been in favor of alternating these studies.\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\nBY\n\nMARY\n\nGURNEY\n\nFOR\nAND\n\nGIRL 8 IN ENGLAND.\nROSE\n\nKINGSLEY,\n\nOF\n\nENGLAND.\n\n[Bead by Miss Zimmekn, of the High-School at Tunbridge Wells, England.]\n\n\" Knowledge is no moreafountain sealed/' These words are the motto\nof the Girls' Public Day School Company ; and to understand their full\nimport we must glance at the history of a revolution which has taken place\nin England in the last twenty years.\nThe low condition of education for girls of the upper and middle\nclasses twenty-three years ago had long been known to persons who had\nstudied the subject. So serious did it seem that at last the English government took up the question, and by the report of the Schools Inquiry\nCommission, in 1870, revealed the full extent of the existing evils to the\npublic. Among these evils, to quote from the report, we find \" Want of\nthoroughness and foundation ; want of system ; slovenliness and showy\nsuperficiality ; inattention to rudiments ; undue time given to accomplishments, and these not taught intelligently, or in any scientific manner ;want of organization.\"\nA serious indictment, truly. A remedy for this state of things was\nneeded, and needed at once.\nBut here government help ceased. Unlike the United States and Germany, the English government does not assume any responsibility over the\neducation of children, except those attending the elementary schools. All\npublic schools, whether for boys or girls, have been the result of private\neffort or of endowment. The work of reform in the education of our\ngirls had therefore to be done, like so much other English work, by\nindividual energy.\nAfter the report of the commissioners was published, Mrs. William Gray\ndetermined to inaugurate this reform. And, as a first step, she formed,\nwith a little band of men and women equally in earnest with herself,\nthe \" National Union for Improving the Education of Women of All\nClasses,\" shortly known as the \" Women's Educational Union.\"\nAmong the objects which this union had in view, we find two specially\nmentioned. In Clause 2: \"To promote the establishment of good and\ncheap day-schools for all classes above those attending the elementary\n15\n\n"}
{"page": 246, "printed_page": null, "text": "226\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nschools, with boarding-houses in connection with them, when necessary for\npupils from a distance.\" And again, in Clause 3 : \"To raise the social\nstatus of female teachers by encouraging women to make teaching a\nprofession, and to qualify themselves for it by a sound and liberal education, and by thorough training in the art of teaching ; also to secure a\ntest of the efficiency of teachers by examinations of recognized authority,\nand subsequent registration.\"\nWe propose in this paper to show how far these objects have been\nattained ; how far England has succeeded in raising the education of\nits girls.\nThe idea of such day-schools as those mentioned in Clause 2 did not\noriginate with the National Union. The large proprietary school called\nCheltenham College, also \" Queen's College,\" London, already existed ;\nalso the well-known North London Collegiate School, established in\n1850, as a private enterprise, by Miss Frances M. Buss, and afterward\nturned by her into a public endowed school under trustees. This last\nwas a model ready to hand ; an example which showed that it was not\nonly possible and even profitable to maintain such schools at fees which\nwere then considered absurdly low, but to obtain educational results\nwhich proved the excellence of the system of teaching.\nThe central committee of the National Union extended this system by\nthe foundation, in 1871, of the Girls' Public Day School Company. The\nmanagement was vested in a council consisting of men and women interested in education. The necessary capital was subscribed in shares of a\nlimited liability company, and the first of the company's schools was\nopened in Chelsea, in 1880.\nAt the present time the company has thirty-five schools, containing\naltogether seven thousand one hundred and forty-three pupils ; twelve\nschools are in the London district, and the remainder are distributed over\nEngland. It employs (besides. its thirty-five head mistresses) five hundred\nand fifty-eight staff mistresses, and one hundred and fifty-one teachers of\nextra subjects.\nIn 1892 it spent £72,431 in teachers' salaries, and £1,325 in scholarships and prizes.\nIt has also started a Provident Fund for the mistresses in its employ,\nwhich was said at a conference of the Teachers' Guild to approach as\n\"nearly as possible to what might be called an ideal scheme.\" Into this\nthe company paid £535 in 1892, in augmentation of subscriptions. And\nas a practical instance in the same year of the usefulness of this fund,\ntwo teachers, who ceased to teach for domestic reasons, were able to draw\nout together £825, saved in less than eleven years.\nThe success of the first schools of the company showed that they\nsupplied a want in the country. Local enterprise in various parts of\nEngland began to start similar schools, or existing establishments were\n\n"}
{"page": 247, "printed_page": null, "text": "227\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nFOB\n\nGIRLS\n\nIN ENGLAND.\n\nremodelled on the same system. In 1883 the Church Schools' Company\nwas started by persons who wished for more distinctive church teaching.\nIt has now twenty-five schools, with two thousand one hundred and eighty\ngirls. High-schools on the model of the company's schools have been\nopened in India, Japan, Kew Zealand, and most of the Australian capitals, while nearly every large town in England has its high-school for\ngirls. And although these schools vary infinitely in constitution, in management, in rate of payment, etc., their principle is the same — low fees,\nefficient teachers, thorough, systematic work.\nSo far as to numerical success. That is uncontested. The important\npoint to consider is, What has been the effect of the high-school system\non the moral, physical, and intellectual welfare of English girls ?\nFor this it will be necessary to examine the system of teaching, the\nclass of teachers, and the effect on the girls taught.\nPerhaps the most remarkable part of the higher education of English\ngirls at the present time is that all prophecies with regard to the movement have failed. At the outset a storm of adverse criticism arose. For\ninstance, among the many defects brought into prominence by the commission of 1870 was the fact that arithmetic was an almost unknown\nsubject. The opponents of the movement assured us that girls' minds\nwere so constituted that it was impossible for them ever to become\naccurate arithmeticians, and that mathematics were out of the question.\nMathematics may now be considered the most popular and successful\nsubject in the large public schools for girls which lead the education of\nthe country. And in the report to the council of the Girls' Public Day\nSchool Company, by the Oxford and Cambridge Examination Board in\n1887, the examiner says of arithmetic : \"I may now say that I was very\nmuch astonished at the enormous improvement in the arithmetic of girls\nwhich has taken place in the last ten years. Their arithmetic is now as\nfar in advance of the boys as to style and accuracy, I do not say as to\npower, as it was then behind.\"\nIn literature, again — also in the board report of 1887 — \" the examiner\nfinds it hard to write, without apparent exaggeration, of the very high\nopinion he formed of the general excellence of the literature work of the\nschools. At least four schools sent up work superior to anything of its\nkind which the examiner has ever seen before, except occasionally in the\nuniversity examination for adults, while quite a dozen schools followed\nclose upon the excellence of these four, and in the opinion of some may\nhave equalled them.\"\nWe see, therefore, that as soon as the opportunity was given of direct\nand exact study, girls have eagerly grasped it, and have quickly worked\nup to the standard of the large public boys' schools of England. They\nhave been enabled to do this by the gradual removal of the barriers\nbetween the education of boys and girls.\n\n"}
{"page": 248, "printed_page": null, "text": "228\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nIn 1871 the \"Oxford\" arid \"Cambridge\" local were the only examinations open to girls as well as boys, and were the only means of testing\ntheir proficiency and of establishing a proper standard. Then followed\nthe \"higher locals,\" and a long, uphill fight, which led to the opening of\nthe university degree examinations to women, London leading the way\nin 1878 ; Cambridge in 1881. In 1882 some of the examinations at\nOxford were opened to women ; since then further concessions have been\nmade from time to time, and now Oxford and Cambridge are in almost\nexactly the same position as regards their women students, except that\nOxford has not yet required residence as a condition of taking the examination, although this matter, too, is now under consideration. The\nactual degree {i.e., the right to add the letters to their names) is still\nwithheld at Oxford and Cambridge, though granted at London.\nIn addition to the opening of degree examinations, the universities,\nand especially the University of Cambridge, have established special\nexaminations for teachers, both men aud women, in the art of teaching.\nAnd in preparation for this examination (so usual in other countries)\nspecial women's colleges have been opened in London, Cambridge, and in\nWales. These colleges have proved very valuable in preparing highschool mistresses, and many ladies spend a year in them after leaving\nother colleges at Cambridge, Oxford, or London.\nMost of the schools of the Girls' Public Day School Company, and\nmany of the best local high-schools in England, are now examined by\nthe Oxford and Cambridge Schools Examination Board, one of the only\nexamining bodies in England undertaking to examine schools on their\nown work — being, therefore, a real test of the year's work — while the\nstandard is undoubtedly the highest known for the examination of\nschools, and is accepted as such by Eugby, Harrow, and most of the\ngreat public schools for boys.\nThe council of the Girls' Public Day School Company never tied their\nschools down to pass any outside examination. And only such are passed\nas are recommended by the head mistresses, especially those which facilitate preparation for university training. For this end head mistresses\nhave prepared pupils for the London matriculation, the Cambridge senior\nand higher local, and the Oxford women's first examination. But at\nthe present time all these examinations — with exception of the London\nmatriculation — are usually dispensed with, and the higher certificate\ngranted by the joint board of Oxford and Cambridge is accepted in place.\nThis has many special advantages. The work required is very thorough ;\nit may extend over two years, and it harmonizes with, and indeed forms\na part of, the school examination by the board already alluded to, and\nadopted in the regular system of the Girls' Public Day School Company.\nThe advance in the standard of girls' education is shown by the fact\nthat the majority of girls from high-schools who go up to Oxford or\n\n"}
{"page": 249, "printed_page": null, "text": "HIGH-SVEOOL\n\nFOR\n\nGIRLS\n\nIN ENGLAND.\n\n229\n\nCambridge have already passed examinations which \"excuse'' them from\nthe preliminary examinations imposed on all members of the universities\nwho are proceeding to the ordinary degree or the degree in honors.\nTen years ago it was the exception for the women students at Cambridge to complete the three parts of the \"previous\" or \"Little Go\"\nexamination before the end of their second or third term of residence.\n\"Now the majority beginning residence are either \" excused \" the three\nparts, or take them easily at the beginning or end of their first term.\nWhile our girls thus distinguish themselves by thorough and systematic\nwork in those branches of education which until twenty-three years ago\nwere considered almost exclusively the province of their brothers, the\nsame system of thoroughness has had equally happy results in the subjects\nwhich were even then allotted to be suitable to women.\nDrawing and music have made an astonishing advance. The study of\ndrawing in the schools of the company is now full of life, under Mr. T.\nR. Ablett, whose system — remarkable among other points for his insistence on memory drawing, cultivating thereby intelligent observation as\nwell as mere mechanical accuracy — has been widely adopted in England\nwith the happiest results. In his report on the company's schools for\n1892, he says : \" I am glad to be able to report a distinct improvement\nin the higher divisions. The memory drawing improves every year. The\ndrawing of plants and casts reached a higher level of artistic merit than\nin previous years. The great improvement in the drawings from the\nhead is a most encouraging sign.\"\nSome of the drawings sent out to Chicago by our schools will serve to\nillustrate these remarks.\nIn music the revolution in the last twenty years is even more remarkable. Dances and other light and worthless music have given place to\nworks of the greatest masters past and present, executed sometimes by\nhighly trained string bands ; while almost every school has its choral or\nmusical society. Mr. John Farmer, of the well-known Harrow Music\nSchool, is examiner and general musical director to the company's schools.\nAnd those who had the privilege of hearing a concert given under his\nleadership, by a selected choir from the company's London and suburban\nhigh-schools, at Grosvenor House last year, will not soon forget the real\nmusical treat they then enjoyed.\nEven games have not been neglected. When the first schools of the\ncompany were opened, school play was almost unknown. Now there is\nprobably no high-school without its tennis club or fives court ; and tennis\nand fives matches between schools are frequent in summer, some involving\na railway journey. This systematized play, with its friendly rivalry, has\nan undoubted effect on the girls' character. For the powers of organization, the self-control, the \"give and take,\" which are such happy characteristics ofthe English public-school boy, and are fostered by his life in\n\n"}
{"page": 250, "printed_page": null, "text": "230\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nthe playing fields, were too often conspicuous by their absence in the said\nboy's sisters.\nThe system of teaching, briefly stated, is this :\nThe school hours are from 9 or 9.15 A.M. to 1 or 1.30 p.m., with one or\ntwo short breaks of fifteen minutes for play and for physical exercises.\nThere is no afternoon school ; but girls may return for an hour and a half\nor two hours in the afternoon, to prepare their lessons under the supervision of a mistress.\nSaturday is Avhole holiday.\nThe extra lessons, outside the regular curriculum — advanced drawing,\nmusic, dancing — are given in the afternoon. And in some schools a voluntary afternoon class for plain needlework, on the admirable system of\nthe \" London Institute for the Advancement of Plain Needlework,\" has\nbeen started among the elder schools. In the lower forms this is one\nof the regular morning subjects.\nThe hours for preparation vary according to the ages and classes of the\ngirls. And a home paper is given, to be signed by the parent each week,\non which the pupil is bound to put down the exact time she has devoted\nto each subject. This, if carefully and honestly adhered to, proves a\nguarantee against any tendency to overwork.\nThe teaching is carried on in separate classrooms, properly warmed and\nventilated. The classes, in the opinion of the most competent authorities, should not exceed twenty to thirty girls. Each pupil has a separate\ndesk, of one of the many improved \"Swedish desk\" patterns; and these\nare placed about two feet apart.\nWe hope to see the day when every school (many have them now) will\nhave its laboratory, its museum, and its botanic garden, as well as its\ngymnasium.\nOn the absolute necessity of the physical exercises now taught in our\nschools it is impossible to insist too strongly. If girls are to do good\nmental work, their bodies must be thoroughly and wisely exercised and\ndeveloped. And the trained experts who teach these exercises are able\nnot only to do so without danger of overstraining the delicate organs of a\ngirl's body, but in the case of a weak or crooked back, or a failure of\npowers in any limb, they are competent to give remedial exercises, or\ncarry out the directions of a doctor with complete success. These exercises should always be done in a suitable dress, without stays, tight waists,\nor tight sleeves. And the gymnastic costume now in use in the company's and other schools is the perfection of comfort. It is warm and\nlight, and makes a pretty and useful school dress.\nWhether regular gymnasium work is desirable for growing girls, is a\nquestion on which very grave doubt has been thrown.\nBut the musical drill is wholly good, not only developing muscles and\ngiving strength to every limb, but teaching girls to move with ease and\ngrace, and training them in quickness and accuracy of eye, ear, and hand,\n\n"}
{"page": 251, "printed_page": null, "text": "HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nFOR\n\nGIRLS\n\nIN ENGLAND.\n\n231\n\nas all the exercises are done in time and to music. There are few more\ncharming sights than a couple of hundred girls, in the great hall — gay\nwith plants and flowers and casts of fine statues — of one of our large\nschools, going through their ball and wand and light wooden dumb-bell\nor club exercises, with absolute precision.\nThe moral effect of the high-school system is no less marked than its\nintellectual success.\nIts central principle is to combine the advantages of home life with the\nhealthy stimulus of class teaching. During the most important years of a\ngirl's life, when her body and her character alike are growing, and need\nceaseless care and guidance, it is essential that she should receive much of\nthat care and guidance from the natural guardian, her mother ; while at.\nthe same time she is anxiously guarded and watched by her schoolteachers, and her intelligence receives a thorough and healthful training\nin common with a number of children of her own age.\nWe have personally known many a girl who at home with her governess is bored into naughtiness and idleness by the dullness of solitary\nlessons, the monotony of the same voice and same face hour after hour.\nShe goes to a high-school, and seems transformed. Her mind is stimulated and occupied by the bright, interesting teaching ; by the constant\nchange of teachers from hour to hour ; by the kind yet very firm discipline, which makes punishments almost unknown in our schools ; while\nthe high standard of honor, the strong esprit de corps of a good highschool make a child feel that she is not only bringing disgrace on herself\nbut on the whole class if she gets into trouble.\nThat this is not mere fancy is shown by the verdict of some of our most\nexperienced head mistresses, who tell us that each year they are more and\nmore impressed by the goodness, diligence, and tractability of their girls.\nCertainly the characteristic that strikes us most, after a considerable\nacquaintance with high-school girls, both in and out of school, is their\nexceeding happiness. On this point such an authority as Professor Max\nMiiller insisted with particular emphasis, when he opened the Leamington\nHigh School in 1884. Speaking of his experience with children of his\nown at the Oxford High School, he said : \" Going to school became a\nreal happiness ; a work, which before had often seemed tedious, became\na real pleasure.\"\nFurther, the effect of high-schools is, we venture to maintain, in spite of\nall that has been said to the contrary, beneficial to the bodily as well as\nto the mental and moral health of the girls. The danger of overwork — a\nexclusively among\ndanger it is impossible to exaggerate — occurs almost\nI\ngirls who are sent late to a high-school. A girl of fifteen or sixteen often\nfinds that she has to begin by unlearning much that she has learned\nbadly ; that she has to give valuable time to getting rid of want of system,\nShe takes a place far below her contemporary\nslovenly habits of work.\n\n"}
{"page": 252, "printed_page": null, "text": "232\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nbecause she is often ignorant of the very rudiments of a thorough education. Intelligent and ambitious, she tries to make up by undue exertion\nfor previous neglect. Her mind has not been trained by long habit to\nsteady, methodical work. Everything is new to her, even the form in\nwhich her work has to be put on paper. She sits up at night, unknown\nto her teachers. When an examination comes which the children who\nhave been at schools six or eight years take as an everyday affair, she\ngets anxious, worried, flustered; cannot eat; will not play or take exercise\nfor fear of losing precious time; breaks down; and the high-school system\nis blamed.\nVery close and constant observation for many years of more than one\nhigh-school has convinced us that if children are sent quite young, they\ntake to the system like ducklings to water. Hence the great value of the\nkindergartens and preparatory classes, which now form a very successful\nfeature in most of our best schools to which they are attached. Insensibly\nthe little creatures assimilate habits of neatness, method, industry, which\nare of infinite service to them in after life. The delightful object lesson\nin the first form, for which a bright young mistress has been off to the great\nmanufacturing town, and brought back steel pens, or glass, or cotton, in\nall stages of their manufacture ; the natural history lesson, with a live\nkitten, or guinea-pig, or hen, or jackdaw, brought by its proud possessor\nand kept in school all the morning ; the botany lesson, for which the\nteacher has ransacked every flower shop within reach to find illustrations,\nwhen the small girls make their little drawings of simple, cleft, and\ndentate leaves, and are told to bring a living specimen next time to\nshow they understand what they have learned — such lessons give the\nlittle opening minds an appetite for learning, without undue strain. The\nregular hours and occupations are found — so the parents tell us — to keep\nthe children in usually good health. They are early accustomed to kindly\nauthority, to intelligent teaching, to pleasant faces succeeding each other\nevery hour ; and grow up in an atmosphere of cheerful, earnest, pleasant\nwork. And that curse of modern days, hysteria, is almost unknown\namong high-school girls. They are interested, they are satisfied. Therefore they are well and happy.\nWe now come to the most important factors in the success of our highschools — the teachers.\nThe mere existence of such a class of women as the teachers in our highschools is one of the most notable results of that great and peaceful revolution, which has been going on so quietly in England, and which we\nventure to think has shaken the old condition of things to its very\nfoundations.\nWhen the first high-schools were opened, the difficulty of finding highly\ntrained women, willing to work and capable of working on the lines laid\ndown for them, was considerable.\n\nThe Girls' Public Day School Com-\n\n"}
{"page": 253, "printed_page": null, "text": "HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nFOR\n\nGIRLS\n\nIN ENGLAND.\n\n233\n\npany was exceedingly fortunate in the choice of its first head mistresses.\nThe demand created the supply. Women of culture and power saw what\na great future opened before them, if England responded to the appeal.\nTwenty years ago. the notion that a well-born and well-bred girl should\ngive up a comfortable home and take to a profession, was highly repugnant to most parents and relations. And the idea that a girl who need\nnot work for her bread should take to the profession of teaching, seemed\nto the last degree impossible. Well might the National Union speak of\nraising the social status of female teachers/'\nThere were brilliant exceptions to the general rule — women who by\nforce of character, nobility of aims, and remarkable talents had overridden\n'11 prejudice, whose schools were centers of life, whose private pupils\nere among the most cultivated and intelligent of their generation.\nBut\nin the great majority of cases a woman usually taught because she could\ndo nothing else ; not from conviction, not from enthusiasm.\nThe \"art\nof teaching \" was unknown to her. The noblest profession a woman can\ntake up, that of developing the minds and characters of our future women,\nbrought a loss of caste to the greater part of those who adopted it.\nHappily, some few parents were wise enough to see that even pleasant\nves, if idle ones, were utterly unsatisfying to girls touched by the eager\nmodern\nspirit, and that the emptiness of such lives was fruitful of\nmorbid views of life and religion, of discontent, of ill-health, of hysteria\nin all its insidious and fatal forms.\nThey saw that what their daughters\nneeded was occupation.\nThey determined to brave the prejudice of genrations, and allow them to teach.\nAll honor to such pioneers ! Their\nath was not a smooth one.\nBut parents and children have had their\nward.\nThe parents find their girls are no less devoted daughters, no\nss refined women, because they have an honorable and satisfying calling,\nnd the public at large is beginning to see that it is not only possible for\nhigh-school mistress to keep her position in the best society in the land,\nut to make for herself a very fine career.\nA really first-rate high-school\na center of cultivation to its town.\nIts mistresses are welcome guests,\not only in the homes of their pupils, but in all houses where intelligence\nnd refinement are valued.\nOne of the most delightful features of high-school life is the relation\ntween the girls and mistresses, who are at the same time teachers\nd friends.\nThey throw themselves into the girls' lives with a devotion\ntnd enthusiasm which is beyond all praise.\nGraduates of one or other\nniversity, as many of them are — often old high-school girls themselves —\nhey know what high-school girls need.\nTheir interest in their pupils\nxtends far beyond the walls of the classroom.\nIt is they who help the girls to organize the school games ; they who,\nn the Saturday holiday, take their class far beyond the limits of the\nwn, to get primroses, or for field botany, or a tea-party in the woods.\n\n"}
{"page": 254, "printed_page": null, "text": "234\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nIt is they who set on foot the museum ; who help to edit the school\nmagazine ; who encourage the \" Old Girls' Clubs/' which keep the girls\nwho have left in touch with their school and help them to carry on intellectual work at home. It is they who start the school \" Kyrle Society/'\nfor beautifying the classrooms with flowers and pictures ; they who spend\nhours for weeks beforehand over rehearsals for the Christmas play or\ntableaux. It is they who initiate the vast amount of charitable work\nnow done in our high-schools out of school hours ; for they know how\nimportant it is to our children's characters to be made aware of the\nsorrow, suffering, and poverty about them.\n\"We hope that enough has been said here to show that although the\ngoal has not been and never can be reached, yet some of the high hopes\nof the Women's Educational Union in 1871 have been fulfilled.\nDISCUSSION.\nThesis : \"In cases where a choice should be made, which should come\nfirst, Latin or some modern language, in the course of study of secondary\nschools ? \"\nDr. C. W. Pearson, of Beloit College, Beloit, Wis. : There are two or three considerations that seem to lie at the very basis of this subject. I am unhappy when I find a\nyoung man presented for examination to enter college who has insufficient instruction\nin Latin, although his German may entitle him to a place in the class. I have a belief\nthat the form of speech which we get in the study of languages is the most valuable\npart. In the Latin language we have a system of forms which are most complete — of\ncases and indexes. The child learns these forms, and they become fixed criteria for\nhim. He expresses a certain thing for that particular form. Jf he learns modern language first, it may be an excellent thing for him afterwards, in conversation and in\npronunciation, but he has not had the drill in form that he gets by a thorough knowledge of the Latin language.\nI have visited parts of Europe, and have been in families where German and French\nare spoken equally well, and I have not found in such families that they have thereby\nacquired that particular drill that our pupils get by a thorough study of the Latin language, in the secondary school. There is a great thing in that it is a part of the drill of\nthe mind. It. causes the mind to fix upon a certain form, just as it is valuable for the\nchild to learn to set type ; he becomes acquainted with the forms of the words. So with\nthe Latin language. He becomes acquainted with the form of the particular word in\na particular case ; and he learns that there are cases, and agreements, and correspondences\nand forces. That is a great thing. And for this reason I should say that the Latin\nlanguage, according to the proposition set forth, should be chosen first.\nThere is one consideration, however, in which the modern language would be very\nvaluable. I believe it is generally understood that in the beginning of any modern\nlanguage, very much of what we know to-day as the modern method should be the\nspeech rather than the form. The pupils are taught also so much of the form in the\ncourse of grammar that they can begin to read, and they learn modern language by\nreading it and observing its form. A great many students take a modern language\nsimply as an opening to the literature. To my mind it seems clear that Latin should\ncome first, and then French naturally follows after the Latin. It is a Latin tongue,\nand it seems to me that French should naturally follow Latin. I might sum up by\nsaying this, that the place of any study in the secondary course should not be fixed\nwholly for the information that is given. If you put in German before the Latin it\nwill be possible for it to be taught scientifically. But if it be taught simply that so\nmany words be learned and so much pronounced, it will not be so valuable. Latin can\nhardly be taught that way.\nIt is taught by the form which is valuable to the student.\n\n"}
{"page": 255, "printed_page": null, "text": "SHOULD\n\nLATIN\n\nTHIGH SHOULD\nBY\n\nW.\n\nOR SOME\n\nGOME\n\nMODERN\n\nLANGUAGE\n\nFIRST, LATIN,\nLANGUAGE?\n\nWTLBERFORCE\n\nCOME\n\nFLR8T ? 235\n\nOR SOME\n\nMODERN\n\nSMITH, ENGLEWOOD,\n\nN. J.\n\n\" In cases where a choice should be made, which should come first, Latin or some\nlern language, in the course of study of secondary schools ?\"\n\nThe question is one of priority only. It assumes that both Latin and\n)me modern language are to be taught, and by this token it appears that\nwe are to discuss the interests of that class of pupils who, more than others,\nenlist our glad and unsparing service, because their study aims not at\nimmediate, material ends, but at that decent store of knowledge, discipline\nof mind, and elevation of sentiment, that make and mark scholarly men.\nIn these pupils the schoolmaster finds grandest opportunity.\nWhether Latin or some modern language should come first, will be best\ndetermined if we remember that both are parts of a comprehensive scheme\nof study in which their place depends largely upon their natural relations\nto other parts.\nThe education of these pupils will proceed mainly by means of mathematics, natural science, and language. In the department of language\nEnglish is of paramount importance. It is to be studied for its own sake;\nLatin and French, German and Greek, partly for their own sake, partly\nfor their contribution to a knowledge of English.\nThe right point of view is had by putting the question third in a series.\nFirst, What is the best course of study in the secondary school, when\nhighest culture is the aim ? Second, What part of this course belongs to\nlanguage study ? Third, what place in the plan for language study shall\nbe given to Latin and some modern language other than English ?\nLet us have the elements of our problem, the pupil and the subjects,\ncorrectly before us.\nThe pupil has a lively faculty for observing and remembering what\ninterests him ; has an eager appetite for things new, is a good worker when\ninterested and conscious of making gains, but is decidedly averse to work\nwhich he doesn't see use in. He is already a proficient student of language bythe \" natural method,\" and has a knowledge of English quite\nadequate to his needs thus far. He can understand English, speak it,\nread it, write it, conforming in the main to conventional spelling, more\nreadily and correctly than the school will enable him ever to speak any\nother tongue. Moreover, he will continue to learn English by the natural method, whether the school make note of this or not.\nAnd what of language ? In it lies, consciously and unconsciously\nwritten, almost all we know of the men and deeds of history.\nIt is almost\n\n"}
{"page": 256, "printed_page": null, "text": "236\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nour sole means of intercourse with our fellow-men. Without it the laws\nof evolution would work backward, and by involution we should become\nanthropoids. Language fixes our modes of thought and sets limits to\nthought. Its domain stretches across indeterminable boundaries into\nthe realms of logic, psychology, ethics, and religion. Its phenomena are\nfruitful of curious truths and stimulating speculations, and are most\nintimately related to life. Therefore we shall not be content to know our\nscholar can use language well for practical purposes ; we shall make this\ninstrument an object of his study until he knows something of its nature\nand history, until he feels wonder and love for the thing by which, intellectual y, helives.\nAt what points the writer thinks Latin and a modern language should\nbe introduced into the work of the seeondaiy school, will appear if he is8\npermitted to outline a course of language study, whose operation he has\nhad occasion to watch and admire. It was reached empirically, by con !\ntinued selection of methods yielding best results, but is believed to rest on\nsound pedagogical principles reinforced by important practical considerations. Itis a six years' course, of which the first two years precede the\nwork commonly recognized as belonging to the secondary school.\nThe work of these two years differs from the usual exercises in reading\nand spelling, in that there is a well-defined purpose and a continuous effort\non the part of the teacher to make it a study in literature, and to awaken\nlively interest on the part of the class in the subject matter of what they\nread. What he finds in books the average child grasps less perfectly tha\nwhat he hears of or sees, because a considerable portion of his mental\nenergy is spent in the labor of recognizing words and gathering in sentences. He has not yet skill to place interpretive emphasis, pause, and\naccent as he passes over new ground, and his rate of reading is so much\nslower than his ability to take in the same matter by ear, that reading is\ndull business. All boys like to have books read to them ; few will read for\nthemselves when they can find anything else to do.\nThe all-important thing is to develop interest, and this is done by\ndwelling less than is usual with classes at the age of ten or twelve upon\nthe language itself, in order to dwell more than is usual upon what it\ncontains. The books read are from standard authors who have a style\nand subject comprehensible by the pupils. The movement of the class is\nrapid, skipping freely and securing much volunteer reading of omitted\nportions. But there is a great deal of discussion, mostly by the class, of\nthe scenes depicted, characters presented, actions and events narrated ;\nof the writer, and the plot and ethics of the story. It is the importance\nattached to this talk, the systematic nature of it, the time allowed to it,\nin the effort to make things in books interesting and real to the juveniles,\nthat entitles what they call lessons in reading and spelling to be designated as work in literature.\n\n"}
{"page": 257, "printed_page": null, "text": "SHOULD\n\nLATIN\n\nOR SOME\n\nMODERN\n\nLANGUAGE\n\nGOME\n\nFIRST?\n\n237\n\nAfter two years of this, and in what is usually the first year of the\nsecondary school, the English class, while still reading under criticism as\nmatters elocutionary, makes this advance, that there is less of comlent upon the contents of their book than upon its language, attention\n)eing given mainly to rhetorical qualities. Of course this is rhetoric for\n:he boy; elementary, practical, found in what he reads and writes.\nTechnical terms are introduced when their use is convenient, but no\nittempt whatever is made to present all the chapters of a treatise on\nrhetoric, or observe their due proportions. Boys of thirteen naturally\nlike poetry better than prose, impassioned oratory better than speech less\nrich in rhetorical features, and with a little encouragement and teaching\nthey become bold and original and thoughtful critics. They have an ear\nfor the melody of a line or the correctness of a rhyme, as they have an ear\nfor music. They can appreciate the force and beauty of a simile or meta)hor, are responsive to pathos and humor, are sensitive to differences of\n3tyle, as a child is sensitive to the parent's tone and manner. They learn\nto pronounce upon questions of propriety, of clearness and force, of order\nin narration and argumentation. They will grasp the idea of paragraphing, of periodic and of loose sentence construction. Boys are, indeed,\nexcessively fond of brilliant rhetoric, and are liable to be misled by florid\nwriting ; and yet they learn to detect a line masquerading as poetry, which,\nstripped of its rhyme and restored to its natural order, is found to be\n?heer commonplace. The language of poetry and passion is simple. The\nJible, Shakespeare, Longfellow, and Charles Dudley Warner will furnish\nthe right sort of material. There is no other part of the school course\nwhich affords such opportunity for use of the Socratic method. The\njnthusiasm that can be aroused, and the high order of critical work that\ncan be done, would astonish one who has not seen rhetoric taught at this\nstage and in this way. The work satisfies the teacher that he is calling\ninto healthy and effective activity powers just ready for use, and that he\nis establishing friendship between his pupils and the masters of English\nliterature.\nIn the next year the pupils pass from the dynamics to the statics of\nlanguage ; to formal grammar, with a text-book. They have learned\nto enjoy language in action, bringing them knowledge and entertainment, glowing with warmth and power of life. Now they are to take\nportions of its anatomy for dissection ; are to classify and describe the\nparts and their relations.\nBut as part of their preparation for study of English grammar, the\nclass for a year or more studied Latin.\nNow, the introduction of Latin a year or more before English grammar\nis regularly studied, or any other modern language attempted, is our\nanswer to the question proposed to us, and calls for explanation and\ndefense.\n\n"}
{"page": 258, "printed_page": null, "text": "238\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nLet me say in passing that the fifth year of the course described employs\na text-book in rhetoric ; the sixth year attempts the study of half a dozen\ngreat writers, from whom a notion of the history of our literature may be\ngained ; also that the pupil is not wholly ignorant of formal gramma r\nwhen he begins to use a text-book, because it has been convenient to use\nsome of its terms and rules in the work of the earlier years already\ndescribed, and in the attention which all his teachers give the pupil'a\nEnglish, remembering that he studies English under them all, after the\n\" natural method.\"\nBut, to explain why Latin comes first. Grammar is a science treating\nof phenomena and laws having their basis in the nature of things and the\nnature of mind. The grammars of different languages, at least of those\nso nearly related as the Indo-European, exhibit substantial identity,\nattended by much difference in detail. In all of them appear a classification of words into certain parts of speech, distinctions of number, case,\ntense, person, mode, with more or less inflection of words to correspond,\nthe several concords, and other syntactical relations.\nIt is important that when the pupil is of age to deal with these matters\nthey be presented to him by the language which will give him the clearest\nand most sufficient notions of general grammar. Latin is chosen for the\npurpose, because, as compared with other languages the pupil will study,\nit is complete, is logical in its development of forms, consistent in observance of its own laws, and is indexed throughout by a full inflection. An\narmy of words wherein all ranks are in appropriate uniform, and all\nbodies are under suitable banners, shows its organization more plainly than\ndoes an army of words with banners and uniforms mostly lost. The effort\nin learning declensions and paradigms is well repaid by the fact that in\nLatin a noun looks like a noun, and a verb looks like a verb ; that subjects\nand objects are distinguishable not merely by their function, but also by\ntheir endings ; that, generally, where a distinction is to be made a difference in form appears.\nLatin has other advantages, as compared with English, for the purpose\nof teaching grammar. It has higher disciplinary value. No school-book\nhas so confused a notion of its own mission, and more regularly fails of\nusefulness, than the English grammar. It is usually given pupils whose\nprevious study has not been wisely preparatory to it. They haven't the\nkind of interest and knowledge of language that lead one to care fcr\ngrammatical details. They don't believe in its value ; their common sense\ntelling them that the effect upon their habits of speech will be insignificant inview of the time consumed, and of other purposes in grammar\nthey have scarcely any apprehension. A few lessons on \" shall and will,\"\nformation of plurals, use of relative pronouns, and one or two other topics\nmight include everything in the book which is put to practical use.\nEnglish is unsuitable for disciplinary purposes because the child knows\n\n"}
{"page": 259, "printed_page": null, "text": "SHOULD\n\nLATIN\n\nOR SOME\n\nMODERN\n\nLANGUAGE\n\nCOME\n\nFIRST?\n\n239\n\ntoo much about it. So much is obvious, familiar fact, that the things he\nis to learn are inconspicuous to him. As in review lessons, he rehearses\nnine-tenths that he knows, to get one-tenth that he doesn't know. That\nsort of study is not invigorating.\nThe Latin has highest disciplinary value at this stage. It requires\nmemory and carefulness. The pupil knows, and the teacher knows, as\naccurately as in spelling or arithmetic, whether the lesson is learned or\nnot. The sum of knowledge of the subject which the pupil should have\nat any time is an exact quantity.\nDiligence is encouraged by manifest\nhe\nThe pupil gives close attention to forms and rules because\nIdvance.\nnds them useful ; without them he cannot make Latin yield up its\nleaning. All this means accuracy in work.\nIt is a further advantage, in giving the foundational knowledge of genral grammar, that we have English at hand for use in illustration and\nomparison.\nIndeed, more light may be thrown upon English, the origin of its\nidioms and derivation of its words, by its use in teaching Latin, than in\nteaching English directly. When later, with riper mind, the pupil returns to examine the grammarless tongue, he will be prepared to detect\nin this composite language the remnants of earlier inflectional systems,\nand to consider in the light of their history and the usage of another\npeople, those forms of speech over which the writers of school grammars\nrever dispute.\nBut why not use a modern language to teach general grammar ?\nBecause, although French and German exhibit the subject more fully\nan English, they are, at nearly every point mentioned, inferior to Latin\nr this purpose.\nBut the early introduction of a modern language is\nvocated on other grounds than those adduced in support of an early\nginning in Latin, and chiefly by those persons who contend for what\ney call a conversational or natural method of teaching.\nWe must object to their claim; first, because the end they aim at — a\nnversational command of the language — is impracticable.\nThe condions of success are impossible in school.\nTo accomplish anything worth\nile in this direction, the pupil should, by foreign residence, be placed\nere the language he is studying is the only one he hears. Conversation\nthe classroom serves only to enliven the work.\nConversational command of the foreign tongues, while an admirable\ncomplishment for those whose tastes, abilities, and circumstances enable\nem to acquire it readily, has for Americans no practical value. Except\nong newly arrived immigrants, they rarely find an occasion when\nnglish will not serve their purpose best.\nIf it were possible to so isolate an American boy from English surundings, and give him such use of foreign tongues that at length he\nould speak several, we should thereby make him the peer of a continental\n\n"}
{"page": 260, "printed_page": null, "text": "240\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nhotel porter or the cicerone of a Cook's tourist party, not an educated\nman. Glibness, in one tongue or many, may coexist with intellectual\nindigence.\nAs to the method, it is by no means clear that the method of the child\nis the method natural for an adult. The man who has made $10,000\ndoes not make the second $10,000 in the same way.\nThe child has no other way to acquire than by imitation, and by units.\nBut he who knows one language is a hundred per cent, better off than the\ninfant, as regards learning another.\nPart of the new language needs only to be recognized as being part also\nof his own ; and in adding what is foreign he can profit, as a child cannot,\nby generalizations, and find in his study a far higher sort of mental\nexercise.\nThe object of modern language study in our schools is mental discipline\nand reflex benefit to English, and such knowledge of German and French\nas all cultured people desire, satisfying the scholarly temper that would\nnot willingly be ignorant of the speech, the history, or the institutions of\nthose great nations. It is desirable and feasible to give such facility in\nreading these languages as will serve the needs of men who find the work\nof their professional brethren in France and Germany only in monographs and periodicals never translated ; also, to furnish those who may\ndesire to perfect their knowledge of these tongues with a good foundation\nfor their study. Cultured Americans find such use for a reading knowledge of French and German, that their school attainments in this direction less often than most other studies sink into utter desuetude.\nAll our purposes will be served if Latin furnish the basis of grammatical science, and subsequent studies follow the comparative method.\nNarrative of the school course exemplifying these ideas stopped at the\npoint where Latin had been taught a year or more, and English, Greek,\nGerman, or French might- be introduced, because then the question\nassigned was answered. But the shortening and enriching of the school\ncourse that results in the years following are the best justification of the\nplan.\nTo read the Greek grammar with a class of beginners, marking one\npassage to be memorized or referred to, because it contains something\npeculiar to Greek; marking the next as already learned, inasmuch as it\nsets forth a principle familiar in English or Latin, discovers to them the\ngratifying truth, to which they are entitled, that even in beginning they\nknow considerable Greek, and wonderfully adds to their zest.\nTo show a class beginning German that, like Latin, it has grammatical\ngender and inflects its adjectives ; like English, it makes large use of\nauxiliaries, and relies much upon the order of words to express its meaning,\nis to employ pupils in a higher sort of thinking than characterizes the\nusual beginnings in languages.\n\n"}
{"page": 261, "printed_page": null, "text": "DISCUSSION.\n\n241\n\nDISCUSSION.\nMr. Ray Geeene Huling : Are we to follow the historical method, and, because the\nRomans lived before the French, take Latin before the French in our school work ?\nOr are we to follow the system that is more truly pedagogical, and proceed from the\nknown to the unknown ; that is, from the less difficult to the more difficult ? We have\nin English practically an uninflected language. The inflections are so slight, we cannot consider them in comparison with French and German. It would seem much more\nfeasible that we should proceed first and fix that excellent basis of English, for which\nMr. Smith has so eloquently given us a plea, and then take the modern language first\nwhich is the least difficult to those who have this preparation ; and that would seem to\nme to be French. I would plead a little more strongly than either of these gentlemen,\nMr. Pearson and Mr. Smith, have for a conversational element in the modern languages. Now the success of the conversational study depends very much, it seems to\nme. upon the early approach to these languages. We must take the child while he is\nin the imitative rather than the logical stage ; we must take him while his vocal organs\nare plastic.\nDr. Mackenzie, the Chairman : 1 am not going to make a speech, but I want to felicitate the congress on having had this admirable paper by Mr. Smith. It is one of the\nvery thoughtful papers that have been presented, in my judgment. I am very glad\nthat it is to be included in the public proceedings of this congress, and I think you will\nfind that when you come to read it it will bear rich results. I cannot agree with Mr.\nHuling. If you will observe this question, you will notice that it is very carefully\ndrawn : In secondary schools, where a choice should be made, which should come\nfirst, Latin, or some modern language ? I do not believe, first and last, that we have\nanything to do with the speaking or conversational use of the modern languages in the\nsecondary school. And the sooner that heresy is banished from the secondary school\nthe clearer the air will be. It is not only slaying its thousands but its tens of thousands. Itis utterly impossible to achieve conversational results in French or German\nin secondary schools. If you take your boy before the organs of speech are set, as Mr.\nCollar has said, previous to twelve, and try by all means to get his organs of speech in\ngood working order, he will learn to pronounce the language ; after that he can learn it\nas well at thirty.\nMr. BoiiTWOOD, Evanston, 111. : I have never tried the experiment of giving modern\nlanguages first, and then following it by Latin ; but I have tried this experiment,\nin my course. Pupils were required to take Latin a year, and then they had their\noption to take German or Latin for three years. I tried Latin at the beginning, and at\nthe end German. At the end of the year enough pupils elected German to take it up\nthe second year. At the end of two years the section that had carried Latin one year\nwas in advance of the section that had taken German three years. I had a very\nremarkable experience. A boy came to me once, at eighteen, who had spoken German,\nand only German, until he was nine years old. He was born in Germany, and brought\nto this country by his parents, who died. An American family brought him up. At\neighteen he conceived the idea that he would like to study German ; and I never had a\npupil in German who had to work so hard to learn German pronunciation. I am fully\nsatisfied that Latin is the best of all things to secure the study of a language which\ncalls for inflections in any way ; that the order of putting Latin before French is\npreferable.\nMr. Poynter : I desire to say that the paper presented by Mr. Smith is the method\npursued fifty years ago by the most successful teacher of secondary schools I have ever\nknown in my life. So the old and new are meeting here to-day.\nMr. Bartholomew, of Louisville, Ky. : I would like, if we could, in this discussion,\nto find some way or other that we could all agree upon, so that we might go back to our\nrespective schools and test it, and come back next year and give our experiences in this\nline.\n\n"}
{"page": 262, "printed_page": null, "text": "242\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nThe Chairman : That is what they attempted in the French Exposition ; but I\nfancy if we attempted it here we should never get back to our schools. Of course we\nmust assume that English is a constant language in all these courses. The question is\nnot between Latin and English ; it is between Latin and one of the common modern\nlanguages. I think the hour has arrived for the adjournment of this congress, and I\ndesire to extend, in behalf of Mr. Huling and myself, our very cordial thanks to the\nmembers of the congress who have cooperated with us in making the work so suggestive\nand profitable.\n\n"}
{"page": 263, "printed_page": null, "text": "_\n\nCONGRESS OF ELEMENTARY\nSECRETARY'S\n\nEDUCATION.\n\nREPORT.\n\nThe Congress of Elementary Education met in Hall of Washington, of Memorial Art\nPalace, Chicago. General John Eaton, ex-Commissioner of Education, presided. The\nChairman called the congress to order at 9 30 a.m., and delivered the opening address.\nThe first regular paper of the session was read by Joseph L. Pickard, LL.D., of Iowa\nCity. Iowa. Subject : \" Essentials in a Course of Study for Children between the Ages\nof Six and Fourteen Years.\"\nSuperintendent L. H. Jones, of Indianapolis, Ind. , read a paper discussing the following topics of the subject : \" Should Morals, Language, Number, Geography, History of the Country, Writing, and Drawing be considered the Essentials of the Course\nof Study for the Eight Years of Elementary Instruction, the Pupils being from Six to\nFourteen Years of Age ?\" The discussion was continued by Dr. B. A. Hinsdale, Professor of Pedagogy in the University of Michigan.\nA paper was read by B. Buisson, Delegate from the Ministry of Public Instruction\nin France, considering \" Some Aspects of the Curriculum of Elementary Schools in\nFrance.\"\nProfessor C. M. Woodward, of Washington University, St. Louis, Mo., read a paper\non \" What should be the Essential Branches of the Elementary Course of Study to meet\nthe Industrial Needs of the Localities ?\"\ndent\nThis subject was further considered in a paper by Albert P. Marble, Superinten\nI\nSchools, Worcester, Mass.\nThe subject was discussed by G. W. Hicks, Inspector of Schools, Jamaica, West Indies,\nth reference to race characteristics.\nSECOND\n\nAND\n\nTHIRD\n\nSESSIONS.\n\nTh\nThese sessions of the Congress of Elementary Education were held under charge of\nthe National Geographic Society.\n•Theproceedings were reported, but not furnished for publication in this volume.\nFOURTH\n\nSESSION— Friday, July 28, 1893.\n\nThe Congress of Elementary Education, General John Eaton presiding, assembled at\n9.30 a.m., Friday, July 28th.\nSuperintendent W. A. Mowry, of Salem, Mass., read a paper.\nSubject: \"What\nSpecial Work should be undertaken in the Elementary Schools to prepare the Pupils\nfor the Duties of Citizenship ? \"\nMiss Catharine H. Spence, of Adelaide, South Australia, read a paper on \" The Value\n\n"}
{"page": 264, "printed_page": null, "text": "244\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nof Elementary Schools for the Social Virtues and for Training for the Right Exercise of\nthe Duties of Citizens. \"\nMrs. Mary H. Peabody presented methods of \" Teaching History to Children \" which\nwere very suggestive.\n\" School Savings Banks in the United States\" was the subject of a paper by J. H.\nThiry, of Long Island City, N. Y. ; M. Gustave Serrurier, of Havre, Prance, gave an\naccount of \" School Savings Banks in France.\"\nThe \" Public Educational System of Sweden \" was described in a paper by N. G. W.\nLagerstedt, Ph.D., of Stockholm. Sweden.\nA paper on \" Religion in the School \" was read by Dr. E. E. White, of Columbus, Ohio.\nThis subject was discussed by Z. Richards, of Washington, D. C, and by George\nP. Brown, of Bloomington, 111.\n\" The Adaptation of Methods of Instruction to Special Conditions of the Child \"\nwas practically illustrated by the presence of Helen Keller — both blind and deaf — and\nher teacher, Miss Sullivan, who showed how her pupil had been taught to read with\nher fingers from the lips of her teacher, and also how to talk.\nProfessor Ergraff Kovalevsky, of Russia, read a paper on \" Should Rural Schools\nIntroduce Agriculture, Chemistry, Agricultural Botany, or Arboriculture ?\"\nA paper on \" Confucius and his Educational Ideas \" was read in German by Hidesaburo Eudo, a delegate from the Royal Educational Society of Japan, and translated for\npublication.\nA paper on \" The Use of Magic Lanterns in Schools \" was read in French by Gustave\nSerrurier, of Havre, France, and translated for publication.\nThe paper by James Stormont Small, of Auckland, New Zealand, on \"Schools for\nNeglected Children,\" was not read before this Congress, but was submitted for publication.\nIn closing the last session of the Congress of Elementary Education the Chairman\nsaid : \" We are about to close our exercises, and I have no doubt that I express the\nsentiment of those present and of those who have been present at our different sessions,\nwhen I thank the speakers, and thank the officers who have provided this feast for us,\nand thank the secretaries and various assistants ; and now it remains for me to thank\nall who have in any way made efficient and interesting these gatherings, and to declare\nthis department of the International Congress adjourned.\"\n\nLIST OF PERSONS ACCEPTING THE OFFICE OF HONORARY VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE DEPARTMENT CONGRESS OF ELEMENTARY\nEDUCATION.\nAFRICA.\n\nBELGIUM.\n\nRev. D. D. Fraser, Inspector of Schools, Cape\nM. T. Luyssen, Inspector-General of Instruction,\nTown, Cape of Good Hope.\n'\nBruges.\nBERMUDA.\nARGENTINE REPUBLIC.\nGeorge\nSimpson,\nClerk\nto the Education Board.\nDr. Juan M. de Vedia, Inspector of Primary Instruction, Buenos Ayres.\nBRAZIL.\nAUSTRALASIA.\nDr j B Silvado, School Inspector, Rio da\nJaneiro.\nJames C. Dickenson, Inspector of Schools, Auckland. New Zealand.\nSra. Amelia Fernandes da Costa, Rio de Janeiro.\nWilliam\nFidler, M.A., Head Master North Cote\nSchools, Auckland, New Zealand.\nCANADA.\nAlfred Jackson, Inspector of Schools, Stawell,\n.\nR. W.Doan, Secretary Ontario Educational AssociaVictoria.\nE. Johnson, Esq., Under-Secretary\nDepartment Hon, Toronto, Ontario.\n__*_j\nPublic Instruction, Sydney, New South Wales. Rev. J. Somerville, M.A., Owen Sound, Ontario.\nlliam Murray, Inspector of Schools, Taranaki,\nNew Zealand.\nory Shelton, Inspector of Schools, Ballarat, Vic- SetSor R. Espino\ntoria.\nti°ni Quito.\n\n"}
{"page": 265, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIST OF HONORARY\nEGYPT.\nM. Douglas Dunlop, Inspector of Public Instruction, Cairo.\nFRANCE.\nM. Z. Bailliart, Inspector Academy of Besancon.\nM. P. L. Bianconi, Inspector Academy of SaintEtienne.\nI. Oh. Plamand, Inspector Academy of Belfort.\nM. Fraissenet, Inspector Academy of Versailles.\nM. Robin, Orphelinat Prevost, Cempuis, SeineOise.\nHe.Oise.\nRobin, Orphelinat Ptevost, Cempuis, SeineM. Neel. Rueil, Seine-et-Oise.\nM. J. Poirier, Inspector Academy of Lyon.\nM. I. Pouillot, Inspector Academy of Montauban.\nA. Thermes, Inspector Academy d'Aix.\nFRENCH\n\nCOLONIES.\n\nM. Champon. Director of Normal School, BasseTerre, Guadeloupe.\nGERMANY.\nHerr Adler, Teacher, Nenfahrwasser, W. Pr.\nHerr K. Bast, Teacher, Hamburg.\nHerr Boettcher, Teacher Secondary School, President Provincial Tenchers' Association, Posen.\nHerrM. Brodfiihrer, School Councilor, Coburg.\nHerr Wilh. Biilow, Head Master, Bochum, Westphalia.\nlerrG. Cabjolsky, Teacher, Gumbinnen.\nRittmeister A. von Clausen-Kaas, Dresden.\n\"lerrKonigsberg,\nW. A. Fett,\nPr. Teacher and Stenographer,\nHerr Albert Fricke, Teacher, Braunschweig.\nFrl. Auguste Forster, Teacher, Cassel.\nFrl. ruhe.\nA. Jungk, Principal of Girls' School, KarlsHerr F. Konstmann, Teacher, Flensburg.\nFrl. Ida H. Klockow, Teacher, Berlin.\nFrl. Marie Krause, Directress Higher School and\nSeminary for Girls, KOnigsberg.\nHerr F. Kroeger, Headmaster, Flensbunr.\nFrl. Bertha von der Lage, Teacher, and Member\nTeachers' Association of Buenos Ayres, Berlin.\nHerr Wm. Meyer-Markau, Teacher, Duisburg.\nFrl. M. Paehlmann, Principal Higher School for\nGirls, Tilsit.\nCantor Max Ueberschaer. Teacher and Editor.\nFrl. T. Willborn. Principal of Higher School for\nGirls, Schwerin.\nGREAT\n\nBRITAIN.\n\nENGLAND.\n\nRev. H. G. Alington, Inspector of Schools, Tunbridge Wells.\nH. J. Barnaby, Esq., East Dereham.\nA. Cartwrigbt, Inspector of Schools, Harborough.\nC. G. Colson, H. M., Inspector of Schools, York.\nJ. C. Colvill, Inspector of Schools, Shrewsbury.\nC. J. Cockburn, School Board, Leeds.\nT. Buxton Morris, Esq., Chairman of the Committee* of the British and Foreign Society,\nIsleworth.\n•Tohn F. Moss, School Board, Sheffield.\nJ. W. Munston, Head Master Alderman Newton's\nHigher Grade School, Leicester.\nGeorge Ricks, London School Board, London.\nT. W. Dan by. Inspector of Schools.\nRev. C. D. Du Port, H. M., Inspector of Schools,\nMetropolitan Division Educational Department,\nWhitehall. London.\nC. H. B. Elliott, Inspector of Schools, Clifton,\nBristol.\nL. M. Field, Inspector of Schools, Ingatestone.\nA. B. Fisher, Inspector of Schools, Windermere.\nArthur\nTrent.Fox, Broadway Board School, Burton-on-\n\nVICE-PRESIDENTS.\n\n245\n\nAlbert Gill, Head Teacher Elementary School,\nBradford.\nJohn James Graves, Endowed School, Northampton.\nJames Hanson, Chairman of Bradford School\nBoard, Bradford.\nH. E. B. Harrison, Inspector of Schools, LiverJ. B. Haslam, Inspector of Schools, Rugby.\nE. R.\nHayter, Master of the Bruton National\npool.\nSchool, Brnton.\nJohn Charles Horobin, Training College, Homerton,\nN.E.\nE. M. Sneyd Kynnersley, Inspector of Schools,\nChester.\nA. G. Legard, Inspector of Schools, Harrogate.\nJ. Lomax, Inspector of Schools, Manchester.\nHenry Lynn, School Board of London, London.\nGeorge MacDonald, Esq., H. M., Inspector of\nSchools, Metropolitan Division Educational\nDepartment, Whitehall, S.W., London.\nF. W. H. Myers, Inspector of Schools, Cambridge.\nWilliam Oulton, Liverpool School Board, LiverRev. Carlisle.\nC. H. Parez, Inspector of Schools, Stanwix,\npool. Peaker, Board School, Leeds.\nFrederick\nDr. Benj. Ward Richardson, F.R.S., London.\nAlfred Richmond, Board School, Peckham.\nArthur C. Rogers, President of the Voluntary\nTeachers' Association,\nGreen-coat Schools,\nCamberwell,\nS.E.\nT. G. Hooper, Inspector of Schools, High Harrogate.\nRev. terbury.\nC. F. Routledge, Inspector of Schools, CanWilliam Sinclair, Lancasterian Board Schools,\nSheffield.\nJ. Tillard, Inspector of Schools, Norwich.\nW. P. Turnbull, Inspector of Schools, Wolverhampton.\nWilliam Wardale, Wesleyan School, Manchester.\nS. R. Wilson, Esq., Inspector of Schools, Saltburnby- the -Sea.\nW. B. S. Yarde, Inspector of Schools, Stafford.\nSamuel Haley, Borough West School, Bradford.\nIsaac Pitman, Phonetic Institute, Bath.\nJ. W. Rylance, Leicester.\nR. Sykes, Office Executive N. U. E. T., London.\nRichard Waddington, Office Executive N. U. E. T.,\nLondon.\nSCOTLAND.\n\nThomas Hector, School Board, Aberdeen.\nW. Bathgate, Inspector of Schools, Glasgow.\nRobert Calder, Inspector of Schools, Broughty\nFerry, N. B.\nR. Harvev, Inspector of Schools, Ayr, N. B.\nWilliam jolly, Inspector of Schools, Glasgow.\nA. E. Scougal, Esq., Inspector of Schools, 12 Blantyre Terrace, Edinburgh.\nJ. W. Marshall, Inspector of Schools, Whitehall,\nAyr, N. B.\nJames Matthews, Esq., Corstorphine.\nDr. James Smith, Inspector of Schools, Glasgow.\nDr. T. N. Stewart, Chief Inspector of Schools,\nAberdeen.\n\nW. J.\nBrowne, Esq., District Inspector of Schools,\nOmagh.\nI. Gordon, Esq., District Inspector of Schools, Belfast.\nJ. J. Hynes, Esq., District Inspector of Schools,\nMallow.\nJ. Moran, LL.D., District Inspector of Schools,\nTrim.\nS. E. Stronge, Esq., District Inspector of Schools,\nWaterford.\nJoseph Radley,\nPrincipal Friends' Ulster Provincial School, Lisburn.\nPhilip Ward, Esq., Presidentof the Irish National\nPoachers' Organization, Dublin.\nTes\n\n"}
{"page": 266, "printed_page": null, "text": "246\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nHAWAII.\nRev. olulu.\nA. Mackintosh, Principal Royal School, HonRev. William B. Oleson, Principal Kamehameha\nSchool, Honolulu.\nProf. Henry S. Townsend, Principal Lahainaluna\nSeminary, Lahaina.\nITALY.\nDr. M. de Cristoforis, Milan.\nJAMAICA.\nGeorge Hicks, Assistant Inspector of Schools,\nKingston.\nJ. R. Williams, M.A., Assistant Inspector of\nSchools, Kingston.\nJAPAN.\nMr. Higaki Naosuke, Inspector of Schools,\nTokyo.\nMr. Koba Sadataka, Councilor of Department of\nEducation, Tokyo.\nMr. lsawa Shuji, Director of Bureau of Compilation in Department of Education, Tokyo.\nMr. Aoki Tamatsu, Secretary of Education, Tokyo.\nMr. Kota Nakabara, Tortori-ken.\nMEXICO.\nDon Rodolfo\nMenendez,\nDirector of Primary\nSchool, Merida de Yucatan.\nNETHERLANDS.\nDr. F. G. Groneman, Director Higher State Burgher-School, Groningen.\nW. J. G. Baron van Oldeneel, Oosterhout.\nDr. J. J. Le Roy, Director Burgher Evening School,\nDeventer.\nMr. H. D. van Ketwich Verschuur, Inspector of\nSchools, Leeuwarden.\nSWITZERLAND.\nDr. J. Nuesch, Teacher Real-School, Schaffhausen.\nDr. Schirmer, Teacher, Enge.\nURUGUAY.\nDon Julian O. Miranda, Inspector of Schools, Montevideo.\nDon Alberto Gomez Ruano, Director of Library\nand Pedagogical Musenm, and Delegate to the\nWorld's Columbian Exposition, Montevideo.\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES.\n\nARKANSAS.\nHon. R. H. Parbam, Principal Scott School, Little\nRock.\nCALIFORNIA.\nM. Babcock, Deputy Superintendent Schools, San\nFrancisco.\nHamilton Wallace, Principal High-school, Stockton.\nCOLORADO. ,\nT. O. Baker, Superintendent Schools, Durango.\nCONNECTICUT.\nS. P. Willard, Agent State Board of Education,\nColchester.\nDISTRICT OF COLUMBIA.\nN. P. Gage, Supervising Principal, Washington.\nA. T. Stuart, Supervising Principal, Washington.\nGEORGIA.\nD. Q. Abbott, Assistant Superintendent Schools,\nMacon.\nILLINOIS.\nH. L. Boltwood, Evanston,\nPrincipal Evanston\nTownship High-school.\nOrville T. Bright. Superintendent, Englewood.\nP. R. Walker, Superintendent Schools, Rockford.\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nMiss Marv E. Burt, Chicago.\nMrs. Ella F. Young, Chicago.\nDr. Samuel Willard, Chicago.\nINDIANA\nR. I. Hamilton, Superintendent Schools, Huntington.\nIOWA.\nThomas Hardie, Secretary Board of Education,\nDubuque.\nLOUISIANA.\nWilliam Beer, Howard\nMemorial\nLibrary, New\nOrleans.\nCharles G. Gill, Tulane University, New Orleans.\nMAINE.\nHon. R. E. Gould, Superintendent Schools, Biddoford.\nMARYLAND.\nO. H. Bruce, Principal Schools, Westernport.\nMASSACHUSETTS.\nT. W. Bicknell, Boston, Publisher.\nRev. A. I). Mayo, Boston.\nMrs. L. P. Hopkins, Supervisor Schools, Boston.\nGeorge H. Martin, Agent State Board of Education,\nDr. W. A. Mowry, Superintendent Schools, Salem.\nJamesLynn.\nA. Page, Dwight School, Boston.\nMiss L. H. Pinpree, Supervisor Schools, Boston.\nRobert Swan, Winthrop School, Boston.\nB. F. Tweed, Cambridgeport.\nG. A. Walton, Agent State Board of Education,\nWest Newton.\nMICHIGAN.\nJ. M. Hall, Superintendent Bay View Educational\nAssembly, Flint.\nDavid\ntroit.Parsons, Ex-Superintendent Schools, DeMINNESOTA.\nHon. Robert L. Nix, Superintendent Schools, New\nUlm.\nNEBRASKA.\nbury.\nHon. C. P. Cary, Superintendent Schools, FairGrace Bibb Sudborough, Principal Training School,\nOmaha.\nNEW JERSEY.\nHon. Frank O. Briggs, School Board, Trenton.\nJohn Terhune, County Superintendent, HackenNEW YORK.\nCol. George T. Balch, Board of Education, NewYork.\nCalvin Patterson, Principal Central School, BrookEdgarlyn.Dubs Shinier. School of Pedagogy.\nMrs. Lilly Lord Tifft, School Examiner, Buffalo.\nNORTH CAROLINA.\nMiss Amy M. Bradley, Wilmington.\nOHIO.\nL. W. Day, Editor Push, Cleveland.\nPENNSYLVANIA.\nHon. A. J. Morrison, Assistant Superintendent\nSchools, Philadelphia.\nHon. J. F. C. Sickel, Assistant Superintendent\nSchools, Philadelphia.\nSOUTH CAROLINA.\nHon. D. B. Johnson, Superintendent\nSchools,\nColumbia.\nTEXAS.\nJ. B. Winn, Superintendent Schools, Austin.\nWASHINGTON.\nburg.\nProf. W. N. Hull, State Normal School, Ellens-\n\n"}
{"page": 267, "printed_page": null, "text": "ELEMENTARY\nTHE\nBY\n\nGEN.\n\nCHAIRMAN'S\nJOHN\n\nEATON,\n\nEDUCATION.\nOPENING\n\nEX-COMMISSIONER\n\nADDRESS.\nOF\n\nEDUCATION.\n\nLadies and Gentlemen :— In the performance of the duty assigned me\nat this hour, you will not thank me if by extended remarks I delay the\nfeast of wisdom gathered here from the four quarters of the educational\nworld for your enjoyment. We are to address ourselves to elementary\neducation.\nAny department of education is too important to be belittled by comparison. We disparage none, but we must not fail to estimate at its true\nvalue that assigned us for our attention. All worthy education appeals\nto the sublimest considerations.\nHow tremendous the consequence of\n■■\ny formative touch of man's nature, physical, mental, or moral !\nAll that may be said of education in general, bears upon elementary\ninstruction, including, as it does, that which is imparted in the first eight\nyears of school attendance, or in the ages from six to fourteen. All other\ndivisions of educational work must be limited to a number less than the\nwhole. They may deal with data more profound, complex, and difficult,\nand lead the student farther into specialties, trades, arts, sciences, or\nphilosophy.\nBut elementary education, though not occupied with the highest\nreaches of subjects taught, must direct their beginnings. How manifold\nare these sources of the profoundest currents of thought encountered in\nlater life ! In the child are all the elements of the future man. Besides,\nthe mind is less self-directed, and more dependent upon the teacher.\nHere the teacher must not only be master of his subjects, as elsewhere, he\nmust have the power to simplify and adapt them. Moreover, there is no\nlimitation to the number due to elementary instruction less than the total\nof child life ; it should be for all mankind. Here all must start ; through\nthis door all must enter their specialties of toil of brain or hand. Even\nthe blind, deaf, dumb, and feeble-minded — the exceptional by nature — are\nnot excepted here. There must be adaptations to them. Here all roads\nare one; no child is too perfect or too defective to enter. Beyond, the\npaths are many, and open to choice, and less numbers travel them.\nMuch is said of the effect of the \" start upon the finish.\" The marksman must get a \"good ready,\" or expect to hit wide of the mark. The\nhigher the object, the more distant the star to be reached by the eye,\n\n"}
{"page": 268, "printed_page": null, "text": "248\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nthe more need of accuracy of aim and method. But in education there\nis error at every step, error by nature, error in the home, community,\nschool.\nEvery grade of teaching is taxed with correction.\nHowever defective nature may be in substantially normal constitutions\nthat survive the age of six, the errors acquired are too numerous and\nserious for description. Every higher grade of work is charging fault\nupon its predecessor. So imperfect are methods, that the very process\nof correction adds defects. Unfortunately, addition of mistakes does not\ndiminish as the youth advances. Sometimes the highest instruction is\nchained to the worst methods.\nNot the power to educate, but the mastery of a subject, has been the\nprime test of the qualification of the teacher. The abstraction admissible for adult minds has been imposed upon the child when his mental\naction is most dependent upon the senses and sensibilities, and all things\nmust be brought to him in the most concrete forms. Methods most tit\nin professional or superior instruction may be fatal in elementary stages.\nHere we meet, in a special form, the interdependence of all educational\nwork. We are not only forced to see how difficult it is to set each division\noff by itself, but what care there must be in selection and adaptation.\n. What subjects are universal ? What are special ? What subjects and\nconditions belong to this age of the pupil ? How must they be modified\nto his nature, or race, or order of development, or environment, physical,\nsocial, political, or religious ?\nEvery other grade is interested that elementary education should be\nuniversal ; that its principles and methods should be free from error.\nEvery grade must share in promoting social, religious, and political\nopinions and actions to assure this result. All, in all grades, must unite\nagainst pernicious laws and customs which destroy or pervert childhood,\nthat period of life so dependent upon maturity, and assigned by the\nCreator to preparation for responsibility, self-direction, and the assumption of the duties of life. More than this, all grades must have intimate\nacquaintance and sympathy with each other. Often they can aid each\nother in discovering and making improvements, and thus promote their\nown and each other's efficiency. Often the resistance to some essential\nchange in one grade may be founded in another. There must be clear\nand comprehensive vision and wise action. Elementary education, we say,\nmust share in all that is general ; must sympathize and must charge itself\nwith the responsibility of enlarging attendance ; of promoting its pupils\nto advanced work as free as may be from defects in ideas, habits, and\ncharacter.\nAgain, however powerful in their effects other grades of instruction may\nbe, none save this deals with the nature of man when it is as susceptible\nto impression as it is during the ages of six to fourteen.\nAll educational literature accentuates the influence of the impressions\n\n"}
{"page": 269, "printed_page": null, "text": "249\nTHE CHAIRMAN'S\n\nOPENING\n\nADDRESS.\n\nof this period upon all future activities. The tinkling of a bell in the\nAlpine fastnesses may set in motion the avalanche ; and yet no figure of\nspeech can set forth the sensitiveness of these years, or the tenacity of\nimpressions, and consequently their far-reaching influence. Do men seek\nto perpetuate their memory in brass and stone ? When all these memories shall have perished, some words, some truth impressed on youthful\nlinds, shall live immortal. In view of these responsibilities it is not\nsurprising that great reforms in education have been concentrated upon\nelementary instruction, or that legislation and taxation expend their\nefforts upon it, or that educational literature and organization are occupied\nwith it.\nTeachers' institutes and normal schools are provided for the preparation of elementary teachers. Nor is it surprising that a revival of education\nin the past should have marked its supremacy by selecting its best teachers\nfor elementary grades. But to gain a deep sense of the import of the\nrork we represent, we need make no comparison with other phases of\neducation.\nAccording to the computations of Dr. Klemm of the United States\nBureau of Education, directed by Commissioner Harris, where we all go\nfor statistics of instruction, there are in the educational world to-day one\nhundred millions receiving the rudiments of knowledge. This responsibility, unmeasured in its vastness and accountability, is represented by this\noccasion.\nBut, great as are these numbers, adopting as our standard the elementary school attendance in Germany, or eighteen per cent, of the population, the present attendance should be more than doubled ; it should be\nidvanced from 100,000,000 up to 267,170,000, or by the addition of 167,170,000.\nWhen there is lack of this instruction, there is the absence of what is\nidequate in all that is special or higher. So benighted is our race, so\ngreat is the work before us to be accomplished ! Fortunately for us, our\nera awakens those interests that previously have been indifferent.\nThe rudest labor finds greater profit in the skill imparted by intelligence.\nTrade, commerce, manufacture, and agriculture join themselves to science,\nand count their increase of profits by the light of learning. All the\nconsiderations of religion add their admonitions. Bearing our respective\nparts in this work, elsewhere and previously we may have had our local or\nnational conferences. We may have marshalled all the history on our\ndifferent lines. We may have sought by travel or by literature to reach\nover and gather the ripe fruit of experience from other races or nationalities. But now, these diverse spheres of experience, these varied conditions\nof current elementary education, bearing their best products from the ages\nthat have past, are here present, by their competent representatives, to speak\nto us their wisdom from living lips. They will instruct us in what has\n\n"}
{"page": 270, "printed_page": null, "text": "250\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nbeen done on other continents and the islands of the sea, and point to the\nresults in actual life as seen in yonder unequalled exhibition of the world's\nprogress. All other attempts at world-wide comparison are for our\nbenefit. For our advantage there is not alone the increased facility for\ncommunication between peoples, making more manifest the brotherhood\nof man, but the characteristics of thought and inquiry in this epoch are\nalso ours. History has always had its lessons for the peoples that would\nlearn. Now treasures that have been buried for centuries are adding their\ncorrection's to what has been accepted as the public view. The world in\nits present vastness is before us as before no preceding generation. Having the advantage of studying all the past, in searching for averages, uniformities, laws, types, we may, in a single survey, bring into view the\nmillions, nay, tens of millions of peoples of the earth, of divers tongues, as\nthe basis of our comparisons and conclusions. Not only have the methods\nof treating many subjects of thought improved, but even greater advance\nhas been made in the study of man himself. The voice of the ages has\nbeen crying to him, \" Know thyself.\" He has sought to obey by studying his own consciousness, the action of his own mental and moral powers.\nAt maturity he has challenged memory to bring back what he thought,\nfelt, and willed in childhood, the processes of his own inner growth, and\nthus to infer general laws for the guidance of the parent or teacher. He\nhas added what he could from his observation of others, and tried to avail\nhimself of any corrections thus suggested.\nOn this basis of facts he has set his reason to work to develop rational\ntheories. Thus many a folly has been exploded, many an evil prevented\nor removed. The instruments of precision needful for the most exact\nmeasurement of physical conditions indicative of vital force and action\nhave never before existed. Nor has it been possible, as now, to mass in\nfigures the annual experiences of mankind, to tell what is good and bad in\nresults ; or, by vast averages, to discover the connection between intellectual and moral conditions and physical manifestations ; to approach\nthe physical signs of persistent criminality or degradation of any kind,\nand thus to measure the causes which modify them, and impart their conclusions for the direction of education.\nEvery manifestation from the cradle to the grave may be recorded ; the\nexperiences of one may be multiplied into hundreds, thousands, and millions ;and all the modifications of heredity, of race, of the conditions of\nenvironment, the habitat, food, activities, occupation, taken into account.\nThus the field of the purely conjectural is displaced by the known.\nSuperstition gives place to intelligent faith ; imagination assists the ideal,\nbut is not allowed to vitiate ; we hope for a resultant the best possible\ntype for man. Yes, the voice of the ages has been crying to man, \" Know\nthyself/' but never, never before has this been so possible as now. Every\nmind acts after law. These laws of many individual minds will help us\n\n"}
{"page": 271, "printed_page": null, "text": "ESSENTIALS\n\nIN A\n\nCOURSE\n\nOF STUDY\n\nFOR\n\nCHILDREN.\n\n251\n\ntowards the general laws common to all which the type obeys. Finding\nthese laws, we can be assured of approaching the type.\nWe are here with our differences of race, characteristics of material,\ncivil, social, and religious environment. Each owes his patriotic duty, but\nwe are all here to educate man, to produce character, to prepare for universal brotherhood. However broad and various our ideas may previously\nhave been, our very assemblage quickens and enlarges them. Towards this\nour labors are to contribute. If they accomplish this in any degree, each\nof us will have something of importance to himself and the type which he\nrepresents to carry away. Our work will fit into these vast congresses of\nwhich we are a part. We shall have reason to acknowledge, as we would\nhere and now, our indebtedness to Hon. W. T. Harris, the Commissioner\nof the United States Bureau of Education, to-day the most influential man\nin education in the world. His profound philosophy and practical sagacity\nhave given to these educational congresses their unity and their comprehensiveness. His wisdom has brought the best things ; his skill has overcome all difficulties ; his patience, all trials and delays. We thank him\nand all those who have had the wisdom to place these responsibilities in\nhis hands, and to work with him. May our task not come short of the\nplace assigned it.\nIt remains only for me to remark with pleasure and pardonable pride,\nthat this conference is in a language specially growing in demand ; that it\nis held under a flag that stands for the vanguard of Christian civilization,\nand on a soil which guarantees the greatest freedom of speech and opinion\nyet accorded to men. In realizing that freedom, this conference, trusting\nitself to the sound judgment and good will of those present, is now open.\n\nESSENTIALS\n\nIN A COURSE\n\nOF STUDY\n\nFOR\n\nCHILDREN.\n\nShall morals, language, numbers, geography, history of the country, writing, and\ndrawing be considered essentials in a course of study for children between the ages of\nsix and fourteen years ?\nBY\n\nJOSEPH\n\nL.\n\nPICKARD,\n\nLL.D.,\n\nIOWA\n\nCITY,\n\nIOWA.\n\nI.\nWhat is the child at six years of age ?\nPhysically. — It is an organism perfect in its proportions. Its several\nparts are in miniature, and in some important particulars in embryo.\nIt is capable of quick and varied movement, but with little effective force.\nThe years of its life have been devoted to rapid growth with little toughening of fiber. No other period of equal length will witness such ceaseless activity.\n\n"}
{"page": 272, "printed_page": null, "text": "252\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nMentally. — The will is assertive, but not under control from within ;\nhence the motive power is neither steady nor constant. Desire is ever\npresent, and pressing for immediate gratification. Curiosity is keen, and\nfastens upon that which most attracts through the outer senses. The\nimagination is vivid, and the greatest dramas are enacted upon the miniature stage. Tragedy is the favorite. Joys are intense, sorrows are keen,\nbut both are evanescent. The names of things innumerable have been\nstored in the memory ; the value of things themselves is measured by the\npresent gratification they afford. Present perception, which neither recalls\nthe past nor forecasts the future, is all-absorbent. Reflection slumbers\nbut shows signs of awaking.\nMorally. — In minor morals, or habits of outer movement, native grace\nholds its charm. Home freedom has not felt restraint, except where the\nkindergarten is established.\nIn major morals, which touch the springs of outer action, faith is\nunwavering in mother or personal friend ; hope is bright, but will not bear\nlong deferring ; charity is turned inward, though the hand be outstretched.\nUnder neither of these cardinal virtues lies the abstract principle of duty\ntoward God or toward his fellows. Right is what mother approves. The\nvoice of the inward monitor is heard, but straightway forgotten. The\nsphere of the child's activity, thought, and feeling is very circumscribed.\nIts center may be expressed in one word — Now.\nII.\nWhat may be reasonably expected of a youth at fourteen years of age ?\nPhysically. — Stature nearly complete ; a body well developed ; the critical passage from childhood to youth is effected ; the trend of sex is determined the\n;\nincomprehensible force pertaining to this period assertive and\ncontrolling bodily movements ; all functions in healthy action, though not\nyet at their highest efficiency ; tempering of material well begun, but yet\nto be perfected by use.\nIntellectually. — Perceptions clear and quick, but not always sure ; reflection awake ; with the growth of the reasoning faculties the present is\nless absorbent ; the past has its lessons and the future its inspiration ; the\nwill is vigorous, but under control; self-activity is ascendant, and want of\nexperience has induced an undue independence ; premature manhood is\nthe natural result of immaturity ; the ardor of imagination has cooled ;\nplay as a means takes the place of play as an end ; seeing, doing, feeling,\nbecome conscious seeing, doing, and feeling ; perception opens the way\nfor apperception.\nAppetite for continued study is healthy and keen.\nMorally. — Upon the lower plane, movements, dress, and address are\nmodeled after those of maturer years.\nUpon the upper plane, habits have crystallized into permanence. Principles cherished hold control.\nThe man is seen in the youth.\n\n"}
{"page": 273, "printed_page": null, "text": "ESSENTIALS\n\nIN A\n\nCOURSE\n\nOF STUDY\n\nFOR\n\nCHILDREN.\n\n253\n\nIII.\nThe eight years under review have been years of foundation laying.\nThe framework of the superstructure is laid out, its form becomes apparent, but its use and its beauty are not yet fully displayed. The changes\nwrought, as they have been hinted at, are due to nature and to education.\nEducation in its widest sense is the result of influences springing from\nthe home; from society, the combination of homes ; from the church ; and\nfrom the school cooperative with the home and the church.\nThe school, whether within the precincts of home, or in the church\nenclosure, or in edifices erected by the state, has the same end in view —\nthe development of power for the production of manhood.\nThe question before us is concerned with the essential means to be\nemployed. Upon these there may not be absolute agreement as to the\nrelative importance of each, or upon the order or extent of their use. All\nwill agree to this statement — that the school curriculum is not an end in\nitself, but a means whose influence goes beyond the period of school-life\ninto mature manhood. A wise selection of these means must therefore\ndepend upon what is expected in mature life.\nLooking forward we shall see that power will be exercised along these\nlines : man over man, social power ; man over matter, industrial power ;\nman over the movements of his fellow-men, his co-laborers, civic power.\nThe first has its root in man's nature ; the second, in his necessities ; the\nthird, in the requirements of social order in the struggle incident to the\nrelief of his necessities.\nThese lines of exercise of power must be kept in view through the\nentire preparatory stage of an education, that there be no loss of energy\nwhen the time comes for the practical use of the power in society, in\nlabor, in government.\nThe field of education Mr. Harris at one time arranged in a series of\nconcentric circles — the smaller requiring the same cultivation as the\nlarger, but necessarily yielding less fruit in quantity, though by no means\ninferior in quality. I have thought of this figure as most apt in the\ncultivation of orchards. The inmost circle is the nursery — how apt the\n3rm! The successive circles are filled with growing trees, not larger in\nnumber, but requiring more space for each. The fruitage of mature\nyears will depend largely upon the care taken in the nursery. Even the\nprocess of grafting has its genesis in the nursery. Transplanting is\nessential, that the tree may be set in new conditions. The question under\ndiscussion recognizes the aptness of the figure. The six-year circle is\nthat of the nursery. The fourteen-year circle is that of transplanting,\ntraining, pruning, and grafting. The outer circle is filled with sturdy\nfruit bearers if the inner circles have been properly cultivated.\nAt the age of six years school life ordinarily begins.\nAt the age of\n\n"}
{"page": 274, "printed_page": null, "text": "254\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nfourteen in the vast majority of cases it is completed. In many countries it is expected that the boy or girl will enter service at the age of\nfourteen and begin self-help. It is of the utmost importance, therefore,\nthat the best training shall have been given the child, that he may enter\nupon the period of self-support as well equipped for effective service as\npossible.\nAs already intimated, nature and education will furnish the equipment,\nand the latter will be the most effective when its service is rendered with\ndue regard to the former. Choice fruits are produced from the native\nstock by continued cultivation. Plums will be plums still. Improvement in quality will follow close observance of the habits and needs of the\ntree.\nIV.\nLet me now recur to the three lines of influence.\nFor the acquisition of social power the essentials are character, which.\ngives the opportunity for its right exercise ; health of body, which insures\nits vigorous exercise ; ability to understand thoughts of others, and to\nexpress one's own thoughts, which makes the exercise of the power, both\nin giving and receiving, pleasant and profitable. Essential means are\nmanners and morals, including the love of labor ; enough of physiology to\nimpress upon the child the possibilities of the use and of the abuse of the\nbody ; language in all its direct and indirect uses, speaking, singing,\nwriting, and drawing. From the grouted trench to the corner-stone,\nthroughout the entire foundation these should appear. Then, with or\nwithout school privileges after the fifteenth year, the desire and ability to\ncultivate the wider circle will remain a constant factor in self -education.\nThe physical organism needs nourishment which depends upon food and\nits assimilation ; exercise which shall secure a harmonious development of\nthe bodily powers ; control of -appetite, to which table talk as well as table\nfood may contribute ; watch, care, regarding associations either in persons\nor in books, the influence of which is far more pervasive than that of personal contact ; special care toward the close of the period under review,\nthat there be normal development of bodily functions theretofore dormant.\nThese suggest knowledge of physiology and hygiene upon the part of\nthe parent and teacher at the outset, and upon the part of the child as\nhis education progresses— physical training after a scientific method —\nand a knowledge of a proper course to be pursued in emergencies to the\nend of saving life.\nA healthy body, whose every movement brings pleasure, renders moral\ninstruction easy and effective. From a recent editorial in the \" InterOcean \" is taken this valuable statement : \"In the eight years that form\nthe average of public-school life, there is time to lead a child into the\ngraces as well as into the practicalities of life. And it is most important\n\n"}
{"page": 275, "printed_page": null, "text": "ESSENTIALS\n\nIN A\n\nCOURSE\n\nOF STUDY\n\nFOB\n\nCHILDREN.\n\n255\n\nthat the ethics and the aesthetics shall he taught in the public schools, for\nthe children of most families end their education in their fifteenth year.\"\nCharacter in its original signification — the result of the graver's art —\nimplies cultivated senses, a steady hand, and a noble ideal. Into this\ncombination bodily actions enter. Is it not well to admit instruction in\nthe laws of our physical system as an essential feature in moral instruction ?\nMorals essential ? Absolutely so, without intermission, but without\nformal intrusion. The entire atmosphere of the schoolroom and of the\nplayground should be redolent with grace and truth. Schoolhouses and\ntheir surroundings, and school teachers, should make such an atmosphere\ncertain.\n'* Sana mens in corpore sano,\" cannot be too often repeated. Bodily\n>owers are available only in absolute contact. The mind knows no limit\n)f its effectiveness if it has at command the most important instrument of\ninfluence — that of language, either by speech or by written characters,\nfords alone are barren things ; but springing from a mind richly stored\nnth thoughts gathered from, or born of, wide reading, study, and conversation, they will go forth enriching both those who hear and those who\njtter them. To this end good literature must be made the soul of language study.\nExpression of thought increases the power of thinking ; power is proportionate tothe clearness of expression. Familiarity with good literature\njives ease and grace to expression, whether the channel of communication be through the ear or the eye. I cannot separate from language\nstudy the art of reading. Writing is as essential as clear articulation.\nI'lain chirography is as important as clear enunciation. The use of the\n3n, however, is not confined to the structure of words in collocation\n)f letters, but is applicable to presentation of forms of things, and so to\nthe expression of many thoughts through a single form. Drawing is as\nssential as writing, and, as allied to language, it has the advantage of\n>eing understood without the intervention of dictionary, glossary, or\niterpreter, by people of all nationalities. There is a charm in the\nrhythmic utterance of thought, and in the melodious flow of words, which\njmphasizes the value of music as allied to language.\nEeading, writing,\n•awing, and music are such natural vehicles for thought as to proclaim\nthem essentials to a proper course of study in language.\nLanguage, in its various forms of presentation, bears directly upon the\n)cial side of life. It must be remembered, as Cowper expresses himself, —\n\"Talking is not always to converse ;\nWords learned by rote a parrot may rehearse ;\nNot more distinct from harmony divine\nThe constant creaking of a country sign.\"\n\nCorrect forms of speech are lifeless bodies until the spirit of a pure literature is inbreathed.\nSocial life will be enriched from both its aesthetic\n\n"}
{"page": 276, "printed_page": null, "text": "256\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nand its ethic influences. Labor will be sweetened when the laborer bears\ninto his daily tasks the scholarly spirit.\nWere I called upon to express the purpose of manual training, I should\nsay familiarity with constructive processes before the pressure of necessity is\nfelt, induces a love of labor for labor's sake. The charm of early accomplishment of something useful and beautiful is not lost when the work is a matter\nof necessity rather than of choice. To this end the kindergarten is an undisguised blessing, and the working with tools in later years a delight. In\nthe expressive dialect so frequently heard, Uncle Eben says : \" You will\nallers notus dat er man dat hates work is not well enough acquainted wid\nit to form an opinion.\"\nTo write intelligibly or to converse effectively implies acquaintance with\nsubjects which are of general interest, and which bring children into a\nwider circle. Geography properly understood presents for study a compendium of knowledges. Huxley aptly styles \"geography the peg upon\nwhich all knowledges are hung/'\nV.\nBut another line is here interwined with that of social power. Industrial power finds food in the fields which geography opens. Nature\nforces, natural products, natural channels for the transfer of products,\nnatural outlets for surplus products — these all are initiatory to the artificial application of natural forces, the artificial water-ways and railways —\nthe artificial outlets for surplus products. Greater facilities for exchange\nstimulate invention. Invention leads to more minute division of labor,\nand in the end to the substitution of machines for muscles. So he who\nwould use industrial power must do it through directive exercise. Geot\nraphy and manual training are essentials on this line. Here is found\nplace for mathematics. Dimensions cannot be ignored ; occupied space\nasserts itself, and we are brought face to face with a category not intelligible except in the use of numbers. No one lives by himself alone, but\nby a series of exchanges, whose relative values are determined by measure,\nby weight, or by tale.\nThe exact science of numbers makes exact justice possible. Deferred\nsettlements introduce the element of time with the varied problems of\npercentage. Accuracy in presentation of form, as in drawing, and nicety\nof fitting, as in all mechanical arts, involve knowledge of mathematical\nprinciples.\nAside from these materialistic views, the mind is best trained to reason\nin accordance with the formulas of exact science. The eye which sees\nclearly, the hand which sketches accurately, and the head which makes\nprompt scientific classification possible, are the results of training in\nmathematics, in drawing, in elementary science, and in the elements of\nmechanical industry.\n\n"}
{"page": 277, "printed_page": null, "text": "DISCUSSION.\n\n257\n\nVI.\nThe foundation of good citizenship should be laid in the years under\njview. The exercise of civic power, which will conduce to the weal of\nlie ^tate, makes the study of history aud of civil government essential.\nVII.\nBy way of recapitulation :\nEight years of school life are to be considered in relation to the entire\nfe, whether the fifteenth year close school work or be a stage in\nfurther progress.\nThree lines of power are opened to manhood, and they have their\nenesis in childhood and their strengthening in youth.\nFor social power the essentials are morals, language, and literature;\nWriting, drawing, andmusic; a, healthy bodily condition; and an elementary knowledge of nature's forces, of nature's products, and of nature's\nfacilities for exchange — geography.\nFor industrial power the essentials are knowledge of nature and of her\nntrol by artificial agencies ; drawing, mathematics, and manual training;\naud, still more important, morals and good literature.\nFor civic power the essentials are history and civil government, with\nthe still widening sphere for morals and pure literature.\n\nDISCUSSION.\n.\n\nL. H. Jones, Superintendent of Schools, Indianapolis, Ind. : The subject proposed for\ndiscussion is \" Should Morals, Language, Number, Geography, History of the Country,\nWriting, and Drawing be considered the essentials of the course of study for the eight\nears of elementary instruction, the pupils being from six to fourteen years of age?\"\nI have assumed that this list of branches is intended by the committee to express the\ninimum possibility ; and that, therefore, the burden of discussion is to be placed on\nthe advisability or necessity of having still other subjects embraced in the curriculum of the elementary school. To this part of the theme then I address myself. In\nreasoning on a subject so complex as this, one is liable to be confused by the fact\nthat a final conclusion has its major premise in one held of thought, and its minor\npremise in quite a different one ; while the final adjustment of the major and minor\nrequires the consideration of many subsidiary conditions of each. In the present\ninstance the major premise of the general argument is found in the answer to\n\nJ\n\nthe question, \"What is the true end of elementary education?\" and while the\nminor premise is found in the right analysis of these enumerated studies, considered\nas instrumentalities toward such end, the subsidiary conditions will appear as one\nproceeds with his thinking. It is no easy problem to set and define the purpose of\nelementary education. The question is as old as the race, and yet as new and as fresh\nas the dawn of each new day. The newness, however, is dependent on the changeable\nelement in life, the new phases of civilization which the race takes on in its progress ;\n17\n\n"}
{"page": 278, "printed_page": null, "text": "258\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nwhile its stabler elements belong to the permanent nature of man as human being. The\nformer is the ever-present fact thrust upon our attention by each event of every passing\nhour, while the latter is found only in epoch-making periods of history. It takes a clear\nvision to discern in each new phase of human activity the human hope which inspires\nit, \"the increasing purpose \" which expresses the higher nature of man. But it is only\nthrough this insight that one can be protected from the assumption of evanescent ends\nin education. One who adopts a mere fad in education is little better in his profession\nthan is the quack in the profession of medicine. It is impossible, then, to make progress on this theme till one has set up an end in education equal in dignity with the\nnature of the beings whose education is involved.\nAbstractly I consider that the end of education is to develop into actual perfection\nthe possibility of each human being, *'. e., to develop or bring into actual matured existence the ideal human being.\nBut since this can be done only through rational processes, and since these rational\nprocesses include all the necessary activities of this present life upon the earth, the\nfitting of one for these subsidiary pi-ocesses or practical activities is a legitimate end of\neducational effort. It is in this latter element of the educational idea that formal and\nso-called practical subjects find their validity. But since this element in the educational\nidea is so much more readily seen, and is really seen by so many more than ever get the\nvision of human perfection, it is likewise true that in our elementary education far\ngreater attention has been given purely formal studies, or those which fit for practical\nlife, than to those which tend to develop the human essence into the divine likeness\nwhich is its prerogative.\nI venture to state the end of education to be, then, the harmonious development in\nthe pupil of the powers belonging to the human being by virtue of his ideal likeness to\nthe divine, and the teaching to him of so much of the arts and sciences, history and literature, as shall fit him to discharge acceptably the duties of life.\nAt the age of fourteen the child will have accomplished only so much of this as his\ndeveloping powers allow.\nAnalyze powers and enumerate practical arts and sciences.\nMy minor premise is to be found by an examination of the nature of the branches\nenumerated in the thesis : morals, language, number, geography, history of the country,\nwriting, and drawing. A thorough analysis of each is out of the question in the time\nallowed me. I therefore examine them by groups, and look only at prominent characteristics.\nOf these subjects, then, language, writing, and drawing, considered in themselves, are\npurely arts, ». e., their end is skill, and the use of this skill, either in the further extension of formal education, or in the ordinary forms of living. Writing, as generally\ntaught in the schools, develops no esthetic sense ; language, whether for interpretation of\nthe printed page or for dexterous use of words in composing, has no ennobling ideas in\nitself ; while drawing must reach some of its finer forms to touch anything more than\nthe sensuous side of life. Only when these branches are used in the expression of\nideas whose origin is in some other field of thought, do they become so charged in themselves with thought or feeling or motive as to become an individual factor in spiritual\ndevelopment.\nOf geography and history it is to be said that in their lowest stages — that of time and\nplace— of event and fact, they are of the same technical character. It is only when\ngeography rises to consider physical forces joined to human motives as accounting in\nrational way for even the simplest phenomena that this subject takes its place among\nthe branches which develop spirit ; and history is dry bones only till motive for action\ngives meaning to its events. Of the entire list morals is the only one that necessarily\nfinds its subject-matter in spirit-nourishing ideas.\nMathematics not treated.\n\n"}
{"page": 279, "printed_page": null, "text": "DISCUSSION.\n\n=_\n\n259\n\n_\n\nlist in itself when viewed alone from the formal side. When this weakness is placed\nbeside the ideal of education set up in the early part of this paper the deficiency is painful. It is the deficiency in these branches of those ideas which nourish and thus\ndevelop the spirit into its heavenly likeness, and the prevalence in them of the technical,\ncommonplace, temporary ideas, which at best prepare only for prosaic living.\nFrom this analysis we are driven to the conclusion, therefore, that they are inadequate\nto produce the desired education. They could but fit out the child with the armor and\nweapons of a giant and leave him a pygmy, unable to wear the one or wield the other.\nThe course must be enriched by ideas which nourish and sustain the spiritual, which\ninduce those mental processes which constitute healthful and strengthening activities\nfor the spirit itself.\nWe must find these ideas in other fields of thought, since the enumerated list\ndoes not contain them. Fortunately, we shall not have far to go. External nature\nand the humanities will furnish the needed ideas. It is not even necessary to burden our course of study with many new names. It is only necessary to read new\nmeaning into the names already there. Observations, lessons on plants or animals,\nwith reference to their structure, life, habits, and environment, will give ideas, delightfully interesting, elevating, and spiritually strengthening to a six-year-old child.\nThese ideas, reproduced by the teacher on blackboard or chart, or on slips of paper\nby means of the school printing-press, form material for drill in learning to read,\nthat never palls on the mental appetite, nor gives rise to soul-benumbing automatic\nrepetition of forms without content, interest, or meaning.\nAnd, if the child thus learns to read by associating the letters and words with\ninteresting and instructive ideas, words will, in reality, become the signs of ideas,\nand so, ever after, the interpretation of the printed page is a soul-inspiring process\ninstead of the perfunctory, automatic process it so frequently becomes when practised from its formal side only. Fairy story, poetry, and charming prose, real literature, containing the ideals, customs, hopes, and achievements of institutional life,\nshould then be used as an exercise ground for the child's spiritual nature, and I am\nsure little time need be spent on the formal teaching of inflections or gesture in\norder to make intelligent readers. Learning to read should be chiefly done within\nthe first three years of school life ; in the remainder, the pupil should read and\nread much. In like manner, when the child is taught to compose, first orally and\nthen in writing, and when his penmanship is judged by his original writing, then\nwill he learn to write a free, rapid, and legible hand.\nStill again, if the child has his observation directed from the first day of his\nschool life to those unions of physical forces and human motives which make of the\nearth's surface such a bewilderingly interesting theatre for the institutional life of\nman, if he has been led to accustom himself to find either in nature or man, or\nin the combination of both, the reasons which make the earth so dear a home for\nman, and if even after books, maps, and charts assist him, he is still led to look\nbehind the present effect to the reasonable cause, there is little danger that he will\nspend his time in bounding the states or locating the capitals of African provinces.\nWhen the history of one's country is so taught as to lead one to love it because its\ninstitutions are worthy and its associations are sacred; when, besides its time and\nplace category, history is seen to be the record of a progress towards freedom ; when\neach institution, the state included, is seen to be an instrumentality which the race\ncreates and uses for its own advancement, the spirit will be nourished and strengthened, and something higher than mere prudence will enter into the character of the\nlearner and control his conduct. If the other subjects of the list be interpreted in\nthis larger and more liberal way, and it seems to me they should be taught in this\n\n"}
{"page": 280, "printed_page": null, "text": "260\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nspirit, I am ready to say that, with one exception, the list of subjects enumerated\nshould constitute the curriculum of the elementary school.\nThe omission of music from the list, it seems to me, is most unfortunate. There\nare ethical and esthetic needs in human nature that no other subject meets quite so\nwell ; while the uses of music in the development of important social needs is so\ngreat as to make its absence from the elementary school nothing less than an educational calamity.\nDr. B. A. Hinsdale, Professor of Pedagogy in the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor,\nsaid: Mr. President — I suppose that there is no difference of opinion on the part of those\npresent that all of the subjects of consideration that are embraced in this thesis should\ncertainly be embraced in an elementary school curriculum. 1 suppose we are all agreed\nthat there is nothing contained in this thesis that should be struck out. Such differences\nof opinion as would arise, provided we were to have a careful individual comparison of\nviews, or as might arise, would arise, no doubt, from the question of what branches of\ninstruction should be introduced into the thesis that are not found in it. I am not\ngoing to discuss that question broadly, but wish, in the first place, to observe that\nSuperintendent Jones is certainly within the truth when he observes that the answer to\nit must turn, to a very considerable extent, upon the breadth and the comprehension that\nwe assign to some terms that are here employed. I may illustrate that remark very\nbriefly. By the history of the country, for example, we may understand a collection\nof facts, more or less fragmentary, more or less isolated, and more or less innutritious.\nI fear that this description that I have now given is not an inadequate description of\nwhat sometimes passes for instruction in the history of the country in some of the\nschools of this country. Now, that is one thing ; but, on the other hand, I think by\ninstruction in the history of the country we mean not merely the acquirement of a body\nof facts, but the acquirement of facts that have been wisely and discriminately chosen.\nIf, in addition, we mean the mastery of these facts in accordance with the great associating activities of the mind, if we mean the organization and the interpretation of these\nfacts in such way as to make the history of the country yield up some of the great\nlessons which that history may be made to convey, then the history of the country\nbecomes quite another thing, and we are all prepared to concede that it is a school, in a\ncertain sense, of political wisdom, a school of patriotism, a school of civic duty and of\ncivic virtue. It is a school of ethics and morality, and I may even say a school of\nreligion in the very largest and in .a very proper acceptation of that term.\nIn the second place, let me refer to the term ' ' language \" itself. It must be clear to all\nof us that the committee that arranged the programme intended that this term should\nbe taken comprehensively, for nothing is said about literature, and nothing is said about\nreading in the thesis ; and undoubtedly we are to understand that these things are\nincluded in the term \"language \" ; that is, the art of reading and the literature of the\nlanguage.\nI was gratified, for one, that the Superintendent in his remarks called our attention,\nrather incidentally, to the fact that there are certain things in this thesis that, properly\nunderstood, are rather arts than studies. They are rather arts than studies, if by a study\nwe mean a content study ; if by a study we mean something in correspondence to a\nscience, a body of organized knowledge ; then manifestly reading, in the sense in which\nI use the expression, is an art and not a study, properly so-called, in the same sense\nthat geography or science or history or any branch of mathematics is a study. Writing\nor penmanship is obviously an art. It is not an art of acquirement as reading is, but\nan art of representation. Either one of these arts brings one in relation with the minds\nof others ; but reading considered as an art brings one into relation with the mind of\nanotber, in the sense that he acquires something from him ; whereas writing, properly\n\n"}
{"page": 281, "printed_page": null, "text": "DISCUSSION.\n\n261\n\nunderstood, puts one in possession of an instrument or tool whereby he is able to convey\nto another his knowledge and feeling and volition. What is true under this category\nof reading and writing is manifestly just as true of drawing. That is an art and\nnot a study, properly so-called ; certainly not a content study. Not only so, but I will\nadd to that category, if you please, number, because number properly understood is\nnot a science. Manifestly arithmetic, notation, and numeration are arts which we\nuse in the prosecution of studies.\nNow, it appears to me that what has been said by way of characterizing these arts,\nand by way of discriminating them from the studies proper, is not without certain\npractical advantages. It seems to me if we could induce the educational people of the\ncountry, and especially the teachers of the country, to look upon these studies so-called\nas being arts, and could induce them to handle them as such, there are certain points of\nadvantage which we should gain. I shall illustrate my meaning by reference to the\nsubject of language. We were told, and very properly, that language is an art. I am\nnot unaware of the fact that grammar and philology, under all the various divisions into\nwhich we divide language considered as a science, are content studies, and that they are\nproper sciences ; but that language considered as a medium of thought is palpably an\nart to be acquired, to be mastered, and to be used for communication in the first place\norally, and afterward in written form of one's thought, feeling, and volition.\nThere has been much discussion in the educational journals of the country as to the\nstudy of what we call technically grammar. I take it. for the most part, the distinction\nto which I have called your attention will enable us to answer the questions upon this\nsubject. Technical grammar is a science. It is not an art. It is not a tool or instrument. I know full well that Lindley Murray, the father of English grammarians,\ndefined English grammar as the art of using the English language. It is nothing of\nthe kind ; and how so great a scholar ever could have conceived it as being such is one\nof the things that I have not been able to understand. Whatever grammar of any kind\nmay be, it is certainly not the art of using language. One acquires the art of using a\nlanguage by using it ; one learns to speak by speaking, to write by writing, to talk by\ntalking, as he learns to think by thinking. Of course, there comes a time when the\nreflective or scientific and grammatical study of language may, in a subordinate sense,\nbe a benefit to one in respect to his handling or mastery of language. What I mean is\nthis : When I came to acquire certain formal rules of grammar, it proved of advantage\nto me in enabling me to eliminate from my speech certain inaccuracies and solecisms\ninto which I had fallen, through what we call use and want. I never would have learned\nto speak it, had it not been for use and want. That person who is not allowed to acquire\nthe mastery of language until he shall have learned it in a reflective sense, that is,\nfrom the grammatical side, will never acquire it at all, because the acquirement of all\narts must come before the scientific or reflective or self-conscious stage of the handling\nof its topics. That is where the practical use of grammar comes in. The rules and precepts of formal grammar in process of time may become a second nature, but they are\nnever the first. All of this I think confirms and strengthens the proposition that in the\nfirst place we are to consider language as an art.\nThe facts that I have stated explain two things that some people think very curious,\nwhich are not curious at all. I have heard men make fine speeches, using good language,\nwho never studied a grammar lesson in their lives. I have known men who could write\na fine letter, a good newspaper article, and possibly a good book, who had no knowledge of technical or formal grammar. I have known plenty of people who worked for\nmonths, and I might say for years, over technical or formal grammar, who could neither\nmake a good speech, nor write a good letter, nor talk with ordinary decency. What conclusions follow from these two facts ? First, that language, no matter whether oral or\nwritten, in the first instance is an art, as we have been told ; and secondly, considered\n\n"}
{"page": 282, "printed_page": null, "text": "262\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nas a science, it can only be of use to us in a practical field, in a subordinate and secondary degree.\nThe practical application of all that I have been saying is merely this : That if we\ncould get it into the heads of the educators of the country that language is an art, and\nthat people learn it by way of imitation, and that the reflective study of grammar can\nonly be of advantage in later years, and then only in a secondary and subsidiary sense,\nwe should have made a very considerable stride in the direction of answering the question as to whether we should teach formal or technical grammar or not. My observation is,that those people use good language, conversationally and in writing, who\nhave been brought up in intelligent homes where good language is used, who have been\ntaught to read good books, and who have moved in society where they have been early\nintroduced to a liberal range of ideas, expressed in comely, vigorous, and measurably\ncorrect English. That is the beginning of the matter, and there is a lesson in it of\npractical import for the teachers of the country generally.\n\nWHAT SHOULD BE THE CURRICULUM IN PUBLIC\nSCHOOLS?— SOME ASPECTS OF THE QUESTION IN\nFRANCE.\nBY\n\nB. BUISSON,\n\nDELEGATE\n\nFROM\n\nTHE\n\nMINISTRY\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC\n\nTION IN FRANCE, TO THE WORLD'S\nEDUCATIONAL\nCONGRESSES.\n\nCOLUMBIAN\n\nEXPOSITION\n\nINSTRUCAND\n\nTHE\n\nWhat shall be the plan of work for a common public school? In what\nshall the curriculum of primary instruction consist ? By the word\nprimary, let it be remembered, we, in France, understand not merely the\nprimary or lower grades of a common school, but also what you call here\ngrammar grades, and even that side of the high school which is nonclassical.\n(By the way, would it not be a proper thing at this international congress\nto try to come to some international understanding about the definition\nof such terms as those of primary and secondary instruction ; and is it not\nto be wished that we may adopt some common terminology about education as far as possible ?)\nBut this is a parenthesis which I have rashly opened, and which I must\npromptly close, to come back to our purpose of this morning, the school\ncurriculum of the primary, that is to say, the elementary, public school —\nthe school destined for the great need of children between six and fourteen\nyears of age. And yet if they would all stay at school until they are fully\nfourteen years old, the difficulty in providing them with a well-devised\nscheme of work would be more easily overcome. But unfortunately — at\nleast such is not the case in France — many of them, having got their certificates of proficiency in elementary studies, leave the school before they\nare thirteen, and sometimes even as early as twelve years, and this hurry is\na considerable cause of embarrassment to those who have to plan the\n\n"}
{"page": 283, "printed_page": null, "text": "WHAT\n\nSHOULD\n\nBE THE CURRICULUM\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS?\n\n263\n\nschool work ; for you understand how hard it is to so arrange as to make a\nchild evolve in six years, between the many circles of knowledge and successive occupations, which must be the most useful, the most formative,\nto bring about his physical, mental, and moral growth, according to a high\nideal of the dignity of human nature.\nBut even if we set aside that difficulty which must occur everywhere —\nthough perhaps less here in America than in the old continent, even if we\nsuppose, as the thesis of this morning does, that the school age will be\nsix to fourteen — what shall we teach our pupils of the common public\nschool during those eight years in which the state is to undertake to equip\nthem — these one hundred million children — for life, and complete the\neducation of family and church ?\nIn theory the problem is, of course, comparatively an easy one. Let the\nschool teach, we say, what is most likely to prepare the child to be a good\ncitizen, an intelligent and active man. Let the school be satisfied to slowly\nbut surely awaken his senses, his intellect, his faculties of observation, of\nreflection, of affection and action, and harmoniously build up his character,\nnot by means of the three r's, but rather by means of the three Ji's, head,\nheart and hand, and make him fit for self-government, self-control,\nself-help, a living, a thinking being ; not a mere machine to become the\ntool of the ambitious and selfish politician, either despot or demagogue, or\nthe dupe of a bigoted clergy.\nIt is all right as far as theory is concerned, but when we come to practice, what becomes of those beautiful schemes ?\nThe kindergartner says : \" You have only to go on with the kindergarten\nmethods in the elementary school, and you will see how the child's faculties\nwill bud and unfold themselves gradually, naturally, beautifully.\" Very\nwell, let us try it, by all means ; the experiment is surely worthy of being\nmade, but this answer tells us more how to teach than what to teach.\nThe advocates of handicraft in school are also very eloquent about it,\nand say to us : \" Just introduce it in the curriculum, and you will see what\nwonders, what complete metamorphosis it will work for good.\" So says\nthe advocate of the teaching of citizenship and art of political economy\nand other pet branches. Reading is the thing, composition is the thing,\nagriculture is the thing, music is the thing !\nVery likely there is something true in every one of those different views\nof the subject, though they are sometimes rather one-sided, not to say\nfanciful. But how to combine those new items with the old ones, and\naltogether arrange for the child a digestible menu ?\nNow, ladies and gentlemen, allow me to set aside generalities, and to\nsubmit to your consideration simply a particular example ; that is to say,\nour own example. Not that I mean that we have reached the ideal in\nFrance — far from it ; but to show you the fruit of our experience, and to\nbring a more solid element for discussion, namely, facts.\n\n"}
{"page": 284, "printed_page": null, "text": "264\n\n« INTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nHere is what has heen done in France about our school curriculum, or,\nas we call it, new programme d'etudes primaires.\nFor time's sake, I shall not preface it by a short sketch of our educational reforms in general, which I think are pretty well known. After the\nimportant bills which do so much honor to tbe republican government,\nand by which all necessary schoolhouses and training colleges, even of\nthe higher order, were created, and education was made free, unsectarian,\ncompulsory, after the example of America, our educators and school\nauthorities had to face the theory problem of the curriculum.\nI must say that they took great pains over it ; and here I think it is not\nout of place to describe shortly, to tbose who are less familiar with our\nmodern French institution, a most important one in regard to educational\nmatters : I mean our Cornell Superieur de Vinstruction publique, a kind\nof semi-elective council of advisers of the Minister of Education, whose\nprincipal function is precisely to prepare or revise school programmes,\nschool curricula of all grades.\nThis assembly, which is unique, as far as I know, in the world, is most\nliberal and representative in its composition. It was created by a law\n(1880), and includes, besides nine high functionaries of the education\ndepartment appointed by the head of the state, forty-five members\nelected by the universities, learned societies and schools and colleges of all\ngrades. The elementary teachers themselves elect six representatives in the\ncouncil, which is really a parliament of education, and perhaps the only\none in Europe.\nNow, it is those gentlemen, presided over by the Education Minister, who\nsat together and slowly, carefully elaborated our curriculum, which is surely\nnot perfect, but which was the object of much thinking and talking over.\nI need not say that it goes much beyond the three r's. The lucky\nphrase which the legend attributes to a well meaning, if not well spelling London alderman, is not known in France ; but we have also the\nequivalent, viz., reactionary advocates of the so-called strict minimum,\nwhich means the unprogressive school politicians of the type of those\nwhose faces and secret motives Colonel Parker unmasked the other day\nwith such power and eloquence.\nBut happily their voice did not prevail in the Council Supreme.\nOn the contrary, the programme they adopted was a very comprehensive— perhaps a too comprehensive — one.\nIt embraces morals and civics, reading, language (with object lessons,\nof course), arithmetic, geometry, elements of natural science, elements of\nnational history, geography, writing, drawing, singing, and gymnastics,\nwith the addition of manual work graduated so as to continue what was\nalready begun in kindergarten (cardboard, sloyd in small schools, bench\nand metal work in large ones) and also elements of commercial tuition and\nelements of agriculture.\n\n"}
{"page": 285, "printed_page": null, "text": "WHAT\n\nSHOULD\n\nBE THE CURRICULUM\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS?\n\n265\n\nThe industrial and agricultural programme, which is entered upon even\nin the elementary schools, is, of course, much developed in the high school,\nwhich we call ecole primaire superieure, and which is quite different from\nthe classical high school, or lycee, which in France belongs to what we\ncall secondary instruction. As a fact, this scheme exists in France generalized byour centralization.\nAs I said, the fault of this programme, it may he candidly admitted, is,\nperhaps, that it is too complete ; there is \" surabondance de ricliesse.\" And\nof course it would be better to omit some branches than to flutter about\nevery one butterfly-like. For if we avoid the danger of narrowness, we\nought not to run into the opposite danger of overpressure and overloading.\nBut, in my opinion, this danger may be avoided if the teacher is well\ntrained, and keeps to the spirit, not to the letter, of the programme. There\nare very good preambles explaining the curriculum, in the same way as\nthose which many of your city and State superintendents, if I remember\nrightly, place before the school regulations issued by the Board.\nHere are, for instance, the instructions to teachers about the mental,\nor intellectual, part of the school curriculum, subdivided into the three\nstudies, physical, intellectual, moral. In conclusion : if the school programme isthus understood, with its objective instructive character — less\nbookish, less scholarly and formal than in former times — and worked in\nthat spirit by the teacher ; if the school time is not cut up into small sections ;if reading is made the means by which a great portion of the supplementary subjects are introduced into the school routine; even an extensive curriculum may be carried out without confusion and overpressure.\nBut, of course, the success depends a great deal on the teacher ; all will\nhe easy if he or she carefully prepares a lesson on chemistry, physiology,\nor botany, for instance, by diagrams, pictures, and specimens. For this purpose school museums are invaluable, and can scarcely be dispensed with.\nAs to manual work, either cardboard work, or wood work, or iron work,\nor modeling with clay, or gardening for boys ; and needlework, cooking,\nand ironing for girls ; let those occupations be advocated as most necessary\nwhenever the school authorities can afford to supply the teacher with the\nnecessary implements ; for even when this kind of occupations do not\nserve to turn the children's tastes towards adopting industry and trade as\ntheir avocations, they have a most beneficial influence, first, as derivative\nfrom overpressure in mental work ; secondly, from a social point of view, in\nenforcing respect for the dignity of handicraft and manual labor ; thirdly,\non purely pedagogical grounds. But before the age of ten or twelve if they\nare added to the school curriculum, means must be devised so as to bring\nthem partly before or after the regular school hours, or else the children's\ntime for the most necessary branches, those which bear the examination for the certificate of elementary studies in France, would be iusuf-\n\n"}
{"page": 286, "printed_page": null, "text": "266\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nficient. When parents leave their children at school until they reach fourteen years of age, manual work or scientific notions necessary to agriculture and gardening are most useful, for it is between twelve and fourteen\nthat the children show a great fondness for those active occupations, and are\ncapable of making some real progress in them ; and, besides, it is a critical\nage, a turning point in life, when they are likely to choose their avocation,\nand a well-ordained course in manual or agricultural work may have a very\ndecisive influence over their destiny. In conclusion : Whilst it would be\nvery advisable to simplify the programme and to lighten the burden of work\nboth for the pupil and the teacher, yet it is to be wished that none of\nthose essential subjects should be left out ; but if the teacher is really\ncompetent, carefully trained, so as to bring in harmoniously those different\nbranches within the school curriculum ; and if governments, states, cities,\nor generous donators may grant the necessary apparatus, school museums,\nspecimens, workshop fittings, tools, etc., it is possible and even advantageous to include in the school curriculum all the above said branches,\nand none of them may be considered as useless ballast to be thrown\noverboard.\nWHAT SHOULD BE ADDED TO THE ESSENTIAL BRANCHES\nOF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY TO MEET\nTHE INDUSTRIAL NEEDS OF THE LOCALITIES?\nBY\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nC.\n\nM.\n\nWOODWARD,\nST.\n\nLOUIS,\n\nOf\n\nWASHINGTON\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nMO.\n\nMy first answer is : Very little, or nothing, should be added, at least in\nAmerica, for the reasons stated. Elementary education should always be\nbroad and general — non-professional, non-occupational — and hence there\nis no sufficient reason for the addition of local elements. My position being\nessentially a negative one, it would be better, perhaps, for me to wait till I\nhear some good arguments in favor of adding something to elementary\nschools to meet the demands of local industries. One easily finds such\narguments in Europe, but not in America.\nElementary education extends through the fifteenth year. I have no\ndoubt but that in many European communities a large per cent, of the\nboys thirteen and fourteen years old, who are at school at all, receive\nspecial instruction in local industries. That is to say, the schools for\nboys of thirteen and fourteen are, to a certain extent, trade-schools. The\nschools of weaving, dyeing, paper-work, leather-work, lace-work, glasswork, toy-work, and light metal-work, fostered by the government, train\nthe local children directly for local industries. They often begin earlier\nthan the thirteenth year.\nThere are many reasons for such instruction abroad, and such trade-\n\n"}
{"page": 287, "printed_page": null, "text": "267\nCOURSE\n\nOF\n\nSTUDY\n\nAND\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nNEEDS.\n\nschools are indorsed by most enlightened citizens. The government being\nsomewhat paternal, the industries are permanent and characteristic. In a\ncommunity devoted to a particular industry, everything centers and clusters\naround it. So long as the industry prospers, every boy and every girl\ntoo is in demand, and nearly every one takes the training, and goes to\nwork, as expected, in the local establishments.\nAn American is always astonished at the thoroughness with which (in\na silk community, for instance) every detail of the processes of manufacture istaught both to children and to adults, and how fully every\nscientific principle involved is set forth and illustrated. The result is surpassing skill and finish in their work. The methods are often very conservative, and hard labor enters more largely than would be the case\nunder American management, and it is only by such thorough instruction\nthat competition can be met.\nThe traveler who visits such a community, and studies its life and\nwork, finds it hard not to approve. Unless a boy is trained in the rudiments of the industry at school, he is left out in the cold, and there is no\nremunerative work for him to do, and he is starved into a most degraded\nlife, or driven elsewhere. The way of the industry is the way of whatever\ncomfort, culture, and success seems to be possible. There is no doubt in\nmy mind that these industrial schools have been of great benefit to the people,\nindustrially, socially, mentally, and morally.\nBut there is a better way.\nI said that so long as the industry prospers, the community prospers;\nbut when the industry fails, either because the product is no longer in\ndemand, or because in some other and differently trained community the\nintroduction of new labor-saving machinery brings in a fatal competition,\nso that the rewards of labor are no longer sufficient to sustain life comfortably and decently, then the community goes to pieces, and the narrowly\ntrained workmen find it hard to make a living anywhere, and whatever of\nrefinement they had before soon disappears. I believe the American plan\nis better, for several reasons.\nIn the first place we have no state or municipal industries, and it will be\nalong time before our factories get into the hands of government. In spite\nof Bellamy's vision, we shall draw the line at water-works, gas-works, telegraphs, and railroads — for some time, at least.\nIn the second place, I believe that there is a general training for our elementary, and I may add our secondary, schools, which is more valuable in\nthe end than any special training. As I have intimated, early trade training is necessarily conservative. The processes appear to be arbitrary, the\nreasoning dogmatic, the range of vision narrow. \" Thus did the fathers ; \"\n\"Do as I tell you ;\" \"Don't ask so many questions ; you want to know\ntoo much ; \" — that is the atmosphere of a school where all are at last to be\ndriven out through one door, into one occupation.\nOur American idea is to have a great many doors of exit from our\n\n"}
{"page": 288, "printed_page": null, "text": "268\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nschools ; to look broadly and closely through the underlying principles\nand processes of many callings, and finally to focus upon one the light\nthat shines from all others. Such a course prevents an unwise conservatism and stimulates invention. I have said, and I here repeat, that the\nage of invention is just dawning, that manual training is the very breath\nof its nostrils. Hence I have no fears for American industries, even\nthough we have no trade training in our elementary schools.\n3. A third objection to early instruction in special industries is found\nin the fact, that it necessarily ignores special tastes and aptitudes. I need\nnot elaborate this point.\n4. Early special training is at the expense of versatility. No one should\nhang all his chances for life and complete living on one thread. To\nchange the figure : The properly trained boy or man — or woman — always\ncomes down upon his feet — tariff or no tariff ; silver or gold, or both ;\nstrike or suspension — it is all the same.\n5. The plan for purely general instruction in elementary schools is the\nplan of freedom. The idea of predestination to a particular calling by\nexternal conditions — whether pattern-maker or preacher, baker, banker,\nor blacksmith — is obnoxious. First develop the individual boy ; then let\nhim discover himself, and finally the demands, opportunities, and possibilities ofthe world around him. He then may choose his work advisedly.\nIt is our duty to assume that every boy is going to make the most of himself ;that he is to be a working factor ; that he is going to earn his own\nliving ; build his own home ; buy his own books and pictures and pianos\nwith the money he has himself earned. We must fit him most efficiently\nto earn his money as well as to spend it. I believe that the highest\ngood to the individual always leads to the highest good to the State. It\nwill be noted that I have not discussed the content of elementary education. That discussion comes at another time. I assume that it is harmonious and broad. I have only maintained that it should not, for local reasons, be narrowed and cramped by what may appear to be local demands.\nI also leave to others the discussion as regards race characteristics.\n\nWHAT\n\nSHOULD\n\nBE\n\nADDED TO\nBRANCHES?\n\nBY ALBERT P. MARBLE, SUPERINTENDENT\n\nTHE\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nOF SCHOOLS, WORCESTER, MASS.\n\n(1) Thesis: \"What should be added to the essential branches of the elementary\ncourse of study to meet the industrial needs of localities or race characteristics ? For\nexample, should city schools introduce branches relating to commerce or manufactures,\nor should rural schools introduce agriculture, chemistry, and botany ? \"\n(2) In this brief discussion it is assumed that the essential branches\nare those enumerated in the preceding thesis, namely: Morals, language\n\n"}
{"page": 289, "printed_page": null, "text": "WHAT\n\nSHOULD\n\nBE ADDED\n\nTO ELEMENTARY\n\nBRANCHES?\n\n269\n\ninmber, geography, history of the country, writing, and drawing ; the\nige of pupils being from six to fourteen years.\n(3) Why these brandies should be regarded essential is a question by\nself, already discussed ; but the grounds for considering them essential\nmst be briefly stated. Morals include the relations of the individual to\n>ciety, and reverence for the supreme power.\nThis branch of instruction\nieed not be taught in formal lessons.\nIt pervades all school exercises, and\nbelongs to the very atmosphere of the school. Devotion to duty, selfjontrol, regard for the rights of others, love of truth in all its phases, reverence for the Creator — all this permeates every school exercise. Without\nlue attention to the moral side, all education is a failure. The study of\nlumber cultivates the power of exact reasoning. Geography teaches all\nthe facts relating to the earth which we inhabit ; and as the dawning\nintelligence of the young child at the very first takes note of his surroundlgs, so the child in the elementary school should study the earth on which\nle lives.\nLanguage is the power of expressing thought ; and as the thought\nexpands with the expression, and no faster. than the power of expression —\nis accuracy of expression is indispensable to accuracy of thought — this\nstudy is essential. Writing and drawing are forms of expression, and as\nich they also are essential. They have a further use in cultivating the\neye and in giving control of the hand.\nThe history of the country is essential because this study connects the\n)ast with the present, and forecasts the future ; it invests the world with\nhuman interest ; it insidiously makes the child feel that, as one of the\nmman family, he has a vital and personal interest in the universal order —\nin all this vast concourse of things. These subjects are essential because\nthey have been developed from long experience, because they have been\ninstrumental in training generations of successful men, and because they\nire agreed to by thoughtful men generally — by all except those whose\nsupernal conceit leads them to think that whatever is, is wrong.\nThe question here proposed is, What should be added to these essential\n)ranches to suit (a) the local industrial needs and (b) race characteristics ?\n(4) Involved in this question is the antecedent inquiry, What is the pur)08e of public school education ?— for this discussion relates chiefly to\n>ublic schools. Should the education be specific, to fit the child in a\nlarrow way for a particular calling, or should it be broad and general,\ndevelop manliness, good citizenship, self-control, and application — to\n>ut the child in possession of himself, of all his powers ? Undoubtedly\nlucation should be thus broad and general.\n(5) Public school education in this country has been an independent and,\nin some respects, unique growth. A brief reference to the history of this\ngrowth will throw light upon our theme, and the changing conditions\n\n"}
{"page": 290, "printed_page": null, "text": "270\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nwill indicate the modifications that may be demanded and wisely introduced.\nThe first public bequest for education in the American colonies was\nmade to Harvard University by the colony of Massachusetts Bay in the\nyear 1636, \" that learning may not be buried in the graves of our fathers\nin church and state/' Elementary schools were established later. Still\nlater, and by degrees, these schools became universal and free; and with\nthe growth of democracy and the establishment of the Republic, they\ncame to be regarded as an essential factor of the national life, and they\nhave extended to every State.\nIt is to be observed, that in the early colonies and in the new States,\namong a rural population, the schools confined themselves to teaching the\nthree r's — to book learning. All the industrial arts, the domestic virtues\nand duties, and religion were left to the family. On this plan there has\nbeen a long period of national prosperity and general intelligence. The\ncountry throve, the people were industrious, frugal, capable, and patriotic.\nWith no special emphasis upon the flag in the teaching of the schools,\nthere was no lack of patriotic devotion when the country called for service\nand sacrifice ; with no special attention to mechanical or other industries\nin the schools, business was prosperous, and there was no lack of intelligent artisans. Education was general and not specific. It was not the\naim of the schools to assume the responsibility of the entire training of\nyouth, intellectually, physically, and morally, after the manner of the\nancient Spartans.\nWith the invention of machinery, with the inauguration of vast commercial and manufacturing corporations, with the division and sub-division\nof labor, and with the rapid development of the country subsequent to the\nCivil War, through immigration, society has changed, and the problem of\neducation has become more complex. The family is not now the political\nunit which it was. The fathers do not carry on a small, independent\nbusiness where their sons can be employed ; the mothers do not conduct\ndomestic industries to engage the labor of the daughters. Men have\nbecome mere cogs and wheels in the vast industrial machinery, in which\nthe children frequently find no place, and the parents have no time left to\nwork with the children.\n(6) In this state of society, which is far from the ideal state, shall the\npublic school assume the responsibility of the entire education of the\nchildren ? Shall the school perform the function of the parent and of\nthe church ? If so, shall the education be specific, to fit certain boys for\ncertain trades and adapt them to the \"local industries,\" and conform the\nschools to \" race characteristics \" ?\nIn the Swiss city of Zurich the children in school are taught the chief\nindustry of the place ; in China industrial occupations are thoroughly\ntaught, and the inhabitants acquire wonderful deftness ; the aborigines of\n\n"}
{"page": 291, "printed_page": null, "text": "WHAT\n\nSHOULD\n\nBE ADDED\n\nTO ELEMENTARY\n\nBRANCHES?\n\n271\n\nthis country were very skillful in certain kinds of handiwork.\nBut the\nlian had no civilization for us to copy ; the Chinese civilization is not\nsuperior to ours ; and what American city has an industry which it would\nprofitable for all the children of the city to learn ? At Waltham, Mass.,\nratches are made ; would it pay to teach all the children of Waltham the\nratchmaking trade ? Could they all be employed in that business ? and\nloes any one there make a whole watch, or only a particular part of a\nratch ? If the children of a farmer could all be taught farming in the\nschools, would they all become farmers, and would it be best to make\nfarmers of them all ? And as to the \"race characteristics,\" what pecuity of race is there which, imported into this country, should be\npropagated in the public schools ? If there is such a peculiarity, is not\nthe very thing which should disappear in the American citizen ?\n)ahensleyism is the last thing which the public schools should encourage.\nThe answer to tbe thesis, then, is that no study should be added to the\nelementary course because it meets the industrial needs of a locality, or\nfavors the race characteristics of any people.\nPublic education should aim at development and culture only; and the\nlanual and industrial, and any other element, should be adopted only so\nas it can be shown to contribute to this development and culture.\nThe work in any one of these lines belongs to special schools, and for\n3uch schools the need is a sufficient warrant.\nFor the purposes of this development and culture, though not for local\nindustrial needs, there are various branches of study which may profitably\nDe added to, but which should not displace, the essentials already named,\n^hese quite generally are objective and concrete. They are embraced\nmder the general terms Nature Studies, Physics, and Forces. They\nshould be taught objectively, from the overflowing abundance of the\neacher's knowledge, through a lively interest aroused in the child, and\nlot as tasks from dry text-books ; in this way they may supplement and\nvivify instead of supplanting the essential branches. There is a world of\ninterest, pleasure, profit, in botany, in entomology, in zoology — the birds,\nthe fishes — and in the rocks. The study of life in all its forms, in any of\nits forms that may be observed ; the noting of facts, the inferences, and\nrecording of these facts and inferences — this study is unsurpassed as\na means of culture. The mechanical powers are seen in every motion of\ndaily life, and in all the business that goes on. The elements of physics\nare a branch of study equal to the one just named. The forces of nature\n-gravity, light, heat, electricity, chemical affinity, not in the theory so\nluch as in the practical manifestation — these should be added, in the\nincidental way already pointed out.\nThis list is long enough to introduce the discussion, but it is not\nexhaustive, and the essential branches may be broadened indefinitely. For\nexample, language may include literature ; but this enlarging and this\n\n"}
{"page": 292, "printed_page": null, "text": "272\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nbroadening may be ruinous if it is not judiciously handled. In watering\ngrowing plants, drowning may kill. All depends upon the skill of the\nteacher, and everything must be done for the single aim of developing the\nnative power and putting the child in full possession of himself.\n\nDISCUSSION— RA CE CHAR A CTERISTICS.\nG. W. Hicks, Inspector of Schools, Jamaica, West Indies : Ladies and Gentlemen —\nWhen my friend General Eaton said to me that he would be glad if I would say something here this morning I could not say nay, for I thought possibly I might say a word\nabout our educational condition in Jamaica that might be of interest to you. The people of Jamaica have proceeded slowly but surely in the line of improvement, and I think\nthat no one who knows what has been attempted in Jamaica and what is now being\ndone in Jamaica can fail to form a very favorable opinion of the possibilities and probabilities ofthe future. In the thesis under discussion this morning my attention was\nspecially attracted by the expression race characteristics ; and 1 have no doubt General\nEaton had something of that in his mind when he asked me to speak upon this thesis.\nIn Jamaica our people generally are of a race different from the Anglo-Saxon. They\nare a black people, and those whom we call the colored people, a mixed race, sometimes\nknown as brown. They constitute the very great proportion of our population ; more\nthan nine-tenths. I do not know that I can tell you what are their race characteristics.\nThe people are different, but the differences may result from other causes than racial.\nThe environment has been very different, and what shall finally be determined as racial\ncharacteristics I do not know. I have a very strong opinion that it will be found to be\na difference in degree and not in kind. Certainly, so far as elementary education is\nconcerned, that which is best for the boys and girls here in America or in England is\nfound to be the best for the boys and girls in Jamaica.\nAll boys and girls in all countries, of all races, need these three things : they need\nknowledge, power, and ability to do ; they also need aspiration, a high ideal, a reaching\nforward to something progressive. Now, the American boy in New England and in\nthe Western States would find among his neighbors and in the community those\ninfluences, those educational agencies which would largely give him power or ability to\ndo and give him aspiration.\nHe would get much of that also in his school.\nOur boys and girls in Jamaica need to find in the school that which is found here outside of the school. One English gentleman, who visited your schools a generation ago,\nand greatly admired what was done here in America — admired the American schools\nand the American people — gave it as his opinion that while there was in America an\nunusual amount of intelligence among the people, and especially among the laboring\npeople, that we owed less of it to the schools and more of it to the environment than\nwas generally supposed. The environment in Jamaica is not very healthful. The\nhomes are not those which give the impulse and the training that the homes of the New\nEngland farmers and the Western farmers, and the New England mechanics and the\nWestern mechanics, give here in America.\nNow, the improvement will be not so very much perhaps by addition to the curriculum as by the method of teaching the studies in the school. If the teaching can be so\ndone as to develop along in every study an ability to do, the child, when he leaves\nschool, will have power. That would be an improvement. The lack of power is exemplified among our people in the building of the churches. Those who are ministers of the\npeople\nto* them adding\nfrom to\nEngland,\nScotland,\nGermany,\nsome from\nThey arecome\ncontinually\ntheir church\nbuildings.\nThey and\nare taking\ndown America.\nthe poor\nones and building better ones. That is a sign of progress in Jamaica. They haven't\nmuch money ; almost invariably the schoolmaster superintends these buildings. He\nhas had no training as a carpenter or mason, but he has a general education and is\nchosen to supervise. He has to watch continually the carpenter and the mason whom\nhe employs, lest they make great blunders. They can do the work if they are told just\nwhat to do ; but many of them appear to have that sort of ability which was possessed\nby the man who made a large hole in his door for his cat to go through, and then\nmade a smaller hole for his kitten to go through. Unless they are watched, if they\nwant a short piece of lumber they will take the longest piece there is to cut it from,\ninstead of taking one of the shorter pieces and cutting the short piece from that.\n\n"}
{"page": 293, "printed_page": null, "text": "SPECIAL\n\nWORK\n\nTO PREP\n\nABE\n\nPUPILS\n\nFOR\n\nCITIZENSHIP.\n\n273\n\nThey need in the schools such a teaching as shall continually develop their mental\npower so that they shall not simply think, this will do ; but, is there anything better\nthan this ? There is a lack of thinking power among the people which is due, to\nsome extent, to defective methods of teaching the ordinary subjects of the schools.\nThe introduction of agriculture among our people, an agricultural people, is about to\ntake place under government authority, and 1 have no doubt if that is properly taught\nit will tend to develop that power of which I have spoken, and which is now greatly\nlacking, but it will no more develop it than the proper teaching of almost any other\nbject.\nSchools which I have inspected in Jamaica will give you as fine specimens of penmanship as any that can be found in this marvelous exhibit in Jackson Park ; and in\nother things they will show as much knowledge as boys and girls of similar age in other\nhools ; but they lack power.\nThey also lack aspiration.\nThey are not lifted up to\neking higher ideals, seeking for that progress which seems to be a characteristic of all\ne boys and girls of America, and I presume largely of every civilized country.\nIn\nuring this aspiration Jamaica needs better teaching power, and it needs better text\n)ks. It makes a great deal of difference what sort of a reading book you put into\ne school.\nAnd it will make a great deal of difference what sort of a history you put\nto a school.\nI had occasion recently to send to America to place in the bands of\nme young men in Jamaica a history of the United States, which would show the\nuses of the great war, and I got a history in which every essential thing was elimiited, and there was nothing left there that would account for that unparalleled\nniggle on the part of the people of the North in which my friend General Eaton, and\ni which I myself, bore a part\n1 trust I am uttering no discordant note when I say\nthat I think that the history which you place in your schools should contain the essential things which explain the great facts of the great struggle in which you took part,\nnd which has so greatly influenced the destinies not only of this land, but of all lands,\nread not long ago something from a gentleman who spoke of the great influence for\nood\nMcGruffey's old readers had when he was a schoolboy.\nI read those\n0< which\ng\nreaders,\nand I want to say Amen to all that he said.\nWe want in our reading books a\nrecord of great deeds ; we want the great thoughts of great minds to lift up the boys\nand girls, and give them that aspiration and that spirit to which Superintendent Jones\nreferred.\ne, in Jamaica, watch very carefully all that is being done in America, and take a\nat interest in all of the discussions in regard to the introduction of manual training.\nyou can solve the problem of how that can be successfully introduced into our comon schools with our ordinary teachers, you will have done us, in Jamaica, and the\norld in general, a very great benefit.\n\nTHAT SPECIAL WORK SHOULD BE UNDERTAKEN IN\nTHE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TO PREPARE THE\nPUPILS FOR\nTHE DUTIES OF CITIZENSHIP?\nBY\n\nWM.\n\nA.\n\nMOWET,\n\nSUPEKINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nSALEM,\n\nMASS.\n\nIt is taken for granted that \"elementary school\" here referred to\nleans the elementary \"public\" school. By this term, public school, is\nleant in this country a school maintained at public expense ; that is, by\nixation. The fundamental principle of the American public school is\nlat the property of the State is taxed to educate the children of the\ntate. The assumption, therefore, is clearly implied that the welfare of\nle State demands the education of all the children. 'These several\ntints are here assumed without discussion.\nThe next important question which arises is, In what branches and\nith what motive shall these children be educated ? It is not within the\n18\n\n"}
{"page": 294, "printed_page": null, "text": "274\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nprovince of this paper to discuss this question further than to point out the\none fact, clearly to be inferred, that if the school is supported by taxation\nin order to maintain firmly republican institutions, the nature and character of these institutions, the facts concerning our Government, and the\nduties of the citizen under it, should most assuredly be taught in such\nschool.\nI shall take the ground that special provision ought to be made for\ninculcating patriotic sentiments, and preparing the pupils for their responsibilities as citizens, in ail the grades of the public school. As this\ndiscussion, however, is confined to the elementary school, we shall have to\ndeal only with what is usually comprehended under two grades ; that is,\n(1) the primary school, (2) the grammar school.\nTHE\n\nPRIMARY\n\nSCHOOL.\n\nIn the first place, it would be necessary for the teacher to have clearly\nin mind what is to be taught during the time the pupil is in her particular grade. A clearly-defined plan is essential to intelligent teaching. I\nwill here only indicate certain things that seem to me both feasible and\ndesirable to be taught to the child in the lower grades of the primary\nschool :\n1. In what town or city he lives.\n2. What are the adjoining towns or cities.\n3. In what county he lives.\n4. What are the towns or townships and cities in the county.\n5. The name of the State in which he lives.\n6. The name of the Governor of the State.\n7. The name of the country in which he lives.\n8. The name of the President of the United States.\nSome may contend that such teaching should be delayed until the pupil\nis old enough to comprehend' and appreciate more fully the nature of the\nfacts and conditions dealt with. I am quite inclined to think, however,\nthat the principle is a sound one, entirely defensible, philosophically and\npedagogically, to teach in an elementary way facts which may not until\nlater be fully comprehended in all their causes, conditions, and effects.\nWhen I was a small child at school, only five or six years of age, I learned\nthe fact that Andrew Jackson was then the President of the United\nStates. The learning of that single fact at that time has been of great\nservice to me since. It has enabled me to fix dates, to associate related\nfacts of that period, and has served in reality to mark an epoch not only\nin my own life, but in the history of State and nation. The great epochs\nof the world, like the Flood, the escape of the Israelites from Egypt, the\nHegira, the founding of Rome, the birth of Christ, the . discovery of\nAmerica, the Thirty Years' War, our Revolutionary War, our own Civil\nWar, are dividing lines, to be used as starting points for the comparison\n\n"}
{"page": 295, "printed_page": null, "text": "SPECIAL\n\nWORK\n\nTO PREPARE\n\nPUPILS\n\nFOR\n\nCITIZENSHIP.\n\n275\n\nof events considered chronologically. So in the life of every individual,\nif his first schooldays are marked as being in the administration of\nAndrew Jackson, or James Buchanan, or Grover Cleveland, this forms a\ncentral date from which, in later years, he may go backward or forward\nin the history of the country. All previous events he learns historically ;\nall subsequent events come within the period of his remembrance.\nNor is this matter of history of little importance in the patriotic view.\nThe knowledge of the facts of one's country must be known before one\ncan have love of country. What has been said, therefore, is sufficient to\nindicate that we must begin very early in the life of the pupil to teach\nhim the essential facts of the history of this nation.\n9. The learning of patriotic selections.\n10. The singing of patriotic songs.\n11. The observance of patriotic anniversaries, such as Independence\nDay, Memorial Day, the anniversary of the battle of New Orleans, and that\nof Bunker Hill, Washington's birthday, Lincoln's birthday, and so on.\nOf course, much more can be done under several of these heads in the\nyears of the grammar school than in the primary grades, therefore they\nwill be considered more fully later. .\nTHE\n\nGRAMMAR\n\nSCHOOL.\n\nDuring the years included in what is usually called the grammar\nschool course, much can be done both incidentally and by systematic\nstudy, in relation to the responsibilities of citizenship and the duties of\nthe citizen.\n1. The subject should pervade the atmosphere of the schoolroom. The\nteacher should constantly bear in mind that each pupil is an American\ncitizen ; therefore, in all teaching, more especially in geography and\nhistory, the question of citizenship should be uppermost in the mind.\nI am aware that this is very indefinite. It is doubtless true that many\nteachers are not prepared, either naturally or by their previous training,\nfor this sort of teaching, but the same thing is true in regard to other subjects both\n;\npreparation and instinct must be present, or no great success\ncan be secured. Nevertheless, it is true that every teacher can do much,\nif she has the will to prepare for this important work.\n2. One of the most important means for inducing the spirit of patriotism and preparing pupils for the duties of citizenship is to be found in\nspecial work connected with the study of the history of our country.\nIn the colonial history, the character of the first settlers, their strength\nof mind, intelligence, and earnestness of purpose may be dwelt upon\nwith great advantage. The period of the American Eevolution and the\nformation of our national government gives fine opportunities to inculcate a spirit of loyalty to our republican government, and of patriotism\nand appreciation of our peculiar political institutions and advantages.\n\n"}
{"page": 296, "printed_page": null, "text": "276\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nThe history of the formation of the Federal Constitution, and an account of its peculiar provisions embodying the genius of our government\nin its three distinct departments — legislative, executive, and judicial —\nshould be carefully developed, and clearly impressed upon the pupil's\nmind. The growth of our country, its rapid progress in material resources, itsincrease in the variety and quality of its industries, its present\nrelative strength among the nations of the earth, with its extent of territory, its large population, and its great wealth — all these things are calculated to stir the hearts of the pupils, and increase almost to a boundless\nextent their appreciation of, and a natural and legitimate love for, the great\ncountry which they can call their own.\n3. In this connection it may be proper to call attention to the practical\nlessons of patriotism so easily given in the celebration of special anniversary days. Independence Day, Washington's Birthday, and the dates of\nimportant events like Lexington, Bunker Hill, the battle of New Orleans,\nCommodore Perry's victory on Lake Erie, Gettysburg, Appomattox, furnish opportunities for valuable lessons in patriotism. It is scarcely necessary at this late day to call attention to the importance of having the\nAmerican flag float from the top of- every schoolhouse in the land. On\nall patriotic occasions that flag, which is at once an emblem of freedom\nand an epitome of our history, which indicates by its thirteen stripes and\nforty-four stars the autonomy of our government — this flag floating in the\nbreeze inevitably conveys lessons of strong patriotic sentiment and love of\ncountry to the hearts of all children. On these occasions, too, if the lessons from the historic page are enforced by recitations and readings culled\nfrom the vivid pictures and eloquent utterances of our great authors, such\nas Washington and Jefferson, Webster, Clay, and Lincoln, the mental\neffect is greatly strengthened.\n4. In the lower grades of the grammar school, instruction should be\ngiven from time to time in the simpler elements of our governmental\nmachinery. Almost every State publishes in some form a manual of the\nlegislature. This manual generally contains the State Constitution, and\nfrequently the Constitution of the United States ; a list of the State officials, including the executive, legislative, and judicial departments ; the\nrules of the House and of the Senate ; a description of the several grades\nof State Courts, with the times and places where they are held : a list of\ncounties and county institutions, and, in some cases, townships and their\nofficers. This manual can usually be obtained by teachers who are interested in this subject, and from it can be drawn most important lessons\nconcerning the duties of citizens and the institutions and forms of our\ngovernment.\nIf it were in a New England State the first lesson would naturally be\nupon the township and its officers, mentioning the particular names of the\nofficers in the town in which the school is located ; and the teacher can\n\n"}
{"page": 297, "printed_page": null, "text": "SPECIAL\n\nWORK\n\nTO PREP ABE PUPILS FOR CITIZENSHIP.\n\n277\n\nthen discuss with the pupils the duties of the moderator of a town meeting, of the town clerk, the selectmen, the constable, assessors of taxes,\noverseers of the poor, school committee, and other officers.\nWherever the township system is not made so prominent, the county\nsystem and county officers should be considered in like manner. Then\nthe State officials and State institutions can be followed step by step,\nuntil by a series of carefully elaborated lessons and familiar talks by the\nteacher, taking up one thing at a time, the groundwork of our whole\nsystem of government may come to* be clearly understood by the children.\n5. We come now to a consideration of what many believe to be the\nmost important part of this discussion. There remains for us to consider\nthe direct and specific study of civil government in the upper grades of\nthe grammar school. I believe that in schools sustained by public taxation\nthere should certainly be taught, as a definite subject, to 'all the scholars in\nthe upper grades of the grammar schools, the government of our country\n— its principles, its genius, its institutions, its offices and officers, their\nduties and their responsibilities, and the duties and responsibilities of citizens. There are many elementary treatises on civil government prepared\nexpressly for this use, and some one of them may be used as a text-book\nin the last year's work in every grammar school. Here can be systematically unfolded the facts of our local government, whether township or\ncounty, the State government, its powers and limitations, and the peculiar province and characteristics of the National government.\nThis study is not beyond the comprehension of grammar school pupils.\nIt can be made of special interest to them, and is of the highest practical\nvalue to them in after life.\nIn presenting this study before a class in the upper grades of grammar\nschools, great advantage will be found to accrue from acquainting the\npupils directly with the doings of the citizens in town meetings, in county\nconventions, the State legislature, and the courts. Wherever it is possible,\nthe class in civil government should at least once a year make a visit to the\nState capital and attend a session of the Senate and of the House. In like\nlanner, a visit should be made to some one of the State courts, so that\nthe pupils can observe the forms by which a trial is conducted.\n6. Another excellent practice is to carry on, in due form, an election by\nthe pupils of the school on Election Day. If it is a town election, let the\npupils carry out the form of electing the town officers. If it be a State\nelection, let the political parties hold their caucuses, make their nominations, and, on the day appointed, let the election take place in due form, in\naccordance with the State laws, with all the paraphernalia that is actually\nused, with a subsequent counting of votes and announcement of the result.\nIf it be the day of the election of presidential electors, let that be carried\non by the school in like manner.\nI am fully persuaded, from long experience and wide observation, that\n\n"}
{"page": 298, "printed_page": null, "text": "278\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nthis subject has not yet received the attention which it merits.\nI believe\nthat it is a matter of the utmost importance for the perpetuity of our institutions, the maintenance of our free government, and the general pros\nperity of our nation, that the study of civil government should be carrie\non and carefully attended to in all of our grammar schools.\nI therefore recommend the subject, with great earnestness, to the\nthoughtful attention of all the distinguished educators who have honored\nthis congress and this occasion with their presence.\n\nTHE\n\nBY\n\nVALUE\nOF\nTHE\nELEMENTARY\nSCHOOL FOR\nTHE\nSOCIAL\nVIRTUES\nAND\nFOR\nTRAINING FOR\nTHE\nRIGHT EXERCISE\nOF THE DUTIES\nOF CITIZENS.\nMISS\n\nCATHARINE\n\nH.\n\nSPENCE,\n\nOF\n\nADELAIDE,\n\nSOUTH\n\nAUSTRALIA.\n\nThere is little need, before an assembly like this, of spending time in\ndefining what education has been and what it ought to be. We may\npresume that, as we have outgrown the old idea that education is merely\nlearning what other people have told us, we ought to outgrow also the\nmore recent idea that education is merely to give us tools for our own\nadvancement and success. The value of the three K's has been enormous\nin a society where every one had not mastered them. Now it must take\nthe negative form that, in our present circumstances, every child who does\nnot know how to read and write and to cast accounts intelligently is\nhandicapped in the race of life, and placed at a disadvantage at every turn\nof fortune's wheel; and all civilized nations are agreed that this minimum\nof school teaching shall be given to all children, and that school attendance shall be enforced by law. . But it depends on the use that is made of\nall knowledge, even of these barest and most elementary elements of education, whether their exercise is a bane or a blessing to himself or to the\ncommunity in which he lives. If a man prefers to read bad books to\ngood ones ; if he writes lies and slanders, or commits forgeries by means of\nelever penmanship, and if he uses his proficiency in figures to cheat other\npeople not so clever as himself, his three E's are a curse and not a blessing.\nTherefore, I think more of the tone of the school than of the attainments of the pupils ; and the tone may be so individualistic as to atrophy\nthe natural social instincts. And the desire to outstrip all competitors\nmay be so encouraged by praise and rewards, that the seeds are sown in\nschool which take root in after life and make self-advancement the whole\nduty of man.\nIf we transcend the elementary three R's, we must see that we work\ntoward the development of what our French fellow-educationist happily\n\n"}
{"page": 299, "printed_page": null, "text": "VALUE\n\nOF ELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\nFOR THE SOCTAL\n\nVIRTUES.\n\n279\n\ncalled the three H's — the head, the heart, and the hand. For if our\nchildren study history, whether that of their own country or that of other\ncountries, without admiring what is noble and generous and courageous\nmd patriotic, and hating oppression and cruelty and deceit and cowardly\nselfishness and greed, they will make none the better citizens though\nthey have the names and the dates of all the battles that ever were fought,\nat their finger ends, and could tell the succession of all the presidents of\nthe United States and of all the sovereigns of Europe.\nIf military glory is made paramount in the teaching, children imbibe\nthe militant spirit. If material prosperity is held forth as the great\nobject of life, the ideal which is in every child is starved ; and in both of\nthese misdirections the social instincts have not got fair play.\nWe must bear in mind that the common school is often the only civilizing agency with which children from poor, rough homes in the cities\nand the country are brought into contact. The regularity of school\nhours, the serviceable pressure of school discipline, the requirement for\npersonal cleanliness and civil and decent language while in the schoolroom and on the playground, the punishment of cruelty and rudeness\namong our younger citizens, are mighty forces whose value is apt to be\nunderrated. The higher the attainments of our teachers, the more gentle\nand dignified are their manners ; the more these necessary rules are reinforced by the respect and the appreciation which the individuals who\ncarry them out win from their pupils, the lessons of courtesy, of mutual\nrespect and mutual forbearance sink in the more deeply, and the tone of\nthe school is elevated and sweetened all round.\nIn spite of Herbert Spencer and his school, the trend of thought in our\nera is unmistakably social. And unless our future citizens — our future\nmasters — are prepared for wisely handling the great problems of our day,\ntheir education is one-sided and defective.\nJeremy Bentham made a great stride in ethics when he declared that\nthe object of all legislation should be the greatest happiness of the greatest number ; but we have got beyond this. The greatest happiness, even\nof the greatest number, should not be pursued at the sacrifice of the happiness of the smaller number.\nHow can these higher ethics be taught in the common schools ? Directly, in the wise choice of the lessons which children read, and in the\nmoral lessons which I believe are given in America and in Australia ; and\nindirectly by the influence of the teacher over the- tone of the school.\nAnd the lessons need not be namby-pamby, for the social virtues are not\nbuilt on the foundation of charity and almsgiving, but on justice. It is\nbecause ambition and competition are so apt to be unjust, to take advantage of the weakness of others, to deal with others as they would resent\nbeing dealt with themselves, to climb on the fallen, to squeeze the hardest\nterms when the other party is at a disadvantage, that they are to be dis-\n\n"}
{"page": 300, "printed_page": null, "text": "280\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\ncouraged.\nMany successful men are liberal in benefactions to hospitals\nMagdalen asylums, and colleges, and I do not quarrel witli them for tha\nbut these things do not right the wrong they may have done by hard dealing with their employees, or by what is called rigging the market, so as\nto make timid people sell too cheaply to them, and sanguine people buy\ntoo dearly from them.\nThe social virtues are not effeminate or weak virtues ; they are built on\nthe strong foundations of justice. They carry out the highest and theof\nbest rule of life — the Golden Rule — to do to others as we would that they\nshould do to us. And in every relation of life the broad principles of\nequity would prove sufficient for the individual as for the social organism.\nHow are we to teach our future rulers, in the common schools which\nall of them attend, such principles as will make them prefer a good newi\npaper to a bad one, and will make them use their voting power intelligently and honestly ? A citizen in a free state ought to be educated to a\nfeeling of public spirit. I believe that the children in the United States\nare educated to loyalty to the flag much more than children in England or\nAustralia. All sing patriotic songs, and it thrilled me much at San Francisco to find that a national song of America, \"God Bless our Native\nLand/' is sung to the same tune as our \"God Save our Gracious Queen/'\nIt appears as if the tune were going round the globe, symbolizing loyalty\nto country.\nIt surely is quite possible to teach children before they are fourteen\nyears old the difference between public spirit and party spirit, and the\nrelations which citizens in a free country hold with the government —\nmunicipal, state, and federal. Government in all these three forms is at\nonce the master and the servant of the people. As our master, it must be\nobeyed, even although we may not believe all the laws of the land to be\nwise or just ; so long as they are the laws, we must respect and obey them.\nBut as our servant, the municipal, the state, and the federal government must be watched and checked ; unjust laws must be opposed by all\nlegitimate mean?, by free speech and a free press ; unworthy members of\nthe city council, of the state legislature, or of the federal congress should\nbe exposed, and, by the exercise of the suffrage, be replaced by better\nmen. Boys and girls much younger than fourteen can be taught that it\nis wrong and contemptible to sell one's vote, and the collective conscience\nof the class educated toward purity of election. It is the duty of citizens\nof a free country to use the machinery of representation honestly, and if\nthat machinery is defective, to work for its improvement.\nThe first lesson I learned in politics was from the lips of my mother,\nwhen I was six years old, on the question of the English Keform Bill of\n1832. She said she did not think anything was so good but that it might\nbe made better ; nothing devised by man that man could not improve.\nThat lesson was given at a very early age, and it was followed up by\n\n"}
{"page": 301, "printed_page": null, "text": "VALUE\n\nOF ELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\nFOR TEE SOCIAL\n\nVIRTUES.\n\n281\n\nothers. It helped to the building of my character and to the shaping of\nmy life. 1 am still learning it. I also learned much from the very intelligent woman who gave me all the school learning I have had, and that\nceased at the age of thirteen, when I went to Australia with my parents.\nShe had appreciation for the bright and patience with the dull. She\npreached to us all a sermon on the text, \"Splendid talents are the lot of\nfew, but our gracious God has put within the reach of all those qualities\nwhich insure respectability and usefulness in life \" — industry, frugality,\nand sound principles ; and she made it very interesting.\nTherefore I maintain that it is quite possible to give education in the\nduties of a citizen in our elementary schools. I wrote a little book for the\nEducation Department of South Australia ; the title was given to me —\n\"The Laws we Live under\" — but I did not confine myself to the actual\nlaws of the statute book, but glanced at the economic and social laws on\nwhich our prosperity and well-being depend, and I also tried to explain\nsuch things as protection and free trade, friendly societies, trade unions,\nsavings banks, insurance, newspapers and other organs of public opinion.\nA good teacher can make a lesson as interesting about the relations of\nland, labor, and capital as on any other subject he can choose. He can\nshow the advantages of tools and of machinery, and can appeal to the\ncommon sense and to the experience of his pupils.\nAnd he can draw analogies between the law of the family, the social\nunit, and the law of the school, which is a collective unit, leading to the\nlaw of the land. As a good scholar would be ashamed to break the desks\nor make holes in the maps, or to injure any of the school property, so\nshould a good citizen be ashamed to destroy government property, to\nwaste government money, or to cheat the government revenue. Their\nfellow-citizens suffer by these things.\nThere was one important point which I tried to make very clear, because\nin all the Australian colonies the government undertakes and executes so\nmany public works that are left in older countries to private or associated\ncapital. But still, I dare say, there are such things as appropriations\neven in the States.\nA good citizen should always study the best interests of the whole community, and not let his private interests, his class interests, or his local\ninterests come between him and what is best for every one. If he has a\npiece of land to sell, and asks twice as much for it from the government\nor from the municipality as he would accept from an ordinary buyer, he is\ntrying to make all his fellow-citizens pay twice as much as its worth for\nthe sake of his private interest. If he wants laws made to favor his trade\nor. business, so that people should pay more for what they want than without these laws — that is his class interest that is warping his judgment. If\nhe wants government to lay out money in his district that is not needed,\nthen it is his local interest that he opposes to the general good.\n\n"}
{"page": 302, "printed_page": null, "text": "282\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nThe class and local interests need to be watched closely, because they\nare encouraged by those around us who are of the same class and who live\nin the same locality, and they are extolled by them as showing genuine\npublic spirit. Selfishness pure and simple does not meet with this\nencouragement, because other people's private interests are different from\nour own.\nThere are many points of detail in which a primer on the duties of a\ncitizen written for American children would be different from what would\nsuit Australia, but the broad principles might be the same. We have\nno such great issue as the election of the head of the state for four years,\nnor have we the bewildering number of officials to elect. But the responsibilities ofcitizens in America appear to me to be the greater because the\ncountry is so great, and because it stands out as the greatest permanent\ndemocratic government in the world. And the manner in which the best\nmen keep out of politics seems to me to point toward the necessity of\ntraining all the young for citizenship, of inculcating from the earliest years\nthe duty that every one owes to the land he lives in. And, whether girls\nare going to have the suffrage granted to them or not, they should not be\nexcluded from such lessons. The word citizen should be understood in\nits widest sense, as one subject to the laws of the land and having an interest in all things which concern other fellow-citizens. It does not mean an\ninhabitant of a city ; it does not mean a voter at elections ; it means a\nmember of a community.\nAlthough the girls in our public schools may never have to vote at elections or to serve on juries, and cannot aspire to be representatives or congressmen or presidents of the United States, they have too much interest\nin good government and too much influence in the world to be left safely\nin ignorance of the great natural laws of Providence or of the law of the\nland. It has been by the advance of civilization and by the operation of\njust laws that women have been raised from being the drudges or the toys\nof men to be their companions, and in many respects their equals. The\nprogress of the world in health and in wealth, in knowledge and in goodness, depends on the character and conduct of its women as much as on\nthose of its men, and there can be no greater mistake for girls to make\nthan to suppose they have nothing to do with good citizenship and good\ngovernment.\nThe fact that so much of the work in your elementary schools is in\nthe hands of women, and that these are not supposed to take any active\npart in political matters, ought not to tell against my argument. Many\nof our political methods are inherited from old militant ideals. The\ndesire that our party should triumph, right or wrong, is a legacy from\nthe desire that our country should triumph whether the cause of war was\njust or unjust.\nWomen ought to build up from the social and not from the militant\n\n"}
{"page": 303, "printed_page": null, "text": "VALUE\n\nOF ELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\nFOR THE SOCIAL\n\nVIRTUES.\n\n283\n\nStandpoint. And the tone and atmosphere around a bright, intelligent,\nkind-hearted woman foster the nascent civic virtues.\nIf I am asked what school exercises are most valuable to educate for\ncitizenship, I fear 1 should say that it is exercises out of school which are\nthe best. Miss Wheelock, of New York, spoke this week at the Woman's\nBuilding about the civilizing and the humanizing effect of giving playgrounds to the children of the city slums as well as kindergarten training\nto them. I believe that it is in the games which children play that they\nlearn most thoroughly the principles of justice and to yield to public\nopinion. All games have rules ; many games have a referee, in case of alleged\ninfractions of rules. \"Fair play\" is the earliest conception of justice\nwhich enters into the mind of a child. And there are some good rules with\nregard to games which are not kept up in the great game of life, when\nthe stakes are so much heavier. If a boy is a much better runner than his\nfellows, he is handicapped in the competition for victory in a race. In\nlife, the man who has won the prize starts so many more yards ahead,\ninstead of so many yards behind, for the next contest.\nBut the scorn which is poured out on the boy who takes an unfair\nadvantage in order to defeat others is the expression of a healthy and\njust public opinion, and I should like to see it retain its vigor and its\nefficacy all through life.\nStill, no doubt, there are school exercises which promote education for\ncitizenship at present in use, and others might be devised. The most\nimportant at present are \"music, in the shape of school songs, and drill\nand discipline. School singing is social ; each young voice lends its tribute, and different voices are allotted to part singing. The voice of each\nis subordinated to the general effect. Drill is also helpful to the social\ndevelopment. Step for step with regularity, without jostling or confusion, each takes his place and keeps it. These things are done unconsciously, as a matter of course ; but a teacher who wants to train citizens\ncould show the social equality and the social value of the school singing\nand the school drill. Discipline saves much time and much tear and wear\nto teachers and to pupils, and no school prospers without its aid. But\nwhen discipline becomes the master and not the servant of true education,\none sees it in the tone of the school. There is a want of elasticity and of\nspontaneity.\nThe discipline ought to be such that the consensus of all the best\npupils is on the side of law and order. And is not this the best training\nfor citizenship in a free country ? The days of the autocratic schoolmaster\nare over, even in countries which we consider to be somewhat despotically governed. And it seems to me to be the death-knell to absolutism\nwhen future citizens have their rights respected by the teachers. They are\nlikely to demand them from the monarch.\nGood manners are the outward aud visible expression of good morals.\n\n"}
{"page": 304, "printed_page": null, "text": "284\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nThey cannot bo taught too early. The home is the first and the best school\nfor them, but the school may supply the defects of many homes in a great\nmeasure. Our nursery for citizenship should have sweetness as well as light.\nThere are social points in all branches of knowledge, but they are often hidden. Itis the duty of the true teacher to point them out and emphasize them.\nI heard yesterday in the Art Section, from Mr. Stimson, lessons for\ncitizenship given by means of drawing. If the teacher has in his\nheart the feeling that to train worthy citizens is his prime duty, every\nsubject which he presents to his pupils will be instinct with this conviction. If, on the contrary, he cares nothing for public duty, the best textbooks that may be put in his hands will fall dead on the class. Let us\nfirst inspire the educators ; the inspiration will be communicated to the\nschools.\nMETHODS\n\nOF TEACHING\nBY MRS. MARY\n\nHISTORY\n\nTO\n\nH. PEABODY, OF NEW\n\nCHILDREN.\nYORK.\n\nTo make the briefest possible statement, I would say that I was led to\nthis method of teaching history by the manifested needs of a class of\nchildren from eight to twelve years of age. I took them from a kindergarten, and sought to carry into school the principles taught by Froebel.\nThe subject of the children's study was truly man and his occupation of\nthe earth.\nAs all action is related to nature, I considered political geography as the\nresults of the movements of man, and physical geography as the outward\ncause and guide of those movements ; the two therefore can be learned\nincidentally, not as separate lessons.\nIn opening the work, I was led by the questions of the children to the\nbeginnings, to the origins of things — to the sun, the earth as a planet, to\nits growth and geological construction, and the progress of life.\nThe lessons were given round a table with globe and maps, and began\nwith personal experience, and were intended to touch the child's natural\nrelationships. There was the land to speak of, its boundaries, its name,\nand flag — all that they knew about it here and now; its present condition,\npeople, and methods of life. These made a series of lessons, related\nintentionally to the history, yet with variety in the subject to awaken the\nchild's consciousnesss of alliance to nature, to God, and to his fellows.\nHuman life, like the earth, has its natural divisions. These are the\nfamily, the race, and the nation. The first two are opposites ; the third\nis the result of their union.\nThe family is the near, close relationship which by birth gives name,\nposition, and something of personal character.\nIt is the unit of society.\nThe race, using the word as in anthropology, is the largest relationship\n\n"}
{"page": 305, "printed_page": null, "text": "METHODS\n\nOF TEACHING\n\nHISTORY\n\nTO CHILDREN.\n\n285\n\n)f man, showing wide distribution of general physical characteristics and\ntypes of language.\nOut of these two elements, and by means of their combination, rises\nthat supreme form of life, the nation. In the nation families of all\nraces mingle more or less, as children see in their own country. Still,\njach nation has been born into the world with a special character of its\n)wn, and upon its own land, out of the life first planted ; each nation has\nexpressed a life entirely individual and characteristic, by virtue of which it\nstands apart from others, has its separate history and its own name.\nThe earth is thus peopled by the nations ; the keynote of history is the\n)rinciple of nationality. The nation is the highest degree of existence,\ntt is the completion of society, the form of life dearest and most sacred, to\nrbich the family is sacrificed if necessary.\nWithin the nations, as expressions of their character, arise every form\n)f human thought relative to government, religion, and life. The growth\n)f the nation is the following out of the natural law of organization.\nAll force of life coming from God takes some organic form by which to\nrepresent itself. It uses nature as its support, moves even unconsciously\nifter divine law, and offers at once the organic, consolidated growth of\nmmanity, with room for the individual in his protected personal life.\nThe nations have arisen like seeds planted in the earth, moving after\nthe plan of God from east to west. Each has left its life behind as an\ninheritance, or uses it organically, as a whole, in connection with others.\n?hus to know the rise, progress, and decline of nations as a few great charicters who have dwelt upon and now use this earth, is to know history.\nTo know the great distinctions of anthropology enables us to separate\nmd classify the nations, to comprehend the differences of physique, lanlage, and general cast of mind. To keep the nations in contrast on this\nground is the comparative method by which all minds seek to study and\nto know the progress of a few great thoughts and ideas in their movement from east to west ; is to see the divine plan of life worked out by\nuiman hands, as men have fought, built, governed, written, sung, and\nwrought their art work, each in the land that was given to it.\nTo teach history, if we pass through the outer aspects of things and\nike the natural history of man as the basis of his political history; if\nre use the personality of the nations, as America, or India, before we\nemphasize personal men and women, we teach history as the science —\nthe order and progress of life — and have a scientific method.\nIt may be objected that children cannot study in this way. In this\nbrief moment I can only say that children are responsive to all their\nlatural relationships. Nationality springs from the heart and soul of\nman. It belongs to the present as to the past; and children, by their\nquestions, revealing their instincts and desires for unity and order, led me\nto my conclusions.\n\n"}
{"page": 306, "printed_page": null, "text": "286\n\nSCHOOL\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nSAVINGS\nBY\n\nJ.\n\nH.\n\nCONGRESS\n\nBANKS\n\nTHIRY\n\nOF\n\nLONG\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nIN THE UNITED\nISLAND\n\nCITS',\n\nSTATES.\n\nN. Y.\n\nIn the sessions of the World's Congress Auxiliary from July 17 to Julj\n26, the whole question of the education of the young seems to have been\nquite fully presented, and yet among all things that have been said, not a\nword has been mentioned in relation to the practical lessons of thrift and\neconomy that may be inculcated during the early training of children.\nThe aim of this paper is to make up this deficiency.\nIn March, 1885, while I was the Commissioner of the Third Ward\nSchool of Long Island City, I introduced the European system of school\nsavings banks as a trial to one school. That trial proved to be so complete a success that, one year later, about fifty other schools of different\ncities adopted the system with same results. Now, eight years later, what\nbetter evidence of the efficacy of the plan could be given than by laying\nbefore the public the following results of its application to three hundred\nand seventeen schools of seventy-eight cities and villages of America ?\nFrom a register of 82,072 pupils in these three hundred and seventeen\nschools of twelve different States of the Union, 33,810 have saved $315,631.52, which is deposited in banks in the respective names of those 33,810\nscholars. This large amount would have been partially expended otherwise for worthless things. We have in this wide domain a large number\nof criminals, and of paupers, insane, bedridden, homeless, aged, infirm\npeople ; we have also among us many that are needy, but who are not yet\nthe wards of the public. With the increase of the population comes an\nincrease in society's burden. The only way to put a check upon this\nalarming increase in our non-producing classes is to educate our children\nto become producers, contributors, and thrifty citizens. In our public\nschools we can supply the remedy.\nIf frugality in grown-up people repairs the waste of our resources, in\nlittle people it accomplishes comparatively more. We have already learned\nthat the school savings bank, when introduced harmoniously, fuses with\nevery one of the other branches of school work. With our modern civilization, this new education is received as the purest expression of the social\nmaturity.\nOur ancestors, in inaugurating and adopting the public school system,\ndid not merely do so to prepare the children to buy, to sell, and to get\ngain in the active, material, business pursuits of life, but also to prepare\nthem for good citizenship in the Eepublic. Animated with the same\nspirit, we must extend our school programme if we want to enable our\nchildren to face the difficulties of existence.\nA really progressive civilization, such as ours, demands and prompts us\n\n"}
{"page": 307, "printed_page": null, "text": "287\nSCHOOL\n\nSAVINGS\n\nBANKS\n\nIN FRANCE.\n\ncentralize every element which tends to its onward march. Certainly\nthe lessons of thrift and economy taught our children in the schools are\nconsidered one of the most active agents. It is hoped that the trial\nilready so successfully made will serve as a foundation to carry out more\njompletely the plans for which the introducer has so earnestly worked for\nthe past nine years. The following question has been asked me by a few\nskeptics : \"By teaching children to save their pennies, are you not teaching them to become misers ?\" My answer to such argument is, that every\nrood thing is open to abuse ; but should we, therefore, prohibit the child\nfrom praying to God for fear that he may become a bigot ? Must we prevent the little girl from wishing to be loved for fear of her becoming a\n3oquette ?\nThe surrounding aspect of the introduction of the school savings bank\nsystem into three hundred and seventeen schools of our country has developed a great many good suggestions which have proved to be of incal3nlable value for the future welfare of our children and for society in\ngeneral.\nI conclude by saying that in this world we all build upon some one\n3lse's success. It is perfectly natural. Life is, after all, a sort of serious\njame of \"follow the leader,\" and what is already done or achieved is quite\nmatter of course, that some one else tries. School savings banks of\nLmerica have been built upon lines of their success in Europe.\nAny information relating to the school savings bank system will be\ngladly furnished to any applicant.\n\nSCHOOL\nBY\n\nM.\n\n8 A VINGS\n\nGUSTAVE\n\nBANKS\n\nSERRURIER,\n\nOF\n\nIN FRANCE.\nHAVRE,\n\nFRANCE.\n\nMr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen: — I shall be glad to give you an\nidea of the development of the school savings banks in France, an enter)rise which is of interest for all nations, and which has been promoted\n)y the well-known M. de Malarce. But I must restrict myself to telling\nfou what has been done in the elementary school of which I am the\n)rincipal. I will add that the beginning of the school savings bank dates\n)ack to March, 1876 ; that the school is situated in a workmen's district ;\nmd that it has eleven classes and an average of five hundred and sixty\nmpils.\nIn the first year I thought that it would be sufficient to receive the deposits\nonly twice in the week, Monday and Friday ; but I soon learned that\nthe pupils, especially the younger ones, had not always patience enough\nto wait for these days, and spent their sous for trifles. Besides, as the\nmmber of the depositors increased rapidly, the receiving of the sums took\n\n"}
{"page": 308, "printed_page": null, "text": "288\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\ntoo much time for one day. So at the beginning of 1877 I received the\ndeposits each day, fifteen minutes before the entrance of the class in the\nafternoon. I very soon saw the advantage of the daily receipts, and I\nhave continued it ever since. By regularity and by perseverance one is\nenabled to teach the children order and economy.\nI often recall to the children the purpose of the school savings bank and\nthe simplicity of its functions, encouraging them not to waste their sous.\nI let them feel that the operations of the school savings bank do not\ndeprive them of certain fancy articles which are suited to their age, but\nenable them to put aside things that are unnecessary and often injurious.\nI try to keep away from the children the evil which egotism and avarice\nwould work in their hearts ; on the other side, I strive to make them comprehend the good results of a just and reasonable economy. As nothing\nimpresses the mind of a child so much as example, I avail myself of all\nopportunities in the life of the pupil, in his behavior, his work, and even\nin his plays, to make him acquire little by little, and almost unconsciously,\nall the virtues which belong to his age, and which will form the foundation of a regular and honest existence, satisfying all his needs.\nI have shown in different reports how great an influence the school\nsavings banks have upon the behavior of the pupil. For this reason they\nought to be encouraged and extended also in the poorest districts, because\ntheir principal purpose is to diminish misery by economy and foresight.\nIndeed, a pupil economical in his clothing and his school material acquires\na spirit of order which is useful in his studies, while forming in him also\nthe habit of saving.\nI will add that I keep to the spirit of the work, and that I seek only\nits educational effects, without desiring big deposits.\nThe payments ai\nmade often cent by cent ; and if parents will contribute to the account of\ntheir children, I advise them to bring the deposits themselves to the great\nsavings bank.\nThe means by which I try to make parents interested in the regular\neconomical habits of their children are very simple : I receive all savings\nwith the same interest, however small they be ; I keep the individual\npapers in order, and I give back the depositors' books very regularly. The\nindividual papers and the depositors' books serve to control the savings of\nthe children in the families.\nMy deposits in the great savings banks are made weekly. I make\nthem on Friday, and the books are given back to me the next Monday,\nbefore noon. Every Monday night they are distributed to the depositors,\nwho keep them, so that the books are examined by the parents in a\nperiod of not more than eight days.\nI must say that I always have been satisfied with the earnestness of the\npersons employed in the school savings bank, and also with the care\nwhich is given to the depositors' books.\n\n"}
{"page": 309, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE PUBLIC EDUCATIONAL\n\nSYSTEM\n\nOF SWEDEN.\n\n289\n\nI am happy and proud to add, that in all my operations since March,\n1876, I have not had any mistake, even to a penny, nor the least complaint\nfrom the parents.\nI could give you, ladies and gentlemen, my daily receipts since the\nbeginning of the school savings bank, but I think you will be satisfied\nto see the following statements :\nTotal number of the depositing children :\nin the years 1880, 789 ; 1885, 1,160 ; 1892, 1,607.\nSums put in by the depositing :\nIn the years 1880, $12,032 ; 1885, $21,400 ; 1892, $28,663.\nTotal sum of the books delivered :\nIn the years 1880, 729 ; 1885, 1,056 ; 1892, 1,543.\nThese numbers are sufficient to give an idea of the sums which, without\nthe institution of the school savings bank, would have been wasted in\nuseless expenses.\nIf, now, in view of the above proportions, you calculate what may be\nsaved in every country in comparison with its wealth, you will see easily\nthat the school savings bank is an important thing, worthy of the greatest encouragement.\nI am obliged to add, that the school savings bank is used in France in\nschools of every grade — infant schools and primary schools, elementary\n3hools and colleges — and that it shows everywhere excellent results.\n\nTHE PUBLIC\nBY\n\nN.\n\nG.\n\nW.\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nLAGERSTEDT,\nPH.D.,\nOF OSTERMALM,\n\nSYSTEM\n\nOF SWEDEN.\n\nTEACHER\nAT THE SECONDARY\nSTOCKHOLM,\nSWEDEN.\n\nSCHOOL\n\nI wish to call your attention to some points of the public educational\nsystem of my native country, Sweden. Since the small space of time\nnaturally allotted to each speaker does not allow much more than a very\nbrief sketch of the chief features of this system, I shall confine myself to\nsuch a sketch and to a few points of more general interest.\nEducation in Sweden is essentially a concern of the state. The state\nprovides the principal pecuniary means for it from her treasury; the local\ncommunities, however, support their primary schools with the aid of a\nsubvention from the state. The government has the supervision and\nguidance of the lower as well as of the higher schools. A feature common\nto all the institutions of education is, that the instruction is essentially\ngratuitous. In the lower schools it is absolutely free. The pupils of the\nligher schools and the students of the universities have to pay some very\nsmall fees.\nThe public educational system of Sweden chiefly comprises three species\n19\n\n"}
{"page": 310, "printed_page": null, "text": "290\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nof institutions, namely: (1) The primary, ox lower, schools, chiefly intended\nfor the poorer classes. In these schools no foreign language is taught.\n(2) Hie intermediate, ox secondary, schools, preparatory to university education. These schools, especially in their lower classes, have also the function of imparting the knowledge considered to be of use in practical life.\nIn the lowest class of these schools one foreign language is taught. (3)\nThe universities. The intermediate schools do not form a direct continuation of the primary schools, as is the case in the United States of\nAmerica. In Sweden, as will be understood from what has just been\nmentioned, they have different aims. The higher classes of the primary\nschool may be said to run parallel with the lower classes of the secondary.\nThe question has been raised, however, of bringing the lower and secondary\nschools of our country into a closer connection, by cutting out one, two,\nor three of the lower classes of the secondary schools, and making the\nlower school preparatory to the secondary school, thus shortening up, but\nallowing it at the same time to pursue special aims in its highest classes.\nIn this way the lower school would become the ''common school \" for all\nclasses of the population, as is the case in this country, and the duplication and overlapping of the two grades would be abolished.\nAs for the result of the working of Sweden's lower schools, it may suffice\nto mention some figures that you may verify in the exhibit of the United\nStates Bureau of Education in the government building of the World's\nFair. The ratio of illiteracy in Sweden was in 1890 only four-tenths of\none per cent. The lowest recorded percentage, that of Saxony, was twotenths of one per cent. Sweden thus ranks among the countries occupying the best place in this respect. For the sake of comparison, I mention\nthat the ratios of illiteracy in England and France are respectively nine\nand nine and one-half per cent.\nIn our primary schools coeducation of boys and girls is usual. It is\nonly in some of the higher classes in larger towns that boys and girls are\nseparately instructed. Teachers for these schools are trained in special\nschools called seminaries. A university education is not required of them.\nA large proportion of the teachers are women.\nThe curriculum of the secondary or intermediate schools comprises nine\nyears. The boys (boys only — no girls — are admitted into these schools)\nmust have turned nine years of age before entering. During the first\nthree years all the boys are instructed on the same plan. As just mentioned, all the pupils are taught a foreign language from the first. This\nlanguage is German, that being the only foreign language taught in these\nthree years. At the beginning of the fourth year a bifurcation takes\nplace. Some of the pupils begin to learn Latin, others English. The\nschool is thus divided into a classical line and a modern line. Still,\nin all subjects other than Latin and English the instruction as a rule is\ncommon for the two following years. A third foreign language, French\n\n"}
{"page": 311, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nSYSTEM\n\nOF SWEDEN.\n\n291\n\nenters in the fifth year into the curriculum, both on the modern and the\nclassical side. The last four years, from the sixth to the ninth, the pupils\nof the modern and classical lines are taught quite separately. At the\nbeginning of the sixth year, the first of the four-year period just mentioned, a new division takes place on the classical side. Some of the\nboys thenceforth are taught Greek, others English. The classical line is\nthus divided into a full classical section and a half classical section. At\nthe end of the curriculum of the intermediate schools a final examination\ntakes place. This is called the maturity examination and is a rather serious\nordeal. The boys who have belonged on the modern side — i.e., have not\nstudied Latin — must give evidence at this examination of greater knowledge in mathematics, natural sciences, and modern languages than the\nboys on the classical side.\nThe certificate or diploma of the maturity examination, successfully\npassed, confers the right of matriculation as a student of the university.\nIt admits persons to such special schools as the military and forestry schools,\nand it qualifies for appointment to some of the lower positions in the government service. You will understand from this that the maturity examination isnaturally considered a very important one.\nI may add here that not all the secondary schools of Sweden are complete\nin their organization. Some of them have only the five lowest classes, or\na still less number of classes. But the teaching in these classes agrees\nprecisely with that of the corresponding classes of the complete secondary\nschools.\nI come now to the third link of the public educational system of Sweden\n— the universities. The public universities of Sweden are two — the University of Upsala and the University of Lund. Besides these there is a faculty\nof medicine, or a \" medical college,\" in Stockholm. There are two other\nuniversities of Sweden, those of Stockholm and Goteborg. They are both\nonly a few years old, and not yet public. They were founded and are\nmaintained wholly by private means without aid from the State. But they\nwill both, in all probability, soon be brought into the national system of\neducation, in a way I shall shortly refer to. It is proper, therefore, that\nthey be mentioned in this place.\nEach of the old state universities — the universities of Upsala and Lund\n— comprises four faculties or departments : the faculties of theology, law,\nmedicine, and philosophy. The faculty or department of philosophy is\ndivided into two sections : one for literature, history, philosophy, philology, and allied branches of knowledge ; the other for mathematics and\nthe natural and physical sciences.\nThe original object and the chief object of a university is the promotion\nof knowledge. The teachers have to disclose and elucidate to the students\nthe treasures of literature and the results of scientific investigation, as\nwell as to direct the student's own study. It is also expected of professors\n\n"}
{"page": 312, "printed_page": null, "text": "292\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nthat they shall themselves contribute to the advancement of human knowledge by observation and research. The proficiency of students in Swedish\nuniversities is, as elsewhere, ascertained by examinations. These are of a\ntwofold character, as I shall endeavor to explain.\nThe universities of Europe generally have been placed under supervision\nby the state. The state requires from its officials, and from private citizens proposing to enter certain important vocations — that of medicine, for\ninstance — that they give evidence of possessing the knowledge and skill\nnecessary to their special calling. Now, in some cases the university\nteaching and the ordinary university examinations have been considered\nas serving this additional public end. In other cases the universities have\nhad to undertake the organization of courses of instruction required by the\nstate for the purpose just mentioned, and the testing of proficiency therein\nby special examinations — civic or state examinations, as they may be called.\nThis part of university work naturally has a less scientific character ; it\nis more elementary, and the object of the examinations is to ascertain\nthat the students have mastered certain fixed pensa of knowledge, rather\nthan to ascertain the results of deep scientific study. The practical importance of this part of the universities' work may sometimes offer temptations to subordinate their strictly scientific work, and to make the higher\nexaminations — the university examinations proper — by technicalities or\nregulation, too much like the civic or state examinations. It seems to me,\nhowever, that the present regulations and arrangements of the Swedish\nuniversities conspire in a very happy way to avoid this danger, as I hope\nto show you.\nThe faculties of theology and of law have two kinds of examinations :\nscientific examinations and civic examinations. Most of the students of\ntheology and of law pass the civic examinations only, and thus become\nentitled to enter the service of the state as judges or other officials, or that\nof the state church as ecclesiastics. Some, however, of the law and theological students take the university examinations proper, success in which,\nin some cases, gives them a preference in the matter of appointments over\nthose of their colleagues who have been content to take the civic examinations only.\nThe department of medicine offers examinations of the higher grade\nonly. As may be inferred from this, the studies of the Swedish medical\nstudents are very thorough. Generally it takes them eight to ten years of\nhard work after matriculation to complete their university studies. There\nare two examinations in the faculty of medicine ; the first is merely preparatory to the second.\nThe fourth of the faculties or departments is that of philosophy. Like\nthe faculty of medicine, this faculty has no civic examinations. Neglecting some minor preparatory examinations that are passed by students\nwishing to enter the other departments, there are two examinations in the\n\n"}
{"page": 313, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nSYSTEM\n\nOF SWEDEN.\n\n293\n\nfaculty of philosophy ; namely, the examination for the rank of \"candidate of philosophy, \" and that for \"licentiate of philosophy.\" Let me\nadd some particulars concerning these two examinations. To become a\n\"candidate of philosophy\" the aspirant must be examined in five different subjects at least. These subjects may be chosen quite freely among\nthe branches of knowledge that belong to both sections of the department\nof philosophy. He must give proof of complete mastery of one of these\nsubjects, or, if he so prefer, of excellent attainments in two.\nIf a \"candidate of philosophy\" wishes to pass the examination for the\nrank of licentiate, he must be examined in at least two branches of knowledge, quite freely chosen from the curriculum of the department, and he\nmust give evidence that he has acquired a deeper and scientific knowledge\nof them. A student is, however, not required to take the examination as\ncandidate of philosophy before the licentiate, but may proceed immediately to the latter degree, though, in this case, he has to give evidence of\nhis scientific study of at least three sciences or branches of knowledge.\nA licentiate of philosophy wishing to become a doctor of philosophy, in\nlieu of further examination has to publish a scientific treatise based on his\nown independent researches, and to defend this treatise publicly. If the\nthesis and the defense of it are considered to be satisfactory, the licentiate\nis admitted to the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.\nEach of the two university examinations I have been treating of\nmay be considered to demand, as a rule, three or four years of study in\npreparation.\nThere are two points to which I specially wish to direct attention. The\nfirst is the absolutely unlimited choice of studies open to the students\nwithin the limits of the department. It is quite lately that the examinations now in question have been so arranged as to permit such choice.\nFormerly some subjects were optional, others remaining compulsory, and\nthere were rather intricate regulations with regard to the combination of\nsubjects; some might be combined, others not. The allowing of this\nunlimited choice of subjects has, in our country, generally been considered as a decided instance of progress, and I trust that it will prove of\ngreat use in advancing deeper and true scientific study.\nThe other point that I wish to accentuate is the regulation permitting\nstudents who have passed the entrance examination to the university without Latin, to be nevertheless admitted to the examinations for candidates\nand licentiates of philosophy, provided that the subjects they choose to\nbe examined in are chiefly mathematics or natural sciences. With\nrespect to this, the case is quite different from the state of things at the\nGerman universities, as many of you may have learned from the highly\ninteresting address of Professor Watrots last week. But in our country Latin\nis still required of all who wish to pass other university examinations.\nMost of the students who pass the examinations for candidate or licen-\n\n"}
{"page": 314, "printed_page": null, "text": "294\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\ntiate of philosophy afterward become teachers in the secondary schools.\nThere are two classes of such teachers, a higher and a lower one. The\nformer class chiefly instruct the senior students in the secondary schools ;\nthose belonging to the latter one teach the lower classes. The teachers\nof the higher order must be licentiates or doctors of philosophy ; those of\nthe lower order at least candidates. It is required, moreover, of both that\nthey have passed their examinations in such a way that a certain number\nof the school subjects — four or five — shall have been included, all according to special regulations, which need not now be specified.\nI beg to add a few words concerning the two youngest universities of\nSweden, those of Stockholm and Goteborg. They will likely in a short\ntime be allowed to hold examinations of the same kind as the old state\nuniversities, and students passing such examinations will have the same\nrights as if they had passed those of the old universities. No applicants\nbut those who have passed the maturity examination will be admitted to\nthese university examinations, just as is now the case in the other and\nolder universities. There will, however, be an important difference between\nthe old state universities and these new independent ones. While the\nformer admit no other students than such as have passed the examination\nof maturity, the latter will also admit other students. You would call\nthem in America, \" special students.\" These must only give some proof\n— generally by a special examination — that they are capable of receiving\nthe instruction in that subject or in those subjects which they propose to\nfollow. After having completed such a special study at the university,\nthe student, if he wishes so, is examined therein, and if successful receives\na certificate of the result of his work. To this kind of examination, as a\nmatter of course, every student of the universities may be admitted.\nFrom what I have said it may be seen that it is the aim of the young\nuniversities to compete with the old ones as centers of higher scientific\nteaching, and at the same time to make their instruction and resources\naccessible to wider circles of students.\nIt will interest many of you to hear that women have been admitted\nto the Swedish universities for about twenty years. The number of students, however, has been and still is comparatively small, and only a very\nfew — hardly ten — have left the universities after having passed a complete university course.\nI should be pleased to furnish later, for publication, if desired, the\nstatistical items necessary to complete this sketch of our Swedish education, particularly those relating to universities, of which I have spoken at\ngreatest length. I may add that the students of Upsala may be estimated\nat eighteen hundred to two thousand ; those of Lund at nine hundred to\none thousand ; those of Stockholm and Goteborg at about two hundred\nand one hundred respectively.\n\n"}
{"page": 315, "printed_page": null, "text": "RELIGION\n\nRELIGION\nBY\n\nDR.\n\nE.\n\nE.\n\nIN THE\n\n295\n\nSCHOOL.\n\nIN THE SCHOOL.\n\nWHITE,\n\nOF\n\nCOLUMBUS,\n\nOHIO.\n\nIt will be assumed in this discussion that moral character is the\nsupreme test of the school, and, hence, that effective moral training is\nits central duty.\nIt will also be assumed that the right training of the will is the essential element in moral training, and that this involves the use of the highest motives that can be made effective. The higher the motives employed,\nthe more valuable the resulting will -training.\nThe first fact to be considered is that the religious motives are not only\nthe highest, but that they transcend all other motives in their influence\nm the will. It is the high sense of obligation which they inspire that\nmost effectively frees the will from bondage to selfish impulses aud desires,\nand makes its purposes imperative and abiding in conduct.\nMoreover, the religious motives are the correlates of all high ethical\nmotives, and these religious correlates quicken and energize the ethical\nfeelings to which they are related ; and it may be added that for the\np-eat majority of men the religious feelings and sanctions are necessary\nto give desired efficiency to ethical motives. Indeed, we know of no\nthoughtful writer who denies this vital relation of religious sanctions to\nethical motives and conduct.\nThese facts show why it is that religion has been the strongest influence in human conduct, and the mightiest of historic forces ; why the\nreligious motives are fibred in modern civilization, and constitute, to most\nmen, the most authoritative element of the moral law. There has never\nbeen a moral code that has secured the free obedience of men, that has\nnot derived its highest authority from religion, and this is true in nonChristian as well as in Christian lands. Even the decay in Greek mythology was attended by a decline in Greek morals, such as they were.\nHistory fully warrants the statement that every attempt to ground moral\nobligation solely on human authority results in the weakening of the\nconscience, the enfeebling of the will, and the lowering of the moral life\nof the people. In the murky atmosphere of carnal and selfish appetites\nand desires, moral distinctions become obscured and confused ; virtue, for\nexample, comes to be regarded as mere self-restraint, temperance as the\nprudent control of appetite, and honesty as merely the best policy.\nIt may be true that a philosophic basis of obligation can be found in\nman's moral nature, but the obvious fact of human experience is that the\nappeal of these human-born motives to the will is weak when unsupported\nby religious sanctions aud influence. Their failure as barriers to vice is\nsad history.\n\n"}
{"page": 316, "printed_page": null, "text": "296\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nIt is thus seen that the practical question is not the origin of the moral\nlaw, but the vital relation of religion to moral obligation in conduct — the\nimperative need of religious sanctions and motives to sustain the authority\nof the moral law in human life.\nWe must not shut our eyes to the fact that an essential condition of free\nand willing obedience to law is reverence for its authority ; and this involves a reverence for its source. Back of the authority of the family,\nthe school, the state — back even of the conscience — is the Supreme Being,\nthe final source of moral obligation. Human law has its surest ascendency over the heart and the will when it speaks, not simply as the voice of\nhuman nature, but by the supreme authority of the King of kings.\nIt follows from the above facts that effective moral training demands\nthe vitalizing influence of religious sanctions and motives; and it may\nbe added that, in Christian civilizations, these sanctions and motives are\nderived from the religion of the Bible. They flow from a belief in a personal God, not only as Creator but as the Moral Euler of the world ; in\nman's dependence on and accountability to God ; in man's obligation to\nlove and serve Him; and especially from a belief in a future life — in immortality. These primary religious beliefs are the sources of those motives\nthat so strongly support and enforce moral obligation in Christian lands ;\nand we cannot suppress the fear that any system of moral training in\nschool that shuts out all recognition of the Supreme Being and man's\nimmortality will not bear the decisive test of character and life.\nThese religious motives pervade civil duties and obligations. Man's\naccountability to God is, for example, made the essential basis of the civil\noath. How obviously is such a quickener of the conscience needed in\nmoral training ! Take as an illustration the inspiring and restraining\ninfluence on human conduct that flows from the consciousness that there\nis in this universe an All-seeing Eye that is never closed ; that He who\nhas said, \" Thou shalt not,\" sees! There is no such vanquisher of temptation as the clear consciousness, \"Thou, God, seest me!\" The shutting out of all consciousness of that Omniscient Eye from moral training\nin school would be like the shutting out of the light of the sun.\nEXTENT\n\nAND\n\nPURPOSE\n\nOP\n\nRELIGION\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL.\n\nBut to what extent and for what purpose can religious motives and\nsanctions be used in the public school ? The general answer to this question is, So far as may be necessary to make moral training efficient, and\nfor this purpose.\nThe important fact to be kept in mind is that religion is not the end of\nthe school, but only a means to an end ; that end, effective moral training.\nThe function of the school is to prepare its pupils to live completely in\nthe present life, and this involves right conduct in all personal, social,\n\n"}
{"page": 317, "printed_page": null, "text": "RELIGION\n\nIN THE\n\nSCHOOL.\n\n297\n\nid civil relations, and this involves moral character.\nHence character is\nthe end of school training ; religion only a means to this end.\nThis distinction between religion as an end and as a means of the school\nnot only important but fundamental.\nIf religion be not the end of the\njhool, it follows that the teaching of religion for religious ends is not its\ninction. The school may use religion to enforce and strengthen moral\n)bligation, just as the state uses it in administering the civil oath.\nThe\ntate does not recognize religion as its end, but it uses religion to secure\nthe ends of civilization and freedom.\n\" With the individual,\" says Dr.\nSeelye, \" religion is primary as an end ; with the state it is only secondary\nmd a means.\" It follows that neither the state nor the school is an\nigency for the advancement of religion as an end, but each may use reliion for its own ends.\nIn other words, while religion is not the end or\ninction of the school, it may use those religious means which are necesiry to secure effective moral training — the highest end and central duty\n)f the school. To avoid this conclusion, those who take the extreme view\nthat all religion must be excluded from the public school, consistently deny\nthat moral training is its end or function ; but no objection can be urged\ngainst moral training in school that does not hold against the school itself.\nOn the contrary, the assumption that religion is the end of the school\ninvolves the making of religion its chief concern and function — the\niYanckean claim of the seventeenth century. Moreover, the duty to teach\nreligion as an end involves the teaching of all religious truth essential to\nthe welfare of the child's soul. No one who has any true conception of\nthe importance of religion to the individual can be satisfied with anything\nless. It is obvious that such a test as this would condemn nearly all\nihools, even those under the immediate direction and supervision of the\nchurch. The religious instruction and exercises in these schools fall far\nshort if religion be the end and duty of the school. There is an increasing recognition of the fact that the family, the church, the Sunday-school,\nand other voluntary agencies must be depended upon to give our youth a\nsaving knowledge of religion.\nWhatever may be true of schools under private management, the public\nschool cannot make religion its end, or religious instruction and worship\nits necessary function. It must leave to other agencies that religious\ninstruction and training that looks to the salvation of the soul.\nWe are now brought face to face with the practical question, What religious means are needed to make moral training in the school efficient, and\nhow may they be used?\nIt has already been shown that the ethical motives need to be quickened\nand supported by religious influence, and this fact suggests that in some\npractical way the school must use those religious sanctions and motives\nwhich quicken the conscience, strengthen moral obligation, and influence\nthe will. But these religious sanctions and motives flow from certain\n\n"}
{"page": 318, "printed_page": null, "text": "298\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nprimary religious beliefs, and so the question is narrowed to the best\nmethod of securing the needed presence and influence of these religious\nmeans, and this can only be determined by experience.\nThe American public school assumes that the family and the church\nhave given some attention to the religious instruction of children, and\nthat its pupils are not ignorant of the existence of God, of man's accountability to Him, and other primary religious beliefs. Hence, it provides\nno formal instruction in religious knowledge, but uses such knowledge for\nmoral ends, just as the state uses religious sanctions for its ends. When,\nfor example, a witness appears in court to give testimony, he is not formally instructed in religious beliefs or knowledge, but his conscience is\nquickened and its authority reinforced by an oath that appeals to the\nOmniscient Searcher of hearts. A similar but less formal use of the\ncommon sanctions of religion is made by the school to quicken the moral\nsense of its pupils, and the opportunities for such use of religious sanctions in school are numerous. No conscientious teacher is shut up to\nan assigned place, time, or manner.\nThese primary religious beliefs appear in the selections for reading, in\nthe lessons in literature and history, in the music sung, etc., and often in\nmost impressive forms. The writer once knew a principal who attempted\nto exclude religion from his school by marking for omission all selections\nand parts of selections in the reader that contained religious ideas and\nsentiments, thus despoiling the book of its literary treasures. But he\nstayed his hand when he came to the music-book, for the exclusion of religion from it would not only despoil it of the best classical music, but\nwould also strike out all national airs, as \"America,\" \"Hail Columbia,\"\n\"Star Spangled Banner,\" etc.\nIt is not possible to exclude religion from the school without mutilating\nits literature and doing violence to the religious nature of the pupils.\nJust as Christian civilization goes wherever modern commerce goes, so\nreligion goes wherever Christian literature goes. It pervades the American school, thrives in its atmosphere, and is easily made a vital element in\nits moral life. The one essential condition to this end is a teacher whose\nmind and heart quickly respond to religious truth or motives. Experience\nhas widely shown that needed religious influence may pervade a school in\nthe absence of formal religious exercises, and it is a serious mistake to\nsuppose that a school is \"godless\" because it makes no provision for\ntechnical instruction in religion. The needed measure of religious influence in a school may even be secured without the formal and stated reading of the Bible, there being other ways in which its vital influence may\nbe brought to bear upon the conscience and heart of pupils, and one of\nthese ways is its reverent recognition as the Word of God.\nIt must, however, be freely conceded that the effectiveness of religious\nsanctions for moral ends depends much on the presence of religious feel-\n\n"}
{"page": 319, "printed_page": null, "text": "RELIGION\n\nIN THE\n\nSCHOOL.\n\n299\n\ning, this being specially true in childhood, and so it becomes desirable in\nmoral training to quicken religious emotion. Experience shows that the\nmost effective means of awakening religious feeling include the reverent\nreading of the Bible, prayer (oral or silent), and singing; and one or more\nof these exercises have long had a place in American schools, and they are\nstill permitted in the great majority of these schools, and the singing of\nsacred songs is nowhere forbidden.\nBut whether desired religious feeling is awakened depends much on the\nspirit and manner in which the exercise is conducted. The reading\nof the Bible in a perfunctory and indifferent manner neither increases\nreverence for it in the pupils nor touches deeply their religious emotions.\nWe have no hesitation in saying that it is much better to omit the exercise altogether than to conduct it in an irreverent manner. It must\never be kept in mind that what the school needs is not religious ceremony\nas such, but religious influence for moral ends.\nWe are, however, far from conceding that these religious exercises,\nwhen properly conducted, have little or no moral value. A writer who\nassumes to know intuitively what is true in the experience of others,\ndeclares that \" no boy or girl ever received a religious impression of the\nleast value in the devotional exercises in school \" ; but teachers who have\nthus impressed for good hundreds of pupils, know better, and hundreds of\npersons know that this was not true in their own experience as pupils.\nBut all must concede that whatever may be the value of these religious\nexercises, it cannot be pleaded as an offset to a violation of the religious scruples of pupils, when this is the result.\nIt must, however, be admitted that it is easy to overestimate the moral\ninfluence of perfunctory religious exercises in school, and too much is\noften claimed for the moral yalue of the reciting of the catechism and\nother formal religious instruction. There is, certainly, no justification\nfor the claim that the absence of such formal religious exercises in school\nleaves no basis for moral training.\nWhat is needed, that religion may serve the ends of the school, is not the\nformal teaching of the Bible, or the catechism, or other technical religious\ninstruction; not formal religious services or worship, but the wise and\nreverent use of those common religious sanctions and motives which\nquicken the conscience and enforce moral obligation. And these may be\nmade effective in school by the use of means that give no offense to the\nreligious scruples of pupils or patrons.\nOn the other hand, there is no justification of the demand that all\nreligious truth and influence be excluded from the public school. The\nattempt to exorcise religion from the school would not only despoil its\nliterature, its music, and its instruction, but would inevitably result in\nlowering its moral efficiency and seriously lessening its value to the pupils,\nto society, and to the state.\n\n"}
{"page": 320, "printed_page": null, "text": "300\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nThe writer is aware that theoretical objections can be urged against the\npracticability of the golden mean above suggested, but happily there\nis no such difficulty in the actual practice of thousands of American\nteachers. The great majority of American schools are pervaded by a vital\nreligious influence without being sectarian, and this fact should be more\nuniversally recognized. At least three avenues must always remain open\nfor the introduction of needed religious truth and sanctions into all our\nschools. These are Christian literature, sacred song, and Christian teachers : and against these there is no law.\n\nDISCUSSION.\nZalmon Eichabds, of Washington, D. C. : There are certain principles of right and\nwrong which everybody will acknowledge. These principles ought to be taught to our\nchildren. There are very few good people in the world who would say that there should\nbe no moral teaching in the schools. There are people who object to the introduction\nof religious instruction, not exactly in the sense in which it has been brought out before\nus here to-day, but religious instruction as embracing denominationalism.\nI believe in introducing moral instruction and making it a positive portion of the\ncurriculum of every school in the land. 1 was pleased with the thought that has been\nexpressed so well by the reader of the paper. We must recognize a supreme God everywhere, and I do not believe that we ought to have in any of our schools any instructor\nwho will not feel at liberty to impress upon the mind of every pupil the idea that there\nis an All-seeing Eye ; that that Eye is the eye of his Creator, who preserves him, who\nkeeps him, and who will hold him accountable. Now, the moral virtues begin with the\nfirst — recognition of the God who made us.\nGeorge P. Brown, Normal, Illinois, on the Separation of Religious and Moral Instruction, said : I do not favor making sharp distinctions between religious and moral\ninstruction. I have never been able to determine for myself where morality ends or\nreligion begins. There seems to be pretty good authority for declaring that pure and\nundefined religion consists in visiting the fatherless and the widow in affliction and in\nbeing unspotted in our lives. This would seem to be a very fair definition of morality\nalso Indeed, the attempt to make sharp distinctions between morality and religion\ntends to formalism in both. Especially is this true in the early life of the religious\nconsciousness. Now, the religious jconsciousness seems to differ from the moral consciousness in that there is involved in the former the consciousness of the relations of\nwhatever is being considered to the Being of supreme worthiness as He is apprehended by\nthe individual. This Being of supreme worthiness is to each one of us our highest ideal\nof worthiness, in so far as it is anything more than a mere verbal phrase. This ideal is a\ngrowing one in each of us. The soul as intellect seeks to discover the meaning of things,\nthat is, to organize them into a unity of mutual relations. The Herbartians call this\napperceiving. Suppose the object I am considering is apperceived with a limited number of others. Its meaning is expressed by the word orange. When its relations are\nextended we discover a unity which we call fruit. Extend the range of relations further,\nand the unity is vegetable world. Let the limits of the relations be carried out still further, and the meaning of my object becomes product of nature. Nature is the supreme\nbeing or source. Give to the apperceiving powers a wider range, and the meaning is expressed by\"dependent beings.\" But \"dependent being\" is a meaningless term except as\nit is brought into the higher unity of independent or self-active being which it implies,\nwhose source and cause is within itself — as the philosophers say, a being that is both subject and object, or subject-object. Now, when the intellect thus binds back its objects\nto this creative source and thus seeks to explain them, we call the intellect religious.\nDr. Harris spoke of it the other day as the piety of the intellect. What I wish to call\nyour attention to is the fact that the race once stopped with nature as the ultimate\nexplanation of things, and before it reached that conception it stopped with a narrower\none. Shall we say there was not as much piety of intellect in tracing the explanation of\n\n"}
{"page": 321, "printed_page": null, "text": "ADAPTATION\n\nOF METHODS\n\nOF INSTRUCTION.\n\n301\n\nthings to nature in that former time, as there is now in tracing them to absolute self3tivity ?\nSo, too, there is the religious will.\nIt is when we determine our conduct by its harlony with this highest ideal of worthiness that we have piety of will. And the soul as\nfeeling may love, revere, and worship its highest ideal of worthiness. This is piety of\nfeeling. The life is the unity of the activities of intellect, feeling, and will ; or, in different words, the self realizes its life in the unity of these activities. When the self lives in\nthe consciousness of the relation of all that is, to the supreme unity, or ideal, or source,\nthe life is to that extent religious.\nThe proper teaching of every subject, as I see it, is a step toward the recognition of\nle supreme cause in that which is studied.\nIt is an advance in the apprehension of\nrhat is truer and worthier and more to be revered. What is morality but the recognition\nof a worthier ideal that is to be realized in the life? Morality is the discharge of duty,\nluty presupposes a higher ideal than what now exists in my life. I must make this ideal\n, reality by the deed. The essential difference between religion and morality is in the superior worthiness of the ideal. If what I have tried to show is true, then morality and religion\nlame merely different degrees of worthiness of the ideals. We see, too, that a religious\nduty in one period in the development of the race may become a moral duty in a later\nperiod. I am of the opinion that every child in its growth is repeating the experience of\nthe race. In a child-like way it regards its parents or teacher very much as it comes to\nregard its highest ideal in subsequent life. It seems to me, therefore, that if we think of\na child's life as we ought, the question of whether moral instruction should be separated\nfrom religious instruction could never arise.\nThat it does arise with us is probably due to substituting theology for religion as a\nsubject of instruction. Statements of doctrine and certain religious forms or sanctions\nare mistaken for religion. They become mere formalism to the child if it is required to\nlearn them. A gentleman in another room a few days ago said that the attempt to teach\nchildren what they were not ready to receive produced intellectual dyspepsia. I fear\nthat the teaching of doctrinal theology in the form commonly pursued in the teaching\nof so-called religion tends to produce religious dyspepsia in children. As those who\nteach come to know how children think and feel, with what ideas and ideals their world\nis filled, they will cease to discuss a question of this kind. They will find the moral and\nreligious natures of the child so blended that it will not occur to them that the two\nshould be dissected out and shut up in separate departments. They will see that the\ngreat thing to do is to stimulate the child's natural reverence for worthiness. When the\nfeeling of reverence for what is conceived to be worthy is the habit of the mind, we may\nwait for time to develop the distinctively religious life in so far as it differs from the\nmoral life.\n\nADAPTATION\nSPECIAL\n\nOF METHODS\nCONDITIONS\n\nOF INSTRUCTION\nOF THE CHILD.\n\nTO\n\nThe Chairman, General Eaton, on introducing this subject, stated: \" Professor Graham\nBell is unable to be present to-day, to speak to you upon the necessary adaptation of\nmethods of instruction to meet special conditions of the child in overcoming defects of\nhearing, speech, etc.\n\"Professor Bell's father and his grandfather made the human voice and hearing a\nspecial study. His father devised a plan for training in articulation, and for teaching\nthe deaf and dumb to speak. Professor Graham Bell came to this country, and began\nto teach this subject. His study of the production of sound, and the means of hearing\nsound, led to the invention of the telephone.\n\"Frequently pupils fail to make progress in school because of the imperfect condition\nof one or more of the organs of sense. Many of these pupils might be greatly benefited\nand advanced if their teachers understood the nature of the defects, and the proper\nsteps to be taken toward overcoming them.\n\" You know of Laura Bridgman, who could neither see, hear, nor speak. Her sense\nof feeling was the only perfect sense left her. She learned to read with her fingers, but\nshe never learned to speak.\n\n"}
{"page": 322, "printed_page": null, "text": "302\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\n\" In Tuscumbia, Alabama, there lived a little girl who lost her sight and her power of\nhearing, before she was two years old. She retained her power of feeling, and the use\nof the sense of smell and of touch. After a few years a statement of her case was sent\nto an institution in Boston, where similar defects received special attention. A young\nlady began, in that institution, a special course of study, with the purpose of teaching\nthis little girl in Alabama. She commenced the instruction of her pupil just before she\nwas seven years old ; she is now thirteen. That teacher, Miss Sullivan, and her pupil,\nHelen Keller, are with us to-day ; and they will be happy to show you some of the\nremarkable results of the adaptation of methods of instruction to defects under very\ndifficult conditions.\n\"Miss Keller is a great reader, a ready writer, and has begun the organization of a\npublic library for the community at her home.\n\" Miss Sullivan will show how she communicates with her pupil, and Helen Keller will\nto you.'\"\nspeak\nMiss Sullivan said : \" Miss Keller does not know what she is to do; I will let her read\nfrom my lips.\" Placing Helen's fingers upon her lips, Miss Sullivan repeated slowly :\n\" Will you recite a few phrases of the ' Psalm of Life' ? \" Miss Keller answered promptly\nand distinctly, \" Yes, with pleasure.\" Miss Sullivan then conducted her to the front of\nthe platform and Helen recited the lines quite distinctly.\nThe Chairman said: \" You saw that Helen read from the lips of her teacher with her\nfingers. She has been trained to carefully observe by touch the movements of the lips\nin talking, and thus she understands what is said. She has also been taught to read\nmovements of the hand.\nIn answer to an inquiry, \"How was the first communication made to Miss Keller ?\"\nMiss Sullivan replied : \" I did not begin by teaching her to speak. She had used a manual alphabet, and means of spelling by hand for three years before she learned to speak.\nI began by giving her an object — a doll that I had taken with me from Boston for the\npurpose. I thought I would begin with the word doll, for she seemed to be pleased with\nthe doll. I took the doll up and made the motions d-o-1-1, in her hand, and showed her\nthe doll. Then I got her to make those same motions herself. When she understood\nthat word, I took other words, short ones of one syllable, nouns, one after the other. I\nworked with her in that way about sixteen days before she understood that everything\nhad a name. That came to her suddenly. I had given her the word mug, and whenever Ispelled mug to her she would raise the mug to her mouth as when drinking. It\noccurred to me that she was confusing the word mug with what the mug might contain.\nThe impression of the contents was stronger to her mind than the vessel. So I took her\nout to the pump one day, and had her hold her mug under the spout ; as the water\ngushed out I spelled water on my fingers, and she caught the idea, and raised herself\nup. The idea seemed to come to her suddenly, and she turned to the nurse, who was\nholding her little baby cousin, and put her hand on the baby with a little nervous action\nand said, \" What is this ? \" I spelled the word baby, and then she dropped to the ground\nand patted it, and I gave the word ground. On the way back to the house she wanted\na name for everything, and I gave it to her; and she never forgot a word that she learned\nthat day.\nThe Chairman requested Miss Sullivan to name the books that Helen Keller has\nread, and to state those which she likes best.\n\"I will ask her by reading from my lips,\" said Miss Sullivan. \" Will you tell our\nfriends what books you have read, and which you like best ?\"\nHelen read the question with her fingers on Miss Sullivan's lips, and answered :\n\" 1 have read many, many books, and it is rather hard to tell which books I like best.\nI think 1 like ' Little Lord Fauntleroy,' ' Little Women,' ' The Vicar of Wakefield.' and\n' When the Ship Comes Home.' \"\n\n"}
{"page": 323, "printed_page": null, "text": "ADAPTATION\n\nOF METHODS\n\nOF INSTRUCTION.\n\n303\n\nIn reply to the question, \"How does Miss Keller read ?\" she answered • \" I read\nrith my fingers, and teacher reads to me.\"\nMiss Sullivan added : \" She reads the raised letters herself, and I read the book.\"\nThe inquiry was made : \" Does she ever pronounce the word when she is reading with\nler fingers ? \"\nMiss Sullivan : \" Yes, very often. She spent some time in Boston at the Institution\n>r the Blind, and in the evening the blind children would gather around her there\nrhile this deaf and blind child read to them for their pleasure.\"\nQuestion : \" Has she sense of the vibrations of music ?\"\nMiss Sullivan : \"Yes.\"\nQuestion : \" How did she gain the idea of goodness ?\"\nMiss Sullivan : \" It is very difficult to explain. She learned such words as goodness,\neautiful, etc., chiefly by the constant use and repetition of the word when the occasion\njuired that word. If she brought in a beautiful flower, I would say to her, ' It is beautiful.' Of something that was disagreeable or unpleasant I would use a corresponding\nterm, when I was positive that the object must appear so to her. I knew that the rose,\nwith its beautiful petals, was pleasant to the sense of touch. It pleased her with its fragrance, and 1 would say, ' It is beautiful.' Afterwards she would apply the word when\nsomething that especially pleased her came up.\"\nQuestion: \" How long has she framed her own sentences and expressed her own\nideas ? \"\nMiss Sullivan : \" She began immediately. Perhaps in three weeks she was making\nsentences.\"\nQuestion : \" I should thiuk it would have taken her longer to get hold of verbs than\nof nouns.\nDid it ? \"\nMiss Sullivan : \" No ; verbs are very simple when the action can be illustrated. She\nbegan with such verbs as sit and stand, walk and run, and illustrated them herself.\nThose words were very easy to teach. Prepositions and words like ' if ' and ' when ' are\nthe most difficult, but she learned them by constant repetition.\"\nQuestion : \" I notice, when you address her, you try to talk in a perfectly natural\nmanner ; but when you commenced to instruct her you had to greatly exaggerate the\nmotion of the lips, did you not ? \"\nMiss Sullivan : \" At first we did. I think now it was a mistake. I think the natural\nmovement of the mouth would have been a great deal better. I think her speech\nwould be more perfect if she had followed the natural motions of the lips instead of an\nexaggerated motion. This peculiar voice is probably due to that very thing. The\nmouth of her instructor was strained at the time, and so she assumed those stiff attitudes. The tongue moves mechanically instead of moving naturally.\"\nQuestion : \"Is her vocabulary limited still, or does she have a general one ? \"\nMiss Sullivan : \" She has a very large vocabulary. Very few people use the language\nas freely as she does in her conversation.\nShe uses the language of books.\"\nThe Chaibman: \"I have no doubt but that I express the sentiments of all present when I tender to Miss Sullivan and to Helen Keller your hearty thanks.\"\nMiss Sullivan : \" I am very glad indeed that we came here, and very glad to have\nyou see this little girl, for her disposition is most beautiful. I have been with her\nseven years. From the first I have never found her impatient or angry, or to shrink\nfrom any living thing.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 324, "printed_page": null, "text": "304\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nSHOULD RURAL SCHOOLS INTRODUCE AGRICULTURE,\nCHEMISTRY, AGRICULTURAL BOTANY OR ARBORICULTURE?\nBY\n\nERGRAFF\n\nDE\n\nKOVALEVSKT,\nDELEGATE\nOF THE\nINSTRUCTION\nOF RUSSIA.\n\nMINISTER\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC\n\nThe great agricultural crisis of these last years has forced the European\ngovernments to support the agriculturists by every means, and to propagate right notions as to gardening and farming among the rural populations. The elementary schools have taken part too in this movement, and\nin certain countries instruction in agriculture has been introduced in the\ncourse of the rural schools.\nIn Europe there are several types of primary elementary schools, which\nare distinguished from each other by the number of and duration of the\ncourses. In the most of them the instruction continues from three to four\nyears; these are the schools with an elementary and middle course. Their\npurpose is not to teach the pupils an independent branch of any science,\nconsidering that there are admitted only children from seven to eleven\nyears of age ; it is enough that the pupil leaving the establishment is\nable to read well, to write without too many mistakes, and to perform the\nfour operations of arithmetic. In the other elementary schools, with a\ncourse of five to six years, the pupils receive during the last two years —\nthat is, in the superior course — some notions of geometry, history, and\ngeography; to these are added lessons in. drawing, gymnastics, singing,\nand, at present, manual training. So there remain, at the utmost, two\nhours weekly for instruction in natural science and agriculture.\nWe will only examine the primary elementary schools, without touching\nthe superior primary schools. Several governments have introduced agriculture inthe programme of the primary schools as an obligatory subject.\nThis information often gives very small results, which is in part due to\nthis, that the instructors, too little familiar with their subject, give the\npupils little hand-books or agricultural catechisms, which they learn\nalmost by heart. This kind of instruction only overburdens the memory\nof the children without contributing to their intellectual development; so\nthis method is anti-pedagogic. Reading the description of the tools and\nagricultural machines of rural operations, the enumerations of all sorts\nof varieties of plants and of animals, notions about zoology, in short, descriptions ofobjects or of agricultural processes which the pupils have no\nopportunity to see themselves — this is only to them a combination of words\nand numbers which does not leave behind lasting traces.\nWhat now must the system of the agricultural teaching in the element-\n\n"}
{"page": 325, "printed_page": null, "text": "SHOULD\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nINTRODUCE\n\nAGRICULTURE?\n\n305\n\nary schools be ? Could we not combine it with the natural sciences, and\nwhat branch of the latter might be introduced in the school ?\nIt is evident, that there must be a close connection between agriculture\nand the agricultural sciences ; nevertheless the latter cannot form an\nindependent course in the elementary schools. Experience shows clearly\nthat the knowledge taken from books is not valuable for the children ; it\nmust be connected with practical and experimental instruction. This\ninstruction should be limited to giving the pupils the first notions of\nphysical and natural sciences, combined with agriculture, or only notions\nabout agriculture. It is the task of the teacher to choose that branch\nwhich is the most suitable for the locality and the needs of the population ;\nmany understand very well how to use the two methods mentioned above.\nAn experienced teacher takes as the subject for lessons, compositions,\ndictations, etc., agricultural topics, and uses every occasion which is\noffered, in order to teach the children by the way, so to speak, elementary,\nindispensable truth. In one or two pages of these lectures in class, well\nchosen and repeated systematically, the pupils find answers to very important questions.\nIn some schools of France the manual training is connected closely with\nthe agricultural instruction ; the pupils themselves make little objects in\nwood — tools which are necessary in practice, and agricultural machines\niu miniature. This is not all ; the tools, the planks, etc., may serve also\nas models for the drawing exercises.\nThe teacher will also make use of the walks of the pupils, the rural\nwork, local meetings, expositions, herbariums, collections of insects, and\nhe will introduce agricultural principles in the general instruction, and\ncontribute considerably to the intellectual development of the pupils ; on\ntheir part he demands diligent and conscientious work and great attention\nto personal observations. Practical work in the flower and kitchen gardens is also a very efficient means of reaching the desired end.\nSometimes if the ground near the school is large enough, the teacher\ngives every one of the pupils a small plot upon which he cultivates vegetables, flowers, and fruit trees. The teacher directs them in their tasks,\nand interests them by conversations and explanatory lectures. At the\nsame time he attracts their attention to the different appearances of\nnature.\nGardening, horticulture, the culture of trees aud forests, apiculture and\nsilk culture, the culture of hops, and so on, have an importance for those\ncountries in which, as in Russia, for instance, the vacations do not last less\nthan three or four months. Outside of this country, in the regions of\nextensive fertile lands and an ignorant population, such teachers may be\nof great service.\nIn Russia, in Austria-Hungary, and in other countries\nIesee that the people who formerly did not know this or that branch of\nThanks to the\njriculture, now cultivate the land with great success.\n20\n\n"}
{"page": 326, "printed_page": null, "text": "306\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nimpulse from the schools in Germany, arboriculture has been practiced for a\nlong time. In the elementary schools this branch, without being obligatory,\nmay be recommended the more, since all teachers coming from seminaries\nand normal schools possess gardens, which furnish the necessary means\nfor the instruction in horticulture. School gardens are found in great\nnumber at the present time ; for instance, France possesses nearly tifty\nthousand ; Russia, eighteen thousand ; Austria, nine thousand ; Belgium,\nthree thousand five hundred ; Switzerland, two thousand five hundred.\nIn the schools with a superior course, instruction in physical and\nnatural sciences related to agriculture may be introduced, as is done in\nseveral countries. The best method for such instruction is that of the\ncelebrated French pedagogue Rene Leblanc — the experimental method.\nThe adherents of this method say, that the teacher, without going beyond\nhis province, should restrain himself to scientific, fundamental notions that\nare generally not known to farmers, illustrating them by means of easy\nexperiments and demonstrations. The things observed, if they are to be\nwell understood, must be simple, as must be also the practical experiments.\nTo be generalized, they must be made with familiar objects which one\neasily finds everywhere. Lamp-shades, old bottles, corks, pieces of wood\nand iron wire — this is the indispensable material for most experiments.\nFor the experimental culture one must have some flower-pots and a little\nmineral fat. There may be added some pipes of glass and chemical\nmaterials which do not cost much.\nBy means of fifty simple experiments, according to the system of M.\nLeblanc, the pupils easily acquire in the course of two years invaluable\nknowledge ; besides, this method develops in them the spirit of observation and accustoms them to independent work. The pupils see the whole\nlife of a plant displayed before their eyes from the germination to the\nflower and fruit.\nIn the winter season the pupils are not occupied in practical agriculture.\nThe teacher, having explained to them the nature and the germination of\nthe seed, passes over to the first principles of chemistry and physics, and\nexplains the properties of the water and the air and the integral parts of\nthese elements which enter into the composition of the plants. Finally,\nhe speaks of combustion, the principal kinds of soil, and the different fats.\nThe theoretical knowledge which is given to them in this part of the\ncourse, is always based upon experiments suited to the age of the children\nwho take part themselves in all kinds of manipulations.\nIn spring, when the experimental culture begins (of wheat, corn, beans,\nhemp), the pupils listen to the explanations of the process of growth\nin the most common vegetables, grafting, the necessity of the distribution\nof crops, etc.\nIn the course of the second year the pupils are obliged to repeat all\nthat has been learned in the first year, together with some notions of the\n\n"}
{"page": 327, "printed_page": null, "text": "SHOULD\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nINTRODUCE\n\nAGRICULTURE?\n\n307\n\nnature of and aid of domestic animals. This is the maximum that can\nbe taught in an elementary school.\nProfessor Grandeau rightly observes : \" When the teacher succeeds in\nimparting to the greatest number of our children enough elementary\nknowledge to enable them later to read with profit a book of agricultural\nscience, and when he awakes in them the taste for farming life and reluctance to leave it in order to become employees of any office, then he will\nhave done an immense service to agriculture.\"\nM. Leblanc adds, on his side : \"The teacher well performs his task if\nhe succeeds in making the scientific expressions in current use convey precise meaning to his pupils ; if the brighter ones among them furnish good\nrecruits for the practical schools of agriculture. \"\nTo recapitulate what we have said above :\n(1) The instruction in the rural schools can and should have an agricultural bearing.\n(2) Independent and dogmatic courses of agriculture, or of any branch\nwhatever of physical and natural sciences, are not suited to the primary\nelementary schools.\n(3) Agricultural instruction for children from seven to eleven years\n(elementary and middle course) must be restricted to the first notions of\nthe life of vegetables, and to very elementary practical knowledge.\n(4) This instruction can be given by means of different school exercises,\nsuch as oral lectures, recitations, compositions, dictations, problems, and\ndrawings.\n(5) In the superior course (ages eleven to thirteen years) the occasional\ninstruction can be given in a more methodical way, and, if the time admits,\nit may be completed by reviews ; the agricultural studies must be closely\ncombined with the instruction in physical and natural sciences.\n(6) The notions given in the primary school must be illustrated by\nobjects of the school museums, and must be completed by excursions into\nthe fields, visits to farms, and by work in the school garden. In the\nsuperior course, the elementary principles of physical and natural sciences\nrelating to agriculture must be based as much as possible upon a series\nof experiments not very complicated, and upon interesting demonstrations of the growth of plants.\n(7) The students of the seminaries and normal schools should receive\ninstruction which will enable them to give lessons under the conditions\nindicated in the above paragraphs.\n\n"}
{"page": 328, "printed_page": null, "text": "308\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONFUCIUS\nBY\n\nDR.\n\nHIDESABUBO\n\nAND\nEUDO,\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nHIS EDUCATIONAL\n\nDELEGATE\nSOCIETY\nOF\n\nFBOM\nTHE\nJAPAN.\n\nROYAL\n\nIDEAS.\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[Translation from his notes in German.]\n\nLadies and Gentlemen :— I come from Japan, an old country, and in this new and\nflourishing country I have the honor to speak about an old one. Old as it is, its civilization is yet young. We expect you to guide and teach us in our civilization. I am sorry\nto say that I cannot speak in English on my subject. It is too difficult for me. Japanese is too strange for you. So I will speak in German. I think it is not so strange for\nyou as Japanese. To avoid confusion I will read from my notes.\n\nWho was Confucius, about whom I shall speak ? He was a great\nphilosopher of the Orient who has been revered as a teacher of virtue by\nunnumbered millions during a period of more than two thousand years.\nProfessor v. d: Gabelentz gives this opinion about him : \" Quite a\nunique position is held by Confucius, who was a teacher of his people\nunlike any other ; who became and remained, so to speak, a ruler of his\npeople — a place unique not only in the history of philosophy, but also in\nthe history of humanity. For no other man has embodied in his own\nperson his whole nationality and all that is eternal in it, as he did. If\nwe would measure the greatness of a historical personality, I see only one\nstandard that can be used — the duration, extent, and intensity of his\ninfluence.\n\" According to this standard Confucius was one of the greatest men ;\nfor at this very time, after more than two thousand years, the moral, social,\nand political life of almost a third of mankind is under the full influence\nof his spirit.\"\nThis judgment shows the whole greatness of Confucius. But what\ngreatness is, it is difficult to determine ; some people see only a part of it,\nbut, nevertheless, judge of the whole. I will quote here several judgments in order to get, by comparing them, as near as possible to the\ntruth.\nOne of the best pupils of Confucius, one who was intimately connected\nwith him for a long time and by the strongest bonds, and who knew him\nthe best, Tseu-Kung, says : \"Confucius is gentle, just, affable, temperate, and modest.\" Mencius once quoted Yeu-yo's opinion concerning\nConfucius : \"As the miraculous kilin belongs to the quadrupeds, the\nphoenix to the birds, large mountains are only a kind of hill, and rivers\nand oceans kinds of lakes — so the great sage belongs also to mankind, but\nhow much is he elevated above all men ! Since the heavens and the earth\nwere created, another man has not arisen like Confucius !\" A great historian, Ise-ma-tsien, says of Confucius : \" There have been rulers who have\n\n"}
{"page": 329, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONFUCIUS\n\nAND\n\nHIS EDUCATIONAL\n\nIDEAS.\n\n309\n\nreceived the surname 'the wise,' and who were much celebrated in their\ntimes, but after their death they were quickly forgotten. But Confucius,\nilthough not born of a prominent family, has been esteemed by all learned\nien living after him as a source of wisdom. Everybody from the emperor\nto the lowest citizen honors him.\"\nThese are the opinions of Chinese authorities. For the sake of comparison the opinions of men of other nations should be considered.\nA Japanese scholar, Seigan Yanana, says : \" The words of Confucius\nire as mild as the horn of kilin, which hurts nobody, but his thoughts\nire steadfast and powerful, and nobody can resist his words; even the lion,\nnth its horrible claws, will bend its head before Confucius/'\nMartin Haug writes : \" The opinion passed by the late Chinese missionary Giitzlaff upon Confucius, which was published some years ago in Gerlany, is almost a libel. Giitzlaff describes him as a man who deals in\nisdom and sells his goods to him who offers the highest price. But\nevery attentive, impartial reader of the ' Analecta/ in which his character is put into the proper light, will immediately see how inexcusable it is\nattribute such base motives to the actions of the sage. Confucius was,\nat any rate, a man entirely honorable and sincere, and possessed of a firm\nand steady character.\"\nThe English scholar, Professor Legge, says : \"Confucius is thus, in the\nEmpire of China, the one man by whom all possible lessons of social\nvirtue and political wisdom are taught.\"\nProfessor Dr. Douglas says : \"That four Chinese emperors [who took\nConfucius as a model] had at different times restored the empire from a state\nof anarchy to a condition of peace and tranquillity by the force of their\nexamples and the influence of their teachings ; and believing themselves to\nhave a heaven-sent mission to repeat their reforms, they labored day and\nnight to impress on their hardened contemporaries the evils of their ways.\"\nG. Alexander : \" He has no claim to be considered in common with\nZoroaster, Buddha, or Mahomet, for each and all these were, in a greater\nor less degree, destroyers of the social and religious systems which preceded their advent, and the founders of the new ones upon their ruins ;\nwhilst Confucius sought neither to destroy nor to create, but to preserve\nand restore. He was no law-giver like Moses ; Laoutze stands unquestionably nearer to Pythagoras than he does ; and the comparison which\nmight be drawn between him and Plato or Socrates, could only be within\nvery narrow limits.\"\nThese opinions of distinguished scholars will serve, I hope, to set forth\nthe sublime philosopher in strong outlines.\nPEDAGOGICAL\n\nPRINCIPLES\n\nOF\n\nCONFUCIUS.\n\nAs Confucius has written no special pedagogical work, I am obliged to\ndraw chiefly from the four books, the five classics, and \" Kia-yu,\" and\n\n"}
{"page": 330, "printed_page": null, "text": "310\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\ngather the passages of pedagogical significance appearing here and there,\nscattered through these works, in order to throw the right light upon his\nprinciples.\nLiadner writes, in his \"Encyclopsedical Compendium of Pedagogy\":\n\"The educational system of Confucius is comprehended in the so-called\nHouse Treasure ;\" but as he indicates no source of his statement, it is\naltogether untenable.\nCarl Schmidt has also mentioned the House Treasure in his \"History\nof\nPedagogics,\" but without saying that its contents are the system of\nConfucius.\nI think I am right in saying, that, in spite of the many books written\nabout Confucius in the Orient and Occident, no one has distinctly\nexplained his pedagogics.\nBefore I begin my further task, it is necessary to state the views of\nConfucius about human nature. Philosophers who lived shortly after\nConfucius have held very different opinions upon this subject.\nMencius says : \" Man is good by nature.\"\nSuntseu : \" Man is bad by nature.\"\nYan-yeu : \"Man is both by nature; good and bad principles are combined in him.\"\nBut if Tseu-hung says that he never heard Confucius speak about\nhuman nature and heaven ; it may be supposed, indeed, that the sage very\nseldom dwelt upon these questions. In Lun-yu it is said : \" When man\nis born, he is sincere,\" and likewise in Ta-hio : \"One must keep alive the\ninborn virtues.\"\nSo Confucius believes that man is good by nature.\nConfucius's grandson, Tseu-see, an eager adherent of his doctrine, says :\n\" Human nature is determined by the heavens, and to follow the way of\nnature is the first of all doctrines.\" And also Mencius, who again learned\nfrom Tseu-see, says : \" Human nature is good.\"\nConfucius, however, knew .very well that man can be developed in\ndifferent ways by education ; it is that which makes the great differences\namong men.\nAfter this short preface I now shall try to find out the aim of Confucius's education.\nMORAL\n\nEDUCATION\".\n\nConfucius says to his pupil Tseng-tsen : \" Piety is the foundation and\nthe basis of a good education.\" Of course this piety is not restricted to the\nrelation of parents to the children, to the life in the house. Outside the\nhouse, also, children and all younger persons must be respectful towards\nelder persons ; they must hate nobody, but especially be on friendly terms\nwith the philanthropists ; besides, everybody must strive to obtain knowledge and skill.\nFrom this it can be seen that Confucius considered virtue first ; in\n\n"}
{"page": 331, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONFUCIUS\n\nAND\n\nHIS EDUCATIONAL\n\nIDEAS.\n\n311\n\nagreement with that a Japanese scholar, Minsan, says : \" The doctrine of\nConfucius is not based upon any literary fame, but upon acquiring\nvirtue.\"\nNot only did Confucius consider virtue the first principle, but we find\nthe same view in modern pedagogues, as, for instance, in Locke, Greiling,\nHerbart, and others.\nIf we ask what Confucius means by virtue, piety, as mentioned above,\nis the most important with him. From \"Lun-yu \" it appears that Confucius taught many things, as knowledge, decency, honesty, and faithfulness. In another place Confucius says : \" Always practice truth and\nhonesty.\" Thus it appears that truth and honesty are additional virtues\nwith Confucius.\nHis pupil Tseu-Kung once asks if there be any word which could be\nconsidered as a moral principle for the whole life. Confucius answered :\n\" To place one's self into the same situation as others ; \" and lie adds :\n\" What you do not desire to be done to you, that you may do to no other\none.\"\nAlso Tseng-tseu confirms this by saying : \"The doctrine of Confucius\ncommends honesty and the putting one's self into the situation of others.''\nBy the latter he sees that Confucius means the practice of humanity.\nThis principle was greatly esteemed by Confucius ; it is very often mentioned and emphatically enforced. In addition there are mentioned\n\"sincerity, liberality, reverence, humility, fortitude, willingness, respect\ntowards the elder brother, loyalty to friends, magnanimity.\" This very\nclassification of virtues can be regarded as a proof that Confucius placed\ngreat value upon the establishment of morality.\nINTELLECTUAL\n\nEDUCATION\".\n\nAs Confucius laid the greatest stress upon moral education, let us see\nwhat he thought about intellectual education. In Ta-hio we read: \"The\nfirst step toward the growth and increase of the inborn gifts of the mind,\nconsists in obliging one to acquire a distinct knowledge of things.\"\nMore emphatically it is said in Lun-yu : \"The most perfect man must\nacquire a comprehensive knowledge ; \" and in a third place, where Confucius well recommends to his pupils the study of Shi-king (poems), he praises\nthis among other merits, that from them knowledge of many animals and\nplants is to be gained.\nPHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION.\n\nIn Lun-yu it is said : \" If cooked rice has become sour, or fish has become soft, Confucius does not eat such food ; also not if the meat has a\nbad color or disagreeable smell, or has not been entirely cooked, or if\nunripe fruits are offered to him. Wine he drinks as much as he is\nable without becoming intoxicated.\nBut he does not drink wine nor eat\n\n"}
{"page": 332, "printed_page": null, "text": "312\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nmeat which have been bought on the street, because he is afraid that they\nmight be unclean; and as in drinking, so in eating, he is always temperate/'\nHow scrupulous he was about these things the following may show : Kihao-tseu had sent medicine to him, and Confucius had accepted it gratefully, but had not taken it, because he did not know exactly the contents.\nIn general, the educational method of Confucius did not consist only in\ngiving his pupils theoretical explanations, but also and especially in teaching them by his own actions and examples.\nThus the customs of Confucius, mentioned before, had also the effect\nto commend to his pupils the care of their diet. That he laid stress upon\nthis, can be read in Hiao-king, where Confucius is said to have declared :\n\" The body with skin and hairs we have received from our parents ; to\npreserve it is therefore a duty of piety.\" In the same sense he is said\nto have told Meu-wu-pe : \" To be pious means to keep one's body healthy,\nin order that the parents, growing old, may not be consumed by sorrow\nfor the life of sick children.\"\nConcerning real gymnastics, shooting with bow and arrows, and charioteering, which belonged also among the objects of education according to\nConfucius, might have had still another purpose, but they served especially for strengthening the body.\nEDUCATION\n\nOF\n\nGIRLS.\n\nBefore I treat of the method of education of Confucius, I will add something about his views of the education of girls. It seems to me that\nConfucius taught about the female virtues, \"coyness, taciturnity, obedience, lack of jealousy,\" but nothing about the method and the departments of instruction appropriate for girls.\nHe once says to Ngai-kung: \" The woman must follow the word of man,\nand work for men ; she has no right to work in an independent way ; on\nthe contrary, there are three kinds of dependency for women : when she\nis a girl, she must follow her father or her elder brother; when she is\nmarried, she must obey her husband ; and when the husband has died, she\nmust follow her son. Woman, therefore, never has to act independently,\nand her sphere is restricted to her room, and in that to prepare good\nfood and beverages.\"\nFrom this is to be seen that Confucius estimates obedience as the first\nduty of woman, but lays little stress upon her talents and knowledge. He\neven seems to doubt her vocation as an educator of children. At least he\nonce says : \" Tseu-tschan is like a mother, who is able to nourish children,\nbut not to educate them.\"\nAfter this low estimate of girls and mothers, we do not wonder that he\nsaid nothing about female education. There is a legend that Ta-yam, the\n■\nmother of the old King Wan, had begun the education already with the\n\n"}
{"page": 333, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONFUCIUS\n\nAND\n\nHIS EDUCATIONAL\n\nIDEAS.\n\n313\n\nembryonic life of her child ; such a mother would have certainly corresponded to the views of Confucius.\nThis contempt and neglect of female education is a deplorable lack in\nthe system of Confucius.\nMETHOD\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION.\n\nConfucius says : \" I shall not teach before the scholars desire to know\nsomething, and I do not help before the scholars need my help ; if of the\nfour corners of a thing I have shown and explained one corner, and the\nscholars do not find for themselves the three others, I do not explain\nfurther.\"\nThis shows that Confucius laid much stress upon the self-activity of\nthe scholars ; in so ancient a time (2,000 years ago) he used already the\ninventive method.\nFurthermore, he says : \"If one learns only by memory, and does not\nthink, all remains dark.\"\nBut the teacher remains always a guide ; he is indeed the leader ; and if\nYen-yen says : \" The kind master leads me step by step,\" that means :\n\"Leading upward from the easy things to the difficult ones.\"\nConfucius gave different answers to the questions which several persons\nasked him about humanity. He taught them humanity by different\nmethods, a proof that he had regard for the faculties and talents of every>ne. He also used comparison in a clever manner for purposes of edu3ation.\nWhen Tseu-kung asked Confucius how humanity could be exercised\ntactically, he replied : \" If a mechanic will perform his task well, he is\nforced to sharpen well his tools. In which situation you may be, take\nwise men as guides, and make friendship with virtuous people.\"\nNumerous incidents in the life of Confucius prove that he used every\noccasion offering itself for the education of his pupils. Once he saw a\nsparrow catcher catching only young sparrows with beaks still yellow ;\nthen he asked him : \" Why do you not catch old sparrows ?\"\nThe man replied : \" The old sparrow is very cunning, hence it is diffi3ult to catch him ; but the young sparrow is only greedy to seek food, and\nso it is easy to catch him. If young sparrows would follow the old ones,\nthen it would be difficult to catch them ; but if old sparrows follow the\nyoung ones, then they can be caught.\" Then Confucius addressed his\npupils : \" Did you hear ? If the sparrow is cautious, he avoids destruction but\n;\nif he indulges in greediness, he forgets danger. Luck and illluck of the sparrow depend upon whom he follows. Therefore, wise men\nare cautious in choosing acquaintances. And if one follows the prudent\nthoughts of elder people, he is protected against every danger ; but if one\nfollows the ideas of inexperienced youth, he easily runs into dangers.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 334, "printed_page": null, "text": "314\n\nTHE\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nUSE\nBY\n\nOF MAGIC\n\nGUSTAVE\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nLANTERNS\n\nSERRURIER,\n\nOF\n\nHAVRE,\n\nIN SCHOOLS.*\nFRANCE.\n\nI shall not dwell upon the use of luminous projections in the scientific\ncourses of universities and academies, but show you simply how in France\nthe magic lantern has been introduced into the primary school, and has\nbecome a means of popular instruction.\nIn April, 1880, a conference of French teachers was organized by the\nMinister of Public Instruction, for the purpose of showing the use that\nmight be made of the magic lantern in elementary education.\nThis effort had an immediate practical outcome. In December following, a society was formed at Havre for the avowed purpose of bringing\nabout the general adoption of the use of the magic lantern as an aid in\nteaching by observation. This method of instruction was introduced in\nHavre in the higher courses of the primary schools. All the pupils of\nthese classes (boys and girls), to the number of twelve hundred, were\nassembled in two great halls twice a week for this exercise.\nThe subjects treated were history, geography, travels, physical and\nnatural science. M. F. Buisson, the Director-General of Primary Instruction, testified that the notes made by the scholars showed good results and\ngreat attention on their part. The teachers gained great freedom in\nspeaking in public, while the pupils, captivated with the views presented,\nprofited on their part by all the explanations offered without any of the\ncustomary distractions.\nTwo years later every school in Havre was supplied with the necessary\napparatus, and thus the use of the magic lantern was extended without\nany disarrangement of the classes.\nThis society did not stop with the work in the schools ; it organized at\nthe same time public conferences for families subscribing to the funds.\nThese exercises, conducted by men of ability, were very successful, and\nalso brought in money, thus helping the society to extend the work, not\nonly in the schools and in important centers, but even into the neighboring districts. To achieve this result the society of Havre exerted itself\nto perfect the apparatus, and to increase its collection of views in order to\nmeet all needs.\nThe school apparatus recommended by the society costs only $24. A\npetroleum lamp is used ; this is simple and practical. It serves for an\naudience of from two to three hundred persons. This is the apparatus\ngenerally used in the country. The city societies nearly always employ a\ndouble apparatus suited to halls for from eight hundred to two thousand\n* This paper was read in French, and translated for publication.\n\n"}
{"page": 335, "printed_page": null, "text": "SCHOOLS\n\nFOR\n\nNEGLECTED\n\n315\n\nCHILDREN.\n\npersons. This costs $74, and is lighted by an oxyhydrogen lamp. It\nhas the advantage of presenting the views without interruption and with\ndoable effect, and can be used by day as well as by night.\nThe Havre society has a triple apparatus with which scientific experiments can be illustrated and natural phenomena shown, such as volcanic\neruptions, active geysers, etc. The price of this is $240.\nThe Havre society has for its object the diffusion of knowledge by means\nof the magic lantern in connection both with school exercises and with\npopular lectures. All the conferences are free, and the views, which\nnumber eight thousand, are loaned gratuitously.\nThe society fosters the work both in France and in foreign countries.\nIn 1891 M. Buisson was delegated by the Minister of Public Instruction to\npreside over the annual distribution of prizes. This festival was a veritable demonstration in favor of instruction by the magic lantern. It is a\nmeans of moral influence, for when the teacher sets up the apparatus the\nschool is too small for the company and the saloon is deserted. The\nviews are chosen also with a purpose of giving the scholars ideas of the\ngood, the true, and the beautiful.\nThe society has supporters among all the friends of public instruction,\nteachers, professors, inspectors, pastors, etc. In March, 1893, it had\nbranches in sixty-two departments of France and in nearly all the French\ncolonies. In foreign countries, also, several societies have been created\nunder the auspices of that at Havre — in Belgium, in Switzerland, in Russia, in Austria, and even in the New World, in Louisiana and in the\nArgentine Republic.\nIn March last the number of free loans from the collections were four\nthousand one hundred and forty, each set comprising, on an average,\ntwenty-five views. The annual contributions from members are, at the\nminimum, ten francs. The amount which had been received by the president of the society, M. H. Jardin, in subscriptions and in dues, up to\nDecember 31, 1892, was sixty-four thousand francs (about $12,800).\n\nSCHOOLS\nBY\n\nJAMES\n\nSTORMONT\n\nFOR\n\nNEGLECTED\n\nCHILDREN.\n\nSMALL,\n\nTRUANT\nINSPECTOR,\nZEALAND.\n\nAUCKLAND,\n\nNEW\n\nTo attain a perfect system of education is a very difficult matter when\nthe incongruous elements to be dealt with are considered, and no more\ndifficult problem presents itself than that of the best course to adopt\nwith regard to the education of the children of city slums ; and yet a\nthoroughly workable and successful system would prove the foundation\nof a noble structure.\n\n"}
{"page": 336, "printed_page": null, "text": "316\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nWhen dealing with these neglected children there are two distinct\nclasses to be considered ; namely, those of the very poor but honest, and\nthose of the careless, dissolute, and criminal. With respect to the former,\nmany young children, instead of attending school, are employed at various\noccupations wherein the school hours are taken up.\nFew will not admit that these young ones are entitled to the advantages\nof such education as is provided from the national funds for all.\nBut humanity steps in and says: \"These children are helps to their\nparents, who depend on them to work for bread for the support of the\nfamily, and if they are deprived of the aid of these child-workers, how is\nthe necessary subsistence to be procured ? \"\nTo say that it is right that parents should, under any circumstances, be\ndependent on their young and tender offspring for food amounts to advocating a reversal of natural laws, which throughout the animal kingdom\ndemand that the old must provide for its young ; and even in the lower\norders of life, where the young are so constituted to look after themselves, in no case do the old rely upon their own immature progeny as\nfood procurers.\nWhen law-makers thoroughly grasp this position, and without exception\napply it, then the unnatural claim of parents to ruin their children forever, to minister to present personal needs, will become a thing of the past.\nWhen it has been ascertained beyond doubt that parents cannot feed\nand clothe the children whom the law compels them to send to school,\nthen both of these necessaries should be provided by the state ; for little\neducation can be imparted to small, shivering bodies with hungry stomachs.\nBut to ask that national funds for educational purposes should be used\nto subsidize parents for being deprived of services to which they have no\nright — to grant such a request would tend to increase paupers and turn\neducational departments into charitable aid boards.\nSurely deserving cases could be left to the benevolently disposed, and\nsocieties of that kind.\nFor several years the writer has studied from exceptional vantage ground\nthe application of compulsory educational laws, and after much experience\nand careful consideration has come to the conclusion that a large number\nof the parents appreciate education too highly to be a source of trouble in\nprocuring regular attendance of their children at schools, so that stringent\nattendance measures, although applicable to all, do not affect these, as\nthey already do what is required, without coercion ; but with respect to\nothers, they more or less require constant watching. Every sort of pretext is used to detain children from school, yet nearly all express the opinion that great stringency should be used in compelling their neighbors'\nchildren to be sent more regularly. This sort of thing varies in degree\nuntil the lower stratum is reached, when nothing short of fines and imprisonment ofparents will obtain any attendance whatever.\n\n"}
{"page": 337, "printed_page": null, "text": "SCHOOLS\n\nFOR NEGLECTED\n\nCHLLDREN.\n\n317\n\nJust here the writer would mention that in New Zealand he, as truant\ninspector and attendance officer, has, amongst a number of elementary\npublic schools under his supervision, one school in the city of Auckland\nwhich specially deals with the children of the poorest and lowest classes.\nIt is a small building, therefore the roll number is under two hundred, but\nthe ordinary daily attendance is about one hundred and seventy boys and\ngirls. The parents receive no aid in lieu of the services of their children,\nnor are the pupils supplied with food or clothes. Sometimes, in exceptional cases, the head master privately will give a meal to one or more,\nwhen he is. satisfied it is needed, and sometimes persons will donate some\nclothing, which is presented to the most ragged in a quiet and kind manner.\nSelf-respect is encouraged in the scholars, and every opportunity is\ngiven them which is consistent with reasonable attendance to earn money\nto keep their parents. The dinner-time is curtailed and the school dismissed earlier in the afternoon, so that the newspaper boys may be in time\nto sell the evening papers, and others to attend to various offices required\nby their parents. No child is punished for coming late who has a genuine\nnote to show that he or she was detained for some necessary purpose.\nAnd yet with all these drawbacks, this school, at the annual examinations,\ncompares favorably with other schools. All school necessaries are supplied free, also the books, when the parent cannot pay for the same. It\nhas been remarked that the pupils of this school are more respectful and\npolite than many of the scholars of the other schools.\nNo parents are compelled to send their children to this particular school ;\nit is quite a voluntary matter. AH are compelled to send to some school ;\ntherefore a large number of the worst of this class elect to send to other\nschools, and it requires frequent legal proceedings to procure the necessary attendance ; and in either case the majority of these people, directly\nthe compulsory age (only thirteen) is passed, no matter how backward\ntheir children in education, take them away from school — some to go to\nwork, others to run the streets and learn to steal, and many very promising girls to a worse fate.\nFrom the foregoing it may be gathered that a school of the description\nnamed, properly conducted, does a good work, but that it does not reach\nfar enough in many cases to render the good done as permanent as it\nwould be under an improved system. This leads to the proposition that\nspecial schools should be established for taking entire charge of the neglected children of the nation.\nSome not, well informed on the subject will argue that there should be\nno distinction made between state elementary schools ; that the children\nunder discussion should be distributed among the schools already in existence, because, it is advanced, the association with better clothed, fed, and\ntrained children will raise them to a higher level, such being the result of\ngood example.\nThis theory sounds well, but when reduced to practice\n\n"}
{"page": 338, "printed_page": null, "text": "318\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nutterly fails, as from actual observation it has been proved that instead of\nthe slum children being morally raised, the usual scholars are considerably\nlowered by the association with their more precocious brethren, so much\nso as often to produce lasting injury, as children are more ready to follow\nan evil example than a good one ; therefore the children of respectable\nparents have also a right to be considered in this matter.\nAnother powerful reason against mixing the slum children with other\nchildren is that the teachers cannot do justice to the ordinary pupils and\nat the same time pay special attention to a particular class, the result to\nthe latter being that when the compulsory age is passed they return more\ncompletely to their wallowing in the mire.\nSchools should be established to take entire charge of neglected children.\nWhen it has been ascertained by the truant officers (not the police) that\nthe homes of children are unwholesome, through the bad character and\nassociations of the parents or guardians — upon satisfactory evidence of the\nsame being given before legally constituted authority — such children\nshould be committed to schools specially provided for the purpose, there\nto have a home, receive a sound education, and then be taught agriculture,\ntrades, or professions, as their several abilities may indicate; these pupils\nto become, de facto, the children of the state or nation, and not for one\nmoment to be considered as prisoners or paupers, or treated as such.\nThey should be endued, as far as possible, with a spirit of self-respect\nand self-reliance, and pride in their schools and country, and encouraged\nat a proper age to sign an agreement to recoup their cost to the country\nwhen able to do so. Of course when such children prove refractory, by\nrunning away or in other ways, they should be treated in a similar way\nto that in which good parents treat their offspring — i.e., \" He that spares\nthe rod spoils the child.\" Surely it will not require much argument to\nprove that the proposition is practicable, and would, if carried out, result\nin minimizing crime by laying the axe at its root.\nThe children of the drunkards, prostitutes, poverty stricken, and criminals should have the same chances in life from an educational standpoint\nas other children, so that an opportunity be given them of becoming\nrespectable citizens, and so benefit both themselves and the world. It is\nnot their fault that they are born with unfortunate environments ; therefore it is not just that they should suffer through the neglect, misfortune,\nor vice of their natural protectors. Nor should the world be tormented\nthrough the wholesale manufacture of such pests to society, which, as a\nrule, neglected children become.\nThe legislatures of the world have made enactments to punish lawbreakers (who are caught). But in criminal cases the punishment seldom\nhas a curative effect. But, as a rule, the culture and production of criminals is allowed to proceed without restraint — i.e., the law only attempts to\nshut the door after the mischief is done, instead of taking effective meas-\n\n"}
{"page": 339, "printed_page": null, "text": "SCHOOLS\n\nFOR\n\nNEGLECTED\n\nCHILDREN.\n\n319\n\nures to prevent the cause, and so to the same degree lessen the effect.\nThis, it is claimed, would be the result of the government becoming the\nirent, and taking entire charge of neglected children.\nIt is submitted that every child capable of receiving instruction is\nentitled to a sound education, no matter what the circumstances of the\nparent may be. Not unfrequently parents claim the right to the services\nof their young children (instead of sending them to school), because of\ntheir own (the parents') affliction, such as sickness, being cripples, blind,\nparalyzed, and so on. The benevolent who simply regard the surface will\nsay, under these conditions children should be exempted from attendance\nat school. But these kind-hearted people support unwittingly the perpetration ofgross cruelty ; they sacrifice the children for the exigencies of\nthe parent, and so the children are ruined for life, for they can never\ncompete on equal terms with the educated, unless educated themselves.\nSuccor should certainly be forthcoming for those in need, but most\ndecidedly not at the cost of the future of a single child.\nIt may be urged that the already established reformatories, where the\nchildren convicted of crime are committed for a term, might also be utilized for all neglected children. To adopt such a course would be manifestly unjust to children who have not developed into criminals, and to\nassociate them with those who have would be very unwise. The schools\nproposed for the slum or neglected children of the world are not reformatories, but (to coin a word) are formatories ; that is, not for the purpose\nof reforming character, but to form character.\nLastly, from a financial standpoint it is submitted that although the\noutlay required for these schools would be considerable, yet the benefits\nfollowing a marked decrease of crime, increased security to life and property, the reduction in the number of tramps and disorderly women, the\nlessened cost for the arrest, punishment, and detention of criminals, would\nnot only amply repay the cost of the formatories, but would leave a substantial balance to the credit of the nations, even without taking into\naccount what is of much more importance — that is, that many of the wouldhave-been scourges of society would instead be incorporated into the\narmy of respectable workers of the world, and thus further demonstrate\nthat \"prevention is better than cure.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 340, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 341, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\nOF\n\nCONGRESS\n\nKINDERGARTEN\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nINSTRUCTION.\nREPORT.\n\nSESSION— Wednesday,\n\nJuly 26, 1893.\n\nThe Congress of Kindergarten Instruction met in the Hall of Columbus in the Memorial Art Palace. The meeting was called to oi'der by Mrs. Eudora L. Hailmann at 9.30\na.m., Wednesday, July 26, who introduced Mrs. Ada M. Hughes, of Toronto, Ontario,\nas Chairman, who delivered the opening address.\nMiss Alice H. Putnam, of Chicago, read a paper on \"Shall Reading and Writing be\ntaught in the Kindergarten ? \"\nMiss Sarah A. Stewart, of Philadelphia, read a paper on \" Changes in Kindergarten\nPlays and Games.\"\nA paper was read by Miss Constance Mackenzie, Supervisor of Public School Kindergartens, Philadelphia, on \" The Song in the Kindergarten — Its Place, Value, and the\nDramatic Element.\"\nMrs. Sarah B. Cooper, of San Francisco, Cal., read a paper on \"The Organic Union\nof Kindergarten and Primary School.\" Mr. B. Pickman Mann, of Washington, D. C,\npresented a paper, opening a discussion on \"Modifications in the Primary School.\"\nThis subject was further discussed by Miss Mary C. McCulloch, Supervisor of Public\nSchool Kindergartens of St. Louis, Mo.\nThe subject, \" How the Primary School may be Connected with the Kindergarten,\"\nwas discussed by Mr. W. N. Hailmann, of La Porte. His remarks in substance were as\nfollows : \"I have experimented for ten years at La Porte, Ind., a small town, where 1\nhave not met the untold obstacles of a larger city. The only possibility of securing an\norganic connection between the kindergarten and the primary is by infusing the same\nspirit into the latter which distinguishes the former. The aim and purpose of the school\nis always the child and the childs living growth. Conventionalities of life belong no\nmore to the primary than to the kindergarten. Right feeling must first be aroused, out\nof which conventionalities may grow. New wine must not be put into old bottles. The\nmachine can never be infused with life. Whatever of the primary school is dead remains\nlead. We cannot connect the living kindergarten with the mechanical school. The\nonly organic connection is to give the child opportunity to express himself all along the\nline of his development, and never to express the teacher. The primary, like the kindergarten, must be a process of freeing the child.\"\nMrs. Kate Douglas Wiggin, of New York City, was introduced by the Chairman, and\nwarmly greeted. Having recently returned from London, she brought greetings from\nthe following prominent workers of that city : Miss Lyschiske, Miss Emily Shirreff, Mr.\nOscar Browning, M. Michalais, and Mr. Courthope Bowen.\nDuring this opening session of the kindergarten department the platform was occupied by the following distinguished educators : Mrs. Hughes, of Toronto ; Miss\nMcCulloch, of St. Louis ; Mrs. Newcomb, of Hamilton, Ontario ; Mrs. Putman, of\nChicago; Miss Mackenzie and Miss Stewart, of Philadelphia ; Mrs. Hailmann, of La\n21\n\n"}
{"page": 342, "printed_page": null, "text": "322\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nPorte ; Miss Brooks and Mrs. Kate Douglas Wiggin, of New York City ; Miss Nora\nSmith, of San Francisco, Cal. ; Mrs. Wiley, of Buffalo ; and Mrs. Cooper, of California.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— July 27, 1893.\n\nThe Congress of Kindergarten Instruction was called to order by Mrs. A. M. Hughes,\nthe President, at 9.30 a.m., Thursday, July 27, 1893.\nMr. W. N. Hailmann, of La Porte, Ind., reviewed the kindergarten situation in Germany and America, reporting upon the literature sent from abroad.\nThe commission in charge of the German Educational Exhibit confessed that teachers\nand schoolmen are antagonistic to the work, stating that the necessity of handling large\nmasses of children made it impracticable ; but little by little they are having their eyes\nopened.\nAngelika Hartmann, of Leipzig, has published a pamphlet on the relation of the\nkindergarten to the public school, dedicating the same to this congress.\nOn motion it was voted that this Congress of Kindergarten Instruction forward greetings and thanks to the kindergarten workers in Europe for their cooperation.\nThe valuable papers from other points of Europe were transferred to this section, that\nthe same might be published in the report of the National Educational Association.\nMrs. J. N. Crouse, of Chicago, opened the discussion on \" Preparation of the Kindergartner for her Work,\" making an urgent plea for longer, higher, and wider training.\nMiss Annie Laws, of Cincinnati, spoke from her personal experiences, recommending\nstronger measures, and a plea for better and more adequate remuneration for work, and\nsuggesting lines of broader experiences as tributary to a kindergartner's training, such\nas is gleaned by visiting other schools in other cities.\nFraulein Annetta Schepel read a paper prepared by her co-worker, Frau Henrietta\nSchrader, of Berlin, on the topic, \" The Kindergarten as a Basis for Life.\"\nMrs. Louisa Parsons Hopkins, of the Boston Board of School Supervisors, presented a\npaper on the ' ' Preparation of the Kindergartner. \"\nMr. W. N. Hailmann closed the discussion by giving a most comprehensive sketch of\nthe characteristic mental and physical conditions of the first seven years of childhood,\nwhich determine the special educative value of hand work in the kindergarten.\nTHIRD\nSESSION— July 28, 1893.\nThe Congress of Kindergarten Instruction was called to order Friday, July 28, 1893,\nby the Chairman.\nA paper was read by Mary T. Hotchkiss, of Milwaukee, Wis., on \"Story-Telling in\nthe Kindergarten.\"\nProfessor Earl Barnes, of Leland Stanford University, read a paper on 'To what\nExtent is Symbolism Justifiable in the Kindergarten ? \"\nA paper was read by Mrs. Eudora L. Hailmann, of La Porte, Ind., on \"To what\nExtent is Symbolism Justifiable in the Kindergarten ? \" in continuation of the discussion of symbolism.\nMiss Harrison, of Chicago, spoke of the parallelisms between the race development\nand that of the child, and drew clear conclusions as to methods of fitting the natural\nsymbols to the child's comprehension. At the close of Miss Harrison's words the chairman suggested that an informal greeting be sent to Miss Susan E. Blow ; also to Miss\nEmma Marwedel.\nThe discussion of symbolism was continued by Miss Lucy Whitlock, of Boston, and\nMr. Arnold H. Hinewah, of Chicago.\nThe session was closed by the Chairman, expressing the hope that we might go to our\nhomes to live out these great truths whose repeated utterances had warmed us into a\nkeener appreciation of our individual possibilities.\n\n"}
{"page": 343, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIST OF HONORARY\n\nVICE-PRESIDENTS.\n\n323\n\nLIST OF PERSONS ACCEPTING THE OFFICE OF HONORARY\nVICE-PRESIDENT OF THE DEPARTMENT CONGRESS OF\nKINDERGARTEN\nINSTRUCTION.\nARGENTINE\n\nREPUBLIC.\n\nMrs. Sallie C. Eccleston, Instructress of Professional Teachers, Parana.\nAUSTRIA.\nFran Oitilie Bondy, Directress of Kindergarten,\nVienna.\nHerr Franz Hertel, Teacher Burgcrschool and Director of Manual Training School, Vienna.\nFrl. Eleonore Kopper, Lady Principal of Primary\nKindergarten, Gratz.\nDr. H. Sonneck, President Froebel Association,\nBrunn.\nCANADA.\n8. B. Sinclair, Hamilton.\nMrs. Ada M. Hughes, Toronto.\nMrs. L. T. Newcombe, Hamilton.\nMrs. Mary E. Macintyre, Toronto Normal Kindergarten, Toronto.\nFRANCE.\nM. Chas. Delon. Sevres.\nMile. M. Loizillon, Paris.\nMile. Marie Thomas, Paris.\nGERMANY.\nHerr Pfarrer Baehring, Minfeld.\nFrl. Hartmann. Principal of Seminary, Leipzig.\nFrl. E. Heerwart. Vice-President Froebel Association, Eisenach.\nFrl. Marg. Kroger. Hamburg.\nFrau Lina Morgenstera, Berlin.\nHerr Lorenz VDinir, Director Seminary for Kindergartners, Munich.\nGREAT\n\nBRITAIN.\n\nAlfred Bourne, Stockwell Training College, London, S. W.\nH. Courthope Bowen, Esq., M.A., London.\nMiss Catherine M. Condon, London.\nMi.«s E. A. Manning, London. W.\nJliss Emily A. E. Shirreff, President of the Froebel\nSociety, London.\nW. Swan Sonuenschein, London.\nITALY.\nSignora Fiancesca Petermann, Directress of the\n\"Institute Vittorino da Feltra,\" Rome.\nsignora Adela V. Portugnll, Directress of Kindergarten and Normal School. Naples.\nSignora Amalia de Rosa. International Froebel\nInstitute Vitt. Email. II., Naples.\nSignora Cecilia Tassis, General lnspectress of Infant Schools, Genoa.\n\nCALIFORNIA.\nMrs. E. I. Dodge. San Diego.\nNellie\nDunlap, Orphan Asylum Kindergarten, Sacramento.\nHelen Josslyn Le Beuf, Riverside.\nMissside.\nM. J. Lyman, Private Kindergarten, RiverMrs. C. H. McGrew, School of Methods for Teachers and Kindergartners. San Jose.\nMrs. Eva Mackenzie, Sarah B. Cooper Kindergarten, San Jose.\nMrs. Nora D. Mayhew, Training School for Kindergartners, Los Angeles.\nMrs. Annie S. Porter, Kindergarten Training\nSchool, San Diego.\nMiss Nora A. Smith, San Francisco.\nCOLORADO.\nMiss Emily Collar, Aspen.\nMrs. Charles Dickinson. Denver.\nMrs. A. K. Holt Kelly, Durango.\nMrs. Josephine P. Lee, Public School Kindergarten,\nFt. Collins.\nCONNECTICUT.\nMiss Lucia M. Bower, Skinner Kindergarten, New\nHaven.\nMiss Clara W. Mineins, New Britain.\nMrs. Fannie P. Brown, South Side School Kindergarten, Bristol.\nMrs. Fanniebelle Curtis, Normal School Kindergarten, Willimantic.\nMrs. Charlotte L. M.Murray, South School Kindergarten, Hartford.\nMrs.Woodbury.\nN. M. Strong, Private Kindergarten, North\nDELAWARE.\nMrs. Sarah S. Rumford, Free W. C. T. U., Wilmington.\nDISTRICT\n\nOF COLUMBIA.\n\nMrs. Margaret T.\nMcPherson,\ndergarten,\nGeorgetown. St. John's Free KinMrs. Louise Pollock, Washington.\nSusan P. Pollock, Froebel Normal Institute and\nKindergarten, Washington.\nMr>. Mary F. van de Sai de. Elizabeth Peabody\nKindergarten, Washington.\nMiss Anna Schmidt, Private Kindergarten, Washington.\nCaroline\nM. Sterling, St. John's Orphanage, Washington.\nFLORIDA.\n\nSWITZERLAND.\n\nMrs. M. E. Leak. Private Kindergarten, Myers.\nMrs. Mary A. West, Private Kindergarten, Tampa.\n\nHerr Friedr. Beust, Director of Seminary, Zurich.\nHerr David Burgauer, St. Gallen.\nDr. I. Hurliman. Unterageri near Zurich.\nHerr Pfarrer L. W. Kambli, St. Gallen.\nHerr Heinrich Wegnian, Lehrer, Zflrich.\nProf. G. Zehnder, Olten.\n\nMiss Willette Allen, Atlanta.\nLawton B. Evans, Public School Kindergarten,\nAugusta.\nILLINOIS.\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES.\n\nALABAMA.\nMiss M. J. Moore, Directress Model School, Troy.\n\nGEORGIA.\n\nMrs. Anne E. Allen, Cook County Normal School\nKindergarten, Englewood.\nMrs. Lilian Dale Archibald. Englewood.\nMrs. Katharine Beebe, Wesley Avenue Kindergarten, Evanston.\n\n"}
{"page": 344, "printed_page": null, "text": "324\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nMrs. Fanny Chadband, Private Kindergarten,\nRogers Park.\nMrs. Rebecca C. Chester, Champaign.\nMrs. Lydia A. Corbin, Buda High School Kindergarten, Bnda.\nMrs. J. N. Crouse, Chicago.\nMiss Laura Ebel, Kindergarten of Jewish Training\nSchool, Chicago.\nMrs. B. S. Haas, Humboldt.\nMrs. Bertha F. Hanks, Free Kindergarten, FreeMrs.port.\nT. W. Harvey, Woman's Committee on Kindergarten Education, Chicago.\nMrs. burg.\nMary M. Hazzard, Free Kindergarten, GalesMrs. A. P. Kimball, Private Kindergarten, Congregational Church, Quincy.\nMrs. Agnea E. Langworthy. Kewanee Kindergarten, Chicago.\nMrs. Harriet J. Launder, Public School Kindergarten, Riverside.\nMrs. Rosa Schroeder, Froebelscher Kindergarten,\nChicago.\nMrs. Henrietta Stoeckmann, King's Daughters'\nFree Kindergarten, Bloomington.\nMiss M. Evelyn Strong, Principal Kindergarten\nNormal, Galesburg.\nMiss Rose Saunders, Principal Kindergarten,\nPana.\nMiss Elizabeth Harrison, Chicago.\nMrs. Alice W. Putnam, Principal Froebel Training\nClass, Chicago.\nMiss Eva B. Whitmore, Superintendent Chicago\nFree Kindergarten Association, Chicago.\n\nOF EDUCATION.\nLOUISIANA.\n\nMrs. May Gyles, Daily Free Kindergarten,\nOrleans.\nNew\nMrs. 3, E. Seaman, New Orleans.\nMrs. Hattie Schuster, Private Kindergarten, Shreve\nMAINE.\nMrs. Mary Crosby,\nciation, Bangor. President Kindergarten Assoport.\nMARYLAND.\nMrs. Laura M Beatty, Froebel Normal Training\nClass, Baltimore.\nMrs. Mannie Dausrherty, Clifton Kindergarten.\nM. E. Church, Baltimore.\nMrs. Viola mond,\nM. Va. Ewers, Principal Kindergarten, RichMrs. Marian Thompson Morse, Grace Church Free\nKindergarten, Baltimore.\nMrs. S. L. Welsh, President Baltimore Kindergarten\nAssociation, Baltimore.\nMASSACHUSETTS.\nMrs. Ellen Burroughs Foster, Home and Day Kindergarten, Lowell.\nMiss Laura Fisher, Boston.\nMiss Anne L. Page, Danvers.\nMrs. Annie Coolidge Rust, International Kindergarten Union, Boston.\nMissLucy Wheelock, Boston.\nMiss Sara E. Wiltse, Jamaica Plain.\n\nINDIANA.\n\nMICHIGAN.\n\nMrs. Ida L. Foster, Free Kindergarten, Valparaiso.\nMrs. Jennie Goodman, Second Ward Kindergarten,\nLa Porte.\nMrs. Eleanor H. Lewis, Principal Plymouth Kindergarten, Ft. Wayne.\nMrs. Laura B. Nash, Free Kindergarten No. 1, Indianapolis.\nMiss Sal lie P. Shields, Private Kindergarten, La\nFayette.\nMrs. E. A. Blaker, Indianapolis.\n\nMrs. Helen Case Adams, Normal Training School\nand Kindergarten, Y. W. C. A., Lansing.\nMrs. S. Baldwin, Kindergarten Industrial School,\nDetroit.\nMiss Florence A. Brown, Detroit.\nMrs. Maud E. Cannell, State Normal School Kindergarten, Ypsilanti.\nMrs. mazoo.\nMary L. Clarke, Private Kindergarten. KalaMrs. Elnora Cuddeback, Principal Kindergarten\nTraining Department, Alma College. Alma.\nMrs. Eliza Daugherty, Calvary Kindergarten No. 1,\nDetroit.\nMrs. Hattie V. Hairband, Fifth Ward Public School\nKindergarten, Ann Arbor.\nMiss Nelson Mosher, Private Kindergarten, Mount\nPleasant.\nMrs. Maud A. Reid, Principal Normal Training\nSchool, Detroit.\nMrs. Susie T. Smith, Home Kindergarten, Saginaw,\nE. S.\nMrs. Daughters.\nMary Williams,\nKindergarten of King's\nGrand Free\nRapids.\nMrs. Stella L. Wood, Superintendent of Kindergartens, Muskegon.\nMINNESOTA.\n\nINDIAN\n\nTERRITORY.\n\nMrs. Phoebe Riddell, Kindergarten of Presbyterian\nMission, Muskogee.\nIOWA.\nMrs. Elizabeth K. Matthews, Special Kindergarten\nTraining\nDepartment,\nHighland Park, Des\nMoines.\nMrs. Julia Morrison, Lincoln School Kindergarten,\nDes Moines.\nMrs. Amelia Murdock, Private Kindergarten, Elkader.\nMrs. E. K. Ogborn, Public School Kindergarten,\nOskaloosa.\nMrs. Frances Throop, Grinnell.\nMrs. J. C. Trainer, Sibley.\nMrs. Edith Grace Whiting, Private Kindergarten,\nClarion.\nKANSAS.\nMrs. Lucy A. Doolittle, Topeka.\nMrs. Amelia L. Halsey, Kindergarten of Lewis\nAcademy, Wichita.\nMrs. Anna Oldfield, Private Kindergarten, Leavenworth.\nMrs. A. K. Vanghan, Private Kindergarten, Hutchinson.\nKENTUCKY.\nMiss Anna E. Bryan, Louisville.\nMrs. Laura P. Charles, Johnson School Kindergarten, Lexington.\nMrs. Mamie R. Woodruff, Parkland Kindergarten,\nParkland.\n\nMrs. Mary P. Chamberlain, Principal Gethsemane\nKindergarten, Minneapolis.\nMrs. Mary S. Clarke, St. Paul.\nMiss Isabelle C. Deming, Duluth.\nRev. E. C. Mitchell, President Free Kindergarten\nAssociation, St. Paul.\nMiss Anna Briscoe Selden, State Public School Kindergarten, Owatonna.\nIrwin Shepard, Winona.\nMISSOURI.\nMrs. S. W. Davis, Richmond.\nMiss Cynthia P. Dozier, St. Louis.\nMrs. Lillie Hammerstein, Director Charles Street\nKindergarten, St. Louis.\nMiss Mary C. McCulloch, St. Louis.\nMrs. S. S. Rector, Director Blow Kindergarten,\nSoutti St. Louis.\nMrs. Lina G. Shirley, Director Public School Kindergarten, Fourth Ward, St. Louis.\n\n"}
{"page": 345, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIST OF HONORARY\nNEBRASKA.\nMrs. Clara E. Baldwin, Private Kindergarten, Lincoln.\nMrs. Carrie M. Boutelle, Hanscom Park Kindergarten, Omaha.\nMrs. O. A. Whitman, Kindergarten Department,\nNorth Nebraska Normal College, Madison.\nNEW\n\nJERSEY.\n\nMrs. Annie Lowrie, Kindergarten Normal Training\nSchool, Newark.\nMrs. M. I. Stevens, Newton.\nMrs. Katharine Trautwetter, Public Kindergarten,\nCarl 8 tad t.\nNEW YORK.\nMrs. Alice J. C. Alcott, Port Chester.\nMrs. SophiaS. Bixby, Kindergarten of High School,\nNorwich.\nMrs. Annie C. Boardman, First Public Kindergarten, Utica.\nMiss Angeline Brooks, New York.\nMiss Hannah D. Mowry, Brooklyn.\nMrs.Educational\nEliza M. Donovan,\nKindergarten,\nWomen's\nand Industrial\nUnion, Dunkirk.\nE. C. Elder, Buffalo.\nKatharine G. Fair, Principal Port Chester Kindergarten, Port Chester.\nMiss Carolyn T. Haven, Kindergarten Workingmen's School, New York.\nMrs. Mary W. Hawley, Flatbush.\nMrs. Marie C. Dietrich Hornsby, Kindergarten of\nAdelphi Academy, Brooklyn.\nMrs. Ida M. Isdell, Kindergarten Department State\nNormal College, Albany.\nMrs. Anna J. Rock, Public Kindergarten, Niagara\nFalls.\nMr*. Antoinette Rogers, Private Kindergarten,\nWatertown.\nMiss Albany.\nOlive Smith, President Teachers' Association,\nMrs. Edith J. Wadsworth, Kindergarten of Union\nFree School, Patchogue.\nMrs. Chariot! e H. Weed, Kindergarten New York\nState Institute for the Blind. Batavia.\nMrs. Emma W. White, New York.\nMrs. Katherine Whitehead, St. Andrew's Kindergarten and Training School, Rochester.\nMrs. Mary J. B. Wylie, Buffalo.\nMrs. Kate D. Wiggin, New York.\nNORTH\n\nCAROLINA.\n\nAnna T. Jones, Private Kindergarten, Greensboro.\nMrs. O. M. Quayle, Asheville.\nOHIO.\nMrs. F. D. M. Bratten, Principal Free Training\nClass for Kindergartners, Cincinnati.\nMrs. A. E. II. Clark, Akron.\nMrs. field.\nViola R. Fox, Seminary Kindergarten, SpringMiss Mary E. Law, Froebel Kindergarten, Toledo.\nMrs. Mary S. Morgan, Principal Youngstown Free\nKindergarten, Yonngstown.\nMrs. Weltha M. Pinney, Columbus.\nMrs. Louise B. Rawson, President Day Nursery\nand Kindergarten Association, Cleveland.\nMrs. S. E. Roebuck, Lake Side.\nMrs. Mary Chandler Salisbury, Principal Cleveland\nKindergarten Training School and Kindergarten, Cleveland.\n\nVICE-PRESIDENTS.\n\n325\n\nOKLAHOMA.\nMrs. Mary R. Pollock, Osage Agency.\nOREGON.\nMrs. C. Dunlap, President Portland Free Kindergarten Association, Portland.\nPENNSYLVANIA.\nMrs. Blanche Hart, Froebel Kindergarten, AlleCity. Keau, Tyrone.\nMiss Jenniegheny E.\nMiss Constance Mackenzie, Superintendent Public\nKindergarten, Philadelphia.\nMiss Sarah A. Stewart, Philadelphia.\nMrs. M. S. Vankirk, Philadelphia.\nMrs. L. P. Wilson, Principal Private Kindergarten\nand Training Class, Altoona.\nRHODE ISLAND.\nMrs. C. M. N. Alden, Providence.\nMrs. Mary E. Bliss, Willow Street Public Kindergarten, Newport.\nMrs. Cornelia Russell Wrigbt, Kindergarten of Free\nKindergarten Association, Providence.\nTENNESSEE.\nMrs. Elizabeth H. Baker, Kindergartner in charge\nFree Kindergarten, Nashville.\nMrs. Sara E. Grigg, Principal Kindergarten King's\nDaughters, Knoxville.\nMrs. Ella M. Wheatley, Memphis.\nTEXAS.\nMrs. Janie R. Baker, Austin.\nMrs. James S. Fitzhugh, Waco.\nMiss S. Rosella Kelley, Sherman.\nMrs. Adda Woodson, Leonard.\nUTAH.\nMrs. Marion Lewis, Salt Lake City.\nVERMONT.\nMrs. Amy B. Fisk, Principal Kindergarten Training School and Kindergarten, Montpelier.\nMrs. Carrie M. Wheelock, Barre.\nVIRGINIA.\nMrs. Lizzie Anderson, Martha Washington Kindergarten, Abingdon.\nWASHINGTON.\nThe Misses Daisy and Minnie Clark, Tacoma.\nWISCONSIN.\nMrs. F. B. Dunning, Madison.\nMrs. Alpha O. Goldsmith, Milwaukee.\nMrs. Caroline C. M. Hart, Baltimore, Md.\nMrs.Milwaukee.\nMary T. Hotchkiss, All Saints' Cathedral,\nMrs. Jane Lloyd Jones, Private Kindergarten, Hillside Home School, Hillside.\nMiss Lida M. Kimball. Superior.\nMrs. Dr. Charles Ottilie, President Kindergartenverein. La Crosse.\nMrs. Sara L. Severance, East End Kindergarten,\nMiss Superior.\nNina Vandewalker, Whitewater.\n\n"}
{"page": 346, "printed_page": null, "text": "KINDERGARTEN\nINTR OD UCTORY\nBY\n\nMKS.\n\nADA\n\nM.\n\nINSTRUCTION.\nA DDRES8.\n\nHUGHES,\nOF\nTORONTO,\nONTARIO,\nKINDERGARTEN\nCONGRESS.\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nLess than half a century ago the name of the great apostle of the new\neducation was one of derision. The old man who played with the little\nchildren was called by the villagers \"the old fool.\" To-day we meet to\nhonor that name as that of the prophet of a spiritual freedom which we\nhave at last begun to realize. One of the most important of the many\ndepartments of the International Congress of Education is that of the\nconference of the followers of Froebel. In this New \"World we have seen\nthe light of that star in the east, and have followed reverently and\nearnestly to the birthplace of divine truth and divine childhood, and seek\nfor more light and clearer insight. To-day we hold out both hands in\nwelcome to all who gather here. It is a great joy to take the hand of those\nwho have known the immediate followers of the great apostle — those who\nhave wandered through the same paths in the fields, rested under the same\nskies, been surrounded by the same associations and local experiences. We\nsay to them : Tell us of the everyday life and words of the master, that we\nmay feel more deeply the inner life from which this great truth sprang\ninto material expression.\nTo those who have come from across the sea, who speak the same\nlanguage as ourselves, as well as- to those of other tongues, we extend the\nwelcome of members of one family, to sisters and brothers, separate in\nspace, different in customs, but one in spirit and desire. We pray that\nthis conference shall be a season like Pentecost of old, when each, whether\nof our own land or the dweller beyond the sea, shall hear iu his own language the things of the living spirit.\nOur German friends say of us in this country that we do not run or leap,\nwe simply fly, and therefore we are in danger of losing sight of the solid\nfoundation on which all permanent building must be based. We acknowledge our danger, and say, Give to us of your insight, and your wealth of\npersonal expression of the great apostle, that our rapid action may still be\nrapid, and at the same time safe, because we have material landmarks to\nguide us. Mothers and little ones love the Mutter und Rose Lieder, but\nfew educational people have felt all its marvelous power, or seen it as the\nwonderful interpretation of child growth and instructive mother-love.\n\n"}
{"page": 347, "printed_page": null, "text": "READING\n\nAND\n\nWRITING\n\nIN THE\n\nKINDERGARTEN.\n\n327\n\nHis education of man has given wonderful insight into the growth of\nbeing as a whole, but it is in his personal letters to mothers and dear\nfriends that we seem to come closer to the personality of the man.\n\"We have given the kindergarten a hearty welcome in this broad republic ;\nand, as our foreign friends say, our progress in the last five years has been\nthat of flight rather than touching earth. Obstacles vanish before us;\nfriends receive the kindergarten with open arms ; enemies and doubters\nare reconciled and believe. The truth does make us free, and we need the\nstrong, sure balance of insight into the eternal truth of principle to steady\nour movement and calm our enthusiasm, to keep us united in a conscious\nexpression of that foundation truth — the highest unity is that of unity in\nvariety.\n\nSHALL\n\nREADINGBY\n\nAND WRITING\nBE\nKINDER GA R TEN ?\nMRS.\n\nALICE\n\nH.\n\nPUTNAM,\n\nTAUGHT\n\nIN THE\n\nCHICAGO.\n\nWhile the word \" growth \" is the watchword now passing along the\nline of development from the nursery to the university, the fact that there\nare definite stages of growth, definite periods of life in which man may do\ncertain things — nay, must work out certain problems which he cannot solve\nso well at any other time — is a fact not so fairly recognized.\nThe tools of the kindergarten, its games, gifts, and occupations, we all\nknow are the means of growth at this stage ; and it must be remembered\nthat, while opening the doors of the child's mind to that which is external\nto him, they offer a theater for action or expression in which each child\nplays a leading part. Every sense is to be exercised and brought into relation with every other sense, for upon clear sense perception will depend\nthe clear concept which will be imperiously demanded in the later stages\nof growth.\nWhatever is arbitrary and conventional has a tendency to check rather\nthan further this development. Reading and writing can never open up\nthe young child's heart and mind to these truths as do nature's symbols,\nfor even to the youngest child nature's truths are universal truths ; they\nare always true to themselves, and their relationships stand out boldly.\nAgain, when the child gains thought from words, it is not his own thought\nin the sense that his use of typical objects is his. His discoveries of form,\nposition, color, etc., are his experimentally. With the word he has had\nnothing to do ; it can bring him no message of the past, for, as has been\nsaid, to this child there is no past. He can use the word only along one\nline, while in the other case he is reaching out and applying successfully\nto all objects the elementary attributes gained from the one object.\n\n"}
{"page": 348, "printed_page": null, "text": "328\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nWe shall never have clear, strong thinking in the boys and girls in our\nschoolrooms until we have given them materials to make thought of.\nWords do not feed the whole being of the child ; and if this entity is not\nrightly nourished, the youth and maiden will find, when the day of reckoning comes, that the bank account has been overdrawn.\nIt is a common thing to hear parents say : \"I want my child to learn to\nread early, so that he can amuse himself.\" I wonder if they realize what\nit means, in this day, to keep this reading wholesome ! Do you know how\na child who loves to read devours everything that comes in his way ? His\ntaste for good reading is often vitiated before we realize it. It is of vital\nimportance, therefore, that our children have their eyes opened to nature\nand true art, that there may be some standard within by which to measure the value of what is brought to them in books.\nSo we return to the thought, as all of this experimental nature-study\ntakes time, that in the first seven years plastic material shall be given\nthrough which the child can store up a fund of sense impressions — a power\nof imagination without which later study will be but an effort to make\n\"bricks without straw.\"\nWhen the page is turned, and the child passes on to a stage in which\nthe love of knowing, of investigating, is the ruling desire, we find the conventional symbols of written language a most helpful means of growth,\nand it is at this time that the art of reading can be acquired most readily.\nThere is testimony enough to substantiate the claim that the child\ntrained in the kindergarten loses no time, but rather gains a strength that\nwords can never bring to him if they are presented too soon. I know perfectly well that children can be taught, and easily taught, to read at the\nage of three or four years. That is not the question, but rather, What\nhas been gained by the process ? I believe, nothing, for it only induces\nan earlier habit of thinking other people's thoughts instead of our own,\nwhen, at this age, our children need to be gathering first-hand the materials for thought.\n\nCHANGES\nBY\n\nIN KINDERGARTEN\nMISS\n\nSARAH\n\nA. STEWART,\n\nPLAYS\n\nAND\n\nPHILADELPHIA,\n\nGAMES.\nPA.\n\n(1) Should plays and games which Froebel invented be modified ?\n(2) Should substitutions be made for any of them ?\n(3) Should others be added ?\n\nFroebel was the first of the great educational innovators to base systematic development upon the spontaneous activity of the child. Educators of all times had acted upon the theory that suppression of physical\nactivity was a necessary condition of mental growth.\nThe instinct for\n\n"}
{"page": 349, "printed_page": null, "text": "CHANGES\n\nIN KINDERGARTEN\n\nPLA TS AND\n\nGAMES.\n\n329\n\nplay, which allies the child to the young of all animals, was held to be an\nobstacle which must be overcome before there could be any spiritual and\nmental advance. Asceticism had done its work so completely in education that this primal law of childhood was in danger of effacement. To\njize upon this rejected life principle and make it the corner-stone of a\nnew education was the work of genius.\nA real distinction may be made between plays and games, although\nthe terms are often used synonymously ; no hard and fast lines can be\ndrawn between them. We shall take the first to mean all the undirected\nmovements of children which come from their rich endowment in spontaneous activity. In the kindergarten it shows itself in imitative play and\nwork. Froebel early recognized this law, and to him alone is due the\nhonor of inventing an abundant amount of material by which the native\ninstincts of children for activity may be satisfied. The twenty gifts and\noccupations furnish a means for organized development, and serve to give an\neducative direction to the child's faculties and powers. On the playground\nthe instinct for play shows itself in imitative actions, trials of strength\nand skill which minister to the early and simple emotion — love of power.\nGames are an outgrowth from this early stage, and the child delights in\nthem when the intellectual powers are developed sufficiently to direct spontaneous activity by well-established rules, and when an element of pleasure\nis added from the altruistic side, by comparison and competition with\nothers. Both plays and games are an expression of the law of motion —\nthe initial starting-point and measure of life.\nFroebel makes this development begin with the child in the cradle.\nThe simple plays and exercises which the mother carries on with the\nchild are types of a whole line of activities (pleasant) given for the healthful and graceful development of the body. They are designed to show\nthe spirit and method with which all early plays should be conducted,\nrather than as finished products to be imitated and reproduced by all\nmothers under all circumstances.\nA careful analysis of the games given by Froebel shows that they are\nbased upon fundamental principles, and with modifications may have universal application. He never makes the mistake of taking a purely local\nor unworthy subject. Every child needs to be taught the value of time ;\nhis clock game and song typify this, but do not limit to those particular\nwords and actions.\nIt is essential that the child be taught to recognize the great law of\nchange through that which he best understands, but is not necessary that\nthis be illustrated in the especial way in which Froebel makes the type\nmother teach the game. Whatever a child imitates he begins to understand ;so Froebel makes games to call attention to the various activities\nof animal life. The bird games, the barnyard, the lizard, and the fishes,\nmirror the life which is nearest to the child, and become an inspiration\n\n"}
{"page": 350, "printed_page": null, "text": "330\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nto later and wider study. It is significant that in the animal games\nwhich Froebel gives he presents types of the three kingdoms — earth, air,\nand water — and so suggests unity and completeness.\nThe model for the teacher is evident. The lizard game played by the\nchildren in Froebel's kindergarten in the dear, sleepy old German village,\nwith a brook running through it, with lizards basking upon its banks,\nbecomes a type game for illustrating a method by sympathetically representing the life which is nearest the child. The teacher in St. Mary's\nStreet (our type street for the slums) would make a mistake if she teaches\nthe game as it is simply because she finds it in Froebel's collection. She\nwould be nearer to his teaching if she should take the grimy child who\nfloats his miniature ship, represented by a chip, its rich cargo represented\nby bits of paper, on the surface water of the gutter, and substitute for\nhim, for example, Mrs. Ormiston Chant's beautiful game, written with no\nless loving insight into child life, \"Here we float in our golden boat, far\naway, far away.\" The judicious teacher could float the child out of the\nuncanny world in which he finds himself, into a truer conception of the\nlife outside — the river, the ocean life ; or, to put it in the more beautiful\nlanguage of Froebel : \"The play and playing of the child must be in\nharmony with his surrounding, through outward things his inner life to\nrouse, to strengthen power and mind, and lead the child to trace inner\nmeanings in the outer face. \"\nFroebel remembers also that the child is a child of man ; that he must\nbe linked in sympathy and understanding with the industrial activities of\nlife ; he presents the most primeval ones, or those which stand closest to\nhuman needs — the farmer, the carpenter, the miller. Other industries\nmay stand nearer to some children. Those should be taken which begin\nwhere they are and lead out directly into related life.\nThe family, the source of all that is highest and best in human relations,\nis typified in the finger games.' The highest moral attributes are personified in the game of the \"Knights and the Good Child,\" while the evil is\nmade unlovely in the same graphic way.\nAs in the childhood of the race religious teaching is represented by the\ndrama, so by plays and games Froebel voices aspiration in that direction,\nand teaches universal truths in this most pleasant form. He does not\nforget the artistic longings of the child, as shown in the game of the\npiano ; and he awakens the creative activity and aesthetic sense in the\ngame of the little artist. From his deep sympathy with childhood he\ntouches every spring of its nature, and seeks to put it in touch with every\ndepartment of surrounding life. In this way he gives us an inspiration\nand a method, while leaving the details to be modified or changed as the\nexternal surroundings and the inner needs of the children suggest. It is\nthe spirit, not the form, that is important. It is the subject matter and\nits relationships that he would emphasize.\nThe accidental or unimpor-\n\n"}
{"page": 351, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE\n\nSONG\n\nIN THE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\n331\n\ntant drop out, or do not appear in his category. He has a strong grasp\nof the essentials, and presents them in their unity ; in short, he attempts\na comprehensive scheme of human development. How nearly one can\nfollow him, will depend upon how nearly one can put himself upon the\nsame plane of mental and moral achievement.\nMany new and excellent plays and games have been invented since the\ntime of Froebel ; these have followed very closely the lines laid down in\nhis works. They have been substituted with great advantage for some of\nhis. New ones have been invented to suit our new conditions, and with\n\na musical setting entirely in harmony with sound principles, although differing from FroebeFs. But the constant tendency is to make the exercises\ntoo difficult, and to lose the spirit of play in the outward form. The\nthought of the teacher is too often superimposed upon the child, and aimless, unfruitful results follow. New games are multiplied, with the hope\nof creating more interest and life, until often the unnatural and grotesque\ntake the place of early simplicity and power.\nCompetition among kindergartners for something new and different from\nothers often leads far astray from sound principles. The inability of the\naverage mature mind to see things from the child's point of view, and\nthe constant overlapping of methods of physical culture suitable for older\nchildren, makes it very difficult to attain and retain the standard set by\nFroebel. Other kindergartens neglect the plays and games for what they\nare pleased to call work, from purely conscientious motives. Their inability to sympathize with and express childish conceptions leads them to\ncling to parts of the kindergarten exercises that they can do best. Most\nkindergartens are noted for some one thing, which is practiced to the\ndetriment of others ; and this not so much from ignorance or lack of\nconscience as from a lack of power.\nHow is all this to be remedied ?\nWith a large class of us — by being born again. With another large\nclass — by training.\nWe have already plays and games sufficient. The something new must\nbe looked for from within, from the soul of the teacher and the child,\nrather than from the modification, substitution, or elimination of outward\nforms.\n\nTHE SONG IN THE KINDERGARTEN— ITS PLACE,\nVALUE, AND\nTHE DRAMATIC ELEMENT.\nBY\n\nMISS\n\nCONSTANCE\n\nMACKENZIE, DIRECTOR\nPHILADELPHIA.\n\nOF PUBLIC\n\nKINDERGARTENS,\n\nThe song seems to claim a place for itself in every nook and corner of\nthe kindergarten. It is appropriate almost everywhere. It welcomes the\nchildren into the morning ring, and accompanies, with delightful fresh-\n\n"}
{"page": 352, "printed_page": null, "text": "332\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nness, the subject of the morning talk. It leads them in the march and\nthrough the games, and follows them to the tables. It introduces the gift\nand closes it. It brightens and lightens the occupation, making the informal busy time a glad union of voice and finger exercise. And its last\nfriendly strain dies away only as the kindergarten is left empty of children\nat the session's ending. Other reasons aside, its place is assured because\nthe children love to sing, and this love of song in childhood leads me\ndirectly to the question : What is the value of the song in the kindergarten ?\nTo start with reasons physical for the value of the kindergarten song,\nwe may draw attention to the chest development induced by good singing.\nTo achieve its best results, the physical training of young children should\npossess an interest to them entirely outside of the development of the\nbody. Gymnastics, as such, have no place in the kindergarten. In the\nsong this condition of good physical training is met to the extent of the\nsong's possibility. The child learns to sit and stand with back straight\nand shoulders well back, not formally, but with the understanding that it\nis the song's requirement and preamble. The action at once tends to\nbroaden and elevate the chest. So, also, does the habit of deep breathing which, as the children learn to sing well, they unconsciously adopt.\nThere, too, is the development of the voice — a result not alone of depth of\nchest, but also of the interest of the children in interpreting the sentiments of the song-story. And the children's interest in the story and the\ndelight in the music form the foundation of all that is valuable in their\nsinging.\nThere are reasons manifold for the value of the song in the kindergarten from the point of view of the child's unfolding intelligence. The\nsong offers one of the most attractive means of emphasizing all that is\nreceived through the talk, story, game, gift, occupation. It is an evervarying, ever-pleasing repetition of the child's knowledge, and an always\npopular means of following up new experiences. The rhyming, measured\nlanguage impresses itself upon the childish mind as prose can seldom do.\nIt is to him the language form most readily retained and most delighted\nin. It is, furthermore, when chosen as it should be chosen, with a due\nregard for its literary and artistic value, for the most fitting and the most\nexquisite in wording and music, a means of training in fine taste surpassed\nin opportunity by nothing else in the kindergarten.\nThe child who has learned to appreciate beauty of word-language and\nof tone-language is, to the extent of his appreciation, both a poet and a\nmusician, and in being both or either he is intellectually greater and\nmorally greater than he was before the unfolding in him of the aesthetic\nsense. Bad music and paltry rhyme are dying out of our kindergarten\nsong-books. It is hardly possible nowadays to hear, as I have heard, of\nMary's lamb, that he —\n\n"}
{"page": 353, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE\n\nSONG\n\nIN THE\n\nKINDERGARTEN.\n\n333\n\n\" Waited patientfee about,\nLee about, lee about,\"\nin order to accommodate words, poor enough in themselves, to worse\nmusic. Moreover, the good song offers to the child a standard of expression in language and music especially valuable while he stands on the\nthreshold of expressive power, and is then permanently impressed by the\nearliest examples brought to his notice.\nThe chief and inestimable value of the song lies not, however, in the\nphysical or in the intellectual, but in the moral training it affords. The\nsong is the uplifting of the spirit. Its effects are as various as the everchanging childish moods. Well and judiciously used, it is a means in the\nhands of the kindergartner of creating moods. Harmful influences may\nbe confronted and overcome, good ones strengthened, by the right song in\nthe right place, sung as it should be sung. Weariness and irritation are\nchanged into a sense of peace by the introduction, without preface or preparation, of a soothing song without action. Dullness and heaviness may\nbe dissipated by an unexpected dash into a stirring bit of music. And\nmany are the quietly pointed morals, not too evident, but sinking all the\ndeeper because undisturbed by direct allusion, of which the song becomes\nthe happy vehicle.\nMusic is, as we know, essentially an appeal to feeling, and when we wed\nfitting words to fitting melody, so that between the motive of the one and\nthe motive of the other there shall be no discrepancy, we shall have laid a\ndirect avenue of approach to the child's sympathies, to his better and\nmore refined instincts. The road to reverence lies through the feeling,\nand to it the song leads the way. It winds by way of sympathy and\nrespect for the lower forms of life, lifting itself up to a tenderness for the\nhuman in life ; and in and through the human it sees and reaches the\ndivine. Take a song like the following to observe how a child's reverential feeling is first stirred :\n\" The alder by the river shakes out her powdery curls ;\nThe willow buds in silver for little boys and girls ;\nThe little birds fly over, and oh ! how sweet they sing,\nTo tell the happy children that once again 'tis spring.\"\nWhen a child shall have learned to feel the sentiment in such a bit of\nmusical poetry, and to recognize a loving relationship between himself and\nthe alder, the willow buds, and the little birds ; when he shall have begun\nto stretch out in friendly greeting to things and people not himself, he\nwill have taken the first step in religion. And as he keeps on singing the\nsong again and again, and adds others of the same uplifting tendency,\nwith music that also elevates, the sentiment of reverence deepens and\nwidens until, by and by, it embraces all that he can know of what is true\nand good and beautiful.\n\n"}
{"page": 354, "printed_page": null, "text": "334\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nThe answer to the question as to how far the dramatic element should\nenter into the song can be broadly stated in three propositions :\nThe subdued song, with the thought turned inward, should be sung\nwithout further action than may be expressed by undisturbed attitude ; as\nin the \" Winter Prayer\" :\n\" Loving Friend, oh, hear our prayer !\nTake unto Thy tender care\nAll the leaves and flowers that sleep\nIn their wliite beds covered deep ;\nShelter from the wintry storm\nAll thy snow-birds ; keep them warm.'*\n\nHere the only unforced action is the lifting of the head in appeal. If\nfurther gesture be introduced, such as an imitation of the movement of\nthe storm, or of the covering over of the flowers, the simplicity and unity\nof the song is marred ; the thought is distributed among the objects for\nwhich the appeal is made instead of being centered upon the One appealed\nto, and the intended effect of the little hymn is destroyed.\nThe song that tends to project thought outward, the song of joyous,\nleaping action, needs action in its expression ; as in the well-known bluebird song :\n\" I know the song that the bluebird is singing\nUp in the apple-tree where he is swinging.\nBrave little fellow ! The skies may look dreary ;\nNothing cares he while his heart is so cheery.\nHark ! How the music leaps out of his throat !\nHark ! Was there ever so merry a note ?\nListen a while, and you'll hear what he's saying\nUp in the apple-tree, swinging and swaying ! \"\n\nIn such a song as that, the child is living among things external ; \" up\nin the apple-tree\" lifts his hand with it. The listening attitude of the\nhand to the ear, or the finger lifted and the head turned, are almost\ninstinctive, and the cradling movement, in time to the music, goes by\nitself as the bird tips the branch. The charm of the words, the swing of\nthe rhythm, the catch of the music set him \"swinging and swaying\"\nuntil he is a bit of nature, at one with the rapture of the outburst of song.\nIf we here separate gesture so instinctive from the singing, we check the\nchild and spoil the song. It is in songs of such character that children\nmost naturally select their own form of action, because they feel it so\nkeenly in the blood. Let them choose. Encourage choice, and adopt\nthe best they propose.\nSongs requiring movement so violent as to interfere with natural\nbreathing action should be acted out only by those of the children who\nare not singing. This proposition should be laid down as a principle.\nThere are many songs which in their suggestiveness call for quite violent\n\n"}
{"page": 355, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE\n\nSONG\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN.\n\n335\n\nmovement; movement delightful to the children, and of great physical\nvalue. Such gestures may be employed by half of the class as a sort of\na Greek chorus, illustrating objectively the story told in the song. In no\nother way is violent gesture for a moment to be considered, unless one\nwould counteract all physical benefit derived from the act of singing.\nEvery song, no matter how classified, calls for interpretation through\nthe movement of the muscles of the face. The intention of the song\nshould transfuse the countenance of the child ; its very spirit must shine\nthrough his eyes. But this expression is pernicious in the extreme if it\nbe ''put on.\" The song-story and the music must be felt, or it ought\nnot to be used at all ; for unfelt expression is utterly false and artificial.\n\" Thanks to the sunshine,\nThanks to the rain,\nLittle White Lily is happy again,\"\n\nsing the children. It will not do to say to one dismal-faced little songster, \"James, look happy.\" One cannot look happy to order; not honestly happy. And with feeling of any kind that is not honest we want\nnothing to do. But if one says for the class generally, for James to hear :\n\" I can see that Mary is a happy little lily ; see how her face shines,\" then\nJames forgets himself, ceases to be a child, and enters wholly into the\nfresh gladness of the flower. And at once the feeling will show in\nhis face.\nWhile care should be taken that no song that does not suggest action\nshould have action thrust upon it, one should be equally observant not to\ndiscard gesture which the very nature of the song almost compels. I have\nheard singing rendered lame and lagging, because the kindergartner\nmissed the impulse in it, of striving to push outward into action. A suggestion from her would have animated the singers and have wakened the\nsong into life.\nFinally, I would urge that, be the song what it may, no gesture be\npermitted that does not mean something, that does not add to the song's\nvalue as a means of expression, and that is not natural. I have seen\nsongs so crowded with movement that not one gesture could be clearly\nand definitely finished. I have seen songs marred by gesture which would\nhave been tenfold more effective had they been sung quietly, without\naction, as both words and music demanded. And I have seen songs made\nridiculous by misfitting everyday words to gestures that the child would\nnever use in like connection in everyday life ; as in some of the songs of\ngreeting and of farewell :\n\" Good-by, happy work ;\nGood-by, happy play ! \"\n\n— with both hands outward thrown as each good-by was said, in farcical\nexaggeration of expression.\n\n"}
{"page": 356, "printed_page": null, "text": "336\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nI have hardly begun to plead the cause of the song in the kindergarten,\nbut it needs no special pleader. Other things have their place, but the\nsong belongs to all times and places ; and at every time and in every place\nit has its special bundred-sided value. It is the very breath of the kindergarten. And it behooves us all to see to it that our children breathe in\nonly the fresh, pure air of the best we have in song.\n\nTHE\n\nORGANIC\nBY\n\nMES.\n\nUNION OF KINDERGARTEN\nPRIMARY SCHOOL.\nSAEAH\n\nB.\n\nCOOPEE, OP\n\nSAN\n\nAND\n\nPEANCISCO.\n\nI must confine myself to twenty minutes, at the outside. I desire to\noccupy but fifteen, leaving every possible moment for discussion ; for\ndiscussion stirs the soil around the roots of truth and gives it a vigorous\ngrowth.\nLet us go straight to the heart of the matter.\n\" We learn through doing\" — that is the foundation principle on which\nthe kindergarten rests. The highest type of humanity which education\ncan produce is reached by the equal and simultaneous growth of every\nfaculty. The kindergarten provides for the nourishment of every faculty\nin its earliest stage, on the ground that all are essential to a perfect growth.\nThe epochs of educational growth follow the divinely ordained epochs of\nvegetable growth ; there is the root-life, the stem -life, and the blossom\nlife. That the blossom will depend very largely upon the care and nurture\ngiven to the root, no one will deny. So, then, the germs of every faculty\nmust have their appropriate nourishment at the earliest possible point of\ntime, and there must be, also, simultaneous growth. True growth is the\nequal and constantly increasing development of every faculty. That is\nnot genuine growth which is developed only on one side ; that is a bulging and misshapen condition. In order to proper growth there must be\nfreedom, coupled with obedience to the innate laws of life and being —\nexactly as it is in the vegetable kingdom. The child must learn to use\nhis mental powers as he has learned to use his bodily powers, by patient,\npersistent training and effort ; he must use his faculties as he does his\nlimbs. He must learn to climb the stairs of mental and moral difficulty\nas he learns to climb the household stairs. The art of training precedes\nthe art of teaching. The pressing curriculum of daily school life leaves\nscanty time for this gradual development of all the faculties of a little\nchild. I do not believe that we begin to understand what is included in\nthat expression, \"all the faculties of a little child.\"\nI believe, dear friends, there is avast range of \"unmapped country\"\nwithin us awaiting discovery ; a vast domain of unexplored territory, as\nyet unpreempted and uncultivated, toward which the eye of Frederick\n\n"}
{"page": 357, "printed_page": null, "text": "1RGANIG\n\nUNION\n\nOF KINDERGARTEN\n\nAND\n\nPRIMARY\n\nSCHOOL.\n\n337\n\niYoebel, that great educational Columbus, was directed with a clear,\n3teady, and divining gaze. He was the discoverer of childhood. He saw\nwith true spiritual insight what eternal continents of truth, what priceless\nstores of hidden-away possibilities there are in the human mind. He saw\nthe rich loam of faculty, needing only the clearing away of underbrush\nmd briers, the letting in of soft sunlight and gentle showers, to beckon\nforth the sleeping germs. Frederick Froebel saw it all with prophetic\nclearness of vision, and having consecrated himself to the heaven-inspired\ni^ork while he lived, with a perfect faith in its ultimate triumph, he bade\nbrave farewell to the few true friends who stood by him in his work,\nmowing that \" what is excellent, as God lives, is permanent.\" And so it\nlas proved ; for to-day the great educational principles which he discovered\nmd laid down are going forth in every direction, conquering and to conquer. The kindergarten is his enduring monument. As Dr. William T.\n[arris says of it : \"'The kindergarten is the grandest system of education\njver devised by man.\"\nThe kindergarten concerns itself more with the development of faculty\nthan with the mere imparting of knowledge. It recognizes the fact that\ntrue education is learning transformed to faculty. It does not ask so\nmch, \"What does the child know?\" as \"Has the child learned how\nto learn ? \" It looks less to mere acquirements than to the capacity to\nicquire. It is teaching the little child to teach himself. It is controlling\nthe little child that he may learn the art of self-control. It is the aim of\nthe kindergarten to make men and women who will be self-governing,\nand thus be a law unto themselves ; the sovereign of their own faculties, the pope of their own senses ; men and women who will succeed\nby their own skill and industry. The education of the future must\nlevelop the industrial capacity of the masses. Cultivate the powers for\n3reating and organizing, and then the desire for doing and accomplishing\nwill take the place of the insatiable desire for having and getting.\nHow is this education to be accomplished ? The kindergarten winnows\n>ut the faculties and gives them scope. It gives the boy a chance to\nshoose his work according to his faculty. Every human being is a\nrolume worthy to be studied. Huxley says: \"If the nation could\njurchase a potential Davy, Watt, or Faraday at a cost of a hundred\nthousand pounds down, he would be dirt cheap at the money.\" This\nwork of finding out what is in the child must be begun just as early in\nlife as possible. Practice should go hand in hand with theory from the\nrery start. In the first place, the kindergarten looks vigilantly after the\nmvsical life ; this is the substratum, the soil out of which all other life\nmust spring. Physical integrity is the very first condition of success\nand happiness. \" On the broad and firm foundation of health alone can\nthe loftiest and most enduring structure of life be reared.\" One definition of a man is : \"An intelligence served by organs\" ; and to serve him\n22\n\n"}
{"page": 358, "printed_page": null, "text": "338\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nwell these organs must be in good repair. A sound body is the best\nhandmaid to a sound intellect. In the consentaneous cultivation of the\nphysical, the mental, and the moral, the highest perfection is to be found.\nThere must be a balanced progress in which no part profits or is fostered\nto the injury of the rest. Herbert Spencer insists that to develop the\nphysical, play is better than gymnastics. The kindergarten in its work\nwith little children has been called \"organized play.\" Frederick Froebel\nsaw that this universal instinct for play in little children had a deep\nmeaning, and he set himself to discover and utilize this mighty enginery\nof power and purpose.\nThe kindergarten is the best agency for setting in motion the physical,\nmental, and moral machinery of the little child, that it may do its own\nwork in its own way. It is the rain and dew and sun to evoke the sleeping\ngerm and bring it into self-activity and growth. It is teaching the little\nchild to teach himself. The kindergarten devotes itself more to ideas than\nto words ; more to things than to books. Children are taught words too\nmuch, while they fail to catch ideas. Give a child ideas. The world does\nnot need fine rhetoric — valuable as that is — half as much as it needs practical, useful ideas. A famous inventor's counsel to a young man was :\n\" Study to have ideas, my boy ; study to have ideas. I have always found\nif I had an idea I could express it on a shingle with a piece of chalk and\nlet a draughtsman work it out handsomely and according to rule. I generally had ideas enough to keep three or four draughtsmen busy. You\ncan always hire draughtsmen, but you cannot hire ideas. Study to have\nideas, my boy/' The man should be the master, not the slave, of his\nlearning, and whether he is the one or the other depends very largely on\nthe way his knowledge has been gained. It is better to be the master of\na little knowledge, with the capacity to use it creatively, than to be the\nunproductive carrier of all the learning in the libraries. Study to have\nideas! Life will give no end of opportunities for using them. That is\nexactly the aim of the kindergarten — to make the mind creative, to stimulate thought, to beget ideas. Habits of observation are cultivated. Observing is more than seeing. The child in the kindergarten is taught to\nobserve — that is, to notice with attention, to see truly. What he learns\nin the schoolroom is calculated to make him keep his eyes wide open to\nthe world about him.\nHe is taught to think, and that is the primal thing.\nOne of the most noted among the disciples of the great Froebel — Miss\nEmily Shirreff, of London — says : \" The poor man suffers wrong when his\neducation is so defective that he cannot use his faculties aright; when his\nsenses are blunted, his observation and judgment insecure. This wrong\nto the poor may be avoided by early methodical training in the kindergarten, thus fitting him for industrial pursuits. As it is now,\" she goes on to\nsay, \"when boys and girls leave school to go to some trade, they go with\nhands and eyes absolutely uncultivated.\nThey begin with clumsy fingers,\n\n"}
{"page": 359, "printed_page": null, "text": "ORGANIC\n\nUNION\n\nOF KINDERGARTEN\n\nAND\n\nr RIM ART\n\nSCHOOL.\n\n339\n\nwith that untrue habit of vision which belongs to those who have never\nlearned the difference between accurate and inaccurate impressions. Suppose these children had been first trained in the kindergarten, taught\nthere to observe resemblances and differences of forms and colors, to reproduce accurately what they have observed accurately, to have acquired a\ncertain sureness and delicacy of handling, which would be further cultivated by drawing at school — then these boys and girls would enter an\nindustrial apprenticeship, or any technical school, in a very different condition. They would be able to grapple at once with ordinary difficulties,\ninstead of beginning the education of their hands and senses, and would in\nconsequence reach much sooner the degree of proficiency that insures payment for work. When we withhold this cultivation of the senses and of\nmanual dexterity, we actually maim children in the use of some of the\nmost important faculties ; we rob them of what nature designed for them.\"\nIt is a fact that too little thought is given to boys and girls who upon\nleaving school will enter industrial ranks. Too large a share of training\nis paid to mere intellectual development, too little to practical morality\nand manual training. It is charged by some that our public schools tend\nto unfit our boys and girls for good, honest work. Is the charge true ? I\ndo not believe it is. It ought not to be so.\nA thoughtful observer and educator wisely says that four years of study\nwithout labor, wholly removed from sympathy with the laboring world\nduring the period of life when tastes and habits are rapidly formed, will\nalmost inevitably produce disinclination if not inability to perform the\nwork and duties of the shop or farm. There must be something wrong\nwhere such a feeling exists. It is not necessary to be a drudge in order to\nbe a workman. The kindergarten ennobles toil. It teaches the little child\nto work with his hand, but to control his work with his head. Let this\npurpose and spirit pervade industrial education until the child reaches to\nmanhood's estate, and his labor will be full, not only of manly quality but\nof moral quality as well. The coordination of the workshop and the\nschoolhouse would be the emancipation of labor from present prejudices.\nLet all the children, rich and poor, have a chance to make the most of\nthemselves ! Democracy means equitable opportunity. Liberty of growth\nand equality at the start is the law of all true democratic life. That is\nthe glory of our common schools. And we could better afford to lose\nevery college and university in the land than to lose our free common\nschools. The rich boy and the poor boy stand on a common level in the\npublic school. If the rich man's lazy boy will not study, he must stand\nbelow the poor man's studious boy, and that is all there is of it. The\npublic school is a germinant republic where all altitudes and elevations\nare brought down to a common starting-point, and where the word of\ncommand goes forth : \"Now, boys, your feet must all stand on a common level, but you may shoot your heads just as high as you please.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 360, "printed_page": null, "text": "340\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nLet us fit the young for the work of life ! Let ns equip them for maintaining themselves in honest independence ! I rejoice in the fact that\nprivate beneficence is doing so much in this direction. I have been studying\nthe great work just about to be opened here in Chicago under the splendid\nbeneficence of Philip D. Armour. I refer to that grandly equipped Technical Institute, built from the foundation on the kindergarten, just as\nevery technical school should be ; for the kindergarten is the only true\nfoundation for the arts and trades. Wealth thus used is the poor man's\nprovidence. Wealth thus used keeps healthy, and it keeps the community\nhealthy. Let us see if this is not so. What has been found in regard to\nseveral thousand prison convicts in two of the largest penitentiaries of the\nEast ? The great, salient, flaming fact is not that they cannot read and\nwrite ; not that they had not been to Sunday-school ; not that they were\nintemperate ; but the most common, the most generic fact is that these\nconvicts know no trade, most of them being entirely ignorant of all trade\nknowledge. Few if any of our large cities have ever expended a dollar to\nteach a boy a trade.\nHow much does it cost for criminals ?\nThen, again, it has been carefully estimated that seven-tenths of the\nconvicted criminals of the United States are persons who have never\nlearned a trade or followed any industrial pursuit, and a very large proportion of these criminals are under twenty-five years of age. What a\nsuggestive fact ! Does not public economy demand that something be\ndone to provide facilities for teaching the young industrial pursuits ?\nThey cannot become mechanics without the opportunities for learning\nhandcraft ; and the training of the hand, as well as of the head and heart,\nshould be begun in earliest years.\nIdleness is the devil's workshop. Children are not depraved. They\nneed wise care and training. The prevention of crime is the duty of\nsociety. Society has no right to punish crime at one end if it does\nnothing to prevent it at the other end. Society's chief concern should be\nto remove the causes from which crime springs. We may be very eloquent\nin pleading that punishments may be quick, sharp, and decisive ; that the\ngallows may have every victim that it claims by law, and that eternal\nvigilance may be kept on evil-doers.\nBut all this will not avail.\nRuskin says truly : \"Crime cannot be hindered by punishment. It will\nalways find some shape and outlet unpunishable and unclosed. Crime\ncan only be truly hindered by letting' no boy grow up to be a criminal ;\nby taking away the will to commit sin, not by the mere punishment of\nits commission. Formation, not reformation, should be the watchword.\nCrime, small and great, can only be stayed by formation — education ; not\nthe education of the intellect merely, but the education of the head,\nheart, and hand, which is the education of the whole man.\" We may\nmake laws and constitutions on paper, but character is a growth, and to\nall growth belongs the element of time.\nLet the kindergarten become an\n\n"}
{"page": 361, "printed_page": null, "text": "ORGANIC\n\nUNION OF KINDERGARTEN\n\nAND PRIMARY\n\nSCHOOL.\n\n341\n\nH-ganic part of the public school system. Get hold of the children that\nro to make up our criminals at the earliest possible moment. (Out of\nline thousand trained in our free kindergartens in San Francisco, we\nfound only one arrest.) Read the testimony of one of our oldest and most\n3xperienced primary teachers in San Francisco. Superintendent Swett,\nin his last annual report, says :\n\" The training received in the free kindergarten schools is having a marked effect on\nthe children that enter the receiving classes of the public schools.\nI asked Miss Agnes\ntanning, principal of the Webster School, one of the largest primary schools in the\n2ity, to give me a written opinion on this point, and received the following statement ■\nSuperintend knt Swett.\nDear Sir : I wish to tell you why I am so strongly in favor of kindergartens.\nMy school is in a crowded neighborhood. I have many children from tenementhouses, and from the narrow streets south of Market Street.\nBefore the days of the kindergarten these children, as soon as they could crawl, spent\ntheir waking lives on the sidewalks. From the age of two to six years they pursued\nthe education of the street. The consequences were that at six they came to us with a\nfund of information of the worst description, and a vocabulary that might excite the\nenvy of the Barbary coast.\nAt the commencement of each new year they tumbled over each other in their rude\nhaste to take up the unexplored life of a school. They were in tens, fifties, hundreds,\nin our yards. The novelty being past, the hard struggle commenced of keeping them\nfrom joining the army of truants, and leading them into habits of work and cleanliness.\nWhen I made my appearance it was the signal for such asides as, ' Cheese it ! ' ' Lie\nlow ! ' ' Here's the boss, kids ! '\nA freckle-faced, blue-eyed, innocent-looking boy would shock and astound us by\nswearing as roundly as a Nevada mule-driver. He had four years of street training,\nand it was uphill work to uproot the ill weeds so rankly sown, and a slow task cultivating adifferent and better crop.\nThe kindergartens have changed all this. They have taken the babies that used to\nbe consigned to the curbstone, trained and guided them along a path of development.\nThey have wisely attempted no cramming of the infant brain with premature scholarship. They have surrounded the young lives with a fresh atmosphere. They have\npassed the hours in pleasant games, taught a purer language, and led the little feet\ninto a new civilization.\nThe children of tenement-houses and narrow streets still come in tens, fifties, and\nhundreds to begin life in a new school at the beginning of each school year. I hear\nno more, however, the wild phrases of the Barbary coast, or the mule-drivers' oaths.\nThe little ones are clean, self-respecting, eager for knowledge. They have opinions of\ntheir own on many things, and are quite anxious to express them. They neither know\nhow to read nor to write. They have been taught to see, to observe, to tell about what\nthey see and hear. They have been taught to respect older people, to be honest, to tell\nthe truth.\nIt is a rare thing now to find a child that does not know it is wrong to steal. If you\nmeet one you may be sure he has never been in a kindergarten. It used to be a common\nthing to find blase villains of six, who would steal anything on which they could lay\ntheir hands. They were always ' finding ' their neighbors' pencils, sponges, strings,\npictures, books, or stray toys. When caught in the act, they would grin in your face\nand tell you, ' Them as finds, keeps.'\nI think you will now understand why I am so strongly in favor of kindergartens.\nAgnes M. Manning.\"\n\nDear friends, I have tried to show why the kindergarten should be an\norganic part of our public school system. I have tried to outline the plan.\nLet me briefly summarize. Take the very little child into the kindergarten, and there begin the work of physical, mental, and moral training.\nPut the child in the possession of his powers, develop his faculties, unfold\n\n"}
{"page": 362, "printed_page": null, "text": "342\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nhis moral nature ; cultivate mechanical skill in the use of the hands ; give\nhim a sense of symmetry and harmony, a quick judgment of number,\nmeasure, and size; stimulate his inventive faculties; make him familiar\nwith the customs and usages of well-ordered lives ; teach him to be kind,\ncourteous, helpful, and unselfish ; inspire him to love whatsoever things\nare true and pure and right and kind and noble ; and thus equipped\nphysically, mentally, and morally, send him forth to the wider range of\nstudy, which should include within its scope some sort of industrial\ntraining — that is, the putting of the boy or girl into the possession of the\ntools for technical employment, or for the cultivation of the arts of\ndrawing and kindred employments ; and, still further on, the boy and\ngirl should have a completed trade. Thus will they be prepared to solve\nthe rugged problem of existence by earning their own living through\nhonest, faithful work.\nMODIFICATIONS\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nPRIMARY\n\nSCHOOL.\n\nThesis : \" What modifications in the primary school are necessary or\ndesirable in order to adapt it to continue the work of the kindergarten\nand reap the advantages of the training already received ? \"\nDISCUSSION.\nBY\n\nB. PICKMAN\n\nMANN,\n\nOF\n\nWASHINGTON,\n\nD. C.\n\nThe most crying need of the primary school is the giving of an opportunity to the\nteachers to devote personal attention to the scholars individually. This need is to be\nmet by confining the number of pupils under one teacher within such limits that there\nmay be time to devote the needed attention to each. It is recognized that one kindergartner cannot properly take care of more than twenty-five children, and it would be\nbetter if she had not more than eighteen or twenty. It is widely recognized also that\nfifty or sixty children are too many to be cared for properly by one primary teacher,\nand that she could do much better with one-half of that number.\nIn placing the employment of more teachers first as a modification needed in the conduct of primary schools, I do not forget that quality is needed more than quantity. But\nI believe that the quality needed will come largely through the quantity. The teacher\ncan do for each child more nearly what the child needs to have done for it. One of the\nimportant elements in the excellence of kindergartens is the ability of the kindergartner\nto give to each child the individual attention it needs.\nWhile I believe that the present teachers are capable in great measure of much better\nwork than they are given an opportunity to perform, I believe the qualifications of\nteachers are capable of great improvement. The kindergarten method is more than a\npractice ; it is a philosophy.\nThe greatest value of the kindergarten rests in the power the kindergarten has to\ndevelop the higher and nobler side of individual character and ability. This power\ncomes from the conformity of the kindergarten practice to the methods of nature.\nCon-\n\n"}
{"page": 363, "printed_page": null, "text": "MODIFICATIONS\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nPRIMARY\n\nSCHOOL.\n\n343\n\nfortuity to nature is more and more recognized every day to be the path of wisdom and\nof right.\nIf the kindergarten practice conforms to the method of nature, it should be continued\nso long as this conformity continues. As the child grows his needs and abilities grow ;\nbut all growth is by degrees and not by leaps, so the transition from the kindergarten\nto the school should be gradual.\nThe child in the kindergarten learns and grows as he plays. He grows physically,\nmentally, and morally, while he plays spontaneously. His play is at the same time serious work, but it is not labor.\nIt is good for him.\nIt is healthful.\nAfter the child leaves the school his development does not stop. If he has a fondness\nfor business, for medicine, for art, for science, he pursues those avocations or studies\ndiligently, and, as those who do not sympathize with his tastes might say, laboriously ;\nbut he pursues them for pleasure.\nHis work is play.\nThe art of pedagogy should be that which will adapt the supply of the needs of the\nchild to the natural desires and disposition of the child. This necessitates the adaptation of the method to the individual, and the competency of the teacher to her task, and\nthe liberty of action of the teacher in the execution of her task.\nThe fault of all schooling has been and still is, for the most part, that the schooling\nhas not been carried on for its own sake. Secondary motives have been substituted for\nprimary ones as inducements to continue in school. The children of a well-conducted\nkindergarten are impatient to be in the kindergarten. They plead with their mothers\nnot to let sickness or bad weather keep them from attendance, and they are sorry when\nthey have to go home, and say they \" wish the kindergarten could keep all the time.\"\nIs it so usually with the school ? There may be teachers who so keep school, but such\nis not the rule. It is not always, if generally, the fault of the teachers that such schools\nare not more numerous. It is in most cases because the teachers are driven to force\nupon their scholars tasks for which the scholars are not ready.\nThe occupations of the kindergarten should be continued into the school until by\ngradual development the transition has been made from kindergarten work to school\nwork.\nThe essential modification needed in primary teaching is not the addition of one or\nthe elimination of another subject of study. It is not the change, in any general way,\nof the methods of teaching, although these, especially in teaching to read, are capable\nof great improvement in most schools. It is the awaiting until the child is ready to\ntake hold of specific kinds of work before giving him this work to do. Meanwhile his\neducation should be conducted upon the lines and according to the methods already\nfound suited to his nature, so that he may enjoy going to school, and shall develop in\nthe needed directions while feeling that he is but playing.\nWhat are the daily and nightly labors of the physician who loves his profession, but\nplay ? What is the reformer doing when he buffets against the waves of popular opposition, and mayhap suffers obloquy or death in behalf of his beloved cause, but playing ?\nPlay is but the gratification of desire to accomplish certain work, and all human activity\nwill become play and a delight when it is adjusted to nature.\nThe faults of our schools are largely the faults of our national life. There is too much\nhurry. Because children can be made to learn to read at five or six years of age they\nare driven to learn to read at that age, when they do not naturally develop to the\nstage at which learning to read is their need until they are seven or eight years old.\nWhen they should be filling their minds with observation of nature, they are driven to\nthe acquisition of second-hand knowledge, which they are not compet«nt to digest.\nWhen Agassiz had his first class of students at his museum in Cambridge, he set\nbefore each student a pile of shells or a collection of fishes or some other subject of\nstudy, and told them to find out what they could about them by observation.\nHe did\n\n"}
{"page": 364, "printed_page": null, "text": "344\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION.\n\nnot give them text-books to read, with ready-made classifications, but set them to classifying for themselves. Their observations might be inadequate, their classifications\nmight be crude ; but whatever the immediate practical outcome of the study, the habit\nwas formed to see for one's self and to think for one's self. Each of these students\nbecame a distinguished naturalist.\nWe know that some children have a natural fondness for numbers and measures — let\nus say for mathematics — from an early age ; some children have an equal fondness for\nstories, not only for what they are about but for the way in which they are told — let us\nsay for history and literature ; others for form and color and their representations — let\nus say for art and architecture. Such children do not need to be driven, but only to be\nled in the direction in which they tend to go.\nIf we are justified in our attempts to teach mathematics to those who do not naturally\nor at the outset love mathematics ; to teach history and a familiarity with literature to\nthose who have no first taste for these studies, it is because we recognize, or at least\nbelieve, that the germs of love for these studies exist in every soul. If such germs\nexist, why should we not develop them naturally ? Would we make a bean plant grow\nby seizing its stem and pulling it until it reached the desired length, or would we supply its roots with nourishment and its leaves with sunlight, and trust to the power\nwithin for the rest ?\nThat our unnatural, unsympathetic method of schooling has not worse results than\nwe observe, is due to the inherent power of the soul to resist distortion. The forces of\nnature prevail, as it is, to a great degree, over the artificial interferences of unnatural\nsystems of instruction.\nThe function of the teacher is to lead and not to drive. Those only should be teachers who can lead.\nLet us double or treble the numbers of our primary school teachers. Let us secure\nthe best teachers for the youngest scholars, and promote teachers from the older to the\nyounger classes. Let us give freedom to the natural teacher to carry out her own\nideas, not aiming to run the schools as machines at the minimum of cost and the maximum of gross material ground out of them.\nThen we may safely leave it to the practical teachers themselves to follow such\nmethods as shall continue the work of the kindergarten in the schools, and reap the\nadvantages of the training already received.\n\nPREPARATION\nBY\n\nMBS.\n\nLOUISA\n\nOF THE KINDERGARTNER.\n\nPAESONS\nHOPKINS,\nOF THE BOAED\nSUPEEVISOES,\nBOSTON,\nMASS.\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOL\n\nIn\" considering the preparation of the kindergartner for her work, we\nmay regard the natural and unconscious preparation of temperament and\norganization, as well as the specific one of determination and training.\nOriginal gifts and organic constitution of mind and character are quite as\nimportant elements in the fitness of the teacher of little children as those\nsuperinduced by definite plans of education. The idealistic temperament\nwith the practical habit, the clear mind and the sympathetic heart, combine to make up the best equipment of organization for the kindergartner.\nThis condition of heart and mind seems to me the primary qualification\n\n"}
{"page": 365, "printed_page": null, "text": "PREPARATION\n\nOF TEE KINDERGARTNER.\n\n345\n\nof the kindergartner. Notwithstanding all the logic of heredity and environment, to discern the essential coming of God into every life at its\nadvent ; to hear God saying, \" All souls are mine/' even amid the renewed\nassumptions of philosophy and the clamorous demands of the new science\nof evolution ; to be able to recognize every child as first the child of God,\nwith a divine soul ready to germinate within him, while wise men are proclaiming him not only the child of man merely, but the child of the beast,\nthe child of protoplasm, the child of chaos — this is to prove one capable\nof knowing and helping the child in his onward growth. The divine\nrelations of childhood should be clearly seen, and without shutting one's\neyes to the complex relations into which his human descent places him.\nBut in the whole commonwealth of childhood, repeat no more the proverb\nthat humanity is evolved from what is below, and not from what is above.\nThe spirit of God in its germinating force has been placed within all matter, only to assimilate it to its growing uses and make it a temple of God.\nWhether this transcendent harmony of the whole nature be the result\nof training and experience, or the happy balance of native gifts and graces,\nit is the preparation which the kindergartner cannot do without, for it\ndetermines her essential attitude toward her work. It is the motherhood\nof the calling, and expresses the calling itself. It is the preparation of\nthe spirit, and vastly more essential than that of the letter or the technical\nform in which it is embodied.\nEvery normal school should be furnished with a kindergarten department, equipped with a model kindergarten, where the complete theory and\npractice may be taught by masters and mistresses of the subject. We must\ndemand at the outset that no charlatans shall administer this profound\nphilosophy, no ignoramus or superficial student shall presume to handle\nthese vital elements of learning, and no mere wage-earner be allowed to\nconduct the little child to this freedom of development. Is it too sanguine\na prophecy that the educational science of Froebel shall ere long be represented bythe university chair, and the study of the education of man be\nthought worthy of the highest degree in a professional training ?\nIn considering the second point of the thesis, we may allow that all\nkindergarten teachers are not necessarily kindergartners. There may be\nmuch pleasant and useful help giveu by sympathetic persons of an ordinary\ndegree of general culture. The plays and games are the brighter for the\nvivacious and intelligent participation of some young girl fond of children\nand not too far removed in age to be accepted as a playmate as well as director of these exercises. A knowledge of the mechanical part of the games\nand occupations, with a spontaneous interest and sympathy, is a most valuable qualification for a helper to the professional kindergartner. I think\nwhen the kindergartner is best fitted for oversight and not for too constant\nactive participation in the games, such an assistant is quite necessary. I\nlike to see the younger students of the normal class entering into the\n\n"}
{"page": 366, "printed_page": null, "text": "346\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nactive exercises of the kindergarten, which their graceful movements am\nspontaneous playfulness enliven, while their knowledge of the routine is\nshown only in their happy freedom with the children who look to them\nas leaders.\nThis, too, is a part of the preparation of the kindergartner,\nand should be in the hands of intelligent and well-informed students.\nThese teachers, not yet qualified as principals, may be in training for\nthe general examination in secondary studies, and may be working as\nassistants while progressing in their preparation as principals ; or, if they\naspire only to the position of helpers under the direction of a principal,\nthey should be required to pass only an elementary examination in branches\nof study, provided they manifest the right spirit and a love of children.\nBut for such as aspire to the charge of a kindergarten, the culture of the\nhigh-school course is not too much to require as the basis of professional\ntraining. The morning talks will tax the widest resources of learning;\nto answer a child's inquiries and lead him to ever opening vistas of observation and discovery, calls for the highest culture in natural science as\nwell as in all the relations of human activity. When we see Froebel\nsitting down with his treasures of university erudition to open the mental\nvision of twelve little children and feed them with the bread of life, we\ncatch a glimmer of the light that he deemed the birthright of the poorest\nchild. After such a glimpse of the measurements of the master, can we\nset up a narrow gauge for the kindergartner in either power or attainments ?\n\nKINDERGARTEN\nBY\n\nFRAU\n\nHENRIETTA\n\nAS A BASIS FOR\nSCHRADER,\n\nOF\n\nLIFE.\n\nBERLIN.\n\n[This Paper was translated for Publication by Amelia Hofer, of Chicago.]\n\nTo my mind it is a vital mistake to consider the kindergarten, as is too\nfrequently done, as a preliminary step toward the school, and to see its\nplan of work, its methods of occupation and development, merely as a\npreparation for primary instruction.\nToo great importance has been put upon school training in our time,\nwhich has been given a prominence far out of proportion to that accredited to the home training and to the family influence in public education,\nand this in spite of the unsatisfactory results so far attained.\nIndeed, the whole scheme and character which is commonly understood\nto comprise the kindergarten, does not seem to me to express Froebel's\nidea on this all-important subject of \" How shall we train little children ?\"\nHowever important Froebel considered the school in its totality and its\ninfluence upon the child, and although his sentiments in regard to education as expressed in the organized school and methods of teaching are\n\n"}
{"page": 367, "printed_page": null, "text": "KINDERGARTEN\n\nAS A BASIS FOR\n\nLIFE.\n\n347\n\nmost impressive and earnest, as embodied in his great work, \" Menschen\nErziehung \" (Education of Man), he still gives the foremost place in his\neducational theory and practice to the family thought as expressed in his\nbook, \"Mutter und Kose Lieder.\"\nThe ever- increasing experience of Froebel, as he came in contact with\nmany families, taught him that parents are far from fulfilling their\nobligations, and in his deeply significant paper, dated 183(5, called the\n\" Renewing of Life,\" he calls out, full of spirit : \" In the family environment alone, man reaches that point which causes his soul to radiate and\nhis life to be fulfilled ; but even then is this accomplished only as the\nfamily recognizes itself a medium of love, light, and life. The keynote for a higher plane of human development can only be sounded when\nman is seen as one member of an organized whole — a unity made up of\nmany members.\"\nOnce more Froebel deliberated, looking back over his accumulated\nexperience and asking himself seriously this question : \" Can family life,\nthe home environment, satisfy the high demand of the present stage of\nhuman development, in order that it may reach unto and culminate in an\never renewing of life ? \"\nAnswering himself earnestly and conclusively, he said, \"No.\" He\nturned aside in 1836 from his previous efforts in connection with schools\nand the training of boys ; he must search out new ways in order to reach\na more certain and rational education. And now he comes upou his\nkindergarten. In a public call sent out in 1840, we find that he by no\nmeans considered this merely as an institute of learning, but that he\ndemanded a complete development, fitted for all life, for those who were\nto lead little children.\nHe demanded a union of practical power to do, with scientific knowledge, for the true development of the child. He looked to the womanhood\nof Germany to found his ideal institute, but they did not yet understand\nhim. The essential means with which to establish a training-school for\nthe guardians of children were not forthcoming, and he must needs be\nsatisfied to open the work along its several lines rather than produce it at\nonce as a complete organization. One of these lines was the kindergarten,\nand the training of worthy kindergarteners to be worthy assistants to the\nmother, as well as prepared to be the future mothers of children ; and\nin this way he determined, little by little, to elevate the entire family\nculture.\nOut of this struggle and ideal he produced the \" Mutter und Kose\nLieder.\" He spoke the inclusive words : \"The family of the new time\nmust behold itself a unit,\" and this thought still overflows with meaning\nfor us all. It is emphasized and enlarged upon in his \"Mother Play\"\nsongs. The very labor which provides physical comforts to the various\nmembers of the family, and which falls chiefly to the hand of woman, is\n\n"}
{"page": 368, "printed_page": null, "text": "348\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nconstantly bringing about right relationships. Even though the family\ncircle be a limited oue, it is brought into contact with an ever-increasing\nlarger circle by force of natural and mutual needs.\nFamily consumption as well as production weaves many threads in and\nout between the various members and the head of the house, and again\nbetween the house-mother and the great outer world. Formerly it was\ncustomary to think of these relationships only from the standpoint of\nsecuring advantage to the family ; cheap labor for the home, close marketing, even though at the sacrifice or suffering of others, was still recognized a mark of good housewifery. In the case of man's choice of\noccupation, the important consideration was whether it would bring safe\nprovision. High wages were desirable, even though others struggled and\nsuffered because of the discrimination. In the training of children, the\nmost conspicuous principle was to preserve them from mistakes and trials,\nand, as was said, \"care for them all as to their external needs.\"\nAs a consequence, the ego of the individuals reached no further than\nthe ego of the family ; and the latter entered into no living conscious\ninterchange, such as giving and taking, with the other factors of humanity. The entire social structure supported the tendency of the ties ; many\nfamilies there were who remained forever untouched by outer social or\npolitical relationships. A change came, however, and Froebel clearly\nforesaw the coming condition. He recognized that the ever-increasing\nconflicts between classes and stations of humanity could not be remedied\nthrough external law. He saw that the bonds could only be released\nthrough spontaneous deeds of loving fellowship, to practice which the\ntrue family environment must be reinstated as a unity, serving best when\nseeing itself a member of a still larger circle. In the family relationship,\nwith its varied and responsive duties, is found the embryo of all phases of\nlater development. Wherefore it is a firm fact that all organic life, from\nthe smallest beginning, unfolds itself to the greater, however magnificent\nit is to become ; and this law of nature must be applied to the individual\nhuman life as well as to that of the whole human family.\nThe training of the power of will rests upon a gradual exercise of the\nsame, beginning with the young child. It is for this reason that efforts\nalong intellectual and industrial lines, however progressive, have failed to\nbring the joy and satisfaction which they should, and which they do bring\nwhen knowledge and ability to execute are joined hand in hand with\nman's ethical inclinations.\nIndividual development must always be joined to an activity the fruit\nof which is consecrated to others. In this way only can be preserved to\nchild-nature room for the interest of others. The child may begin early\nto mediate and bring together such warring factors as self-support, selfassertion, simultaneous with self-giving, and so establish a harmony and\nequality.\n\n"}
{"page": 369, "printed_page": null, "text": "KINDERGARTEN\n\nAS A BASIS FOR\n\nLIFE.\n\n349\n\nThis can only be brought about in the family environment, or in institutions where the home spirit prevails. The pivot of the family is nurture\n-the nurture which brings consideration to each individual member both\nfor soul and body. There is no other condition than that of the well)rdered home center which makes this possible — a home center, the soul\nind heart of which, is the home-keeper, the mother. Her duties are by\nio means limited to housework, absorbing her full time and energy ; and\nstill it were unnatural if she did not thoroughly understand all those many\npractical things which become the essentials of a true home. She should\nmow the ways and means in order to be free before her servants, in order\ninfluence all her co-laborers properly, and be able to fully satisfy the\nlaily needs of her household.\nTo properly fulfill every duty of a small home circle gives opportunity\neach child to contribute in some degree to the real comfort and value\n)f the home, and at the same time to supply scientific knowledge and\nmgender ethical power. Here the child is brought close to nature and\ntrue industry, not from the standpoint of intellectual gain, but through a\nspontaneous willing in accordance with ethical law.\nIt is vital and essential that we should recognize the care for plants and\nminials as a part of the household environment, and in order that the\neducational opportunities and advantages of family surroundings may be\nfully appreciated. It was this for which Pestalozzi so earnestly pleaded,\n^he natural standard for such environment in which to develop through\nlormal activity is the German family, which is neither in bondage through\nreat poverty, nor yet swept from its moorings by an overflow of riches.\nIn a large establishment, with its mauy servants, where parents are\n)ledged to important social duties, the children should still be granted a\nsmall household circle of their own, with proper attendance, wherein the\nmother shall take part as much as is possible, and wherein the father may\nfind a salutary resting place after exhausting service in the busy world.\nLet us but once recognize home activities as an important educational\nmeans, and proper surroundings to secure the same will be speedily\nprovided.\nThere is no more harmful movement in modern evolution than that\nsocialism which demands the dissolution of the family, or which interferes\nwith the organic necessity of man's truly living and expressing affection in\nthe human family. By so doing, the very foundation upon which rests a\nunified development of the child's soul and body is destroyed, as well as\nthe only means by which his spiritual power may be completely unfolded,\nand also that environment which is its best nourishment, since it provides\nspontaneous instinctive moral action.\nIn the face of such statements it is sometimes argued that machinery is\nsnatching the work out of man's hand, or is condensing the duties of the\nhousehold to a minimum which could scarcely suffice to serve as an\n\n"}
{"page": 370, "printed_page": null, "text": "350\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\neducational factor. Machinery releases man more and more from the\ndrudgery of labor ; but however wonderfully it be built to serve so wonderful a purpose, none has yet been found who can breathe into its\nwheel-work the spirit, the love which prompts care-taking for another\nand which satisfies the needs of fellow-men. Thus, in spite of all inventions, there still remains a remnant of noble duty which the individual\nhuman being must still fulfill.\nNo school, no academy, however high it has reached into science or\nart, can provide mankind with the ethical nurture which is derived from\ndaily participation in fellow-service, or in loving contact with nature, or\nthe self-won fruits of true industry.\nBy nature, by instinct, the physically and morally normal child is eager\nto be of service. But how little is this impulse within him fostered or\nnurtured ! The practical educator does not turn his face in the direction\nof this mellow soil, or of this fructifying environment wherein to truly\ncultivate the child. Long before Froebel, Pestalozzi, with all the might\nand impetus of his genius, pointed to this great fissure in school life ; and\nFroebel presented the same thought in his own way in the \" Mother\nPlay \" book.\nIn this book we find an illustration of the little gardener, to which he\nattaches this motto :\n' ' Wouldst thou the childish heart unfold ?\nClose to the nurture of life him hold.\nWouldst thou prepare him to cherish and love ?\nShow him the joy which such nurture provides.\"\n\n-\n\nIn what other sphere than that of the family may the child find the soil\nfor such growth, unless it be in institutions where the family training life\nis made the basic principle? The child is a complete being, and he must\nexercise his love, his interest/and his nurture among wholesome and satisfying beings, and in a loving, personal companionship.\nThis was Froebel's preeminent purpose in establishing the kindergarten,\nas he has clearly shown in the \"Mother Play\" book. The noble, normal family was the type for his kindergarten, which, in turn, he would\nhave become a living model for the true family ; and it was thus through\nhim that womankind was awakened to the privileges of spiritual motherhood, and nurtured and developed to a new sphere of activity in the family\nas well as in the community, the school, and state.\nLet us turn to the picture of the '\"Flower Basket,\" where Froebel,\nagreeing fully with Pestalozzi, shows the inner relation between mother\nand child as the only true center and germinal point from which all\nhuman relationships radiate. The mother places the child in his right\nrelationship to father, to sisters, to servants, to nature itself. The father\nof the house, whose business interests prevent his coming so closely in\n\n"}
{"page": 371, "printed_page": null, "text": "STORY-TELLING\n\nIN THE\n\nKINDERGARTEN.\n\n351\n\ncontact with the family, seeks peace, pleasure, and happiness in the heart\nof the home, and here gathers new forces that he may fulfill the arduous\nlabors and struggles of his professional life. Infinite is the power held in\nthe hand of mother and child to provide him the joy and comfort of life,\nand send him out to carry into the great world of that precious store\nwhich has been garnered in the small family circle.\nThe mother leads the children to appreciate the father's faithful labor\nfor them, and to sympathize, in their own way, with the larger scope of\nhis life. She directs them to contribute to his comfort in the home circle ;even the smallest child that can do no definite work with its hands\nmay still do great things for father. It may exert its full strength to\nfashion a basket which mother fills with fresh flowers for his delight. No\nman can do more than pour his whole strength into a loving deed. Therefore this child has accomplished the greatest. Froebel made his startingpoint this exquisite sentiment : that childish doing for others must first\nand foremost be connected with the child's inner and natural impetus or\ninclination, so that in time the affection which prompts his deeds for\nothers may become habit.\n\nSTORY-TELLING\nBY\n\nMARY\n\nT.\n\nIK THE\n\nHOTCHKISS,\n\nOF\n\nKINDERGARTEN.\nMILWAUKEE,\n\nWIS.\n\nThesis : What should be the character of the stories told in the kindergarten, and to\nwhat extent should stories be told ?\n\nNature is the universal teacher of mankind. Her instruction has been\nat all ages, in every clime, at every period of the world's history. Her\ntopic is the universe — the subject-matter, therefore, inexhaustible. Her\nbooks are found everywhere, her pages are always open, her instruction\never close at hand. Much of her teaching is given silently, though she\nspeaks in the songs of birds, the sound of waters, and the roll of thunder. As nearly every educational theory has its symbolic representation\nin nature, this one of story-telling is especially seen. In every aspect of\nnature, whoever is in harmony with her and \" holds communion with her\nvisible forms,\" to him \"she speaks a various language.\" The dainty\nflower growing by the wayside tells its story of beauty and love, and is\nfragrant with the secret of its growth and brightness. The trees swaying\nin the breeze tell their story with a hundred tongues ; a tale of joy in living, a tale of sunshine and shadow, like our lives. The river smiling in\nthe sunlight tells to listening ears, as it passes singing on its way, a tale of\nsun-kissed waves, of turbulence and peace, of ebb and flow. The stars,\nthe \"forget-me-nots of the angels,\" shine forth their story of wonder and\nmystery, of light and beauty, of divine power and love. The sunbeams\n\n"}
{"page": 372, "printed_page": null, "text": "352\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\ndancing gayly atonr feet tell to \"hearts attuned \" of renewed strength, of\nlight and life. The silvery clouds sailing across the summer sky are speaking to us of shining raindrops, of shade from the noonday sun, of the love\nof the Creator in planning all things for our good.\nFroebel's mind grasped the story of the flowers. He says : \" From the\nstar-shaped blossoms I first learned to understand the law of all formation, and it is no other than the reconciliation of opposites ; and a humble little flower taught me divinely to interpret the secrets of existence,\nthe mysterious laws of development.\"\nBesides this — a natural reason for stories — others are equally important.\nThe early race was educated by myths and legends, and each child follows\nthe development of the race. Every child loves stories, and what is loved\nby the universal child is necessary for his develoj)ment. \" As the flower\nlongs for sun and light and air, so the child longs for stories.\" Stories\nare the means of encouraging ideality, giving lofty aims, high aspirations,\nbeautiful views of life and duty. As has been said: \"Good stories well\ntold are to children what excellent sermons are to their elders.\"\nAll great truths can be told to the child in parable form. All scientific,\nphilosophic, and moral truths can be taught. Many of our standard literary works can be adapted for children's use. There is scarcely a topic\nin all this wide universe that cannot be introduced in simple story form.\nStill another reason for stories : Nothing more strongly exercises the\nimagination, that all-important faculty of the mind, doubly important in\nthis our practical age and country. A writer has said : \"I would rather\nhave a child un alphabetical than unimaginative.\"\nThe stories may be divided under two general heads ; those that are\nliterally true, and those that are symbolic representations of the truth.\nUnder the first would come stories illustrating moral truths, biographical\nor historical incidents, stories of changes in nature, stories of animal life.\nUnder the second are found fairy tales, fables, myths, legends. Froebel\nthought that the child, as a member of the human family, should be told\nthe stories of the various Christian holidays.\nThe question is often asked, Are fairy tales good for children ? Most\ncertainly they are. A love for the beautiful and wonderful is inborn in\nevery heart ; and, to quote again, \" to cultivate the imagination and\npoetry of the soul is one of the solemn duties of life.\" Those who fail to\nsee the beauty and worth of fairy tales do not look beneath the surface for\nthe deep truths contained in them.\nFables are good for representing moral truths. Stories of animal life\ncreate a love for all lower animal creation ; teaching kindness and gentleness, subduing that cruelty which is occasionally seen in a small child\n(generally a boy), and which must be the inheritance from barbarous\nancestors. Legends are valuable, for they form \"a bridge which gradually leads the child to the real enjoyment of history, and puts him in\n\n"}
{"page": 373, "printed_page": null, "text": "STORY-TELLING\n\nIN THE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\n353\n\nsympathy with what is going on in the present.'' Following Mother\nGoose's example, occasional rhymes are enjoyable, and produce a greater\neffect.\nThe following suggestions have been given regarding methods of telling\nstories. The younger the children, the greater the difficulty in telling the\nstory, and the greater preparation required ; for them an easy plot and a\nshort thread of circumstances are necessary. Be explicit ; give a name to\neverything. Use the tone of voice necessary to the circumstances, and\nchange the tone to suit the occasion. Have the story as graphic as\npossible. Have clearly in your mind the object of your story ; then adorn\nwith details. Let the story depict virtues to be emulated rather than\nvices to be shunned. Emphasize the positive rather than the negative.\nTell the best stories repeatedly, rather than frequent poor ones. Take\ngreat care to repeat the facts the same each time ; otherwise we cannot\nestimate the confusion arising in the child-mind. Do not have the child\nfeel too deeply over imaginary woes, for \" overtaxed intellect brings on\ndisease.\"\nMost important of all, be sure that your stories have a happy ending,\nfor the child's moral being is largely affected by these endings. \" Harmony\nin music is only attained when each individual instrument expresses its\npeculiar sound perfectly.\" So in a story ; the aim is reached only when\neach part receives due emphasis, and the relation of incidents is clearly\nseen. \"No future can be interpreted, except in the light of the past.\"\nStories must in some way be connected with the past life, that the child\nmay realize their worth and take them to himself. Stories should be told\nin the purest English, with careful enunciation. With the child-mind in\nthe receptive condition caused by joyful anticipation, the teacher cannot\nbe too careful of all the details connected with his art. The beauties and\npossibilities of the language are shown to the child, representing to him\nthe art of speech, and giving him a taste for good literature.\nOther qualifications of a good story-teller are \"culture in its truest,\nbroadest sense, meaning education, refinement, ideality ; to see ideally\nhumdrum facts; fancy to embellish these facts, so that some principle\nmay be impressed on the child ; to make common things beautiful with\npoetic ideas and symbolic truths; then, lastly, to have sufficient common\nsense to keep one from extravagance.\"\nOne great danger of children is confounding the real and the fanciful, by\nwhich the whole aim of the story is lost. We must enter into the childworld, and become one with them ; must see with their eyes and hear\nwith their ears. No story is effective if the child shows no enjoyment\nof it. This, however, may not be the fault of the story, nor of the child.\nChildren are the severest critics, and the beauty of their criticism is its\nspontaneity, though it is sometimes too truthful to be flattering. Dramatic\npower is one of the most essential things in a good story-teller — who is a\n\n"}
{"page": 374, "printed_page": null, "text": "354\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\n\"king among children.\" If there is a river in the story, see it flowing\nat your feet. If there are horsemen, watch them disappearing over the\nhilltop. If flowers are growing, look with pleasure in your face at the\nbeautiful blossoms along your path. If birds are singing, incline your\near aud let the eye tell the happiness with which the song fills the heart.\nEye, tongue, hand, must all express each emotion, and the children will\nbe carried with you into unknown countries, to ramble with you among\nnew wonders with never-failing delight. A new world is open to them,\nand each is a little Columbus, bent upon discovery. The unexplored\nrealms they enter are as strange and varied as the new continent of the\nfifteenth century.\nThe results of story-telling are so great and varied that they are beyond\nour comprehension. The child's three-fold duties are taught — to nature,\nto humanity, and to God. The feeling of unity with all creatures is\nimpressed. It is not always necessary that a story should point a moral.\nWholesome nonsense is essential to human nature, as is proved by the fact\nthat Mother Goose rhymes have for so many years given unbounded delight to children. \" A little nonsense now and then \" is very beneficial,\nand great men have felt the need of the humorous side of life to counteract the many serious aspects which matters assume. Talleyrand said : \" I\nfind nonsense singularly refreshing.\" The chief danger of nonsense is its\ntendency to develop into grotesqueness, thus lowering our ideals anc\nmaking the good and the true ridiculous. Great care should be takei\nthat the moral sense is in no respect blunted, nor ideas of right and wrong\nin any way perverted. The children must be taught indirectly to kno\\\nthe pure, harmless fun which is the result of happiness of heart an<\nexuberance of spirit, from the spirit of ridicule which laughs at other\nmistakes and finds pleasure in others' misfortunes.\nAs a nation we are criticised for our irreverence ; irreverence for sacred\nthings, for tradition, for all that is best and highest in life. Prophets tell\nus that this alarming tendency of the present generation will do more than\nany other one thing toward undermining the foundations of society. The\nonly remedy for this evil is to help little children to have a high regard\nfor all that is above them — for their parents, for all religious truths, for\nevery great and good action, for every beautiful thought. Stories inculcating these ideas should be given, of great men, as of Columbus, Washington, and Lincoln ; of noble deeds, as of Grace Darling ; stories of the\nwonders of the stars, telling of things above us and beyond us, calling\nforth our highest admiration and praise.\nMany of us walk through life like ghosts, as if we were in the world but\nnot of it. \" We have eyes, but see not \" ; for \" to look is much less easy\nthan to overlook.\" We have no eye for the beauties around us, no ear for\nthe harmonies of nature ; and so much of the real meaning of our lives\nhidden from our view because our early education was in so many ways\n\n"}
{"page": 375, "printed_page": null, "text": "SYMBOLISM\n\nIN THE\n\n355\n\nKINDERGARTEN.\n\none-sided, and so much was left unexplained that we needed to know. Let\nus in our stories spread before the eyes of our children the scroll of nature,\nrevealing some of her mysteries, showing her beauties, telling the secret of\nher operations, that their lives will be worthier of the high aims in view,\nthat their knowledge of nature may lead them to truer self-knowledge.\n\nTO\nBY\n\nEARL\n\nWHAT\nEXTENT\nJUSTIFIABLE\nBARNES,\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nIS THE\nUSE\nOF SYMBOLISM\nIN THE KINDERGARTEN?\nOF\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nLELAND\n\nSTANFORD\n\nJR.\n\nCALIFORNIA.\n\nThe use of anything in the kindergarten would seem to be justifiable just so far as it\nis in accord with the nature of the children in the kindergarten. Those who approach\nthe child through the medium of experimental psychology will always be tempted to\ndwell on his physical and sensuous activities, because these most easily admit of quantitative expression. On the other hand, those who approach the child from some philosophical ortheological standpoint will be always tempted to read into the child's simplest\nactivities all that they have imagined or dreamed in their philosophy.\nAll that can be done in this brief paper is to present in bald outline some of the questions and suggestions that present themselves to the experimental psychologist.\nThe most striking characteristic of a young child's subjective activity is the fragmentary and disintegrated quality of all his intellectual operations. His subjective world\nis a chaos. Instinctively he strives to unify and grasp this multiplex of sense-stuff that\npours in upon him. One of the first steps in this unifying process consists in fastening\nnames on to the things or impressions which crowd upon him, so that he can afterward\nrecognize them as the same impressions already recognized. You will all recall Miss\nSullivan's account of the eager delight of Helen Keller when she first found that things\nhad names. At one stage of his development the child will weary every one about him\nwith his reiterated demands : What is this ? What is that ? Is not this a natural seeking for a symbol which shall enable him to identify a particular impression, and so far\nenable him to unify his world ? The Chinese in their written characters go but little\nfarther than this.\nThe child, however, soon reaches out for larger groups. He feels the necessity of\nlarger general terms, where the one term will grasp several objects, and he demands,\nWhose is this ? Where did it come from ? What is it for ? Is this a picture,\ntoo ? etc.\nIn this search for symbols to identify and unify his manifold sense impressions, he\naccepts words, terms, and signs that are offered him, and invents many more for\nhimself.\nOne child uses \"goo\" for almost any movement, and with another, anything to eat\nis \" to-to.\" In addition to this audible symbolism the child develops a visual symbolism\nfor himself. At an early age a child simply rubs pencil on paper and tells you of men\nand houses and bears which the scratches represent. In his early school life he quickly\naccepts a visual symbol and applies it to everything. In a number class, one teacher\nmade a simple figure in a sun-bonnet. In a few days the children drew their men and\nboys and girls all after the one pattern.\nThey had simply accepted the symbol.\nNow this tendency on the part of children to accept a sign for a thing in order to\nunify their world, seems to me the basis of our work in symbolism.\nAnother fact in the\n\n"}
{"page": 376, "printed_page": null, "text": "356\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION.\n\nchild's subjective life emphasizes this. His images are so vague and indistinct that his\nfancy is wonderfully free. He can see a house in a picture of a fence, and he can hear\nsinging birds when the frogs croak. This is not, I take it, because his soul is so wonderfully susceptible to singing birds, but because his ideas of singing birds and of croaking frogs are so vague and ill-defined that he cannot easily label the one or the other\nwhen it appears.\nNow a philosopher, or an imaginative and sympathetic teacher, can easily find in these\nimperfect subjective activities, due to the limitations of a child's mind, evidence that\nthe young child sees in each little thing about him, or may see, a microcosm ; and so we\nwork out elaborate systems of symbols that shall realize to the child the infinitely great\nin the little. He shall play with the ball, that he may quickly realize the perfection of\nthe sphere.\nThis seems to me a field that would yield valuable results if approached from the\nstandpoint of the simple investigator.\nCould we not make lists of all the visual and audible symbols that the child develops\nfor himself, and thus determine along what lines his symbol-developing tendency moves ?\nCould we not test the readiness with which he accepts even the most grotesque and illrelated symbols if we impose them upon him ? And could we not devise tests to show\nthe extent to which the child grasps, for instance, the symbolism of the sphere ?\nIs it not an over-devotion to symbols on the part of us kindergartners which makes\nit possible for us to come together in this international congress to seriously discuss\nwhether the plays and games which Proebel developed out of a German environment\nsome decades ago should be modified for a California child who has never seen snow,\nand to whom much of the concrete detail in the setting of the German life must remain\nto him unexperienced for several years ?\n\nTO WHAT\nBY\n\nEXTENT\nMES.\n\nEUDORA\n\nIS SYMBOLISM JUSTIFIABLE\nKIND ERG A R TEN t\nL.\n\nHAILMANN,\n\nOF\n\nLA\n\nPORTE,\n\nIN THE\n\nINDIANA.\n\nBear in mind that the kindergarten proper is for children from three to six years of\nage. Let us therefore consider the condition of the child at this age — some characteristics that mark this period.\nFor a really scientific presentation of the subject, it would be necessary to follow\nclosely the process in the development of the child during the three years preceding the\nage under consideration. We shall, however, be obliged to pass rapidly over the first\nthree months of the babe's awakening into this spiritual world of natural law .; over the\nfirst year, during which he has been learning to adapt himself, in baby fashion, to the\nimmutability of law ; over the first two years, when, a wee toddler at the beginning of\na long journey, he longs with a passion worthy the scientist to investigate hot coffee\nurns, forks, scissors, and the like ; whence he has emerged serenely and undaunted,\nthough perhaps battered and bruised, a wise and knowing baby ; on and on over the\nmonths of rapidly accumulating experiences and constant unfoldings of new and\nvaried facts of individuality, to the period of first independent association with equals\n— usually placed at about three or four years of age.\nThis is the period to which my subject, \"To what extent is symbolism justifiable\nthe kindergarten ? \" refers. It gives me great pleasure, therefore, to introduce to you\nthe child of three to six years of age ; the little child who is just emerging from unconscious, dependent babyhood, into conscious, independent self-assertion, in search\n\n"}
{"page": 377, "printed_page": null, "text": "357\nSYMBOLISM\n\nIN THE\n\nKINDERGARTEN.\n\nanything and everything that this world has to give him. He helps himself to everything without stint and without judgment ; the one consideration with him being that,\nat the moment, it be agreeable.\nFrom morn till night it is : \" May I have some ? \" — something, anything. \" Mamma,\nwhat did you do that for ?\" \" Can I go and play with Harry and Bessy ?\" Not only\nis he an interrogation point, as some one has said, but he is first, last, and always a\npotential workman in this busy life, a truth -seeker in embryo. Alas ! however, that his\nquestions are so seldom answered as they should be, for in that measure in which questions are answered will the child grow. The answer to a question contains both the\ngerm and the food of the next immediate individual tendency. At this stage of\ndevelopment the whole being seems to be concentrated upon the one activity of getting\nexperiences and gathering data out of which to draw conclusions and regulate his\njudgments in later life. This phase of his mental development seems to predominate.\nAll phases are, it is true, potentially more or less manifest, but the eager, restless\ndetermination to accumulate facts, through personal experience and direct first-hand\nobservation, predominates during the period from three to six. Again, it is a prominent characteristic of this stage of development to trust implicitly those who are older\nand occupy places of authority. When, therefore, a child asks questions of adults and\nreceives no answer at all, or, what is worse than no answer, is told some grotesque falsehood or receives some fantastic reply, the seeds of moral deficiency of character are\nsown. Saddest of all, confidence in the genuineness and righteousness of mankind is\nbroken and lost, for children see all people through the family and other immediate\nsurroundings. It is only after many years of undoing that the ability comes to judge\nobjectively and with approximate correctness.\nDuring these three specially sensitive years it is, therefore, of vital importance that\nall impressions be pure, clear, direct, and full of meaning. The brain is more susceptible, and, at the same time, much more active, hence much more intensely conscious,\nboth instinctively and intentionally, clinching every new sensation and impression that\ncomes to it, for the purpose of making use of it in giving expression to its own individuality, which has become so firmly rooted in the loves and lives of his environment.\nEspecially, therefore, is it desirable that the thought-centers, for this period, be full of\ninstruction and abound in beautiful sentiment, for —\n\" Early lessons gently taught,\nSimple words with meaning fraught —\nThese forgotten for a time,\nWill come back like a well-known rhyme.\"\n\nThis is the time to begin to lay up treasures against the possible ennui and infirmities\nof old age.\nNormal, vigorous children of this age do not speculate, do not dream day-dreams, do\nnot see sprites in the lily nor ogres in the dark, unless they have been put there by older\nif not wiser heads. Their eager, active, healthy minds and bodies are too much absorbed\nin the immediate interesting beautiful wonders that surround them. There is no need\nto stimulate their love and admiration for life by artificial means, and they have not\nreached the contemplative, speculative age of abstract thinking. To force this upon them\nat this period of development is to make them precocious, and precocity is degenerating.\nChildren of this age will play all day with pet animals, observing and imitating every\nliving thing that comes within their reach. Little boys will play store, street-car, etc. ,\ndig. haul, push and pull ; while the little girls with hollyhocks for babies, nut-shells for\ncradles, daisies for grandmothers, and maple-leaves for parasols, will play at time-honored \"Lady come to see,\" with never-ceasing enthusiasm. These manifestations of the\nchild's imaginative activity give us the cue to the kind of symbolism that is suitable for\nthe child from three to six years of age.\n\n"}
{"page": 378, "printed_page": null, "text": "358\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nThe child, if left to himself, will discover symbolism in nature. When it is given to\nhim ready made, it has the tendency to render him superstitious, credulous, and superficial ;glib-tongued but not really intelligent, because, not having made use of the faculties whose special function it is to relate symbolism and natural phenomena at the time\nwhen these faculties were in their germinal stage of being, the power has gone by, and\na pleasurable sensation is produced upon him, not so much at the symbols themselves as\nby the love he has for those who, in their impatient zeal to help the child realize God in\nnature, would stimulate the poetic sense innate in the breast of the human being by an\narbitrary symbolism, thereby sacrificing the child's power to discover for himself the\nrelation between symbolism and natural phenomena.\nWherever the kindergarten makes its appearance, there we may expect to find among\nthe children a tendency toward many words and few ideas, in strong contrast to the lines\nquoted :\n\" Simple words with meaning fraught.\"\n\nI have in my mind a number of examples of this kind of teaching. I never visit\nkindergartens without being convinced of the injurious effects upon the children of an\noverdose of fairy stories and stories in which symbolism is overdrawn. That parents\nand kindergartners do not see the evil effects, is no sign that the harm is not being done.\nThe result shows itself later on in life.\nI remember particularly one little girl, the daughter of literary and devoted parents,\nboth of whom had made a study of the kindergarten. This child was a little more than\nfour years of age when her mother brought her to me, saying : \" My little girl is far in\nadvance of children of her own age because we have always kept her with us. I should\nlike sometime to have you hear her recite some poems which I have taught her. She\nwill improvise by the hour most charming little fairy stories in which she will people the\nfurniture, walls, and even the parts of the room with fantastic creations of her brain.\"\nThe mother accounted for this by the fact that she had always tried to have her little\ndaughter see the symbolism concealed in every concrete manifestation of the divine\nmind ; that in her conversations with her little girl she had always given her two meanings to words and natural objects, viz. : the commonly accepted name itself and its\nsymbolic significance.\nThe time came for me to hear the little girl recite. From beginning to end the little\nfour-year-old recited, without one word of prompting, \"Paul Revere's Ride,\" with as\nmuch expression as we might expect from the original reciter of the story. When she\nhad finished she gave a little spasmodic sigh of nervous fatigue, and I detected an\nunnatural expression in her large brown eyes. This same child would sit at the kindergarten table, with other children who were busy and happy at some creative and constructive work, and with her hands folded and eyes vacantly staring into the distance,\nshe would suddenly, to the amazement and consternation of children and kindergartner,\nsing out in a plaintive sort of tone a string of pretty words with no more logical connection than there is between a rock and a butterfly.\nAnother example will serve to illustrate my point. The following conversation took\nplace between two kindergartners. While I took no direct part in the discussion, I\nlistened with a great deal of interest, for the young lady who was defending a rational,\nnatural method was the very embodiment of religious enthusiasm and had been remarkably successful in leading many children through the material into a spiritual attitude\nof soul. First kindergartner : \" Our games are different from all others. Our words\nare usually original with the kindergartner's ingenuity, assisted at times by the children.\nThey are, for the most part, descriptive of natural phenomena, as, for instance, crystallization, evaporation, freezing, radiation, and so on The children, in these games,\npersonate the particles of matter in their activities.\nThey are in turn particles of snow,\n\n"}
{"page": 379, "printed_page": null, "text": "SYMBOLISM\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN.\n\n359\n\nthe game being to form themselves into snow crystals ; or in portraying^evaporation,\nsome of the children are clothes props, and stand with arms extended to support the\ndrying clothes, while others are the dancing sun rays that kiss the particles of moisture\nand bear them away to the blue sky beyond.\"\n\"But,\" said the second kindergartner, \"while no objection should be made to a\nnatural and agreeable way of scientific instruction, notably through plays involving scientific truths, still it is necessary that we should be absolutely true to fact. And it is not\nalways possible to imitate natural phenomena with the movements of the body ; and if\nit were, it is a very clumsy and unpoetic representation of a marvelously exquisite phenomenon. In the case of evaporation the particles must fly upward, in order to be true\nto life. Sunlight does not dance but radiates. In regard to the kissing of the particles\naway, this may be a pretty poetical conception, but should not be taught as a scientific\ntruth, nor along with a scientific truth. It endangers the child's intellectual integrity\nto confuse symbolism with scientific truth. In short, especially in intercourse with\nchildren, I believe in calling a spade, a spade.\"\nGreatly moved, the first kindergartner replied : \"How different you are from us !\nNow, when we speak of a frozen brook we say : ' The water is asleep ' ; when the wind\nblows the branches of the tree we say : ' It whispers to the leaves ' ; and when in\nautumn the leaves fall to the ground, we never say that they drop or are blown from\nthe tree, but that ' Mother Earth calls them to cover her baby roots and help keep them\nwarm while they are asleep in their little brown bed waiting for the brook to wake up\nagain.' \" (In other words, during the winter time.) \" Oh, no,\" she added, with a sudden burst of eloquence ; \" we never call things by their real names.\"\nThis is no effort of the imagination ; the conversation really took place.\nAnother phase of the use of symbolism at this period is the practice of abnormally\nstimulating the imagination. For instance, the following highly wrought scheme for\ndeveloping the Christmas idea was presented to an audience of teachers. \" After leading the children up. through innumerable carefully planned steps, to the Christmas\nthought, directing their minds, absorbing their sympathies in the one direction, the\nclimax is reached when the children are about to be dismissed for the Christmas holidays. They have listened to stories (and always thanked their teachers when stories\nwere told them), and on this particular occasion they will hear the Christmas story that\nis told every year.\" It is not, however, the Biblical account of Christ, but a fairy story,\nintended, no doubt, by the writer to convey the essentials of the Christ story. The\nexercises take place in the afternoon. The room is darkened, save for the flickering\nfirelight ; the children are gathered in a circle around the kindergartner, who in solemn\nand awe-inspiring tones now tells the story.\nLet us picture that scene. A large class of poor children, the offspring, in the\nmajority of cases, of superstition and unreasoning fear, easily awed into any state of\nmind ; a darkened room, in itself unnatural in the day-time ; flickering firelight, subdued tones, fairy story. Age of subjects, three to six! And all this done for the sake of\nmaking a deep impression upon the children ! This in some lands might be called a\nspecies of voodooism, and reminds one of a spiritual seance. This matter of dealing\nblindly and recklessly with the young child's imagination is a serious thing, and we\nkindergartners should beware of entering in where angels fear to tread. A child is a\ndelicate creature, and while it should have every care and tender nurture, still, just as\nin plant life sometimes a touch, though lovingly given, will destroy the delicate leaflet,\nin the child also there are some things which to touch is to destroy. They must be\nallowed to grow toward their Creator, until the fullness of their time.\nRegarding the question from the poetic side — should we cloak the manifestations of\nnature in language other than their own ?\nThe symbol is beautiful, but so is the fact beautiful.\nWhispering winds, singing\n\n"}
{"page": 380, "printed_page": null, "text": "360\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nbrooks, sleeping waters, smiling sunshine, are pretty; but so are plain wind, flowing\nbrooks, frozen waters, sunshine, in themselves beautiful, and children think so.\nWhat is more poetic than the \" wind bloweth where it listeth, and thou hearest the\nsound thereof, but canst not tell whence it cometh, and whither it goeth \" ? Not one\nword of figure ; the simple statement of a beautiful thing in nature is itself suggestive.\nThe Great Teacher seemed willing to call things by their right names.\n\" Consider the lilies of the field, how they grow ; they toil not, neither do they spin ;\nand yet even Solomon in all his glory was not arrayed like one of these.\" And shall we\npaint these lilies before we show them to the children ?\nThere is current a plausible doctrine, that in each child are repeated the characteristics of the race.\nThis statement sounds very fine, and if not turned and twisted to mean more than a\nmere fact it would not be necessary to refer to it here. It is needless to deny or affirm\na fact so well established as this, but it should be remembered that these earlier stages\nof development through which the child must needs pass are meant by the very laws of\nevolution to sink into rudimentary conditions — into innocuous desuetude, as it were.\nTo emphasize them must result in arrested development and retard the progress of\nthe race.\nIf they are considered at all in educational work, this should be done in a way that\nmay reduce to a minimum their influence in the life of the child, and assist him to use all\nhis strength in living intelligently toward the ideals of the race. In other words, these\nrudimentary conditions should cease to be factors in the lives of the race as early as\npossible.\n\nADDITIONAL\n\nPAPEES\n\nFROEBEL'S\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nBY EMILY\n\nA. E. SHIRREFF,\n\nSUBMITTED TO THE\nCONGRESS.\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nKINDEKGARTI\n\nPRINCIPLES\n\nIN ENGLANl\n\nOF THE\n\nSOCIETY,\n\nFROEBEL\n\nLONDON.\n\nI am asked to give to our American friends some account of the progress of Froebel's educational principles in England. It is not an easy\nmatter, and my answer will be a very imperfect one. One great reason\nof the difficulty is that much of the work has been desultory, and the\nknowledge of it confined, therefore, to scattered localities. Had the\ngreat hope of the Froebel Society been realized, and had efforts been\ncombined and systematized under one central body, we should not only\nhave made more advance and attained more influence, but the point\ngained would have been easy to realize and to present. This view, however, was not popular, and only here and there had there been any combination consequently\n;\nit is very difficult to learn what is going on and\nwhat has really been achieved.\nThis is the first difficulty. The second is more serious, and would, I\nfear, be the same in every country, arising, as it does, from the danger of\nconfounding the increase of kindergartens with the spread of Froebelian\nprinciples.\nBut to this I must return later.\n\n"}
{"page": 381, "printed_page": null, "text": "FROEBEL'S\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPRINCIPLES\n\nIN ENGLAND.\n\n361\n\nIt may not be uninteresting, before speaking of the present condition of\naffairs, to cast a glance at the past, at the early beginning and the history\nof the movement in England, and I cannot do better than to quote a passage from the preface to the interesting translation of Froebel's letters by\nMadame Michaelis and Mr. Keatley Moore, in which a slight review is\ngiven of the period since the first introduction of the system in England\nin 1854, just fourteen years after Eroebel opened his first kindergarten.\nu One generation only of Englishmen has passed away since that, and\nyet in this short time, with all the inertive force of insular and conservative\nEngland to strive against, hampered at the same time by a foreign name,\nforeign interpreters, and by much that was foreign in its actual working\ndetail, the kindergarten has struck deep root in our land, and has already,\nbo to speak, acclimatized itself. Its foreign name has been adopted, and\nis now reckoned as very good English. Those who remain to us of its foreign interpreters* — the ladies to whose enterprising exertions we owe so\nmuch — have also become as good Englishwomen as any others. Its foreign\ndetails have entirely disappeared, and we have now a vigorous and thoroughly national English kindergarten.\"\nTo return to the history of this change, we may begin by quoting a few\nwords from Baroness von Mahrenholtz's account of her first visit to England. She came two years after Froebel's death, in 1854. \"I found,\"\nshe says, \"the first kindergarten established in Hampstead, and during\nmy stay in London several others were founded. In Manchester and in\nsundry other towns in England, as also at Dublin, kindergartens existed.\nDuring the six months of my sojourn in London, where I gave many\nlectures on Eroebel, proofs of sincere recognition of his merits were not\nwanting. Already some English writings on the kindergarten had\nappeared ; and also a practical manual or pamphlet, which I published in\nEnglish in 1855 under the title of 'Infant Gardens,' was quickly taken up/'\nIt is interesting, as I have remarked elsewhere, to be reminded that Dickens\nwas one of those who gave an early welcome to the kindergarten among\nus, and that he wrote several articles upon it in Household Words.\nFollowing the very useful chronological abstract given by Madame\nMichaelis at the end of the book I have just quoted from, we find that\nMiss Heerwart and Madame de Portugal both came to England in 1861 to\nconduct different schools at Manchester, whence Miss Heerwart subsequently went to Dublin ; that in 1866 Miss Doreck (afterward the first\npresident of the Froebel Society) came to London and founded the admirable kindergarten and school where she remained till her death, a few\nyears later ; while Miss Heerwart left Dublin to become principal of the\nStockwell Training College.\nAgain, it is recorded that the Froebel Society was founded in London\nm 1874 ; that it held its first examination for kindergarten teachers in 1876,\nMadame de Portugal having come over from Geneva for the purpose, as\n\n"}
{"page": 382, "printed_page": null, "text": "362\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nchief examiner ; and that in 1877, after the lamented death of Miss Doreck,\nI had the honor of being elected president of the society, a post I have\nretained till now.\nThe Froebel Society was founded for the purpose of making a more\nsystematic endeavor than had yet been tried to spread the knowledge and\npractice of the master's views and method. A system of lectures, discussions, meetings, publications (including translations), training and registration of teachers, and inspection of kindergartens, was laid down ; and had\nwe been able, as we fondly hoped, to draw together the workers in various\nparts of the country, we should have been in a position to do much and\nto exercise considerable influence. Fortunately, in one branch, the most\nimportant by far, we have won real success ; namely, in the examination\nof teachers, on which depended the right scientific direction of the whole\nmovement. To this the society set itself with patient determination from\nthe first, laying down a curriculum of studies for the training of the young\nteachers in the theory and practice of FroebePs complete system of education, upholding a high standard of knowledge and efficiency, and giving\nthe public the guarantee of a certificate granted on the award of examiners unconnected, as far as it is possible, with the training of the students.\nI say \"as far as it is possible,\" because in the special and technical work\nof the kindergarten it has been sometimes unavoidable to call in the services of the few really versed in these matters, and who are, for the most\npart, engaged themselves in some training-college work. The certificate\nthus given has year by year gained repute, till its acceptance by the Education Department, in 1892, gave it public sanction ; and this year the\ncandidates for certificates of various degrees number upward of four hundred, having risen from seventy-eight in 1887.\nKindergarten methods were partially introduced into the elementary\nschools in London some years ago, but not in direct connection with us.\nMiss Lyschinska, who was the' first person employed by the school board\nto give this instruction, was at the time and long after on our council,\nbut acted independently in this matter.\nIn answer to inquiries from me, a lady well qualified to give an opinion\nwrites that \"progress in kindergarten methods in board schools had\nbeen steady during the last few years. The infant schools show more\nand more the results of a wiser and more efficient kind of teaching. The\ninfant-school mistresses have a greater knowledge of child nature, and are\nmore apt in utilizing the educational advantages of Froebel's system than\nthe mistresses of the higher standards.\n\"The movement in favor of technical education has awakened in many\na sense that it would be as well to prepare the hand and eye in some measure in the infant schools ; so there is a tendency for the one movement to\nmeet the other.\n. .\n** Many inspectors and members of the school board show a growing\n\n"}
{"page": 383, "printed_page": null, "text": "FRO EB EL'S EDUCATIONAL\n\nPRINCIPLES\n\nIN ENGLAND.\n\n363\n\ndesire for more educational methods and wider training of the intelligence, and are prepared to welcome a thorough application of the system. . . .\n\"The education code of 1892 and 1893 affords strong evidence of an\nappreciation of FroeheFs system, and the new circular lately issued by the\ndepartment shows that the missionary work of the Froebel Society has\nmade a deep impression.\"\nThe circular here referred, to is one directing all inspectors to require\nkindergarten work in the infant schools, thus giving the fullest official\nrecognition of the value of Froebel's method. It may be well to quote\nsome of the forcible expressions in which the grounds of it are laid down.\n\"Two leading principles should be regarded as a sound basis for the education of\nearly childhood :\n\"(1) The recognition of the child's spontaneous activity, and the stimulation of this\nactivity in certain well-defined directions by the teachers.\nil (2) The harmonious and complete development of the whole of a child's faculties.\nThe teacher should pay especial regard to the love of movement, which can alone secure\nhealthy physical conditions ; to the observant use of the organs of sense, especially those\nof sight and touch ; and to that eager desire of questioning which intelligent children\nexhibit. All these should be encouraged under due limitation and should be developed\nsimultaneously, so that each stage of development may be complete in itself.\n\" It has been strongly urged that sufficient attention has not been paid in the past to\nthese principles ; indeed, it is often found that the kindergarten occupations are treated\nas mere toys or amusing pastimes because they are attractive for children, and the intellectual character of the ' Gifts of Froebel ' is disregarded, whereas the main object of\nthese lessons is to stimulate intelligent individual effort.\"\n\nThis circular, which carries authority throughout the country, will not\nonly produce a large measure of direct good, at this moment especially,\nwhen the number of little children in the schools is enormously increased\nowing to the free admission, but will, we may hope, tend to bring about\nthat unity of action among various bodies of Froebel workers which we,\nas a private society, failed to obtain.\nIt had been our great desire to have established a joint examining board,\ngathered from all the more important centers, but we were disappointed.\nIn this, the work of supreme importance that we felt called upon to\nundertake, we were again baffled by local dislike to a combined systematic\nmovement. Blind to the effect on the public mind of such harmonious\naction, provincial associations have preferred to keep their independence.\nThus, although we have centers for examination in various parts of the\ncountry, it is not as members of one union that the workers in these different localities call in our help. We are, indeed, moving toward the\nsame object, but not hand in hand, which would greatly have iucreased\nour prestige and powers for good. One country association only, that of\nBedford, has, in the matter of examination, completely joined the Froebel\nSociety of England and Ireland (its full title), and agreed to form a joint\nboard composed of members chosen from the councils of both societies ;\nand this board has been fortunate enousrh to secure as chairman Mr. H.\n\n"}
{"page": 384, "printed_page": null, "text": "364\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nCourthope Bowen, whoso valuable contributions to Froebelian literature\nare as well known in America as among ourselves.\nThis want of combination makes, as I before remarked, one great difficulty in presenting anything like a satisfactory account of the progress of\nthe Froebel system in England ; and yet we may safely affirm that it has\nspread widely. We see it in London and the neighborhood, and we know\nof much work done in Yorkshire, in Manchester, and other parts of the\nnorth ; in Cheltenham, under the auspices of the Ladies' College, whose\ndistinguished principal, Miss Beale, is earnest in the cause; in the highschools of the Girls' Public Day School Company, twenty-five of which\nhave kindergarten preparatory classes ; and of the many schools set up\nindependently under the same name in different large towns all over the\ncountry, several have adopted the same arrangements. In short, the\nkindergartens, good and bad, are to be numbered by hundreds, and even\nthe bad bear at least witness to the growing popularity of this method of\ndealing with little children.\nThere is, however, as I said before, a more serious question to answer\nwith regard to the real progress of Froebel education, one which points\nto the second great difficulty of giving anything like a complete report of\nthe existing condition, and this is, How far does the increase of kindergartens prove the spread of the Froebelian theory of education ? How far\nis his principle of development of faculty in young children, of the continuity of education upon the same scientific lines, accepted by parents,\nor even by teachers in advanced schools ? In short, are we aiming only\nat making childhood happier and more healthily active, or are we really\nfollowing more and more the teaching of the great master, and consciously striving to train another generation of better citizens, of men\nand women by whom the value of work shall be less measured in money\ngain or worldly success — the parents of the future, who shall feel more\ndeeply their fathomless responsibility for the well-being, physical and\nmental, of the young creatures committed to their care ? This was\nFroebel's view as he labored for \" the education of mankind.\" He could\nscarcely find words to express his sense of what we owe to children ; do\nwe then, when we speak of the progress of his views among us, mean that\nwe are more and more sharing in this feeling, with all it implies of new\neffort and higher aims ? Would that I could answer this question as\neasily as that which related to the spread of kindergartens ! A lady, whose\nown admirable work and long dealings among parents and ordinary\nteachers gives her authority to speak, sends me a discouraging account of\nher own experience :\n\"Parents,\" she says, \"as a rule expect a modern kind of education;\nbut what they expect they cannot define. They see a large number of\nchildren happy and good ; they would like their own child to join the\ngroup. We take them round in every classroom, and explain some points\n\n"}
{"page": 385, "printed_page": null, "text": "FROEBEL'S\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPRINCIPLES\n\nIN ENGLAND.\n\n365\n\nin each, and they get a general impression ; but on only the rarest occasion have I ever aroused sufficient interest to get a parent to read any\neducational work. I keep pamphlets and distribute them, but rarely hear\na remark upon them. We get about five hundred visits annually — two\nhundred from parents, three hundred from strangers ; and of these, three\nor four people annually will ask for books on educational subjects.\n\"With regard to definite appreciation of the kindergarten, the occupations appeal to some (a) as amusement ; (b) as a means of training artistic\nfaculty; and on the whole this is fairly well appreciated.\n\"Parents are slowest to observe the value of the whole training as a\nmeans for the development of character. If they recognize at all that the\nkindergarten is a little miniature world, they argue that on the whole\nthey would prefer it without the mixture of good and bad. They see no\ngood in the games or stories, but they see that on the whole the children\nget on, and so they bring them, and so they leave them.\n\"The question is still too frequently asked as to the utility of the\nobjects made, not only in the kindergarten, but also all through the\ntransition and manual-training classes. We have still to drive home\nthe lesson that the real product is unseen and in the child ; the article\nmade has been but a means of aiding this unseen development.\"\nWe see from these remarks two facts which exercise a baneful influence\n— neglect of the study of Froebel by teachers of more advanced schools, so\nthat the combination of the system that aims at developing the whole\nfaculty of the child with that which aims principally at giving knowledge\nfor more or less definite objects — i.e., the right continuity of education — is\nhindered ; and the neglect of that same study by parents, so that a child\npasses, so to speak, from one mental climate to another between the kindergarten and home. Parents here really mean mothers. Unspeakable\n?ood would indeed be done did fathers study education, but there are ex3uses for them which do not exist for mothers, whose first duty to God\nmil to the nation is the right training of the young creatures given to\ntheir care.\nIn summing up this report, this at least is certain : We have made considerable progress ; we are moving forward ; the means are abundant, both\nin schools and in teaching powers ; but the interest of the public, so indispensable inevery modern undertaking, is lacking, as we may certify by\nthe infallible money test. The position of Froebel as a reformer of education is not completely understood, save by a few, even among the serious\neducators of the day ; while mothers have not yet realized, as they should,\nthat here is their own special guide and friend, the one among the teachers\nof men who turned from the pedantry of schools and called upon women\nto help him, and to vindicate their own position as the heaven-appointed\neducators of the race.\n1 make no comparison between my own and other countries ; I have no\n\n"}
{"page": 386, "printed_page": null, "text": "366\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nmeans of doing so. Whether the same causes operate to hinder Froebel's\ninfluence among them I know not. But I dare to trust that England will\nnot, in the end, be found backward in the race ; that she will be neither\nlower in her ideals nor less zealous in pursuing them.\n\nTHE KINDERGARTEN\nBY\n\nMRS.\n\nOTTILIA\n\nBONDY,\n\nIN AUSTRIA.\nOF\n\nVIENJSTA.\n\nOur kindergarten, like many good and great creations, took root in a\nsimple work of charity, in the old system of day nurseries, the first of\nwhich was opened at Vienna, 1830, on the birthday of Emperor Francis I.\nTwo noble-hearted men are to be mentioned as the promoters of this good\nwork — one, an old Catholic priest, Reverend Lindrer ; the other, a young\nman in the prime of his years, one of those philanthropic pupils of Moses\nMendelssohn, who knew how to extract the purest gems of philanthropy\nout of the Mosaic creed — Josef Wertheimer, who, in later years, was\nknighted by his sovereign, the present emperor. Wertheimer had learned\nto appreciate the infant schools for the poor two years before, on a tour\nthrough Great Britain, where he found three hundred schools established\nby the Infant Schools Society. It was a strange thing to bring home to\nhis country for a young man of rich means, of high spirits and great\npersonal gifts. When Wertheimer died, an octogenarian, almost his last\nwords were about his creations, the kindergarten and the orphan's asylum.\nNew ideas used to meet with opposition in all parts of the Old World.\nThis was especially the case in Austria before the vivifying and invigorating movement of 1798. The clergy, the bureaucracy, and the populace itself were against the idea of the day nurseries. Wertheimer would\nnot have succeeded in getting them sanctioned by government if be had\nnot obtained for them the patronage of the Empress Karolina Augusta,\nthe emperor's fourth wife, of whom the monarch used to say that in her\nhe had at length found his life's greatest blessing— a true wife. This\nnoble and truly pious lady helped to overcome all difficulties, and in a\nshort time many day nurseries were opened in districts crowded by the\npoor, where the mothers, as breadwinners, have to be away from home\nthe best part of the day.\nAll these institutions had no higher aim than the one to keep children\nfrom getting into mischief. It was their purpose to keep — zu bewahren — as\ntheir name Bewahranstalten indicated. Their management was intrusted\nto elderly people, good for nothing else, with no pedagogic experience,\nwith no insight into the wants of developing minds. Girls were taught\nto knit ; boys were left to their own devices as far as the first rule, to keep\nquiet, permitted it. They were taught some Bible verses.\nWhen the\n\n"}
{"page": 387, "printed_page": null, "text": "367\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nIN AUSTRIA.\n\nolder ones got too unruly, their untaught teachers took to primers and\narithmetic and spoiled them for school.\nAgain it was Josef Wertheimer who came to the rescue. Assisted by\nhis wife, he had found means to build the first Kinderbewahranstalt,\nwhich was established in its own house and dedicated to the rites of the\nFroebelian system. The empress undertook the patronage of it, and it\nwas touching to hear her say to the wife of Joseph Wertheimer, a childless\nwife like herself : \" We both, as well as your husband, have the mission\nto offer to other people's children the devotion which we were deprived\nof giving to our own ones.\" This Bewahranstalt, which celebrated its\nfiftieth anniversary this year, where I had my initiation in charity work,\nwas built exactly to its purpose. In the midst of the Leopoldstadt, a\ndensely populated district, it provides a spacious hall, large rooms, a wellkept garden with a vast lawn and shady grounds which are kept open from\nmorning till evening. Two hundred and fifty to three hundred children\nare here taken in to get a wholesome dinner for a nominal price, and food\nfor the poorest is dispensed.\nThis Bewahranstalt was conducted from the, beginning on rational\npedagogic notions, but its great importance as the first kindergarten in\nAustria dates from 1863, when its present principal, Mr. Fisher, and his\nwife took the management of it. This excellent pedagogue, who has had\nthe distinction to be appointed honorary vice-president of the Educational Congress, was the first to introduce the Froebelian system, and to\nchange it into a real Volks-kindergarten — kindergarten for the people.\nVery soon some private kindergartens were opened in different Austrian\ntowns, but all of them were sadly in want of assistance. We had the\ngarden, but we had no gardeners except the few principals, most of them\nonly book taught.\nTo better this state of things, Wertheimer, after having celebrated the\ntwenty-fifth anniversary of his foundation, went to Gotha to study the\nseminary and training-school under August Koehler. Before the end of\n1868 he and the ladies' committee in charge had the satisfaction of opening\nthe first seminary for kindergartners in Austria, with eight pupils, under\nthe management of Mr. Fisher and his wife. Up to this date nearly seven\nhundred kindergartners and trainers have graduated from there, and have\nhelped to propagate the system over the whole Austrian realm. The\ncourse of instruction is of one year's duration, and the applicants must be\nat least sixteen years old. I am happy to say that the standard for their\ngraduation is a sufficiently high one, and that the ethical side of their\nvocation is duly impressed on them.\nA most important era for the kindergarten was in 1872, under the minister for public instruction, Stremayer, when a statute was elaborated by\na committee of school authorities which regulated the management of\nkindergartens, Bcwahranstalten, aud seminaries for kindergartners under\n\n"}
{"page": 388, "printed_page": null, "text": "368\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nthe law, and which elevated the above-mentioned seminary to the rank\nof a state institution, and now its certificates have the value of public\ndocuments.\nIn 1875 a second seminary was opened at Vienna, and five years later\ngovernment itself annexed like institutions to the seminaries for female'\nteachers. I am sorry to say that neither public opinion nor the good will\nof our teachers kept pace with this satisfactory acknowledgment of the\nFroebelian system. Parents in better situated homes did not take kindly to\nan institution which they judged at best to be superfluous. Teachers at\nfirst thought it a hindrance to future serious work ; they were of the opinioi\nthat the habit of symbolizing gave too large a scope to childish imagination, that it was apt to make the little ones fanciful and dreamy. They\nwould have it that being led from one occupation, from one play to\nanother, took all self-reliance out of them, and that they had great trouble\nto accustom them to serious schoolwork. These prejudices are disappearing, as happily most prejudices do in the course of time. Not the\nleast merit in dissipating them belongs to the \"Association for Kindergartens \"— Verein fur Kindergarten in Oesterreich — on the first board\nof which I had the honor to be the only lay woman, a link between kindergartners and mothers. I am very proud of having accomplished this\nmission. On this committee we had some teachers from public schools.\nThey had occasion to study the system, to know its value better, and to\npromote a truer understanding between their colleagues and the kindergartners. This association, founded in 1879, undertook as its highest aim\nto prove that kindergarten teaching is an advantage to future teaching.\nIt sent out a list of questions to the heads of the primary schools, asking\nwhat percentage of pupils who had had this kindergarten teaching gav<\nbetter and what gave less satisfaction to their teachers ? This inquiry is\nnot yet closed. The association would open VolTcs-hindergartens, but their\nmeans are not sufficient. Its. work till now is more an ethical than a\npractical one ; it gives a nucleus to the kindergartners by meetings, readings by\n; the publication of its organ, the Journal for Kindergartens, a\nmost valuable source of information for kindergartners out of reach of\ndirect communication with their colleagues.\nIn 1879 there were one hundred and fifty-six kindergartens at work in\nAustria. The next year was of importance not only as to statistics, but for\nthe dignity of the idea as a means of guarding the German element from\nbeing overrun in mixed districts, as we have so many in Bohemia and in\nother provinces of our polyglot empire. The Deutsche Schulverein was\nfounded by a circle of German patriots. This noble institution endowed\nAustria not only with a great many German schools, but also with\nbetween fifty and sixty kindergartens. As far as I could procure the\nstatistics, there are now between five hundred and six hundred kindergartens in Austria.\nThey owe their subsistence to government, in case\n\n"}
{"page": 389, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE\n\nREAL\n\nNATURE\n\n369\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\n>f being attached to training-schools at the seminaries ; or to the municipalities in manufacturing towns, where the free kindergarten is a great\nlecessity. Some mill owners founded kindergartens for the children of\ntheir hands. Many are kept by women clubs. There are also a few private\ncindergartens for well-to-do people.\nIf I am permitted to say a word about the working of the system with\nis, I must say that one meets with the same difference of opinion about\nit as I believe that you find here. Kindergartners of the old school,\n)rthodox Froebelians, use the gifts of the master as he intended them, or,\nbetter to say, as they grew out of his loving heart. In playing, they allow\nthe little folk to symbolize without giving them utensils and implements.\nrounger kindergartners try to amplify the building-stones till they degenerate into ordinary toys ; they invent all sort of materials which at\nleast are superfluous.\nI must say that I found the same difference of\nlanaging here, too. Pricking is tabooed with us, as with you, as hurting\nthe eyesight. Bound games are performed in a more elaborate style here\nthan with us. The reason of it may be that in Austria children are leaving\nthe kindergarten at the age of six, when they are due in elementary\njhools. You have them a year longer, so you can do more with them.\nIn one class at St. Louis I was greatly impressed by the lesson on\n)bjects, given on flowers.\nIf ever I met with the most perfect interpretation of FroebePs grand purpose, to educate children as in a garden of God's\ncreation, it was there under the vivifying influence of a highly gifted lady.\n[any samples of her work, and of that of other trainers, were kindly\niven me. When I shall have the privilege of exhibiting these at a meeting of the Kindergarten Association at Vienna, as I intend to do, I shall\nratefully remember the many proofs of the solidarity between the friends\n)f childhood which facilitated my way in your grand country.\nI shall\nsll my compatriots of the wonderful work you are doing here, as I\n)romised to do before leaving Vienna.\nI have no doubt that I shall\n3tter succeed in these explanations where I shall not contend with so\nlany difficulties of diction in expressing my thoughts and feelings as I\niave here. May I hope for your indulgence to a stranger, whose only\nlold on your patience is the solidarity of purposes aud of good wishes for\nthe children in any part of the world ?\n\nTHE\nBY\n\nHERMANN\n\nREAL\n\nNATURE\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nPOE8CHE,\nEDUCATIONAL\nINSPECTOR\nADMINISTRATION\nIN BERLIN.\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nORPHAN\n\nThe aucient German school and system of teaching made no provision\nfor children under school age. In the school itself the learning of words\nby heart and familiarity with more or less abstract ideas and a mechanical\n24\n\n"}
{"page": 390, "printed_page": null, "text": "370\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nfaculty were fostered. Traditional science was imparted to the children\nand demanded back from them, just as linen stuff is mechanically put\ninto a chest of drawers and taken out when needed. The ancient school\nwas a mere word school — a one-sided institution for teaching and learning.\nIn the course of this abstract and mechanical teaching no ideas were\nimparted, only dead representations. The powers of the children were\nnot freely developed, but enveloped and maimed. Continual stuffing\nmade the children lazy and apathetic ; the mere repetition and passive\nlearning killed the inclination to self-activity, to self-finding, and selfinquiring. From school the children gained little or nothing for life, or\nthey were not able to apply the acquired knowledge in the practical life.\nThen came ITenry Pestalozzi and his intuitive instruction. With infinite love and enthusiasm he cared for the children before school age. He\nwrote books for educating mothei's ; he created in his mother-books the\nideal of an educating mother, \" Gertrude.\" He gave a new foundation\nto the abstract system of word teaching in school. Instead of the dead\nword instruction of the ancient school, he offered, by means of his intuitive instruction, intellectual alacrity, self -activity, inventive power, the\nreal labor of the mind. Educators, in their enthusiasm for this new\nmethod, sought to make all things intuitive to the exterior or interior\nsenses, and saw in the intuitive principles the true reform of all schoolwork. At the present time we see in intuition only a momentum — an\nimportant one, to be sure, but only a momentum— of school.\nThe great pupil of Pestalozzi, Frederick Froebel, it is true, followed\nwith fine sensibilities and great industry in the pathway of his teacher;\nbut, with a deeper mind, he was able to create, on a new psychological\nbasis, a higher and nobler edifice. Among his leading principles are the\nfollowing :\n(1) Froebel desires for human education and instruction a developing\nmethod; that is, a progressive' method, which is closely related to the physiological and psychological laws of the development of human nature :\n\"education according to nature's laws.\"\n(2) He wants an educational culture of men ; that is, a system which\nabove all else takes hold of the will of the child. He rejects the one-sided\nscientific man, and the one-sided teaching and learning school. He will\neducate acting men, able to apply knowledge in acts and life.\n(3) He wants education of (the whole) man; that means that which\ntakes hold equally on the three fundamental characteristics of man's\nnature : thinking, feeling, and willing, with the means offered by art, science, and the practical technical life.\n(4) He wants, as an end of human education, a life harmonious on all\nsides with God, men, and nature. In other words, he combines the essential of the existing institutions of education : the religious element of the\npublic school ; the realistic (mathematics, natural sciences, etc.) of the\n\n"}
{"page": 391, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE\n\nREAL\n\nNATURE\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\n371\n\nreal -gymnasia ; and ike humanistic (languages, history) of the gymnasia.\nHe wants \"living union with God, man, and nature\"; that means not\nonlv that which consists in knowledge and the mastery of words, but in\nwhich, also, the sensible and active man is involved.\nFroebel wanted first, as mentioned above, the culture of men in all\ndirections accord to nature's laws, with reference to nature, man, and God,\nas well as in respect to the three fundamental attributes of human nature,\nacting, thinking, and feeling. As a psychological basis he placed acting\nfirst. The child is to him first an acting and creating being, not first a\nlearning and knowing being. Knowledge, perception, must, so to speak,\ngrow out of action. He repeats this principle over and over again, always\nin new terms.\nWe will here quote the most important of these expressions :\n\" The education worthy of man, following the demands of nature, must\nplace him early in such relations and actions that he, by creating and\nacting, may represent his own nature outwardly, and thus fully reveal\nhimself.\"\n\"The time of daily work and exercises of teachers and pupils must be\ndivided with the time for labor — that is, working and acting — learning\nand instruction must alternate with labor.\"\n\" This instruction — that is, learning and teaching of pupils and\nteachers — must proceed from their own acting and working; doctrines\nmust be applied in life.\"\n\"In public education acting must be supreme ; that is to say, teaching\naud learning should proceed by and through things, through acting and\nthrough life. Thus the intelligence, reaching higher and higher, to the\nparticular as well as to the general, and its creative power, working according to the faculties, the talents, and the inclinations of the pupils, are\ndeveloped.\"\nAccording to this the representations — i.e., thoughts and ideas within the\nmind of the child — must not remain dormant, but they must come into\nlife by the hand, by means of action and by creating. On the other side,\nthe external works of art and nature must not remain external to the child,\nbut they must be made internal, being brought into the mind.\nFroebel thus combines the two psychological contrasts of acting and\nthinking, art and science. This he expressed in a short formula, which\nruns thus : \" The external must be made internal to the child, and the\ninternal must be made external.\"\nThe acting of the little child is represented by play. \"With the play\nof the child,\" as Froebel says — \" with the play, as with the child's innermost nature,\" he connected the first education in family and kindergarten,\nand for the playing activity he sought and found \"a whole in itself of\nplay and occupations.\" To sketch this in its separate parts may be superfluous, as it is represented in many American books, generally with good\nillustrations.\n\n"}
{"page": 392, "printed_page": null, "text": "372\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nOnly this I will say, at last : As nature gives the young duck the element of water for swimming, so Froebel in his kindergarten provides the\nchild with suitable material, so that he is enabled to give his ideas an external form, a body by the work of his hand. Thus his mind is strengthened through perception by the senses, through intuition and observatioi\nof good, beautiful, and true things. Froebel's kindergarten method consists in this, that the child, by means of forming and shaping in free selfactivity, learns to seek, find, and invent, and is enabled to elaborate througt\nthis activity, which corresponds to his nature, his individuality, and his\npeculiar character.\nThus Froebel has become, through the representative idea, the true\nartist among pedagogues. The \"ABC of activity,\" which Pestalozzi\nlooked for but did not find, Froebel has added to the ancient German\nand to Pestalozzi's representative school. Thus for all the time in which\nchildren shall be educated, as long as learning and teaching survive, the\nintuitive learning and teaching will be maintained. Froebel's system of\nrepresentation as a necessary completion makes possible an all-sided, harmonious, developing, educating human culture, and this will be in the\nfuture time the true aim of teachers and educators.\n\nPREVENTION\nBY\n\nMISS\n\nOF CRIMINAL\nEMMA\n\nIDLENESS.\n\nMARWEDEL.*\n\nIt seems almost unnecessary to urge the educational value of labor\nbefore a body which has considered this problem for years.\nPhilosophy, science, and experience force the educators of the nineteenth\ncentury to recognize the reciprocal relation existing between mental and\nbodily activity, a fact which brings bodily activity at once into the curriculum of the school, especially in a government by the people, for the\npeople, which must rise or fall according to the mental and bodily condition of the people.\nThe work accomplished by the American nation shows gigantic concentration of cosmopolitan energies. What wonder that the children are\nborn with the highest degree of bodily activity ? Yet, strange to say, in\nspite of this inborn activity, the American baby is very quiet. The reason for this seems to be that the first settlers having very little time to\nspare, the American baby was consecpiently more left without toys, and is\n* Miss Emm* Marwedel established an industrial art school for women at Hamburg, Germany, in 1867.\nShe came to this country in 1872, and opened the first kindergarten in Washington, D. C. In 1876 she\nfounded the first kindergarten normal school at Los Angeles, Cal. For several years past she had been\n\n\"\n\nengaged in kindergarten work in San Francisco, Cal., where she died November 17, 1893. Althoug'\nnearly seventy-five years old, she continued her active labors almost to ihe time of her death.\n\n"}
{"page": 393, "printed_page": null, "text": "PREVENTION\n\nOF CRIMINAL\n\nIDLENESS.\n\n373\n\nstill to-day less amused and less talked to than the European child in the\ncradle, and this affects its habits in its seemingly passive condition.\nBut observing the large, wondering eyes of our children, comparing,\nseemingly, one object with another, though resting for hours in a peaceful\nmd undisturbed condition, proves them quite active in thinking ; and\nwhile their plastic features indicate restful, harmonious bodily development, their gain of knowledge by means of silent observation and evident\nself-activity is surprising.\nBut with the power to walk and speak its condition is suddenly changed,\nand the combined forces of its mental and physical activities break forth\nwithout limit. The child wants to know and to do everything at once.\nHis faithful teacher's experimental activity and repetition of comparison\nand observation seem too slow now, and it is to the adult that he clings\nin his demands and expectations. What provision is in use to direct and\nsatisfy these childish demands ?\nOur houses are not built with nurseries fitted to hold experimental toys ;\nas, for example, a rocking-horse, a nursery-swing, nursery gymnastic tools,\nAustralian jumping-chairs, colored ellipsoids to sort and string, and,\nhighly important, a sand-table. Neither, in most cases, are nurses often,\nand sometimes not even mothers, capable of answering the questions of\nthe child. Our tenement-houses, our hotels, and our own single rooms\npreclude the child from running and jumping. There are very few clean,\nhealthy, and attractive yards ; no near-by parks where a mother may sit\nto sew while the children play around her knees, as seen in Europe ; no\nprivate parks open to them ; no school-gardens ; no teachers engaged to\ntake the truants, as in London, to the gymnastic apparatus found in the\nparks ; and to the museum or other places of learning and interest.\nThere are only rare possibilities of excursions in field and forest, where\nteachers can make selections.\nWhat is the fate of these prevented activities ? The children are perverted they\n;\nare driven into those highways of juvenile crime, our streets\nand by-ways, where by eager, idle, practical observation, with a dime novel\nin each hand and a dime novel in each pocket, their wonderful gifts and\nactivities are inch by inch turned into destructive activities, and gradually\na contempt for labor grows into distorted views and vicious habits of life.\nHow to regulate these inborn gifts, how to direct the efforts of the\nrepublic which is responsible for the prevention of crime as well as the\ncure of it, is the question that confronts us wherever we meet these unfortunate victims of indifference and neglect. Are there no helping hands\nfor them ? Such hands have partly been found in our free kindergarten,\nand whoever doubts the educational value of labor should enter the embryo\nworkshop in a well-regulated kindergarten. There is joy, no burden, as\nProfessor Hall fears, in every movement of the muscles ; joy, and gradual\nsuccess, and final mastery, and helpfulness and self-reliance, in control of\n\n"}
{"page": 394, "printed_page": null, "text": "374\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nwill and in patience ; joy in seeking, finding, and proving truth, in reason and judgment ; joy in knowing by doing for and with each other\nin seeing and touching; in ethics and aesthetics; joy in health an\nstrength ; and joy — threefold joy — in the harmoniously rounded physical\nmental, moral, and religious development of the child.\nThis picture is\nnot overdrawn, and the question arises, Why do we not continue this education through labor ?\nEducational development by systematized labor is not new. The Eco\nnomical Society in Sweden has existed since 1813, and has reached fame\nand influence, especially since the so-called Slojd system lent its assistance. In France both compulsory education and the introduction of\nmanual labor were established by law in May, 1882. The so-called Ecoles\nmaternelles date from 1881. They began with some kindergarten workshops in two classes fur children from two to five years, and from five to seven\nyears. The higher elementary classes, devoting from two to three hours\nweekly to manual labor, result in the acquisition of skill, strength of body,\nintegrity of character, and quickness of action, together with excellence in\nworkmanship as the real aim, while the labor itself is treated partly as\nrelaxation. Girls receive a theoretical and practical preparation for housekeeping, cutting and fitting of garments, and needlework.\nThere is a regular manual training of four years' duration for the boys.\nThis gives theoretical and practical instruction in a chosen trade, including drawing, art culture, singing, foreign languages, and gymnastics,\ndemanding four hours a week, though the last year may require the whole\ntime except ten hours weekly. Each school must furnish as many rooms\nfor workshops as there are classes. Wherever manual-labor training has\nbeen connected with public schools, those teachers already familiar with\nthe child, and able to instruct in one or two branches of manual labor,\nhave had the greatest success. On this basis, and to save expense, France\nprovides a very extensive work programme, including agriculture, horticulture, and art culture, for the seminaries of preceptors, and they serve\npartially as models in Europe.\nThe head of the Paris training-school is M. G. Salisis, whose name\nbecame known in 1872 by his connecting the first manual-labor class with\na public school in Rue Turenne, Paris. Germany dates its first educational labor movement as far back as 1GG3, when A. H. Franke connected\nit with his famous orphan -house at Halle. Basedow followed him with\nhis celebrated Philanthropium, which, though making a great impression11\non some eminent educators, did not produce a lasting reform ; and it was\nnot until 1829 that the kindergarten and a branch institute at Helba\nSwitzerland, matured this idea, culminating in the present manual-labo\nschools, although labor has been constantly used as a means of development in Froebel's institutes.\nThe wide-spread, powerful, and yet individually kept organization of\n\n"}
{"page": 395, "printed_page": null, "text": "PREVENTION\n\nOF CRIMINAL\n\nIDLENESS.\n\n375\n\nmanual dexterity brings us back to the consideration of our own condition\nin this respect. The school shops were discussed by the American Social\nScience Association as far back as 1877, in Boston, by a committee consisting of Wendell Phillips, S. P. Ruggles, Elizur Wright, Edward Everett\nHale, and John Newell. In this discussion they say : \" How shall we\ntrain for the wide field of responsibility that lies before them, the children\nand youth who are to succeed us in this world, so changed by science and\ninventions ? \"\nSays Wendell Phillips :\n\"Now idleness is one of the first temptations to vice. Children should be taught how\nto work, and, if possible, trained to love work. Seven out of ten who come out of our\npublic schools would prefer a trade by which to make a living by the work of their\nhands, but hundreds leave school at fifteen years of age wholly unable to do anything\nfor which any man would give them a dollar. And further, in my judgment, we have\nno right to take<i man's child from him and keep him until he is fifteen, or to induce\na man to trust his child with us, and then hand him back unable and unfit to earn liis\nbread. We have done the boy and the city a harm rather than good. Education means\nfitting man for his life ; we have rather unfitted than fitted such a boy for the life of\nlabor which is to be his destiny. Our system helps the literary class to an unfair extent\nwhen compared with what it offers to those who choose some mechanical pursuit. Our\nsystem stops too short ; and as a justice to boys and girls, as well as to society, we should\nsee to it. Its main features must be added to our public school system, which daily\nbecomes more unequal to the task it assumes. \"\n\nEdward Everett Hale says :\n\".The great duly of the state is to make the most of every child bom in the state. We\nbegin bravely on the broad system of public schools, but it must be remembered that the\naverage Boston boy leaves school forever before Tie is twelve years old.\"\n\nWe wish the state to add school shops to its system, because the state\ncan do it better than any private corporation. And if a child should\nenter a kindergarten at the age of three years, and remain in a connected\nmanual-labor\nschool, he would have at least a nine years' training for\nwork.\nBut Mr. Hale continues :\n\"The state has determined wisely that all large towns shall have Latin and Greek\ntaught in the public schools, and shall prepare boys for college. It has determined\nwisely that they shall teach drawing in these schools, resolving to develop the hardly\nbudding genius of art in our manufactures. Let it determine with the same wisdom\nnot to be dependent on the workshops of other lands for the skilled workmen whom it\nmust have if its great enterprises are to prosper.\"\n\nI cannot but believe that so soon as the state throws the prestige of the\npublic school system around its schools of industry, and opens them as\nfreely as it opens its schools of Latin and Greek and the higher mathematics, we shall see boys of enterprise and ingenuity and quickness of\n\n"}
{"page": 396, "printed_page": null, "text": "376\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\neye repair to them with as much eagerness as boys now repair to West\nPoint and other places. The state must meet the wants and aspirations,\nas it trains the inborn faculties of every child born into its arms.\nThe Boston Post says :\n\" The opinion of Hon. Elizur Wright, that our common school system is set up wrong\nend foremost, hecause children should be taught the use of tools before they learn to\nread, write, and spell, deserves consideration as coming from a man who knows experimentally whereof he chooses to affirm, and feels a deep personal interest in the right\nadvance of popular education. The kindergarten idea is not so very far away from\nhis as to be denied relationship, and may in time operate to bring his into universal\nrecognition.\"\n\nThe Boston Saturday Evening Express says :\n\" We have now in our State (Massachusetts) about three hundred thousand persoi\nwho have no practical knowledge in any trade, art, calling, or profession by which\nobtain a living, these being useful only as a reserve from which a draff can be made for\ntramps, political bummers, thieves, jail-birds, candidates for all our penal institutions.\nNine-tenths of all the criminals arraigned and corrected are persons who have no technical education.\"\n\nI return now to the natural workshops — the kindergartens. And we\nask, Shall we, by failing to form and control the child's life habits through\nskilled labor, deliberately pervert and destroy all that has been accom\nplished by the kindergarten ? Speaking of the well-calculated organization of the manual-labor movement, or the education through work to\nwork, I wish to apply this calculated adaptation also to the kinds of work\nto be performed. Though fully inculcating Froebel's principles, still the\nobjects of the child's occupation, or at least the means of illustrating these\nprinciples, are changed, and refer rather from the start to objects for\nwhich the child finds use, and which are also serviceable as toys, an idea\nthat meets my approval. This selection and combination of the work\ncomes from pedagogues who are students and admirers of Frederick\nFroebel, and are strongly individualized in material and objects. I mention in this connection the pioneer worker, Clausan von Kaas, teacher at\nDresden; Franz Hertel, teacher at Zwickau; and Gustav Ummer, teacher\nat the seventh Burgerschule at Dresden.\nDuring my visit in Germany I failed in my efforts to get a series of\nexamples of such work, which I hope is on exhibition in Chicago. My\nconnecting link contains some parts of Mr. Hertel's work, and refers\nto Miss Eva Eodhe's wood-cutting, of which I have the models that\nwere made at the kindergarten of Frau Henriette Schrader (niece of\nFroebel), at Berlin. Meanwhile, although in Europe some men with aa\nmother's heart are thus inspired to do justice to early childhood, here i\nAmerica we must rely on our enthusiastic and efficient kindergartens\nSome of them are perfectly fitted to carry kindergarten work into our\n\n"}
{"page": 397, "printed_page": null, "text": "PREVENTION\n\nOF CRIMINAL\n\nIDLENESS.\n\n377\n\npublic schools. Mrs. Ellen Gibbs, principal of the Garfield Grammar\nSchool, in Oakland, California, undertook the teaching of her boys in the\nwood-work I brought from Miss Kodhe. She said that she had to chase\nthe boys off at five o'clock. They regarded the workshop, as they should,\nas a playroom. It is the natural instinct of the child to be active, to\nwork ; and state and society are equally responsible for our increasing\nnumber of idle children.\nHaving told some boys of from twelve to fourteen years of age, to whom\nI had given kindergarten occupations at Dr. McDonald's Band of Hope,\nin San Francisco, that my normal students and I would open separate\nclasses for them, I had to call on a policeman to open the door from the\ninside, as the children filled the whole street so that we could not get in ;\nand the same happened at Los Angeles, where fourteen volunteer teachers\nand seventy-five children responded to the call for a free evening industrial school. \"Yet,\" said an earnest, devoted founder of a labor evening\nschool, \" we cannot keep boys in our labor schools.\"\nBut let Johnnie, eight years old, be asked if he will not make something\nfor his mother to use in her kitchen, and his face will radiate with light.\nHe accomplishes the work, in hope that the next piece of work for his\nbeloved mother will be still better. He carries his important piece home,\nand the mother is surprised and delighted. She never dreamed that\nJohnnie could do such beautiful wood-wrork, and \"What will father say,\nJohnnie ? \" she asks him. And Johnnie can hardly wait until six o'clock\nbrings his father home. The father also feels great admiration for the\noldest in the family, and remarks, \" If I could only make something of\nthe kind myself !\" With his jack-knife in hand and his boy on his lap,\nthe father becomes the pupil of his delighted child, and stays at home\nwith a new interest, proving the revolution which schoolwork may effect\nin the morals of the home. But our story (true from life) is not ended.\nJohnnie's mother is so proud that she calls in her two neighbors, pointing\nto Johnnie's exceptional talent. These, not denying Johnnie's merit, will\nnever consent to believe that their sons cannot do just as well. \" Henry\nand Will must go to the same evening school,\" they say ; \"it must be a\ngood place.\" \" Yes,\" says Johnnie, \" they make their own toys, and I\nwill make some for Artie, and father can make them, too.\"\nThis story presents true kindergarten spirit. Let every public school\nset aside for the present at least one room to give instruction in different\nhinds of work. Engage one enthusiastic and capable hinder gartner,\nand leave it to her to find assistants. I am sure the board would have no\nfurther trouble. She would attend to her classes, and, assisted by other\nvolunteer kindergartners, she would thus give them opportunity to be\ntrained for the worh. After school, the room may be occupied by another\nvolunteer set of young ladies and gentlemen to assist young boys in their\nschoolwork.\nThey may take a walk, read an attractive book, or play on\n\n"}
{"page": 398, "printed_page": null, "text": "378\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nthe piano. Dr. Stanton Coit, now in London, told the writer that he had\ndancing parties, in which he showed young men how to dance properly\nand how to escort their young lady friends like gentlemen. If we want to\nkeep our children out of the street, new and attractive avenues must be\nopened to them. The same room may be used for another class of\nchildren, having the work-tables hinged upon the walls. Success or nonsuccess depends on making the hours of work attractive. No doubt the\nState normal schools will train their teachers in this twofold capacity. As\nregards method, the material to be chosen, the workmanship desired, and\nthe curriculum of art culture, America will judge for herself. Professor\nHirschfelder, of the University of Leipzig, said :\n\"Instruction in manual dexterity is a very praiseworthy means of cultivation of the senses as the tools of the mind. It completes that part of\ninstruction by which the development of those parts of the brain which\nserve for the higher mental faculties are excited, while, by methodical\nexercise in the elaboration of the impressions of the senses, it reacts in\nfavor of a harmonious cultivation of the mind.\n\n\" Instruction in manual dexterity promotes sound bodily development\nwhen a suitable choice of work is made. It serves as a counterpoise to!\nthe influence of study-work, which is connected with mental strain and\ncontinuous sitting, while by the activity of the senses and nerves it has a\ndiverting and unburdening effect ; and, at the same time, excites the activity of the muscles as a lighter form of gymnastics, which certainly does\nnot make athletics superfluous, but supplements them in a desirable way.\"\nNot less vital changes should meet our present teaching of natural\nhistory, of object lessons, and horticulture.\nBased on the child's known\nexperimental activities, the material used and handled by it should serve\nthe teacher to guide the child to the desired information, partly given by\nhis class instruction, but mostly gained by the child's own investigation\nand comparison of the products of nature, — their uses, how manufact\nured, and their final sale and consumption.\nThe whole knowledge gaine\nshould be brought forth in individual discussion, well spoken, criticised\nand in writing.\nHence, to accomplish this, a corresponding buildin\nmust be erected, of which I presented a well-received plan to Presiden\nGarfield, when trusting his three children to the effect of the New Edu\ncation at Washington, D. C, 1872.\nThe building and annex to our State normal schools, or university,\nshould be of a round structure, sixty feet in diameter, divided through\nthe center into four parts ; two quarters of this division, on the sunny side,\nshould serve for the school garden in practical and theoretical instruction,\nalso in botany, analysis of soil, grafting, destruction of insects, etc. ; one\nquarter being used for gymnastic exercises and games, thus enabling\nteachers, as in the German Handfertigkeitsverein, to play out-door games\nand the graceful Greek ball games with the children ; while the lastfourt\n\n"}
{"page": 399, "printed_page": null, "text": "PREVENTION\n\nOF CRIMINAL\n\nIDLENESS.\n\n379\n\nis assigned to school baths, masonry, and iron work. Stairs lead from\nthe center of the front of the first floor to the second one. The light\ncoming from the skylight, the second floor is divided into eight sections,\nradiating from the center, where space is left for a large round table, to\nbe opened like the counters in stores, the center of the table to be covered\nbv a desk for lectures and instruction, the table affording the necessary\nspace for drawing, studying, and writing. The triangular sections form\neach a separate workroom, the light falling from above. The walls of the\ndifferent partitions are filled with a collection of tools, with a special\ntechnical library and a special cabinet, to serve the practical and theoretical instruction of what is taught in that section, as, for instance, pasteboard making, metal work, or wood-carving.\nMy final suggestion refers to the necessary instruments for physical\nexperiments, practiced by Alois Bruhn, director at the Buergerschule, in\nVienna, who says that a boy of nine or ten years of age should possess a\ncertain degree of manual skill in order to be able to fashion the materials\nwith which to experiment. He further says : \"Normally endowed children try to busy themselves as much as possible, physically, to give reality\nto their thoughts.\" What else is the play of children thau the endeavor\nto give practical expression to their world of thought ? When the child\ncomes afterward into the public school, and the instruction there progresses suitably and successfully, this endeavor continues, although usually\nto a more limited degree, according as the opportunities of instruction\npermit. The child tries to draw, calculates and measures all possible\nobjects, and even tries to represent, with the help of its comrades, the\nstories which it has heard. How often one child asks another, for instance, to play Little Red Riding-hood, saying : \"You be the wolf, and I'll\nbe the Little Red Riding-hood.\"\nWhen the child gets into the higher classes, where he studies the\nexact sciences, he tries to reproduce at home what he has seen, at school ;\nhe experiments. If a boy does not do this, it is either because of a diseased development of the body, or because the instruction has given him\nno clear ideas, so that he becomes discouraged with his first attempts and\nloses the desire of putting his thoughts into practice. It is only success\nand the attainment of results that give encouragement which finally develops energy.\nWhat has been said, being admitted, we may assert that, if instruction\nis to become more educational, if it is- to wake up and develop all the\nslumbering powers in the child, it must include physical work within its\nscope.\nThis course indicates the limits within which physical work should\nbe pursued by ivhatever pedagogy has recognized as the essential and correct thing for the several stages of instruction and education — that is, it\nhas to adjust itself to the real and proper world in which the child lives,\n\n"}
{"page": 400, "printed_page": null, "text": "380\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nand to give practical shape to its thoughts. Instruction in manual dexterity should, therefore, as far as it falls within the time in which the\nchild is undergoing school instruction, he strictly confined to these limits\nBringing in foreign objects, which are not connected with the work,\ntakes the child out of its own world, withdraws it from its unitary development, and overburdens it with double mental work, even if the instruction in manual dexterity does not become a mere mechanical drill.\nThe question might be asked here, whether our theoretical instructor\nhas any need of being supplemented by physical work ? It would can\nns too far to answer this question for every stage, so we have given in the\nfollowing only a rapid review of the requirements of instruction in the\nupper grade of public schools at Vienna, for industrial purposes, leaving\nout the subjects which contribute only to culture, such as writing, singing, and athletics :\nNATURAL\n\nSCIENCES.\n\nObject : Knowledge of the most important physical and chemical phenomena, based\nprincipally upon experiment, with continual regard to the requirements of town life :\nknowledge of the fabrication of the most important products of industry, with especial\nregard to those which are of the most importance locally.\nFirst Class — Two Houks a Week.\nForm of connection of bodies, cohesion ; kinds of solid bodies, adhesion and capt\nlary phenomena, impenetrability, divisibility, porosity, weight, comprehension of absolute and specific weight, density.\nExpansion of bodies by heat, thermometer ; expansion of water, expansion of air,\ndraughts of air, wind.\nMagnetic attraction, natural and artificial magnets, polarity ; construction of artificial magnets by stroking, distribution of magnetism.\nFundamental phenomena of electricity, electroscope ; good and bad conductors of\nelectricity, electrization by communication and distribution, electrizing machines,\nLeyden jars, galvanism, voltaic battery, electric current.\nBottom pressure and side pressure, vessels of communication.\nAir pressure, barometer; siphon. .\nProduction and propagation of sound ; kinds of sound.\nLuminous and non-luminous, transparent and opaque bodies ; rectilinear propagation and rapidity of light, shadows, strength of illumination (depending upon the\nangle of incidence), reflection of light, the plane mirror.\nWater, decomposition of water by the electrical current; hydrogen, oxypen, chemical\ndecomposition, oxyhydrogen gas, mixture, chemical combination, atmospheric air, essential constituents of air, nitrogen, carbon, sulphur; phosphorus matches; chlorine, disinfectioniodine,\n;\nbromine, elements, analysis.\nSecond Class — Two Hours a Week.\nThe subjects of instruction of the first class are reviewed with the several chapters,\nand are carried farther :\nConduction of heat, good and bad conductors of heat, change of forms of aggregation\nof bodies by heat, melting, congealing, crystallization, evaporation, vaporization, distillation, sublimation.\nMagnetic needle, declination, compass, inclination (dip), terrestrial magnetism.\nElectrophone, atmospheric electricity ; ozone, thunder-storms, lightning-rods ; the\nmost frequently applied galvanic batteries— physiological, thermal, illuminant, and\nchemical actions of the galvanic current, galvanoplastics.\nCenter of gravity, kinds of equilibrium, stability, lever scales ; roller, pulley ; arbor,\nwheel.\n\n"}
{"page": 401, "printed_page": null, "text": "PREVENTION\n\nOF\n\nCRIMINAL\n\nIDLENESS.\n\n381\n\nEquilibrium and motion, inertia, uniform motion ; comprehension of mechanical work,\nmeasurement of mechanical work, pendulum, clocks, oppositions of motion.\nPropagation of water pressure, hydraulic press ; loss of weight in water, swimming,\ndetermination of specific gravity, hydrostatic balance, aerometer.\nAir pumps, loss of weight in air; air balloons, bellows, suction and force pumps,\nHeron's German ball, fire-engine.\nThe most important sonorous bodies, rapidity and strength of sound ; reflection of\nsound, echo, reverberation, harmonies.\nCurved mirror, refraction of light ; optical lenses, dispersion of colors, spectrum.\nLime burning, caustic lime ; carbonic acid, carbonic oxide, saltpetre, nitric acid ;\nacids, bases, salts (in the chemical sense), sulphurous acid, sulphuric acid, phosphoric\nacid, muriatic acid, fluoric acid ; etching of glass, ammonia, sulphuretted hydrogen ;\ndry distillation, heavier and lighter carburetted hydrogen gas, fire damp, safety lamps,\ncoal, illuminating gas, combustion, potash ; soda, lye. borax ; silicic acid, glass,\nmetals, magnesium, aluminium, clay, porcelain, iron, lead, tin, zinc, copper, mercury,\nand silver, alloys.\nThird Class — Three Hours a Week.\nThe subjects of instruction of the first and second classes are reviewed and carried\nfarther :\nRadiation of heat, sources of heat ; heating value of combustible materials.\nLaws of vaporization, humidity of the air; fog, clouds, rain, snow, hail, dew, hoarfrost ;elasticity of water- vapor, steam-engines.\nMagnetic effects of the galvanic current ; telegraph, induction of electrical currents,\ntelephone.\nInclined planes, wedge, screw; free fall, projectile motion, central motion, centrifugal\nforce, water-wheels, grist-mills (water-mills and wind-mills).\nVocal and auditory organs of man, hearing.\nStrength of light, illuminating value of illuminating materials ; the human eye,\nsight, spectacles, microscope, telescope, photography.\nGetting iron out of the ores, blast furnaces.\nCarbohydrates, spirituous fermentation ; spirits of wine, spirituous beverages, acid\nfermentation, acetic acid, vinegar making ; verdigris, detection of verdigris in foods ;\nputrefaction and decay ; carbonization of fats, glycerine, fatty acids, and other important organic acids, stearine candles, soap, some resins, and ethereal oils.\nTanning, coloring material, and some of the most important colored goods, dyeing,\nilico printing, bleaching, albumens, glues, foods, preservation and falsification of\nfoods.\n(This curriculum embraces the age of ten to fourteen years.)\n\nTeachers trained at such schools would carry FroebeFs principles into a\ntrue relation with living and being.\nThey would, in true copartnership\nirith the child, tell him what he is best fitted for, and thus bring the\neacher into that paternal relationship to the pupil in which he would\ngradually become, and remain, an adviser for life, instead of the casual\nistructor which our one-sided system forces him to be.\nAnd the child ? With no strength from within, no support from without, no self-knowledge, no self-reliance, the child, unguided and unpro3cted, glides downward inch by inch, a victim of prejudice and error, on\nthe slippery road of \" Criminal Idleness.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 402, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 403, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nCONGRESS OF\n\nSESSIONAL TRAINING OF TEACHERS.\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nREPORT.\n\nSESSION— Wednesday,\n\nJuly 26, 1893.\n\nThe Congress of Professional Training of Teachers met in the Memorial Art Palace,\nWednesday, July 26, 1893, at 9.30 a.m. Dr. E. A. Sheldon, Principal of the State\nformal and Training School, Oswego, N. Y., was the President of this department.\nle opening address was delivered by Dr. Sheldon. \" The Value of Practice Work in\nlodcl and Training Schools,\" was the subject of a paper by Miss Fanny S. Guptill, of\ntinneapolis, Minn.\nDr. J. W. Cook, Principal of the Illinois State Normal School, spoke of the difficulties in securing uniformity because of the varying conditions. He contrasted the work\nof Miss Guptill with that in the normal school under his charge. He urged that a year\nbe spent in professional training before the students begin practice in the model school.\n\"How should Normal School Pupils acquire Methods of Teaching ? \" was the subject of a paper by Signor Giacomo Oddo Bomapede, director of a normal school in\nAlvellino, Italy.\nThe paper was read by Mrs. C. L. Place, of St. Paul, Minn.\n\" Methods of Training Teachers at the Westminster Training College, England,\"\nwas the subject of a paper by Joseph H. Cowhan, Head Master of Methods in the Westminster Wesleyan Training College.\nA discussion followed the preceding papers, in which the following persons took\npart : Mr. John Millar, Deputy Minister of Education for Ontario, Canada ; Mr.\nHenry A. Wise, Superintendent of Schools, Baltimore, Md.; Dr. J. M.Harper, Inspector ofSuperior Schools, Province of Quebec, Canada ; Miss E. P. Hughes, Principal\nof the Training College for Teachers, Cambridge, England ; John Hull, President of\nthe State Normal School, River Falls, Wis.; Superintendent Francis Cogswell, Cambridge, Mass.; and Col. F. W. Parker, Cook County Normal School, 111.\n\"Important Necessities in Present Normal Schools,\" by George W. Walton, State\nAgent of the Board of Education of Massachusetts, was the theme of the next paper read.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Thursday, July 27, 1893.\n\nDr. E. A. Sheldon occupied the chair, Thursday, 9.30 a.m.\n\" Gradation of Normal and Training Schools,\" was the subject of a paper by Thomas\nKirkland, Principal of the Normal School, Toronto, Canada.\n\" Historical Development of Normal and Training Schools in France \" — a paper by\nEugene Martin, director of a normal school in Paris — gave a history of normal\nschools in France.\n\" Normal Schools in the State of New York,\" was the subject of a paper by Francis\nJ. Cheney, Principal of the State Normal School, Cortland, N. Y.\n\n"}
{"page": 404, "printed_page": null, "text": "384\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\n\" A Sociological, Ideal View of Normal Schools,\" was presented in a paper by Daniel\nFulcomer, President of the Michigan College, Grand Rapids, Mich.\n\" Should the Course of Study in Normal Schools be wholly Professional ? \" was considered byFrancis B. Palmer, Principal of the State Normal School, Fredonia, N. Y.\n\"How Normal School Work differs from the Work in Secondary and in Higher\nEducation,\" was the subject of a paper by Dr. Malcom MacVicar, Superintendent of\nFreedman's School of the Baptists' Home Missionary Society, Brooklyn, N. Y.\nA discussion of the academic and professional character of normal schools was participated in by Dr. J. M. Harper, Inspector of Schools of Province of Quebec ; J. M.\nGreene, Principal of the State Normal School at Trenton, N. J. ; Edward T. Pierce,\nPrincipal of the State Normal School at Los Angeles, Cal. ; President John Hull, of\nRiver Falls, Wis. ; and Dr. G. Stanley Hall, President of Clark University, Worcester,\nMass.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION— Friday, July 28, 1893.\n\n\"What should be required of and upon whom is to be conferred the Degree of Doctor\nof Pedagogy ?\" This was the subject of a paper by Jerome Allen, Ph.D., Professor of\nPedagogy, University of the City of New York.\n\"What should be required of a Candidate for the Degree of Doctor of Pedagogy ?\"\nwas the subject of a paper read by Dr. Edward R. Shaw, of the School of Pedagogy,\nUniversity of the City of New York.\n\" Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Pedagogy,\" was the theme of a paper by\nDr. Charles A. McMurry, of the Illinois State Normal University.\n\" Higher Academic Degrees in Pedagogy\" — in a paper by Professor S. G. Williams,\nof Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. — was a further consideration of the subject.\nA discussion of this subject was continued by T. B. Stowell, Ph.D., Principal of the\nState Normal School at Potsdam, N. Y.\n\" The Candidate for the Degree of Doctor of Pedagogy should be Able to make\nOriginal Investigations in Experimental Psychology,\" was the subject of a paper by\nEdgar Dubs Shimer, School of Pedagogy, University of the City of New York.\n\"Child Study in Connection with the Professional Training of Teachers,\" was the\nsubject of a paper by Miss Margaret K. Smith, of the Oswego State Normal and Training School.\n\" The Ideal Normal School,\" was the theme of a paper by Dr. Edward Brooks, Superintendent ofPublic Schools, Philadelphia.\n\nLIST OF PERSONS ACCEPTING THE OFFICE OF HONORARY\nVICE-PRESIDENT OF THE DEPARTMENT CONGRESS\nOF THE PROFESSIONAL TRAINING\nOF TEACHERS.\nARGENTINE\n\nREPUBLIC.\n\nBELGIUM.\n\nProf. L. J. Avellaneda, Director Normal School, M. Temmerman, Director Normal School, Lierre.\nLa Rioja.\nProf. Alejandro Carbo, Director of the Normal\nSchool for Teachers, Parana.\nCANADA.\nProf. Mary O. Graham, Directress Mixed Normal\nSchool (Escuela Normal\nMixta), La Plata, John B. Calkin, Normal School. Truro, Nova Scotia.\nProvince of Corrientes.\nD. J. Goggin, Principal Manitoba Normal School,\nProf. H. Leguizamon,\nDirector of the Normal\nWinnipeg, Manitoba.\nSchool for Teachers (Escuela Normal de Pro- Thomas\nKirkland, Principal\nToronto\nNormal\nfesores), Buenos Ayres.\nSchool, Toronto, Ontario.\n_,\nJohn A. McCabe, Principal Ottawa Normal School,\nAUSLRIA.\nOttawa, Ontario.\nHerr Jos. Gugler, Director Normal School, Vienna. Eldon Mullin, Principal Provincial Normal School,\nHerr Karl Jauker, Director Normal School, Gras.\nFredericton, New Brunswick.\n\n"}
{"page": 405, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIST OF HONORARY\nDr. S. P. Robins, Principal Normal School McGill,\nMontreal, Quebec.\nTh. G. Rouleau, Principal Normal School, Laval,\nQuebec.\nPRANCE.\nM. Gobin, Director Normal School for Men, Besaucon.\nM. Jacoulet, Director Superior Normal School,\nSaint-Cloud.\nM. J. Sion, Director Normal School, Arras.\n\nVICE-PRESIDENTS.\n\n385\n\nProf. D. Corbett, LL.D., Marlboro' Street Training\nCollege, Dublin.\nProf. D. Croly, Catholic Training College, Drumcondra.\nProf. J. L. Doheity, LL.D., Marlboro' Street Training College, Dublin.\nRev. H. K. Moore, Church of Ireland Training College, Dublin.\nHUNGARY.\nM. Geza\nSomogyi, Director Normal School, Zniovaralja.\n\nGERMANY.\nHerr Ed. Ackerman,\nDirector Normal\nSchool,\nEisenach.\nProf. Dr. Carmuth, Provincial School Councilor,\nDirector of R. Normal School, KOnigsberg.\nHerr A. Fricke, Teacher, Braunschweig.\nDr. Ernst Gundert, School Councilor, Esslingen,\nWurtemberg.\nHerr Polte, Provincial School Councilor, Director\nPedagogical Seminary for Secondary Teachers,\nPosen.\nDr. Schulze, Director Royal Institute for Teachers\nof Modern Languages, Berlin.\nDr. Bruno Stehle, Director Normal School, Colmar,\nAlsace.\nGREAT\n\nBRITAIN.\n\nENGLAND.\n\nOscar Browning, King's College, Cambridge.\nRev. P. J. Campbell, Royal Normal College for the\nBlind, London.\nP. A. Barnett, Esq., Principal Borough Road Training College, Isleworth.\nJoseph H. Cowham, Esq., Westminster Training\nCollege, London.\nRev. E. Hobson, Principal of Training College,\nTottenham, London.\nProf. John R. Langlee, Wesleyan Training College,\nLondon.\nH. E. Oakeley, Esq., Chief Inspector of Training\nColleges for Schoolmasters, London.\nRev. Dr. J. H. Rigg, Principal Wesleyan Training\nCollege, London.\nMissT. H. Bird, Lady Superintendent of Training\nCollege, Cheltenham.\nRev. F. W. Burbridge, M.A., Principal of Saltley\nTraining College, Saltley, Birmingham.\nRev. R. M. Chamney, M.A., Principal of Church of\nEngland Training College, Cheltenham.\nRev. J. P. Faunthorpe, M.A., Whitelands House,\nChelsea, London, S.W.\nRev. Dr. Greeves, Principal of Training College,\nSouthlands, Battersea, London, S. W.\nMiss Sarah J. Hale, Principal of Training College,\nEdgehill, Liverpool.\nMiss Elizabeth P. Hughes, Cambridge Training Institution for Higher Teachers. Cambridge.\nH. A. Reatchlous, M.A., Vice-Principal Westminster Training College, Westminster, S.W.\nRev. C. G. Brown, B.A., Principal of National Society's Training College, Carmarthen.\nSCOTLAND.\n\nJohn Adams, M.A., Rector Free Church Training\nCollege, Aberdeen.\nA. S. Baird, Esq., Free Church Training College,\nGlasgow.\nRev. James R. Leslie, M. A., Principal of Edinburgh\nEpiscopal Female Training College, Edinburgh.\nDr. Thomas Morrison, M.A., LL.D., F.E.T.S., Principal of Glasgow Free Church Training College,\nGlasgow.\n\nITALY.\nProf.Avellino.\nG. O. Bonafede, Director R. Normal School,\nProf.Florence.\nOreste Bruni, Director R. Normal School,\nJAMAICA.\nMrs. A. C. Johnson, Lady Principal Jamaica Female Training College, Sherwood.\n\nNETHERLANDS.\nMr. L. Gerhardt, Director of State Normal School,\nUtrecht.\nSPAIN.\nDon Cesar de Equilaz, Secretary of the Central\nNormal School for Teachers, Madrid.\nDon Agustin Sarda y Llaberia, Professor Central\nNormal School, Madrid.\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES.\n\nALABAMA.\nJames K. Powers, State Normal College, Florence.\nMiss Julia S. Tutwiler, Normal College for Girls,\nLivingston.\nProf. E. R. Eldridge, State Normal School, Troy.\nARIZONA.\nJ. H. Broomell, Territorial Normal School, Tempe.\nARKANSAS.\nJoseph C. Corbin, Branch Normal College of Arkansas, Pine Bluff.\nCALIFORNIA.\nCharles W. Childs, State Normal School, San Jose\\\nLauraSchool.\nT. Fowler,\nNormal Department, Girls' High\nSan Francisco.\nEdward T. Pierce, State Normal School, Chico.\nCOLORADO.\nZ. X. Snyder, State Normal School, Greeley.\nDISTRICT\n\nOF COLUMBIA.\n\nMiss Lucy E. Moten, Miner Normal School, Washington.\nFLORIDA.\nJ. L. Skipworth, Florida Normal School, White\nSprings.\nILLINOIS.\nDr. John W. Cook, State Normal School, Normal.\nProf. John Hull, State Normal School, Carbondale.\nINDIANA.\n\nProf.Drumcondra,\nP. Bryne, St.\nPatrick's Training\nDublin.\n\n25\n\nCollege,\n\nE. M. D. Eckels, Cumberland Valley State Normal\nSchool, Shippensburg.\n\n"}
{"page": 406, "printed_page": null, "text": "386\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nJames Eldon, Central State Normal School, Lock\nHaven.\nTheodore B. Noss, Southwestern State Normal\nSchool, California.\nJ. P. Welch, State Normal School, Bloomsburg.\nProf. W. W. Parsons, State Normal School, Terre\nHaute.\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nNORTH CAROLINA.\nbury.\nF. M. Martin, State Colored Normal School, SalisG. H.etteville.\nWilliams, State Colored Normal School, FayNORTH\n\nIOWA.\nProf. H. H. Seerley, State Normal School, Cedar\nFalls.\n\nDAKOTA.\n\nJames McNaughton, Mayville State Normal School,\nMayville.\nOREGON.\n\nKANSAS.\nProf. A. R. Taylor, State Normal School, Emporia.\nKENTUCKY.\nMiss H. E. Brooks, President Hopkins College and\nTraining School, Madisonville.\n\nPENNSYLVANIA.\nMartin G. Benedict, State Normal School, Edin-\n\nMAINE.\nW. J. Corthell, State Normal School, Gorham.\nMiss Sarah McC. Taylor, Training School\nTeachers, Portland.\n\nW. T. Van Scoy, Drain Academy and State Normal\nSchool, Drain.\nF. J. Van Winkle, Eastern Oregon State Normal\nSchool, Weston.\n\nfor\n\nMASSACHUSETTS.\nDr. Larkin Dunton, Boston Normal School, Boston.\nProf. D. B. Hagar, State Normal School, Salem.\nProf. E. H. Russell, State Normal School, Worcester.\n\nA. J. Davis, State Normal School, Clarion.\nGeorge\nW. Fetter, Girls' Normal School, Philadelboro'.\nProf. G. M. Philips, State Normal School, West\nChester.\nphia.W. Deane, Indiana Normal School of PennCharles\nsylvania.\nRHODE\n\nISLAND.\n\nMICHIGAN.\n\nGeorge A. Littlefield, Rhode Island State Normal\nSchool, Providence.\nW. E. Wilson, State Normal School, Providence.\n\nHarriet M. Scott, Detroit Normal School,\nDetroit.\nProf. J. M. B. Sill, State Normal School, Ypsilanti.\n\nSOUTH CAROLINA.\nD. R.bia.Johnson, Winthrop Training School, Colum-\n\nMiss\n\nMINNESOTA.\nJoseph Carhart, State Normal School, St. Cloud.\nFannie\nS. Gupti 1, Teachers' Training Class, Minneapolis.\nProf. Irwin Shcpard, State Normal\nSchool, Wi-\n\nSOUTH\n\nDAKOTA.\n\nW. H. H. Beadle, State Normal School, Madison.\nFayette L. Cook, State Normal School, Spearflsh.\nTENNESSEE.\n\nMISSISSIPPI.\nE. D. Miller, State Normal School, Holly Springs.\nMISSOURI.\nRichard C. Norton, State Normal School, Cape\nGirardeau.\nGeorge\nburg.L. Osborne, State Normal School, WarrensNEW\n\nJERSEY.\n\nK. S. Blake, Newark Public School, Newark.\nJames M. Green, New Jersey State Normal School,\nTrenton.\nNEW\n\nYORK.\n\nDr. Thomas Hunter, New York Normal College,\nNew York.\nFrancis J. Cheney, State Normal and Training\nSchool, Cortland.\nJohn Gallagher, Training School for Teachers,\nBrooklyn.\nEdward N. Jones, State Normal School, Plattsburg.\nJames M. Milne, State Normal School, Oneonta.\nWilliam J. Milne, State Normal College, Albany:\nMrs.Rochester\nLena M. Free\nNorton,\nTeachers'\nTraining Class,\nAcademy,\nRochester.\nFrancis B. Palmer, State Normal Training School,\nFredonia.\nT. B. Stowell, State Normal and Training School,\nPotsdam.\n\nJudson S. Hill, Morristown\nNormal\nAcademy,\nMorris town.\nDr. William H. Payne, Peabody Normal College,\nNashville.\nTEXAS.\nJ. M. Carlisle, State Superintendent Public Instruction, Austin.\nH. C. Pritchett, Sam Houston State Normal School,\nHuntsville.\nVERMONT.\nA. H. Campbell, State Normal School, Johnson.\nVIRGINIA.\nJames Hngo Johnston, Virginia Normal and Collegiate Institute, Petersburg.\nWASHINGTON.\nW. J. Sutton, State Normal School, Cheney.\nWISCONSIN.\nJ. Q. Emery, State Normal School. River Falls.\nL. D. Harvey, State Normal School, Milwaukee.\nDuncan\nville. McGregor, State Normal School, PlattsProf. G. S. Albee, State Normal School. Oshkosh.\nDr. Albert\nwater. Salisbury, State Normal School, White-\n\n"}
{"page": 407, "printed_page": null, "text": "PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OF TEACHERS.\nOPENING\nBY\n\nTHE\n\nADDRESS.\n\nCHAIRMAN,\nDR. E. A. SHELDON,\nPRINCIPAL\nOF THE\nOSWEGO\nSTATE NORMAL AND TRAINING\nSCHOOL.\n\nIt is more than two hundred years since the first school was opened for\nthe training of teachers. For the first hundred years this movement had\na tardy growth. Since the days of Pestalozzi and the reformatory movement in educational methods, this idea of the necessity of seminaries for\nthe training of teachers has taken a strong hold of the educational thought\nin all countries, and these institutions have multiplied in a wonderful way.\nGreat liberality has been shown by legislative bodies both in our own and\nother countries in the appropriation of money for the establishment and\nmaintenance of institutions for the training of teachers. They no longer\nhave to be urged upon the public or put on the defense. The friends and\nadvocates of these professional schools may now turn their attention to\nmethods of improving and strengthening them all along the lines of organization and methods of administration. We are assembled here to-day to\nconsider in what directions such improvements may be made.\nThe occasion is one of unusual interest — such as never before occurred\nin this country. We have with us to-day distinguished representatives\nfrom other countries, where these training institutions have been much\nlonger established, who will bring to us a much riper experience, and\nbe able to make suggestions that will be of great vabie in the conduct of\nour American schools. We consider ourselves greatly honored and highly\nfavored by the presence of such representatives, and we welcome you most\nheartily to this international conference. We trust there will be a disposition on the part of our foreign friends to take an active part in all our\ndeliberations, and give us, your younger neighbors, the benefit of your\naccumulated wisdom. We have learned much from you in the past, and\nwe fully realize that we have much more to learn.\nOur normal and training schools have been very largely modeled after\nyour own, and we desire to incorporate into them all improvements that\nyour riper experience has found worthy of adoption. We gladly sit as\nlearners at your feet, and we trust you will as freely occupy the position of\ninstructors.\nIf you have formed the opinion that \" Young America\" is\n\n"}
{"page": 408, "printed_page": null, "text": "388\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nself-sufficient and somewhat egotistical, we trust that this meeting will\nprove to you that we are quite as ready to learn as to teach.\nMany points of great interest are to be brought before us at this meeting\nfor our consideration, and you can teach us many things that will be of\ngreat service to our American schools. Some of these questions have\nalready been printed and circulated, and I need not now allude to them.\nWe will thank all foreign visitors, and any others who are willing to take\npart in these discussions, to send their address to the president's desk. This\nwill remove much embarrassment that might otherwise occur in overlooking persons whom we desire to recognize, and in the proper record and\nannouncement of names.\nTeaching under criticism is the most important work in the training of\nteachers, and it is not practicable to give a proper amount of work to more\nthan fifty teachers at the same time. In our experience, at Oswego, we\nhave found that not less than five months of unbroken practice are necessary, and that after an equal length of time given to the most careful and\nthorough preparation, by way of grounding the pupils in training in educational principles, and their application in teaching the various branches\nof study. An ordinary school of three hundred pupils will give at the\nend of each term of twenty weeks a class of about fifty for the school of\npractice, and this is as many as can profitably be employed where there are\nnot more than four hundred children to be taught.\nIf this estimate is correct, and we have found it so in our own experience, then the number limit ought not to exceed three hundred, or at the\nmost four hundred, pupils. Something, of course, will depend on the\nrequirements for admission and the demands of the curriculum, as well\nas the arrangement for advanced standings on certificates. The English\ncourse of study in the New York schools is three years, and the classical\nfour years. The first two years are given exclusively to the required\nbranches of study, and the last year to purely professional work — the first\nhalf to theory, and the last half to practice under criticism. Liberal credit\nis given to work done in preparatory schools, and pupils are admitted to\nadvanced standings on certificates.\nWith this arrangement, a school of from three hundred to four hundred\npupils will graduate from one hundred to one hundred and twenty-five each\nyear, and if these are divided equally between the two terms, this will give\na class of fifty each term, and this is as many as can be profitably employed\nin any ordinary school of practice.\nAn evil in our American schools is the overcrowding of our courses\nof study. We, as a rule, require more than can be done with the degree\nof thoroughness requisite in one who is to teach these branches. It is not\nunusual to require from five to seven daily recitations. Only those who\nare the strongest both physically and mentally can endure the strain.\nMany collapse under the pressure, and it is very questionable whether\n\n"}
{"page": 409, "printed_page": null, "text": "OPENING\n\nADDRESS.\n\n389\n\nthose who survive have received the treatment most conducive either to\nknowledge or growth. In our judgment a less number of subjects and,\nwhat is better, a longer time ought to be given.\nShall manual training be required as a part of the professional equipment of the teacher ? is a question about which there seems to be a difference of opinion. Some schools require this work as a part of the\ntraining, while a large majority do not. This question, in our judgment,\nis one of no mean importance, and we trust some opportunity may be\nfouud for discussing it. As a rule, teachers are very helpless with their\nhands. They have no knowledge of the most ordinary tools, and much\nless practically of their use. If the most simple piece of apparatus is\nrequired, they have no ability to produce it. It is desirable that training\nin this sort of thing should be encouraged in children, even where no regular shop- work is required. In all this there is something of education, to\nsay nothing of its convenience and general utility. For these reasons, it\nseems to us that we have sufficient excuse for demanding that every pupil\nwho is in training for a teacher shall become sufficiently acquainted\nwith and expert in the use of tools to construct such simple apparatus\nas may be found necessary for illustration and experiment in his schoolwork.\nI will take the time to call attention to but one more subject ; namely,\nthat of the physical training of the teacher. To a very great extent our\nnormal pupils are drawn from the rural districts. One might naturally\nsuppose that they would be possessed with sufficient physical vigor to be\nindependent of any further physical improvement. Experience, however,\nteaches us that this is not true. Overwork, inheritance, ignorance of the\nlaws of health, and other causes leave them with weakened bodies, broken\nhealth, rigid muscles, an awkward gait, and ungainly manner. For these\nreasons, and in view of the fact that they are expected as teachers to give\nphysical training to the children in their schools, it becomes a matter\nof the highest importance that they should have the most careful and\nthorough training in this direction. The training should be such as to\ngive health and vigor of body, agility to the muscles, grace and ease of\nmanner and carriage, force and power in all bodily movements and\nexpression ; and the method of training should be such as to produce\nthese results, and by such methods that this training can be reproduced\nin the ordinary schoolroom, whether in the city or country district school.\nA few schools are favored with gymnasiums and apparatus adapted to a\nsystematic course of physical training. This is all good, provided they are\nemployed under proper guidance and direction ; but to turn children, or\nBven adult pupils, into a gymnasium, or put into their hands the ordinary\napparatus employed, may and is likely to result in more harm than good\nmless directed by wise, intelligent supervision. To make such appliances\nlsefuL or even safe, the teacher in charge should have the most thorough\n\n"}
{"page": 410, "printed_page": null, "text": "390\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nknowledge of the human constitution and its needs in the minutest detail,\nso as to be able to decide as to what apparatus to employ aud how to use\nit, both as to manner and extent, in order to produce the desired results\nwithout harm to the pupil. This requires a knowledge of each individual\ncase. Every pupil must be carefully examined by an expert, and proper\nexercises prescribed for each individual and supervised by some one who is\nalso an expert. Now these are conditions not often found in our public\nschools, and, however much they are to be desired, we may readily\nbelieve that the time is somewhat in the distant future before such provisions will be generally realized. In the meantime we must take the schools\nas we find them, and meet the requirements as they exist and with the\nfacilities afforded us, and this means without either gymnasium or apparatus. If these suppositions are correct, and I am sure no one can question\nthem, then the training of the teacher should be such as can be reproduced\nwith the children in the ordinary public school.\nThe question, then, that interests us is to know whether a system of\ngymnastic exercises cannot be devised that will meet all the conditions\nwe have supposed and at the same time accomplish all the desired\nresults. Such claims are made and seem to be sustained by strong and\nreliable testimony. One claim is made for these free gymnastics that is\nnot met by any system of heavy gymnastics so far as I am aware ; that\nis, the careful training of the vocal organs. There is, perhaps, no more\nfruitful source of disease than the weakness of these organs, and nothing certainly more essential to usefulness and success in life than their\nhealth and vigor. Every consideration would indicate the necessity for\nthe most careful and thorough training of these organs, and any system\nof physical culture that leaves out this important element is defective at a\nvital point. No system of physical training can be regarded as complete\nthat does not include the training of all the organs of the body.\nI have now called attention to defects that seem to be quite common in\nour schools for training teachers, with a view to provoking discussion, if\nthe opportunity offers. That they may be put in proper form for this\npurpose, I will restate them.\n(1) What number of pupils can be properly and advantageously\nincluded in an institution for the training of teachers ?\nHow many can profitably be employed at the same time in the school of\npractice ?\n(2) How many subjects can be profitably carried on together by «the\nordinary normal school pupil ?\nWhat subjects ought to be included in a course of study designed for the\ntraining of teachers for our intermediate or secondary schools, and how\nmuch time should be given to it ?\n(3) Should our normal schools include a course in manual training ?\n(4) Should our normal schools include a thorough course in physical\n\n"}
{"page": 411, "printed_page": null, "text": "PRACTICE\n\nWORK\n\nIN MODEL\n\nAND\n\nTRAINING\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\n391\n\ntraining ? If so, shall we encourage a system of heavy or light gymnastics ?\nIt is quite doubtful whether our time will allow of the discussion of\nany one of these subjects, but no harm can come from calling attention to\nthem, and if the opportunity offers any one of them may be called up at\nany time.\n\nTHE\n\nVALUE\n\nOF PRACTICE\nWORK IN MODEL\nTRAINING SCHOOLS.\n\nBY MISS FANNIE\n\nS.\n\nGUPTILL,\n\nMINNEAPOLIS,\n\nAND\n\nMINN.\n\nBy practice work is generally understood the conducting of recitations\nby pupil teachers placed temporarily in charge of classes of children,\nunder the supervision of one or more critics, for the culture of teaching\npower in the student so placed.\nThe value of such work as a means to such culture must necessarily\nvary with the knowledge the young teacher possesses of the subject she is\nteaching, with her conception of the object for which she teaches, and\nwith the conditions under which such practice is obtained. This practice\nshould include all the exercises of the student from matriculation to\ngraduation ; all theoretical work should be thoughtful practice toward\nthe end of skill in teaching, and special practice with children must have\nits definite place as the crowning and perfecting work of the course.\nAs one who is to become a skilled musician must be held to severe\ntechnical practice until the muscles have acquired flexibility, accurate\nmechanical action, and ready response to an idea, so one who is to become\na skilled teacher must apply herself to the acquiring of the technique of\nthe teacher. The one is not expected to play the difficult sonata at sight,\ncombining interpretation and execution, instantly and faultlessly, before\nfacility, intelligence, and correctness are acquired ; why should the other\nbe required to manipulate all the forces of the recitation before she has\nbecome to some extent the embodiment of intelligence, correctness, and\nease ?\nAn easy, graceful, yet controlling carriage of body; frank, well-controlled facial expression ; a voice firm, kindly, and well modulated ; an\neye that shall do the work too often attempted by the tongue ; self-control ;\nthe art of telling a story, aptness in illustration, skill in the expression of\nherself, promptness and precision in conducting the so-called mechanical\nworkof the schoolroom — these are the difficult passages in the technique\nof the teacher which must be acquired by training, and which must be\nmastered before she is required or expected to control, interest, and\ninstruct children in a forceful and skillful way.\n\n"}
{"page": 412, "printed_page": null, "text": "392\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nWordsworth struck the keynote of true teaching when he said of his\nWanderer :\n\" His limbs\n\nAnd his whole figure breathed intelligence.\"\n\nAnd again,\n\n\" He had rehearsed\nHer homely tale with such familiar power,\nWith such an active countenance, an eye\nSo busy, that the things of which he spake\nSeemed present.\"\n\nThe mistake too often made is that of placing a young teacher in charge\nof children to experiment with them before her body has learned to breathe\n\"intelligence/' While her ideas are somewhat indefinite, her expression\nfaulty, her manner hesitating and conscious, she has none of the \"familiar\npower \"which makes things seem \"present\" and vivid to children. Children detect the crude work and become unteachable. That such practice\nwith children does not make a perfect teacher, or supply the \" familiar\npower\" just mentioned, is abundantly proven in the fact that the poorest\nteachers are often those who have spent their lives in the schoolroom. By\ncontinued practice, without attention to the guiding principles of the art\nof teaching, they have degenerated into mere plodders, and it is common\nto hear a teacher criticised as having taught so long that he \" runs in a\ngroove.\"\nIt is well known that mere action without regard to the laws of mental\nor moral growth or of physical development engenders weakness instead\nof strength in either of these phases of our being, and that action in any\nline develops power and skill only when it is inspired by correct ideals and\nis in harmony with the laws of development in that line. It follows that\nteaching will be a vague process, a waste of time and energy, until the\nteacher has incorporated much of knowledge and theory into her personality. Some practice with children may, indeed, accompany such acquirement of theory, as the illustration of an idea, for, while true practice\napplies the knowledge that guides it, it also interprets and makes that\nknowledge clearer, and the theoretical side is better understood when\nsupplemented by intelligent practice. But a young teacher can take no\nstep wisely in practice work until she has made a threefold mastery for\nherself : in a knowledge of the subjects to be taught, in a knowledge of\napproved processes of teaching, in acquiring correct ideals for herself as a\nteacher.\nThere are those who argue that if one have teaching ability she will\nteach successfully without training in a special school, but modern requirements in the schoolroom demand a professional appreciation of the needs\nof the education of to-day. Experience shows that young ladies from\nhigh-schools and from country schools have only a school-girl appreciation\n\n"}
{"page": 413, "printed_page": null, "text": "PRACTICE\n\nWORK\n\nIN MODEL\n\nAND\n\nTRAINING\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\n393\n\nof the common brandies of study, especially of those that are fundamental\n— reading, geography, arithmetic, and language. They are conscious that\nthey know something of these subjects, but they have never conceived of\nthe processes by which they were made to know. To teach these subjects,\nor any subject, a different knowledge is necessary. They must be compassed in a broad, analytical way that will place the facts and principles\nof each, as a science, in bold, relief in the mind, and articulate such facts\nlogically, so that the recalling of a subject recalls its conditions and principles, itself complete as an art. This complete knowledge is a knowledge\nof principles so mastered that they become unconscious guides in teaching\nand make the teacher something of an authority on each subject.\nA knowledge of the history of education, of the most approved method\nof teaching, and of school organization and management, is indispensable.\nNot because the teacher is to be a copyist, but as equipment for her work.\nShe must add to her knowledge by an understanding of the psychical processes involved in learning — a knowledge of the order of development of\nthe child mind, and something of the nature and value of moral training.\nWith the acquirement of such knowledge there should be much careful\nobservation of the work of the best teachers — the wider the observation\nand study of such models, the higher will be her ideals ; the more correct\nthe ideals, the greater the value of practice when it is undertaken. While\nthis gradual and healthy growth toward achievement is being fostered,\nshe must also acquire insight to determine conditions quickly. Thus\nequipped, the young student will easily break out into a method of teaching, and under inspiring guidance practice with children will be intelligent, orderly, without harm to the children, and productive of growth in\nthe teacher, thus answering its truest purpose.\nPractice must vary with her conception of the object for which she is\nteaching. Many teachers neVer conceive a higher aim than \" to do \" a\nprescribed number of exercises, or \"to go over\" a required amount of\nwork in a given time. Pupil teachers should early be emancipated from\nthe drudgery idea of a teacher's calling ; if, indeed, they are allowed to\nform so narrow a conception of it, they should be led into a larger development. Theoretical training should gradually instill into the mind the\nfact that the efficiency of all the forces in the recitation depends upon the\nteacher. From all possible standpoints the teacher should be made to\nview the recitation as a means of character building ; attention, study,\naccuracy, promptness, skilled language, as elements contributing to the\nsum total of a symmetrical character, and herself as the manipulator of\nthe mental processes and moral impulses that combine as the governing\nforces of the life of the child.\nA father, wishing to illustrate the effect of a wrong act, said to his son :\nI Bring me a piece of pine, a hammer, and a nail, my boy.\" \" Yes; here\nthey are, father.\" \" Can you drive the nail into the pine ? \" \"Yes; easily.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 414, "printed_page": null, "text": "394\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\n-as\n\n\" Can you draw it out ?\" \" Yes; that is easy, too.'' \" Leave the pine as\nyou found it.\" \" I cannot; here is a hole.\" \"Draw out the hole.\" Con\ntemplating it a moment : \"I can't draiu out the hole,\" said the boy. The\napplication is apparent. It is judicious to allow only the minimum of\nscar-making practice. She who has little conception of the real aim of\nteaching should not be allowed the opportunity of making \"holes\" that\nshe cannot \"draw out.\" The direct effect upon the child, the reflex\neffect upon herself, alike forbid it.\nHow shall the young teacher acquire so much of mature knowledge and\ninsight in the brief time allowed in most training-schools for the completing of the course ? By early acquiring the ability to judge her own\nwork. By making from the beginning of her training a daily, careful\nstudy of herself, and determining in what she is excellent and in what she\nfails. Habit, instead of attention and will, is the controller of action\nin most persons. In the training-school this must be reversed, and the\nfirst work is to break up habits that hinder, and to acquire those that\nfacilitate, the teacher's work. Her modes of thinking, the manner of\nexpressing her thoughts in words, her habit of standing and walking,\nqualities and cadence of voice, which are often in direct opposition to the\nidea she means to convey — in short, mannerisms of whatever nature\nwhich will be a hindrance to the teacher, must be corrected and eliminated bydaily care in her regular class-work. Under wise criticism she\nwill soon become conscious of the sources of her strength and of the\nparticular lines in which she may fail.\nSelf-control is the key to the control of others, and daily practice in this\nart will give increasing strength in the power of true discipline. Constant\nstudy of the best models in speech and bearing, daily practice in the\npower of appeal, of story-telling, of all the controlling force and charm\nthere is in natural expression, and firm but pleasing manners, does not\nrequire the presence of children, but should never be lost to sight in the\ndaily didactic work. Studying, reciting, always with the thought that\n, the only expression she has is the impression she makes, she should study\nto express a grand and noble character. Practice with children cannot\ngive this culture ; having acquired this culture, her practice will be a\npower with children.\nIt will be seen that the first half year of training should be occupied\nwith practice in acquiring. This more general practice should be under\nthe constant supervision of a competent instructor and critic, one who is\nnot crystallized into the idea that fault-finding is criticism. Study and\nrecitation are not alone the special work of the theoretical period. Each\nstudent must daily be made responsible, in addition to these, for the\npreparation and teaching of a certain portion of the class-work ; should\nbe required to instruct in a dignified and intelligent way. Lessons in\nelementary science, music, drawing, geography, and history may well be\n\n"}
{"page": 415, "printed_page": null, "text": "PRACTICE\n\nWORK\n\nIN MODEL\n\nAND\n\nTRAINING\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\n395\n\nplaced in charge of the students, under the supervision of a regular instructor. This instructor should criticise the preparation, the plan, the\nmanner of instructing, and supplement all deficiencies, teaching one lesson a week in each subject herself so that there be no loss. This general\npractice should include blackboard exercises, map drawing, and all illustrative work necessary to good teaching ; it will develop independence,\nease, and facility of expression, and is the best means of overcoming nervousness. Much observation in all grades of schools is necessary during\nthis period, and at the close of this half year, with ideals formed, some\nskill gained, and a purpose in working, the student is ready for the special\npractice with children. Such practice is necessary for the completion of\nher work.\nAll who have had experience in training schools agree that there is\nsomething unsatisfactory in all plans for practice so far tried, and the conditions conducive to the best results of practice have not yet been determined. The constant supervision of critics hampers the student with a\nsense of being watched, confines her to a routine and to the mechanism of\nform in instruction and drill ; spontaneous, free, original work is obscured\nby devices and methods ; criticism itself too often degenerates into cant\nexpressions, stereotyped phrases. The continued experiment upon children by novices is disastrous, indeed, to their proper development, and\npractice work under the best known conditions is a struggle. How secure\nthe best conditions? how determine the amount and kind of practice?\nhow protect the children from crude work ?— these are the questions for\nthe hour.\nThere are three general plans for practice : the giving of regular lessons\nto classmates ; substituting for absent teachers in ward schools : and\nteaching in a model school. If, in the first, the class must imagine themselves children and understand and talk like children, the work has no\nvalue ; it impresses all as being a counterfeit. The real value of teaching\nclassmates we have already noticed, but this plan gives no knowledge of\nchildren. Taking the places of absent teachers in ward schools is of some\nvalue. It throws a teacher upon her own resources, forces her to be alert\nand self-reliant, tests her versatility, and shows her what may be expected\nin a schoolroom. Experienced teachers are not always successful as substitutes, however, and it is a question whether the training teacher should\nbe called upon to do work that is attended with so many discouragements.\nThere are grave doubts as to the value of placing a novice in charge of\na room in a model school, under the eye of one or more critics. It embarrasses and limits her at the outset. Constant restraint and fear suppress much of her living power. It is impossible for her to get control\nof children under such conditions. Such practice is not an absolute\ntest of her ability ; it is not absolutely of greatest value, yet it approxi-\n\n"}
{"page": 416, "printed_page": null, "text": "396\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nmates toward the most valuable plan. Since no two persons can be successful with the same method : since too much criticism is an injury to\nthe student, the instructors in a training school should leave the pupils\nlargely to themselves in practice — i.e., give them as large liberty as possible in working out their own ideas, and at the same time they should\nknow what the pupils are doing. It seems absurd to require a class\nof students, having individual abilities and capabilities, to \" go through \"\nthe exercise of teaching always after the same model. If each student\nhas become familiar with the approved \" best methods,\" she should\nallow her individuality to show itself in the application of methods. If\ninstructors have confidence in their students, observation may take the\nplace of much critic work. The student should ever be a critic of her\nown work ; she should keep a daily record of the lessons she prepares,\nthe object for which each was prepared, and the result she secured in the\nteaching. She should be questioned daily as to the points in which she\nfelt conscious of failure.\nThe state normal schools have not all ideal conditions for practice.\nThe city training school may secure them ; let it be connected with a\nward school, and under the same management, that there be no conflict\nas to work. Permanent teachers who are model instructors should be\nplaced in charge of the rooms in this school. From these rooms students\nmay take small classes to recitation rooms, each being in charge of one\nsubject each month, for five months. This subject shall be her special\nstudy, her reading and observation contributing to it for the month.\nShe must keep the work of the class up to that of their fellows who\nremain under the regular teacher, and be responsible for good order.\nOnce a week the regular teacher may test or supplement their work.\nIt is not necessary that a critic be in constant attendance upon these\nstudents, to see that everything is done according to a prescribed form.\nAt regular intervals, at least once a week, she should visit each student,\nnote errors, excellence, and improvement. Her criticism should be directed\ntoward salient points of inefficiency or failure ; trifles should be left to\ngradually disappear with the growth of the student in her profession.\nHer criticism should not be given on the spot ; the tendency is to weaken\nthe student in the estimation of the children.\nEach student conducts one recitation each day. The other periods are\ngiven to observation and recitation in professional work. There should\nbe one period at last in which all assemble for criticism. Here let the\ncritic judiciously state the results of her observing, and give all the benefit, for it will be observed that certain faults are general and the same\ncriticism applies to all students. Where there are special tendencies to\nfailure, individual criticism is necessary. Changing the work of each\nstudent each month gives each practice in all the elementary branches\nand with several grades of pupils.\nStudents who have weak presence,\n\n"}
{"page": 417, "printed_page": null, "text": "PRACTICE\n\nWORK\n\nIN MODEL\n\nAND\n\nTRAINING\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\n397\n\nwho lack decisive manner, are unskillful in methods, and show poor\njudgment, should be placed under discipline other than practice with\nchildren until they have corrected all such faults. In no case should\nchildren be submitted to the mistakes and imperfect experiments of such\nstudents.\nWe have considered at length the value of practice. We have learned\nthat it is of no value except as it illustrates an idea of the person practicing, and is in accord with the principles of teaching ; also, that its\nvalue is based upon the knowledge possessed by the student, upon her\nconception of the purpose for which she practices, and upon the conditions under which she practices.\nTo summarize briefly, then, we find these thoughts :\n(1) Practice is necessary to show the novice what children are like, to\naccustom her to. their activity, to discover to her how she may interest\nthem, to give her familiarity and ease in managing them.\n(2) It is also necessary to illustrate ideas, to interpret and make practical theories, and to crown and complete the work of preparation.\n(3) Its proper time is after the special preparation in theory ; yet some\npractice should accompany study and observation during the theoretical\nperiod.\n(4) The preparation necessary includes a special knowledge of the elementary branches of study, a knowledge of the history of education, of the\nbest methods of instruction, and of elementary psychology in its relation to\ninstruction. It should also include a study of self for firmness, ease,\nforce, aptitude — in short, skill. Too little attention is generally given to\nthis division of study.\n(5) Observation of the work of model teachers is of utmost importance and should be a daily requirement. It defines and elevates her\nideals. The observer should know what she is looking for, and should\nwrite the result of her observation.\n(6) Criticism should show the student whether she is successful, and\nhow to be successful. It should follow her through her entire course,\nbut the critic should not follow her through all her operations. That\nspying criticism which must see the plan of every lesson, must stop the\nstudent in the midst of an exercise to correct a trifling mistake, or to say\n\" You mustn't teach this so,\" is all wrong. Criticism must aid her to\ndevelop individuality. It is of most value when it calls attention to the\nsalient points of teaching, viz.:\n(a) The preparation of the lesson as to the points to be taught ; their\nlogical development ; a summary for fixing them in the minds of the\npupils.\n(b) The teacher's controlling force, or grip upon her class. Does she\ncommand each child's interest, attention, respect ? Does she talk too\nmuch ? Too little ?\n\n"}
{"page": 418, "printed_page": null, "text": "398\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\n(c) What impression does she make as an instructor ? Does she make\ninstruction clear ? Is drill sufficient ? Does she teach all the class ?\n(d) Is her manner attractive or repellant ?\n(7) The best plan for practice is that which places a permanent teacher\nin charge of each grade or class in the school for practice. She should\nbe a model teacher, should do a part of the teaching, and should criticise\nand help the students. This plan keeps the children's work well organized and the children well disciplined.\n(8) Sending students to neighboring schools to observe is valuable if\nthey see good work ; they should see the minimum of poor teaching. If\nthey are strong, they may assist teachers in various schools ; indeed, it is\nwell for them to become familiar with the mechanical processes of passing\nmaterial, correcting exercises at seats, giving drawing lessons, conducting\nrecesses, and other work which may be thus learned without effort.\n(9) Substituting in ward schools throws a teacher upon her own\nresponsibility and gives much valuable experience. Pupils thus taught\nare too apt to try experiments with the substitute, however, and she may\nnot be equal to the discipline.\n(10) Practicing on classmates is of great value. Here the student gains\nconfidence, easy language, must be clear in statement, and logical in\nplanning her work. Much of this should be done.\n(11) Instructors should have ideas upon subjects other than those\nwhich they teach. ^H instructors in training-schools should be able to\ncriticise and make suggestions in any branch of study in the course. But\nall should he amenable to one wise, kindly critic.\n(12) There is a kind of skill that comes with experience in teaching\nthat cannot be acquired in a training-school ; but sound scholarship and\nthe power to readily control and instruct a class should be the basis of\ngranting a diploma, and until these are acquired the diploma should be\nwithheld.\nSo shall the practice of training schools, used as a means of expression\nfor a live teacher, be of value to her in that it gives her an opportunity\nto vitalize- methods, to put a soul into the devices of the schoolroom.\nShielded from the opportunity of putting herself in bad repute with\nchildren by practicing before she knows how, (she acquires confidence\nfrom the first, and her practice becomes the agent of true culture in her\nprofession.\n\n"}
{"page": 419, "printed_page": null, "text": "WW\n\nSHOULD\n\nHOW\n\nBY\n\nSIGNOR\n\nPUPILS\n\nSHOULD\n\nACQUIRE\n\nNORMAL\nMETHODS\n\nGIACOMO\n\nODDO\n\nMETHODS\n\nOF TEACHING?\n\nSCHOOL PUPILS\nOF TEACHING?\n\nBOMAFEDE,\nALVELLINO,\n\nDIRECTOR\n\nOF\n\n399\n\nACQUIRE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nITALY.\n\n[Read by Mus. C. L. Place, St. Paul, Minn.]\n\nOught pupils in normal schools to acquire the methods of teaching by didactic\ninstruction, or by giving lessons upon the various elementary subjects in the apprentice\nschools ?\n\nTo instruct and educate children means to fit the natural man for the\ncitizenship to which the social life shall give the last shading. The work\nof the master resembles that of the sculptor who cuts the statue out of a\nblock of marble. As the sculptor requires art and tools, hammer and\nchisel, so the schoolmaster needs the art of instructing and educating, and\nthe instrumentalities which schools furnish.\nOur theme refers to the method of teaching ; it does not take into consideration those natural tendencies which exert so great an influence upon\nthe character of the teacher and modify the exercise of his art and profession, and hence must restrict the capacity of which I speak to merely\nsimple acquaintance with the methods and with their application in\nteaching.\nBefore all I assert that a method to be perfect must spring from two\nelements, one intellectual, the other experimental. A method merely\nexperimental would fail in the requisite most essential to it as a method.\nA method solely rational would fail from the want of that intelligence\nwhich grows out of experience, and which constitutes the good sense\nnecessary to the proper application of the general rules of reason relating\nto the specialty of the school and its aim in human society. It is evident that two such elements of method possess two distinct fountains :\nthe rational element has its source in science and in philosophy ; the\nexperimental element has its source in practice. Hence it may be concluded that normal pupils should acquire the methods of teaching from\npractical instruction in the normal schools.\nPractical instruction must be founded on philosophy, not only because\nwithout philosophy it is impossible to know what the child is— that is, the\nsubject of instruction — but because through philosophy it is possible to\nunderstand the distinctions between things and ideas, between words and\nthings, between words and the mind of the child, between the affections\nand the objects of affection, between the first impressions and the whole\nlife, between the man and his destiny, between the external and internal\npowers of the mind.\nFor it is plain that without such knowledge the\n\n"}
{"page": 420, "printed_page": null, "text": "400\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nteacher must be deficient in that which is requisite to fit him for his duties.\nIn ancient Greece, masters, teachers, and philosophers did not live for\nnothing. The most experienced schoolmasters of the present day are\nthose whom philosophy has given us.\nNow, in some parts of Europe philosophy, banished from all the schools,\nhas not succeeded in finding a refuge in normal institutes. In Italy the\ngoverning programme prescribes a brief study of psychology, but so brief\nthat it cannot prove efficacious. It ebbs and flows in the terminology of\nfacts and psychic phenomena, paying no attention to the unfolding of\nthe subjects themselves. Practical instruction in the normal schools is\nrestricted to a general method very little conformable to philosophy, and\nto a special method for teaching various subjects. The first is a mass of\nprecepts and rules, sometimes not agreeing with themselves ; the second is\nthe result of experiences or of attempts made in schools, often indefinite in\ntheir force and efficacy.\nIn order to draw the methods of teaching from practice in the apprentice schools it is necessary either to apply the altruistic method, which will\nnot be suitable in all schools nor in all circumstances, or to make a trial\nof the peculiar views upon the alumni as in corpore vile. In the first\ncase we shall find teachers who have no resources when they meet a novel\ndifficulty ; in the second case, society will have to complain that the children do not go to places of education and instruction, but to places where\nthey are experimented upon in the name of education.\nThe normal school ought to be essentially philosophical and practical.\nIt ought to be essentially philosophic because its ultimate aim is the education of the man in himself and in his varied relations with all that is\noutside of him. It will be impossible to teach normal students to educate\na child intellectually, morally, and physically without first teaching them\nwhat man is and what a child is, what are their faculties, what are the\nways by which they can be developed, what are the means by which they\ncan be guided, and, finally, what are the instrumentalities adapted to so\ngreat a work. This knowledge is vastly important. It is enough to visit\nan elementary school to find out instantly when philosophy does not rule\nin it.\nThe normal school ought to be essentially practical, and may be such\nthrough the apprentice system, as soon as it is modeled upon the precepts\nand requirements of philosophy, and the teachers in the schools of apprenticeship instruct with wisdom. Then the normal pupil will be able to see\nhow the knowledge works among the children, and so may become an\nefficient teacher.\nI think that knowledge and practice in the art of educating should exist\nin that art as in all other arts ; but practice must spring from science, for\nscience is reason. Any practice that does not come from science and philosophy ismerely empirical and can only produce an imperfect school.\n\n"}
{"page": 421, "printed_page": null, "text": "METHODS\n\nOF TRAINING\n\nTEACHERS.\n\n401\n\nI know that certain attainments stimulate persons to aspire to positions\nhigher than that of an elementary school ; but if civil society should\nunderstand better and treat better its teachers, the elementary school\nwould be esteemed before the others.\n\nMETHODS\nBY\n\nJOSEPH\n\nOF\n\nTRAINING\nTEACHERS\nMINSTER TRAINING COLLEGE,\n\nH. COWHAM,\n\nMETHODS,\n\nLECTURER\n\nON\n\nAT THE\nENGLAND.\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nWEST-\n\nMASTER\n\nOF\n\nWESTMINSTER WESLEY AN TRAINING COLLEGE, AND REPRESENTATIVE OF THE WESLEYAN COMMITTEE, ENGLAND, TO THE INTERNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL CONGRESS AT CHICAGO.\n\nThe adult certificated teachers in the government schools of England\nnumber about fifty thousand. Of these, sixty-eight per cent, of male\nteachers and forty-six per cent, of female teachers have been trained in\none or other of the thirty-eight training-colleges connected for the most\npart with the religious denominations. The teachers who have passed\nthrough a training-college are termed \" trained/' whilst those who have not\nbeen through a training-college are termed \" untrained.\" The proportion\nof trained to untrained teachers is increasing. This increase arises from\nthe fact that a smaller proportion of untrained teachers proceed to the\nnecessary certificate qualification now that the examination for these\ncertificates is the same as the final examination in the training-colleges.\nIt should be remembered that those who enter the profession without\nthe two years in a training-college have in most cases served a four years'\napprenticeship as pupil-teachers, together with two to four years as\n-tants in the government schools. These so-called untrained teachers\nmay therefore fairly claim to be placed amongst the trained, seeing that\nthey have now to pass the same examinations as have the students in our\ntraining-colleges, and that they have furthermore to keep up their connection with the actual practice of teaching by maintaining themselves\nas teachers in schools throughout the whole of their probationary period.\nMy object in this paper is more particularly to set out the methods\nby which we in Westminster seek to give an adequate training to those\nteachers who take advantage of two years' special preparation in a trainingcollej\nollege. These have in nearly every instance served from three to six\nyears•s' in the capacity of pupil-teachers and assistants under trained and\ncertificated headmasters. These pupil-teachers begin their work at fourteen years of age, and during their pupil-teachership combine intellectual study with professional practice. In the larger school boards (London,\nfor example) the pupil-teacher spends the first two years in the observation of the work of an adult certificated teacher during one-half of\n26\n\n"}
{"page": 422, "printed_page": null, "text": "402\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\neach day, the remainder of the day being spent in continuing his or her\nintellectual exercises at a pupil-teacher center conducted on the lines\nof a high-class school. The pupil-teacher is not allowed to begin the exercise of teaching during the first two years of apprenticeship.*\nIt is acknowledged that there are certain portions of many school lessons which after the first year of observation the pupil-teacher is quite\ncompetent to undertake — as, for example, the hearing of reading, the\nworking of examples in arithmetic, the supervision of a writing-lesson,\nand the correction of exercises in geography, grammar, history, and\nelementary science. In this way the pupil-teachers gradually acquire\nskill in the management of children, and facility in the methods which\ntheir adult superiors adopt in the presentation of knowledge. They thus\nacquire a valuable store both of experimental knowledge and of practical skill. They understand as yet but little of the theory of education and\nnothing of the psychological principles. Their work is mainly directed\nby a close imitation of their teacher's pattern. It consists almost entirely\nof the empiric application of observed rules. But it is none the less\nvaluable within the above-mentioned limits. At the same time they are\ngaining a skill in the teaching art which, unless acquired at a comparatively early stage, rarely develops into the highest style of teaching ability.\nTheir intellectual progress is tested by a government examination at\nthe end of each year, and the entrance to a training-college is made\ndependent upon passing the Queen's scholarship examination at the end\nof the fourth year. Only two attempts at this examination are allowed.\nAfter the second failure the pupil is barred from further progress in the\nprofession.\nIn this way the training-colleges are provided with material which has\nbeen carefully prepared in the region both of intellectual ability and of\nprofessional skill. During the two years' residence in a training-college\nthe student continues his intellectual training alongside of special direction in the higher professional knowledge of his calling. I may leave\nthe curriculum of intellectual study by simply remarking that at the end\nof his course the teacher who passes the second year's certificate examination in the first class is credited (by those who have the opportunity of\ncomparison) with having knowledge equal to that of an ordinary pass\ndegree at either Oxford or Cambridge University.\nThe methods by which the student in a training-college is prepared for\nthe professional part of his career, whilst in the college, are as follows :\nDuring the first year of training he is required to make a complete study\nof the principles of education so far as these are evidenced in the best\nmethods of teaching the ordinary subjects of school instruction.\nFurther* This is the practice of the London School Board. It should be understood lhat this is not the rule\nof the government department. The department desires that the pupil-teacher have as much time as\npossible for observation and private study.\n\n"}
{"page": 423, "printed_page": null, "text": "METHODS\n\nOF\n\nTRAINING\n\nTEACHERS.\n\n403\n\nmore, he is required to have a knowledge of the psychological processes by\nwhich knowledge is obtained through the senses, together with the best\nmethods of exercising and training the powers of observation, memory, and\nthe imagination.\nIt is found that the store of experimental knowledge which the student\nhas already gained in the practice of teaching during his pupil-teachership provides a fund of illustrative examples by means of which the\nprinciples of mental science may be fully elucidated. Besides the college\nlectures on the theory and practice of education, three weeks are spent in\nteaching the various classes in the practicing schools attached to the training-college. The three weeks spent in these schools are about equally\ndivided between the actual teaching of classes and the observation (a) of\nmodel lessons, (b) of modes of school organization, (c) of school buildings,\nand (d) of the most modern school apparatus.\nSo far as the practicing schools of the Westminster Training College are\nconcerned, we are able to present a considerable variety of teaching experience to the student. We have first the infants' school, in which the\nkindergarten exercises are fully displayed. This school presents a laboratory of sense training. The student does not actually teach in the infants'\nschool. He is expected simply to take notes of the methods of teaching\nand to make use of these methods in illustration of the principles of sense\ntraining. We hold that this contact with the actual processes of sense\ntraining gives a reality and fixedness to the study which no amount of\nmere lecturing could possibly secure.\nWestminster College was the first of the English training-colleges for\nmale students to make use of the infants' school for the purpose named.\nOur example has been followed by many others. Use is made of the\njunior school of children from eight to ten years of age to place the student\nin actual contact with the best methods of exercisiug the higher form of\nobservation, of memory, and of the imagination. In this school the student both teaches and observes. The curriculum of the senior school is\nmade so as to secure the most fitting subjects for exemplifying the above\nintellectual operations.\nElementary science in the form of object lessons, geography, drawing,\nbesides lessons in reading, writing, and num'ber, are the chief school exercises. The lectures in the college are made as far as possible to synchronize with the lessons observed and given in the schools. In this way theory\nand practice are coordinated, and at the end of the year the two, so far\nas one-half of the science and art of teaching is concerned, have become\ncomplete. An examination at the end of the year is conducted by the\ngovernment officials. This examination covers the entire range of intellectual and professional study, and as a result the students are ranked in\ndivisions according to proficiency.\nthree\n\n"}
{"page": 424, "printed_page": null, "text": "404\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nwork begun in the previous year. In mental science the student is required\nto make himself familiar with the abstract processes of thought, including\nthe formation of general notions, the exercise of the judgment, and the\nvarious processes of reasoning. These topics are discussed by means of oral\ninstruction in the college. Along with the college lectures the student\nis required to observe the methods by which the school lessons may be\nmade helpful to the exercise and development of these abstract intellectual\nprocesses. For three weeks during the year the student observes and\ntakes part in preparing and giving lessons in science, in the rules and principles of grammar, on the higher processes of arithmetic,. and on various\ntopics in language and history. Theory and practice are thus combined\nthroughout the entire course of training. The second-year student is\nfurthermore expected to make himself familiar with the writings of\nSpencer, Locke, or Quick, and to have a full knowledge of school organization, hygiene, and discipline.\nAt the end of the second year's course the student presents himself\nbefore her Majesty's inspector of training-colleges to give one of three\nspecimen lessons selected by the inspector. In order to prepare for this\nfinal ordeal and at the same time to develop his power of presenting\nknowledge in accordance with the rules of modern educational science,\nevery student in the college takes part in weekly display or criticism lessons. Each student during the two years of training presents himself\nno less than twelve times for this trying exercise. During the same\ntime he hears, and takes part in, the criticism of nearly one hundred lessons given by his fellow-students. Besides these criticism lessons by the\nstudents themselves, model lessons on every branch of school-work are\ngiven every week for the students' observation by the experienced headmasters of the practicing schools.\nDuring the past two years a few students have advanced to a third year's\nprofessional training.! This' third year of training may be in the same\ncollege as the first two years, but permission is given by the government\nfor the student to change to another college either in England or abroad.\nSufficient experience has not been gained to determine the value of this\nextended period of training. Another departure in the training of teachers recently tried is that of the establishment of day training-colleges. Of\nthese I have no direct knowledge, and therefore do not venture to speak.\nI find that the increased care in the selection of pupil-teachers, and\nthe greater attention which is being given to their systematic instruction,\nare resulting in the better preparation of the pupil-teachers for their college training. They yield in truth a most hopeful form of material for\ndevelopment into highly skilled teachers. As to the final result of our\nsystem of training, as now developed in our English schools and trainingcolleges, I quote the opinion of those who recently gave evidence before a\ncommission on secondary education (Teachers' Registration Bill, July,\n\n"}
{"page": 425, "printed_page": null, "text": "DISCUSSION.\n\n405\n\n1891). Mr. Storr, chief master of modern subjects in the Merchant\nTailors' School, who is, furthermore, editor of the Journal of Education,\nLondon, and who has hitherto been a severe critic of our elementary\nschool system, states \"that he has had personal experience of the work\nof several certificated elementary teachers ; that he had no hesitation in\nsaying that they show greater ability to teach and a greater power of\ndealing witli boys than the average secondary teacher ; and that, should\nthe elementary teachers continue to take (as many of them do) degrees at\nthe London University, they will beat the lower ranks of secondary teachers out of the field.\" Mr. Storr further adds that nearly all the improvements in methods that have taken place in secondary schools, and especially\nthe intuitive teaching from objects, the use of diagrams, etc., have come\nfrom these training-colleges, or from the training of elementary teachers.\nIn their draft report the commissioners state that, as regards teaching\njxperience, some of the witnesses most highly qualified to give evidence in\nrespect to its requirements laid great stress on the value of training, and\nthat a large part of the efficiency of our elementary teachers is due to the\ntraining which they receive, first, as pupil- teachers, and afterward as\nstudents in training-colleges.\nEducation in England never presented a brighter outlook. Of the\nthree conditions through which, according to Herbert Spencer, all forms\nof scientific inquiry must pass — viz.: (1) The unanimity of the ignorant ;\n(2) the disagreement of the inquiring; and (3) the unanimity of the wise\n— we are, in our elementary school system, rapidly assuming the third.\nThe scientific researches of Spencer, Bain, and Sully are placing within\nour reach a doctrine of educational truth which the enlightened teacher,\nset free from code restrictions, is setting himself with a will to understand\nand apply. We may not at once attain to the fullness of knowledge and\nthe perfection of practice which our brethren in America are able to present. We read your books, we study your methods, we are delighted with\nthe position which the question of education holds in your national life,\nand we are hoping to gain fresh inspiration from the privilege afforded of\ntaking part in the present Educational Congress.\n\nDISCUSSION.\nMr. John Millar, Deputy Minister of Education for Ontario, Canada: In the Province\nof Ontario the training of teachers is regarded as its most important educational problem.\nEvery teacher, from the lowest in the kindergarten to the highest in a collegiate institute, must have professional training. No person receives a permanent certificate who\ndoes not possess attainments of a threefold nature : (1) Scholarship, (2) a theoretical\nand practical knowledge of pedagogical principles, and (3) success as a teacher under\nnatural conditions.\nThe academic part of the teacher's training must be obtained before admission to a\nprofessional training institution is granted. The normal schools confine themselves\nexclusively to professional work.\nThe students admitted must have passed the examina-\n\n"}
{"page": 426, "printed_page": null, "text": "406\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION.\n\ntions of the Education Department, the preparation for which usually required some\nfour years' attendance at a high-school. They must have had at least a year's successful\nexperience in a school of their own after receiving some elementary professional training\nin a county model school.\nIt should be remembered that no student can be admitted to a normal school without\nthe approval of the superintendent or inspector who certifies to his ability and success\nas a teacher. As every inspector must hold the highest grade of certificate, and must\nhave had at least five years' successful experience as a teacher before he can be appointed\nto his position, the normal schools are guarded against the admission of students who\nmight fail as teachers. The departmental examinations already mentioned shut out\nthose who have not had the necessary academic attainments. Practice schools under\nskillful teachers are attached to the normal schools, where the students observe the application of the principles of pedagogy, and subsequently assume, for certain hours each day,\ncharge of the classes taught by the regular teachers. It is, however, assumed that many\nof the characteristics of a good teacher may and should be acquired before he is\nallowed to experiment on the pupils in the practice schools. Ability to prepare carefully the lesson to be taught, to make a logical arrangement of the subject matter to be\ntaken up, to understand the salient points to be dealt with before the pupils, and to\nshow accuracy of language, may be tested before the student enters upon the ordinary\npractice.\nAn examination, both written and practical, is held at the close of the term, and the\nsuccessful students are awarded permanent certificates as teachers in elementary schools.\nIt may be said that about a six years' course is required to obtain one of these certificates, of which the academic part in the high-school requires some four years, the professional training about one year, and the actual experience at least one year. The\ncertificate granted is provincial in value and given under provincial instead of under local\nauthority. The authorities of no city or county are given the power to hold the examinations, academic or professional, for awarding certificates.\nIn all high-schools, also, every teacher must hold qualifications professional as well as\nacademic, and no university graduate, no matter how high his attainments, could on\nthe strength of his degree hold a position as teacher. The teachers in high-schools\nreceive their professional training in the provincial school of pedagogy. The course is\nsomewhat similar to that of the normal schools, though of a higher character. Most of\nthe students admitted have good university attainments, and many of them are B. A.'s\nof very high honor standing. A year's course is given which is partly theoretical and\npartly practical. As in the case of the teachers of elementary schools, no permanent\ncertificate is awarded without actual experience and acknowledged success as certified\nby the high-school inspector. The principal of a high-school must be a graduate in\narts of a university, and must have served as an assistant in a high-school for at least\ntwo years after finishing his course at the school of pedagogy.\nThe Province of Ontario, though much wedded to the main features of its system of\ntraining teachers, is striving earnestly to improve its methods for securing teachers of\nhigher scholarship, deeper professional knowledge, and riper experience, which, after\nall, is the only true test of the successful teacher.\nMr. Henry A. Wise, Superintendent of Schools, Baltimore, Md. : In this country\nwe all feel that our advancement in civilization and happiness depends in a great degree\nupon the efficiency of the public schools. The normal schools have done a great deal\nof good in forwarding and helping on the work of public education in America, and it\nwould be unkind to take them to task for the defects that exist in our system ; but as it\nseems to me they have the opportunity of doing more for the schools than they are\ndoing, I take the liberty, therefore, of calling your attention to one very important\npoint which up to this time has remained unmentioned in the discussion of this question.\nAny one who will examine the course of study for pupils ranging from about six to\nfourteen pursued in some of the best European schools will find that the pupils in\nthose schools in the same time accomplish a very much greater amount of work than those\nin the American schools do. This will strike any one as a matter for serious consideration. Itbecomes us as good citizens and schoolmen to remedy this matter in the speediest\nmanner possible. Why is it that our schools are so far behind the schools of Europe ?\nIs there a reason and a remedy ? Our teachers are not trained either in academic\nbranches or professionally so well as the European teachers, and consequently they are\nunable to do the same amount of work in the same time.\nIt seems to me the course of study pursued in our primary and grammar schools\nneeds both retrenchment and extension. Much less time should be given to the study\nof arithmetic, grammar, and geography, and a more liberal course provided by the\n\n"}
{"page": 427, "printed_page": null, "text": "407\nDISCUSSION.\nteaching of elementary algebra and geometry, and a better course in science, history,\nand literature. The introduction of another language besides English would conduce\ngreatly to the teaching of our own language, and would result, in the hands of a competent teacher, in a gain rather than a loss of time. Instruction in the elements of algebra\nand geometry would enable us to accomplish in an easy way, with a great saving of\ntime, much of what our schools now try to do so illogically, and with so much difficulty\nand waste of time, in the instruction given in arithmetic. Threads of science, history,\nand literature, taught in the right way, could be extended through the course of eight\nyears, in suitable proportions, so as to provide a better course in every respect, whether\nto prepare the pupil for the continuance of his work in the high-school and onwards, or\nfor the ordinary purposes of life.\nTo enable the elementary schools to do this work we must have teachers qualified to\ndo it, and it is my purpose in occupying a little of your time this morning to call your\nattention to these facts, and to suggest that the normal schools of the country can be of\nthe greatest service in helping to correct this serious defect in our educational system.\nIf the normal schools would receive no students except those holding the degree of\nA. B.\" from a well-recognized college, and would require these to engage in professional training for two years, or for at least one year, would this not be of great help in\nremedying the defect I have mentioned ? Normal schools should recognize the fact that\nour teachers very generally need a much more extended and thorough culture in the\nbranches taught in a good college than they need a knowledge of the history and science\nof education.\nDr. J. M. Harper, Inspector of Superior Schools, Province of Quebec, Canada :\nDavid Stovve, of Scotland, was the founder of the training system. In the normal\nschool which he established, at Dundas Vale, Glasgow, I received normal training.\nThis institution has attained to high renown under the present management of Dr.\nRoss, as one of the best organized practicing schools in the world. The influence of\nStowe found its way from Old Scotland to New Scotland, for it was one of his students,\nthe Rev. Dr. Forrester, who established in Nova Scotia the first normal school in the\nmaritime provinces of Canada, a school in which the speaker had held a position for a\ntime in the practicing departments.\nIn connection with the difficulty of procuring a sufficient number of teachers when\nthe course of training is prolonged and expensive, I may state that the process of training in the old country begins with an apprenticeship of three, four, or five years in a\ngraded school and ends with two years in a normal school. After such a process the\n\"pedagogic consciousness\" has been so far developed in the man who has passed\nthrough the course, that there seems to be nothing for him except to become a teacher\nfor life. The length of training is long, the remuneration is contemptibly small, and\nyet there seems to be no lack of candidates when a situation of a hundred pounds or so\nis advertised. The secret of the matter, no doubt, lies in the remuneration which the\nteacher receives from the moment he enters upon his novitiate. The normal school is\na means to an end ; its own condition or organization is not the end, and consequently\nas an institution it should not be judged by its own condition. The end of the normal\nschool is the supplying of our schools with properly trained teachers, and if it fails to\nprovide such teachers for all the schools in a state, a province, a city, or district, it fails\nin its function. No school system in reaching out toward the highest success will ever\ncome near it, unless provision be made for the training of teachers for all grades of\nwork. The optional system may boast of its finely equipped normal school and its programme of studies and exercises, but if it fails to meet the necessity for trained teachers\nfor all our schools it is inadequate, it fails in its most important function.\nMiss E. P. Hughes, Principal of the Cambridge Training College for Teachers,\nEngland: The special aim of our training-college at Cambridge is to provide professional training for university graduates. They receive their general education elsewhere,\nand come to us merely for professional preparation.\nOne of the special characteristics of our college is that we have no practicing school\nof our own, but practice in fourteen schools in Cambridge. I do not believe at all in the\nordinary practicing school, where the ideas of the principal of the training-school are\ncarried out, and where the students do not come in contact with different ideas and\nnatural and normal conditions. When a principle is propounded in the lecture-room it\nis desirable that the students should have to apply it under many and varied conditions.\nMy own students teach in schools of all kinds — public as well as private; boys, girls, and\nmixed. The schools vary from a preparatory school for Eton and Rugby for the sons\nof university professors, etc. , to a ragged school in the poor part of the town.\nI hold\n\n"}
{"page": 428, "printed_page": null, "text": "408\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nit to be of the greatest importance that university graduate teachers should know much\nand sympathize much with all kinds of education. Our newest development in England,\nof elementary training-colleges, the day training-colleges in connection with our universities and university colleges, have no schools of their own, but practice in several schools\nalready existing. I hold strongly that if the practice of the students is damaging a\nschool it cannot be satisfactory for the students.\nMr. John Hull, President of the River Falls (Wisconsin) State Normal School,\nregretted the recent revival of the plea that practice-teaching is unnecessary in the preparation of normal school pupils for teaching, and that observation of class-work furnishes sufficient basis, on the practical side, for the graduation of pupils from schools.\nHe was quite sure that best results are obtained when theory, reinforced by observation,\nis followed by practice under intelligent supervision.\nFrancis Cogswell, Superintendent of Schools, Cambridge, Mass., said : The training-scho l inCambridge differs from the other grammar and primary schools in this,\nthat all the classes are taught by inexperienced teachers. These teachers, however, are\ngraduates both of a high-school and of a normal school, and their work is done under\nthe immediate supervision of a master and three assistant teachers.\nBy the establishment of this school, persons who desire to teach, and who have made\nspecial preparation for the work, have an opportunity to gain experience under conditions favorable to their own success, and without prejudice to the interest of their\npupils, their inexperience being offset by the large experience of the principal and his\nassistants.\nBy the rules of the school committee no person is eligible to the position of teacher in\nthe schools of Cambridge who is not equally qualified with teachers who have completed\nthe required time of service in the Cambridge training-school — that is, no person is\neligible who has not had advantages equivalent to a high-school course, a normal school\ncourse, and a year's experience in teaching.\nCol. F. W. Parker, of the Cook County (Illinois) Normal School : Observation of\nwork as a preparation for teaching is a delusion. Pupils should learn to teach by\nteaching.\n\nIMPORTANT\nBY\n\nGEORGE\n\nA.\n\nNECESSITIES IN PRESENT\nSCHOOLS.\n\nWALTON,\n\nSTATE\nAGENT\nOF THE\nOF MASSACHUSETTS.\n\nBOARD\n\nNORMAL\nOF\n\nEDUCATION\n\nNew England, as is well known, led this country in establishing state\nnormal schools. These schools have done a great work in improving the\nways of teaching and in creating a public sentiment in favor of special\ntraining for teachers. At present, and for several years, only about thirty\nper cent, of all the school teachers of New England have been graduates\nof normal schools, while recently about twelve per cent, in addition have\nreceived some training in city training-schools. The remaining sixty per\ncent, have had no training to teach. It will thus appear that the great\nhindrance to educational progress is the presence in the schools of this\nlarge proportion of teachers without professional training.\nNormal training has not gone fast enough to supply all the schools, and\nthe training furnished has not gone far enough to thoroughly fit for\nteaching. Hitherto all the normal schools have been deficient in their\npractice departments.\nEvery one of these schools must have an academic\n\n"}
{"page": 429, "printed_page": null, "text": "IMPORTANT\n\nNECESSITIES\n\nIN PRESENT\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\n409\n\ndepartment, in which the branches of study to be taught must be pursued\nin the normal school with reference to the best ways of teaching them.\nThis is as necessary as is the teaching of pedagogy and the history of\neducation.\nTo remedy the defect in the department of practice is now the aim of\nall our normal schools. It matters not how familiar the teacher may\nbe with theories of teaching and with the things to be taught ; he can\nbecome skillful alone by practice. If his skill is not gained under instruction, itmust be by experience and at the expense of the child.\nThe nearest approach to a normal training-school that has come under\nmy observation, so far as the practice side is concerned, is the normal\ntraining-school in New Britain, Conn. This school has an attendance of\nabout three hundred normal students. These pursue a prescribed course\nof studies, continuing the pursuit till the course is completed, regardless\nof the time it requires. An adjunct to the normal school, in immediate\nconnection with it, is a model school of five hundred pupils, embracing all\ngrades of instruction below the college. The several classes of the model\nschool are in charge of expert teachers ; the whole is under the supervision\nof the principal of the normal school. All the instruction in the theory\nand practice of teaching is illustrated by the teaching of classes of the model\nschool pupils in -the presence of the normal school classes. Usually this\nteaching is done by the regular teacher of the class ; sometimes the critic\nteacher or special teacher of methods teaches. In special instances the\nnormal student experiments with a model class. She is a constant observer\nand an occasional helper in the model school.\nThe observations of the class exercises, conducted by the critic and other\nteachers, are made the occasion for study by the normal students, and of\ninstruction by the teacher of methods. After completing the prescribed\ncourse of studies in the normal school, and giving evidence of a comprehension of the theory of teaching the several branches, the students are\nput to teaching, under careful supervision, and under conditions similar\nto what they will meet in tbeir future teaching. For this purpose all the\nschool children of a town are brought under one roof, and organized into\na school, with the several grades from kindergartens through the highschool. The schools of South Manchester, one of the towns thus connected with the state normal school, have about nine hundred children, all\ntaught in this way. In the distribution of the children no teacher has over\ntwenty-five pupils. These she organizes into classes, teaching and managing them in her own way, subject to careful supervision. This is exercised\nby the normal principal, who visits every room twice each week, and by\nthe two critic teachers, one the principal of the school, who are constantly\npresent in the schoolrooms for counsel. Besides these there are four\nassistants and several special teachers, who act as supervisors in their\nseveral specialties.\nOne school or class of the practice school is conducted\n\n"}
{"page": 430, "printed_page": null, "text": "410\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nas a model school, by an expert. As a practical result of the working of\nthe plan, I have seen in this practice school forty students of the normal\nschool conducting the classes of their own organizing with entire success\n— as great as I should expect from any forty teachers in any town.\nThe illustration enforces the value of careful study of the subjects taught,\nof the principles of teaching, and of continued observation, all supplemented byindependent practice, as a preparation for teaching. It only\nremains to say that we hope ere long to see all our normal school courses\nsupplemented by practice in teaching in the city and town training-schools,\nand that the time is not distant when no teacher will receive a normal\nschool diploma till he has shown by actual success in the schoolroom that\nhe has the ability and fitness to teach. To a great extent city trainingschools could be made to effectively supplement all normal schools with\nschools for practice.\nGRADATION\nBY\n\nTHOMAS\n\nOF NORMAL\n\nAND\n\nTRAINING\n\nKIRKLAND,\nPRINCIPAL\nOF THE\nTORONTO,\nONTARIO.\n\nNORMAL\n\nShould we have a gradation of normal and training schools ?\n\nSCHOOLS.\nSCHOOL,\n\nIf so, what ?\n\nIt is now recognized by all enlightened nations that it is the duty of the\nstate to establish and control public schools in which the youths of the\ncountry shall receive the instruction and training necessary to make them\ngood citizens. To make good citizens we must have good schools. In\norder to have good schools we must have good teachers. To have good\nteachers, they must be trained for their important work ; and experience\nhas abundantly shown that unless the state undertakes this training, it\nwill be inadequately done by others, if done at all. I do not mean to say\nthat there have not been good teachers who have never gone through a\ntraining-school, but training they must have had before they became good\nteachers ; and if they did not get it at a training-school, they must have\nobtained it at the sacrifice of their pupils. Hence it follows that the state\nmust provide training institutions, both as to kind and quantity, suitable\nfor the training of all its teachers, in order that no untrained teacher shall\nbe permitted to take charge of any public school,. The object of this\npaper is to briefly indicate how this may be done.\nWhen training-schools were first established they combined academic\nwork with professional training. This is the system still adopted in nearly\nall the normal schools in the United States and in the training institutions in Europe. It was the system practiced in the normal school in\nwhich I serve, for more than thirty years. It has produced some of our\nvery best teachers.\nIt has use and want in its favor, and is not, there-\n\n"}
{"page": 431, "printed_page": null, "text": "GRADATION\n\nOF NORMAL\n\nAND\n\nTRAINING\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\n411\n\nfore, to be lightly set aside. In its support it is urged that it is impossible\nto get students with the required academic education on which to base\nprofessional training. In reply to this, it is justly pointed out that\ncolleges, academies, and high-schools have so increased in number and\nefficiency that training-schools may now confine themselves to strictly\nprofessional work.\nBut what constitutes professional work ?\nSome of our best educational authorities hold that academic instruction\nis a necessary branch of normal school work, and not something which,\nunder changed circumstances, might be dispensed with. They consider\nthat in teaching a subject in a training-school, due attention should be given\nto its rise and development as a factor in education ; that an historical\nview of the subject should be given in regard to methods, as the best\nsafeguard against a slavish copying of educational devices ; that the educational value of the subject should receive attention, and that the subject\nshould be considered in its coordinate relation to other subjects. Now\nwhen academic work is done according to the foregoing, it becomes really\nand truly professional work. And if schools of this type were sufficiently\nnumerous to train all the teachers required by the state, no better system\nneed be sought for. But in no country are they sufficiently numerous, nor\nare they ever likely to be so. The expense would be too great. Therefore, on this ground alone we must adopt institutions of another type.\nThe division of labor, which has accomplished such marvellous results\nin other departments of work, must be applied to training-schools. Colleges and high-schools must be left to do the academic part of the work\nrequired by the teacher, while the training-schools shall confer that\nknowledge which constitutes the science and art of education, and give\nthat knowledge and training which especially belongs to the teacher, just\nas the science of medicine belongs to the physician, or the science of\ntheology to the clergyman. And just as the doctor and clergyman first\nobtain the necessary learning and culture upon which they afterward\nbuild their professional training, so should the professional training of\nthe teacher be taken after, and not in conjunction with, the acquisition\nof knowledge at a college or high -school.\nFrom a theoretical point of view this system seems to have much to\ncommend it. But when first introduced it will be found to possess serious\ndisadvantages. Unless the teachers in the colleges and high-schools at\nwhich the future professional students receive their academic knowledge\nhave been trained for their work, their methods, to say the least, will not\nbe the best. These methods will be acquired by their students during the\nthree or four years of attendance at the high-school, and cannot readily be\ngot rid of during their short attendance at the normal school. This\nsystem of professional training-schools will only be successful when those\nwho do the academic work have themselves been trained in the best\nmethods of communicating knowledge.\n\n"}
{"page": 432, "printed_page": null, "text": "412\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nSchools may be roughly classified into kindergarten, public, and high\nschools, each school doing its own special work and for which special\ntraining is needful. This division of schools necessarily requires a corresponding division of training institutions. Hence, in order that all the\nteachers in a state or province may receive the special training requisite\nto fit them for the work they may be called upon to do, and with the\nleast possible expense to the state, the following training institutions will\nbe found necessary and sufficient :\n(1) Schools for the training of kindergarten teachers.\n(2) County model schools for training third-class teachers.\n(3) Normal schools for training second-class teachers.\n(4) Schools of pedagogy for training first-class teachers, high-school\nmasters, and county superintendents.\n(5) Chairs of pedagogy in our universities, mainly for investigating\neducational problems.\n•\nKINDERGAKTENS.\n\nKindergarten teachers may be divided into assistants and directors.\nFor training the former, local schools will be sufficient. Before a candidate is eligible for admission to a local school she should be at least seventeen years of age and should possess a good high-school education. After\nhaving served one year under a director and passed the prescribed examination, she may receive an assistant's certificate. For the training of\ndirectors, kindergartens should be established in connection with the state\nnormal schools. At these normal kindergartens those who possess assistant's certificates receive another year's training, at the close of which,\nand after having passed the prescribed examination, they may receive a\ndirector's certificate which qualifies them for taking charge of any kindergarten and for training assistants. These normal kindergartens also enable\nthe students in training at the normal schools to obtain some insight into\nkindergarten methods and management.\nCOUNTY\n\nMODEL\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\nOne or more of the best public schools in each county may be set apart\nfor the purpose of training teachers who have obtained third-class nonprofessional certificates. The principal of such a school should be a man\nof wide educational experience, holding at least the highest grade of public school certificate, and should have no other duties except management\nduring the model school term. The assistants should all hold normal\nschool certificates. Since, in all probability, more than half the schools\nin each county will be under the control of the graduates of these model\nschools, it is of the utmost importance that the training should be given\nby teachers of exceptional skill and ability.\n\n"}
{"page": 433, "printed_page": null, "text": "GRADATION\n\nOF NORMAL\n\nAND\n\nTRAINING\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\n413\n\nCounty model schools were established in the province of Ontario in\n1887, and have been eminently successful. The session is fifteen weeks,\nbut it will probably soon be lengthened. Similar schools were established\nin the State of New York in 1890. The session is sixteen weeks, but the\nattendance is not compulsory, as in Ontario. They have also been established in Manitoba.\nThe term of the teachers in training at these schools is taken up with\nlectures and discussions by the principal on —\n(1) The more important pedagogical principles and their application to\nteaching, school organization and management, school laws and regulations, and the study of the lives and methods of a few of our great\neducational reformers.\n(2) Hygiene and physical culture.\n(2) Observation of the work done by the regular teachers.\n(4) Practice lessons given to the classes in the model school.\n(5) Criticism by those who have observed the teaching.\nIn Ontario the professional third-class certificate, given at the close of\nthe term in these schools, is valid for only three years, and if the holder\nhas not by that time obtained a second-class non-professional certificate,\nand in addition to this has received a certificate from the county inspector that he has taught successfully for at least one year, he is not\neligible to enter a normal school, and may, therefore, be obliged to retire\nfrom the teaching profession ; the object being to weed out the lazy and\nincompetent at as early a stage of their educational career as possible,\nand thus give them an opportunity to enter some other profession where\nthey can do less mischief.\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\nThese schools are for the further training of teachers who hold thirdclass professional certificates, who in addition have obtained non-professional second-class certificates, and who also hold certificates from their\ncounty inspector that they have taught successfully for one year.\n•\nIt is customary in Ontario for teachers to have taught two or three\nyears before seeking for admission into a normal school. With the\nexperience thus gained in their own schools, with their previous training\nit the county model school, and with the additional knowledge obtained\nat the high-school while preparing for their second-class non-professional\ncertificates, the students in training at the normal schools are well prepared for the acquisition of pedagogical and professional knowledge.\nTheir work at the normal school mainly consists in extending and supplementing the work of the county model school, together with the study of\npsychology, the science and art of education, and educational history. At\nthe close of the session, and after an examination, both written and practical, the student may receive a second-class certificate, good for life.\n\n"}
{"page": 434, "printed_page": null, "text": "414\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nOF PEDAGOGY.\n\nIf training is considered necessary for public school teachers, much\nmore is it necessary for those who occupy the higher positions in the\nteaching profession. Hence the necessity of schools for the training of\nnormal and high-school masters, principals of county model schools, and\nschool inspectors. It would be impossible to overrate the importance of\nthese institutions when well conducted, as their influence will be felt in\nall the grades of schools.\nTraining-schools of this type are of comparatively recent origin. In\n1880 one was established in France for the training of female teachers for\nthe lower normal schools, and another in 1882 for the training of masters\nfor the same class of schools. In 1892 the State Normal College at Albany\nwas established for training university graduates. For several years a\nschool of pedagogy has been in operation in Ontario for training graduates of the universities and teachers holding first-class certificates. The\ncourse is much the same as in the normal schools, but carried farther.\nUniversity graduates, in addition to the other subjects, have to take methods in Latiu and methods in either Greek or French and German. The\nhighest positions in the teaching profession are open only to graduates of\nthis school.\nPEDAGOGICAL\n\nCHAIR\n\nIN\n\nA UNIVERSITY.\n\nOne of the great functions of a university is research ; and surely no\nsubject stands in more need of research than education. Turn which way\nwe may, we are met by unsolved educational problems. How very little\nis yet known of the laws which govern the mental growth of the child ! A\nuniversity professor, with his abundant leisure, is in a position to do\nmuch toward the solution of these problems. In addition to research he\nmight collect, collate, and interpret pedagogical data, and in general point\nout and direct the true method of pedagogical investigation. The work of\nthe occupant of such a chair need not conflict with the work of any of\nour training institutions. The duties of the former end with knowing ;\nthe duties of the latter end with doing. Each has its proper place. Both\nare necessary.\nThe foregoing, ladies and gentlemen, is a very brief outline, but as full\nas the time allowed for the paper would permit, of the gradation of\ntraining institutions required by a state or province to produce efficient\nteachers. I do not think that any of them can be dispensed with, nor do\nI see any need of additions to their number.\n\n"}
{"page": 435, "printed_page": null, "text": "NORMAL\n\nHISTORICAL\nJT\n\nEUGENE\n\nAND\n\nTRAINING\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nIN FRANCE.\n\nDEVELOPMENT OF NORMAL\nSCHOOLS IN FRANCE.\n\nMARTIN,\n\nDIRECTEUR\n\nDE I/ECOLE\nPARIS.\n\n415\n\nAND TRAINING\n\nPRIMAIRE\n\nSUPERIEURE,\n\nThe classification of the several grades of normal and training schools\nin France would require a much larger time than is allowed to me. As a\npart of an introduction to the general discussion, I'll give an explanation\nof the development of normal and training schools in France.\nThe idea of a normal school for the preparation of teachers first occurred\nto the eminent men of the French Revolution, Condorcet, and others.\nBut their first attempt to establish it was a failure, in so much as they\nhad to recognize that it was not possible for fifteen hundred teachers,\ngathered directly from the provinces, to profit by the lessons of the most\nlearned scholars of the time. However, when, some twenty or thirty years\nlater, the attempt was renewed on a different basis, it was successful, and\nthe Ecole Normale Superieure was established for the training of professors\nin the secondary schools, lycees, and colleges. This school, commonly\nknown as the iScole de bureau d'Ulm, still exists, and is considered in\nFrance as the first and best of its kind. It is from it that most of our\ndistinguished writers have come for the last seventy years ; it is there that\nM. Pasteur has his laboratory. Its aim is to prepare teachers for the\nsecondary schools, and not only does it attain it, but it very often happens\nthat, in a few years, the best students become professors in our French\nuniversities.\nBut the preparation of teachers for the primary school was not forgotten,\nand as far back as 1822 we find that the first primary normal school was\nestablished at Orleans. Another followed in 1823 ; the next, five years\nlater ; and in the years 1830-37 as many as sixty were created in different\ndepartments. From 1870 to 1879 very few were added to that number —\nonly three or four — the Empire, for reasons of its own, advocating the\nsubstitution of a system of pupil teachers, which was never very successful, or accepting as teachers in public schools a large number of Christian\nBrothers, without any certificate.\nNew ideas came up with new institutions, and from 1870 to 1879\nnormal schools regained favor. Yet it is not until that year, 1879, that\na rational course of training was insisted upon for every teacher, and that\na thorough system of normal schools for every department was sketched\nout.\nM. F. Buisson, the present Director of Primary Instruction in France,\nas well as M. Ferry, then Minister of Public Instruction, thought that\nthe first step in that reform for the training of elementary teachers was to\n\n"}
{"page": 436, "printed_page": null, "text": "416\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\neducate normal school teachers, and accordingly a first attempt was made\nin 1880, when one hundred gentlemen, from all parts of France, were\ngathered, at Sevres, near Paris. They were to be taught educational\nscience in all its branches, so as to go and teach it themselves to the\nelementary teachers afterwards. They had the lessons of such men as\nM. Compayre, Bertrand, Tallifier, Paquier, and others, and of course the\nresults were excellent.\nIn the next year, 1881, the iScole Nor male Superieure d'enseignement\nprimaire was legally established at St. Cloud under the direction of M.\nJacoulet, and it sends out every year twenty or thirty highly competent\nnormal school teachers. It was thought advisable to have a literary and a\nscientific branch, but all students attend the same lectures on psychology\nand pedagogy. For particulars regarding the age and other conditions of\nadmission I must refer you to official documents.\nTwo years later, as the principle of female teachers in all girls' schools\nand the majority of rural schools with boys and girls was admitted, it\nwas found necessary to have as many primary normal schools for ladies\nas for gentlemen, and consequently it was indispensable to have an\nj£cole Normale Superieure for the training of ladies' primary normal\nschools. This was established at Fontenay-aux-Roses, near Paris, with\nthe same eminent professors, and with the same excellent results. Meantime, not only had new normal schools for gentlemen been established in\nthe few departments which had not yet one, but in many instances ladies'\nnormal schools had been created as well. There were only seven of these\nbest ones in 1870, sixteen in 1879, fourteen more, or thirty in all, in 1880.\nSo, when the law of 1886 made it compulsory for every department to keep\ntwo primary normal schools, one for each sex, for the training of its\nteachers, it was in most instances but the correlation of accomplished facts.\nIn the year 1892 there were in France and Algeria eighty-seven normal\nschools for men, and eighty-five for women ; in two or three instances\nonly, the departments having been authorized to join another in the keeping\na common normal school. The number of students in these normal schools\nwas at the same time in round numbers seventy-five hundred, of which\nfour thousand were gentlemen and thirty-five hundred ladies. The general\nexpenses supported by the state and department were nine million francs,\nor nearly two million dollars. The age of admission is from sixteen to\neighteen ; the course of study lasts three years. When they go out of\nschool, students are expected to pass the examination of brevet supre, or\nfirst-class certificate.\nFor programmes of entrance examination, as well as of others, I must\nrefer you again to the official papers. I will only mention, that in all\nnormal schools there is a course of psychology as applied to education ; one\nforeign language is taught, English or German ; also manual training for\nmen and sewing for girls. From twenty to twenty-five hours a week are\n\n"}
{"page": 437, "printed_page": null, "text": "NORMAL\n\nAND\n\nTRAINING\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nIN FRANCE.\n\n417\n\ndevoted to the academic course of studies, two hours to the foreign language, and four hours to manual training. A practicing school is annexed\nto nearly every normal school, and it contains also a kindergarten department in ladies' schools. When I say that there is a practicing school in\nnearly every normal school, it must not be inferred that in some there is\nno practice at all ; but in some cases- it has been thought advisable for male\nstudents to make use of some of the public schools in the town for that\npurpose. In fact, every normal school student has at least three weeks'\npractice in effectual teaching during every school year, or nine weeks on\nhis three years' course. The way in which he or she gets this practice\nvaries according to the schools and directors. In this way all French\nteachers in elementary schools must previously get a three years' course of\nnormal training before they begin their work. The definite certificate or\n\" certificat d' aptitude pedagogique\" can only be delivered to them after\ntwo years of effective practice.\nThe training of competent teachers for ladies' secondary lycees and colleges has not been forgotten. In 1882, at the same time as the first\nlycees for young ladies were established in France, a secondary normal\nschool for ladies was created in Sevres, near Paris, and every year twenty\nto thirty highly competent teachers are sent forth from there into all\nsecondary schools for girls.\nFrom 1860 to 1892 the normal school of Cluny, in the central part\nof France, prepared teachers for what we call enseignement, secondary\nspecial in lycees and colleges — that is, secondary education without either\nLatin or Greek. It was thought advisable to suppress it last year, as\ngraduates from the universities largely supply the want.\nIt has been attempted, also, to have training or normal schools for the\nmore special branches of the school curriculums, such as manual training,\nforeign languages, drawing, etc. In 1882, under the direction of M.\nSalicis, then a general inspector, a school was established in Paris for the\nspecial preparation of teachers of manual training in normal schools, but it\nlasted only two years, as this eminent gentleman died and nobody took his\nplace. In 1891 the idea has been revived in a new way : twenty teachers\nhave been sent to spend one year at the school of arts and trades, at\nhalons ; they were called the normal year course, and twenty more went\nsucceed them in 1892.\nThis system seems to work well, and promises\nprovide competent teachers for manual training in normal and high\nhools. A manual training school for kindergartners was also started in\n'aris, and called the Pape Carpentier school.\nIt lived only two years,\nnd, instead, there is now a kindergarten annexed to every normal school\nr ladies. There is as yet no state normal school for drawing, but in many\nVench towns the free municipal academic schools, which are open to all,\ncontain special courses toward this special preparation, and the need is not\nfelt of anything better for the present.\n27\n\n"}
{"page": 438, "printed_page": null, "text": "418\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nAs to the teachers for foreign languages, it is very rightly thought that\nof all necessity they were to spend two years abroad, and for the last ten\nyears the French Government has sent from three to ten gentlemen and\nladies either to England or to Germany yearly, in order that they may not\nonly learn the language, but teach it also ; none is sent who is not first\nprovided with the special certificate required of the teacher in a normal\nschool.\nIt may, perhaps, be well to add as a complement to this short account of\nthe French system of training teachers, that in no case is a certificate delivered to any teacher, at any grade, because of his going through a course\nof training only ; but every student must, at the end of his normal school\ntime, pass an examination held by a jury, the members of which are entirely strangers to the school. Open to criticism as it may be, this is the\nadopted course for the examination of teachers.\n\nNORMA!,\nBY\n\nFRANCIS\n\nSCHOOLS\nJ.\n\nCHENEY,\n\nIN THE STATE\nPRINCIPAL\n\nAT CORTLAND,\n\nOF\n\nTHE\nN.\n\nOF NEW\nSTATE\n\nYORK.\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nY.\n\nThe first State normal school in New York was organized in 1844, at\nAlbany, with twenty-nine pupils and an appropriation by the State of\n$9,600. Since then the number has increased to eleven, with the twelfth\none almost in sight, with eight thousand pupils and an aggregate appropriation of nearly $300,000 for maintenance alone. The value of normal school property in the State is $2,000,000. Nearly $60,000 was\nexpended for teachers' training classes, and $30,000 for teachers' institutes.\nUntil quite recently the high schools and academies of the State have\nseverely criticised the normal schools because they have done so much\nacademic work, instead of adhering to strictly professional work. But the\nlatter have maintained that this work had to be done by them as long as\npupils were permitted, by the regulations of the Department of Public\nInstruction, to enter these schools without having had this necessary instruction elsewhere ; and many connected with normal schools have maintained\nthat this work could be better done by them than by the academies. But\nthe advancement in the quality of work done in high schools and academies, as well as a higher appreciation of that work, has led the normal\nschools to encourage pupils to remain in the former until they receive\ntheir diplomas from the same, and to give credit for the work done.\nThe gradation of the work of the professional training of teachers\nrequires that the elementary part shall be Teachers' Training Classes.\n\n"}
{"page": 439, "printed_page": null, "text": "NORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nIN THE\n\nSTATE\n\nOF NEW\n\nYORK.\n\n419\n\nThese classes are connected with the academies and higher schools which\nire now permitted to do a certain amount of professional work and to\nreceive compensation therefor from the State. The superintendent of\nrablic instruction selects from the nearly four hundred union schools\nmd academies of the State those that afford the most ample facilities and\njresent the best record in the grade and character of their work, to\nistruct what are known as \" training classes.\"\nSome regard is also had\nlocality. The special aim of these classes is to prepare teachers for the\nmgraded country schools. In 1891-92 one hundred and fifty-nine of\nthese classes were organized with an attendance of 2,530 pupils. The class\nin any school must be organized with not less than ten members, and not\nmore than twenty-five. The period of instruction consists of two terms\nof sixteen weeks each. Definite qualifications are required for entering,\nmd an examination is given at the end of each term, which all members\n)f the class must enter.\nSchool commissioners are required by law to visit the classes and to\nIvise and assist in their organization and management. Two special\n)fficers known as inspectors of training classes are appointed by the\nsuperintendent of public instruction to visit the classes one or more times\neach term, notice carefully the material of which the class is composed,\nthe quality of the work done, and give such advice and criticism as in his\njudgment may be necessary. The inspectors make immediate report to\nthe superintendent after each visit. The class in each institution is\nistructed in a definite course of study, separate from all other classes of\nthe school, which, briefly outlined, is as follows : The mental powers and\niws of mental growth ; school law and school economy ; reading and\nspelling ; numbers ; language ; geography. Subject matter and methods are\nincluded in the instruction of these branches. Methods in form study and\ndrawing and methods in physiology are also taught. It is required, also,\nthat the class be given the opportunity to witness and engage in practical\nfork in other departments of the school where instruction is being given\nby experienced teachers. The training class itself is also made a practice\nclass, in charge of one of its members. The department demands that\nireat care be taken by Boards of Education in the selection of the\nichers who shall have charge of these classes.\nSuperintendent Crooker says, in his recent report to the legislature,\nAlready good teachers are going out from these classes, well grounded\nin a knowledge of the methods and principles of teaching as a result of\nsonscientious and effective instruction, and the outlook for still further\nbenefits is very encouraging.\"\nteachers' institutes.\nClosely allied to the work of the training classes is that of the teachers'\ninstitutes.\nThese have been organized for nearly fifty years.\nOne insti-\n\n"}
{"page": 440, "printed_page": null, "text": "420\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\ntute is held each year in every school commissioner's district of the State.\nThe schools within the district must be closed during the week, and the\nattendance on the part of the teachers is compulsory (cities having a population of five thousand or over excepted), but they are entitled to regular\nwages for the time they are in attendance. These institutes are under\nthe direct supervision of conductors appointed by the State superintendent\nof instruction. They are employed at an annual salary, and give their\nwhole time to the work. The purpose of the institute is the instruction\nof common school teachers in the latest and best methods of teaching\nthe common branches, including school government, school economy,\nlaws of mental growth, methods, and discipline.\nWhile the time allowed each institute is not sufficient to make that\nlasting impression desired by all efficient and successful teachers, yet\nthe criticism upon its work is lessening year by year, and the benefits\nreceived by the progressive teachers in attendance are more and more\nacknowledged. If the length of time during which these institutes are\nin session could be increased and the instruction better graded, it is easy\nto see that these organizations might be numbered among the most efficient means of normal instruction, reaching a larger constituency than\nany other.\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\nAs has before been stated, normal schools have from the beginning\nof their organization gradually grown in favor and influence, until to-day\nthey command the hearty support of all friends of education. Besides the\nNew York State Normal College there are ten of these schools situated\nin different localities of the State, with provision already made by the\nlegislation for the establishment of the eleventh.\nWhile the purpose of their organization was originally to provide welltrained teachers for all the public schools of the State, their graduates are\ngenerally found in the graded city and village schools. The courses of\ninstruction are longer, more thorough and exacting than that of the\nteachers' training class. To enter these schools a pupil must be at least\nsixteen years of age, and receive an appointment by the State superintendent upon the recommendation of his (the pupil's) school commissioner\nor city superintendent as to his health, scholarship, mental ability, and\nmoral character. If he holds a college, academic, or union school diploma,\na State certificate, or a certificate granted under the uniform examination, and still in force, showing a standing of seventy-five per cent, in\ngeography, grammar, and arithmetic, each, he is admitted without examination ;otherwise he is examined in the three branches named. In any\ncase he must be able to \" read readily and intelligently, spell correctly,\nand write legibly and neatly.\"\nAfter entering he has a choice of one of three courses of study : An\n\n"}
{"page": 441, "printed_page": null, "text": "NORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nIN THE\n\nSTATE\n\nOF NEW\n\nYORK.\n\n421\n\nEnglish course of three years ; a classical course of four years ; and a scientific course which embraces all the subjects of the English course and\na two years' course in any two of the following languages : Latin, Greek,\nFrench, and German. After admission, the principal gives such credit to\ncollege or academic diplomas, to State certificates or regents' pass-cards, as\nhe thinks proper in determining whether the student shall be advanced in\nstanding. No student is allowed to graduate upon less than one year's\nattendance. At least as much time as this must be given to the study\nof the history and philosophy of education, methods of teaching, psychology, and actual practice in the school of practice connected with each\none of these schools. The schools of practice consist of all grades up\nto, and insome instances including, academic grades. In these schools,\nunder the supervision of critics especially appointed, advanced pupils are\nrequired to apply the principles and methods of teaching already learned\nin the normal department. Classes are assigned to the pupil-teacher, for\nwhich he is responsible for a certain length of time. He receives such\nsuggestions and criticism, either in a general way or alone, as, in the\njudgment of the critic, should be given.\nThe actual test of the student's immediate or prospective ability to\nteach is made here. If, after proper trial, it is found that a student gives\nlittle or no evidence of becoming such a teacher as should receive a permanent license, he is advised to seek employment in some other field of\nactivity.\nConnected with some of these schools — notably Albany, Fredonia, and\nOswego — are kindergartens.\nNEW\n\nYORK\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nCOLLEGE.\n\nIn March, 1890, the Albany Normal School was reorganized on an\nentirely new plan, under the title of \" New York State Normal College.\"\nIt is under the joint jurisdiction of the Superintendent of Public Instruction and the Regents of the University of the State of New York. It\ngives no instruction in subject matter of the ordinary branches, but confines itself to purely professional work. Its requirements for admission\nare higher than those of the other normal schools. It has a two years'\nEnglish course, after the completion of which the student is given a\ndiploma simply. It also has a two years' classical course, which, when\ncompleted, entitles the student to the degree of the Bachelor of Pedagogy.\n\"The courses of study include the philosophy and history of education,\nsystems of education, school economy, methods of teaching the branches\nincluded in the courses, and such other subjects as are related immediately\nto the professional work of the teacher.\"\nA model school, consisting of four departments — viz., kindergarten,\nprimary, grammar, and high school — is organized and maintained for the\npurpose of giving students the \" opportunity for observing the successful\n\n"}
{"page": 442, "printed_page": null, "text": "422\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\napplication of the methods of teaching and ...\nto display their\nknowledge of the subjects taught, and their skill in teaching and managing\n\"\npupils.\nThe purpose of the college is to prepare teachers and principals and\nsuperintendents for the more advanced schools of the State.\nCHAIRS\n\nOF\n\nPEDAGOGY.\n\nThese have been established in some of the colleges of the State like\nCornell and Syracuse Universities, where students who wish to pursue\nprofessional studies along the line of teaching have the advantages of the\nincreased facilities of the library and laboratory of the university. It\nshould also be noticed that many of the larger cities maintain teachers'\nclasses for the purpose of training teachers for their own schools, as the\nNew York Normal College.\nPRIMARY\n\nINSTRUCTION.\n\nIt is a question in the minds of some of our most thoughtful educators\nwhether it would not be well to have one or more of our normal schools\ndevoted to the special work of training primary teachers. The importance\nof primary instruction, and, therefore, the necessity of well-trained primary teachers are more and more unquestioned. The work is great enough\nto command the entire time and energy of any school, and such a work,\nif properly done, would be felt throughout all the schools. With us in\nNew York this grade of instruction has received as little attention as any.\nThe importance of primary work is gradually forcing itself on school\nauthorities, and it is coming to pass that better work is being required and\nbetter compensation given.\n\nA\n\nSOCIOLOGICAL,\nBY\n\nDANIEL\n\nFULCOMER,\n\nIDEAL\n\nVIEW\n\nOF NORMAL\n\nPRESIDENT\nOF MICHIGAN\nRAPIDS, MICH.\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nSCHOOLS.\nGRAND\n\nThe point of view in this paper will not be that of the normal school\nman simply, but of the explorer of education in general and of the whole\nfield of social science. It will be largely ideal in its conclusions, and it is\nto be desired that a strict and sharp line be drawn in the minds of my\nhearers between what is given as a pure ideal of the distant future — one\nhundred years hence if you please — on the one hand, and the practical\nand immediate slight reforms which I shall propose in the latter part of\nmy paper.\nI am not altogether an idealist on this subject, for practical experience\nas president of a so-called \" normal university \" has brought me into con-\n\n"}
{"page": 443, "printed_page": null, "text": "A SOCIOLOGICAL,\n\nIDEAL\n\nVIEW\n\nOF NORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\n423\n\ntact with the same difficulties and demands that you have met. But in\nall the branches of social activity we must have ideals. Had there been\nno ideal character in the minds of men this past eighteen hundred years,\nhow much further short of that ideal should we have been to-day than we\nare ! Though neither we nor our descendants may ever reach a perfect\nsystem of education, we shall come much nearer to it if we have its proportions clearly before us, and strive year by year to bring the present\nmore nearly into harmony with it.\nMy topic of the true studies of a normal school course is the same as\nthat of the true nature of normal schools. What part should they hold in\na perfect system of education ? This is to be determined by the sociologist rather than the psychologist. The definition of education itself may\nbe improved upon in the same hands.\nTHE\n\nPLACE\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSOCIAL\n\nORGANISM.\n\nEducation in its widest sense is the voluntary modification of the individual. Its purpose is two-fold: the perfection of the individual and the\nperfection of the social organism. A balance must be kept between these\ntwo. Education, in the thought of our great American sociologist, Ward,\nis the ultimate means of realizing all social aims. Schools as at present\nconstituted do but a part of the work of education, the church, the\nfamily, and the shop taking their respective shares ; but the tendency of\nthe school is to enlarge its field, as in the kindergarten and in moral\nand industrial education.\nWherever the educational system belongs in Spencer's classification of\nthe sustaining, the distributing, and the regulating systems of the social\norganism, it is a complete system in itself, and is made up of a group of\norgans, each of which should have its own work to perform. The office of\nthis system in its entirety, including the education of the home aud of the\nchurch, is to take the unformed atoms of the body politic, individuals, at\ntheir birth, and select aud fit them for the places in the organism which\nthey should occupy. Their training begins in the cradle and ends only at\nthe grave. In this vast and important system, both general and professional schools have their separate functions : the first in transforming all\nthe atoms alike from dead into living and intelligent units of society, in\ngiving a general preparation for citizenship ; the second in providing a\nspecial, technical, professional preparation for their life-work. The ideal\nsociety is a society of specialists. Of the specialists the teachers are one\ngroup — the most important in the view of Ward. Their education must\nbe gotten in professional schools — post-graduate, as we call them now.\nTHE\n\nPLACE\n\nOF\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAS\n\nPROFESSIONAL\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\nNormal schools are those which complete the preparation of teachers\nfor their work in the social organism. They finish the preparation already\n\n"}
{"page": 444, "printed_page": null, "text": "424\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nbegun by the home, the common school, and other social influences. AVitl\nthis as their ideal, they would become so different from the normal school\nof the present that I wish to drop the name in this part of my discussioi\nand call them schools of pedagogy. They are to stand equal in rank wit!\nschools of theology and schools of law ; to be professional schools only,\nwith no academic instruction. Otherwise we would have the inconsistency\nwhich we never find in the physiological organism, of two organs or twc\nsystems attempting to do the same work. Now, indeed, our school system\nhas four or more organs providing the same academic instruction : the\nnormal schools, the high-schools and the grammar schools, the academh\nand seminaries, and the preparatory departments of colleges, besides private\nand other agencies. In this we have a gross violation of the great moderr\nprinciple of a division of labor ; large, useless expenditures for the duplies\ntion of teachers, buildings, and supplies for the same work, with a consequent depreciation in the quality of the work.\nCOMPARED\n\nWITH\n\nOTHER\n\nPROFESSIONAL\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\nOf the professional schools, the school of pedagogy is more important\nthan the school of medicine or the school of law, just as its subject matter, the mind or soul of the individual, is more important than that with\nwhich the doctor or the lawyer deals, his body and his property. And it\nis more difficult, not only because mind is a more difficult study than\nmatter, but because in addition to the teacher's knowledge of his material,\nthe individual upon whom he works, he must also have a scientific knowledge of other fields. As a kindergarten, elementary, or country school\nteacher, there is no limit to the knowledge he should have on nearly all\nsubjects, so that his scholars may not need to unlearn when they come to\nthe college or university what was taught them falsely in the lower school.\nAs a teacher of the high-school, normal school, college, or university, h(\nneeds to be a department teacher, a specialist not only in pedagogy but in\nsome other science. When he has taken post-graduate courses in his subject, and has the enthusiasm and grasp of a specialist, he should confine\nhis teaching to his specialty, and perhaps advance in it through the highschool and college.\nSHOULD\n\nTHEY\n\nFORM\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nDEPARTMENTS\n\n?\n\nIn the first discussion of the morning we heard of separate professional\nschools for the training of separate classes of teachers. I am aware that\nwe shall find throughout the evolution of the social organism the constant\ntransformation of the homogeneous into the heterogeneous ; and I should\ncarry this differentiation still further, to include the department teaching\nof the high-school, the teaching of the blind and of the deaf, the teaching\nin reformatory institutions and in Sunday-schools. Yet these are but\nparts of one great school of pedagogy, having many of their studies in\n\n"}
{"page": 445, "printed_page": null, "text": "A SOCIOLOGICAL,\n\nIDEAL\n\nVIEW\n\nOF NORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\n425\n\ncommon, and dividing np into special groups in the latter part of the\ncourse. It is only a question of practicability whether they should be in\none school, as specialists in medicine all attend the same medical school, or\nwhether they should be separated. In an ideal state I venture to say that\nthey should all be in a university, the school of pedagogy forming a postgraduate department of it. There is more reason for teachers to be educated at a university than for lawyers, ministers, or doctors ; for, as I\nhave already said, they should be specialists in some purely scientific study\nas well as in the studies peculiar to their department, and, as any one who\nis acquainted with post-graduate work knows, it is impossible to provide\nthe facilities necessary for specialties except in universities. Indeed, no\none university existing has the means to provide the best work in all\ndepartments, and a \"migration of students\" between universities would\nbe necessary.\nIf our reasoning be correct, it would appear that thus far our system for\nthe training of teachers has been largely wrong, and that a State like Ohio,\nwhich has established no normal school but has a university department\nof pedagogy, is more favorably situated for realizing the ideal of the future.\nIt may be held, however, with good reason, that one institution could not\ntake care of the several thousand teachers to be sent out annually in each\nState, although this number will be greatly diminished when teaching\nbecomes a life profession instead of an occupation of four or five years.\nYet I may admit that the last stage before the realization of our ideal may\nbe the transformation of one or two State normal schools in each State\ninto post-graduate schools of pedagogy, to be open, however, only to\nteachers of the elementary and rural schools and kindergartens, since all\nteachers of the higher schools must take post-graduate studies at the\nuniversities.\nTHE EVOLUTION\n\nOF THE SCHOOL OF PEDAGOGY.\n\nThe history of normal schools shows an evolution toward the university\nschool of pedagogy. They were started in all countries for elementary\nteachers only. In America, and in Massachusetts, where there was no state\nuniversity, nothing would be more natural to the minds of Horace Mann\nand practical legislators in his time. But for many years there have been\nuniversity chairs of pedagogy in the principal European countries. It is\ntwenty years since the first chair of pedagogy was established in the\nUnited States, and we now have many such departments.\nMore than that, we have one school of pedagogy, the New York College\nfor the Training of Teachers, which is on as high a plane as most of our\nmedical and law schools. It stands among the first of the world's pioneer schools of pedagogy. There is another at Vienna, the Pedagogium,\nand two near Paris. Lately started with similar plans are the State Normal College at Albany, the Toronto School of Pedagogy, and the Winnipeg\n\n"}
{"page": 446, "printed_page": null, "text": "420\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nschool ; while our State normal school at Milwaukee, near by, is struggling\nbravely in the same direction, requiring at least in theory a high-school\neducation before entrance. The neighboring provinces in Canada, Ontario and Manitoba, give nothing but professional studies in their normal\nschools.\nThe common branches are reviewed for methods only.\nAlready the university departments of pedagogy, as at Clark and Michigan Universities, and in German and Scotch universities, command the\nhighest talent, but of none of them can we say that they are complete professional schools, although the combination which we find in Scotland is\nnearly so, where all the male training-colleges with their practice or model\nschools are in university towns, and send their best students to university courses. The university of Aberdeen has proposed to the government\nto take the entire training of teachers upon itself.\nCONCLUSION — PROFESSIONAL\n\nSTUDIES\n\nONLY.\n\nMy answer to the question set us for discussion, as reached through\nthe study of social science and history as well as pedagogy, is that the\ncourse of study in ideal normal schools — that is, in the post-graduate schools\nof pedagogy of the future — should be wholly professional, that it should\nnot include elementary nor even college branches. But as many of the\nold discussions on this subject have been caused by different interpretations of the word professional, I shall name the chief branches which I\nwish to include under the term. In short, they are the studies which\nproperly belong to no other school except a school of pedagogy.\nENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS.\n\nThe entrance requirements to such a course should be a liberal college\neducation, although perhaps the ideal college of the future, uniting itself\nwith the best features of the high-school, will be one year shorter than at\npresent and will require more studies in preparation for citizenship. Of\nthis course, the studies most important to a teacher after the common\n, school are, (1) psychology; (2) physiology; (3) social science; (4) moral\nscience ; (5) logic ; (6) at least one modern language, and the elements\nof religion, philosophy, and anthropology.\nTHE\n\nPROFESSIONAL\n\nCOURSE.\n\nThe methods used in the professional school will have all the exactness\nof the historical, comparative, statistical, and experimental methods used\nin other post-graduate research. The seminary, the library, and the\nlaboratory will form prominent features. Among the studies will be,\nno doubt, some which are as yet unnamed. One, if not in the preceding college course, may be John Stuart Mill's proposed science of\nethology, or of character-formation.\nGrowing out of this will come —\n(1) A new science of education, treating of all the influences which\n\n"}
{"page": 447, "printed_page": null, "text": "A\n\nSOCIOLOGICAL,\n\nIDEAL\n\nVIEW\n\nOF NORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\n427\n\nmodify man from the cradle to the grave.\nBased on this and on other\nstudies, as psychology and social science, will be —\n(2) The philosophy and theory of education.\n(3) The history of education and comparative education. This will not\nbe a history of schools only, but of the leading influences which have\nacted upon and modified mankind.\n(4) Child psychology.\n(5) Didactics, methodology in general, embracing the principles of training and education values, and followed by the methods of separate studies.\nHere will be necessary a review, for this purpose only, of the branches to\nbe taught by each teacher.\n(6) School administration and economy, including school law and school\nhygiene.\n(7) Model and practice schools, and perhaps a Probejahr.\nIn addition to the above general course for teachers there will be elective courses, such as were suggested in the discussion this morning, which\nwill run through one or two years and relate entirely to the specialty of\nthe teacher, as in kindergarten work, a high-school department, or a principalship ; but other elective, post-graduate courses in some science or art\nwould be taken in the university proper along with the work in pedagogy\nrequired of all teachers above the grammar school, so that they may be\nmade fit representatives in learning of what they propose to teach, whether\nit be chemistry, drawing, or wood-work.\nFROM THE IDEAL TO THE PKACTICAL.\n\nI have not time left to speak of the present. It is a long and hard\nstory, and has been narrated in wholesome terms before this association\nmore than once. I will admit that we must offer academic studies, all of\nthem if you please, or we cannot get the students ; and without the\nstudents both the normal school finances and the public school will suffer.\nProfessor Gordy says : \" No one can read President Gray's account of what\na normal school should be, without being struck by the almost pathetic\ncontrast between his ideal normal school and the reality forced upon him\nby circumstances.\"\nBut the light is breaking. Let us turn our faces toward it. Three\nthings we can hope to accomplish within a few years.\nFIRST\n\nSTEPS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nREFORM.\n\n(1) We can educate public opinion and the local school boards until\nwith their consent our State legislatures adopt the standard already set\nby some normal schools ; that is, to require a high-school education for\nentrance. We can, perhaps, along with this hasten the increase in teachers'\n\n"}
{"page": 448, "printed_page": null, "text": "428\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nsalaries, improve their tenure of office, and lengthen the normal course tc\na creditable degree course.\n(2) We can at once offer in all normal schools a post-graduate professional course, side by side with the other courses, and perhaps attract to\nus the college men of broad education who should stand among the\nrepresentatives of American scholarship.\n(3) We may later compel, through the legislatures, all normal schools to\nadopt the standards of the State institutions.\nIf I have described with any degree of probability the ideal of the future,\nlet us bravely work in its direction, and not think to dam the mighty current of the evolution of the schools with flimsy barriers of our own. They\nwill surely in the end be swept away, and ourselves with them. Let us\nplace ourselves in the line of truth and of advancement, with the satisfaction that the future, if not the present, will vindicate our course.\n\nSHOULD\n\nBY\n\nFRANCIS\n\nTHE\n\nB.\n\nCOURSE OF STUDY IN NORMAL\nBE\nWHOLLY PROFESSIONAL?\nPALMER,\n\nPRINCIPAL\nFREDONIA,\n\nOF THE\nN. Y.\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nThe subject for discussion is stated as follows :\n\"Should the course of study in normal schools be wholly professional, or should\nit include work in the elementary and secondary branches, even where preparation is\nrequired as a condition for admission ?\n\nIf so, to what extent ? \"'\n\nIf the question were whether subject matter should be taught in normal schools to\nthose thoroughly proficient in it, everybody's common sense would prompt the answer,\nNo. But why was the question framed so as to name requirements rather than preparation ? I can see no other reason than the fact that requirements and preparation are\npractically quite different ; and this gives an opportunity for difference of opinion and\nfor debate. Those who think that requirements and preparation can be practically\nmade the same, would oppose teaching subject matter, while those who think it impossible to secure a sufficient preparation on the part of a large number of those who might\nmake good teachers would include it in the work of the normal schools rather thai\nhave another class of schools created under the same name.\nIt is not denied that some specially bright pupils will gain such a thorough knowledge\nof the subjects they study in the public schools that they are ready for method work,\nbut a large proportion of those who offer themselves to the normal schools are not of\nthis class.\nI believe these four propositions are fundamentally valid :\n(1) The average teacher of a class should be more thoroughly instructed in the subject\nhe teaches than the average pupils in the class.\n(2) We must look to the average pupils of a class for teachers of succeeding classes.\n(3) There must, consequently, be supplementary study of the subject matter somewhere, or the work of the class will degenerate.\n(4) This supplementary work is done in preparation for teaching. It is not such\nas the average pupils of our schools want, but it should be provided especially for\n\n"}
{"page": 449, "printed_page": null, "text": "SHOULD\n\nCOURSE\n\nOF STUDY\n\nBE\n\nWHOLLY\n\nPROFESSIONAL\n\n?\n\n429\n\nthose designing to teach.\nIt is properly in the line of professional preparation, and\ntherefore legitimate work for the normal schools.\nAfter a careful discussion of this subject by the Regents' department and the normal school principals of New York State some years ago, it was concluded by the\nRegents' representative that it would be impossible to require for ordinary graduation\nsufficiently thorough work even in arithmetic and grammar to justify excusing the\nRegents' graduates who designed to teach from further work in those subjects. The\nargument was that pupils would be driven from their classes and leave school without\ngraduating, if such thoroughness was required in these subjects of those who did not\ndesign to teach, and that only those preparing to teach would take a course. It was\nproposed to organize classes especially for this advanced work, and this suggestion is\nto some extent adopted. It is only a question of the most profitable way of securing the\nend sought. Among the advantages of having such work done in normal schools are\nthe following :\n(1) It is more certain to be thorough than if left to schools that have a different purpose. Idoubt if there is a normal school that does not feel it would be surer of the\nscholarship of its pupils if it gave instruction to its pupils in all the branches to be\ntaught than under any other feasible plan.\n(2) The results would be better adapted to the work that is to follow, and there would\nbe an economy of time and a better adjustment of the different parts of the work. My\nown observation has led me to believe that a student who has done the regular work\nof the public schools requires nearly or quite twice as long to do the supplementary\nwork at home as in a normal school, if it is done thoroughly.\n(3) There is growth of the professional spirit as the time of associating with others\nhaving similar purposes is lengthened.\n(4) Everything is studied with special reference to teaching it again, and the subject\nmatter is more thoroughly mastered and the knowledge gained is fitted into its place\nas a part of the teacher's outfit.\nThe only lesson I remember to have learned in college from any visitor was given in\na chapel talk. The speaker wanted to impress on our minds the importance of so learning things as to be able to impart our information to others as the surest way of making\nit available for ourselves. As an illustration, he said he was with a friend in Philadelphia who wanted him to direct him to a place he had recently visited. The speaker\nsaid he undertook the office of guide confidently, but when they had gone but a little\nway he was uncertain which of two streets to take. This settled, they soon met with\nanother perplexity of a similar kind. As they went on, perplexities accumulated until\nthe would-be guide gave up the task, and explained that when he went the way before\nhe was with a friend perfectly familiar with it, and everything seemed easy and plain,\nand he did not consider that he might want to take the same trip alone, or show the way\nto another.\nWe all know how easy it is to stop with the sense of an ability to understand what\nothers say, and that this is very different from being able to give precise and accurate\ninformation to others. As one of our students on examination put it, education does\nnot consist of being able to be told something. If this is so in respect to people in general, itis especially so of one who intends to be a teacher.\nIn the normal school pupils are constantly tested as to their ability to teach what they\nlearn, and they form the habit of learning with this end constantly before them.\nWhen it is asked if subject matter should be taught in normal schools, I answer: Why\nnot ? The study is a necessity. It can be better done there than elsewhere, and it is\nin the line of professional preparation.\n\n"}
{"page": 450, "printed_page": null, "text": "430\n\nHOW\n\nBY\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION\n\nNORMAL SCHOOL WORK DIFFERS FROM THE WORK\nIN SECONDARY AND IN HIGHER EDUCATION.\n\nDR.\nTHE\n\nMALCOM\n\nMACVICAR,\n\nBAPTISTS'\n\nHOME\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nMISSIONARY\n\nFREEDMAN'S\n\nSOCIETY,\n\nBROOKLYN,\n\nSCHOOL\n\nOF\n\nN. Y.\n\nTrue normal school work should be special in its nature. The ultimate end to be\nsecured should be the development of such possibilities of the pupil's being as have special\nvalue to a true educator, and the equipping or furnishing of the pupil in such a manner\nas will enable him to perform effectively every line of work pertaining to teaching and\nschool organization and management. The work in secondary and higher education, on\nthe other hand, is general in its nature. The ultimate end, in this case, is the symmetrical development of all of the legitimate possibilities of the pupil's being, and, in the\ncourse of doing this, the equipping or furnishing of the pupil in such a manner as will\nenable him to use these possibilities effectively in his life-work.\nAgain, true normal school work should differ from the work in secondary and in higher\neducation, not in the way in which the work is performed, but in the special ends to be\naccomplished. In secondary education, for example, those special ends are chiefly, (a) the\ndevelopment of the moral and reasoning powers ; (6) the acquisition of right habits of\nperforming mental work ; and (c) the acquisition of such knowledge as will prepare the\npupil thoroughly for independent effort in his life-work, or in pursuing an advanced or\ncollegiate course of study. On the other hand, in normal school work the special ends\nto be realized are chiefly the following : (a) The acquisition of a definite knowledge of\nthe natural laws of physical and mental development ; (6) the acquisition of a practical\nknowledge of the conditions or means through the use of which these natural laws of\ndevelopment operate ; and (c) the acquisition of such special power or personal qualities\nand habits as are essential to doing effective work in teaching and managing.\nAs implied in what has already been said, normal school work should be of such a\nnature as to accomplish, in the best way, three special ends. The first is to give to the\nnormal pupil a clear and definite knowledge of the natural laws of physical and mental\ndevelopment.\nTo this end the normal course must provide the right conditions or means for careful physiological and psychological study. The best writers on these subjects must be\ncarefully consulted. Running parallel with this, the pupil should be required to make\na careful study of the laws of physical and mental development as manifested in living\nspecimens, in the infant, the child, the youth, and the man. This latter work should\nbe conducted in such a manner as to afford the right opportunity for the careful study\nof these specimens under the various changes and conditions through which they pass\nin the process of development. This must, therefore, include the study of home as\nwell as of school life.\nAgain, running parallel with the studies just suggested there should be a course\nunder the head of self-study, based upon a careful retrospective analysis of the mental\nprocesses by which results were reached by the pupil, in the subjects completed in the\nprimary and secondary schools. This work should be performed in connection with a\ncareful review of representative subjects, selected from the primary and secondary\ncourse. The principal object, however, of such a review should be to cause the pupil\nto revive vividly and to study with great care the mental processes through which he\npassed in gaining a knowledge of such subjects. Too much stress cannot be placid\nupon this kind of work in the training of teachers. Indeed, the readiness and clearness with which a pupil can retrace his own mental processes and struggles in master-\n\n"}
{"page": 451, "printed_page": null, "text": "431\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nWORK.\n\ning each subject of study is to a very large extent the measure of his ability to succeed\nas a teacher.\nThe second special end to he accomplished in normal school work is to give to the\nnormal pupil a practical knowledge of the conditions or means through which the\nnatural laws of physical and mental development become operative.\nUnder this head, in the normal course, should come the discussion of what, for lack\nof a better term, are usually called \"methods.\" Perhaps here it should be noted that\nby method in teaching is simply meant the way in which the pupil should be conditioned\nin order that he may accomplish his work in the most effective manner.\nThe training by which this second end can be best accomplished requires two lines\nof work running parallel with each other, each illustrating and enforcing the other.\nThe first of these should consist of a definite course of class discussions in the study of\nmethods, and the second, a course of careful observation on actual work performed in\naccordance with the views considered in these class discussions.\nIn the class-work, special attention should be given to the careful study of the best\nwriters upon methods of teaching. This, however, to be made effective must be\naccompanied by definite oral instruction, in which every method presented is actually\napplied in teaching a subject before the class. This illustrative teaching should not, at\nthis stage, be required of members of the class under training. It should invariably be\nperformed by the teacher charged with the instruction in methods.\nThe course in observation, as already stated, should run parallel with the discussion\nof methods in class. Observation, however, should be confined to work done by experienced teachers. The plan too commonly followed, of confining observation largely\nto work done by pupils who are themselves still under training, is, to say the least, very\nunwise. At this stage of advancement, what the pupil needs in order to acquire a correct ideal of teaching is to observe real model work, work which places the methods\ndiscussed before him in their proper light. At a later stage, however, in the course,\nwhen the pupil has acquired a right ideal, and can judge correctly of what is observed,\nobservation should then be extended to the work done by pupil -teachers.\nThe points to which special attention should be given in the observation course should\nbe substantially the following :\n(a) The methods pursued by each teacher in creating interest, or placing the minds\nof the pupils in class in the right condition to receive and digest the matter presented.\n(6) The special devices and illustrations used in making plain difficult points.\n(c) The tact of each teacher in adapting instruction to the peculiarities of individual\npupils.\n(d) The methods pursued in fixing permanently in the minds of the pupils the instruction imparted.\n(e) The methods adopted and the tact shown by each teacher in the management or\ngovernment of classes.\nThe results of the observations conducted by each pupil upon these points should be\ncarefully recorded and made the subject of comparison and discussion in the class in\nmethods.\nThe third special end to be accomplished in normal school work is to develop in the\nnormal pupil such special powers or qualities and habits of work as will enable him to\nteach and manage effectively.\nTo accomplish successfully this third end is the crowning work of normal training.\nTo acquire the knowledge proposed in the work already outlined is very important. It\nmust not, however, be overlooked that this may be done, and still the pupil, after\ngaining possession of this knowledge, may prove a failure as a practical and effective\nteacher. It is not what a man may know, but what he is in consequence of the effort\nput forth in embodying his knowledge in acts, that makes him an effective workman in\n\n"}
{"page": 452, "printed_page": null, "text": "432\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nhis chosen vocation. This principle applies with peculiar force in the training of\nteachers. The normal pupil acquires the power to teach and manage successfully in\nthe effort he puts forth to convert his knowledge of the laws of physical and mental\ndevelopment and of methods of teaching into acts. Hence the work done in ;i wellorganized practice department is the most important and essential feature of rightly\nconducted normal training.\nI present the following as a summary of the course that should be pursued in conducting the work of the practice department:\n(a) Provision in the practice department to have one class in each grade of primary\nand grammar-school work instructed permanently by experienced teachers, whose work\nwill present an accurate model of the application of right principles of teaching. These\nclasses should be the only ones used, at first, in the work of the observation course.\n(b) Every feature of the practice work of the pupil teachers should be under the constant supervision and friendly yet exacting criticism of experienced teachers.\n(c) Pupil-teachers should be placed in full charge of the classes they instruct for not\nless than from five to ten weeks, and during that time they should be held responsible\nfor the management and work of these classes in the same sense as if they were in\ncharge of a school of their own.\n(d) Each pupil-teacher should be required to give instruction, for the time named in (c),\nin at least one representative subject of each kind of work he is preparing to teach.\n(e) Pupil-teachers should be required to execute, under the guidance of the supervising\nteachers, every detail of organizing and managing the practice school.\n(/) The supervising teachers, during the progress of the practice work, should conduct regularly class exercises, in which hints, suggestions, and corrections of a general\nnature should be freely given to the pupil- teachers. The chief object of these exercises\nshould be to point out the application of right principles of teaching, in correcting\ndefects noticed in the practice work. In this exercise all personalities should be avoided,\nbut the greatest freedom should be allowed the pupiis in asking and answering questions, in making suggestions, and pointing out excellences and defects.\n\nDISCUSSION.\nDr. J. M. Harper, Inspector of Superior Schools, Province of Quebec, Canada : The\ndiscussion as to the function of the normal school has brought out in clear outline the\nideal normal school, which is neither more nor less than the institution which shall provide trained teachers for all the schools in any given district. What we have heard of\nthe work done by the normal school in the various sections of the world represented in\nthis congress shows how inadequate they are in face of the desire to realize this ideal.\nThe preparation of a limited number of teachers to be sprinkled over a wide district is\nabout all that has been reached in what our chairman has called \"the younger sister\nrepublic,\" and this is about all that has been attained in a province so well organized\neducationally as Ontario is. No teacher is employed in Ontario who has not had some\nprofessional training, and the same may be said of many of the States ; but this is falling\nshort of realizing the professional ideal of which we have had so many pleasant glimpses\nthis morning.\n>\nDavid Stowe, of whom mention was made yesterday, could hardly have foreseen the\ntime when in Scotland the training-school of which he was the founder would place at\nthe disposal of every parish a trained teacher, and yet it is interesting to learn that in a\ndirect line through the influence of David Stowe the ideal which we have been discussing has actually been realized. Yesterday I referred to the influence of Old Scotia on\nNova Scotia through one of Stowe's pupils, the Rev. Dr. Forrester. He it was who\nfounded the first normal school down by the Canadian provinces near the sea. and in his\nmind, when he orgauized that institution, there was no doubt the intention to supply\n\n"}
{"page": 453, "printed_page": null, "text": "DISCUSSION.\n\n433\n\nall the elementary schools and high-schools with trained teachers. Stowe did not live\nto see the ideal in Scotland, neither did Forrester live to realize his ideal ; but in the\nsmallest of the provinces in the neighborhood of Nova Scotia there has been realized the\nfull development of the training system, where no teacher can enter upon practical\nschool-work without his normal school diploma. Every teacher in Prince Edward\nIsland and in the sister province of New Brunswick is a trained teacher, and I need\nhardly say that the experiment has been so far successful that we may hope to see such\na state of affairs in every district on this side of the Atlantic.\nThe multiplying of the stages of training the various grades of teachers has no doubt\nbeen successful in large communities, but the expense of having various training departments can never be realized in small communities. And as the consolidation of a school\ndistrict must in the future be made round the district normal school as a civic educational nucleus, the organizing of the training-school that shall have the principles of the\nscience of education which are common to elementary school-work as to the higher\nwork, directed toward the realization of an improved practice, is the most important\nconsideration in a discussion of this kind. Every district must eventually have its\nnormal school, and, as in the provinces of which I have made mention, then we may\nexpect to see every teacher in the land a trained teacher.\nJames M. Green, Ph.D., Principal State Normal School, Trenton, N. J.: The fundamental principle of pedagogy is the study of the child mind. Instead of separate\nnormal schools for the preparation of kindergarten, primary, and secondary teachers, we\nshould have normal schools where the study of mind in its various stages of development\nand the application of subject matter to these stages of development form a part of the\ntraining. The normal school must adapt itself to its conditions. If the average applicant does not possess sufficient academic preparation for the pedagogical work, he must,\not necessity, be given some academic training, but only as a necessity.\nEdward T. Pierce, Principal State Normal School, Los Angeles, Cal. : This question\nof academic training in normal schools is one for the future. We must look to the conditions of the present. One fact has been lost sight of. In all of the States of this\ncountry there is a system of examination for the certificating of teachers. Most of the\nexamination questions are on scholastic subjects, very few on professional subjects.\nNow, until we have different grades of normal schools having different requirements for\nadmission, we must have academic work. If we do not we shall not get students, for\nthe graduates of the high-school and the university will pass an examination and go to\nteaching with no professional training. Then, too, the professional spirit acquired\nthrough a four years' course in a normal school is greater than that acquired by two\nyears of work iu the same school. I prefer a teacher who has acquired his academic\ntraining in a normal school, to one who has acquired it in a high-school and only the\npurely professional work in the former.\nA professional spirit runs through the whole work, and this spirit must be a growth ;\nit cannot reach just proportions in a short time. It seems to me that we must have\nacademic training in our normal schools in this country, and while we have an ideal for\nthe future normal school, let us do the best, we can for the present training of teachers\nfor the masses.\nPresident John Hull, of River Falls, Wis., cautioned normal school teachers and\nothers against a misinterpretation of normal school statistics. The measure of the\ninfluence of a normal school is not determined by the number of its graduates. Its\nundergraduates are a potent factor in its final products. And the good produced in its\nstudents is multiplied many times in schools taught by pupils of those who have\nattended normal schools. For the present, academic work must be done in normal\nschools, and some good results are growing out of present practice in that respect.\nDr. G. Stanley Hall, President of Clark University, believed that teachers should\nhave a thorough knowledge of children, of their physical and mental natures. What\nwould father or mother take in exchange for the good health of son or daughter ? The\norder of development of the bodily powers and of the means to use, to make them strong,\naru not less important than is a like knowledge of the mental powers. The demand is\nstrong, and it is growing stronger, that instructors of youth shall, like Jesus of old,\ntake the child, set him in the midst, and after full study of him and of the conditions\nunderlying his soundest development, shape all his environment in such fashion as will\nsurely bring28about the desired development.\n\n!\n\n"}
{"page": 454, "printed_page": null, "text": "434\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nWHAT SHOULD BE REQUIRED OF AND\nTO BE CONFERRED THE DEGREE\nPEDAGOGY?\nBY\n\nJEEOME\n\nALLEN,\n\nPH.D., PROFESSOR\nOF PEDAGOGY,\nTHE\nCITY\nOF NEW\nYORK.\n\nUPON WHOM It\nOF DOCTOR 0±\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nIt has been the custom for many years to confer upon those who have completed specified courses of study some appropriate degree indicating the satisfactory completion of\ncertain requirements. Whether these degrees are proper distinctions cannot here be\ndiscussed ; it is sufficient to recognize their use by all higher institutions of learning,\nand their almost universal acceptance by all to whom they are granted. During recent\nyears a number of degrees have been added, and it is often puzzling to know just what\ncertain letters mean, for all kinds of distinctions are published by various cabalistic\nletters, not only in language, science, and art, but in the common arts, as bookkeeping,\ntypewriting, pharmacy, and surveying. Almost every young person who has attended\nan established school for a length of time is authorized to use certain letters after his\nname, indicating the possession of a degree. But, until recently, graduates of normal\nschools and teachers of eminence have nowhere been recognized by any degrees as\nmarks of special excellence in educational study and teaching ability. Various efforts\nhave been made to establish such degrees in education, the most recent of which was\ntwo years ago, when Professor Sully moved in the governing board of the University of\nLondon that degrees in education should be granted by that body. The motion received\na tie vote, and only failed by the casting of the chairman's vote in the negative. In this\ncountry, three years ago, the University of the City of New York established a department of pedagogy, with courses of study leading to the degrees of Master of Pedagogj\n(Pd.M.), and Doctor of Pedagogy (Pd.D.).\nThe highest degree in education must be the doctor's degree, and because of its eminence great pains should be taken to guard it so carefully that it shall not fall into\ncontempt.\nWhat qualifications should a doctor of pedagogy possess ?\nIt is evident that any one seeking this high degree should, first of all, possess a strong\npersonality coupled with strong integrity and an elevated moral purpose and character,\nfor without these qualities no amount of intellectual culture or scholastic attainment\nwould result in other than doubtful success, if not absolute failure. Eminent teaching\nability is an essential qualification, but in addition certain branches of study must be\nunderstood, of which the First is —\nTHE\n\nHISTORY\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION.\n\nThis stands at the vestibule of a pedagogical course of study, for it is obvious that\nwithout a knowledge of what other teachers have thought and done ; their successes\nand failures ; their theories, principles, and practices — no great advance can be made\nin the study of psychology and methodology. Educational psychology is the study of\nthe workings of the cultured mind, both in its present manifestations and past characteristics. Each age must be studied for the purpose of finding out conditions of\nmental activity regulating the thought of that age. The study of the history of education is the study of the methods of training the immature mind, and it shows why\nthese methods have changed, owing to race-forces, religious and governmental influences.\nThe old Grecian was different from the old Roman education, and these differed from\nmediaeval education. No age has produced such schools as our own. because the circumstances governing our civilization ere different from all other eras. The study of\n\n"}
{"page": 455, "printed_page": null, "text": "REQUIREM ENTS\n\nFOR\n\nDEGREE\n\nOF DOCTOR\n\nOF PEDAGOGY.\n\n435\n\nthe history of education shows the forces causing these changes. It is, in reality, a study\nof educational causes and effects. The thorough student, then, of this department is\nbetter able than any one else to answer the question, at this time more important than\nany other : \" What kind of school training is most worth ? \"—for he sees under what\nconditions success is attained, and in what ways failures have been caused. It is\nto-day as true as ever that we have but one lamp by which our feet are guided in the\nadministration of school and governmental affairs, and that is the lamp of experience.\nWhat this experience is in education, can only be known by studying the pages of\nhistory. It is, then, essential that the student, before he receives the doctor's degree,\nshould know thoroughly the history of education.\nSecond. He must know psychology, and especially that part of this science that has\nbeen called, recently, educational psychology. The child is the center of all school\nwork, and in prosecuting it so many questions press themselves upon the attention\nof the modern teacher that he is in some danger of being overwhelmed by their very\nnumber. How does each faculty unfold ? What promotes the healthy growth of the\nwhole mind, and what of each of its activities ? What is the psychological value of\nthe kindergarten? What is the effect of kindergarten training upon the maturing\ninfant ? What is the psychology of early language teaching ? What is history\nteaching ? What is the mental effect of the marking system, and what does mindstudy tell concerning the proper method of grading ? Psychology is ready to teach the\nstudent of education valuable lessons in ear-mindedness ; eye-mindedness in writing and\nspelling and reading; in literature-teaching, and in character building. It even\ntouches gymnastics and the whole subject of physical education, and gives not valuable\nhints only, but lays down essential principles that must be followed. It touches\nmorals, and shows how the mind can become influenced by right motives and how it\nmay become the abode of foul birds of prey eating out its very vitals.\nTliird. The doctor of pedagogy must know educational methodology. This is the most\ncomprehensive of all the subjects the educational student is called upon to consider.\nWays of doing things occupy the attention of many teachers' institutes and conferences\nas well as the pages of educational papers, but the science of method considers the principles underlying school economy. Education is a science, because there are fundamental principles which can be followed with logical strictness. Many of these principles are now clearly formulated and generally accepted, others are soon to be received.\nThere is now apparent a body of educational doctrine of sufficient magnitude to engage\nthe serious attention of the student of method. The doctor of pedagogy must be able\nto give definite reasons for his ways of teaching. His devices come from his philosophy,\nand when he desires to know the proper method of procedure, his psychology and his\nphilosophy of the history of education give him the needed information. Among the\nsubjects occupying the attention of the candidate for the doctor's degree are educational\nvalues, coordination of studies, incentives, school hygiene, fatigue, school diseases,\nschool organization and management, child study, adolescence, and manual training.\nFourth. The doctor of pedagogy must know the educational literature of the ages,\ncommencing with Plato's educational theories in his \" Republic,\" Aristotle's in his\n\" Politics \"and \" Ethics,\" andQuintilian's \" Institutesof Oratory,\" followed by Ascham,\nLocke, Comenius, Milton, and closing with Arnold, Spencer, and Harris. He must also\nknow Pestalozzi's \" Leonard and Gertrude\" and its antecedent, the \"Emile.\" He will\nhave studied Froebel's \" Education of Man,\" Hosenkranz's '• Philosophy of Education,\"\nKosmini's \" Method in Education \"; nor will he omit the reading of Page's \" Theory and\nPractice of Teaching,\" Mann's \"Reports,\" Hoone's \" Education in the United States,\"\nand De Garmo's \" Essentials of Method.\" He must be acquainted with the scientific\ninvestigations already made, as well as those now making in this country and in\nEurope.\n\n"}
{"page": 456, "printed_page": null, "text": "436\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION.\n\nFifth. The doctor of pedagogy must know the school systems of Europe and America,\nand in our own country the relation of education to the state, city, county, and district\nsystems. The reconstruction of school systems in France, Germany, and England wil\nbe studied for the purpose of showing what adaptations can safely be made in our\ncountry. In the progress of the years some educational practices are seen to be valuable, others valueless, and others positively vicious. He must be able to discriminat\nbetween these classes, and know the conditions of the successes and failures of exper\nments in education. Some of the best scholars in the Old World are studying the educational question for the purpose of finding out how to better the condition of the laboring\nclasses.\nThese questions are to be the vital ones during the next twenty-five years in our\ncountry, and the doctor of pedagogy must be able to assist in answering them. Ot\nschools are to be much more, even in the future than in the past, factors in the civilization of the people. They will teach more directly the art of living, not only by giving\nnecessary knowledge, but by instruction in such practical arts as will minister to the\ncomfort and happiness of the family and community. The doctor of pedagogy will\nknow how these needed applications can best be made.\nSixth. The doctor of pedagogy must make original investigations in some branch of\nchild study or experimental psychology for the purpose of determining the educational\nvalues of various branches of study in our schools. He will demonstrate what pays and\nwhat does not pay in teaching.\nThe habit of making original investigations and the practice of basing statements on\nfacts vvill make him a valuable worker in the educational field. He will learn to discard\ntheories and accept nothing as truth that has not been subjected to actual trial.\nThe candidate, before receiving his degree, must present a thesis of adequate length,\nconsisting of an original investigation in some branch of educational study, either\npsychological, practical, or historical, showing his ability to make original research.\nNo doctor's degree should be conferred until such a thesis has been accepted.\nThe qualifications of the doctor of pedagogy as here outlined are not unattainable or\nUtopian ; on the other hand, they are within the reach of men and women who have\nacquired scholarly habits of study in our schools and colleges. If a large number of\npersons should master the work here mentioned, the result would be the creation of a\nclass of students who would give a decided impetus to sound educational progress and\nprepare the way for the organization of a body of professional teachers.\n\nWHAT\nBY\n\nSHOULD\nBE\nTHE DEGREE\n\nDR. EDWARD\n\nR.\n\nREQUIRED\nOF DOCTOR\n\nSHAW, OF THE\nOF THE\nCITY\n\nSCHOOL\nOF NEW\n\nOF A CANDIDATE\nOF PEDAGOGY?\nOF\nPEDAGOGY,\nYORK.\n\nFOR\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nIt is auspicious for the cause of education that those interested in the professional\ntraining of teachers should deem it of interest and value to discuss what should be\nrequired for this degree. One thing, however, it is best for us at the outset to hold in\nmind, and that is that our discussion will have but little effect in setting up a standard\nfor the colleges and universities now granting this degree, or those universities which\nintend soon to offer courses leading to this degree. Each institution will be a law unto\nitself, so far as the setting up of its standard is concerned. Requirements for the degree\nof doctor of medicine or ot doctor of philosophy differ in different institutions.\nIt is,\n\n"}
{"page": 457, "printed_page": null, "text": "REQUIREMENTS\n\nFOR\n\nDEGREE\n\nOF DOCTOR\n\nOF PEDAGOGY.\n\n437\n\nafter all, not so much the course of study prescribed, but the training given and the man\nwho takes that training, that makes each man's degree of worth.\nWe must expect, then, that the degree of doctor of pedagogy will be given upon somewhat different requirements. The main point, however, the gratifying point, is that\nwe have reached a period when such degrees are beginning to be conferred as the result\nof higher and broader study than has heretofore existed for professional preparation.\nOf course there has been extended special preparation in pedagogy of here and there\none. Hut we recognize in the offering of courses of study leading to this degree a\ndistinctive movement in advance. It is not the special cases that may be cited, but the\ntendency of the rank and file, that gives the surest signs of progress.\nIt is now about fifty years since the establishment of the first normal school in this\ncountry. Most excellent and valuable as is the work now being done by the well-nigh\ntwo hundred normal schools of the United States, something more is necessary if teaching is to become a profession. I believe that the next step is now being taken in the\nestablishment of professional schools, of which already there are three or four, offering\na course of study strictly professional, and granting as the highest degree upon the\naccomplishment of that course the degree of Pel. D., Doctor of Pedagogy. Unquestionably the requirements for this degree will advance with the increase of candidates who\ndesire to study for it.\nThe first thing to be considered in the requirements for this degree is the scholastic\nattainment necessary as a foundation in entering upon the course of study leading to\nthis degree. Here is room for diversity of opinion. It ought not to be less than that,\nrequired by most of our colleges for the bachelor's degree. Whether this scholarship\nis acquired in college, in normal school supplemented by additional study, or from private instructors, does not signify ; but somewhere and somehow it must be acquired.\nOne other qualification appears to me to be indispensable. Before one can enter upon\na course of study for the degree of doctor of pedagogy with the greatest amount of\nprofit to himself, there should be a preliminary experience in teaching extending through\na term of years. I should say at least four years. With these qualifications he is ready\nto undertake a course of study leading to the degree the requirements for which are\nunder discussion this morning.\nAmong the requirements for this course of study my colleague put as the first the\nstudy of the history of education. I differ from hira in regard to the position of this\nsubject in the course, and incline rather to agree with Dr. Harnack, of the Pedagogium\nof Vienna, in his view that the history of education should come last. As the first\nwork in this course of study — the ground which the candidate should first cover — I\nwould place rational psychology and physiological psychology, each a separate course.\nIt is unnecessary to go into any detail as to these courses. They should cover both fields\nin a thorough manner. Each gives a different kind of training — the latter being quantitative— but both kinds of training are most necessary for a doctor of pedagogy. The\nso-called educational psychology should have no place in this course. After a study of\nrational psychology and physiological psychology, the student should be left to make\nhis own educational psychology.\nThe third course should be upon the institutes of education. Under this course\nshould come an examination of the commonly accepted principles and maxims of education, to determine their scope and the limitations of their application ; a study of\nthe education values of the different subjects, and how this value is affected by mode\nof presentation ; the coordination or correlation of studies, with practical application to\nshow how coordination might be secured ; an exhaustive examination of the doctrine of\napperception and the Herbartian pedagogy ; a thorough study of all that is known\nof school hygiene and its application — one of the most important subjects, because so\nlittle regard is paid to what is commonly known of this subject ; the training of the\n\n"}
{"page": 458, "printed_page": null, "text": "438\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nwill ; child-study, and all discovered means of measuring the growth of intellectual\nand moral powers.\n\" Should there be nothing upon methods of teaching ?\" you ask. There should be\nno giving of specific methods of presentation, but there should be a critical examination\nof different methods in vogue. The philosophy of method is the adaptation of method\nto the needs of every individual. Method should be as various as the pupils taught,\nand the doctor of pedagogy must recognize the philosophy of this and seek to acquire\nthe power of adaptation.\nAfter the three courses which I have enumerated, the study of the history of education should come. There are various ways of studying the history of education. Its\neducative value depends, as is true of any other subject of study, upon the way in which\nit is studied. If merely as an informational subject, its educative value is slight. Narrative work may be interesting, but it gives little training. It should be studied\ninductively, seeking cause and effect, drawing materials from intellectual, religious, and\npolitical history.\nThese four courses should constitute the major courses. As minor courses — one or\ntwo of which should be required, but be at the same time elective — there should be\noffered a study of system of education in Europe and the different state systems here ;\nassthetics in its application to education ; a course in ethics, and one in the history of\nphilosophy.\nLastly, the candidate for the degree of doctor of pedagogy should be required to make\noriginal investigation along some professional line, either in experimental psychology,\nchild-study, some phase of school hygiene, or whatever field his interests may lead him\nto explore. The result of this original investigation should be presented as his thesis —\na thesis being the last requirement for the degree.\nOne other point in conclusion. University work in pedagogy does not interfere in the\nleast with the work of the normal schools, but supplements it. Higher and broader\nstudy than these can give, or are equipped to give, is necessary if teaching is to become\na profession. Normal-school training is a most excellent basis, perhaps the best basis,\nfor this higher study, but the higher work must be done by the universities, and it is\nmost auspicious for the vocation of teaching in this country that universities are to-day\noffering courses in pedagogy leading to a professional degree.\n\nREQUIREMENTS\nBY\n\nDE.\n\nCHARLES\n\nA.\n\nFOR\n\nTHE DEGREE\nPEDAGOGY.\n\nM°MUBBY,\n\nILLINOIS\n\nSTATE\n\nOF DOCTOR\nNOEMAL\n\nOF\n\nUNIVERSITY.\n\nThe requirements for the degree of Doctor of Pedagogy should not be confined to\nscholastic instruction, but should be extended much beyond these limits ; and at the\nsame time certain results of scholastic instruction should be excluded. We want light,\nsimple direct light, upon our educational problems.\nThere is good reason why pedagogy is one of the last and least developed of the\nsciences. It includes everything else. We say this with some sense of the profound\ndifficulties that lie before the thoughtful student of pedagogical science. When we\nconsider the scope of education from infancy to maturity, including the complex and\nvaried school systems, also the sciences of physiology, psychology, and government\nout of which it grows, it is appalling to find that pedagogy means the whole philosophy\nof human development along the best lines. The person who thinks that doctors in this\nfield can be manufactured by any short process is dreaming.\n\n"}
{"page": 459, "printed_page": null, "text": "REQUIREMENTS\n\nFOR\n\nDEGREE\n\nOF DOCTOR\n\nOF PEDAGOGY.\n\n439\n\nThe work of developing a scientific pedagogue is quite different from that of specialization in other lines. First of all he must be broadly educated ; then let him become a\ncareful, thoughtful critic of the long process of training through which he has passed ;\nlet him examine the history and development of school studies in his own and other\nlands ; let him critically survey the vast body of knowledge of which the school studies\nare. at the best, meager epitomes ; let him inquire what there is in literature, in science,\nin history, in art, and in home surroundings, most conducive to the best growth of a\nboy and girl ; let him learn to deal with children sympathetically and thoughtfully —\nthen he will begin to realize how profound and many-sided is the work of education.\nThe doctor of pedagogy should have a critical knowledge of knowledges, an appreciative insight into child psychology and growth. The person who believes that pedagogical doctors who master all these matters can be turned out easily, must be more than\nsanguine in his beliefs.\nIn the second place, the study of psychology is a sheet anchor for the pedagogue. But\nwe are opening our eyes to the fact that psychology for the educator means something\nquite different from what has long prevailed in the schools. The psychology which is\npurely introspective and contemplative has had its day. But what we want now is\ncareful and sympathetic observers of children. We need now a sympathetic children's\npsychology all along the line from the kindergarten through the public school, and in\nconnection with this a practical study of the physical wants and growth of children.\nThe history of educational tendencies and movements, especially since the Reformation,\nand the revival of learning, is extremely helpful in giving an educator a relief map of\nthe educational world of our own time. It will save him from many a one-sided opinion\nand exploded notion. It will give him a true practical view of the slow growth of\neducational ideas. Many ideas that are heralded to-day as recent discoveries in education will be found to have been the common property of educational thinkers from\nthe time of Comenius. The biographies of distinguished teachers like Comenius,\nFranke, Luther, Arnold, Wolff, and Horace Mann, will give every receptive teacher a\nconsciousness of the true spirit needed in his work.\nIf there is to be such a person as a doctor of pedagogy, he should be first put through\nthe severest of tests — the teaching of children in a practice school. There is nothing\nlike a real school to show the distinction between theory and practice. It will tear\naway disguises, false theories, and reveal weakness and incapacity. There is only one\ngood antidote to a broad study of theories and systems of education — i.e., actual teaching.\nIn view of the immature status of pedagogical science, and of the extremely difficult\nand comprehensive problems that confront specialists in education, we feel a certain\nreluctance in admitting the right of any one to be called a doctor of pedagogy. Much\nas we believe that there is a body of educational doctrine which, if not strictly scientific,\nis still of great practical utility, and extremely helpful to teachers, we are still slow to\nrecognize a course of instruction adequate to the training of doctors of pedagogy. Perhaps it is well to jump bravely in and swim toward the goal with one's best strength.\nOur universities are feeling their way cautiously into this largely unexplored field.\nNo one with clear eyes and strong sympathies can fail to see that there is pressing\nneed of pedagogical training for the many teachers who go out from our colleges and\nuniversities. Many of them need it all the more from the fact that they are not conscious of their need. But university teachers and students are no longer so indifferent\nto the value of pedagogical science as they were a few years ago. The more exclusively\nabsorbed teachers and students were in university pursuits, the less need they felt for\npedagogical science. But now that the unity and mutual dependence of all parts of\nschool education are keenly felt, the universities see the necessity of turning out wellequipped teachers and leaders of pedagogical thought.\nThere is still another convincing proof that strong thinkers are needed in the peda-\n\n"}
{"page": 460, "printed_page": null, "text": "440\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\ngogical field. Learned specialists in different lines of study and investigation are slow\nto tell the pedagogical value of their subjects for children in the common schools. They\nare generally wise enough to limit their advice to their own academic field of instruc\ntion. It is the business of specialists to develop their particular fields. It is the speci\nprovince of the scientific pedagogue to see what use he can make of the fruits of lear\ning in all fields in developing a child. It is his business to step in to the relief nc\nonly of specialists but particularly of the common schools, to select the most important\nsubjects, and to coordinate them in harmony with the needs of children. There is then\na broad field which is the legitimate province of the pedagogue and unoccupied by anyone else.\nThe school of pedagogy at Jena, under the direction of Dr. Wilhelm Rein, is a place\nwhere theory and practice are brought into the best wholesome union.\nDr. Rein delivers lectures on psychology, history of education, and general and\nspecial methods ; and also is director of the practice school of three grades — second,\nfourth, and sixth. A skilled training teacher is at the head of each grade, who not only\nteaches but is critic of the practice teachers who labor in his grade. Each student who\nhears pedagogical lectures with Dr. Rein, also teaches from two to five hours a week in\nthe practice school.\nOnce, a week a test lesson is given by one of the practicing teachers, in the presence of\nall the teachers presided over by Dr. Rein. Three days later this test lesson is carefully\ndiscussed by the teacher conducting it and by others specially appointed, as well as bj\nthe whole body of interested students The discussion of an hour and a half is concluded byDr. Kein giving a summary of the arguments.\nWeek by week throughout the year this careful mingling of theory and practice\noccurs, and the important ideas of educational science and practice gradually clear up.\n\nHIGHER\nBY\n\nACADEMIC\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nDEGREES\n\nS. G. WILLIAMS,\n\nIN\n\nCORNELL\n\nPEDAGOGY.\nUNIVERSITY.\n\nAt the outset, is it not very doubtful whether there is any fit place for special degree\nin pedagogy ? For pedagogy is merely a branch of the philosophic disciplines — at\napplication of the principles of ethics and psychology to the training of children and\nyouth. It has always been so considered since Kant, from his renowned chair of philosophy in Kfinigsberg, treated pedagogy as one of his proper subjects ; since Herbart\ninaugurated his illustrious career as a philosopher by a course on pedadogy in Gottingen, and later, in the chair of Kant, made this a chief object in his courses, thus gaining an ever-growing influence in German education, which is likely to preserve the\nmemory of his name when his philosophy, save in its relations to pedagogy, may be\nforgotten.\nBut the degree of Ph.D. already exists for the philosophic disciplines in their wide\nsense, including language, history, and economics. What reason can be given for creating a special degree in pedagogy which would not be equally good for giving special\ndoctorates in history, in economics, and in language ? or for like degrees in mathematics, chemistry, etc.? The same end would be attained, without a confusing multiplication of degrees, by conferring the well-known M.A. for distinguished attainments in\npedagogy and the history of education, and the already used Ph. D. for such attainments\ncoupled with distinguished services in this branch of philosophy.\nIt is to be feared that the proposal of special pedagogic degrees may be suspected to\nbe inspired by a desire on the part of ambitious teachers to gain cheap doctorates.\n\n"}
{"page": 461, "printed_page": null, "text": "HIGHER\n\nACADEMIC\n\nDECREES\n\nIN\n\nPEDAGOGY.\n\n44)\n\nSuch a suspicion, with even slight justification, would be likely to revive the contemptuous meaning long attached to the term pedagogue and to its derivatives, but which in\nJermany has now completely, and in the United States nearly, died out.\nIf now, in the presence of such legitimate objections, we admit the expediency of creiting special pedagogic degrees, the question at once emerges. By whom and on what\nerms shall they be conferred ? It is obvious that this twofold question is of vital\nimportance, if the danger is to be avoided of having pedagogic titles become at once\nlarks for obloquy rather than for honor.\nWith regard to the first branch of this question there would seem to be little room\nfor a difference of opinion. No institution should assume to grant the higher degrees\nin pedagogy which has not ample facilities for affording the extended instruction which\nIvanced pedagogy at present presupposes.\nBut comparatively few such institutions\nire now to be found on this continent, and these, with few exceptions if any, are conent with the existing higher degrees for their advanced students in pedagogy.\nDoubtless no one will claim that normal schools, however respectable, should assume to grant\nmaster's degree or a doctorate in pedagogy, for their diploma of graduation is sufficient merely to admit to the lower classes of our best colleges.\nThe real point where differences of opinion are likely to arise will probably be conlected with the question of the terms on which the higher pedagogic degrees shail be\nconferred.\nAnd first, as higher degrees, they should, like all other advanced degrees, presuppose\nthe completion of a thorough college course.\nOn this point there would seem to be\n?m for no serious difference of opinion, for without this requirement the danger that\nsuch degrees would be rendered contemptible by being cheapened would at once be\nconverted into a reality. The question of resident study under the guidance of professors at some higher seat of learning may here be left in abeyance, since, though highly\nexpedient, it may be conceded that it is not absolutely essential. It should, how\never, be said that the general tendency among our higher institutions is to require\nsuch resident study for all advanced degrees aside from the too large list of mere\nhonoraries.\nTaking for granted this preliminary requirement, it would not seem too much to\nexpect from the candidate for the master's degree in pedagogy that he should have a\nsound acquaintance with the fundamentals of his subject, ethics and psychology ; that\nhe should have such knowledge of the history of education as may be gained from the\nnot numerous treatises on that subject now existing in English, supplemented by Laurie's\nRise and Constitution of Mediaeval Universities.\" or Compayre's \"Abelard\"; the\nlarger German works of Von liaumer, Karl Schmidt, and Paulsen being fitted for more\nadvanced work ; that he should have such familiarity with the theory of education as\nmay be obtained, for example, from Bain's somewhat one-sided \" Education as a Science,'\"\nsupplemented by some easier German work on the same subject, like the second part of\nDittes' \" Schule der Padagogik \" ; and that he should prove his mastery of these subjects cither by an examination, or by a thesis on some pedagogic subject succeeded by\nan examination.\nOn such terms only, it should seem, would the master's degree in pedagogy be entitled\nto credit.\nThe degree of doctor in pedagogy is obviously a more serious matter. It should be\nthe highest honor that may be gained in a most important profession, and should therefore be conferred only on approved superiority both in attainment and in original\npower. As regards attainments, the more elementary course just mentioned should be\nenlarged by some knowledge of the history of philosophy ; by such deeper knowledge of\nthe history of education as may be gained from some one of the larger works recently\nnamed ; and by the mastery of some work like the \" Pedagogische Schriften \" of Pier-\n\n"}
{"page": 462, "printed_page": null, "text": "442\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION\n\nbart, or the \" Allgemeine P&dagogik\" of the Herbartian, Waitz, or the \" Erziehungs\nund Unterrichts Lehre \" of Benecke.\nThe thesis is the proper test of originality and power of research, and for this pedagogy affords a wide range of profitable work. The history of education has rich fields,\nstill but imperfectly explored. The question of the relative educational efficiency of\ngroups of studies has not yet reached any generally accepted solution. The work so\nwell begun by Preyer and Perez admits, under favorable circumstances, of a wide and\nprofitable extension. The contents of the youthful intelligence at various stages of\ndevelopment will richly repay a systematic investigation, the best means for which still\nawait the ingenuity of some explorer. More than eighty years ago Herbart clearly saw\nwhat the mass of teachers still but dimly apprehend — viz. : the difficulties arising from\nthe inability of the mature mind to conceive and adapt itself to the child's point of view\nand mode of approaching subjects — and he proposed a curious expedient for obviating\nthis difficulty in the special case of languages. Can a better and more general solution\nof this problem now be offered ? These are but hints, which need not be multiplied, of\nlines of investigation in which originality may be shown and a philosophical grasp of\nfacts manifested.\nWhether theses for the doctor's degree in pedagogy should be required to be of such\noriginality and excellence as to warrant their publication as contributions to pedagogic\nscience, is a question that need not detain us here.\nThe question of successful experience in teaching as a requisite for the doctorate presents greater difficulties. It will doubtless seem to many that to confer it on merely\nliterary requirements, such as have been proposed, would be to ignore the important\nfact that practical skill in applying pedagogical principles to the work of education and\ninstruction is the chief reason for the study of pedagogy as a science, that ability to do\nas well as to know is here of paramount importance. Yet, useful as training classes\nunquestionably are when they are attainable by our universities, it is more than doubtful\nwhether they afford any reliable test of the real educative efficiency of the candidate for\nthe doctorate. Their exercises can at best do no more than afford some indication of\nprobable skill in instruction. This question may rightfully demand the careful consideration of the congress. Meanwhile, it may not be amiss to suggest that where the\naspirant for the doctor's degree is not already a person of approved experience in teaching, itmight be expedient, when the literary requirements have been fulfilled, to delay\nthe conferring of the degree until skill in the application of principles has been proved\nby the successful management of schools.\nShould the terms here proposed seem to any to be too stringent, they may at least\nsuggest the care with which such new degrees need to be guarded, that they may not\nincur the risk of becoming at once contemptible.\n\nDISCUSSION.\nT. B. Stowell, Ph.D., Principal of the State Normal and Training School at Potsdam, N. Y. : The discussion of these requirements for the doctorate of pedagogy admits\nof three modes of treatment — the historical, the philosophical, and the practical.\nIn the historical mode, it would be proper to tabulate the courses of study which have\nled to the degree, or to a degree for whose attainment the requirements are chiefly or\nexclusively pedagogical. It is known to this body that in German and in English universities the course in pedagogy is not yet differentiated from the courses in letters, and\nleads to the doctorate of philosophy, and is accessible to graduates of the gymnasium,\nor to juniors in a first-class American college with the standard of Yale.\nAmong our American colleges, the University of Michigan, the first to introduce a\ncourse in pedagogics into the college curriculum, regards the course as it does any\ncourse in science which leads to the doctorate of philosophy.\nColumbia confers the3\n\n"}
{"page": 463, "printed_page": null, "text": "DISCUSSION.\n\n443\n\nbaccalaureate and the master's degrees in pedagogy — Ped.B. and Ped.M. — but has not\ndifferentiated the doctorate. In its Circular of Information, 1893-94, part vi., pp. 5, 6,\n7, 9, it gives details of studies to be pursued, etc. (q. v.).\nIn the courses of graduate instruction of Yale University for 1893-94, p. 5, is found a\nspecial course for teachers leading to the doctorate of philosophy. The University of\nthe City of New York, in its catalogue and announcements for 1892-93, p. 82, offers a\ngraduate course leading to the doctorate of pedagogy (q. v.).\nIn the philosophical mode of treatment at least three lines of inquiry are opened.\nFirst. The relation of a profession to the content of its highest degree. Second. The\nrequisites for the judges of qualification — i.e., who shall confer the degree. Third. The\neligibility of candidates.\nAil members of a profession concur in every action to prevent any lowering of the\nstandard of the profession, and to oppose every effort to detract from its recognized dignity. We cannot guard too jealously the doors which lead to the doctorate of pedagogy.\nThe teachers of the country have themselves to blame for any lack of influence or recognition which attaches to the profession. If we by silence or by direct action bestow\nour laurels unworthily, we must not complain because of consequences. It is possible\nat this date to raise the standard of teaching, to place it in the van of the learned professions, bymaking its highest honors accessible to those only who have honored it,\nand who will continue so to do. Already the list of degrees is long, but it is none the\nless significant. AM., A.M , Ph.D., or Ph.B., Ph.M.. Ph.D., LL.B., LL.M., L.L.D.,\nPed.B., Ped.M., the proposed, now already existing Ped.D., and numorous other baccalaureates, master's degrees, and doctorates are accessible.\nIn the standard universities of the Old World, the theory obtains that a prescribed\ncourse of study and experience shall be a prerequisite to the doctorate, and that this\ndistinction shall be conferred only by faculties of colleges, which faculties, by virtue of\ntheir distinguished attainments, are recognized as qualified judges of the merits of candidates— i.e.. there is a consensus of judgment, if not written law, relative to the qualifications of the conferring body. Thus, a candidate holding the baccalaureate in\ndivinity is eligible to a prescribed course in theology, and upon examination is eligible\nto the doctorate. A corresponding course under the supervision of the faculty of law\nleads to the doctorate of law.\nA school of pedagogics should offer facilities for research along three cognate lines :\n(1) A department of historical and philosophical study, a seminary where the results\nalready attained by all the students of the subject may be accessible. This is essential\nto intelligent as well as to economical research.\n(2) A department or laboratory for physiological and for psychical research. The Old\nWorld offers such laboratories, and several are established in our own country.\n(3) And most important, a department of practice, an actual school in which, under\nthe most critical supervision, the hypotheses evolved from the courses alreadv named\nmay be tested, and from which department theories, not hypotheses, of teaching may\nbe promulgated.\nI am persuaded that the training of teachers should be predicated upon a more sure\nbasis than the history and the current trend of education. Skill in the art of teaching\nshould be differentiated from academic knowledge. The point is vital to the status of\nthe profession as well as to results in the schoolroom.\nEligibility. — To those, and those only, who possess the skill, based upon critical scholarship, of a nigh order, and upon well -authenticated experience as teachers, should the\ndoctorate be accessible. To this should be added a thesis evincing original research in —\n(1) The master's degree in letters, in philosophy, or in science, as evidence of general\nscholarship.\n(2) Knowledge of the history of pedagogy, of the theories of eminent teachers, founders\nof schools or systems of teaching, as evidence of a department of technical scholarship.\n(3) Knowledge of contemporary systems of teaching, as evidence of progressive technical scholarship.\n(4) Such contributions to pedagogical literature as will demonstrate grasp of the\nprinciples of soul growth and development, and a special thesis embodying the results\n°f original research of such character as to evidence originating power.\n(5) Five years' experience as a teacher in secondary or higher institutions of learning,\nacademies, colleges, or professional schools.\nThe foregoing provision excludes the conferring of honorary degrees.\nThe writer dare not presume to discuss the practical phase of the question. In view\nof the great diversity in the requisites for existing degrees, it seems desirable that at\nleast a minimum should be determined for the doctorate under consideration. Such\nStandards exist in theology, in medicine, and in law.\n\n"}
{"page": 464, "printed_page": null, "text": "444\n\nTHE\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nCANDIDATE\nFOR\nTHE\nDEGREE\nOF DOCTOR\nOi\nPEDAGOGY SHOULD\nBE ABLE\nTO MAKE\nORIGINAL\nINVESTIGATIONS IN EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY.\n\nBY EDGAR\n\nDUBS\n\nSHIMBR,\n\nSCHOOL OF PEDAGOGY,\nOF NEW\nYORK.\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF THE\n\nCITY\n\nSince pedagogy is one of the fields of applied psychology, it is reasonable to assume\nthat a candidate for the degree of doctor of pedagogy can have no adequate grasp of his\nsubject without an intimate laboratory knowledge in experimental psychological work.\nHe should not only know all the chief methods of research, but also be able to observe\nfor himself all the more important phenomena of mind, and to aid simple introspection,\nextrospection, and ejection by scientific variation of one condition after another until the\ndefinite influence of each factor in the problem has been traced.\nPsychology is not specially interested in pedagogy. It seeks to keep conditions natural ;pedagogy seeks to superinduce new conditions in its efforts after an ethical ideal.\nThe student of pedagogy must therefore go down to the fundamental science, and learn\nat first hand the facts of mental life, good, bad, and indifferent, before he can select\nthose that are desirable, and contrive the means of reaching ends in the best and quickest way ; or, in other words, establish educational values in school curricula.\nTo know what psychical facts are, how to get at them, record and classify them, tc\ndetermine what is normal, how to study mental defect, and to make systematic measur\nments so that the child mind may be studied as an object of natural science, are matters\nof more than simple introspection or commonplace observation.\nOur laboratories and journals show that exact methods have been applied to mental\ninvestigations. To know in the main what has been done and is doing in this direction,\nthe candidate for the degree of doctor of pedagogy should be required to familiarize\nhimself with the standards in the literature of the subject, to sift what is current, and\nto verify results experimentally.\nSlowly but surely the results of experimental physiological psychology have been\ncarried over into pedagogy. Yet there are some teachers of prominence and of acknowledged success who see no profit for education in psychologic experiment. On\nevery possible occasion they deny that the so-called new psychology has brought about\nany changes in education, or that it has anything of value to offer. Let us consider\nthis.\nThe play instinct has long been recognized as one of the strongest instincts of childhood, but it has only lately been held that play is the most serious business of a child's\nlife. As a direct outgrowth of the experimental study of the psychology of play, the\nkindergarten has come into existence with its multiform curriculum for training sense,\nrefining the emotions, and regulating the will. The spirit of this new institution has\npermeated the higher schools ; corporal punishment has largely disappeared, and greater\nefforts are made to give the pupil opportunity for self-activity and self-regulation both\nas to curriculum and discipline.\nThe experimental study of sense-perception, especially in the intuition of space, has\ndeveloped a new theory of vision, and brought out the paramount use of touch in education, culminating through the handling of objects in natural science observation\nlessons, through plaiting, weaving, folding, modeling, making, painting, drawing, and\nthe like, into full-fledged manual training, against the introduction of which into the\ncurriculum conservatism has struggled and is yet struggling in vain.\nModeling and\n\n"}
{"page": 465, "printed_page": null, "text": "REQUIREMENTS\n\nFOR\n\nDEGREE\n\nOF DOCTOR\n\nOF PEDAGOGY.\n\n445\n\nmaking have taken their natural place. On the same basis inventional geometry has\ntaken its proper precedence, though not a few of the secondary schools lag wofully in\nthis matter, and still induct their pupils into the mysteries of algebra before even touching upon the simpler and more concrete study of geometry.\nAn experimental study of the psychology of expression has revealed the truth that\nexpression by abstract symbols, or by words, is the latest and most difficult form of\nexpression. In this matter experimental psychology has done for education what\nchrono-photography has done for the art of painting in the photography of the swimming of fish, the galloping of horses, the leaping of athletes, the flying of birds, and\nOther forms of vital action.\nNo artist to-day draws zigzag lines for lightning.\nThe order of psychological development, as determined by experimental psychology,\nhas determined the contents and the logical order of procedure in a well-constructed\ncurriculum. We may instance here the history of the study of foreign languages, and\nof the physical sciences in elementary and secondary schools. The methods of treating\nthese subjects still vary according to the underlying principles of psychology.\nThe psychological analysisof the mental operations employed in arithmetic has proven\nthat the educational value of this branch of the curriculum is not so disproportionately\ngreat as to warrant the amount of time and attention bestowed upon it.\nExperiments in association have developed with startling vividness, for those who\ncan see, the capital importance of coordination of studies, not only to save time and\nenergy by following natural mental processes, but to secure truer mental development\nand firmer mental products.\nExperiments in the localization of cerebral function have revealed many memories\ninstead of one, and instruction has accordingly been modified.\nEar-minded, eye-minded,\nand tactile- or muscular-minded children are less frequently misunderstood, and are more\nreadily and thoroughly aided.\nThe old fashioned oral spelling lesson, however efficacious for the ear-minded, has lost its vaunted prestige, and takes a more modest, though\nnot unimportant, place.\nExperiments in motor ability have made manifest the function of the reflex muscle\nachine, and the resultant theory of the formation of compound reflexes has determined the ruling distinction between the mechanical and the cultural branches of a\ncurriculum.\nPatient, unvarying, persistent, and repeated drill in the one has given way\nin the other to large freedom for individual discrimination.\nA mechanical grind on\nlists of geographical names and bald annals in history finds no justification in educaonal psychology.\nThere has been no attempt to mark out in exhaustive detail all the tangential points\nhit ween psychology and education. Enough has been outlined to indicate the deterining influence of psychology. There is much that teachers are conscious of in them:Ives, and observe in one another,\nthat yet eludes their own interpretation. Why should\nth\nhey not admit the reasonableness of collating experimental evidence and generalizing\ndefinite laws that may serve as clues for escape from labyrinths of doubt ?\nWhatever else, therefore, it may be deemed wise to require of a candidate for the\ngree of doctor of pedagogy, there seems to be no doubt that he should be able to\nake original investigation experimentally and scientifically in the study of mind so as\nreach fundamental laws by which to determine educational values.\n\n"}
{"page": 466, "printed_page": null, "text": "446\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nSHOULD\nORIGINAL\nSOME BRANCH\nOF PEDAGOGY\nBY\n\nEARL\n\nBARNES,\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION.\n\nINVESTIGATION\nOF CHILD-STUDY\nDEGREE?\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nOF\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nBE REQUIRED IN\nFOR THE DOCTOi\nLELAND\n\nSTANFORD\n\nJR.\n\nCALIFORNIA.\n\nPersonally, the writer of this paper has no sympathy with academic degrees, and\nhe laments their multiplication. But since we cannot yet abandon them, we must\ndefine the conditions under which they shall be granted. A debased academic degree,\nlike a debased silver dollar, can breed only ruin.\nIf the doctor's degree is to be given in pedagogy, it should be given for a grade of\nscholarship equal to that demanded for the doctor's degree in philosophy— that is, a\ngood undergraduate course of four years plus a three years' post-graduate course— otherwise the degree will fall into deserved disgrace.\nThe most of the post-graduate work, I should say, should be in the nature of original investigation, and the results of the investigation should be embodied in a thesis of\nmerit. This thesis for the doctor of pedagogy degree might be on any subject connected\nwith educational work.\nTeachers deal with children. In an ultimate analysis that is all they deal with.\nBuildings, organization, books, studies, and systems interest them only because of thei:\npossible application to children. To grant to a pedagogue the highest academic honor\nto which he can attain, without his knowing the materials with which he is to work,\nwould seem to me utterly absurd. Hence I should say the candidate for the doctor's\ndegree in pedagogy should pass an examination which would show that he was conver\nsant with the results of the latest and best studies made on children.\nBut if we are to keep pace with other professions, more than this is necessary. The\ncandidate for the highest honors in the medical profession to-day must not only have\nread the latest works on anatomy, physiology, medicine, and surgery, but he must ha\\\nactually worked with the real things with which his profession is concerned, in the dis\nsecting-room, the chemical laboratory, and the hospital. The candidate for the degre\nof mechanical engineer must not only have studied the latest works on mechanics, but\nhe must have worked with wood and iron in the workshops and with actual machines.\nThe whole educational movement of our times is in the direction of demanding work\nwith the realities which are being studied. Hence it would seem that a teacher who is\na candidate for the highest degree known to his profession, should have studied in a\nscientific spirit the children, with which he is to work through life, under the direction\nof a competent professor.\nThis demands an experimental school in connection with the department of education, which shall have the same relation to the department of education that the hospital has to the medical school. As the New York Evening Post said some years ago :\n\" The time must soon come when it will be considered as absurd to have a department\nof education without children as it would now seem to have a department of chemistry\nwithout a chemical laboratory.\"\nThe doctor of pedagogy should then, I should say, not only know what has been\nlearned up to date in the scientific study of children, but he should have studied children himself under competent direction. These studies need not, I should say, be in\nthe nature of original investigation, except in spirit. They need not necessarily add an\nincrement to the sum of human knowledge, providing his thesis, dealing with the historical or administrative aspects of education shows a superior grasp of intellect, and\nthe ability to stand alone and reach sound and independent conclusions.\n\n"}
{"page": 467, "printed_page": null, "text": "CHILD STUDY\n\nCHILD\nBY\n\nAND\n\nSTUDY\n\nMARGARET\n\nK.\n\nPROFESSIONAL\n\nIN\nSMITH,\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF TEACHERS.\n\nCONNECTION\nWITH\nTHE\nSIONAL TRAINING OF TEACHERS.\nOSWEGO\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n447\n\nPROFESSCHOOL.\n\nThe teacher, as much as any other artist or artisan, is a workman.\nFoi the same reason that the painter or the carpenter must know the\ntools with which he works, the teacher must know the subjects of instruction which are to be presented to his pupils.\nBesides knowing his tools, however, the painter or the carpenter must\nknow the nature of the material to which he applies his tools ; and by\ncarefully noting the effect of this application, he gains a knowledge, the\nuse of which results in a skill in fashioning, which insures a great saving\nof time and energy, as well as a great increase in the value of his products.\nIn a similar way the teacher, in addition to knowing the subjects of\ninstruction, must know the nature of the material upon which he works,\nviz., mind in general, as well as the nature of the particular mind with\nwhich he has to deal. In addition to this, he must be able to observe accurately the effect of any subject of instruction, as well as the effect of the\nmanner of its presentation upon the mind, of the pupil.\nHaving knowledge of the subjects of instruction, knowledge of the\nnature of mind, and power to observe the effects of the application of\nthese subjects to mind, together with the effects of the manner of presenting them upon mental growth, the teacher is in possession of the conditions for gaining a skill that must result in a great saving of time and\nenergy, in a constant renewal of interest in his work, as well as in a finer\ndevelopment on the part of his pupils.\nThe effective skill of the artist or artisan is not to be gained incidentally, however. It means years of work, of observation of results, and of\nrenewed work to secure better results. It means training under the criticism of masters, as well as training under self-imposed criticism. It also\nleans training under the criticism of tyros, who, while they may know\nlittle or nothing of the subject under discussion, are yet very effective in\nkeeping an expert up to the mark.\nFor the work of his profession, just as truly does the teacher need a\nperiod of special training under the direction of masters, by whose criticism he learns to measure himself correctly, and to estimate accurately\nthe value of his own work.\nThe teacher in training needs to review the subjects of instruction with\na view to presenting them. He needs a training in the observation of\nhuman beings, as well as a training in self-observation, with a view to\ndiscovering the laws of psychic action, and to recognizing the effect of\nmotives under different conditions.\nAlso, he needs training in the obser-\n\n"}
{"page": 468, "printed_page": null, "text": "448\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nvation of children that will enable him to know the child, and to recognize the conditions that are affecting him for good or ill.\nImportant as is the study of all human nature, the study of the child is\nof more importance than that of the adult, for the reason that the most\nimportant truths are more plainly manifested in the simple, immature\nmind, of which the purpose is single, than in the complex, matured mind,\nof which the emotions are always more or less involved, and, consequently,\nare manifested more or less indistinctly or indirectly.\nAnother reason why the teacher in training should study the child is,\nthat his work of teaching is to be connected with the child. His task is\nto develop the childish mind ; and, valuable as is the study of the adult\nmind, it will not afford the knowledge needed for dealing with children.\nProbably the chief reason why the psychology of the past, and even of\nthe present, is not calculated to furnish a working basis for the teacher,\nwas and is that it has been, as indeed it still is, a psychology of the\nmature, cultured mind, indicating the result of a complex education, and\nso does not indicate the mind before it was acted upon by intentional\ninstruction.\nTo the immature teacher such a psychology must be misleading, as it\nmust lead him to expect more from the immature mind than can possibly\nbe realized, and thus result in his working above the capacity of his pupil.\nThis difficulty is constantly to be met with in English and Scotch psychology, and to a great extent in that of Germany.\nThe one important\nexception is to be found in the Herbartian psychology, which system was\nevolved from the actual observations and experiments made by Herbar\nupon his own pupils.\nThe aim of the teacher in training is to acquire skill in presenting the\nmaterial for knowledge, the subjects of instruction, in such a way that\nthe time and energy of both teacher and pupil may be saved ; in such a\nway that the best power of the pupil may be developed. To this end his\nwork is a constant series of experiments with children, the effects of\nwhich must be carefully noted, and their desirable or undesirable features accounted for, so that the latter may be avoided, and the former\nsecured again and again.\nIt may be urged that the regular class-room instruction is sufficiently\nwell calculated to afford opportunity for observation and experiment upon\nchildren. If teaching were what it ought to be, this would perhaps be\ntrue ; but that it is insufficient, as at present carried on, is perhaps proven\nby the fact, that, in the case of a great many teachers, the longer they\nteach, the more unobserving, the more unimpressionable, they become in\nregard to their work.\nAs teaching is done at present, probably less of the real child is seen in\nthe class-room than in any other place. We have all been in schools\nwhere automata would seem to serve the purpose of the teacher quite as\n\n"}
{"page": 469, "printed_page": null, "text": "CHILD STUDY\n\nAND\n\nPROFESSIONAL\n\nTRIANING\n\nOF TEACHERS.\n\n449\n\nwell as, if not better than, real living, thinking children. This, of\ncourse, indicates something wrong, and this something is probably ignorance on the part of the teacher regarding the nature of the work in which\nhe is engaged. A reform in teaching is certainly necessary, and this\nreform is only to be secured by first gaining a knowledge of the child as\nhe is when actuated by that which is within himself rather than by external influences. In the class-room the child is usually so enveloped with\nthe teacher's personality that there is no possible opportunity for an original manifestation.\nBefore the teacher in training attempts formal instruction, and even\nbefore he attempts formal observation in the class-room, he will find it\nvery profitable to occupy himself with individual children. He may\nwatch them with a view to discovering what influences tend to arouse a\ndesire to know ; and, this desire being active, how they inform themselves\nby their own unaided, undirected effort. At such a time as this the real\nchild is to be seen. The teacher may watch the child in the family, when\nhe is one of several, and in the playground, where he is one of many.\nThere he will have an opportunity to observe the tendencies that show\none child to be an originator and a leader, and another to be an imitator\nand a follower.\nHe may frequent the haunts of the street urchin, and note how one lad\nsucceeds in conveying an idea to another; note the way in which a motive\nimpels an action ; the effort spent to achieve a purpose. He may mark\nthe argument which carries conviction ; in brief, he may discover the way\nin which a live, natural boy perceives, reproduces, apperceives, cognizes,\nrecognizes, interprets, creates.\nWhen these things have been discovered, we shall be better able, no\ndoubt, to adjust our schools to the real needs of children. We shall be\nable to bring the child in contact with the subjects of instruction in\nsuch a way as to induce him to bring to bear upon them as much earnestness and energy as he manifests in a game of \" shinny,\" or in the construction of a water-wheel.\nMaking such observations as have been indicated, the teacher in training\nwill become more attentive to the manifestations of child-life in the classroom, and will be better able to turn his observations to account in the\nprocesses of instruction.\nThe knowledge of the child, which is the fundamental knowledge of\nhuman nature, and I had almost said of Divine nature as well, must be\ngained by every teacher for himself. It cannot be acquired at second\nhand. The book will never give information that will apply to all cases.\nHearsay evidence is not sufficiently reliable to base action upon. The\nteacher in training must himself work and watch and wait for results.\nEternal vigilance is the price of knowledge in regard to the management\nof human 29beings.\n\n"}
{"page": 470, "printed_page": null, "text": "450\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nHere the statement regarding the necessity for observing children as\nindividuals may be emphasized. At present attempts are being made to\nexamine children in masses, to strike averages, and to make generalizations that can hardly be reliable. Such work seems to me hardly practicable for the teacher in training, and if practicable, the results would\nperhaps be of doubtful value. I would not, however, wish to underrate\nthe value of a certain kind of study of cbildren in masses. The measurement of school-children of certain age by the thousand, or by the twenty\nthousand, as well as other estimates of physical conditions, if reliable, may\nfurnish a basis for certain important inferences that may warrant modification in the action of parents and teachers. I doubt, however, whether\nan attempt to get at an estimate of the interests or the truthfulness of\nchildren in the mass will be equally satisfactory. For such points as these,\nand indeed, in the very early work, for all points, I should recommend a\nvery careful study of the individual child, and before venturing on generalizations,should\nI\nrecommend a careful study of a great many individuals.\nA word may be said here regarding the necessity of the teacher in training being trained how to see, before much importance can be attached to\nthe results of the observations made. The observer must learn to distinguish accurately between what he actually does observe and what he\ninfers. If every teacher realized the importance of this one point, it\nseems to me that at least one-half the trouble in managing children would\ndisappear. The tendency of the immature, superficial mind is to rush to\nconclusions before actual observations have been made.\nAnother point may be made regarding the necessity of freeing the observations made from sentiment of any kind. This is another vice of young,\nimmature observers. The plain statement of a simple fact appears to\nthem harsh and even insignificant. The garnish of fine words seems to\ngive a flavor of originality, and is very tempting.\nPerhaps it may also be well to warn the observer against selecting as\nspecimens those children that are generally regarded as remarkable. Precocious or exceptional children are to be avoided as carefully as are freaks\nin any other department of natural history. The typical is to be sought\nfor constantly, and it is to be found not very far removed from the commonplace. The exception should follow, not precede, the rule.\nHaving learned how to observe accurately, and how to state accurately\nthe result of his observations, without any embellishment or retrenchment,\nthe teacher in training may next be trained to think about what he has\nobserved — to try to find a reason for a manifestation. This is, of course, a\ntraining in inference, and must not be allowed to degenerate into mere\nguess, and which must have a broad basis of actual fact.\nHaving found the cause for certain manifestations, the next effort of\nthe teacher in training will be to learn how to avoid this cause if it be\nundesirable, and how to secure it again if it be desirable.\nThis involves a\n\n"}
{"page": 471, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE\n\nIDEAL\n\nNORMAL\n\n451\n\nSCHOOL.\n\nfurther exercise of inference, viz. : theorizing. Theories must have a basis\nin actual experience, and can only be of value to the extent that they are\nverified by actual experiment.\nAs an indication of the study of the child in a formal way, we may\nstate that he first be studied as to what he is ; second, as to what he does ;\nthird, as to what he says. First, as to physical condition, or state; second,\nas to physical movement, or action ; third, as to language ; fourth, conditions external to the child which may affect him in regard to any or all\nof the three points mentioned above.\nLast of all the history of the child, so far as affected by the nationality,\nlives, and occupations of his parents. I mention this last, as it is in its\nvery nature supplementary evidence, which if gained first may prejudice\nthe judgment of the observer. The child as he is, is the first object of\nstudy ; after this study, the observer should of course make use of all evidence that will be of use to him in forming a basis for inference.\nThe study of the physical condition of the child implies the observation\nof the state of the body as a whole, and of its parts, with special reference\nto the condition of the senses, and the amount of strength or vitality possessed bythe child.\nThe second point — viz. : the study of movement — is probably of the\ngreatest importance of any. The study of movement implies the observation of reflex actions, and of such movements as are caused by mental\nactivity — i.e., by thinking. The study of the expression of the child is\nattended with much difficulty. The character of the vocabulary as well\nas the content of the expression must be carefully noted and accounted\nfor. Here it is very important that the observer keep himself free from\nprepossessions for or against what the child says. He must also exercise\ngreat care in his inference regarding the motive which prompted the expression. The definition of Talleyrand, that language is a means of concealing thought, applies not infrequently to the language of children as\nwell as of adults.\n\nTHE\nBY\n\nDR.\n\nEDWARD\n\nIDEAL\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL.\n\nBROOKS,\nSUPERINTENDENT\nPHILADELPHIA,\nPA.\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nThe normal school problem resolves itself into two questions, that of organization\nand instruction. In both of these respects the normal schools of America present many\ndiversities. This is readily accounted for by the history of their origin and growth.\nIn the Old World a system of normal schools was carefully thought out by educational\nexperts and established by state authority ; neither the people nor the teachers had\nany voice in the matter. In such a case an ideal system could be engrafted upon the\neducational organization of a country. In this country, however, no such ideal\nsystem was possible.\nOur normal schools were not established primarily as parts of\n\n"}
{"page": 472, "printed_page": null, "text": "452\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\na great system of popular education, but grew up spontaneously to meet a public\ndemand. They were not imposed upon the people by the state, but were established\nlargely by the people themselves. Many of them were for a long time mere private\ninstitutions started by some progressive and enthusiastic teacher, and demonstrating by\ntheir success their right to existence and state support. Gradually a public sentiment\nwas created in their favor, and by action of State legislatures they became an integral\npart of the public school system of the various States. Only in some of the newer\nStates were they made an essential part of the State system from the beginning.\nOriginating in such a way, it is clear that there must be great diversity in their\norganization and course of instruction. One peculiarity of most of them is that they\nare not strictly training-schools, but have two courses of study, a scholastic and a professional course. The scholastic course gives instruction in the different branches of\nstudy like an academy or seminary. Only in their professional course are they essentially different from these other institutions. This feature of a scholastic course has been\na basis of criticism of the American normal schools. The ideal normal school, it was\nsaid, is a school in which professional training alone is given. An ideal normal school\nshould not possess a course of instruction in the arts and sciences ; a knowledge of\nthese should be acquired in the academy or college. The instruction in a normal\nschool should be exclusively professional ; it should include only the science and art of\nteaching.\nJudged by this standard, our State normal schools are not ideal schools ; nearly all of\nthem give instruction in the branches as well as in methods of teaching. But this was\na necessity of their origin. They were established to meet an immediate want of popular education. That want was teachers of our common schools, teaching a few months\nin the year at from twenty dollars to thirty dollars a month. Young men trained in\nacademy or college were not willing to go to a normal school and spend a year or two\nin learning how to teach a public school with such remuneration in view. Hence the\nonly way to obtain young people prepared in the branches of study as well as in\nmethods was to teach these branches in the normal school. A so-called academic\nor scholastic course was thus a necessity in our normal schools as first established.\nAnd even to-day, with increased remuneration, the normal schools of the country could\nnot depend on students trained in academy or college. And I go further and say that\nneither the academy nor college gives that training in the elementary branches needed\nby a teacher of the public school, and it would be outside of their legitimate purposes\nto do so. Besides, the graduates of these higher institutions aspire to something that\npays better than teaching in a common country school. So that whatever may be said\nabout the ideal normal school giving only professional instruction, the fact remains\nthat to fit teachers for the common schools of the country, the normal schools are compelled to give academic instruction in the branches. While it might be well to have in\neach State a higher institution known as a normal university or college of pedagogy,\nwhere college graduates and other young men and women with advanced scholastic\npreparation could be prepared for the higher educational positions, yet the great mass\nof the teachers of our public schools must be trained in normal schools organized as at\npresent with a scholastic as well as a professional course. That these schools should be\nunder state control, and be thus an integral part of our public school system, is too\nevident to need argument.\nThere is one place, however, where the so-called ideal normal school is possible in\nthis country, and that is in our large cities, where the entire work of public education\nis under the control of one organization. Here a properly conducted high-school\ncan prepare its pupils in the scholastic branches so that when they enter the normal\nschool the instruction may be exclusively professional. Such a system I am now organizing in Philadelphia.\nThere has been in this city for many years an institution known\n\n"}
{"page": 473, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE\n\nIDEAL\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL.\n\n453\n\nas the Girls' High and Normal School, whose main object was the education of the\nwomen teachers of the city. It contained a scholastic and a professional course. These\ntwo departments are now to be separated, and the work done in two different institutions\nunder separate control, one to be a girls' high-school, and the other a girls' normal\nschool. The high-school is to contain three courses of study — a general course, a classical course, and a business course. Pupils who desire to become teachers will take\nthree years of the general course, and then pass into the normal school and have a two\nyears' course in pedagogy. This course in pedagogy will be strictly professional. Connected with the normal school will be a school of observation and a school of practice\nin which the art of teaching is to be learned.\nThe above remarks belong to the first part of the normal school problem — that of\norganization. A few words will also be added in respect to the course of professional\ninstruction. The course of instruction should be based on the idea that teaching is a\nscience and an art. The science of teaching is based on a correct conception of the\nteacher's will. First, the pupil has certain powers which are to be understood by the\nteacher and unfolded in the work of education. The work of unfolding these powers\nhas been called culture, and the entire subject may be embraced under the head of\nMethods of Culture. Second, this work of culture is accomplished by the agency of\nknowledge, consisting of the arts and sciences. This knowledge has a certain relation\nto the mind ; its branches have relative values in education ; there are best methods\nof bringing it in proper relation to the mind — all of which may be embraced under the\nhead of Methods of Instruction. This work of culture and instruction is to be done in\na school, and this school is to be provided, organized, governed, etc. — all of which may\nproperly be included under the head of School Economy. Then there is the History of\nEducation, as of every other subject, and the Philosophy of Education, which embraces\nthose broad and general principles of education that lie at the basis of educational\ngrowth and development. The science of teaching, it is thus seen, may be embraced\nunder five distinct heads : (1) Methods of Culture. (2) Methods of Instruction. (3)\nSchool Economy. (4) History of Education. (5) The Philosophy of Education.\nUnder methods of culture the entire nature of man should be studied and the best\nmethods of unfolding his powers presented. It should include physical culture, intellectual culture, aesthetic culture, ethical culture, etc. The basis of physical culture is\neducational physiology ; the basis of intellectual, aesthetic, and ethical culture is educational psychology. This psychology should embrace introspective, observational,\nexperimental, and physiological psychology — indeed, every fact and principle that pertains\nto the development of the mental or spiritual nature of man. Under methods of instruction the nature of the different branches of knowledge is to be discussed — their origin\nand development, their relation to the various faculties of the mind, their educational\nvalue, and the principles and methods of teaching them. Under school economy\nshould be discussed school-buildings, school organization, school employments, school\ngovernment, school authorities, etc. The history of education and the philosophy of\neducation should embrace as much of the respective subjects as the character of the\nstudents and the grade of the school will admit. In addition to these formally stated\nbranches there should be original reading and investigation on the part of the students\nindependent of the text-book or the lectures of the classroom.\nThe art of teaching is to be learned in two ways, by observation and by practice. There\nshould therefore be connected with every normal school two distinct elementary schools —\na school of observation and a school of practice. The school of observation should be\ntaught by expert teachers, the most skillful and artistic that can be secured. \"All the\nmost approved methods in all the different grades should be employed in this school\nthat it may represent the most advanced educational thought and practice of the day.\nThe pupils of the normal schools, as soon as they are ready, should spend a certain time\n\n"}
{"page": 474, "printed_page": null, "text": "454\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\neach day in this school to observe the work of these expert teachers, taking notes of\ntheir work and preparing for a subsequent discussion of the same. In addition to this\nschool of observation there should be a school of practice, in which the pupils of the\nnormal school should be required to do actual teaching for a certain period each day.\nThis school should also be in charge of skillful teachers familiar with the best methods\nof modern instruction. The work of the student-teachers should be under the constant\nsupervision of regular teachers, who are to observe and direct their practice. In this\nway the student-teacher may learn to put in practice the principles of the science of\nteaching learned in the normal school, and thus become master of both the science and\nthe art of his profession. In most of the State normal schools it will be found more\nconvenient to unite these two schools in one organization called the model school ; in a\nlarge city it is possible to have them separate, which, as is obvious, possesses some\nspecial advantages.\n\n"}
{"page": 475, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\nCONGRESS\n\nOF ART INSTRUCTION.\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nREPORT.\n\nSESSION— Wednesday, July 26, 1893.\n\nThe Congress of Art Instruction met in Hall No. 8 of the Art Institute at 9.30 a.m.,\nWednesday, July 26, 1893. The Congress was called to order by Professor W. M. R.\nFrench, Director of the Art Institute, Chicago, who opened the session by a few remarks\nrelative to the struggles which art schools have had to encounter at all times and places.\nThere was no art instruction in the schools of Boston so late as 1873. Among the conditions which retard the progress of art schools are the irregularity of teacher and pupil,\nwithdrawal of pupils, missing models, etc. All drawing is a training of hand and eye,\neven if the course has not been according to my system.\nThe first paper was presented by Mr. Henry T. Bailey, Supervisor of Drawing for the\nState of Massachusetts, on the following subject : \" Drawing from the Flat to learn the\nTechnique of Representation.\"\nThis subject was discussed by Professor J. Ward Stimson, of the Institute of ArtistArtisans, New York ; by Henry Talbot, Superintendent of Manual Training in the\nState Normal School, Montgomery, Ala. ; and Mr. Holmes Smith, Acting Director of\nthe School of Fine Arts, St. Louis. Mo.\nThe second paper was by L. W. Miller, of the School of Industrial Art, Philadelphia,\nPa., on \" Importance of the ^Esthetic Aim in Elementary Drawing.\"\nThis paper was discussed by Professor W. S. Goodenough, Supervisor of Drawing in\nthe Public Schools of Brooklyn, N. Y. ; and by Henry Talbot.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Thursday, July 27, 1893.\n\nProfessor W. M. R. French occupied the chair.\nA letter of regret was read from M. Levasseur, of the Academy of France. The\nPolytechnic Association of Paris was founded by the artist professors for the dissemination of art and industrial principles. It is entirely gratuitous, no fees being paid or\nreceived. From the original center at Paris have radiated branches of the institution in\nmany of the large cities.\nThe first paper was by Professor J. Ward Stimson, of New York, on \"Development\nof Art Instinct.\"\nThis was followed by a discussion on \"Studying Art,\" by E. F. Fenollosa, of the\nBoston Art Museum (late of Tokio).\nProfessor George L Schreiber, of Armour Institute, and of the Art Institute, Chicago,\ncontinued the discussion on \"Art Study.\"\nThe third paper was by Dr. Alfred Emerson, Associate Professor of Classical Archaeology at Cornell University ; subject, \"How Pupils should study and analyze Works\nfrom the Great Masters.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 476, "printed_page": null, "text": "456\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nTHIRD\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION.\n\nSESSION— Friday, July 28, 1893.\n\nProfessor French occupied the chair.\nThe first paper of the morning was by Professor J. M. Hoppin, of Yale University.\nMrs. Mary Dana Hicks, of Boston, presented a paper on \"Does Art Study concern\nthe Public Schools ? \"\nMiss Josephine C. Locke, of Chicago, followed with a paper on \" With what should\nDrawing begin ? \"\nA discussion of this subject was continued by Mrs. Hannah Johnson Carter, Director\nArt Department, Drexel Institute.\nMiss Anna R. Osborne Moore, of England, presented a paper on \" The Self -correcting\nSystem of Drawing,\" which system she also called \" The Philographic Method.\"\nA paper was read by Professor W. M. R. French, Director of the Art Institute, Chicago, on \"Painting and Sculpture.\"\nA general discussion on the subject of drawing was participated in by Anson K.\nCross, of the Normal Art School and Museum of Fine Art School, Boston ; Miss Lulu\nMcCoy, Art Teacher at the State Normal School, Huntsville, Ala. ; Miss Lucy Silke and\nProfessor French, of Chicago ; Dr. James MacAlister, of the Drexel Institute, Philadelphia ;Mrs. F. M. Holland and Mrs. Hicks, of Boston ; Mr. W. S. Goodenough and Miss\nRounds, of Brooklyn, N. Y. ; Mr. Brown and Miss Selleck, of Indianapolis, Ind. ; Miss\nPascall, of Iowa ; Mrs. Fuller, of Washington, D. C.\nA paper on \"Should Pupils draw from the Flat ?\" was presented by Helen Bondy, a\ngraduated teacher, Vienna, Austria.\nThe discussions in the Congress on Art Instruction were reported by the Secretary,\nMiss Gertrude C. English.\n\nLIST OF PERSONS ACCEPTING THE OFFICE OF HONORARY\nVICE-PRESIDENT OF THE DEPARTMENT CONGRESS OF\nART INSTRUCTION.\nAUSTKALASIA.\n\n•\n\nArthur D. Riley, Art Director, Wellington, New\nZealand,\nDavid J. Hutton, Art Master Dunedin School of\nArt, Dunedin, New Zealand.\nBELGIUM.\n\nGERMANY.\nProf. Ende, Privy Councilor and Teacher Technical High School, Berlin.\nProf. J. C. Raschdorff, Technical High School,\nBerlin.\nDr. Berlin.\nSchoene, Director General Royal Museum,\nProf.Berlin.\nDr. R. Siemering, Director Rauch Museum,\n\nM. Cluysenaer, Drawing School, Brussels.\nCANADA.\nT. H. McGuirl,\n\nGREAT\n\nBRITAIN.\n\nB.A., Drawing Master Ottawa ..\n„ „ , „„ . , „\n.\n. . ,, . . .\n~\nDivis.on, DeArt\nExaminer\n°ffic!al\nAlan S; Colc; of\nB\nNormal School, Ottawa\nLondon\nArt\nand\nScience\npartineiit\n.,.\nInstiS. P. May, Esq.. Superintendent Mechanics'\nGlazier, Manchester School of Art, ManRichard\nDepartment,\nEducation\nSchools, etc.,\ntutes Art On\ncnester.\no\nri\nta\nToronto\nW*lkin*on' }™*™to* in Drawing, London\nGeorge Harvey, Head Master Victoria School of A- Scnoo>\nBoard- London.\nArt and Design, Halifax, Nova Scotia.\nITALY.\nFRANCE.\nprof_ g. de Bonis, Drawing Master Higher Normal\n. , r\n. ,.\n...\nSchool for Women, Rome.\nM. Cougny, Principal Inspector of Instruction in\nDrawing, Paris.\nNETHERLANDS.\nM. Ottin, Inspector of Drawing, Pans.\nMile. L. Robin. Professor of Drawing, Orphelinat J. D. Brinkgreve, Drawing\nMaster Communal\nPrevost, Cempuis.\nHigher Burgher School, Dortrecht.\n\n"}
{"page": 477, "printed_page": null, "text": "457\nLIST OF HONORARY\nW. B. G. Molkenboer,\nDirector State\nSchool for Drawing, Amsterdam.\n\nUNITED\nDISTRICT\n\nNormal\n\nSTATES.\n\nOF COLUMBIA.\n\nCol. I. R. Clarke, Bureau of Education, Washington.\nMr?. Susan E. Fuller. Director of Drawing in the\nPublic Schools, Washington.\nMARYLAND.\nJoseph M. Cushing, Baltimore.\nMASSACHUSETTS.\nJohn S. Clark, Boston.\nL. E. Fay, Supervisor of Drawing, Springfield.\n\nVICE-PRESIDENTS.\nNEW\n\nYORK.\n\nGen. L. P. di Cesnola, Director Metropolitan Museum, New York.\nWalter S. Perry, Pratt Institute, Brooklyn.\nEdward A. Spring, New Dorp. Staten Island.\nProf. J. Ward\nStirason, Institute for Artist-Artisans, New York.\nFrank Waller, New York.\nOHIO.\nGen. A. T. Goshom, Art Museum, Cincinnati.\nPENNSYLVANIA.\nDalton Dorr, Philadelphia.\nL. W. Miller, Principal An School, Philadelphia.\nSamuel Wagner, Philadelphia.\nVIRGINIA.\nMiss C. E. Wills, Charlottesville.\n\n"}
{"page": 478, "printed_page": null, "text": "ART INSTRUCTION.\nDRAWING\nBY\n\nHENRY\n\nFROM\nT.\n\nBAILEY,\n\nTHE FLAT TO LEARN THE\nOF REPRESENTATION.\nSUPERVISOR\nOF DRAWING\nMASSACHUSETTS.\n\nFOR\n\nTECHNIQUE\nTHE\n\nSTATE\n\nOF\n\n\"Shall the pupil first take a course in drawing from the flat in order to learn the\ntechnique of representation ? \"\n\nA piece of great representation — a work of art — has two elements :\nfirst, and of supreme importance, a motif, a spiritual essence or life of its\nown, born of the thoughts and feelings of the artist ; and, second, ts,\nan\nembodiment, an expression of this spiritual life through forms appreciable\nby the senses. The end is the re-creation of the artist's thought and feeling in the mind of the observer. The means are sensuous forms and\ncolors. The medium may be pencil, pen and ink, charcoal, water-color,\nhe\noil-color, or pastel. And the technique is simply the way in which the\nartist handles his medium.\nTechnique is largely the result of individual peculiarities and habi\nlike a man's handwriting ; and just as an author's chirography is of little\nimportance if legible, and his style of greater moment, and his message\nchief, so technique is of little importance compared with true form and\ncolor, and these in turn are subordinate to spirit.\nBut there is another relation to be considered. Just as the author's\ncommand of language, his knowledge of grammatical construction and of\nthe laws of rhetoric, condition his expression of thought or feeling, so upon\nthe artist's power to embody his ideal in sensuous forms depends his power\nto re-create his ideal in another mind. In other words, the spirit finds its\nmost complete expression and best secures its end only through adequate\nmeans. The ability to draw truthfully is therefore prerequisite to the\ncomplete and vivid representation of ideals, and technique assumes importance in so far as it affects the truth of the drawing.\nWhile the final results of drawing in the public schools may not rise to\nthe dignity of great art, if genuine and vital they will have the two essential elements of such art; namely, spirit and adequate form. Our course\nin drawing will then make provision for two related lines of work: one\nwhose end shall be to develop thought and feeling, the other whose end\nshall be to develop power to adequately express thought and feeling.\n\n"}
{"page": 479, "printed_page": null, "text": "DRAWING\n\nFROM\n\nTHE\n\nFLAT.\n\n459\n\nhese two lines of work we may call, for convenience, (1) illustrative\nsketching and (2) pictorial drawing.\nIn the past we have neglected illustrative sketching, but we are now\nbeginning to realize its meaning and its value. In every crude line and\nmisshapen form of these first sketches of little children we find thought\nand feeling — spirit forcibly expressed. Shall such work be suppressed\nbecause it is inaccurate and crude ? It has been suppressed, but we are\nslowly learning to see that the individuality which so manifests itself is a\nprecious gift of God. Such expression must be fostered. The children\nshould be encouraged to illustrate lessons in language and number, reading and nature study, geography and history. They should have sketchbooks and use them constantly, the one aim being expression of life and\nmotion, of thought and feeling. There is certainly no place here for\nopies ; the technique at this stage is not of the slightest consequence.\nBut suppose this illustrative sketching to be continued. There will\ncome a time when the spirit will demand a more complete expression.\nThe diagrammatic sketches will no longer satisfy ; straightness must be\nexpressed by a straight line, roundness by a circle ; boxes must look\nollow, and houses must appear substantial ; we must be able to see down\ninto a flower-cup and up under an umbrella ; a horse must look like a\nhorse, and a man like a man. The power now demanded, that of truthfully representing such objects to embody ideas, is acquired only through\nlong-continued practice under guidance. Alongside the illustrative sketching, then, should be a definite, logical, well-graded course in pictorial\ndrawing, whose end shall be truthful expression of form.\nNow forms may be expressed in different degrees of completeness : in\noutline, in light and shade, and in color. But while color perfects the\npicture, in representation as such, it is of least importance. Its self tone\nseldom appears to the eye ; it changes in value with every change of light ;\nit appears different from different points of view and from different distances. Light and shade are of more importance ; they reveal solid form,\nand express character of surface ; their effects are more constant. Given a\nlight on the object, and its shadow may be determined scientifically. But\noutline is of chief importance ; it is an essential and permanent element\nin every object, fixing its form and character ; it is fundamental, conditioning all other effects. For this reason the wise Frenchmen say : \" If a\nperson can learn to draw in three years, he can learn to paint in three\nunderthe value of linear drawing to express the\nse of we\nmonths.\"\nI\nlying truthsBecau\nof form,\nfind to-day a score of sketches and drawings,\nstudies by the old masters, to one of their finished paintings.\nIt now becomes evident that outline drawing should take precedence in\nthe lower grades of schools, and that its end should be expression of truth.\nNo glow of color, no effective chiaroscuro, can hide bad drawing. When\n—\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 480, "printed_page": null, "text": "460\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\ntill then is it time to think about teaching how to represent truths of\nlight and shade and of color.\nA progressive course in pictorial drawing whose end is truthful expression must, of necessity, commence with simple truths and pass to the\nmore complex. The order will be : (1) Truth of movement (one dimension) (2)\n; truth of figure (two dimensions) ; (3) truth of solid form (three\ndimensions). Here technique is of some importance, for it may interfere\nwith the expression of truth.\nIllustrative sketching and pictorial drawing will react upon each other;\nthe expression will gradually improve in the one, and the spirit will gradually jaermeate the correct forms of the other. To some of us this seems\nlike too laborious and slow a process to secure the desired result, but sc\nfar as experience goes it is the only sure process ; the result comes througl\nvital growth. \"That is not first which is spiritual, but that which it\nnatural, and afterward that which is spiritual.\"\nI have said that technique is largely the result of individual peculiarity\nand habits. This is true of bad technique when interpreted one way, and\nof good technique when interpreted another. In bad technique the individual peculiarities are almost always borrowed from another, and the\nhabits are \" tricks of the trade.\" In good technique the individual peculiarities are original and give charm to the work, and the habits are\nmodes of thought. True technique has, then, a vital organic element.\nCan that be imitated, or obtained by copying ?\nBecause French pupils draw with charcoal and so make broad gray\nlines, some have insisted on whittling away only the wood of a pencil, and\nthen flattening one side of the lead to make a mark an eighth of an inch\nbroad when \" properly \" held. Having thus produced a characterless and\nwholly artificial line, they have proceeded to apply it alike to the representation of machine details and flower petals, potatoes and snow-flakes.\nCould anything be more deadly? Such technique is false ; it robs the\ndrawing of truth, and annihilates individuality in the artist. The line\nshould express character. Every object under heaven is not \" all wool\nand a yard wide.\"\nBut suppose we agree that difference in character shall mean difference\ninline. Will copying another's drawing lead to an appreciation of such\ndifferences ? How can it ? Will copying external form give internal\nspirit ? Any artist knows that it will not. He cannot make an accurate copy of one of his own sketches which shall have the fresh spirit of\nthe original. The letter killeth — \" it is the spirit that quickeneth ; the\nflesh profiteth nothing.\" In the work of pupils who have been bound\nto a drawing book, and in the productions of those who have learned\n\" painting, in twelve lessons, for ten dollars,\" how often have we seen sickening proof of this ! No embodiment of thought, no feeling, no spirit ;\nonly servile copying of external form.\n\n"}
{"page": 481, "printed_page": null, "text": "DRAWING\n\nFROM\n\nTHE\n\nFLAT.\n\n461\n\nBut how shall we teach the embodiment of spirit ? We haven't to\nteach it. We can't. Our business is to perfect the means for such embodiment as soon as possible, and if we do not hinder the mind and\ncheck its activity by insisting on conventionality and mannerism, its vital\nforce will permeate the drawing as the Divine Mind permeates this\nuniverse.\n\" There is no great and no small\nTo the soul that maketh all.\nAnd where it cometh, all things are,\nAnd it cometh everywhere.\"\n\n\" As a man thinketh, so is he.\" If the pupil feels the exquisite delicacy\nof the petal, he cannot draw a broad gray line to represent it ; if he feels\nthe springing life in the leaf-stalk expanding into its glistening shield of\ngreen, his representation of it cannot be lifeless. If he thinks solidity\nwhen he represents an object — if while he draws the outline he sees the\ndrawing as a reality in space, with its three dimensions — his pencil will\nsomehow represent his thought (unless he is required to hold it three\ninches from the point, at right angles to the line, and at forty-five degrees\nwith the paper !). If he thinks roughness as he draws the lemon, smoothness as he draws the apple ; brittleness, transparency as he draws the glass,\nsoftness as he draws the head of cotton-grass, his drawing will reveal it.\nThe mind informs the hand. No one can think delicacy and draw massiveness, nor think life and draw death. Nor can the artist draw life without\nthinking it.\nBut shall copies never be used ? Shall not the pupil have the benefit\nof the experience of others before him ?\nYes, by all means ; give him every scrap of help available. Life is too\nshort and too precious for each to tread all the weary way traveled by the\nrace, and repeat all its disheartening experiments. Give the pupil abundant illustration of technique, but let it be of the best — good reproductions of the work of masters, not the cheap, inaccurate, and lifeless diagrams bysome lithographer's apprentice. Urge\" the pupil to study them.\nHe is not to copy line for line and dot for dot ; he is to seize their spirit ;\nhe is to analyze them to discover the order in which the spirit unfolds its\nidea, and what forms it assumes. He may think the artist's thought, and,\nso far as he is able, may represent its successive stages of manifestation,\nreproducing if he can the same effect ; but never, never is he to copy\ntouch by touch. Such copying will never lead to art. Unless we can\nlead pupils to see deeper than the surface, our work will be worthless.\nWithout the spirit a simple sketch reveals only the poverty of death ; an\nelaborate drawing, only its endlessness. With the spirit, the merest outline\nglows with life, and a perfect drawing lives on when the cunning hand that\nmade it is dust.\nThe artist being dead yet speaketh.\n\n"}
{"page": 482, "printed_page": null, "text": "462\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF 1 D C CATION.\n\nDISCUSSION.\nProfessor J. Ward Stimson, of the Institute of Artist- Artisans, New York : The\nkingdom of art, like the kingdom of heaven, is within you. The individual poetry or\nsentiment of each student must be respected and expressed. Therefore, art must be\nvital, not mechanical or imitative. \" First the blade, then the ear, then the full\ncorn\" — that is the order of vital growth. First, then, represent vital beauty in line\nand motion. Second, represent vital beauty in surface (leaves). Third, represent vital\nbeauty in solids (fishes, insects, birds, etc.). The inner spirit and structure must be\nrevealed through the material.\nIn commercial materials represent, first, line in thread work — lace, etc. ; second,\nsurface work — wall-paper, inlaying, etc.; third, solid — clay, sculpture, carving, etc.\nHenry Talbot. Superintendent of Manual Training in the State Normal School,\nMontgomery, Alabama, advocated the use of simple geometric figures for beginners.\nMr. Holmes Smith, Acting Director of the School of Fine Arts, St. Louis, Mo. : In\nsmall classes, where individual attention can be given, drawing from familiar objects is\nbest. The material should be that which is nearest at hand ; the flat work should be\nthe study of the best works of the best artists.\n\nIMPORTANCE\nBY\n\nL.\n\nW.\n\nOF THE ESTHETIC AIM IN ELEMENTARY\nINSTRUCTION IN DRAWING.\n\nMILLER,\n\nPRINCIPAL\nOF THE SCHOOL\nPHILADELPHIA.\n\nOF\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nART,\n\nUnderlying all the creative ability that exists in us is the artistic\nsense, the sense that perceives and comprehends the essentials of the\ncharacter of things — that is, their ideal nature. It is to this sense of what\nthings ought to be, that the appeal for recognition and appreciation of\nall human production is made ; and if it is worth while to make the\ntraining of the doing power a part of elementary education at all, it is\nclearly, as it seems to me, the main thing to nourish this central fire\nwhich is the source of all our power.\nIn demanding that the forms to be studied by the young draughtsman\nshould be as beautiful as we can make them, I am claiming no more than\nthis, that while the pupil is learning to represent things as they actually\ndo appear, he should be cultivating the power of judging how they ought\nto appear, in order to have his sense of what is beautiful and fitting in\nthe object itself refined and developed, as well as his eye trained to detect\nactual inaccuracies in his delineation of it.\nI know how easy it is to regard the plea for beauty as narrow and partial and likely to be urged mainly by those who attach a certain amount\nof importance to attractiveness in the drawing itself. Please notice, then,\nthat I put my case on exactly the opposite ground. I do not expect the\ndrawings made by the pupils of any elementary school to be things of\nbeauty, but I would have every attempt to make one a step toward\n\n"}
{"page": 483, "printed_page": null, "text": "IMPORTANCE\n\nOF THE\n\nJE8THETIC\n\nAIM\n\nIN BRA WING.\n\n463\n\nrealizing what beauty is ; and I put beauty first among the qualities which\nshould distinguish the objects that are to serve as models, mainly, or at\nleast largely, on this ground :— Its message is so direct and of such universal interest, that I suppose its only competitor is fitness ; and without\ngoing into the old question as to whether fitness and beauty are identical\nor not, it may be urged that this appearance of being perfectly adapted\nto a given use or purpose is of more importance than anything else in the\nobjects which are held up as models before the childish mind, and that\nrecognition and appreciation of this fitness is the main thing. But appreciation of this kind is too much to expect of the child. It involves too\nmuch knowledge and too many considerations with which the young mind\nhas not yet learned to deal.\nTo know whether a member is too heavy or too light, too straight or\ntoo much curved, for the service it is expected to perform or the material\nin which it is made, is something which requires investigation and\nexperience to determine; but to say whether it looks well or not, quite\napart from these other considerations, is a comparatively simple matter, a\nmatter mainly of feeling, something with which we are all fairly equipped\nat the start. And besides being simpler, this question of beauty is infinitely more interesting. Everybody cares for, and will make an effort\nto master the secret of, beauty. The child will try his hardest to draw,\nas to master in any other form of study, the thing that interests him, and\nin the long run nothing interests us so much as that which is beautiful.\nBut my plea touches other matters than these.\nTo cultivate creative power is what we are after, whether the process\nis interesting to the pupil or not ; and I want to say in this place, as in\nall places, that the one word which stands for this original force, in whatever form it expresses itself in the work of human hands, is art. We cannot keep too close to the study of what this means and of all that it implies. To leave this out of our plan is to try to produce bodies without\nsouls. What does it mean, this little word that is on everybody's lips whenever anything is done well ? For the story or the poem that is well written ;\nfor the music that is well composed, or played, or sung ; for the play\nthat moves or the address that thrills us, we have but the one expression, the same that we apply to the picture or the statue or the building\nthat realizes in some sort our ideal of what such things should be — \" It is\na work of art.\" It is not without deep significance that this is so, and\nwe cannot do better than come back again and again and try to find out\nin what the essential purpose and spirit of art consists. It is an old question, Iknow, but the last answer has not been given, and as the point\nof view changes, the question itself becomes new for the time.\nWhat, then, is the secret of the charm that art imparts to so wide and\nvaried a range of production ? Is it not simply and solely this — refinement ?\nWhatever refines our sensibilities and leads us to appreciate, and so to\n\n"}
{"page": 484, "printed_page": null, "text": "4G4\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\ndemand, that material things should have a spiritual charm, this is wh;\ncounts, and this is what art means. Let the child, then, from the first\nnot only draw things that are as beautiful as you can make them, but let\nthe beauty of the objects which he sees and tries to draw be the very first\nconsideration. Not the last nor the only consideration, by any meansthere are plenty of other things to be thought of by and by — but make\nthis the first : to enlist his deepest interest and to quicken his most precious\npower.\nFor myself, I even follow this principle so far as to believe that the\nunconscious influence of beautiful things which the pupil habitually sees,\nalthough he may not be able to draw them at all, may be and often is\nworth vastly more to him as a means of education than any amount of\npractice from objects, and by methods in which this artistic interest is\nwanting, could possibly be. But he should try to draw them, too, and in\nthe right way, the way, namely, that leads him to get the most out of\nthem. For this, of course, is what I mean by the artistic as distinguished\nfrom the mechanical method. You may study a given problem or draw\na given model either Avay ; that is, you may go about it in the right way\nor in the wrong way. It is not altogether a matter of choice of materials\nor of the processes employed. So-called mechanical drawings, that coulc\nonly have been made by the aid of instruments, are often thoroughly\nartistic, while those made without such aids are often enough dull an(\nmechanical to the last degree. No ; it is something deeper than this,\nsomething that concerns the point of view of the draughtsman himself.\nAnd here we touch, I think, the really serious difficulty that the teaching\nof elementary drawing has to encounter, the difficulty of providing the\nteachers and the environment that are likely to promote the aims that\nhave indicated as essential. It is the difficulty of doing this that gives\nrise to the more or less ingenious substitutes with which the market is\nflooded. Never in my experience as a teacher have I encountered anything more pathetic than the eagerness of a constitutionally incapable\nperson to acquire some trick of the trade, or some certificate of graduation which may enable him to command a position in which he can appear\nas a teacher of the things he does not know. And the devices that have\nbeen invented to help him out by giving a semblance of reality to his\nclaim : the paces he is put through in so many \"normal\" courses; the\n\" results \" he has to show at the end of them, and the \" methods\" which\nhe learns to regard as of more importance than principles — all these are\njust what might be expected.\nIt is not my purpose to criticise in this place any of these substitutes\nfor the real thing in the teaching of drawing — substitutes which I am'\nafraid are far too common and occupy far too many hours that are\nsupposed to be devoted to this subject ; but I think it is right and even\nimportant to remind my hearers of their existence, and, as it seems to\n\n"}
{"page": 485, "printed_page": null, "text": "IMPORTANCE\n\nOF THE\n\nESTHETIC\n\nAIM\n\nIN DRAWING.\n\n465\n\nme, of their danger. For the study of drawing is really a much simpler\nmatter than we seem to think. There is an object or a pattern that is\nsimple and interesting. Look at it, and see if you can make a drawing\nthat will recall its appearance or convey some notion of its form and\ncharacter, some idea of its proportions, some hint of the grace that is in\nits lines, if there is any grace there. Until you can do this, no matter\nhow old you are or how long you have been at it, it will not be of much\nuse to try to teach you the historical styles, or the making of working\ndrawings or \"geometric views,\" whatever that may mean ; you need not\nbother your head with perspective, and all the original designs you can\nmake will amount to nothing at all, or next to nothing.\nTo draw a thing well is to convey by means of a drawing a fair idea of\nthe qualities that distinguish it from other things, to portray its character,\nto emphasize and celebrate, if you please, the essential truths on which its\nappearance depends. This means, I think, that the object studied should\nhave a definite and distinct character to begin with ; that it should not\nbe commonplace or uninteresting, but should be something whose appearance would seem to deserve this kind of perpetuation and celebration ;\nand, as I have already tried to show, it seems to me that the one quality\nwhose embodiment in all sorts of available objects for study is freest\nfrom technical or other complications, and whose message to the mind of\nthe student is likely to be most direct and most universally profitable, is\nbeauty, and I believe there was never a time when the duty of proclaiming\nthis kind of truth was greater than it is at present.\nThe tendency to exalt the commonplace, to celebrate the insignificant,\nis one of the most striking faults of the art of to-day. It will bear repeating\non all sorts of occasions that it is our duty to \"love the highest,\" and\nthat it is the business of art to help us cherish noble ideals.\nNow the\nopposite of all this in drawing, as in all sorts of craftsmanship, is the\nmechanical habit.\nIt is this that is to be dreaded and discouraged.\nPlease do not misunderstand\nme.\nI am not saying anything against\nechanical trades, against the use of tools and instruments of any kind.\nam speaking of that habit of mind which, for want of a better term, we\n11 mechanical, because, like the work of a machine — however accurate,\nnd even delicate, it may be — it is not self -directed, and its product is not\nhe embodiment of an original conception.\nIf we abandon or neglect the art idea we are pretty sure to pin our\nith to the mechanical one, to attach undue importance to mere accuracy\nd to qualities that can be tested by rule and level. This habit cramps\nhe mind instead of expanding it ; tends to make it timid and dependent,\nto\nto rely on precedent and authority instead of seeking original sources of\nterest and power.\nBut if the merely exact and mechanical is to be\nbjected to, the merely natural is quite as carefully to be avoided ; and\nperhaps, on the whole, thegrossness of nature-worship is more to be dreaded\n30\n\n"}
{"page": 486, "printed_page": null, "text": "466\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION.\n\nthan the dullness of the mechanical habit. Moreover, natural objects are\napt to present much greater difficulties to the young draughtsman than\nthe severe and winnowed types that have come to be known as classic\nbecause the taste and experience of the ages have approved and accepted\nthem'.\nI feel sure that the best models that we can possibly place before the\nyoung student of drawing are the well-defined forms of classic ornament\nand idealized nature which have constituted the treasures of art ever\nsince it began to be, and which will remain the true standard of culture and\nrefinement by which the product of the ages that are to come will certainly\nbe tried.\n\nDISCUSSION.\nProfessor W. S. Goodenough, Supervisor of Drawing, Public Schools of Brooklyn,\nN.Y. : The art education cannot commence too eai'ly. The most beautiful objects to Inobtained should be used — cabinets and collections, good etchings, autotypes, and even\npaintings should surround the pupils.\nHenry Talbot decried the practice of using any poor designs or styles because of\nthe public demand.\nProfessoi! Miller explained that it was necessary to effect a compromise between the\nideal and the practical. The mind of the child is plastic and can be reached and molded.\nThe mind of the manufacturer is biased by the public demand. Hence rococo design is\nhis school.\nMr. J. L. Tadd, of Philadelphia, asks whether we shall give the sphere, the cube, etc.,\nor shall we give them the leaves, the flowers, the things which carry the message? He\nadvocated the psychological methods, perception to be cultivated first. Action must\nprecede thought.\nProfessor Alfrkd Emerson, of Cornell University, said : Relatively all subjects are\nelementary, according to the advancement of the student. Some objects appeal to\nmemories and are beautiful because of the memories.\n\nDEVELOPMENT\nBY\n\nJ.\n\nWARD\n\nSTIMSON,\n\nOF ART\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nINSTITUTE\n\nFOR\n\nINSTINCT.\n\nDIRECTOR\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nNEW\n\nYOl\n\nARTIST- ARTISANS.\n\nThat this epoch in our educational history is of supreme seriousness\nand dignity, relative to the great issues outcoming, no one doubts; bivt\nprobably in no direction will the consequences be more momentous to the\nprosperity and happiness (not to say honor) of this country than in the\ndevelopment of its creative and appreciative (esthetics.\nHowever superficially the hurried youth of nations for a time prefer\n\n"}
{"page": 487, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEVELOPMENT\n\nOF ART\n\nINSTINCT.\n\n46?\n\nthe pursuit of business, war, science, or self -amusement, it is the supreme\ntestimony of history that the destiny of all great civilization is decided\nnot so much by belly or brain as by the profounder power of the emotions\nand higher sentiments ; in short, the ideality, poetry, imagination, and\nheart sensibilities of the race. So that the remark of Fletcher, \"Let me\nmake the ballads of a people, and I care not who make its laws,\" or the\ncaution of Solomon to \"keep the heart with all diligence, as out of it are\nthe issues of life,\" comes home with force at this hour.\nWhen all cruder activities and competitions have faded, the great art\ninstincts and inspirations of every noble people have infallibly rescued its\nrecord from vulgarity and oblivion, immortalizing while concentrating the\nvital genius of that nation, so that we may safely say, not only of a man\nbut of each fraction of mankind, \"as he thinketh in his heart, so is he,\"\nor, in scientific phrase, \"according to its intellectual convictions relative\nto its emotional faculties,\" so assuredly must it measure in the standard\nof fame as well as the actual competitions of finer civilization.\nArt surveys her brilliant past, her growing present, and yet more glorious\nfuture, and, scorning apologists, exclaims of her spirit of beauty: \"The\nCreator Himself is her defense, and the God of glory her reward.\"\nMy remarks shall concern not the worth of art to our school systems,\nbut the worth of our present school systems and conceptions to essential\nart education (according as over twenty years' professional experience at\nhome and abroad compel my judgment).\nIndeed it seems to me that once to state the question of ''essential\" art\neducation vitally and fairly would almost be to answer it. For in the\ndeep and true significance, \"national art\" was never the vast accumulation of promiscuous and borrowed splendor, as when Rome ravaged Greece\nfor official pride and plunder (to the ruin of herself), but was ever and\nessentially that mysterious and magnificent evolution of aesthetic principles and divine methods of self-manifestation employed by nature in\nexpressing her own poetry, and variously felt, comprehended, and reapplied bynations, as different as Greeks from Japanese, to express their\nown organic gdnius, their own inspirations, their own delights in nature\nand discoveries of her beauty. This was ever quickened and qualified by\ntheir own national aspirations, religious and social ideals, concomitant\npoetry, industry and experience, giving the unique flavor of \"national\"\ncharacter, historic significance, and local charm, constituting genuinely\norganic \"style.\"\nNow, this wonderful aesthetic life, that scintillates in every gem, unfolds\nfrom every shell, or bursts from every redolent flower ; is omnipresent to\nguide the oriole building its nest, the Polynesian carving his paddle, the\nPueblo weaving his mat, the Japanese his silks ; and which has covered\nGanges, Euphrates, Nile, and Rhine with miracles of national enthusiasm,\nwas never the outcome of really borrowed or superficial culture, but flamed\n\n"}
{"page": 488, "printed_page": null, "text": "4G8\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nfrom the fires of national and personal experience, as where, of Dante's\node, the poet writes :\n\" Ah, from what agonies of heart and brain,\nWhat exultation trampling on despair,\nWhat tenderness, what tears, what hate of wrong,\nWhat passionate victory of a soul in pain,\nUprose this poem of the earth and sky —\nThis medieval miracle of song !\"\nAnd you have only to consult the lives of such professional leaders as\nPhidias, M. Angelo, Cellini, Palissy, Delacroix, Jean Francois Millet,\netc., to find how essentially this is true of all vital art work and workers.\nTaine shows conclusively that far from art emanating as the product\nof servile imitation or speculative importation, the great arts of all ages\nsprang as the florescence of each nation's heroism ; as after Marathon in\nGreece, the new liberty of the Italian republics, the victories of Moors, the\nexpulsion of Spaniards from the Netherlands, etc. So that while certaii\ndata and devices are occasionally exchanged (as between neighbors), yet\nthese were ever refined in the alembic of national life ; and we ourselves\nare never interested, nor is true art generated, by plausible reproductions\nbut ever by what Goethe calls \"reconquered pri nciples \" freshly apprehended, reassimilated, and reapplied to fresh, virile, organic conditions.\nI regret to say that on all sides, among candid minds (corroborated bj\nsuch able statements as John Lafarge's in the July Century, Charle\nDeKay's in the Cosmopolitan, and the New York Tribune letters fror\nthe Fair), strong objection is expressed to present art methods of educj:\ntion, in that principles are not properly understood or applied, an organic\n\"American\" art is not being officially developed or expressed (beinjE\nleft to isolated and sporadic struggle), while merely external and imitative\nmethods intrude most injuriously into public and even professional schools,\nsubstituting sterile process for vital spark, veneer for reality, the borrowed plumes of other days, ideas, and even personalities, for the sincere\nexpiression of the student's self; the tricks of trade, the pride and surprise\nof performance, the very process of photography (and, they add, ever\n\" brutality and bravado \" ) for fine artistic faculties and sensibilities\nproper, for subjective powers of originality, taste, ideality, and native feeling. In short, official systems are too mimetic, not germinal, and so mus\nbeget monkeys and not men !\nI will not stop to inquire how far such conditions may have moral\ncauses in the exploitation of art instead of its sincere love and life, or of any\nsocial, official, and even professional barriers of self-interest that block\nthe way of national education, but I do join my hearty regret with theirs\nat the ridicule put upon American art by foreigners, and the chidings\nof even the truest and most disinterested foreign artists, that America\nshould affect their manner, not divine their souls ; Millet himself exclaim-\n\n"}
{"page": 489, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEVELOPMENT\n\nOF ART INSTINCT.\n\n469\n\ning : \" I am never more classic than when true to myself,\" and still another\nFrench critic adding : \" We foreigners like you best for what is sincerely\n'yours' — not second-hand 'ours/\"\nWhile some teachers blame the students or the times for this superficiality, and others excuse themselves by claiming \"art cannot be taught,\nbut technique alone can,\" yet all of us are doubtless conscious that art\ninstincts are enormously influenced for good or ill by educational conditions and ideals, and should be sympathetically befriended (by parental\nteachers, not alien stepmothers) into wholesome consciousness and natural\nexpansion before the media of expression can take proper meaning — just\nas we bring up our children into wholesome conditions of life, with legitimate motives and desires, before we expect of them perfection in speech\nor writing. These last are perfected into personal character by life-long\npractice, while the first are essential at the very start.\nSo that the great Blake's warning seems true, that \"inappropriate execution isbut nauseous foppery,\" as language when without inspiration, or\nwords without thought ; and we are wisely reminded that feathers spring\nfrom birds, not birds from their feathers (much less other birds' feathers,\nwhich constantly change to environment). So that tons of imported\nobelisks and thousands of alien technicalities and technicians are not\nworth the self-respecting, self-consistent, and harmonious development of\nnational genius in sympathy with universal nature and her universal principles of beauty. I think, therefore, that we can honestly claim that any\nart system which does not cultivate our artists primarily, and somebody\nelse's \"technicians\" secondarily, is like Hamlet without Hamlet, or\nChristianity without Christians.\nNow, right here it is interesting to note the surprising charm and\nbeauty of some of the more organic and instinctive work of our own\nIndians at the Exhibition, and the modest but magnificent art effects\namong Japanese, Javanese, and Arabian colonies in complete sympathy\nwith themselves and nature, and, shall I add, the delightful suggestiveness of much of our own unused material, relative to more pretentious\nforeign imitations.\nThe earlier poems of Burns, when charged with the virility of his highlands and redolent with mountain daisies as with the color of his native\ndialect, were incomparably purer poetry than his later more labored and\nartificial English ones ; even as the pith and point of Plato and Socrates\nwere truer philosophy than the dialectics of the sophists. And even at\nthis hour, when the divine spirit of old Japanese work is being broken\nand vulgarized by this very demon of cheap affectation and imitation, a\nsincere and faithful spirit lingers in the village schools, which during\nrecess send the children to the river banks or carp pools, that on return\nthey may draw from memory the fresh impressions of form, color, motion,\nand setting, before being taught traditional methods of adapting these\n\n"}
{"page": 490, "printed_page": null, "text": "470\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nto specialties, so deeply do they feel the love of country and divine\nthe principles that sustain \"essential art.\" This at least is beginning\n\"right end foremost/' and must be ever the directest as it is the sincerest\nmethod.\nMy appeal would therefore be to turn at the start directly away from\npresent mechanical, materialistic, and imitative processes, to the vital and\nevolutionary methods of nature, of all best art, and of the great and growing spirit of Froebel in the kindergarten — that we divert not our scholars\nat the start from home to foreign gods or the dead forms of other days\n(no matter how good for those days), but protect their freshness of inspiration; quicken, not pervert, spontaneity; strengthen new observations at\nnew fountains of a new national power; develop personal faculties in\nselection, measure, arrangement, etc., by contrast, proportion, control, balance, harmony, etc., analyses and syntheses from our own superabundant\nand delightful nature ; at least t\\\\\\ strong foundations are laid in fortified\njudgment and personality that must grow the tvings of creative genius far\nbetter than the mimetic or even coldly eclectic spirit.\nThis vigorous development of faculties should come for art, as for\nother education, before they are enslaved to specialty or burdened with the\nincubus of endless precedent ; for so alone will later comparisons profit,\nthat otherwise drop sterile upon suppressed and servile natures. With\nprinciple as a fulcrum and national genius as the power, students will\nreadily open the nutshells of antiquated tradition and assimilate what of\nnutriment be within ; or, better far, discover new nuggets of beauty and\nsurprise in native soil, the poetry and history of their own hearts and\nhearthstones.\nIn closing, then, and specifically : As I find my children's home affection (when worth much to me or themselves) must spring from genuine\nnatures, colored, of course, by temperament, and needing encouragement\nwithout trammel (save from a few principles of home regimen, or domestic\nfacilities for effecting good intentions), so we make our Institute for ArtistArtisans, at New York, an art family, not an art machine.\nAll, on entrance, obtain a bird's-eye view of the field before them, so far\nas mere orderly and consecutive steps of growth are concerned, and the\nnatural sequences or relations of thought in different departments (from\ncentral root to varied branches, leaving the trunk gradually, and kept in\nsteady sympathy with all). For this we utilize much wall space for\norderly examples, not of foreign productions, but graduated developments\nof student faculties and unfolded principles. These are accompanied by\nconstant experiment, illustration, and reference to nature.\nThe metric powers of the mind are exercised, and those constant equations of number and measure studied that are so mysterious and universal.\nFor this, every jointed reed, vine, or skeleton leaf maybe an excellent and\ninteresting example ; the point relations and line divergencies in struct-\n\n"}
{"page": 491, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEVELOPMENT\n\nOF ART\n\nINSTINCT.\n\n471\n\nural angles and inner axes, which constitute in space the abstract but\nessential framework of forms, and for which wire and glass, crystals, and\neven constructive models in cabinet-ware and architecture, help us.\nNow, optical effects are noted of implied motion, whether rectilineal,\nrhythmic, circular, spiral, or radial. Geometric ratios are freely generated and played with for pattern (along the marvelous lines discovered by\nJapanese and Moors), in order to quicken student inventiveness and kindle\nfertility of imagination.\nAfter which prime forms, types, and standards are considered, with their\nderivatives, especially with reference to their inherent character and\nartistic influence in combination. Now the splendid world of vegetable\nlife is enlisted to aid us, with its convenient beauties of line and surface,\nand the principles of association revealed by serial or surface repetition,\nreflection, alternation, contrast, balance, etc.; with laws of the mind in\nunity, variety, congruity, harmony, etc.; with methods of progression,\nsequence, parallelism, tangency, revolution, expansion, etc., so closely\nallying art with life.\nThese foundational truths of natural beauty are assimilated by all,\nfor the sake of subsequent individual power and freshness of observation,\nand to give time for the student's special tendencies or aptitudes to declare\nthemselves, when they are differentiated gradually and pushed to maturity.\nThe mind has already strength enough and capital sufficient now to\nenter the practical departments of line and surface design in wrought or\ntwisted metals, jewelry, textiles, wall surfaces, and ceramics, till \"low\"\nand \"high\" relief is reached in clay decoration, casting, and carving.\nFor the subsequent advanced sculpture, illustration, figure work, and general painting, the realm of higher animal organism becomes appropriate, and\nfuller comprehension of aerial perspective, anatomy, light, color, and costume is reached, with subtler appreciation of posture, character, artistic\nselection, and sentiment in expression, till technical processes are fully introduced, with special treatments or comparisons of other lands and times.\nThe art is shown to be in the character of nations themselves, and the\naristocracy of art to be ever in the spirit and not in the mere material that\nconveys it.\nProfessor Stimson supplemented his paper by the following remarks :\n\nLife in everything is the source of inspiration. Life manifests itself by\ninternal plan ; the outer material is the embodiment of the spiritual plan.\nEach seed has its inner law of number, measure, form, motion, and color,\nwhich afterward may take texture from matter, and be affected by light\nand environment in setting.\nThe principles revealed by nature are taken up by great art, and are\nalways capable of reappreciation and reapplication by every nation, which\ncolors again these principles by local character and feeling.\n\n"}
{"page": 492, "printed_page": null, "text": "472\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nNo method of art teaching avails which only copies the outside, without\nappreciation of the internal life and individual characters. Our American\nart must observe nature's principles, then freshly express through them its\nown thought and feeling, and put beauty and character into all materials.\n\nSTUDYING\nBY\n\nE.\n\nF.\n\nFENOLLOSA,\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nART— DISCUSSION.\nBOSTON\n\nART\n\nMUSEUM\n\n(LATE\n\nOF\n\nTOKIO).\n\nShould works of sculpture, after being studied analytically and reproduced in drawing,\nbe modeled in clay ? and should works of painting, after such preliminaries, be copied in\npainting by the pupil ?\nThe fundamental individuality of a work constitutes its greatness. Its belonging to\na general class does not lift it into eminence. Beethoven's compositions are great because\nof some individual quality.\nArt training should begin, not in nature, but in art itself. As well send the untrained\nperson into the British Museum without a guide, as turn the novice loose in nature\nand tell him to produce works #of art from contemplation of her beauties. It is a\ngeneral principle that mind must be brought in vital contact with art before it can get\nanything vital from nature.\nFive years ago, when the Japanese founded their school of art. they agreed to this\ngeneral principle. The pupils must be trained in an atmosphere of art before they are\nput to work. They should study the old masters analytically and synthetically, always\nremembering that art is individual and type an abomination. Flippancy in modern\nEuropean art is caused by a cutting loose from the old masters. Materialistic, photographic pictures, using any subject, no matter how inartistic, have resulted. Still, the\nbest artists love the old masters.\nIn studying art, there are three dangers against which the student should be\nguarded :\n(1) There is danger in the historic method of studying art, whether we consider\npainting, decoration, or architecture. If the young student is trained in each school —\ne.g., Greek or Gothic — as a school, he designs in that particular school. Instead, his\nattention should be drawn to the excellences of the work of any and all periods, Greek,\nEgyptian, Arabic, Japanese. Expect him to create as well as the best of these, but do\nnot limit him to the achievements of the artists of those periods.\n(2) Do not study for the purpose of finding the most perfect works. The most\ninstructive come just before the best. In the stage preceding the highest results we\nhave all the elements, not worked out to their best. There is the greatest individuality\nin this stage. The world has a right to an inheritance of unlimited possibility, but the\nhighest results limit this possibility. The work of the third stage, that of decadence,\nis the slave of the work of the second. The great works of the second stage cannot be\nvitally reproduced. Suppose we wish to study color, and go to Venetian art. We wish\nto know what has been done, how it was done, and what may be done. Shall we go to\nTitian or Veronese, even scraping their pictures, as some did, to ascertain the \" How ?\"\nNo. Bellini was solving the problem. We will learn from him and not from Titian and\nVeronese, who had solved it. In like manner, Giotto and Fra Angelico precede Raphael.\n(3) Do not take either painting or sculpture by itself, leaving out decorative art.\nThe artist should design industrials as well as pictures and statues. JohnL. Sargent\ndraws inspiration from past decorative art as well as from other sources.\nWe are not compelled to end our study of the old masters by copying them. We\nwant to hold them and the possibilities antecedent to them in solution. Add to the\ndiscipline of copying, the discipline of thinking out the possibilities into a different\nresult. It may be an inferior result, but the discipline is good. Try recasting the\npicture with regard to form, line, or light. Accept criticism upon the visible result, and\nstrength will surely result.\nProfessor George L. Schreiber, of Armour Institute and of the Art Institute,\nChicago, congratulated Mr. Fenollosa upon having presented the speaker's views in a\nbolder manner than he himself might have done.\n\n"}
{"page": 493, "printed_page": null, "text": "STUDYING\n\nWORKS\n\nFROM\n\nTHE\n\nGREAT\n\nMASTERS.\n\n473\n\nThe fundamental principles of form and color which we would inculcate into the child\nexist in art. Art transcends science. In the history of art we naturally recognize the\nhistory of art education by its absence as such. Art progresses in guilds, with, at first,\na few higli-priests and court artists. Art is the vocation of the freeman. Types enslave.\n.Raphael was the victim thereof ; De Vinci the spirit thereof. Everyone may be a painter\nor a sculptor, but no one can be an artist except he have the spirit. Gerome could never\ngive us a rule by which to reproduce a condition. We see the long, strong lines in columns designed to support great weight. The caryatids seem strength itself. Cut them\nby flowing drapery, and the spirit is changed and weakness enters in.\n(Professor Schreiber illustrated by drawing some of the figures and columns used in\nthe Exposition buildings.) The Diana on the Agricultural Building has spirit, the spirit\nof moving on. Better, in drawing it, get a few lines that indicate the spirit than a lineby-line copy which omits the spirit.\nMr. Stimson said, in regard to a matter brought up by Mr. Fenollosa's remarks, that\nit is impossible to turn the wheels of time back so that we can place ourselves amid the\npossibilities of long ago. Our art is going on even if it is not recognized as art. Experiments had been made to ascertain whether pupils could recognize the effect of drapery\ncutting long lines, placing figures in the background. The results show that they\ndetect weakness and distance from such concrete examples. In this line the use of the\nillustrations in the good magazines is valuable. Many of them are reproductions of\nthe best works of old.\n\nHOW\nBY\n\nPUPILS\nDR.\n\nSHOULD\nSTUDY AND\nANALYZE\nFROM THE GREAT MASTERS.\n\nALFRED\nARCHEOLOGY,\n\nEMERSON,\nCORNELL\n\nASSOCIATE\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nITHACA,\n\nOF\n\nWORKS\nCLASSICAL\n\nN.\n\nY.\n\nThesis : \" The pupil shoidd study and analyze a series of works from the great\nmasters, describing in language in the form of essays the general theme and the methods\nadopted of making the work of art tell its own story, the technical difficulties and successful devices of the artist in completing his work of art.\"\nThe speaker began by describing his attitude toward the given thesis as one of qualified assent. However lofty a view we may take of the heart and the soul, it is absurd to\nlay upon these deeper centers of life burdens which the muscles and the senses are able\nand willing to bear. Hence, in view of the increasing complexity of modern life and\neducation, the great importance of training what the short-sighted philosophy of the\neighteenth century termed the lower faculties of mind and body. We daily see that\nthe sense of hearing and the muscular skill of touch carry the mechanical burden of\ncomplicated musical performances, while the unloaded mind gives itself entire to the\nhigher problems of musical expression. Let a boy bo accustomed, say, to bisect angles\nby eye, or to judge the trueness of straight and curved lines by thumb, and his geometry\nwill not give him brain fever.\nThe Prussian military system, so little understood in this country, is a splendid antidote to the over speculative habit of the German mind and the relatively sedentary proclivity ofthe young German body. Our newspapers have recently found out that for\narresting attention and conveying accurate notions of material objects a single illustration outweighs a ton of descriptive letter-press. The student of Greek who will memorize ahundred lines of Homer, the student of Latin who can remember and recite aloud\nten odes of Horace, may safely reserve his study of classic metres until he reaches\nSophocles and Terence. The recommendation that the student of art learn drawing,\npainting, and sculpture directly from nature or by imitation of good models is along\nthis line of faith.\nNevertheless, just as there are processes of thought and states of\n\n"}
{"page": 494, "printed_page": null, "text": "474\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nfeeling which words do not convey, or which the language of sensuous media conveys\nand carries home much more effectively, there are also forms of artistic thought which\ncan be followed and set forth in language. We could go further and say there are\nartistic productions which require such exposition. The artist may have addressed a\npublic supposed to know and feel facts and emotions not common to all mankind.\nMost of the famous sculptures of antiquity, many of the admirable religious paintings\nof the Italian Renaissance, have this quality ; pictures of historical personages and\nevents commonly have it outside of narrow, local limits of information and patriotic\ntradition.\nAgain, there is a legitimate field for exposition where an artist has struggled to express\nemotions, to depict occurrences to which the poetic muse has given a more intelligible\nform ; that is to say, a form more subject to step-by-step analysis. Some of the pictures\nof the English pre-Raphaelite school have this quality. Shall the pupil wait until he\ncan copy all the masterpieces before even considering their import ? This road to the\nenjoyment and understanding of the more difficult and complex works of art is plain,\nbut too Jong.\nThe speaker here referred with feeling to his own early efforts in modeling the ordinary clay of the roadside into semblances of toothsome confectionery little appreciated\nby his elders, and in drawing upon his slate his own particular breed of horses, whose\nconvenient virtue it was always to conceal their off legs behind their near, so that the\nartist was often compelled to deliver brief explanatory lectures to unintelligent onlookers ; pleading guilty also to leaving several \"complete courses of drawing\" uncompleted for the allurements of china painting, which the fact of the work being so erasable\nbefore and so indestructible after firing, with the additional circumstances of its being\nits own frame, and of the ease with which a large amount of it can be stowed out of\nsight after completion, stamps as the ideal artistic exercise for amateurs. The speaker\nventured to suspect that his aggregate effort in practical art study exceeded the average\nrecord of the unprofessional student. Yet it was clear that but a minimum basis for\ncritical studies, none for a critical judgment of masterpieces, and no faculty whatever\nfor the successful reproduction of them, had been attained.\nThe appreciation of the contemporary public being the postulate and only working\nbasis of normal artistic production, it is of every importance to educate the actual and\nprospective public as well as the artists. The relatively untalented, the preoccupied,\nand the adult whose minds are more plastic and docile than their fingers, are not a negligible quantity. Their artistic education must depend either entirely on their reading\nspeculative discussions such as, for example, Schiller's series of essays \"On Pathos,\"\n\" On Charm and Dignity,\" \"On the Sublime,\" \" On Limitations in the Use of Beautiful\nGowns,\" ' ' On the Cause of Pleasure in Tragic Subjects,'' \" On Size and Space in ^Esthetic\nEstimation,\" \" On the Esthetic Education of Mankind,\" together with the more popular illustrated manuals, or on training under competent guidance in accordance with the\nidea of the proposition formulated in the thesis. For, in the words of Schiller himself,\n\"works of the imagination have the peculiarity of not permitting idle enjoyment, but\nof stirring into activity the minds of those who contemplate them.\"\nIn conclusion, and on the basis of his own experience as a teacher of aesthetic criticism, in its necessary conjunction with classical archaeology, the speaker contended that\nthere was danger, through an excessive emphasis of the great masterpieces, of overlooking the immediate needs of beginners in critical study.\nTo do justice to the great masterpieces passes the power both of language and of the\nuntrained mind. There is an absurdity in commendation of Raphael or praise of Velasquez from an immature critic. Also, the great masterpieces have been too much commented to serve as a natural basis for the formation of independent opinion.\nIn his own work with advanced college students, of whom it is fair to expect some\n\n"}
{"page": 495, "printed_page": null, "text": "STUDYING\n\nWORKS\n\nFROM\n\nTHE\n\nGREAT\n\nMASTERS.\n\n475\n\nknowledge of classical mythology and of Greek and Latin literature, the speaker prefers\nto use specimens of relatively inferior artistic perfection as the subjects both of viva voce\ninterpretations and of carefully prepared essays by pupils. Not the frieze of the Parthenon, but some Roman sarcophagus adorned with some exploit of Castor and Pollux.\nNot the painting of Helen of Troy by Zeuxis, even if it existed, but some episode of the\nlegend of the Argonauts as figured on an Attic urn of terra cotta. Not the sculptured\ngroup of Laocoon and his sons in the toils of the serpents, but rather the Apotheosis of\nHomer by Archelaos of Priene, an elaborate bas-relief of small artistic merit, but a piece\nafter the conscientious study of which the pupil will understand something of the Grecian system of allegory, and will recognize the figure of any one of the nine Muses at\nsight when he meets it elsewhere.\nEarly productions of Greek art before it had outgrown the ungainly stage are often of\ngreat educational value on account of the presence even in them of a sound decorative\ninstinct often missed in the most pretentious modern work, and by reason of the imaginative quality infused into compositions sometimes very complex, which a dominant\nsimplicity of idea saves from the reproach of confusedness. Of this the famous Francois\nvase in the Etruscan Museum of Florence, signed by two Athenian potters of the sixth\ncentury B.C., presents an excellent example. Its one hundred and forty one painted\nfigures of gods and men, forty-nine of horses and mules, twelve of centaurs, eighteen cf\npygmies, fourteen of cranes, sixteen of other animals and monsters, or two hundred and\nfifty in all, reduce themselves, aside from the decorations of the handles, to eight mythological scenes and one ornamental band, disposed in six stories, one on the foot, three on\nthe body, one on the neck, and one on the lip of the amphora or crater. When the\nattention has once been called to the symbolism of the tree of life guarded by griffins\nand the carnivorous animals devouring other wild and tame creatures in the ornamental\nstrip, the mind acquainted with the rich store of Greek heroic legend readily disposes all\nthe scenes — the escape of Theseus and his companions from the Minotaur, the destruction of the centaurs, the slaying of the Calydonian boar, the funeral of Patroclus, the\nwedding of Peleus and Thetis, the parents of Achilles, the return of Hephaestus to\nOlympus, the murder of the Trojan prince Troilus by Achilles himself, ihe battle of the\ncranes and pygmies, and the sundry minor compositions on the two flat handles— under\nthe fundamental opposition of Life and Death, so constantly and suggestively contrasted\none with another in the vertical and horizon) al distribution of the painted scenes. And\nthus the lesson of simplicity even in complexity, which invariably characierizes the\nhighest art, is inculcated.\nMany early Italian paintings may serve equally well to teach the compatibility of\nhighly imaginative art with a low degree of technical proficiency, and this without ihe\nrelatively costly processes of reproduction by which alone the finer artistic qualities of\nthe great masterpieces are adequately reflected. But a generous use of the stereopticon,\nand, for less ephemeral illustration, of cheap but charmiug photographic blue-prints\nfrom standard pictures and sculptures, such as the speaker is beginning to prepare with\nthe help of the photographic laboratory of Cornell University, does away for masterpieces also with the smallness and meanness of the trade woodcuts which were until\nrecently, and are largely still, the agony of the teacher in the attempt to acquaint\nclasses with the history of architectural, pictorial, plastic, industrial, or decorative\nart.\n\n"}
{"page": 496, "printed_page": null, "text": "476\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nMETHODS\n\nBY\n\nJ.\n\nM.\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF ART\n\nEDUCATION\nOF ARTISTIC\n\nHOPPIN,\n\nPROFESSOR\nOF THE\nUNIVERSITY.\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nFOR\nTHE\nTASTE.\nHISTORY\n\nCULTIVATION\n\nOF\n\nART,\n\nYALE\n\nAlthough the forms of art are in the mind, it is their expression which\nmakes them art. The artistic faculty itself lies undeveloped until it is\ncalled forth by effort and training like any other faculty. Very crude,\nindeed, are the beginnings of all knowledge, and so of art. It is interesting to observe, in the practical workings of an art-school where pupils of\ndifferent sexes, tastes, and occupations are gathered, some of whom perhaps\ndid not have, at first, the consciousness of possessing the artistic faculty at\nall, how by earnest and patient cultivation of their powers they develop\nskill in drawing. They find something inspiring in an effort directed to\nan artistic end, something in the way of freedom which makes it genial\nand joyful work leading to constant satisfactions. And no pupil seems\nto be utterly incapable of artistic improvement, so that I, for one, am\ninclined to the belief that though all cannot become artists in the best\nsense of the word, yet that the human mind possesses, to a greater or less\ndegree, the artistic faculty, just as it possesses the moral faculty and the\nknowing faculty, and which only needs training to develop it ; and it is\nthis which gives encouragement for the use of all proper means and\nmethods of art education. I heard but recently of a person of fine artistic\ntalent remarking that up to a certain period of her life she had no knowledge of art, no appreciation of art, no thought of art. But the artistic sense\nawoke in her while she was looking at paintings in the Dresden Gallery ;\nshe was converted as in a moment to the love of art, and felt that she had\na talent for it. The power was there, and it needed but some strong impression ofoutward objects, or of nature, to develop it. \"Man is artistic\nin the constitution of his mind. The aesthetic power of the imagination,\nwhen acted upon by corresponding objects in nature that are sympathetic\nto man's spiritual conditions, seeks to reproduce the forms of these objects.\nThe mind's susceptibility to be impressed by the world of nature through\nthe organ of the imagination, which not only receives but imparts impressions of objects, since it is full of energy and creative power, is the mind's\nfunction of form ; and if the imagination works simply in order to body\nforth the form of things as an idealized imitation, to interpret nature in\nall its forms, it works artistically, and its products are what are termed\nart.\" * But, practically speaking, perfection in artistic production is\nrarely attained, and, if at all, it is attained through imperfection, as is\n* From an article on \" The Philosophy of Art,\" by the writer.\n\n"}
{"page": 497, "printed_page": null, "text": "METHODS\n\nOF ART\n\nEDUCATION.\n\n477\n\nseen in the history of art with its slow evolution through the course of\ncenturies. In Greek art there was a vast deal anterior to its best epoch,\nof unskilled effort following rude methods and false types ; although\nGreek art, while it had these incomplete periods, marked, in some sense,\nthe perfection rather than the beginnings of art, and, in this respect,\nformed a standard of taste for all time ; as Goethe, whose authority in\nmatters of art is almost infallible, said, that \" we may take exceptions to\nsome schools of art, but we are always debtors to Greek art/' Goethe felt\nthe influence of his own words. He was, intellectually, a Greek, because\nhe aimed at truth in art, the truth of his own experience, and in this he\nwas a master of style. He said that the poet should be ideal or something\nabove reality, but, at the same time, he should keep his feet on the real,\non truth and nature. To illustrate this observation in regard to the\nundying vitality of Greek art, the architecture of the World's Fair might\ntruly be considered as something original, or what could be called ideal\narchitecture such as never before appeared, like the architecture that we\nsee in Turner's picture of \" The Building of Carthage\" — a purely artistic\ncreation ; and yet this World's Fair architecture was formed on old Greek\nlines as its basis, or its starting-point, of creative combination.\nIt is well to have a good illustration of a subject or a theory. Art education in France presents to us an apt illustration, and affords a living\nexample of some of the best results of aesthetic culture, in which, notwithstanding its recent impulse in the direction of extreme realism that might\nbe made a subject of criticism, there are contained principles which render\nits study profitable for us in a new land, as constituting, with whatever\nfaults, the most thorough training-school that exists. French art education is connected with state education, so that it is less the product of\nindividual minds than of the combined traditions of a continuous system,\nand the fact of its being a governmental school has given it a stamp,\nconsistency, and authority that make it, technically, the center of modern\nart studies, exerting decided influence on other schools and nations, since\nit has taught the youth of all nations ; and this influence is notably seen\nin the exhibition of pictures at the Columbian Exposition, in which the\nworks of all the schools appear side by side, all of them being markedly\npervaded by the spirit of the French school. The French, indeed, arrogate\nto themselves the name of modern Greeks, and justly so as regards artistic\ntaste, though perhaps not so justly in other important respects of sentiment and poetic power ; but the talent of the French for the organization of knowledge and for scientific system makes them admirable\nguides in matters of education.\nThere has existed an academy of painting and sculpture in France since\nthe year 1648, with but a temporary suppression of it at the beginning of\nthe first republic ; and, indeed, nearly two centuries before that time a\nschool of painting was founded by one of the French kings, which has\n\n"}
{"page": 498, "printed_page": null, "text": "478\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nnever been extinct under all changes, and which now bears the name of\n\"The Institute of France,\" the immediate control of which is in the\nhands of the Minister of Public Instruction, and comprehends :\n(1) Established courses of lectures in all the departments of art.\n(2) The School of the Fine Arts (Ecole des Beaux Arts), distinctively so\ncalled, with its members, studies, competitive courses, publications, and\nprizes.\n(3) The studios to which pupils are admitted under the supervision of\nthe school.\n(4) The collections of casts, architectural models, engravings, and\npaintings, for purposes of instruction in drawing and molding.\n(5) The library.\nThis institution is subdivided into three grand sections, those of painting, sculpture, and architecture, and to painting the art of engraving is\nattached. No one is admitted without having satisfied the examination\ntests, and each year, in March and July, there are held examination sessions, and I will mention the subjects for admission to one department,\nthe department of painting :\n(1) A design in anatomy (osteologie) executed en loge, or in a room by\none's self, in two hours.\n(2) A drawing in perspective, in four hours.\n(3) An examination in history, oral or written.\n(4) A figure drawn after nature at one session, and after the antique at\nanother, executed in twelve hours.\n(5) A fragment of a clay figure modeled from the antique, executed in\nnine hours.\n(6) An elementary study of architecture, executed en loge in six hours.\nThe curriculum of studies belonging to the entire course consists of\nhistory, anatomy, perspective confined to the needs of painters and\narchitects, mathematics and ' mechanics, descriptive geometry, physics\nand chemistry, stereotomy and the drawing of plans, construction, the\nlegislation of the building art, the history of architecture, ornamental\ndesign, decorative composition, literature, archaeology, the history of\nart and aesthetics. Instruction in these branches covers the term of at\nleast three and usually four years, proceeding from elementary and\ntechnical to more philosophical studies, and looking to the full equipment of the student in artistic skill and scholarly knowledge. In this\neducational course the prize system acts as a powerful stimulus. Prizes\nare given to those who have made positive advance in each of the departments, which prizes are adjudged by juries appointed by the governing\nboard. The competitions for prizes in painting are open to all, and consist\nof a \" concours\" held each trimester in drawings after the antique, and a\nconcours in composition and oil-painting, to take part in which competitions previous mention of good work is necessary.\nIn addition to these\n\n"}
{"page": 499, "printed_page": null, "text": "METHODS\n\nOF ART\n\nEDUCATION.\n\n479\n\nspecial courses, there are simultaneous courses of study and competitions\nin all the departments, so that the student of painting, for instance, may\nbecome acquainted with the elements of other arts, such as sculpture and\narchitecture, which is a great advantage to a painter as laying a foundation of knowledge resembling the culture of the old masters, though in\ntheir case it was of a more unconscious sort created by their felt aesthetic\nneeds. The prize system culminates, as is known, in the \" Grand Prize\nof Rome,\" that, in addition to the brilliant distinction which it confers\non the possessor, gives him a five years' residence in Rome, with an opportunity to travel in Italy and Greece, and six hundred dollars a year, with\ntwo hundred additional for traveling expenses ; and for three years after\nreturning to France he receives six hundred dollars annually, and a\ngovernment office of inspectorship in some public work. This secures a\ngood subsistence and labor untroubled by care in the more studious time\nof the profession ; and the good fruit of it has been seen in the careers of\nmany of the modern French painters such as Cabanel, Bouguereau, and\nHenner. Out of all the departments of the school, from thousands of\nscholars, an average number of two hundred and fifty, who have undergone the tests, present themselves yearly to compete for the crowning\nprize. These are reduced by trial to forty, who for a hundred days toil\nen loge, without helps or books. The subject forcompetition, as a general\nrule, is historical, and the few best efforts, with the winning one, are\npublicly exhibited. A room in the Ecole des Beaux Arts has been devoted\nto the permanent exhibition of successful pictures since 1701, which,\nas may be imagined, is exceedingly interesting, not only as showing the\nproductive power of the students at the close of their term of instruction,\nbut the style of the period to which each student belongs. The Villa\nMedici on the Pincian Hill, where the French artists who have taken the\nprize reside, overlooks the city, and is surrounded by historic monuments,\nfrom the palace of the Caesars to the church of St. Peter's — in fact, three\ncities rich in art, the classic, the Renaissance, and the ecclesiastical. This\nprize is confined to those of French birth, but the privileges of the School\nof Paris, of which I now speak, are open freely to youths of all nations (it\nis to be regretted that women are not yet admitted to this school), and\nhere students enter the strong current of artistic life, feel the influences\nof the great masters, and work according to the methods which have proved\nsuccessful in so many cases; as, for example, drawing from the antique,\none of the most approved methods of the French school. The drawings,\nwhether from the antique or from the nude, undergo criticism by the\ninstructors twice a week. The pupils sit crowded together in the studios\nof the school, or in studios scattered over the city, each group copying\nthe same model ; and at certain times there take place more general\n\" concours\" which are presided over by the professors, assisted by outside\nartists of established reputation.\nThis word \" concours \" describes tho\n\n"}
{"page": 500, "printed_page": null, "text": "480\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\npractical working of the French School of the Fine Arts. It is the\ncompetition, the striving of numbers together directed to the same object.\nThis, of coarse, implies some previous knowledge of drawing ; but there is\nno instruction given at the moment, no one tells the student how to make\nlines or lay a shadow, and each pupil does the best he can, getting hints\nfrom one another, noting each other's progress, and struggling individually with all the force he has. It is severe work. It is a rough brcakingin process. But it is calculated to bring out what power there is. If a\nman have the making of an artist in him, it will surely find him. He is\nnot to attempt anything pretty or elaborately finished in the \" concours\"\nbut something real and strong. He is putting all the power he has into\nit under the tremendous pressure of competition. In addition to the\ncourses which have been mentioned, there is also what is called \" plein\nair\" instruction in landscape drawing and painting, in which, outside of\nacademic walls, nature is studied in the open air and fields. Light and\natmosphere are studied. The artist carries the materials of his art along\nwith him in his excursions into the country ; and this is a good supplement to studio-work, exercising eye and hand in the use of color, transmitting to the canvas instantaneous impressions of light, mist, cloud, and\nscenery, and is, in truth, the salvation of the academic system, not\nwaiting till education in the grammar of art be completed before nature\nherself is sought, but making the study of the classic antique and of\nnature go along simultaneously, drawing from both, adding to still life\nthe real world, joining accuracy of drawing to the atmosphere and living\ninspiration of nature.\nI have said enough to show that the French system is a broad one,\nthat it is itself a liberal education, that art in France is on a high plane\nand is considered worthy of a place in national education, that it implies\nsevere training and cultivation of the artistic taste to the most perfect\ndegree, enlarging the pupil's mind and giving it symmetry in the development of all beauty. Still the art school, whether French or American,\nis, after all, but elementary, and subordinate to the individuality, culture,\nand character of the artist. The man is more than his art.\nWhenever in art education the hand has come to be the instrument of\nthe brain, executing its behests with ready skill, and when the student can\ndo what he likes without thinking of the means, then his principal lesson\nis learned. This is about all that the art school can do for him. He is\nhenceforth free, and can work out his own ideas. The training of hand\nand eye in drawing is, however, the basis of everything in art, since painting is but drawing in color. But to do this, to obtain the true image of\nobjects, the copying of real forms with utmost truth and accuracy is necessary, and here long practice and careful instruction are required. Bad\ndrawing is inexcusable. Gustave Dore, genius though he was, having\ndespised the technique of the school, never could rise to first rank in his\n\n"}
{"page": 501, "printed_page": null, "text": "METHODS\n\nOF ART\n\nEDUCATION .\n\n481\n\nprofession. So of Blake, with all his sublimity. An impressionist artist,\nlike the tone-painter Cazin, who deals in vague and rapid color effects,\nmust still know how to draw, how to use his pencil and brush, before he\ncan be a true artist. Monets, Kenoirs, and Cazins are not made in a day,\nor by accident. The mastery of the tools of trade is the object of art\ninstruction, for hereby the student is equipped for work. If he knows\nhow to draw he will soon know how to paint, by a realizing act of the\nimagination in employing color as a means of more truthful representation\nin drawing ; but the value of technical skill cannot be overestimated, and\nwithout it all is vain. It is true that the means are simple, but, once\nacquired, the applications are varied. Art, like nature, has few laws, but\nthese must be understood in order that art may become creative as nature\nis. At present especially, when there is so strong a tendency to minimize\nthe worth of careful technique, and to trust almost wholly to rapid methods of effect (although I gladly recognize in this a new power and a new\nepoch in art), it becomes highly important to emphasize the absolute need\nof thorough technique and to resist the temptation of wishing to be great\nwithout labor. Good artists are good draughtsmen. The great bulk,\nindeed, of Leonardo da Vinci's works consisted of drawings. This is true,\ntoo, of Albrecht Diirer. Burne-Jones's exquisite drawings, which are\nalmost more lovely than his paintings, and which, like Raphael's crayon\nsketches, form the schemes of his pictures, are said to have cost him infinite\ntoil ; and every artist has been an indescribable toiler. For the execution\nof the Titanic paintings of the Sistine Chapel, Michael Angelo was reported\nby his contemporaries to have \"ground his own colors, prepared his own\nplaster, and completed with his own hand the whole work, after having\nconquered the obstacles of scaffolding and vault-painting by machines\nof his own invention, and that only twenty months were devoted to this\nvast labor of making these paintings, which were composed not only\non a vast scale, but are of wonderful delicacy and finish of execution.\"*\nNow while this tradition is somewhat disproved by recent evidence that has\ncome to light, which leads us to believe that he labored at intervals for\nnearly four years upon this gigantic work, and was helped more or less by\nother workmen, yet, in the main, the story is true that he conceived and\nexecuted the whole himself with his own hand. He was master of the\nwhole technique of art, and could do this.\nDrawing has been called the alphabet of art, but it may almost be called\nits literature. The principles of drawing have reference not merely to\nscientific accuracy but to real life. They comprehend the law of perspective entering into all actual objects viewed in space. They have regard\nalso to chiaroscuro, by which the round is represented on a flat surface, so\nthat the light is seen behind and beyond the object, as in nature, and to\n* Symonds's \" Renaissance.\"\n\n31\n\n"}
{"page": 502, "printed_page": null, "text": "482\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nall those subtle refinements of light and shadow, line and touch, by which\ncharacter is expressed, and, above all, the character of the human form,\nso as to bring out its life and its intellectual and spiritual beauty. Here\ndrawing from the antique is especially useful to mold the taste under the\ninfluence of the best models, since Greek sculpture is the expression of\nthe beauty in the Greek mind, and was, in this intellectual race, nothing\nmore or less than its desire for perfection. Beauty was no weak sentiment\nat least in the best period of Greek art. The Greek line of beauty was a\nline of strength. It would be well if our students could draw from the\noriginal marbles instead of from plaster casts in whose white smoothness\nall life seems to die, though this is the next best thing; so that if the\npupil, in addition to his drawing, could copy the statue in clay, analyzing\nthe process step by step in the methods of the sculptor and following his\nlines, grasping his plastic thought, it were better still. No one can study\na statue without pencil in hand, and how much more to the purpose if he\ncan model it in clay, and thus be enabled to give an artistic critique of the\nsculpture before the class ! In this way he should familiarize himself with\nthe Greek masterpieces, steeping himself in their spirit, studying the ethical\nrelations which formed their style and which correspond to the same relations in Greek literature, and discriminating clearly their historic epochs.\nAt all events, nothing mediocre in sculpture and painting should be allowed\nin the art school, but only the best types, the masters of form and color,\nthe great poets of art, to whom the beauty of nature was manifestly revealed. It is well, however, to remember that the training of the art\nschool, though it may develop the artistic faculty, cultivate the taste, and\nconfer skill of manipulation, does not make artists. This is something\nwhich belongs to mind more than hand. Andrea del Sarto, whose technique was perfect and who \" could teach Raphael to draw an arm,\" himself\nfelt that a higher love was wanting to make him the unsurpassed artist.\nThe inspiration of genius set on fire by divine feeling makes the artist.\nI know that the motto of \" art for art's sake\" has been extensively\nemployed as a word for the encouragement of students, in order to save\nthem from the delusive claims of \" high art,\" but it may be pressed too\nfar, and as it is only at best but half true, it may really become a\nmisleading axiom. Art has a wider scope than a»rt for art's sake. It has\na higher work than the mere skillful imitation, or representation, of any\nnatural object in artistic form, in obedience to the mimetic instinct\nthat is often slavishly serviceable to please men and flatter them, to\ndecorate drawing-rooms, to make \"counterfeit presentments\" in portraiture, and to pamper the senses. True art does not set up a booth\nin Vanity Fair. The artist doubtless wishes to please, and he ought\nto do so; but he should aim at something better — he should be a teacher.\nHis divine gift has an object beyond itself. He is to humanize and\ncultivate men.\nHe lifts them out of the commonplace\ninto nature\n\n"}
{"page": 503, "printed_page": null, "text": "METHODS\n\nOF ART\n\nEDUCATION.\n\n483\n\nwhich is never dull, and into a world of new ideas. His personalityenters into his productions, and in this no one can teach him. All\nthat he is, all his acquisitions, wisdom, experience, and life, flow into\nhis art. The more of a man he is, the greater artist. The broader his\nculture, the truer his art. He should be a man of wide and various reading. His education should go on widening, not being confined to the\nmaterial world, but entering the world of ideas, into his own soul, until he\ngrow to be an interpreter of natural and spiritual things. He is a poet.\nHe comes to a sympathetic knowledge of the inmost laws of nature and\nspirit in which dwell the types and the soul of the beautiful. He is,\nin fact, the priest of beauty. This is a high office. Beauty is always\ntruth, but truth is not always beaut}*. Beauty, I know, has various types,\nhigher or lower, but the beautiful, truly understood, in all ages and forms,\nremains the highest principle of art. It may change its modes of expression. It may be earthly or heavenly. It may be realistic as Dutch, or\nidealistic as Italian, art. It may confine itself to form, or it may expand\nitself to embody color, atmosphere, light, until it grow spiritual, catching\nthe most fleeting and delicate emotions of the soul. It may live in the\njoyous and nature-loving life of the ancients as in the lovely Neo-Greek\nart of the English painter, Albert Moore ; or it may flourish in the life\nof Christian sentiment as expressed in church music and Gothic architecture, and exemplified by the solemn picture-frieze of the church of\nSt. Vincent de Paul in Paris, painted by Hippolyte Flandrin ; or it may\nbe homely and everyday as in Eastman Johnston's Yankee village scenes,\nFrith's English watering-places and horse-races, Courbet's butchers' shops,\nMillet's honest peasants and silly sheep of Barbazon, and the haystacks of\nMonet which he bought and set up in his lawn in order the better to study\ntheir light and shade. But when art loses the sense of beauty, of delight\nin beauty, of the interpretation of beauty, of the characteristic and typical,\nof the art of the artist's own soul through the touch of the imagination\nwhich opens to him the whole world of nature, then art loses its vocation,\nand it might as well be science at once, with, perhaps, a flourish of decoration to amuse the fancy, and give up the chase of the beautiful and\nspiritual, the search of the '-Holy Grail/' till it sink into the material,\ninto, say, the literalism of photography. Technique itself may be pressed\ntoo far, to the loss of spirit and imagination, even as there is a tendency\nnow in music to strive for key-effect and the brilliant, for hammer\nrather than harmony, for noise in which poetry and the ethereal essence\nof art exhales. To render the delicate compositions of Chopin with the\nbravura of a military band is an end to all artistic expression of musical\nsentiment.\nThe greatest advance which I can perceive in the condition of art, theoretically atleast, at the present time, is the growth of freedom of sentiment, and the recognition of merit in different and even dissimilar styles\n\n"}
{"page": 504, "printed_page": null, "text": "484\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONOR ESS OF EDUCATION.\n\nof artistic production, springing from different conceptions of beauty, and\nvarying as widely as the English and Japanese schools. The compliment\nwhich has just been paid by England to our architect Richard M. Hunt,\nfor his share in the fine and original architecture of the World's Fair, is\none evidence of this progress in catholicity and appreciation of the identity\nof the artistic principle under its varied forms of expression and diversities\nof aesthetic taste.\nAnother suggestion is, that art may be to a certain extent sloughing off\nits exclusive character and becoming more democratic ; and this is not a\nchange for the worse, but in the right direction. It is, on the whole, a\nhealthful tendency. The best illustration of this, in the past, is Dutch\nart. \" Holland owed her preeminence in art, as well as in science and\nscholarship, not to an aristocracy, nor even to a moneyed class whose\ninherited wealth led them to abstain from business. The men who sustained the painters and musicians, who fostered also science and learning,\nwere plain burghers in the cities, merchants and manufacturers, men\nwhom Queen Elizabeth called ' base mechanicals/ who all worked with\ntheir own hands, and by example or by precept taught that labor alone is\nhonorable.\"* The World's Fair again affords the best proof of tin's\nchange. Everything beautiful here is not for kings or rich men, but for\nthe people — for popular instruction, inspiration, and. delight. Seeds of\nthought are sown broadcast over the land. Millions of people walk these\nwide avenues as if in their own pleasure garden, and feast on the delightful fruits of intellect and genius. All branches of art are developed, and\nthe more so because they have found their true aims and relations. Architecture forms a base for sculpture. Sculpture stands not alone but grouped\nas part and parcel of architecture, as it once did in Greece when the great\nnational temples arose ; and painting finds its right place in the common\nfield of design and ornamentation. Large effects, as another has said, are\ngained, and there is an opportunity for great ideas to be carried out, for\noriginality of artistic conception, and for adaptation to national type and\ncharacter. Almost for the first time in our most modern civilization, the\ntraditions of the medieval ages of conventional art have been broken into,\nand the art, especially the architecture, is democratic and in sympathy\nwith the simplicity and breadth of republican ideas. Art is based on\ntruth, and truth is as wide as the world. To confine it to a section, or to a\nset of ideas imposed upon it by a class, is to narrow its aim, wliich should\nbe as broad as humanity. An English political writer says, \" The things\nthat are 'caviare to the general' often undoubtedly have much merit, but\nthey lack quite as often the warm, generous, and immortal vitality which\nappeals alike to rich and poor, to the ignorant and to the learned.\" This\nis certainly true of art, or the truest art. It meets the highest culture, but\n* \" The Puritan in Holland, England, and America.\"\n\nCampbell, v. i. p. 84.\n\n"}
{"page": 505, "printed_page": null, "text": "METHODS\n\nOF ART\n\nEDUCATION.\n\n485\n\nis based on the broadest humanity. I doubt, myself, if there be sucli a\nthing rightly as a school of art — the classic school, or the romantic school,\nor the impressionist school, or the German and French schools. Any form\nor type of art that is merely conventional, manneristic, learned, of a select\nschool, party, or clique, and which does not appeal to the common emotions, reason and imagination, even though it may be the fruit of the\nhighest and most exquisite thought, cannot last. It strikes no universal\nchord. It wants power. It is, for instance, wonderful that Benvenuto\nCellini, creature of Pope and Caesar, though full of genius, could have\nbeen able to make so good a thing as his Perseus, which, if unclassical,\nhas endured. The true artist must have faith in man if not in men. He\nshould not limit his gift to the service of Lord Tomnoddy and Mr. Croesus.\nThe crowds which fill the halls of art museums have eyes and souls, and\nthey show this by their delight in, and appreciation of, good art. They\ncan be educated, at least, to do so. Good work is not lost with the people,\nany more than in the middle ages. The beautiful public buildings of\nOrvieto, Florence, Cologne, and Bruges did not fail of their popular effect.\nBut now new ideas have sprung up ; new faiths, governments, and civilizations have come into being ; and these must and will have their art\nexpression, so that there should be no want of harmony between the artist\nand the people. There should not be, at all events, in a democratic country\nlike ours, a servile copying of Old World forms. Of course, there is an\nhistoric continuity in the evolution of art, but our art should spring\nmainly from our civilization. It should have faith in Americans and\nAmerica. It should be honest, original, and pure, not essentially aristocratic in spirit, but popular, though at the same time independent, and\nabove the people, in order to command their admiration and respect, in\norder to be able to raise them above themselves and bring them out of the\nlow, vulgar, and commonplace, the unloving and unlovely, and to ennoble\nthem by the sight of the beauty of the human soul, and of that divine\nnature which is the common heritage of all.\nWhile the Greeks and the Italians of the Renaissance \" clothed every\nphase of their intellectual energy in the form of art, and it may be said\nthat nothing that they produced did not bear the stamp and character of\nfine art,\" * we, on the contrary, of this age and land, regulate our modes\nof thought by methods of science. I will not discuss the question as to\nwhich is the higher mode, but evidently something vital is lacking when\neither mode becomes exclusive. The present tendency in our country is\ndecidedly scientific, to the exclusion of art and to the benefit of trade ;\nand the art we have is, for the most part, foreign. Our architecture\n(though a great improvement is discernible) is Italian or French, and so\nis our painting and sculpture.\nThe Genius of Liberty that lights foreign* Symonds's \"Renaissance.'\n\n"}
{"page": 506, "printed_page": null, "text": "486\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATtON.\n\ners ioto our chief gate of entrance is a French statue, grand for its size.\nBut for anything like great art, or national art, \"great ideas common to\nthe nation are essential.\" Washington, though he has been called an\n\" English country gentleman,\" was an American through and through,\nthe first great American republican, who let out every drop of monarchical blood in him. Our American heroic art has yet to be created, though\nits beginnings may be seen in the Trumbull gallery at Yale University,\nwhere Colonel John Trumbull, the painter of the Revolution, is better\nseen than at the Capitol in Washington. We have a heroic history as\nHellas had ; and the canvas of American art must be a wide one, sufficient\nto take in our history, poetry, faith, American humanity in its full action,\nour industrial energies, our pioneer life and adventure, the vegetation,\nthe climate, the grand as well as quiet and familiar features of our scenery,\nour autumn foliage and sunsets, the ideas of freedom and equality, the\nnew spirit as contrasted with the spirit of Old World civilization. There\nshould be a love of country and a pride in it. There should be an honest\nenthusiasm in this new life, movement, and coloring. It is not commonplace. Itis as nobly human as German or English humanity. It is better than the decayed Italian humanity that Michael Angelo had to mine\nin, for his models and thought. What were the contests of the G-nelphs\nand Ghibellines, the narrow struggles of Florence and Pisa and the other\nminiature republics of Italy, compared with ours ! We have had, and do\nnow have, artists of fine genius, but no master has yet been born to reflect\nAmerican history, American democratic thought, and American nature\nwith force enough to originate a new school of American art, if that were\npossible or desirable. It is true that our standard of taste and life has\nbeen heretofore the useful rather than the poetic ; and that the useful has\ntaken the precedence let us not regret, for it is healthful and right that it\nshould do so. Art is grounded on the useful ; it exists in order to supply\nwants that are real, houses to live in, churches to worship in, costumes to\nwear, and also, above all, objects of the imagination and the affections to\nfeed the higher nature. But American art will blossom when the aim of\nlife for solely commercial ends is more lost sight of, and when the imagination has leisure to work, when the poetic stir is felt, when the love of\nbeauty is awaked through ennoblement of the mind by culture, so that it\ncan rise above the material into the spiritual, where dwell the ideas of\nbeauty and truth.\n\n"}
{"page": 507, "printed_page": null, "text": "HOES\n\nDOES\n\nART\n\nART\nBY\n\nSTUDY\n\nCONCERN\n\nTHE\n\nSTUDY\n\nCONCERN\n\nTHE\n\nMRS.\n\nDANA\n\nMARY\n\nHICKS,\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS?\n\nPUBLIC\n\nBOSTON,\n\n487\n\nSCHOOLS?\n\nMASS.\n\n\" All art study should aim first to familiarize the pupil with the chief types of the\ngreat works of art, with a view to cultivating the artistic taste.\"\n\n-What I have to present on this topic will be mainly from the side of\nthe public school. To all who are teachers in the public schools, or who\nare interested in the work of the public schools, this topic must have a\ngreat and abounding interest at this time. It brings us face to face with\nfar-reaching questions. Does art study in any way concern the public\nschools ? If so, into whose hands should the study come, and under whose\ndirection should it be carried out ?\nIn endeavoring to contribute something toward answering these questions, Iwould take this position : Art education is a legitimate subject\nfor the public schools ; the supervisor of drawing should stand not merely\nfor the promotion of drawing, whether industrial, educational, or aesthetic,\nbut rather for the promotion of art. I wish to make at the outset a clear\ndistinction between mere drawing and art, which in its great content is\nthe subject of which drawing stands as a language.\nArt (I am speaking of formative art) — art has stood in the general mind\nas something quite transcending ordinary life, as something belonging\nonly to the few, something to be purchased.\nThe great and intrinsic value of art has in one way kept the masses\napart from it. Those who have produced works of art have too often\nstruggled against indifference and contempt ; too often they have given\nall that constituted the ordinary life, to attain art which is dearer than\nlife. Thus art came to be considered as not belonging to the ordinary\nlife, as something quite outside of and apart from the ordinary life, something into which ordinary souls could not enter, something to which\nordinary souls had no right.\nBy slow degrees there arose in the minds of some a realization that as\nart productions had a money value, it might be that art could have a\npractical application ; industrial art was recognized, and industrial drawing was introduced into the schools of this broad land, on the industrial\nbasis. Everywhere the work of supervisors of drawing was to direct the\ndrawing, mainly toward industrial design, as a means of improving the\nindustrial products of the country, increasing the wage-earning power of\nits people, and adding to its material prosperity.\nThen came the idea that drawing was a mode of expressing thought,\nand that hence it should be cultivated as a means of mental development.\nThis was a great advance from the purely industrial view. The educational value of drawing became a subject of earnest discussion, and finally\n\n"}
{"page": 508, "printed_page": null, "text": "488\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nhas come to be generally accepted. This recognition of the educational\npower of drawing has led to a demand for its exercise. Therefore,\ndrawing now stands in the schools mainly on an educational basis, and is\nregarded by educators as a means of expression which deserves the highest\nrank. Its value industrially is more fully recognized than eyer before,\nwhile its value educationally is considered as far transcending its industrial\nvalue.\nIt is recognized that the body of the child deserves to be clothed and\nfed and housed ; but it is still farther recognized that the mind of the\nchild deserves recognition, and must be nurtured and given opportunity\nfor expression.\nSupervisors of drawing are leading in this movement, and are developing the child through his own observations and thought to free expression,\nand are, moreover, endeavoring to guide that freedom into well-recognized\nart methods. The hard, thin, black, wiry line, finished by the most\npainstaking effort to absolute uniformity of width and absolute want of\nexpression, has given place to the broader, soft gray line — the true line of\nthe pencil — varying in intensity, delicacy, strength, or emphasis, to meet\nthe thought expressed, thus admitting the possibilities of the whole range\nof expression from light to dark. They are also leading more and more\nto the observation of the beautiful as the best means of elevating the\nexpression of the children.\nRecognizing the great value of drawing in the whole educational field,\nI shared in the presentation of an exhibit of work in form study, drawing,\nand color, in connection with other studies, made at the meeting of the\nNational Educational Association at Topeka about seven years since. It\nwas, I think, the first exhibit of this sort ever made. The work had then,\nas it has now, a great amount of crudity. The regular work in drawing\nwas not considered as bearing upon the drawing in connection with other\nstudies. The two were entirely' divorced in the minds of the teachers, and\none did not influence the other. This is a surprising result, but it finds\nits parallel in the fact that a student may be most carefully trained in the\nlaws of perspective and the mechanical method of using them, and yet\nbe helpless in the presence of a single object whose appearance to the eye\nhe is required to draw. A student who had passed one hundred per cent,\nin instrumental perspective in a well-known art school came to me in\ngreat distress one day. She wanted to draw the interior of a barn, and\nshe was very much puzzled to know whether she should make the beams\noverhead converge toward the upper edge of the picture or otherwise.\nSuch things seem hardly credible to those who understand not only instrumental perspective, but also its connection with the appearance of objects.\nI well remember with what a contemptuous dissent a modest suggestion\nto the principal of that school — that it would be better to lead the student\nto see the appearance of an object before studyiug the principles of per-\n\n"}
{"page": 509, "printed_page": null, "text": "DOES\n\nART\n\nSTUDY\n\nCONCERN\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS?\n\n489\n\nspective theoretically — was received. But things have changed since then,\nand pupils in the public schools now learn to see for themselves how\nobjects appear in different positions, long before they know anything of\nthe laws of perspective.\nIn our work of drawing we have passed through the industrial stage.\nWe believe in the value of art as conducive to industry ; we recognize\nthe money value of beauty, and that it pays in dollars and cents to be able\nto create a thing of beauty which shall be a joy forever. But we no longer\nlook at this as the supreme end of our work.\nWe recognize most earnestly the value of drawing as a means of mental\ndevelopment, and we endeavor to promote its use in every possible way,\nat the same time surrounding the pupil with those influences from great\nworks of art which will lead to the cultivation of artistic taste.\nBut we should have a still higher and broader end in view. We should\nstand for art. We should stand not for drawing as primal (for drawing\nis simply a means of expressing thought), but we should stand for observation of the beautiful, for thought induced by the beautiful, which shall\nlead to the expression of the beautiful according to the best known modes\nof expression.\nIndustrial drawing ministers to the outward needs, educational drawing\nministers to mental development, while art education adds to these the\naesthetic element (which is in its highest sense ethical), and ministers to\nthe spirit, permeating and uplifting all life.\nArt is the highest expression of the highest thought, and works of art\nare the outcome of that aspiration toward the best, and that creative\nimpulse which longs to make the aspiration manifest, which belong to\nevery human soul. Art education should, then, make distinct recognition\nof the art possibilities that lie not only in the artist but in every little\nchild. Each little one that comes under our care longs for the beautiful\nand desires to express it. How can we show to him the beautiful, and\nhow can we help him to express it ? This is our great problem.\nFirst, I would say, direct his observation toward beautiful things.\nHold fast to the appeal of psychology, to give the child things which will\ninterest him, but be careful to select from the things which interest him\nthose which are of the highest nature. Selection — choosing the good — is\none of the constants of development, whether in organism, in art, or in\nlife, and the child himself will not only respond to but will promote this\nselection.\nThe following thesis indicates a proper course to be pursued with the\npupil :\nThesis : The pupil should copy or make a drawing of the work of art which he has\nlearned to analyze, and his exercise should be criticised by fellow-pupils and teacher,\nmaking clear the respects wherein he has failed to seize the motive of the artist, or to\nreproduce his (the artist's) device of representation.\n\n"}
{"page": 510, "printed_page": null, "text": "490\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nAt the same time that we lead the pupil to a selection of the type by\nappeal to his own love of the beautiful, we will help him all that we car\nin modes of expression. We will not leave him to blunder and stumble,\nneither will we put him in harness and drive him forward, but we will lead\nhim by pleasant guidance to such better things as we may know, and we\nwill not be content to give him our limited individual knowledge, but we\nwill place before him, as far as is in our power, the best that the world\nhas done in art.\nIn looking through the field of graphic art we find that thought has\nfound expression in three different directions, that there are in graphic\nart three different subjects which are to be made the basis of these lines of\ninstruction — the subject of construction, which has as its highest phase\nthe training of the imagination ; the subject of representation, which has\nas its highest phase expression by pictorial art ; and the subject of decoration, which has as its highest phase the expression of beauty in ornament.\nIn all these subjects we have again to remember that drawing is merely a\nmeans of expression ; that back of the drawing must lie the study of and\ninstruction in the subjects themselves ; but also that, having given the\nthought, we must help the pupils to the best method of expression.\nIn the subject of construction the mode of expression is purely mechanical and is unvarying ; in flat decoration this is largely the case. In representation, however, this mode of expression varies, and there is large\nscope for individuality. The pupil may here stumble and blunder along\nuntil his eagerness and strength are exhausted, or the wise teacher may\nguide him to a better mode of expression. One of the ways of guidance\nwould be for the teacher to tell the student that by emphasis here and by\nrestraint there, corresponding to the qualities and relations of things represented, abetter effect could be produced. Another way would be for\nthe teacher to show by a few touches here and there — that is, by an example of her own work ; this is a living demonstration that in many times\nis of great help. These two ways are of only limited use in the large\nclasses of public schools.\nAnother way is to give to pupils good examples of rendering, that they\nmay see how others have translated thought into expression by the pen,\npencil, or brush. This is admirable because it brings the pupil into the\npresence of what others who have attained the control of their materials\nhave done.\nStill another way is to give pupils to copy good examples of rendering,\nthat they may be carried still farther into the thought as well into the means\nof expression.\nIt must be remembered that the purpose of drawing from an object is\nessentially different from that of drawing from a copy, and that they do\nnot at all subserve the same end. The purpose of drawing from an object\nis that the pupil may express his own thought concerning the object.\n\n"}
{"page": 511, "printed_page": null, "text": "WITH\n\nWHAT\n\nSHOULD\n\nDRAWING\n\nBEGIN?\n\n491\n\nDrawing from an object should not, therefore, be made a purely external\nand mechanical thing of seeing from a proportion, but should be made a\nmeans of leading first to thought about the object, and then expression.\nThe purpose of drawing from a copy is that the pupil may learn the\nthought of a more cultivated mind and spirit concerning the object, and\nafterward the way by which he expressed it. Drawing from a copy, therefore, like drawing from an object, should not be a purely external and\nmechanical thing of seeing form and proportion, but should be made a\nmeans of broadening the horizon of the pupil and leading him onward and\nupward by contact with a broader and higher mind. All this will apply\nto pictorial composition as well as to rendering.\nWe cannot afford to lose any of these ways of guiding the pupil ; we\nmust hold to those which will cultivate his powers by leading him to know\nwhat others, with greater powers than he, have done, as well as by leading\nhim to express his own thought in his own way. We cannot rightfully\ndeny him the culture to be obtained through the endeavor to learn the\nthought of others.\nSir Joshua Reynolds was of the opinion that copying the work of a master in no way limited the original power of expression of a student, but\nrather led him to more individual expression and doing. In historic ornament the same will hold good as in the subject of representation, with\nthis difference, that in historic ornament we are endeavoring to enter into\nthe spirit of a nation rather than that of an individual. In every curve\nthere is expressed the life of the nation and the striving after beauty — the\nreaching up and out to the aesthetic. So here more than ever is needed\nthat realization of curvature and proportion which can be attained only\nthrough the endeavor to approach by drawing near to the thought and\ncharacter of the nation. In pictorial art we deal with the individual ; in\nhistoric ornament we approach the universal, and attain, at some degree,\nto types.\nJust one word in conclusion : Art is not mere drawing ; art includes\nand implies the thoughts back of the drawing.\n\nWITH\nBY\n\nWHAT\nMISS\n\nSHOULD\n\nJOSEPHINE\n\nC.\n\nDRAWING\nLOCKE,\n\nCHICAGO,\n\nBEGIN?\nILL.\n\n\" Should drawing begin with light and shade, or should it be outline drawing for the\nfirst year or more ?\nI shall present both sides. Outline drawing is a necessity for the sake of recording\nthe facts and exact data of form, of geography, of history, and of science ; it deals with\nthe definite limitation of surface, and is essential to the expression of all construction.\nThere is no other medium so useful for interpreting the details of parto and their rela-\n\n"}
{"page": 512, "printed_page": null, "text": "492\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\ntion to the general whole. It is the fundamental language of the industrial and\nornamental arts.\nThere are two aspects of outline drawing. These are commonly spoken of as geometrical and freehand drawing. Geometrical drawing includes not only geometric\nproblems, but projection drawing, linear perspective, and all line drawing that depends\nupon the use of instruments. Freehand drawing may be and is rightly used for a\ngreat deal of work that is not dependent for expression upon light and shade. All\nrendering of surface forms, such as decorative arrangements, copies of historic ornament from the flat, and the drawing of the several geometric views from objects,\nbelong properly to the sphere of outline drawing ; and where such subjects are used to\nbegin the study of drawing, the only method that can be employed is outline drawing.\nThe question is still being agitated, Shall the study of drawing begin with the making\nof lines, the estimating of distances, and from flat copies, or shall it begin with the\nstudy of things by drawing the several geometric views and appearances of objects ?\nIf the first method be adopted, then arises a second division : \" Shall the work begin\nwith the ruler, or the free hand ?\" I quote from Colonel Charles Larned, of West\nPoint, who is probably one of the ablest and most disinterested exponents of the first\nmethod. He says: \" Because the line is an arbitrary convention, I am of opinion that\nfirst instruction should never be freehand from the object ; the translation of form by\nthe line is an artifice more difficult in freehand work, and more laboriously acquired.\nThe young pupil should first be introduced to his medium and some of its meanings\nbefore undertaking to interpret with it. As a matter of Gaining, I value the clean, welldefined line of the pencil or pen for beginners. The large charcoal or crayon line in the\nhands of the very young is uncertain and dirty ; it condones inexactness of observation\nand result, at a formative period when habits are born.\"\nColonel Larned, it will he observed, speaks as a soldier, and from the standpoint of\nthe technical or academic school, where the pupils are usually over fourteen years of\nage, when the period of childhood's emotions and instincts is past and the intellectual\nlife of the individual is seeking to assert itself; in fact, Colonel Larned 's instruction\nbegins where the work of the primary and grammar schools ceases.\nHe continues : \"The line is wholly a convention, the symbol of direction, extension,\nand limit ; but in objective form there is properly no line, only the contrast of the\ndifferent values of light and shade. The edges of intersecting planes of exterior and\ninterior contours are not seen as lines, but as sharply defined contrasts of one value of\nshade against another. This is true of all form ; an apprehension of it is purely a\nperception of contrast of light and shade. But line drawing exists, and is used for the\npurpose of expressing abstract thought ; of measuring geometric relations and quantative analysis of space ; for the rendering of all that involves exactitude, precision, and\naccuracy of detailed feeling. This all must admit. It compels attention as no other\nmeans of expression does to correctness of principle, to accuracy of results, to habits of\nneatness and order, to forethought and forehandedness, to exactness of method ; and it\nforces the realization of concepts with relentless precision.\"\nWhile the geometrical line of construction has these well-defined advantages in clear\nthinking, it also has its limitations as an educational medium. Colonel Larned is careful to tell us that it does not stimulate to any great extent the faculties of vision, such\nas \"form apprehension, form judgment, form memory, and form sensibility.\"\nPicture writing or hieroglyphs is the earliest and most significant use of line drawing.\nHistorically, with all nations and in all epochs of an art development, expression by\nline has preceded expression by light and shade. All primitive drawing simplifies and\ndetaches objects, copying them in their own way, isolating and giving each its personality without any conception of pictorial relations. The study of chiaroscuro has up to\nthe past few years been limited to the special school, with a professional trained teacher,\n\n"}
{"page": 513, "printed_page": null, "text": "WITH\n\nWHAT\n\nSHOULD\n\nDRAWING\n\nunder artificial and not unfrequently strained conditions.\nbrandt school is a notable illustration.\n\nBEGIN?\n\n493\n\nIn the world of art the Rem-\n\nSays Mr. Gilbert Hamerton, in his \"Graphic Arts\": \"Practice in outline drawing\ninvolves a special danger to the student which ought not to be passed in silence. It concentrates his attention so much upon the contour of things that he ceases to perceive\nwhat is within them, and then he becomes the victim of a peculiar delusion. He fancies that because he knows the coast, he knows the country ; the draughtsman is frequently innocently persuaded that the flat white spaces which his lines inclose actually\ncontain the modeling which he vainly imagines for them.\"\nNow truth of linear drawing is not the truth of expression by light and shade, any\nmore than the truth of the fact is the truth of the appearance of an object. Expression\nby outline drawing is independent of the thickness or quality of the line employed; there\nmay be all varieties used, from the poetic and artistic that suggests rather than formulates, to the most prosaic and exquisitely fine hair line such as is found in the drawing\nof pieces of delicate machinery. Giotto's celebrated line with which he astonished the\nVatican, it is now universally accepted, was a broad, soft line drawn with the brush,\nsimilar to what one continually finds in Japanese art.\nMr. Hamerton continues: \"The value of outline drawing has been variously estimated by artists. Painters hardly ever use it in its purity ; they occasionally have\nrecourse to it, but they do not keep to it. In this they are guided by a sure instinct, for\noutline drawing belongs to an essential, early stage in art, and is not compatible with\nthose habits of sight and thought which are or ought to be the habits of painters ; yet\noutline drawing may be practiced with advantage as part of every artist's education.\"\nAs to ruled lines, Mr. Hammerton notes the curious fact that while they are the\nbasis of every architectural drawing, yet they are so disagreeable to the eye that a ruled\nline is inadmissible in any pictorial view of a building or street, for it destroys the picturesque effect. Yet the ruled line as a literal fact is the truer of the two; but it is suggest! veness, not literalism, that in this instance the mind requires; hence its discontent\nwith the exact, prosaic line.\nIn \"Modern Painters,\" vol. i., Mr. Ruskin sustains Colonel Larned's position by saying:\n\" No form can be known to the eye without its chiaroscuro. In all observation of landscape, nature tells her story as plainly by her light and shade as by her form. Hundreds of people talk for one who can think, but thousands think for one who can see; to\nsee clearly is poetry, prophecy, and religion all in one.\"\nNature is the mother and nourisher of the imagination ; and when we see nature\nthrough the eyes of the imagination, we see her not in facts and bare outlines, but\ntransformed and mediated by an infinite play of light and shade. Observation of\nmass is not observation of detail and limit ; neither can expression of mass be rendered\nin the same way as expression of detail and limit.\nThe real question is, Should not both methods of observation and expression be cultivated side by side from the earliest beginnings to study drawing ? Will not continual\npractice in a one-sided observation and expression leave the individual biassed and\nprejudiced ?\nThere are degrees of seeing ; there is a seeing that is purely physical, that sees only\nprocesses, operations, and limitations. To begin with expression by outline drawing is\nsuch seeing. But there is a seeing that is internal as well as external, that pierces\nbehind the phenomena, the world of effects and operations, and feels the movement of\nthe celestial order. Such seeing is directly dependent upon contact with nature, and\nseeks expression not by outline drawing, but by a feeling for the mass as the whole.\nUpon this observation of nature in masses of light and shade and shadow, and power\nto express the same, depends the art feeling of a people.\nIndeed, there can be no fine observation of color in nature apart from observation of\n\n"}
{"page": 514, "printed_page": null, "text": "494\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nlight and shade, for all local color changes and varies as it receives the play of sunlight —\nnow brilliant and intense ; again gray, cool, and semi-distant. The confusing and\nblending of the tints of color is a light and shade effect. A child who tries to paint a\ngreen leaf fails to get the effect if he does not introduce some reddish-brown or other\npigment to indicate the play of light and shade.\nFrom the above generalizations 1 am led to the following inferences :\n(1) That man's geographical notions seem to have affected his artistic seeing ; so\nlong as he thought the earth was flat, he imagined objects to be cut out of some flat\nmaterial. The notion of modulation of surface, of elevation and depression, and ils\nexpression by light and shade, developed itself slowly.\n(2) As man began to observe the mystery and variedness of nature, he thought to\nrepresent this by the introduction of light and shade.\n(3) In art history the study and practice of chiaroscuro divides itself into two distinct epochs : first, as used in classic art and in the Renaissance ; second, as practiced in\nmodern landscape art. The latter is based on direct observation of nature, and sees\nthings more in a diffused sunlight, while the former was more artificial, and involved\nspecial and different conditions.\n(4) A complete observation of form implies not. only the seeing of outlines, but also\nthe seeing of surfaces as possessing elevations and depressions, as rounding, nearing, and\nreceding.\n(5) Constant drawing in outline is quite capable of prejudicing mind and vision, and\nis only one degree removed in its danger from continuous drawing from flat copies ; it\nis very apt to leave the impression that the earth is \" flat as a pancake.\"\n(6) The child mind and child vision under twelve or fourteen are more akin to the\nartist mind and the artist vision than is the mind of the intervening years ; both\npossess that innocence of the eye that depends for its doing upon intuitive knowing\nand instinct rather than on intellectual information or the acquisition of technical skill.\nThe only difference between the true child nature and the artist nature is that the\nchild sees, moves, and does unconsciously, according to instinct, while the mature artist\nworks and moves consciously according to insight.\n(7) A determination of the question, \" Should drawing commence from the beginning with light and shade, or should it be outline drawing for the first year or more ? \"\ndepends on the age of the pupils, the aim of the instruction, the conditions under\nwhich it is taught, and whether the work begins with first acquainting the child with\nhis medium, or with form study from objects.\nUnder the age of the pupil, one must consider which comes first in order of development, the period of the intellect or the period of the instinct — the age of knowing or\nthe age of feeling. Methods all right with adults and pupils over fourteen, may be\ndwarfing and repressing, not to say mutilating, to children from six to twelve. How do\nchildren see ? how do they feel ? What is their imagination busy with ? In what fairyland do they wander ? It seems to me these are the questions that must determine how\nthey are to be approached in any subject. From the concrete to the abstract, from the\nsimple to the complex, cannot be true of mathematics and not true in other work also.\nUnder the aim of the instruction, one is led to consider if the object be to nourish\nand feed the general intelligence of the pupil, to help him find himself and his powers,\nor to impart information and train for specific ends. Is learning to draw the chief end\nof teaching drawing, or is it only a means to an end — the end lying outside and beyond,\nin the power to observe form, to recognize three dimensions in space, in the cultivation\nof the imagination, in the bringing one into close, vital contact with nature, and in\ndeveloping an appreciation of the beautiful ? If we put power to observe and perceive\nform as fundamental and first, the question is. Can there be any perception of form\napart from observation of light and shade ? Certainly not in an observation of nature.\n\n"}
{"page": 515, "printed_page": null, "text": "DISCUSSION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSUBJECT\n\nCONTINUED.\n\n495\n\nwhere shadow is often more conspicuous than outline. Because chiaroscuro exists\neverywhere in nature, and because contact with and observation of nature is a necessity\nto the nourishing of sweet childhood's dreams, this question becomes a larger oue than\nthe mere learning to draw or make lines.\nShall we cultivate in the child an all-sided, all-round observation of nature as she is,\nin her dreaminess and mystery, or shall we limit him to a conventional, partial, and\none-sided observation ? Shall we put nourishment of feeling before acquaintance with\nthe medium, and the enlargement of idea before exactness of expression ? Now, the\nimagination is not analytical, it works in wholes ; first, a dreamy vision of an entirety,\nof an indefinite something, frequently vague and chaotic. Only as it seeks to formulate itself does it become aware of details and fragments. Knowing of rules and the\nexertion of the analytical faculty with a child has a tendency to confuse his fancy in\nits flow. Dreams cannot be ruled or legislated for ; they must be caught as they come,\nand caught each in its own particular way.\nThis power to catch dreams is the art quality ; it is the faculty to both see and feel.\nThe dream itself is the true art idea, for dream of poet, despair of artist, and childhood's visions are one in essence.\nWe use the terms \"art instruction,\" \"art education\" — indeed, the word art in all\nits applications — very vaguely and loosely. We need to re-create the word in its ancient\nsense, when it stood for the expression of the inherent genius of humanity ; when it\nreally meant lee-way for intuitional feeling and emotion, and the material with the\ntool was but the vehicle for the thought. Were there no catching power in the individual to recognize a vision of beauty, or to glimpse the infinite, or to rearrange,\ninvent, and adapt means to ends, then where would be the art ? Did government or\nart-school knowledge of Maxwell's disks, or familiarity with the proportions of the\nCorinthian column, ever weave a Cashmere shawl or produce a Japanese vase ? No !\nFor both are born of an ignorance of light theories and of an absence of mathematical\nrules, but of an instinct so pure and subtle that all the technical teaching and skilled\nlabor of modern civilization fails to do more than reproduce them.\nA careful consideration of this subject must resolve itself into, Wrhat are we going to\ndo while waiting for children to become intellectually fit for the special or technical\nschool ? Is it safe to continue leaving the period of childhood's dreams and emotions\nunfed and uncultivated ? What can be done to inspire the masses, the children of the\ncommon people, with an interest in and an appreciation of nature, and of those works of\nart which embody the highest truths of spirit as comprehended by man, and so make\nlife better worth living to every citizen ? Is not this very much more than mere learning to draw and make lines ?\n\nDISCUSSION\nBY\n\nMRS.\n\nHANNAH\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSUBJECT\n\nCONTINUED.\n\nJOHNSON\nCARTER,\nDIRECTOR\nART\nDREXEL\nINSTITUTE,\nPHILADELPHIA.\n\nDEPARTMENT,\n\nIn answering this question we are forced at once to consider conditions, age of children,\nand the object sought. I was much impressed by General Walker's statement that\nthe American people are essentially forced to a state of compromise to meet the peculiar situation thrust upon them at the present time — an enormous and increasing inflow\nof a foreign element, untrained and unskilled, and which presents a most serious problem\nto be dealt with, especially in our public schools. It is not. then, by many roads that we\nwill reach Rome, but by one broad highway, where small differences of opinion, petty\njealousies, and personal ambitions shall be thrown aside in the desire to do the best\n\n"}
{"page": 516, "printed_page": null, "text": "496\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\npossible toward the development of the child, and to overcome the materialistic tendency of the time.\nIf we take the matter up from the standpoint of the young child in the public schools,\nwhich is perhaps the best way to begin, we must admit that the most advanced thought\nand experience will demand little in the way of accurate expression for the first two\nyears of a young child's life in school. Observation, thoughtful yet happy and free,\nshould be encouraged, and expression in the way of drawing should be in a medium\nbest adapted to the child's ability to control. I have tried various free-flowing materials,\nsuch as charcoal, paint, and even colored chalk, and found that the pleasure of daubing and scratching was of much more interest than the thoughtful rendering of sense\nimpressions ; to my mind productive of the same danger that one meets in science teaching, when elaborate scientific instruments are more fascinating than the experiment to\nbe performed. While I cannot see the desirability in this brief life of passing through\nthe barbarism of the race to find the child, 1 do believe that these first years are most\nimportant to start him on the road as a free individual.\nPlenty of form study, a wealth of color, and a happy expression of himself, even in a\ncrude way, upon blackboard and paper, will surely lead to this. And I am equally sure\nthat even in these early days a wise teacher may begin to guide toward definite and\nthoughtful expression even in the child's freedom. Therefore art training in the public\nschools should stand primarily on an educational basis, and secondarily for technique.\nI said \"wise teacher,\" and here I sigh ; for the average teacher of the present day is\nsupposed to be wise in all the studies pertaining to her work — and where has she been\ntrained ? Our country to-day needs hundreds of teachers' colleges, that the wise teacher\nmay be possible.\nGiven moi*e favorable conditions in the schoolroom — one direct light and not conflicting lights— a teacher capable of judging values and effects, and the rendering of\nobjects in light and shade might be desirable at an earlier age than now seems possible.\nYou know the bad effects of incorrect or coarse speech when not led as soon as possible\ninto refinement and good method before such bad habits become fixed. For this reason I\nfeel that license in the use of any material will thwart the very end sought.\nIn a technical school I would balance the outline, in which there might be an expression of the student's own conception of light and shade carried out to a greater or less\ndegree, with the freest treatment in charcoal, presenting all the values seen. Here it is\nmore possible to consider the individuality of the students, and if one has a hard, tight\nway of expressing, sees line in everything, with a strong tendency to the mechanical,\nlosing sight of the poetic quality of effect, then that student needs a minimum of outline and thorough training in light and shade as expressed in values, using charcoal as\nthe freest working material. On the other hand, a student who is inclined always to\nsee masses, and looks at things from the painter's standpoint rather than the draughtsman's, is much helped to completeness of thought and vision to express in the purest\noutline with the fewest possible number of lines that will tell the story. The telling\npower of a really good outline drawing is not, half appreciated.\nThere is a lot of nonsense connected with the life of art students and even artists, and\ntheir ideas of what art is. A person is none the more aesthetic or artistic (I am very\ntired of that word) for having a coat covered with paint, a soiled necktie, or a dirty paiette. I remember a fellow-student who appeared one day, in our set of workers, when\nwe were all ready to leave the studios, with paint on her bonnet strings. 1 protested\nthat the turpentine bottle should be appealed to. But no ; she marched forth more than\never satisfied that she wore the insignia of high art. That student was really directly\ndrifting away from beauty, order, and fitness, the three essentials of true art. I followed her work later, and it never went beyond the mediocre — never beyond the bonnet\nstrings. The beautiful, then, should be our ideal and as far as possible made a part of us\n— in life, character, and environment. Every unlovely thought, word, or deed has a\nreflex action more productive of harm to the source of its creation than to those whom\nit may be intended to harm or wound.\nForced back, as we are constantly, to present conditions in public schools, with children the pencil seems to be the most available means of expression, and a great deal more\ncan be done with it than is often realized. Much, very much, depends upon the teaching whether rendering is really artistic and individual. For objects I like myself a\nbasis of geometric form from which other work may lead out. These simple forms can\nbe made interesting to the child and productive of much benefit. Through them the\nsimple laws of perspective may be apprehended, and in a more natural way than by\ntheory. The broad gray line is far more agreeable than a hard wiry one, and seems to\nlend itself pleasantly to the contour of geometric form, or simple objects. By broad gray\nline I do not ineau an exaggeration of breadth or absolutely unvarying in width, but\n\n"}
{"page": 517, "printed_page": null, "text": "PAINTING\n\n-\n\nAND\n\nSCULPTURE— DISCUSSION.\n\n497\n\nthe soft effect produced by drawing upon the side of a blunt pencil, the result being a\ntransparency of effect somewhat in texture like a delicate charcoal line. Outline drawing is also valuable as a means of expression upon the blackboard, and the crudest work\ndone in this way by the children is of far more value than ever so elaborate drawing by\nthe teacher. With the best intentions possible, teachers entertain the children nearly to\ntheir mental death ; certainly to the dulling of their honest effort to work for themselves. A teacher can get through simple outline drawings more expression of the\nchild's mental standing, capacity, and growth, than in any other way. Not only in the\nregular drawing lesson, but by using drawing in the other studies. Pencil lends itself\nalso to the schoolroom better than charcoal, because its conventions are already accepted.\nThe freehand working drawing is a direct help in manual training, and aside from its\npossible industrial value, dealing as it does with foreshortening and not perspective, it\n■ emphasizes the facts of things as an offset to the delusion of appearance.\nIf suggestive effect can be obtained in light and shade with pencil, beyond the first\nyears it undoubtedly would add to the interest of outline drawing ; but there is definite\ndanger here, dealing with such large numbers in a class, of too conventional rendering\nof the light and shade, and the recording of the teacher's observation rather than that\nof the child. Charcoal is not pleasing for line work unless handled with consummate\nIn the high-school\nskill, but is especially delightful in the rendering of full values.\n■ light and shade should be a prominent feature of art training, and here as well as in the\ntechnical school I would balance the study of masses of effect in light and shade, with\npencil, the latter leading to pen and ink.\nIn the early teaching of drawing to the child or adult we should not demand immediately accurate results, but rather, first, careful observation of proportion and relation,\nand the recording of ideas of beauty of proportion and relation, as far as possible in an\nindividual way. If we could have a skillful and trained teacher to every ten or even\ntwenty children in the public schools, how everything would simplify and our path\nclear ! Then we could have the most delightfully naive expression of each child's\nthought given in his own way, and yet guided to the best technique as well. But how\nto really build the basis for even an appreciation of what real art is. with these masses\nof children forced upon us, and the untrained, overstrained teachers who are held\nresponsible for so much — this is the problem upon which we talk in circles and fail to solve.\nThe public must be educated to feel our good intentions, our struggles, and our needs.\nBoards of Education need educating, and we may yet be forced to put upon them some\nof the tasks of the ordinary teacher.\nWhy do the artists have such a hard time to sell their pictures ? It is because even\nthe moneyed people have not gone much beyond the gilded rolling-pin and the decorated\nmilking-stool. The better the training of American children in true art principles, the\nbetter for the future of American art and artists.\nAbove all should we try to realize that art education is something more than utility\ndrawing of any sort, or even fine art training. To the great public it is training the\nchild to see beauty in common things, not vulgar common things, but the beauty about\nhim, above and beyond him — the beauty of nature and of art. Tinkling devices that\nplease for the hour will not do this; but it should come by unfolding the latent power of\nthe child and the opening of his eyes to the glory of this world as well as the life beyond.\nThe influence of direct art teaching should go beyond the schoolroom as a beneficent\npresence in the child's thought, his view of life and things.\n\nPAINTING\nBY PROFESSOR\n\nW.\n\nM.\n\nAND\nR.\n\nSCULPTURE— DISCUSSION.\n\nFRENCH,\nDIRECTOR\nCHICAGO.\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nART\n\nINSTITUTE\n\nOF\n\nThe thesis upon which I am invited to give my ideas is as follows :\nConnected with the learning to model in clay, wax, or other material, the pupil should\nhave a series of lessons on the limitations belonging to the arts of painting and sculpture, and discuss what subjects can properly be treated in sculpture, and what more\nproperly belong to painting.\nUpon the propositions that there are differences between the practice of the painter\nand the practice of the sculptor, and that it is necessary for the sculptor to regard these\n32\n\n"}
{"page": 518, "printed_page": null, "text": "498\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\ndifferences, there can scarcely be more than one opinion.\nBut as to how a knowledge\nthese differences shall be conveyed to the pupil, and at what stage in his career, are\nquestions upon which there may well be a wide divergence of opinion.\nUpon this sul\nject, as upon many others, I find my theories much hampered by the necessity of putting\nthem into practice.\nIf I were not connected with the school of the Art Institute, open to the gaze of all\nmen, I might, perhaps, work out a successful theoretical view. As it is, I find myself\nin the predicament of the Pharisees of old when they were asked to pronounce upon the\nbaptism of John. If I say that there ought to be stated instruction upon the limitations\nof painting and sculpture, you will all say : \" Why, then, have you not established such\nlessons in the Art Institute 1 \" But if I say there is no need of such instruction, shall I\nnot be despised and scorned of all advanced educators ? I may say, frankly, that the\nidea of regular lessons or lectures upon this subject had never so much as occurred\nto me.\nOur art schools are conducted upon an atelier system, in which the teachers are in\nimmediate and frequent contact with all the students; and it is expected that in the\ncourse of actual practice the various problems of art will arise and be discussed, and\nreceive such solution as the teachers may be able to give. Such questions as those proposed in our subject will not arise early in the student's course. He may begin modeling in the kindergarten, and must begin with very elementary practice, which has no\nrelation to composition, but is directed simply to acquainting him with his material, and\ngiving him mechanical control over it. The elements of technique must precede composition, and it would only introduce confusion to discuss advanced problems too early.\nIn the present period of realism, however, there is a very possible danger that the students may be kept too exclusively upon the true rendering of the subjects before them\nand upon the technical treatment of the mediums, to the neglect of the more general,\nperhaps I might say of the more intellectual, qualities of the work.\nEverybody who has to do with schools of academic art must be aware how much more\nwilling the student is to remain before his easel and try to fix in charcoal or in oil the\nappearance of the statue, the living head, or the nude model before him, than to attend\nany kind of verbal lessons or lectures, however closely related to his profession. He\nthinks he is wasting time if he is not actually drawing, and I think this idea is rather\nencouraged by most of the artist-teachers. In our own school I despair of getting our\nstudents to lectures excepting at times when the models are not posing ; and as the sittings are continuous from nine to twelve and from one to four (with sketch classes after\nfour), it is difficult to find a time for lectures. In fact, we have held our lectures from\nhalf-past twelve to half-past one, and from four to five. I have sometimes seriously\nconsidered holding the class sessions from nine to half-past two or three, and devoting\nthe rest of the day to class instruction, as is done in the Boston school.\nThe aversion of students to instruction of literary form I attribute to two causes\nfirst, that named above, the extreme stress laid upon execution by the teachers ; and\nsecond, the general dislike of mankind, in his native state, to intellectual exertion.\nYour ordinary art student will do anything to get away from exerting his head. He\ndoes not know it, and he fancies he is working very hard when he tries to fix the exact\ndrawing and color of his study. And to do them justice, the better students do put\nthemselves into their work. It is my opinion, however, that in most art schools we are\nin danger of falling into narrow lines of study, of confining ourselves to particular\ntreatments and mediums, even particular points of view and sizes of studies, to the\nneglect of the more general study of composition. Hence, although I do not know of\nany art school in which there is distinct, stated instruction in the distinctions to be\nobserved between sculpture and painting, it is easily conceivable that there might well\nbe such instruction.\nIt would no doubt best be given by the actual teacher of model-\n\n"}
{"page": 519, "printed_page": null, "text": "PAINTING\n\nAND\n\nSCULPTURE-DISCUSSION.\n\n499\n\ning, if he could be induced to do it. Ah, there's the rub ! It often happens that the\nman who models is wholly averse to lecturing. A sculptor of my acquaintance said :\n\" I draw the line at lecturing.\" But if he had the subject distinctly in mind, he could\neasily tell his class all they needed to know. And this I suppose is what actually\nhappens with the more favored pupils, if not with whole classes.\nHowever the knowledge were conveyed, it could do a student of sculpture no harm to\nhave his attention called to the fact that sculpture cannot do much with landscape or\nlarge accessories of any kind, and must be contented for the most part with the representation ofanimated nature, chiefly the human figure.\nThat there is something in the character of sculpture that prompts simplicity, so\nthat numerous accessories, even if small and natural to the subject, are usually unacceptable, and the most effective sculptures have always been made up of very few\nfigures, usually not more than two or three ; that the sculptor will do well to yield\ngracefully and cheerfully to the limitations of his material, and acknowledge that\nthings possible in paint are not possible in bronze, still less in marble ; that the outline, or sky line, of the work of sculpture is of vastly more importance than it is in\npainting ; and especially that an immense difference between the conditions of sculpture\nand painting is introduced by the circumstance that the sculptor's work must look well\nfrom various points of view — must indeed compose well all the way round, if possible:\nall these things might very easily and quickly be communicated to a class by lecture\nor lesson, accompanied, of course, as all art lectures should be, by abundant illustratration and exemplification.\nIf it be said that most of our students are in too elementary a stage to profit by such\ninstruction, and that all their time ought to be given to acquiring respectable technical\nskill, I should be inclined to recall the fact that at least six of the young women in the\nmodeling class in the Art Institute have been called upon in the last year and a half\nto produce ideal statues in connection with the Columbian Exposition, and it is proposed\nto put some of these figures into marble.\nArt educators, and perhaps teachers of all kinds, have reason to be shy of fixed rules.\nThe practice of the fine arts does not brook much definition and limitation, and it is\ndangerous to inculcate the principles even of Lessing or Winckelmann, because all\ntheories go down before facts, and we no sooner get our rules well established than\nsome clever fellow comes along and executes charming things in direct violation of\nthem all.\nA few years ago, for example, I suppose we should all have said that the dignity and\nelevation of sculpture made color inadmissible ; that the student would do well to\nfollow those exemplars of all succeeding ages, the ancient Greeks, and leave the marble\nin its unsullied purity ; and we should very likely have suggested that the nudity of\nsculpture was, as it were, veiled and chastened by the absence of color. But the recent\nstudies of the archaeologists seem to establish that color was used in ancient sculpture\nmuch more widely than has heretofore been supposed, and some authorities think that\nall nations, the ancient Greeks included, who have used sculpture freely, have habitually polychromed their statues.\nThis subject has raised anew in my own mind the whole question how far ought\nlessons and lectures upon the theory and history of art and other scholastic subjects to\nbe joined with art practice in our art schools. My own predilections are for a good deal\nof literary training, but I have not felt warranted in carrying out ideas, not founded\nupon experience, very fully and hastily into practice.\nIt has long been my wish that a student who spends three or four or five years in the\nArt Institute should carry away not only some technical dexterity, but something\nwhich would stand for an education, some cultivation of mind and taste which should\nanswer in some degree to a liberal education.\nAt present we are able to offer oppor-\n\n"}
{"page": 520, "printed_page": null, "text": "500\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\ntunities, but not to compel the use of them. The school lectures relate to artistic\nanatomy, perspective, the history of art and art education, the construction and drawing of the face and figure, and a variety of themes connected with architecture and\ndecoration. The general lectures of the Art Institute, open to all students, relate to all\nmanner of artistic subjects.\nThe library I regard as perhaps the best means of intellectual cultivation we are able\nto put before our students. It is wide open to them at all times, and already covers\npretty well the ground of the theory, history, and practice of the fine arts. This year\nwe add an immense collection of photographs, the whole publication of Braun & Co.,\nof Paris, of carbon photographs or autotypes, which include reproductions of the\nimportant paintings, drawings, and sculptures of the principal museums of Europe.\nDr. Holmes' remark that it is \"great good fortune to a child to tumble round in a\ngood library when he is little,\" is equally applicable to an art student young in his art.\nThe students also move constantly among the permanent and changing collections\nof the museum and the city. With these opportunities, and with daily intercourse\nwith a score of accomplished teachers, a student must be stupid, indeed, who does not in\nfour years acquire some kind of culture.\n\nTHE\n\nSELF-CORRECTING\nBY\n\nMISS\n\nANNIE\n\nR.\n\nOSBORNE\n\nSYSTEM\nMOORE,\n\nOF DRA WING.\nOF\n\nENGLAND.\n\nThe question, What do we mean by drawing ? seems to me to have received so\nmany and such various answers during the discussions of this Congress that it becomes\nnecessary, for clearness' sake, to come back to it once more. And I therefore propose\nto read a few lines, the value of which, I presume, no one will call in question, as\nthey are translated from the own words of Michael Angelo di Buonarotti. These words\nseem to unite, and by implication to contain, all that is best in the various appreciations that have been laid before you, and they do away with the need of any further\ndefinition.\n\" The science of drawing or of outline is the essence of painting and of all the fine\narts, and the root of all the sciences. He who can raise himself to the point of mastering it possesses a great treasure\nThe power of drawing is so great that the\nartist can express whatever he wishes if he know how to draw. Art is herein sublime,\nthat by it all the works of God may be represented, whether it be a bird of the air or\na prophet. Thereto neither gold, silver, nor precious stones are needful, only a pen or a\npencil. Perfectly to copy every object according to its kind — is not this, to some extent,\nto imitate God in His works ?\n\" That painter only can be truly accomplished who has a knowledge of all the other\nliberal arts, also of all the other manual trades in the world ; so much so, that 1 sometimes think that there is only one art amongst men — that of drawing — from which all\nother human arts proceed, or of which they form a part.\n\"Examine all that is done in life, and you will see that even unconsciously every one\ndraws, whether it be in the invention of new styles of dress or of building, or in drawing plans of vessels and of weapons of war. Drawing embraces everything from\nwriting to the most remote origins of history; it is used for machines, for plans, for\nbuilding bridges, for the ordering of battles and in strategy ; to make evident the difference between nations by means of their various flags and standards, and to distinguish\nfamilies by their escutcheons ; so that in looking at all varieties of human work you will\nfind each to consist wholly or in part of drawing.\"\nIt has been our aim to establish a simplified, practical way of studying drawing, by\nwhich we mean the truthful, graphic representation of form, with all its variations of\nperspective and of foreshortening of life and movement.\nOur attitude with regard to\n\n"}
{"page": 521, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE\n\nSELF-CORRECTING\n\nSYSTEM\n\nOF\n\nDRAWING.\n\n501\n\nbeauty is that we desire to find both absolute beauty, if such exist, and the beauty of\nfitness and life by means of studying the living forms themselves. This study is\ndifficult, undeniably, but it is so chiefly because it has not been placed on such a basis\nof science and certainty as are most or all other kindred subjects.\nLet me say at once, as our excuse, if one be needed, for suggesting yet another method\n(for I know in what aversion the term is held by many here), that in spite of all that is\nsaid and written about the usefulness, the need, the educational value of drawing —\namongst the numerous and often opposite systems advocated for the teaching of young\nchildren, we have not heard of one fitted to definitely, practically help the full-grown,\nintelligent student, be he nominally teacher, art student, or, in the good sense, amateur,\nto study intelligently and so to master the elementary difficulties of this subject.\nIs it not fitting that, however much of art theory we may indulge in, we should find\nmore satisfactory means of putting art practice in its simplest forms, above alluded\nto, on a rather better, surer footing ? Would it not be well to begin by doing something\nfor the teacher, and for all those who have neither time nor opportunity to go through\nthe complete courses of study offered in the large educational centers ?\nThe self-correcting system was formulated with this idea in view. It suggests no\nsubstitute for study, no royal road, and especially no easy way of learning to draw,\nthough I well know that it is apt to call forth at first sight some amount of prejudice on\nthe part of art teachers.\n1 have to ask now, not whether such a method has a right to exist and be recognized,\nbut rather whether there be not, as seems to many, pressing need of such an one, founded\non simple scientific fact.\nI must confine myself to a few words concerning how far the suggestion of a method\nof this sort is likely to meet with that consideration and absence of prejudice on the part\nof the distinguished educators here assembled, which may fairly be claimed for it on the\nseveral grounds I have already in part enumerated.\nThese are chiefly two : The value of drawing, both educationally and practically, which\nhas come at last to be generally admitted, brings with it the desirability, the need of\na method making it feasible for anyone of ordinary intelligence or capacity to master\nits elements.\nIn the second place, there is in this direction a danger none the less real, to which\nsomething practical must be opposed. I allude to photography. Photography is\nunquestionably one of the greatest of modern inventions, and is absolutely without a\nrival in the help it lias given to education, to industry, to science, and in certain ways\nto art. Indeed, it seems impossible to overrate the services rendered by photography in\neach of these branches, 4sut we must not let gratitude for all these good things blind us\nto the fact that photography has been, and still is, a stumbling-block in the way of\nartists and of art-draughtsmen, all the more to be noted that it is so often hidden from\nview.\nTHE\n\nPHILOGEAPHIC\n\nMETHOD.\n\nThe full importance of drawing as an essential educational subject being once recognized, and the need of such systematizing that it may be taught to one and all admitted,\nwe have aimed, in formulating the philographic method, at establishing a simple,\ndirect, intelligible system of study, equally helpful to the teacher and pupil, who by it\nbecomes to a great extent his own master, thus realizing the sub-title of self-correcting\nmethod.\nThis principle of self-teaching, which so distinctly underlies all the precepts and suggestion in Leonardo da Vinci's \" Treatise on Painting,\" addressed to young artists, is\nwhat we have endeavored to carry out practically, and still more according to the spirit\nthan the letter of the great master's teaching — so to guide the pupil that in the very\n\n"}
{"page": 522, "printed_page": null, "text": "502\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nearliest stages not only no time be lost, but that every morsel of time and energy be\nturned to good effect, and no bad habits of half-seeing and half-doing be contracted.\nNow from the very title of my subject it will have impressed you that mechanical\nhelp is to come in somewhere, and I may as well say at once that we do believe in the\nintelligent use of simple, mechanical test-instruments suited to the needs of each class\nor stage of work. Leonardo appears to favor the use of any practical help, mechanical or other, in view of learning thoroughly the true perspective of form, including\norganic or living forms ; gaining the science of \" right seeing.\" which we may take to\nbe the nearest equivalent of the ancient and true meaning of the term perspective as\nused by the old masters. If such things were allowable in his time, surely it were vain\nnow, in our own days of rapidity and accuracy, of scientific testing, weighing, probing, and\nstudying, to insist tbat in this one difficult and generally proclaimed indispensable branch\nof work alone no kind of test should be adopted, the use of no outside means permitted\nfor strengthening and quickening the powers of observation and judgment as to proportion, form, and space. Whether we like and admit it or not, it is very clear that\nmachinery, in the shape of photography, has been doing its very best during the last\nfifty years, even in the so-called arts of design, to replace human handiwork— far worse,\nto supersede the human eye. It is very strange to remark how those people who cry\nout against anything mechanical in learning to draw, to the extent sometimes of\nobjecting to a pencil being held in the outstretched hand for measuring the general proportions of subject or model, do not perceive how frequent a thing it is becoming for\nthe painter, the well-established, full-grown artist, to discredit his own God-given power\nof sight in favor of the glass eye of the camera. Yet so far is this the case that many\nof the most modern and fashionable painters of the day, much more glaringly in France\nthan elsewhere, give us in their pictures neither more nor less than the disturbed presentment obtained by what photographers term a \" wide-angle \" lens, thus completely\nrenouncing their own natural human sight in favor of the distorted production of photography. Such cases are, of course, extreme ; still, anyone who thinks the statement\nexaggerated should make sure for himself by visiting and carefully examining exhibitions held in London. Paris, and doubtless in this country, and there is no question but\nhe will discover some few choice examples of such inhuman perspective. If the professional artist can be so misled, and is so ready to mislead others, it is not too soon to\nmake mention of this dangerous tendency, and to seek means of opposing it. It has\nseemed to us upholders of the philographic system that the very simple, elementary\nsuggestion proffered by Leonardo in the work above alluded to might be taken as the\nbasis of an instrument constructed on precisely the same principle as the human eye,\nthat, namely, of obtaining the immediate projection of forms ©n a transparent plane,\nforming a section of the visual cone, and necessarily at right angles to the axis of that\ncone, which would give us the help we require.\nAs auxiliary to this, and in conjunction with it, we adopt the principle of that most\nuseful invention of one Dillingen, known in modern times as the pantograph. Add to the\nabove the study of the oblique line or axis, forming the basis of a simple graphic language or alphabet corresponding to the systems of names and notation used in the study\nof color tones, numbers, etc., and you have the whole substructure of this method,\nwhich I will now explain more in detail.\nLet us suppose a pupil is possessed of the ordinary amount of intelligence, wishing\nto learn, but ignorant of any knowledge of drawing whatever — whether the freehand\ncopy or the pretty little view sort, or even, if you wish it, of plane geometry. We\ncount two principal means of acting on this pupil; the first, well expressed by the\nFrench word \" entrainement,\" rests on the immense power for good of well-directed\nrepetition (force of habit). Produce from the very beginning true and correct representations offorms by what means soever, you must soon learn to see those forms correctly,\n\n"}
{"page": 523, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE\n\nSELF-CORRECTING\n\nSYSTEM\n\nOF DRA\n\nWING.\n\n503\n\nand your mind will become fitted for learning the theories relating to their appearances,\njust as by similar practice of repetition and imitation you learn the true pronunciation\nof a foreign word or the true sound of a note in music. Whether one may become\ngood by doing good actions generally, is a question we do not pretend to answer, but we\ndo affirm that tracing and seeing from the first the real, solid forms before us as they\nappear when translated on to the transparent plane, is a great help toward being able\nto draw them on paper. So much for repetition. Next comes self-criticism, called also\nautogonism, or combat against one's self — putting into useful form the undeniable fact\nthat (all ungenerous and carping criticism apart) we can judge more sanely of the truth\nand error of a work not our own than of a similar work on which we have expended to\nthe full our own time and energy.\nTo have our own work so presented to us that we can criticise it with the same incisiveness that we bring to bear on that of another, is, in a word, to act out with a homedirected application the parable of the mote in our neighbor's eye. This is what we are\nenabled to do by the combination of Leonardo's transparent plane with the pantographic\nprinciple discovered by Dillingen, demonstrated by means of an elastic thread and a\nmovable indicator. The simple mechanical appliances of which we recommend the use\nare the separable parts of the typical philograph, which being simply a register of the\nhuman optical instrument, contains neither lens, prism, nor reflector. We use these\ninstruments chiefly as tests of freely done drawings, and because it is not reasonable to\nexpect the hand and eye which did a certain work to have the further accuracy necessary for immediately judging and testing that work ; and we maintain that the use of\nsuch helps, by enabling the beginner to attack much more difficult subjects than he\ncould do otherwise — namely, the drawing of irregular organic forms, etc. — prevents his\nbeing himself a machine, as he is apt to be when tied down to the constant repetition of\ninorganic geometrical forms which we have seen strongly advocated in the generally\napproved text-books of \" form study.\" With regard to the oblique line or axis (the\nbasis of that graphic alphabet by which we cultivate the habit of describing to ourself\nthe portrait to be made, before putting down one stroke with brush or chalk), several\nthings must be taken into consideration. Most people are ready to admit, on due reflection, that the oblique line is the line of life and movement. Careful observation will show\nthat all organic movements are founded on the co-relation of angles, or that the movements of living bodies may be and are represented by oblique lines (giving the axis of\neach part), forming angles more or less acute in proportion as the movements are more\nor less violent. Only where there is no movement, no sign of active life, are there no\noblique, but merely vertical or horizontal lines to be noticed. Is not this sufficient\nreason, when we are bent on drawing forms representing life and action — any forms\nwhatever other than architectural or geometrical — for setting aside the eternal plumbline and squaring methods, or at least for preferring before them the oblique or diagonal\nline, otherwise called the axis, and which we find to be the simplest expression of the\ncharacteristic direction or movement of every organic body or form ? . . . We think\nso. Hence comes it that the first of our mechanical aids are made chiefly on the plan\nof utilizing the transparent vertical plane.\nFrom what has been said I assume it is evident that whilst in the case of the beginner\npractice is intentionally put before and above theory, the general tendency of the\nmethod is far more to call forth and develop the individual thought and effort of each\nworker than to lessen these, although this objection is generally made at the first\nsuggestion of mechanical means. Finally, with regard to the oft-evoked artistic individuality ofthe student, although, as I venture to remind my hearers, it was of a\nmethod intended to help forward the study of drawing as an educational subject that\nI undertook to speak, I can only ask whether a reasonable study of the perspective, not\nonly of lines and planes but chiefly of organic and living forms, can possibly interfere\n\n"}
{"page": 524, "printed_page": null, "text": "504\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nwith the artistic, or, better, the poetic and imaginative, faculties of any person on\nearth ? Is it not rather the one thing which the vast majority of competent critics\nadmit to be most needful in modern art ? In this sense, is not the adoption of some\nsuch system worthy the consideration of this august Congress ?\n\nGENERAL\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\nMr. Anson K. Cross, of the Normal Art School and Museum of Fine Arts, Boston,\nMass. : In his industrial work he finds pupils who have drawn in the public schools\nand high-schools, unable to draw the forms of simple objects. When they can do this,\nthe art schools may teach them art. He quoted Ruskin in regard to the small proportion of people who see correctly. He feels that ability to give facts must precede\nartistic work. He criticised the statement made by Mr. Talbot at a previous session,\nthat drawing from an object is no more drawing than writing with a copy before one\nis composing.\nThe pupil must learn to spell in art as well as in language.\nProfessor W. M. R. French, of Chicago Art Institute, said that pupils had come to\nthe Art Institute, and after drawing a human figure from the antique, had been unable\nto put a plinth under it correctly. He has, in consequence, introduced the drawing of\nobjects involving the ordinary principles of perspective.\nMiss Lucy Silke, of Chicago, favored training in the beautiful at an early age. As\npupils use good language without knowing the rules of language, so pupils may unconsciously acquire good habits in art from the contemplation of good examples. The\nchildren's art is the highest kind of art.\nDr. James MacAlister. of the Drexel Institute, Philadelphia, said : But one college in this country requires any knowledge or skill in drawing for the bachelor's\ndegree. This is a great thing, that one college of the first rank, Johns Hopkins, requires\ndrawing for its B.A. The appreciation of art is far in advance of the skill in drawing. In the London Board Schools the pupils are surrounded with copies of good\nworks. Why should not all schools surround their pupils with casts and pictures, copies\nof the best ? Any school can import casts duty free. So far as the speaker's experience goes, he considers drawing from the object the only valuable exercise. Tin cans\nand earthen jars- correctly drawn are subjects for art instruction. A teacher in the\nDrexel Institute solved the problem of how to get the objects before the members of\nthe class by giving each pupil a group of small models at his desk. Give the pupils\nall the good masterpieces possible, but require them to draw from objects.\nMrs. F. M. Holland, of Boston, said that the pupils in good schools had found\ngreat benefit from copying, and even tracing, works of good masters.\nMrs. Hicks, of Boston, said that it is rumored that young men who enter Harvard\nare said to be deficient in writing English. It is said that their deficiency is because of\na lack of reading. We are trying to get the pupil to become familiar with art even as\nhe should be familiar with good reading. Football and kindred exercises may have\nkept him from English. Perhaps, sometime, nothing will keep him from either. In\nrelation to light and shade, she thought that young children can hardly see light and\nshade for themselves. If uniform renderings result from work, pupils are taking the\nimpressions of some one else. She would not begin light and shade until the pupils are\nabout twelve years old, unless they can be removed from the vicinity and influence of\ntheir mates.\nMr. Goodenough, of Brooklyn, N. Y. , believes in light and shade, and that it should\nbe put in as far down as possible.\nMr. Brown, of Indianapolis, said that pupils can see shadow if the light is allowed to\nenter at one side of the room. A child cannot learn to draw as he learns to write or to\nspell. His drawing must be the expression of his spirit. Even though the ellipses are\nimperfect and the lines do not converge perfectly, the drawings are glorified and finished.\n\n"}
{"page": 525, "printed_page": null, "text": "SHOULD\n\nPUPILS\n\nDRAW\n\nFROM\n\nTHE\n\nFLAT?\n\n505\n\nMiss Selleck, of Indianapolis, said that in many meetings we have looked for method.\nWe ought to depart with a feeling of joy that at last we are searching for principles.\nMrs Hicks said that in order to help the children glorify their drawings we must\ngive them the medium which will produce the most refinement.\nMiss Pascal, of Iowa, questioned the possibility of good light and shade before correct\noutline has been attained.\nMrs. Fuller, of Washington, gave the results of an experiment with light and shade\nbelow the high-school. First and second grade pupils did not see light and shade.\nThird and fourth grade pupils were delighted with it. From there up they seemed\ninspired by the opportunity to use light and shade. Their perspective was greatly\nimproved by the work in light and shade.\n\nSHOULD\nBY\n\nHELEN\n\nPUPILS\n\nBONDY,\n\nDRAW\n\nA GRADUATED\n\nFROM\nTEACHER,\n\nTHE\n\nFLAT?\n\nVIENNA,\n\nAUSTRIA.\n\nIn drawing, two stages of teaching must be distinguished ; the first\nmust be devoted entirely to the acquiring of sufficient skill in the drawing\nof straight and curved lines in all situations, and to attain a just eye for\nmeasures and distances on the flat. This purpose is best served by copying\nof flat ornaments either in the same or in other given proportions. But\nthis drawing from the flat must be strictly limited to these exercises, and\nought not to be extended to the copying of flowers, trees, and human\nfigures from the flat.\nWhen the pupil is able to copy a somewhat complicated ornament with\nthe least possible use of his india-rubber, in an exact outline which may\nbe sometimes drawn out in china-ink, he is sufficiently prepared to be\npromoted from the drawing from the flat to that from models. This\ntransition from the flat to the corporeal objects in space must be prepared\nfor by practical hints on the most important laws of perspective.\nIn our Austrian schools the first objects drawn from nature are revolving models of thick iron wire, representing the straight line and various\nstraight-lined figures that can be set up in different angles to the observer,\nand which afford opportunity to explain how the same line or figure can present different effects to the eye by the slightest change of position. Following, later on, are large wooden cubes, prisms, pyramids, etc., taken singly\nand in groups, which suggest to the children's observation not only the\nchanges in outline an object suffers by the laws of perspective, but also the\ndifferent degrees of light and shade, shadows projected and reflected light.\nIt is easy to proceed from these geometrical models to the drawing of simpler pieces of furniture, as a chest, a table, a chair, an open door (the last\ngiving a particularly valuable piece of instruction ) ; or to the copying\nfrom plaster casts of architectural and ornamental details, as well as of\nparts of the human body.\nIt is most desirable that public schools should awaken in young minds\n\n"}
{"page": 526, "printed_page": null, "text": "506\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nartistic feeling. But it is only in secondary education that works of art\nshould be introduced into the schoolroom. For, with the rare exceptions\nof prominent talent, it is only after the fourteenth or fifteenth year that\nyoung people are mature enough really to appreciate such works. Yet\nin elementary education the foundation can be laid successfully for\nthe understanding and enjoying of art in later years, when we adhere\nto the following principles : Any picture or model that is brought before\nthe pupils in ohject-lessons should not only serve to enlarge material\nknowledge, but should be agreeable to the eye by its harmony of form ;\nand sometimes, when the scientific part of the object is talked over, the\nteacher should not neglect to direct the attention of the children to certain beauties in outline, color, and grouping. Of course such remarks\nmust not become monotonous and pedantic. But it is not necessary to\nspecialize the manner in which such occasional remarks should be made ;\nthe practical teacher will know how to proceed.\nWhen engraved or colored landscapes, the showing of which should\nalways be an integral part of geographical lessons, are brought forth, or\npictures representing important historical events, they ought not only to\nbe utilized for the culture of reason, but for the nurturing of artistic\nfeeling.\nA teacher who himself has taste for beauty in nature will neglect no\nfit opportunity to point out the beauties of outward appearance, too, in\nanimals, plants, and minerals. In all these cases, also, the opinions of the\nchildren should be drawn forth by fitting questions from time to time.\nWhen minds have been thus prepared in earlier childhood, we can introduce at the secondary stage of education reproductions of works of art —\nthat is, photographs and engravings from pictures and sculptures. This\nshould be done in the form of a history of art that can easily be connected\nwith universal history. When the teacher attains in his courses the close\nof a historical period, a characterizing outline of the contemporary\nmovement in art should follow, illustrated by the above-mentioned copies\nof masterpieces. This survey of the evolution of art can, of course, be\nrendered the more interesting in larger cities, where galleries and museums\nare easily accessible.\nBy following such a course we may hope to approximate at least our\nideal aim in this branch of education : the awakening of taste and of\nthe appreciation of the beautiful that has so large a share in human\nhappiness.\n\n"}
{"page": 527, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\nOF INSTRUCTION\n\nCONGRESS\nIN VOCAL\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nMUSIC.\n\nREPORT.\n\nSESSION— Wednesday, July 26, 1893.\n\nThe Congress of Instruction in Vocal Music, held in Hall 31, Art Palace, was called\nto order at 9:30 a.m., Wednesday, July 26, by the Chairman, Professor F. W. Root, of\nChicago.\nAfter a few introductory remarks by the Chairman, a paper was read by Mr. Charles\nH. Greene, of Peoria, 111., on \"Learning to read Musical Notation.\"\nThis subject was discussed by Mr. Blackman and W. E. Watt, of Chicago ; N. L.\nGlover, Akron, O. ; Mrs. Liska Brachvogel, of Nashville, Tenn. ; Mrs. J. S. Dinwoodie, Dulnth, Minn.\nThe subject, \"Harmony in Music,\" was discussed by E. H. Norse, Mr. Blackman,\nand Mrs. Rose Gleason, of Chicago ; Mrs. Love, Muncie, Ind. ; Mrs. Rice, of California ;\nJ. L. Barron, Ontario, Canada; Mr. Greene and Miss Hofer, of Illinois.\n3. What music is especially adapted to children from five to ten, and what from ten\nto fifteen years ?\n4. The feasibility of forming a library of pieces of music of permanent value for the\ndifferent ages of youth — say, for example, selections from such composers as Nageli\nfor pupils from five to ten years, and from such as Mendelssohn for pupils from eleven\nto fifteen years.\nThe subjects of the above theses were discussed by Mr. Blackman, Mr. Watt, and Mrs.\nRoper, of Chicago ; Mr. Mueller, Spokane Falls, Wash.\n5. The danger of confining the course of study in music for a too long period to reading and singing mere mechanical exercises devoid of artistic merit and empty of all\nthought and feeling.\nThis subject was discussed by W. A. McAndrews, Brooklyn, N. Y. ; Mr. Grigg, Denver, Colo. ; Mr. Watt and Miss Hofer, of Chicago ; Mr. Glover, of Ohio ; Mr. Lawrence.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Thursday, July 27, 1893.\n\nThe Congress of Instruction in Vocal Music was called to order by the Chairman at\n10 o'clock a.m., Thursday.\nThe first paper of this session was read by Mr. John Howard, of New York, on \"The\nPhysiology and Hygiene of the Vocal Organs.\" The discussion following this paper\nwas participated in by Mr. Watt and Mr. Norse, of Chicago ; Mr Glover, of Ohio :\nMr. Howard, of New York ; and Mr. Holt, of Hoston.\nThe discussion was continued on \"the vocal teacher's use of some instrument, as\nthe piano or violin ; and also of classical music.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 528, "printed_page": null, "text": "508\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nRemarks were made by Mr. Marshall, of Newark, 0. ; Mr Root, Mr. Cady, Mrs.\nRoper, and Mr. Lawrence, of Chicago ; Mr. Holt, of Boston; and Mr. J. H. Kappes.\nThe session adjourned by singing, ' ' Blest be the tie. \"\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION— Friday, July 28, 1893.\n\nThe third session of the Congress of Instruction iu Vocal Music was called to order\nby the Chairman at 9.30 a.m., Friday.\nThe first paper was read by J. E. Lightuer, of Sharpsburg, Pa., on \" The Respective\nFunctions of the Regular Class Teacher and the Special Teacher of Vocal Music.\"\nThe discussion following this paper was participated in by Mr. Kappes, Mrs. J. P.\nRice, of California ; Mr. N. Coe Stewart ; Mr. De Coate, of St. Louis ; Miss Hofer and\nGeorge F. Root, of Chicago ; United States Commissioner Harris ; H. E. Holt, of\nBoston ; Mr. Grigg, of Denver ; S. W. Straub.\nThe discussion was suspended, and the following resolutions were presented :\nResolved, That this Department of Instruction in Vocal Music heartily indorse the\nappointing of a committee, to be composed of one from each State and Territory, to take\nmeasures to influence the several State legislatures to take such action as will place the\nstudy of music in the curriculum of required branches of study in all schools of the\nState, and that we earnestly cooperate in efforts to this end.\nThe resolution was adopted, after which the Congress adjourned to meet at 2.30 p. m.\nFOURTH\n\nSESSION— Friday,\n\np.m., July 28,\n\n1893.\n\nThe fourth session of the Congress of Instruction in Vocal Music was called to order\nby N. Coe Stewart, he having been invited by the regular chairman to preside at this\nsession.\n\" The Systems of Musical Notation \" was the principal subject of discussion during\nthe fourth session.\nThe following persons took part in the discussion : E. W. Norse, Mr. Montz, and\nMr. Watt, of Chicago ; Mr. Glover, of Ohio ; Mr. Holt, of Boston ; Mr. Barron, of\nCanada.\nThe subject of excusing pupils from singing was also considered by Mr. Howard, of\nNew York ; H. H. Johnson, of Mansfield, 0., and Mr. Lightner, of Pennsylvania. The\ndiscussion of this session was closed by remarks of Regina M. Carlin, Supervisor of\nMusic in Public Schools, St. Louis.\n•\n\nLIST OF PERSONS ACCEPTING THE OFFICE OF HONORARY\nVICE-PRESIDENT OF THE DEPARTMENT CONGRESS\nOF INSTRUCTION\nIN VOCAL MUSIC.\nAUSTRIA.\n\nPRANCE.\n\nDr. H. Von Billing, Vice-President Conservatory of Monsieur S. Guilhot, Orphelinat Prevost, Cempuis,\nMusic.\nSeine-Oise.\nProf. Edward Hanslick, University of Vienna.\nMonsieur A. Panraux, Inspector of Singing, Paris.\nHerr Jos. Heluiesberger, Director of Court Orchestra, Vienna\nGERMANY.\nHerr Anton Sruka, Secretary Conservatory of Music\nin Prague.\nProf. Waldemar Bargiel, Director Section of Composition, Conservatory of Music, Berlin.\nCANADA\nProf.Berlin.\nMax Bruch, Composer and Director of Music,\nEdward Fisher, Toronto.\nProf. A. Schulze, Director of Singing, Conservatory\nW. G. Workman, Music Teacher, Ottawa Normal\nof Music, Berlin.\nSchool, Ottawa, Ontario.\nProf. Dr. Spitta, Privy Councilor, Berlin.\n\n"}
{"page": 529, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIST OF HONORARY\nGREAT\n\nVICE-PRESIDENTS.\nMICHIGAN.\n\nBRITAIN.\n\nENGLAND.\n\nJohn Evans, Instructor in Singing, London School\nBoard, London.\n\nUNITED\n\nA. A. Stanley, Ann Arbor.\nMrs. E. A. Thomas, Detroit.\nMINNESOTA.\nO. E. McFadon, Supervisor of Music, Public\nSchools, Minneapolis.\n\nSTATES.\n\nMISSOURI.\n\nARKANSAS.\n\nMrs. Regina M. Carlin, St. Louis.\n\nMrs. L. Heei wagen, Little Rock.\n\nNEW\n\nCONNECTICUT.\nB. Jepson, Supervisor of Music, Public Schools,\nNew Haven.\nDELAWARE.\n\nNEW\n\nJERSEY.\n\nNEW\n\nFLORIDA.\nMrs. Ankie Green Parker, Ocala.\nGEORGIA.\nDirector,\n\nPublic Schools,\n\nYORK.\n\nEdward Dickinson, A.M.. Director of Music Department, Elmira College, Elmira.\nMrs. L.M. Henriques, Professor of Music and Vocal\nCulture. New York.\nSigismund Lasar, Professor of Music, Baker College Institute, Brooklyn.\nOHIO.\n\nILLINOIS.\nAlbert R. Sabin, Assistant\nSchools, Chicago.\n\nHAMPSHIRE.\n\nE. T. Baldwin, Manchester.\nT. L. Roberts, Supervisor of Music, Public Schools,\nJersey City.\n\nC. B. Rhoades, Wilmington.\n\nB. C. Davis, Musical\nAtlanta.\n\n509\n\nSuperintendent\n\nof\n\nIOWA.\nJ. W. Ruggles, Fayette.\nKANSAS.\nGeorge C. Young, Wichita.\nMAINE.\nHenry F. Roy, Lewiston.\nMASSACHUSETTS.\nJunius W. Hill. Director Wellesley College School\nof Music, Wellesley.\nHoseaBoston.\nE. Holt, Supervisor of Music, Public Schools,\nJ. B. Kimball, President\nMusical Association,\nOxford.\n\nW. H. Lott, Supervisor of Music, Public School,\nColumbus.\nOREGON.\nE. Cook, Poi Hand.\nPENNSYLVANIA.\nCharles W. Leander, Music Publisher, PhiladelTheodore\nSecretary\nMusic Teachers'\nNational Presser,\nAssociation,\nPhiladelphia.\nE. E phia.\nRinehart, Supervisor of Music, Pittsburg.\nTENNESSEE.\nJ. E. Bailey, Supervisor of Music, Nashville.\nWASHINGTON.\nF. Mueller, Spokane Falls.\nWEST\n\nVIRGINIA.\n\nMiss Lillie E. Church, Parkereburg.\n\n"}
{"page": 530, "printed_page": null, "text": "INSTRUCTION\nOPENING\n\nIN VOCAL\n\nREMARKS\n\nBY\n\nTHE\n\nMUSIC.\nCHAIRMAN,\n\nPEOFESSOE F. W. BOOT, OF CHICAGO.\n\nAlthough not directly in this line of work, I am greatly in sympathy\nwith school-music teaching, believing, as I do, that this department is the\nmost potent of all in making ours a musical nation ; and believing, moreover, that the school-music teachers are availing themselves of the best\nthought of our time to improve their methods and do their important\nwork conscientiously and effectively.\nSchool-music work is not as conspicuously honored as it deserves. The\nfinishing teachers often get credit for results which have been made possible only by the long-continued, patient, systematic work during the\npupils' formative years at school. School-music teachers do for musical\nauthors what parents and home influences do for character — the most important because fundamental part. And so, although some of us musicians\nhave no direct contact with this department of work, we must be blind\nindeed if we do not appreciate how dependent we are upon it, and what a\ndebt of gratitude we owe to you who are working effectively in that field.\n\nLEARNING\nBY\n\nTO\n\nREAD\n\nCHABLES\n\nH.\n\nMUSICAL\n\nGBEENE,\n\nPEOBIA,\n\nNOTATION\nILL.\n\n\" In what grades should children commence learning to read musical notation ? \"\n\nUpon entering a primary schoolroom at the beginning of the school\nyear, 1 feel it my duty to be able to determine almost instantly the capacity of the teacher to govern her class, and to determine as quickly how I\ncan do my work so that the room will, when I leave it, be in a better\ncondition than when I entered it.\nWhat is a good lesson in one room may be a very poor lesson in the\nroom across the hall ; and experienced teachers will tell you that classes\nvary a great deal from year to year. Three years ago I found a class in\na district where the best work or the best talent could not be expected,\nyet they did very good work. The intelligent lady teacher seemed surprised^ their progress. The next year all was changed. The class, to\nput it mildly, was very stupid, as far as singing was concerned.\n\n"}
{"page": 531, "printed_page": null, "text": "LEARNING\n\nTO READ\n\nMUSICAL\n\nNOTATION.\n\n511\n\nAnd now we come to consider the question, '• In what grades should\nchildren commence to learn to read musical notation ?\" I wish to say\nhere that children can learn to read music, and not see any notes or\nother signs used by musicians. I will imagine that I have taught my class\nto sing three musical sounds. I have taught them to distinguish between\na musical sound and a noise, and now I need some signs to represent\nmusical souls, and I take what is nearest to me. The desk represents\n\" one,\" the book \" two,\" and the chair \"three.\" I have taught them\nthat the names of the tones are taken from the names of numbers, one,\ntwo, three ; and I say, You may sing as I point, and the lesson is, One,\none, two, two, three, three, two, two, three, three, two, two, one, one,\none, one. Any other signs near us will do as well at this time.\nNow we will go back to the class, the first week in September ; I found\nthe teacher very much discouraged. She had enjoyed the singing of the\nprevious class, but to her mind the outlook was gloomy for the class before\nus. I sang a tone many times with the syllable \" la,\" at a convenient\npitch for the children to sing. At first they paid but little attention. I\nvaried my lesson by singing other syllables, all to the same pitch, and\nalso intoning familiar words. I saw that I was gaining ground ; nearly\nevery child in the room was looking at me, and I asked them to sing\n\" la \" with me. Only a few sang, but I kept at work on this line for fifteen minutes, and gave up the fight for a week. I was tired, but not\ndiscouraged.\nThe next week I commenced where we left off, and at the close of the\nlesson a majority of the children could sing a lesson with two tones and\neight measures. I followed up the work from week to week until the\nclass could sing some good songs by rote — for I believe in teaching some\nsongs by rote in the first (lowest) grade — could sing the scale quite well,\nand could sing many exercises from the blackboard, in good time, without the teacher pointing. Now my point is, by commencing from the\nfirst lesson to teach notation I awakened more thought and interest and\nsecured closer attention than I could have done by trying to teach them\nsongs by rote, or trying to teach them the entire scale before anything else\nwas done. If this is true of children with but little talent, how much\npleasure and profit will come to those with more talent ! My experience\ntells me that notation can be and should be commenced very early with\nthe youngest children. Unless notation is commenced in the first and\nsecond grades, many children will never learn to read music.\nOften at this early age some children have developed such a distinctive\ntalent for music that it has shaped and colored their whole lives. How\nmuch time would I take for notation from a lesson of fifteen minutes\nlong? Perhaps three or four minutes, and it maybe possible that the\nwhole lesson can profitably be given up to the teaching of notation, and\nthe next lesson given up to the teaching of songs by rote. Special teachers\n\n"}
{"page": 532, "printed_page": null, "text": "512\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nshould have good judgment, and use it continually ; no wise teacher will\ncontinue a lesson the moment children show signs of fatigue. The work\ncan be made so pleasant to the children and to the teachers in the different\nrooms that \" singing day\" will be looked forward to with great delight.\nDISCUSSION.\nPrincipal W. E. Watt, of Chicago : Singing by means of notation should be put\noff to the third year. At first, begin with rote singing, to instill songs of home, love,\nfriendship, and patriotism into the minds and hearts of the children. The teaching of\nthese songs should not, as a rule, be left to the regular teacher, for many of these do not\nknow how to teach them in the proper manner; the special teacher should teach all rote\nsongs in an artistic manner. If many leave school before they enter the higher grades,\nthey will carry away much more that will be of real value to them by learning beautiful\nsongs, having words of good sentiment, than any ability they may gain in music\nreading.\nMr. Blackman, of Chicago : The teaching which leads to music reading should begin\nwith the first lesson. For instance, if the teacher should make regular motions with\nthe hand, the children imitating, she would be teaching them to compute time. Couple\nwith this the singing of two or three tones of the scale, while the children are led to\nunite these tones to such words as they can appreciate, and the work of education in\nmusic teaching is begun. Children should be taught rote songs also, and I hope the\nUnited States Commission of Education will secure a classified list of suitable rote songs\nfor the use of the schools of our country.\nMr. N. L. Glover, of Akron. Ohio : I am surprised that there should be any diversity of opinion on the time of beginning to read music. Rote songs should be continued\nthrough all the primary grades, provided the example given by the teacher is worthy of\nimitation ; but music reading should commence at first and should be continued until\nthe pupil is able to sing new music from the notation without any aid. The gentleman\nwho read the paper had trouble in teaching a tone of one given pitch, at first, to some\nbeginners, while others learned it more readily. Some could imitate better than others.\nMy experience has been that pupils can imitate more easily when several tones of the\nscale are used in short musical phrases than when only one tone at a time is used.\nMrs. J. S. Dinwoodie, of Duluth, Minnesota: I advise dwelling upon the scale\nabout three weeks, then taking up such notation as is necessary to represent what has\nbeen learned.\nHarmony.\nMiss Liska Beachvogel, of Nashville, Tennessee : I think the feeling of time should\ncome first.\nMb. E. H. Norse, of Chicago : In what grades should pupils be required to take up\npart singing ? I think they should be taught to sing chords as early as the third year.\nLet the pupil hear these beautiful combinations of tones. They will take great delight\nin this kind of work. It will train their ears, and they will be able to produce a tone\nof better quality. When they can sing chords, let them reach out, a little at a time, in\ntwo-part singing, and they will gradually grow into part singing.\nMrs. Love, of Muncie, Indiana : I advise that harmony should be commenced the\nfirst year.\nThe time will come when vocal harmony will be taught from the start.\nMrs. Rice, of Los Angeles, California : I think the study of harmony should begin\nthe first year. We do it on the Pacific Coast, but it may be the children there are\nbrighter than others.\nMr. Blackman : The intervals of the scale should be thoroughly fixed before harmony is begun, and a good tone should be first formed, or the harmony produced would\nbe discord.\n1 think the fifth grade is soon enough for two-part singing.\n\n"}
{"page": 533, "printed_page": null, "text": "DISCUSSION.\n\n513\n\nMiss Rose Gleason, of Chicago : Teachers should sing one part while the children\nsing another, even in the first grade.\nMr. J. L. Barron, of Ontario, Canada : I think as alto is not so tuneful, children do\nnot like to sing that part. What can we do to make them like to sing alto ? Parents\nalways object to having their children sing alto.\nWhat can we do ?\nMr. Greene : I have the same difficulty, and it even extends into the high-school.\nOnly a small number can be persuaded to sing alto, while many should sing that part\nwho insist on singing soprano.\nMrs. Love : The difficulty might be obviated with the younger children by not calling it alto, but have the school sing in divisions alternately, thus giving all an opportunity to sing a lower as well as a higher part.\nMiss Rice : Are we trying to make alto and soprano singers or independent singers ?\n(Many voices : ' ' Independent singers.\")\nMiss Hofer : Every part is a melody if the music is properly made. Only such a\nclass of music should be taught.\n[The following topics were discussed together.]\n\" What music is adapted to children from five to ten, and what from ten to fifteen\nyears f\" and \" The feasibility of forming a library of pieces of music of permanent value for the different ages of youth, as the songs of Ndgeli for pupils from\nfive to ten, and Mendelssohn for pupils from ten to fifteen years.'1\nMr. Blackman : The Commissioner of Education would like to have a list of songs\nincorporated in his report, which should be taught in the different grades of public\nschools, and we should take steps to aid in this matter.\nMrs. Roper, of Chicago : I think the folk-songs of the nation, as well as patriotic\nsongs, should be included in the list ; indeed, even the native wild melodies of the\ndifferent nations should be collected for this purpose.\nMr. Watt : 1 wish to protest against the songs of Nageli for children from five to\nten years, and Mendelssohn for pupils from ten to fifteen years, and so would these\ncomposers if they were present to-day. Both of these masters have written songs suitable for all ages. I would not rule out Mendelssohn's songs for the very young, and\nNageli's for the older, but use the songs of both which are suitable to the age of the\nchild.\nMr. Mueller, of Spokane Palls, Wash. : Only a few of the songs of these authors\nare suitable for the young singer. I found that Carl Keinecke was the most prolific\nsong-writer for the young. His songs are tuneful. Children love them. They are of\na high order and contain much artistic merit, and are nearly as easy to learn as much\nso-called music which is worthless to the pupil when learned. Many of Liszt's transcriptions are the folk-songs of different nations, treated in a masterly way ; and this\naccounts largely for their popularity. Music may be very simple, yet contain many\nelements of artistic value. Concerning the folk-songs of our own nation, some one has\nsaid that \" America's only folk-songs are the songs of the colored people.\"\n\" The danger of confining the course of study too long to singing mechanical exercises\ndevoid of artistic merit and empty of all thought and feeling.\"\nMb. W. A. McAndrews. of Brooklyn, N. Y. : Too much notation, in my case, has\nled me to form a dislike for music, and it took four or five years' association with\nmusicians to bring me back. We must reach the high-school pupils by singing music\nthat will amuse the pupils, even humorous songs, and give them such music as they\nshall delight in, as college songs, in order to get them interested, and then we can\n\" slip in \" some of the better class of songs when we have them in the proper condition\nto receive them. We must reach them through the aesthetic side rather than from the\nintellectual side, if we would do them good. We must do more singing and less\nmechanical, dry study. If possible, a good solo singer or two should be introduced occa33\n\n"}
{"page": 534, "printed_page": null, "text": "514\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nsionally, a person as near as possible to the age of the high-school pupils, who shall sing\nfor them. This example will help to create a desire for singing which will make the\nwork easier for the teacher and more fruitful to the learner.\nMb. Grigg, Denver, Colorado : 1 supposed music was an intellectual exercise as well,\nand thought it should not be employed merely to amuse ; that if this method had to be\nemployed to interest the older pupils, there was something radically wrong in their earlier teaching, or they had had none at all. In order to learn to sing from notation, there\nmust be mental work, and that of a vigorous kind, for it requires sharp, quick, active\nthinking to make an expert singer, or even an average reader of music. There is of\nnecessity some rather dry, laborious work to be done, and it must be done, or failure\nis the result. Children have to learn the multiplication table and think it dry\nand distasteful, but later on they see its use ; so it is in learning to read music. We\nmust teach the mechanical along with the aesthetic, but not let the former take the\nplace of the latter and thus deaden the love of music.\nMiss Hofer, of Chicago : We must begin where it pleases the child and work from\nthis point. We must lay our theories aside if we see that they are a hindrance to the\nproper development of the musical feelings of the child.\nMr. Watt : No mechanical exercises devoid of artistic merit, empty of all thought\nand feeling, should be used at all ; and only artistic exercises should be used from the\nbeginning.\nMr. ofGlover\n: There character.\nis too littleToo\nimportance\ngiven in\nto popular\nsongs\na permanent\nlittle attention\nhas the\nbeenchild's\npaid music\nespecially\nto the\nproper teaching of patriotic songs and the words that go along with them. No other\nnation is so slack in this matter as ours. I am glad that of iate there is more of this\nteaching of patriotic songs being done, and 1 encourage the teachers to see that it is\nkept up. It has been said that on a steamer crossing the Atlantic there were several\nnations represented, and the representatives of each nation one evening engaged in\nsinging their respective national airs, and when our nation's turn came not a single\nAmerican could remember all the words of \" America,\" \" Star-spangled Banner,\" or\nany other national air. I now ask all in the room to rise who can remember all the\nverses of \" Star-spangled Banner.\"\n[Three persons only arose.]\nMr. Lawrence : Americans are not equal to foreigners in the matter of words, nor\nin music either. The tune belongs to the words ; words are characteristically national,\nmusic not so much so. Lyric loses its beauty by translation, and cannot be translated.\nMusic preserves its peculiar characteristic when adapted to words of another language.\nWe sing \" My Country, 'tis of Thee,\" in our tune \" America \" ; the English sing \" God\nsave the Queen \" to the same tune. American songs should be made which are truly\nAmerican. All songs worth learning at all should be committed to memory so that\nno books are needed when singing.\n\nPHYSIOLOGY\n\nAND\nBY\n\nHYGIENE\n\nJOHN\n\nHOWARD,\n\nOF THE\nOF\n\nNEW\n\nVOCAL\n\nORGANS.\n\nYOEK.\n\nThe voice-teacher's knowledge of the physiology and hygiene of the vocal organs.\nThe degree of strain the vocal cords can endure without injury, at the periods of\ngrowth from five years to fifteen years.\n\nCektainly the more of vocal physiology the teacher knows, the better\nis he qualified to teach, even though his knowledge is confined to that\nfurnished by the ordinary text-books used in the public school. He\nwould be less likely to commit many more current errors, harmless enough\nin themselves, but ruinous when solidified into exercises to be given to the\nimplicitly obedient pupil.\nWere there known and established laws even for the positions of the vocal\n\n"}
{"page": 535, "printed_page": null, "text": "PHYSIOLOGY\n\nAND\n\nHYGIENE\n\nOF THE\n\nVOCAL\n\nORGANS.\n\n515\n\nparts, an immense advantage would be gained. These principal parts are\neasily enumerated. But even in this comparatively easy matter there is\nextreme disagreement. Nearly all teachers advise a widely opened mouth.\nBut was Scalchi taught to protrude the lower jaw ? HaydenTilla grandly\nproclaims that the secret of singing is to protrude the upper jaw — an experiment Ihope no friend of mine will succeed in performing. Nearly\nall maestri advocate a smiling position of the lips ; jet Weiss, a better\nauthority than the average, wrote a little brochure antedating his larger\nwork, and declared that the secret of tone lay in the pressure of the lower\nlip against the teeth. Many teachers spread the corners of the mouth for\nee and e (met) ; others do not.\nA great many, like Chater in England, say that the vocal tube must be\nshortened for higher notes and lengthened for lower ones, by the rising\nand falling of the larynx ; closing his eyes to the fact that single diatonic\nintervals on the flute shorten or lengthen its tube about an inch, while\nthe whole possible movement of the larynx is, according to Meskel, only\nan inch and a half. Of course, there are other views ; one of a fixed,\nimmovable larynx, which I myself advise, because there is only one hard\nspot on the front of the spine, and at its natural position the larynx is\nreally opposite this spot, from contact with which it gains resonance.\nDr. Wyllie, of Edinburgh, a careful student, produced tones at the same\ndegrees of pitch whether he applied his weights to the front of the hyoid\nbone, or to the front of the larynx itself ; and, in further illustration, it\nhas long been suspected by some physiologists that the muscles which take\nthe place of Wyllie's weights and pull down on these parts are essential\nagents in stretching the vocal cords for both higher and more powerful\ntones.\nThis experiment suggests the fact that vocal physiology treats not only\nof the true positions of the vocal parts mentioned, but also of the efforts of\nthe muscles which can pull upon these parts, and also of those muscles\nwhich themselves constitute the parts — as, for instance, the muscles which\nform the major part of the vocal cords themselves, or of the tongue itself.\nPositions easy, efforts difficult. Were vocal physiology simply a question of positions, how simple the subject would be, comparatively! Yet\neven on this question there seem to exist irreconcilable differences of opinion. Nearly all amicably agree that the mouth should be widely opened ;\nyet how opened ?\nAll this is strictly appropriate for the discussion of the voice-teacher's\nknowledge of vocal physiology. The question concerns his qualifications,\nand surely implies a request for advice as to his best chances to qualify\nhimself. It seems that there is little agreement even as to positions, and\nnearly all this agreement appears to me to be misleading. Perhaps there\nis a nearer approach to unanimity in the two following points ; the one,\nthat the throat must be open ; the other, that it must be relaxed.\n\n"}
{"page": 536, "printed_page": null, "text": "516\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nTo speak in the first person, as now seems necessary, I appear to have\nproved to myself that these two opinions are diametrically opposed to the\ntruth. All phonation, all vocal production, seems to me to be a refined\nevolution of that constriction in closing effort which is the function of the\nalimentary canal in the lower orders of animals ; while the advice to relax\nI supplant by the instruction to make positively the effort of contraction ;\nand it may be added that, with the exception of the tongue muscles (those\nconstituting the tongue itself) and of one other muscle, the stronger the\nefforts the more beautiful the tones, both soft and loud.\nNow the query naturally arises : If I, for one, have studied faithfully\nnearly all methods in recent or earlier vogue, and have arrived at such different conclusions, how can I best advise the teacher to qualify himself\nphysiologically to study and experiment with any chance of success ? My\ncounsel would be to learn by dissection — for the clearest diagrams are\nmisleading — the actual shape, substance, and relative position of the vocal\nparts, just as the physician or laryngologist does.\nNext, the teacher should study the standard physiologies, especially the\nGerman, Houle and Luschka, both of whom describe the anatomy of the\nvocal parts and append the single office or probable office of each separate\nmuscle. He should not confine himself to the muscles of the larynx itself,\nbut give especial attention to all those which extend from the larynx and its\ninseparable companion, the hyoid bone (just above the larynx), to other\nparts. He should see how these extrinsic muscles pull upon the Adam's\napple directly or indirectly; should learn how different combinations of\nthese muscles pull ; what effect they have upon the consistency of the\ndifferent parts of the throat, and in what ways they conflict with each other.\nThen should come the application : Since these muscles are all of them\nvoluntary, the teacher should get each one under separate, voluntary control, so that he could contract one at a time or put two together at the\ninstant of starting the voice. The different effects produced, the changes\nof quality or power, would suggest further and more valuable combinations, new and easier modes of gaining this separate muscle government,\nand soon really valuable exercises might be evolved.\nThere is absolutely no other mode of investigation upon which full\nreliance can be placed. So greatly do the muscular habits of throat vary\nwith different vocalists, that there cannot possibly be any little knacks of\nuniversal application. There is the vocal function, possessed by every\none. There is the beautiful tone of artistic singing, which is an enlargement of the natural function, and is possessed, practically, by no one.\nThis enlargement of tone, extension of compass, and unnaturally beautiful quality are the result of additional muscular efforts made by the large\nextrinsic muscles of the throat, nearly all of which may be either felt or\nseen — such as the palate muscles, those of the tongue, cheek, lips, and\neven of the lower throat.\n\n"}
{"page": 537, "printed_page": null, "text": "PHYSIOLOGY\n\nAND\n\nHYGIENE\n\nOF THE\n\nVOCAL\n\nORGANS.\n\n517\n\nThe department of acoustics also needs attention. Suppose the muscular efforts are at ready command, of what use can it be unless it is known\nor at least suspected to what acoustic law a vocal gain is due ? In acoustic respects, all the later writers have run riot. Chater^s absurd comparison of the throat to a wind instrument, like the flute, is only equalled by\nMyers' theory of vocal reinforcement, by Lunn's reckless assertion that\nthe little tiny ventricles compress or press back the stream of vocal breath\nissuing from between the vocal cords, and thus decide the tone. As well\nmight one expect to compress the air in a foot-ball when half its circumference had been blown away. There is. in this statement no twilight\nsuspicion of professional jealousy. I have experimented with Koenig's\nresonators, imported from Paris. The very smallest of them, the one\nwhich is pitched to reinforce the very highest audible overtone of the\nhuman voice, is a hundred times as large as the largest existing ventricle\nin men.\nAs for advice concerning the recent works on voice — I mean the special ones, written usually by voice-teachers — I am reminded of Beecher's\nfamous specific for a cold : \" Put together a little camphor, chlorate of\npotash, turpentine, alum, and aconite ; shake the mixture thoroughly,\nthen open the window, throw glass and all as far as you can ; go to bed\nand keep your feet warm ! \" I am not at all sure, though, that such\nfiercely antagonistic and monstrous views as these later works exhibit may\nnot lead the teacher to more independence of his own. Such discrepancies might save him from the warping influence of supposed authority,\nsince there is no universal authority, and might therefore allow original\nthoughts of ultimate value to arise in freedom.\nFor a most valuable instance of the worth of even the ordinary textbooks, let me mention that nearly all the standard works declare, unmistakably, that soft tones require more muscular effort than loud ones.\nTry for yourself ; notice at home how strongly you will be tempted to\nscowl a little when you endeavor to soften a high note to an artistic finish,\nas Patti does so exquisitely. Though somewhat hoarse from a vanishing\ncold, and, of course, somewhat unsettled by so much talking, I will try\nto illustrate. Parenthetically let me remark that the singer should never\ntalk just before singing. He should give himself time to establish anew\nthat impostor, as Marcini called it ; that setting of the throat in ringing\nrigidity which must displace the looser state even of public addresses.\nThe question regarding the endurance of the vocal cords is easily\nanswered. It is practically unlimited. Children shout, scream, and\nlaugh an entire afternoon with no vocal distress, though the cords are\nIn constant and even violent action. The opinion prevails that there is\npossible some injurious friction of the cords which can irritate them\nand eventually engender disease. On the decided contrary, they may\nactually be rubbed against each other for hours without harm.\nKanlitz,\n\n"}
{"page": 538, "printed_page": null, "text": "518\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nof the German Opera, probably the best mime dwarf who appeared in\nSiegfried, practised the day through a crackling sound which really was\nmade by the mutual friction of the vocal cords. Dr. Clarence E. Rice,\none of our most expert laryngologists, examined my own vocal cords\nwhile I produced this sound. He said that the oxyhydrogen gas. which\nwe employed, made the cords as distinct as though he held them in his\nhand close to his eyes, and that they were distinctly seen to l'ub against\neach other to cause the grating sound. The singing voice is not possible\nuntil this rubbing together is stopped and the cords are allowed to\nswing freely.\nThe sudden coughing which often follows harsh or unnatural singing\nis due to the friction of the back of the larynx upon the muscle which\nseparates it from the spine, not to the cords, unless they are in a state of\nactual disease. Let me close by describing a most wonderful experiment,\nmade by Harless, more than sixty years ago.\nAt midnight, this time being chosen to avoid disturbing noises, with two\ntrained assistants, and employing machinery of his own invention, far\nmore complicated than a sewing-machine, with mpst ingenious devices to\nmark the slightest changes of temperature and smallest divisions of\nweight, he first stretched freshly exsected vocal cords till they were\ntorn asunder, thus learning how far he could safely try them. Then, by\ngradually increasing the weights in the exactly graduated scale, he noted\ndown the exact added weight which would produce the ascending notes\nof a scale of one octave and a half ; now taking a fresh specimen and\nstopping just short of rupture. After one hour and a half of constant\nstrain in various severe experiments, he repeated, with the very same specimen, his first experiment, with the amazing result of finding that precisely the same weights brought precisely the same tones, with one trifling\nexception, which he thought must be charged to the awkwardness of his\nassistants.\nNow, it is impossible to strain any muscle, during its contraction,\nanywhere near any danger of being torn asunder. Long before that point\nhas arrived, the utmost lengthening possible will have been reached. This\nis a strict answer to the mooted question. If one asks how long can a\nmuscle be contracted without injury, he asks an entirely different question. The vocal muscles will become tired like all others, and it is true\nthat exceptional use will make them painful and temporarily weaken\nthem. But no case has yet come to my notice where a few days' rest, or,\nin extreme cases, a fortnight, has not fully restored their natural force.\n\n"}
{"page": 539, "printed_page": null, "text": "DISCUSSION.\n\n519\n\nDISCUSSION.\nThe qualifications of a teacher of vocal music.\nMe. Watt : Nearly all well-trained voices use a soft, pleasant voice in speaking.\nMr. Glover : In taking breath to produce a tone, where does the expansion begin ?\nMr. Howard : The expansion to produce a tone begins at the fourth rib ; at least the\nsensation is at this point. Nearly all great singers breathe in this way, but there are a\nfew exceptions, and these persons sing very well.\nPresident Root : I think a little knowledge is a dangerous thing on this point. If\nyou do not. know thoroughly how to answer, do not answer. It doesn't make so much difference how you take breath, but how to manage it when you have taken it is the serious\nquestion. Go slowly on any new theory you may come across ; you may be mistaken and\nthen do harm. In regard to the position of the larynx, which Mr. Glover asked about, I\nwould say that there is a certain place where it gives more resonance to the voice. Its\nposition would depend on whether you wished the orotund voice or the thin, sentimental\nvoice. Hold the larynx nearly at one point if you wish ease without much shading ;\nmove it for color of tone.\nMr. Howard : There is great power in a fixed larynx, and it should be, in all singing,\nalmost fixed ; but I have heard very beautiful tones made by a movable larynx.\nMr. Watt : The larynx is attached to the spinal column, but merely tilted in front,\nand we have the privilege of letting it play a little.\nMr. Norse : I would like to know what we can say to the boys and girls next\nSeptember.\nMr. H. E. Holt, of Boston : I would not talk to them about these things. How\nmuch study of the eye do the painters give in order to paint ? These are interesting\npoints for us to study as teachers, but if the pupil's attention is directed to these things\nhe is made self-conscious, and his mind is directed to the mechanical process. He should\nthink of the music ; the voice is but the natural way of expressing the musical feelings\nof the soul. In teaching children, if perfect intonation is secured nine-tenths of the\nwork is done, so far as using the voice properly is concerned. No rote singing should\nbe done. More interest is awakened by teaching the intervals of the scale and naming\nthem, and thus training the mind to think.\nMr. Glover : There should be no strain of the vocal cords, and as little tension as\npossible. A good example should be given, and nothing should be said about the throat\nand its anatomy. If you talk about the anatomy of the throat, you confuse the pupils\nas well as yourself.\nThe vocal teacher's use of some instrument, as the piano or violin ; also of classical music.\nMr. Marshall, of Newark, Ohio : 1 should not use an instrument to lead in teaching. It is an advantage to have a piano or organ to give the correct example in teaching\nchromatic tones, and in illustrating certain harmonious progressions.\nMr. Root : There is much diversity of opinion as to what constitutes classic music ;\neach one will have to speak according to his notion of the term.\nMrs. Roper : Classic music is the music which has stood the best test of the artists\nand musicians.\n\nIt may be very simple, as \" Heavenly Father,\" by Beethoven.\n\nMr. Lawrence : The element of time must enter before music can be called classic.\nNo modern music can be truly called classic, although it may become so if it endures\nlong enough. The teacher should use as much of this kind of music as is easy enough\nfor the children to appreciate, and such as the children like.\n\n"}
{"page": 540, "printed_page": null, "text": "520\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nMr. Holt : In our discussion we are soaring above the more practical things in teaching. Music must be put on such a basis that the everyday teacher can do the work,\nand she does not have the time to study music in its higher forms. We must understand\nthe universal law of teaching music. When we shall truly observe these laws, there\nwill be far more progress than there is now.\nMr. J. H. Kappes : To be a successful teacher you must feel it. There is too much\ntalk about the different systems. If you do not feel what you teach, these systems will\nbe of no use to you. While a boy I was in company with Mendelssohn and other musicians. Mendelssohn said there was a good deal of nonsense in the five-finger exercises\nand meaningless eludes then in vogue. Why not use the music of Mozart. Hink, and\ngood old Father Haydn ? In regard to what classic music is, Mendelssohn said it was the\nkind that the more you heard it, the better you liked it ; and the kind that was not\nclassic was the kind that the less you hear it, the better you liked it. Mendelssohn and\nSilcher wrote the folk-songs for the masses. They were not conscious that they were\nwriting classic music at the time, but they felt what they were writing. Be an enthusiast\nin your work if you would succeed. The primary teacher should not be satisfied with a\nlittle knowledge of her subject.\nMr. C. B. Cady, of Chicago : What musical studies in the great masters should the\nteacher keep up for the sake of his own improvement ? Each specialist must get out of\nhis specialty a part of the time, and practice in other lines. We must not think of\ninstrumental music alone, nor vocal, but music. We should learn to play different\ninstruments, we should sing alone, and with others, and especially in chorus, to keep up\nour education and keep in touch with the various departments of music. We ought to\nstudy the works of all the masters and take up the whole field of art, and be educators\nas well as musicians.\nThere must be preparation if we would accomplish anything.\n\nTHE\n\nFUNCTIONS\nBY\n\nJ.\n\nE.\n\nOF TEACHERS\nLIGHTNER,\n\nOF VOCAL\n\nSHAKPSBURG,\n\nMUSIC.\n\nPA.\n\nThesis : \"What are the respective functions of the regular class teacher, and the\nspecial teacher of vocal music ?\n\nWhat are the respective functions of the fingers and the hand ? Of the\npinions and the wing ? As a nail is not driven and clinched with one\nstroke, so is a lesson not grounded in the pupil's mind with one presentation. The nail, to properly perform its functions, must be started aright ;\nmust be of proportionate length to the thickness and density of the timber ; must have the right slant ; must be a good nail. But a good nail,\nonly of right proportions and started properly, will not hold the timbers\ntogether. It must have successive strokes, intelligently and persistently\napplied, until it is clinched, before it will hold. What the successive\nstrokes are to the nail, the regular class teacher is to the pupil — driving,\nclinching the ideas, while the selection and starting of the nail corresponds\nto the special teacher's function.\nWhere both the regulars and the specialists are keenly alive to the situation, and truly realize the responsibility of their callings, the discussion of\nthis question is useless. But such conditions frequently are lacking ;\nhence the discussion of this topic becomes essential.\nOf course the special teacher should have a thorough knowledge of his\nspecialty, and the discussion of that point ought not to consume time.\n\n"}
{"page": 541, "printed_page": null, "text": "DISCUSSION.\n\n521\n\nBut, knowing how to teach, how to present his subject ; \" having knowledge\nof methods of instruction ; \" having tact, and ability to concentrate and\nhold attention till a lasting impression be made, are of vital importance.\nMusic in the public schools has been brought into disrepute many times\nbecause musicians of more or less prominence were selected to supervise it,\nwith no regard whatever to their qualifications as teachers — using a spike\nwhere a shingle nail is needed, or a shingle nail where a spike was necessary. To be a successful supervisor of music, much more depends upon\nability to teach than extensive knowledge. The great majority of successful directors of public-school music have first been successful as regular\nteachers, graduating from the ranks of regulars to the advanced position\nof specialist. He must not alone have the ability to teach, but must also\nbe able to do normal work, to instruct his regular teachers, and to direct\nand inspire them with a love for their work.\nHaving now a good nail, of requisite proportions, and rightly started,\nwe come to the work of the regular class teacher. It is essential that\nshe should have such devotion to her chosen profession that the direction\nof and the inspiration from the special teacher may not fall as \" seed in\nstony ground.\" To be a good teacher she must be a good student, carefully noting the lessons by her superior, have a clear conception of his\nidea and method ; then by intelligent and persistent drilling of pupils,\nindividually, in groups, and in concert, so impress the point in hand as\nto make it clear and lasting. The pupils must become independent music\nreaders ; the teacher must see to it that they do.\nThe tendency is toward too much class drill and not enough individual\nwork. Through class drill pupils necessarily become dependent. Rapid\nindividual tests, at sight or first effort drill, are necessary, and the regular\nteacher must be a good manager, must have almost unlimited resources to\nsecure it. A very common mistake made by surface teachers is to help\npupils, instead of directing them to intelligently master it 'themselves,\nmaking them thereby dependent in place of independent. She should be\nable to sing melodies for pupils to represent — original melodies, generally —\nand be able to tell at a glance whether correctly or incorrectly represented;\nsing for, not with, the pupils. Summing up, she must have a clear conception ofwhat to teach, and know how to teach it.\n\nDISCUSSION.\nMr. Kappes : I do not believe in specialists in music. I would compel every teacher\nto become a thorough musician. Martin Luther was a musician as well as theologian ;\nhe would have no man preach the Gospel unless he was skilled in music. Pestalozzi\nwould have every teacher trained in music. The normal schools of Europe make music\ncompulsory. The government will not issue a diploma unless the teacher has passed the\nproper examination in music. Music is now regarded as a more substantial study than\nformerly, and this country will finally become the leader of music in the world.\n\n"}
{"page": 542, "printed_page": null, "text": "522\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION.\n\nMrs. J. Powell Kick, Los Angeles : California has a law making music a regular\nstudy in the schools, and the State normal schools require their teachers to pass an\nexamination in music before they can get a certificate to teach.\nMr. N. Coe Stewart : I think the regular teacher should do the work. The supervisor must visit, see that the work is done properly, and encourage and instruct teachers\nwhere necessary. Every pupil should be able to sing alone. If he has been instructed\nproperly, and has tried to do the required work, he will be able to sing intelligently.\nMr. De Coate, of St. Louis : All cannot learn to sing ; neither can all teachers learn\nto teach music.\nMr. Stewart : I know a lady who could not tell one tone from another, who finally\nbecame a splendid teacher ; and I knew a boy who for several years sang the same tone\nall the time, who finally learned to sing solos well in public.\nMiss M. Hofer spoke of the danger of laying too much stress on the mechanical part\nof singing, to the neglect of musical expression.\nMr. Holt : Too much teaching of songs has been done, and the elements have been\nneglected.\nCommissioner Wm. T. Harris : 1 have seen too much notation taught to young\nchildren.\nThe child should be taught beautiful airs at first.\nMr. Holt : Dr. Harris has evidently seen poor teaching. At first there should be no\nmechanical exercises used. We must establish the tones as they exist in nature. We\nmust teach the real things in music before we teach the characters which represent\nthem. There is a better way than the old way of teaching a lot of \" signs \" which are\nmeaningless to the pupil before the things they represent are first taught.\nDr. Harris : I am in sympathy with this matter of teaching music in schools. And\nalthough it is often poorly taught, it is doing a vast amount of good.\nMiss Hofeii : The artistic singing of songs is often neglected for the ordinary work of\nreading music.\nDr. Geo. F. Root : Music is largely an imitative art, but to build up a system of\nteaching on this basis is wrong.\nMr. GrRiGG : We cannot make artists of our pupils. It is not so much a question\nwhether the pupil enjoys it, but whether he is able to do the necessary mechanical work\nin order to learn to sing from the notation.\nMr. S. W. Straub : There are different departments in music. Pleasing the pupils\nis one thing, and teaching them to understand the higher class of music is another, but\nthe mind must be trained to recognize the tones and their relationship, and this requires\nmechanical work.\nSystems of musical notation.\nMr. E. W. Norse, of Chicago: I have tried the tonic-sol system, in a quiet way,\nbut I did not call it by that name. The teachers fell in line and liked it. We used it\nin Englewood in the first four grades. The pupils who had spent four years on sol-fa\ndid more work in the fifth year on staff than those in Chicago who had been brought\nup on staff alone.\nMr. Montz, of Chicago : I am in favor of the sol fa system. We can teach better\nby using tonic sol-fa first, and afterward teaching the staff.\nMr. Glover : The aim seems to be, by the sol-fa-ists, to read from the staff in the\nend. To use the tonic sol-fa to aid in this, is what I cannot understand. To be able\nto cultivate the ear in music, no notation can assist. If the staff cannot be used as a\nmeans to learn, I would like to have the objections of the staff pointed out.\n\n"}
{"page": 543, "printed_page": null, "text": "DISCUSSION.\n\n523\n\nMr. Holt : We will have no need for a new notation if we only investigate the subject according to the established pedagogical laws of teaching other branches, and\nteach music according to these laws. 1 have great respect for tonic sol-fa methods, for\nthey are the same as used by the movable-do teachers, but we do not need its written\ncharacters.\nMusic is the same whether sol-fa, or buckwheat notes, or the staff is used.\nMr. Barron, of Canada : The tonic sol-fa is the most scientific system, and the\ntime will come when many of you will change your minds and use the sol-fa notation.\n\" What pupils, if any, should be excused from the musical exercises of the schoolroom ?\"\nMr. Watt: Some pupils come from homes where they have private instruction,\nand are able to sing artistically alone. These should be excused where the singing in\nschool is poor and out of tune.\nMr. Howard : I do not object to having my children sing in schools where they\nsing out of tune, it does them no harm, for they have the scale so well fixed in their\nminds that it does no serious harm.\nMr. H. H. Johnson, Mansfield, Ohio : Sometimes, when the voices of boys are\nchanging, I have excused them.\nMr. Howard : It would not harm the voice to sing while undergoing a change, if\nthe boy would sing within his proper compass, and not try to sing too high or too low.\nMr. Stewart : I would not excuse from singing except on account of sickness.\nMr. S. H. Lightner : If a physician said it would be injurious for the pupil to sing\non account of throat difficulty, he should be excused until the physician considered it\nsafe for him to sing. If the pupil has formed a love for singing, he usually wants to\nsing at such times, and is proud to be able to sing bass. If the teacher would occasionally express in school a desire for bass singing, and hope that some of the boys\nwill soon have new voices that can sing a real bass, then when the change of voice\ncomes the boys will be anxious to sing this part, and no one will want to be\nexcused, if this matter is treated intelligently by the teacher.\nRegina M. Carlin, Supervisor of Music in Public Schools, St. Louis, Mo. : My\nexperience in teaching and in attending musical conventions leads me to the conclusion\nthat too much stress is laid upon methods and systems for instruction in vocal music.\nThe successful teacher carries good methods unconsciously into his teaching. He\nbrings his subject clearly within the understanding of his pupils, and uses such means\nas are suited to the condition of his pupils ; and by sensible exercises leads them step by\nstep until they are able to sing with others, or alone. Faulty steps are pointed out and\ncorrected, until the pupils learn to avoid them through good habits. A good foundation for musical knowledge is laid, and upon this may be built a permanent and\nharmonious structure.\nAs the art of breathing well is fundamental to good singing, the pupils should receive\ndue training in this matter, especially as it is also important for sanitary effects.\nThe lungs in singing have to furnish the air necessary to produce tones, as the bellows\nfurnishes the wind to organ pipes, without which there could be no musical sounds produced bythe keyboard. Children should be trained to take the tone desired before the\nbreath is expelled from the lungs, and taught how to hold or prolong the same sound,\nalso different sounds in succession.\nThe lungs and throat must be made to grow strong gradually, as the voice is developed\ninto good singing tones. The children should be led to express feelings in their singing\ntones.\nVocal music should occupy an important place in the school exercises. It is the\ngrand medium for developing the moral and religious feelings, and of communicating\nhappiness to others.\n\n"}
{"page": 544, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 545, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\nOF\n\nCONGRESS\n\nTECHNOLOGICAL\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nINSTRUCTION.\nREPORT.\n\nSESSION— Wednesday,\n\nJuly 26, 1893.\n\nThe Department Congress of Technological Instruction was held in Hall 24 of Memorial Art Palace. The first session was called to order by General Francis A. Walker,\nChairman of the department, at 9.30 a.m., Wednesday, July 26. The business of the\nCongress was begun with an opening address by the Chairman.\nProfessor Robert H. Thurston, Director Sibley College of Mechanical Engineering,\nCornell University, Ithaca, N. Y., followed with a paper on \"Technological Schools :\nTheir Purpose and its Accomplishment.\"\nThis paper was followed by a discussion in which the following persons took part :\nProfessor R. H. Richards, Boston; President Henry T. Eddy, Terre Haute, Ind. ; Mrs.\nCharles Henrotin, of Chicago ; Professor Waterman, of the University of Chicago ; also\nby Professors Allen, Thurston, Woodbury, and F. 0. Marvin, Lawrence, Kan. ; and\nMr. Boos-Jegher, from Switzerland.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Wednesday,\n\nJuly 27, 1893.\n\nThe department assembled at 9.30 a.m.\nProfessor John M. Ordway, Tulane University, New Orleans, presented a paper on\nthe \" Training for Scientific Professions,\" which was read by Professor George F. Swain.\nPresident D. C. Gilman, of Johns Hopkins University, on being called upon by the\nChairman, gave a brief historical account of the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale\nUniversity.\nThe next paper, \" Educational Value of Exact Measurement,\" was by Professor Alfred\nM. Mayer, of Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, N. J.\nA paper was presented on \" The Educational Value of Applied Mathematics, including Engineering,\" by F. R. Hutton, Professor of Mechanical Engineering, School of\nMines, Columbia College, New York.\nThis subject was discussed by Professor Robert H. Thurston, of Sibley College, Cornell University.\nUnited States Commissioner Hon. W. T. Harris followed, speaking upon the importance of the discussions upon the educational values of subjects taught in the technological schools.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION— Friday, July 28, 1893.\n\nThe meeting of this department was called to order by the Chairman at 9.30 A.m.,\nFriday morning.\nThe first paper was by Professor R. H. Kichards, of Boston, Mass., on \"Shop- Work\nand Drawing as Means, of Developing Slow Pupils.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 546, "printed_page": null, "text": "526\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nThis subject was discussed by Professors Woodward, St. Louis ; Baker, of the University of Illinois ; and General P. A. Walker.\nProfessor G. Lanza, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, presented\na paper, in which he considered \"The Educational Process of Training an Engineer'\nfor the several departments of engineering.\nThis subject was discussed by Professor C. M. Woodward, of St. Louis ; Professor\nShattuck, of University of Illinois ; Dr. W. T. Harris, United States Commissioner of\nEducation, and others.\nHenry T. Eddy, President of Rose Polytechnic Institute, Terre Haute, Ind., read a\npaper on \" The Educational Value of Applied Mathematics, and Engineering.\"\nThis subject was discussed by Professor G. Lanza, of Massachusetts, and Professor\nWoodward, of St. Louis.\nProfessor De Volson Wood, of Stevens Institute, followed with remarks on the same\nsubject.\n\nLIST OF PERSONS ACCEPTING THE OFFICE OF HONORARY\nVICE-PRESIDENT OF THE DEPARTMENT CONGRESS OF\nTECHNOLOGICAL INSTRUCTION.\nFINLAND.\n\nARIZONA.\n\nProf. Ernst Qvist, Director of Polytechnic Institute, Helsingfors.\n\nDr. Merrill P. Freeman, President University of\nArizona, Tucson.\n\nFRANCE.\n\nARKANSAS.\n\nM. le Colonel Laussedat, Director of the School of\nArts and Trades. Paris.\nM. Charles Lucas, Architect, Paris.\nM. L. Masson, Engineer School of Arts and Trades,\nParis.\nM. Paul Melon, Paris.\nM. Haton de la Gonpilliere, Inspector- General of\nMines, National Superior School of Mining,\nParis.\n\nDr. E. H. Murfee, President Industrial University,\nFayetteville.\n\nGREAT\n\nBRITAIN.\n\nA. H. Gilke, Master Dulwich College, London.\nJ. H. Reynolds, Secretary of the Manchester Technical School, London.\nJ. C. L. Sparkes, City and Guilds South London\nTechnical Arr School, London.\nJ. Wertheimer, B.Sc. Hend Master Bristol Merchant Ventnress Technical School, Bristol.\nThomas R. Ashenhurst, Head Master of Textile\nDepartment,\nBradford Technical School, Bradford.\nH. S. Hele-Shaw, University College, Liverpool.\nSCOTLAND.\n\nHenry Dyer, C.E., M.A., D.Sc, Glasgow.\nProf. Ewing. F.R.S., Dundee and District Association for Promotion of Technical and Secondary\nEducation, Dundee.\nJAPAN.\nMr. Koyama Kenzo, Tokyo.\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES.\n\nALABAMA.\nDr. William LeRoy Brown, President Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn.\nW. H. Council!. President State Normal andlndusirial School, Normal.\n\nDISTRICT\n\nOF COLUMBIA.\n\nProf. Cleveland Abbe, Weather Bureau, Department of Agriculture, Washington.\nGEORGIA.\nDr. H. C. White, President Georgia State College\nof Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts, Athens.\nINDIANA.\nDr. Henry T. Eddy. President Rose Polytechnic\nInstitute. Terre Haute.\nDr. James H. Smart, President Purdue University,\nLafayette.\nIOWA.\nDr. W. M. Beardshear, President Iowa Agricultural\nCollege, Ames.\nKENTUCKY.\nDr. James K. Patterson, President Agricultural and\nMechanical College, Lexington.\nLOUISIANA.\nDr. Brown Ayres, Professor Tulane University,\nNew Orleans.\nH. A. Hill, President Southern University, New\nOrleans.\nMAINE.\nDr. M. C. Fernald, State College of Agriculture and\nMechanic Arts, Orono.\nMARYLAND.\nMajor H. E Alvord, President Maryland Agricultural College, College Park.\n\n"}
{"page": 547, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIST OF HONORARY\n\nVICE-PRESIDENTS.\n\n527\n\nMASSACHUSETTS.\n\nOHIO.\n\nDr. Homer T. Fuller, President Worcester Polytfchnic Institute, Worcester.\nDr. H. H. Goodell, President Agricultural College,\nAmherst.\nDr. N. 8. Shaler, Dean Lawrence Scientific School,\nHarvard University, Cambridge.\n\nDr. William H. Scott, President State University,\nColumbus.\nDr. (.,'ady Staley, President Case School of Applied\nScience, Cleveland.\n\nMICHIGAN.\nDr. Oscar Clute, President State Agricultural College, Lansing.\nDr. M. E. Wadsworth, President Michigan Mining\nSchool, Houghton.\n\nOKLAHOMA.\nR. J. Barker, C.E., President Agricultural\nMechanical College, Stillwater.\n\nand\n\nPENNSYLVANIA.\n\nMISSISSIPPI.\n\nDr. George W. Atherton, President State College,\nState College.\n\nJohn H. Burma, A.M., President Alcorn Agricultural and Mechanical College, Rodney.\nGen. S. D. Lee, President Agricultural and Mechanical College, Agricultural College.\nR. S. McCulloch, Pass Christian.\n\nDr. Lewis McLouth, President Agricultural College,\nBrookings.\n\nSOUTH\n\nMISSOURI.\nInman E. Page, President Lincoln Institute, Jefferson City.\nNEW\n\nHAMPSHIRE.\n\nDr. R. Fletcher, Director Thayer School of Civil\nEngineering, Dartmouth College, Hanover.\nNEW\n\nMEXICO.\n\nHiram Hadley, A.M., President Agricultural College, Las Cruces.\nNEW\n\nYORK.\n\nProf. A. S. Bickmore, American Museum of Natural\nHistory, New York.\nDr. John H. Peck, President Rensselaer Institute,\nTroy.\nNORTH\n\nCAROLINA.\n\nAlexander Q. Holladay, President Agricultural College, Raleigh.\n\nDAKOTA.\n\nUTAH.\nJ. W. Sanborn, B.S., President Agricultural College, Logan.\nVIRGINIA.\nDr. John W. Mallet, Professor University of Virginia, Charlottesville.\nDr. J. M. McBryde, President Agricultural and\nMechanical College, Blacksbnrg.\nGen. Scott Shipp, Superintendent Virginia Military\nInstitute, Lexington.\nWASHINGTON.\nGeorge Lilley, President State Agricultural College\nand School of Science, Pullman.\nWEST\n\nVIRGINIA.\n\nJ. E. Campbell, Ph.B., Principal West Virginia\nInstitute, Farm.\n\n"}
{"page": 548, "printed_page": null, "text": "TECHNOLOGICAL\nOPENING\nGENERAL\n\nFRANCIS\n\nADDRESS\nA.\n\nWALKER,\n\nINSTRUCTION.\nOF THE\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nTUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,\n\nCHAIRMAN,\nOF\n\nMASSACHUSETTS\n\nINSTI-\n\nBOSTON.\n\nThis, so far as I am aware, is the first general conference ever called\nto discuss the whole subject of technological education. Delegates from\nthe \"Colleges of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts\" established in the\nUnited States under the act of 1862, have for some years met in annual\nconvention to consider matters of common interest ; but in these conventions agriculture has been so far the predominant topic as to throw\nother departments of instruction into the shade.\nIt was well that this present conference should be called. It was high\ntime that the friends of technological education should assemble, to compare their experiences, to inquire what is lacking or what has been ill-done\nin the remarkable development that has taken place during the last twentyfive }7ears, and to take counsel together regarding the means for completing,\nfor perfecting, for strengthening this system of public instruction. The\nrepresentatives of the classical culture long ago recognized the importance\nof mutual conference, and many and earnest have been the deliberations\nand debates in which delegates from colleges and universities have sought\nto find out the way by which they might do greater good to the community and the world, in their devoted and self-sacrificing exertions on behalf\nof education. Technological instruction, from its newness, from the sporadic character of the enterprises with which it has been connected, from\nthe inherent gravity and complexity of its problems, has even greater need\nof consultation and conference among its teachers and its friends.\nIt is said that nearly or quite one hundred institutions, in America alone,\nare now offering instruction in the applications of the sciences to the useful\narts. In Great Britain, if my information is correct, the number of science\nschools and technical colleges is not much smaller. With but a few exceptions, this vast body of educational agencies represents the developments\nof only a quarter of a century. Some of these schools have been founded\nunder the protection and patronage of great universities ; others have been\nthe outcome of independent effort. Some have sought to cover the whole\nground of technological instruction ; others have confined themselves to\ncomparatively limited fields. Some have from the first achieved a decided\nsuccess ; others are still struggling with poverty of means, with embar-\n\n"}
{"page": 549, "printed_page": null, "text": "OPENING\n\nADDRESS\n\nOF THE\n\nCHAIRMAN.\n\n529\n\nrassments due perhaps to a false start, or with the inherent difficulties of\ntheir respective problems. Surely, in such a situation, it is eminently\nwise that the representatives of technological education should assemble in\ngeneral convention, to deliberate upon the means of advancing their common object; to inquire what restrictions, if any, should be placed around\nthe field of their activity ; to learn, each from others, what measures may\nbe taken to promote the efficiency with which these schools shall prepare\ntheir pupils for the severe trials of professional practice ; and, last of all,\nand most of all, to search deeply into the question how technical instruction and training may be made truly educational, in the largest and best\nsense of that word, so that the schools shall render the greatest possible\nservice, not merely to industry and the arts, but also to character and\ncitizenship, to mind and manhood.\nSo strongly has the importance of this subject, in view of the recent\nvery remarkable extension of the class of schools referred to, pressed upon\nthose who have framed the plans for this general conference of education,\nthat it has been decided to allot three morning sessions to the subject of\ntechnological education. Of these, the first, the present session, has been\nassigned to the discussion of the question, how far the technological instruction of to-day answers its primary requirement, the preparation of young\nmen to enter upon the practice of the scientific professions ; what failures\nor deficiencies have been discovered as the result of an experience wide if\nnot long ; what are the causes of any failures or deficiencies which may be\nfound to exist ; and what measures should be taken to complete and perfect\nthese schools upon their purely professional side. The two remaining\nsessions are to be devoted, to the consideration of the actual and the possible work of technical schools as instruments of general education. For\nthe purposes of the proposed discussion regarding technical education, the\npresent occasion is most felicitous, not merely in the presence of so large\na number of distinguished educators, attracted hither by the wonders and\nthe glories of the Columbian Exposition; not merely in the inspiration\nafforded by this great object-lesson of industrial art, the greatest which\nhas ever been devised by the ingenuity of man, ordered and arranged by\nhis taste and skill, and executed by his enterprise and energy ; but also,\nand perhaps even most of all, by the presence here, in the courts of the\ndepartment of liberal arts, of the large and comprehensive exhibits made by\nthe technical schools of our own and foreign lands. All that may be said\nhere must be taken in connection with the work of students, the schemes\nof courses, the apparatus of instruction, shown in the galleries of the main\nbuilding of the Exposition. Whether in their professional or their educational aspects, these exhibits should be deeply and carefully studied by\nevery educator who would form an intelligent and candid opinion as to\nwhat the schools of this class are really doing.\nIn the preparation of the programme for these sessions, it has not been\n34\n\n"}
{"page": 550, "printed_page": null, "text": "530\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nsought to secure a series of elaborate and exhaustive papers which should\noccupy the time available for the consideration of the topics proposed. It\nhas been the wish of the management that the papers read should be\ncomparatively brief theses, presenting the several topics in a suggestive\nrather than in a comprehensive manner, with a view to invite oral discussion and to promote the face-to-face comparison of individual views anc\nexperiences.\nIn such a conference as this, the most that is to be expected of the presiding officer is that he shall from day to day arrange and provide for the\npresence and the participation of the largest number of those whose positions and services in the cause of education, technical or general, qualify\nthem to add to the interest and to the value of the discussion. Yet, in\nthis first conference on the subject of technological education, I cannot\nforbear to avail myself of my privilege as chairman to mention certain\nquestions which press for consideration in connection with this department\nof instruction.\nFirst. How far those who control and conduct schools of technology\nare bound to qualify and modify their courses of instruction with reference to the fact that their students are, as a rule, not the graduates of\ncolleges, and that the training they receive in these schools must, therefore, be the only training, within the college grade both as to age and as\nto mental development, which they are to enjoy before entering upon the\nserious duties of life. The fact which has been alluded to was clearly not\nin contemplation of those who first founded our schools of technology, if,\nindeed, it is not in flat contradiction of what they then anticipated. It\nseems plain from Mr. Abbott Lawrence's deed of gift to Harvard College,\nfor the endowment of the scientific school which bears his name, that it\nwas his expectation that the students would be largely college graduates ;\nyet, in the latest catalogue of that school which I have seen, among one\nhundred and eighty-one students only two are graduates of colleges, only\none of a classical college. At the Massachusetts Institute of Technology\nthe number of college graduates ranges between forty and fifty. These\nstudents, therefore, form only between four and five per cent, of the total\nmembership of the school. A slightly larger proportion, I believe, is maintained at the Sheffield School at New Haven. In view of this development of schools of technology, we are bound to inquire whether their\ncurriculum should not be more or less qualified and modified to meet\nthe fact that their pupils are to receive no further and no other college\ntraining.\nSecond. The second question I would venture to suggest is, how far\nthe judgment of practitioners of technical professions should conclude or\nshould influence the teachers and administrators of technical schools.\nProbably the first thought in any man's mind would be to the effect that\nthe best advice in regard to technical education would come from those\n\n"}
{"page": 551, "printed_page": null, "text": "OPENING\n\nADDRESS\n\nOF TEE\n\nCHAIRMAN.\n\n531\n\nengaged in the practice of the corresponding scientific professions. Yet it\nappears to me that this is a subject which should be carefully discussed,\nand that it is not a matter of course that the first thought on the presentation of the question is correct.\nLet us make the issue a little more specific. Engineering education, for\nexample — is it primarily and principally an engineering or an educational\nproblem ? Is the engineer, who is not and has never been a teacher, necessarily abetter judge than a teacher who has never been an engineer ? Of\ncourse it is not intended here to intimate that the opinions of practicing\nengineers regarding engineering education may not be of great value ;\nthat, in any case, they are not evidence which should be carefully considered bythose who are to judge of any question which concerns engineering\neducation. But who is to be the judge — the engineer or the educator?\nWhatever the professional standing of any engineer, are his views conclusive upon the faculty of an engineering school ?\nMy own opinion is that engineering education is primarily and principally an educational and not an engineering problem ; and that the judgment of a strong and experienced teacher who has studied that problem is\nmore likely to be right than that of any engineer without experience as a\nteacher, however eminent he may be in his profession.\nThird. A third question of importance in the development of technical\neducation is whether or not a substantial connection with a university\nconstitutes an advantage. Much might be said on both sides of this question. Admirable examples are offered us of technical schools under the\nprotection and patronage of great universities, and of detached technical\nschools which have steadily and successfully pursued their way, alike without hindrance and without help from a corporation or a faculty having\nother interests as well as their own in charge. Without undertaking to\ndiscuss this question in full, I will venture to make two remarks which it\nseems to me should be considered at the very outset of such a discussion.\nNo advantage which a technical school can derive from association with\na university, through the ability, experience, and comprehensive views of\nthe corporation of such a body, will compensate for any lack of moral and\nintellectual sympathy with the purposes of technical education, any lack\nof respeGt for the studies and exercises of the technical school. Unless the\nmembers of the corporation of a university thoroughly believe in technical\neducation, unless they are devoted to its objects, unless they entertain a\nhearty and unaffected respect for the kind of man who is to teach and the\nkind of man who is to receive the teaching, a technical school will derive\nonly damage from such an association. Again, no advantage which the\nstudents of a technical school might conceivably derive from the large and\nvaried endowment and equipment of a great university, and from companionship with bodies of students in other pursuits than their own, will compensate for the loss of scholarly impulse and the injury to self-respect\n\n"}
{"page": 552, "printed_page": null, "text": "532\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nwhich will inevitably be sustained, unless the general spirit of the university be high, manly, and devoid of snobbishness. If the technical students, through association with a university, are to come habitually in\ncontact with young men who have not seriously taken up the work of their\nlives, who regard college merely as a place in which to have a good time\nor to indulge in sport or dissipation, who have no settled purpose and no\nmanly aims, and especially if the technical students are to come habitually in contact with young men who regard labor as degrading, who look\nupon the rough clothes and the stained fingers of the laboratory and the\nworkshop as badges of inferiority in character or in social standing, then\na technical school will derive harm, and only harm, from such an association.\nFourth. A fourth question which needs to be very carefully considered\nby all friends of technological education is, how far immediate professional success is to be weighed against ultimate professional success. It\nis, of course, an immense advantage to the pupils of technical schools,\nand to their parents and friends, that the young graduate should be able\nat once to earn his livelihood, even if it be an humble one. In this day,\nwhen social necessities are so grinding, and when it is so hard to start a\nson in life, that advantage is not to be despised or neglected. Yet there\nis always a wide field of choice open to those who control technical schools,\nas to the degree in which they will offer to their pupils studies and exercises the value of which will be most fully realized in the first few years\nafter graduation, or studies and exercises whose value will be increasingly\nfelt through the whole course of their professional career, and which will\nqualify them, in larger and ever larger measure, for positions of responsibility and trust with advancing years. It would be strange, indeed, if in\nthe infancy of technological education many mistakes had not been made\nin this matter, predominantly on the side of assigning too much value\nto studies and exercises of immediate utility. I cannot but believe that\nwith larger experience, and with more of conference among those who\nadminister technological education, there will be a decided movement in\nthe direction of subordinating the acquisition of the knacks of a trade\nand mere technical devices to the study of principles ; and that, even in\nthe applications of principles, valuable and invaluable as these are, reference will be had rather to their effect in giving a greater mastery of the\nprinciples themselves, than to their immediate utility in professional\npractice. Nay, more, I confidently believe that, even in the study of\nscientific principles, a continually increasing regard will be paid to their\ninfluence in expanding the mind, enlarging the views, elevating the aims,\nand strengthening the character of the pupil.\nFifth. An important question presenting itself to those administering\ntechnological education is in regard to the expediency of introducing\nsome so-called liberal studies into all technical courses.\nI have already\n\n"}
{"page": 553, "printed_page": null, "text": "OPENING\n\nADDRESS\n\nOF THE\n\nCHAIRMAN.\n\n533\n\nadverted to the fact that the great majority of students of technology are\nnot graduates of colleges. But aside from this, and even although all\nsuch students were college graduates, it would still fairly be a question\nwhether some degree of philosophical study, especially in history and\npolitical economy, should not mingle day by day with the scientific\nstudies and exercises which form the primary subjects of instruction and\ntraining in a technical school. For myself, I am much disposed to believe\nthat that technical school will best discharge its duty to its pupils and to\nthe state which gives to its students, in addition to those studies and\nexercises which will make them exact and strong, some measure, also, of\nthose studies and exercises which will tend to make them, at the same\ntime, broad and fine.\nSixth. The last question which I would suggest has regard to the\ndesirability and feasibility of securing uniform requirements for admission to schools of technology. The classical colleges within New England,\nand perhaps over a wider region, have long been working toward the end\nof common rules and conditions as to entrance ; and their efforts have\nmet with a high degree of success, not only in a loyal support, by all the\ncolleges, of the scheme of examinations adopted, but also in the manifest\nand marked improvement of the preparatory schools most largely contributing to their membership. It is fairly a question whether the time\nhas not come for associated action by the schools of technology in the\nsame direction.\nI will only protract these remarks by referring to a single subject, and\nthat is the spirit in which it behooves the representatives of technological\neducation to meet and to answer the accusation of certain critics that the\ntechnical applications of science are incompatible with that disinterestedness which it is said, and truly said, is essential to the highest results in\neducation. Those who indulge in flings regarding the lack of disinterestedness in technological education are generally the persons who have\nwithstood at every step the introduction of chemistry, physics, and natural history as substitutes for the older studies of the college curriculum.\nBeaten at all points in their futile opposition to the spirit of the times,\nand overwhelmed by the abundant testimony offered as to the effects\nof science study in making young men as modest, loyal, fine, and pure\nas the best products of the classical culture, and withal more exact,\nresolute, and strong, these gentlemen are making their last stand against\nthe movement of the age by denouncing the technical applications of\nscience as interested and mercenary, and therefore as unsuited to be the\nmeans of promoting true scholarship. They are compelled to admit that\nthe pursuit of technology is useful to the community in a degree which\nmakes it not less than absolutely necessary that hundreds and thousands\nof young men shall be trained in science and in the applications of science\nto the useful arts ; but they are unwilling that these young men should\n\n"}
{"page": 554, "printed_page": null, "text": "534\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nbe considered as scholars in the same sense and of the same degree of\nmerit as graduates of schools whose studies and exercises are not subject\nto the imputation of being of any direct or immediate use. It would\nplease those gentlemen more if, while the college graduate receives his\nscholarship medal of pure gold, the graduate of the school of technology\nshould have his testimonial stamped upon a circlet of some baser metal.\nNow, it seems to me, we are bound to resent and repel this imputation,\nwithout terms and without ceremony. We assert that the disinterestedness of study does not depend upon the immediate usefulness or uselessness of the subject matter, but upon the spirit with which the student\ntakes up and pursues his work. If there be zeal in investigation, if there\nbe delight in discovery, if there be fidelity to the truth as it is discerned,\nnothing more can be asked by the educator of highest aims. A young\nman who is earnestly laboring to prepare himself for an honorable and\nbeneficent career in life may be disinterested in every sense in which that\nterm can be used with approbation. Our critics have been driven to a\npretty pass, indeed, when the only ground upon which they can make a\nstand is the practical usefulness of technical studies. These gentlemen\nappear to have the same unnecessary fear of fruit which Macaulay, in\none of his famous essays, attributes, probably with some exaggeration,\nas his custom was, to the old philosophers. Their concern is needless.\nSo long as the students of technology bear themselves with the same\nearnestness and scholarly devotion which has characterized them as a body\nsince this system of instruction was inaugurated, the cause of education\nwill suffer no harm. There is a wonderful virtue in science to make and\nkeep its disciples truthful and faithful ; and at no distant time it will be\nfully recognized by all teachers that the technical applications of science\ndirectly add to the value of science study by giving a more direct object to\neffort, and by heightening the pleasure which the pupil feels at each step\nof his scholarly progress.\n\nTECHNOLOGICAL\nBY\n\nROBERT\n\nH.\n\nSCHOOLS:\nTHEIR\nPURPOSE\nA CCOMPLISHMENT.\nTHURSTON,\n\nDIRECTOR\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nSIBLEY\n\nITHACA,\n\nN.\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nAND\n\nITS\n\nCORNELL\n\nY.\n\nThe purpose of any institution of learning, whether of high or of\nlow degree, is, if I understand it aright, to contribute an exactly defined\namount to the education of the boy or girl, man or woman, who may\nenter its doors. It should have a prescribed plane and area of work ; it\nshould have a settled method ; it should be expected to apply this method,\nwithin its own field, to the presentation, by the best of known processes,\n\n"}
{"page": 555, "printed_page": null, "text": "TECHNOLOGICAL\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\n535\n\nof the most important facts and principles of those branches of learning\nwhich constitute its special province.\nThe education of the boy or the girl, of the man or the woman, may\nbe said to consist of so much of knowledge of the sciences, the literatures,\nand the arts as the individual finds it practicable to obtain by the application of time and thought and study, in hours set apart from those of\ntoil and compulsory occupation. Its purpose is two-fold : to so exercise\nthe mental faculties and powers as to confer upon the mind capacity for\neasy and extensive gain of both culture and knowledge ; and to endow it\nwith learning and wisdom — for these are not the same. Culture and wisdom\nare the highest fruits of education, grafted upon natural talent and power,\nand, well developed, constituting such character as has been respected and\nadmired in every age of the world. Knowledge is needful and learning\nis admirable and desirable to make life successful and to yield substance\nfor enjoyment ; but apart from culture and wisdom, they fail of their\npurpose, and life falls short of its aim.\nFrom university to primary school and kindergarten, throughout the\nwhole range of human knowledge and of systematically given instruction,\nevery element of the educational structure has its own special place and\npurpose, contributing to the final and complete result ; but the plan and\nthe scope of these elements may differ widely. The university, if it be a\nreal university, must present to its students the opportunity to become\nacquainted with the elements, at least, of all the sciences, all the literatures, and all the arts which contemporary life and modern civilization\nrest upon or imply familiarity with. The primary school usually only\nmakes a beginning, as do all the elementary schools, in teaching the child\nhow to begin to learn by study, and furnishes the first necessary tools for\nthat trade. The kindergarten teaches the child how to learn by observation and direct experiment; it is the child's laboratory of applied science.\nBut every school and every college and all universities should combine\nthe methods of the conventional primary school with those of the kindergarten. Study, observation, experimental processes and methods must\nall unite to produce the most perfect work, in primary school, secondary\nschool, college, and university alike, and whether giving the elements\nand the tools of education, the mental exercise required for higher work,\nor the facts and data and principles of the sciences be the purpose of the\nschool.\nBut the man must be educated for his coming life, and the lives of men\ndiffer. Education, therefore, while having the same general object with\nall — the cultivation of the powers of the individual and the communication of knowledge and culture — must be given somewhat different directions, and must cover somewhat different fields, for different men, if it is\nto do its most perfect work on every individual. The man who is independent of compulsory labor, and who may, with reasonable confidence,\n\n"}
{"page": 556, "printed_page": null, "text": "536\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nlook forward to a life of his own choice and making, will desire culture,\nlearning, and accomplishments. The youth growing up in the home of\nthe workingman, without fortune or reasonable expectation of ever securing even a competence, compelled to look forward to a life of constant\nand perhaps arduous labor, subject to a competition from neighbors, or,\noften, from workingmen thousands of miles away, needs, first of all, that\nknowledge and training which will enable him to hold his own and make\nsure of subsistence and freedom from privation for his family and himself.\nThe average citizen, with such capital as a generation or two of industry\nand skill may have laid aside for him, free to give time and money for\nsuch education as can be given him before the approach of manhood\nbrings with it the cares and responsibilities of his later working life, seeks,\nif he be wise, first the insurance against failure in his vocation, next such\nculture and such knowledge as he may gain therewith, as a part of or in\nconnection with his preparation for his life's work. Finally, the well-todo citizen possessing competence, though not wealth, seeks for his son or\nhis daughter a scientific training for a profession, and a culture befitting\nhis station in life ; the first the essential, the last the most desired.\nEvery citizen asks the privilege and claims the right to secure as much of\nthe necessary preparation for the future of his life, and as much of that\nculture which is life, as time, means, and natural capacity may permit\nhim to fairly demand.\nIt was long ago recognized by statesmen and men of mind that one of\nthe first duties of the state is to make sure of the fitting education of the\npeople of the state by providing elementary schools for all who choose to\navail themselves of them. It was also early admitted that a system of\nuseful elementary education presupposes higher institutions of learning\nin which the teachers of those schools may be prepared for their work,\naud in which all the learning of the time may be preserved and given fullest opportunity for extension and expansion. It is now well understood\nby all intelligent men that the state must, to insure the highest prosperity\nand enlightenment of its people, directly or indirectly, by legislation or\nthrough the stimulated or spontaneous liberality of its wealthy men,\nsuperpose secondary schools upon primary, colleges upon the schools, and\nplace universities at the apex of the structure. The great States of the\nWest have their State universities; the old States of the East have their\nHarvard and Yale and Brown and Amherst and Williams, at once monuments to great and statesmanlike citizens among the wealthy classes, and\ncapsheaves of their educational systems. No State so poor and sparsely\npopulated, no statesman so weak and narrow, as to refuse to build to the\nvery peak of the pyramid. In fact, it is often asserted that the true\nstatesman, like Washington and Jefferson, Madison and the Adamses,\nmakes the university the foundation, the secondary schools the body, and\nthe primary schools the supported apex of the system ; the whole resting\n\n"}
{"page": 557, "printed_page": null, "text": "TECHNOLOGICAL\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\n537\n\nsafely and firmly, if properly constructed, upon a solid and broad foundation of deepest wisdom and greatest learning.\nThe state must build foundation as well as superstructure, and every\npart of each, if completeness and solidity and permanence are to be made\nsure. Only the state, as it seems to me, can maintain permanently,\ncertainly, and in efficient, continuous, and steady operation, any single\nelement of this organism ; and only the state can construct and maintain\nit in symmetry and completeness, and build solidly and durably the whole\ngreat structure. Private contributions to this purpose and object are too\nuncertain, irregular in amount, and sporadic in time and distribution, to\ngive that regularity of income, or that certainty of any income at all, which\nis an essential element of steady and productive work. Regularity and\nsufficiency of income, assured by a fixed taxation, as illustrated in our\nWestern States, in many instances, is probably the best insurance of life,\nof continuous growth, and of uninterrupted usefulness of the educational\nsystem. Private endowments are usually either unequal to their purpose\nat the start, or are promptly overburdened if the enterprise is successful,\nand almost never permanently reliable and regularly useful. At the\npresent time, also, the continuously decreasing rate of interest on good\nsecurities, and the constantly increasing difficulty of finding safe investments, make the duties of the committees on finance of our endowed institutions continually more and more arduous and unproductive. The steady\nfall from the seven per cent, of a few years ago to the six per cent, of later\nyears, and to the five per cent, and less of to-day, and the resulting anxieties\nand financial difficulties, simply indicate the beginning of a continuous\nreduction in value of invested funds, and the fact that the time must\ncome — perhaps soon — when returns on invested capital will become so\nsmall as to make it hardly wise to rely on such sources of income, and such\nas to compel the use of the principal in such cases, and reliance upon continual additions of capital through the liberality of capitalists to whom the\nsame cause makes it less and less desirable to hold a surplus. But every\ninstitution doing good work will very possibly find it necessary to its own\nexistence and permanent usefulness to become in some way incorporated\ninto the system of the state, and to secure safe support from the state\ntreasury, or, as the only alternative, to rely mainly on tuition fees exacted\nfrom its own students, thus competing at a great disadvantage with the\nstate-supported institutions charging little or nothing for the same grade\nof education.*\nIn fact, nearly every large and strong school, college, or\n* The following facts give some idea of the magnitude of the task to be assumed and of the impracticability ofsecuring its performance by private effort, even were it possible that private liberality and\nprivate activity could give the system form and coherent and symmetrical growth :\nThe United States constitute a nation of about 65 000,000 <>f people. Of these, three-fifths— about 40,000,000— are minors, and a largo fraction of them demand or need instruction in schools of higher and of lower\ndegree. In their education, 300.000 teachers are enlaced in 200,000 schools, and about $100,000,000 per\nannum paid for the work. The States usually expeml about S25 per capita, and some of the cities above\n\n"}
{"page": 558, "printed_page": null, "text": "538\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nuniversity famous for good work, and especially among the technical\ninstitutions, is coming to be State-supported in greater or less degree.\nSome of the most successful and famous of all are exceptions to this rule ;\nbut whether this can be said a generation hence may be gravely doubted.\nContributions to this noblest of philanthropic works will undoubtedly be\nlarger and more numerous than now ; but interest will probably fall to\ntwo per cent., or perhaps lower, and a million of dollars will do but little\nin the support of higher education.\nCulture, and Scientific Training for a practical end, are the two\npurposes of all schemes of education of the individual citizen. But their\norder and extent, and their relative importance and magnitude, must\ndepend upon the position in life of the individual ; rather, upon his choice\nor their natural and logical sequence. The proper and logical order would\nbe, first culture, then professional training ; first the awakening and\nstrengthening of the mind, next its application to the purposes of culture,\nthen its practical employment in acquiring and practicing the chosen\nvocation, whether that of the engineer who builds, the artist who adorns,\nthe man of letters who entertains and enlightens, the jurist who interprets the law, or the physician or the clergyman who ministers to bodies\nor to minds diseased, or even that of the man of leisure whose profession is\nthat of the accomplished man of a society of culture. Every intelligent\ncitizen desires for his children so much of culture as his time and means\npermit him to give them ; his means determine to what extent he must\nabridge the culture studies and compulsorily antedate the best time for\nentrance upon the studies having practical application in the life of the\nbread-winner. For people of wealth, twenty years of culture, five of professional study, may be none too extensive a course ; but the citizen of\n$35, for elementary instruction alone. The Federal government has given over 150,000,000 of acres of public\nlands to this object, and the States have often assigned their first and largest apportionments of their own\npublic lands to their departments of education. In some cases single institutions have greatly profited by\nthis policy ; but, as a rule, education is conducted, in the higher departments, with a most frugal hand.\nPrivate liberality has as yet done more for individual endowments, generally, than the public. For example, in New York the State university— Cornell— receives as the share of the State under the Morrill Act\nabout $20,000 a year from the half-million and lees obtained by sale of land scrip ; it receives from the\nCornell Endowment, which was produced by the discreet holding and sale of the lands obtained on the\nsame scrip— bought by Ezra Cornell and given to the university— over $300,000 per annum from the $5,000,000 or more privately given it ; and it has still enough land for sale to make about 6,000 good farms. Harvard, Columbia, Yale, and Princeton and Johns Hopkins have larger incomes from private endowments\nthan have the institutions supported by the States.\nThe governments of Europe are wiser and more liberal than our own States. Prussia has erected at\nCharlottenburg the graudest technical institution in the world, at a cost of about $4,000,000. Saxony haa\nerected a whole system of trade and polytechnic schools; and Zurich has invested, safely nnd profitably,\nsome millions in her great university, of which the laboratories alone have cost about a half-million dollars.\nWith a taxed valuation of $0,500,000,000, the State of New York has contributed— and only within the year\n— just $50,000 to its university, under the shadow of the millions given it by its private benefactors.\nMichigan has given about $2,000,000 to her university and technical schools ; she also gives a regular\ntax levy of large amount. Wisconsin gives a half-million in buildings and a tax levy of about $75,000\nper annum. Minnesota has given to the same cause about $750,000 and a tax levy of about $50,000 ; California about.$l, 000,000, and a perpetual State tax of one-tenth of a mill, now yielding $100,000 a year ; and\nother States, in a similar manner, are just beginning the work which has been going on in Europe for a\ncentury.\n\n"}
{"page": 559, "printed_page": null, "text": "TECHNOLOGICAL\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\n539\n\nmoderate means must at least terminate his son's studies at twenty-one,\nand if he is to have a professional training, it must commence at sixteen\nor seveuteen ; while the so-called \"industrial classes\" must send their offspring out into the world to earn their own living while still children. It\nthus happens that the education of the people must, in the main, be such\nas will give them technological training, with, incidentally, so much of\nculture as can be offered without detriment to their preparation for the\nwork that must probably be theirs for life. We have here the reason at\nonce for a complete and perfect system of education by the state, and\nfor the organization of special manual-training, trade, and professional\nschools. The conditions here discussed probably do not indicate a necessity for support by the state, of the distinctively so-called \"professional\nschools\" of the as distinctively so-called \"learned professions.\" They\nwill probably be always overcrowded and well supported ; unless, indeed,\nthey should some time cease to be looked upon as specially desirable vocations bythe most ambitious of young men. The education of the people\nof the State by the State will presumably include mainly the culture\nstudies and the economically important branches of technical education.\nJohn Scott Russell thus defines technical education :\n\" What I call technical education is that kind of training which will make the new\ngeneration of Englishmen excel the new generation of foreigners in this coming rivalry\nof race and nation. The English live in the midst of an energetic rivalry of competing\nnations. The aim of our national life should be to do the work of the world better,\nmore ably, more honestly, more skillfully, and less wastefully than the skilled men of\nother countries. If we are less skilled or less honest than others, we are beaten in the\nrace of life. To the national welfare and success, it is therefore necessary that the\nrace of young men who are to do the work of England, . . . shall in their own special\nprofession, occupation, trade, or calling know more thoroughly its fundamental principles, wield more adroitly its special weapons, be able to apply more skillfully its\nrefined artifices, and to achieve more quickly, perfectly, and economically the aims of their\nlife, whether it be commerce, manufactures, public works, agriculture, navigation, or\narchitecture.\"\n\nThe same remarks are true as applied to the United States ; for the\nAtlantic Ocean has ceased to be, to any important extent, a wall of\ndefense against foreign competition in the refined industries, those which\nbring wealth to the worker and diversification of industries to the nation.\nOur school and college curricula have hitherto been, and are still, in fact,\nvastly too exclusively literary to meet the needs of the people and of the\ncountry. We have made hardly a beginning in the building of that\ngreat system of industrial training, supplementing education, which must,\nif we are to survive in the industrial rivalry of nations, soon be made\nto constitute an important and extensive division of the state and of the\nnational educational structure.*\nIt is this aspect of the case which makes the introduction and perfection of technical education in our own country, and its development as a\n* \" Technical Education,\" by the writer.\n\nTrans. A. S. M. E., 1893.\n\n"}
{"page": 560, "printed_page": null, "text": "540\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nC0N0BE88\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\npart of a state and national system, matters of supreme importance to the\npeople and to the nation. Unless our people are at once more intelligent\nand better trained in their productive vocations than those of other\nnations, they must be content to settle to a lower level and there remain.\nTechnical education and technological schools thus constitute for us\nthe most important of all current topics and subjects in connection with\neducational work and development in this country. The foundation of\ntechnical schools of all grades, from the kindergarten and purely manualtraining school, to the special trade schools and the higher schools of engineering, agriculture, architecture, and art, is the essential and pressing\nduty of the hour. Their organization and their incorporation into the\ngreat educational system of state and nation constitutes the grandest\nproblem of the time, for educator, patriotic citizen, and statesman alike;\nand the questions : To what extent and in what form should our educational system include technical schools ? How should they be united\nwith the schools of culture ? How shall their distribution among the\nvarious vocations and professions be symmetrically effected ? To what\nextent and in what manner should the state sustain them ? And what\nare the deficiencies in number, curriculum, and method of the schools\nalready established ?— these questions are those of the hour. These constitute the great problems of the citizen, the educator, the legislator, and\nthe statesman of our time. Such questions as these demand discussion\nand action, imperatively and continuously. They are more pressing and\nvital than those of tariff or currency, annexation of adjacent provinces,\nor choice of gold or silver, iron or copper, for our coinage. Economical\nerrors of the latter sort may isolate us from the rest of the world, but\nerrors in the moral and intellectual or the technical training of the people\nwill make home life less satisfying.\nThe Magnitude of the Demand for technical instruction in the\nUnited States is greater than is usually supposed, and the real need —\nwhich vastly exceeds the demand — is far beyond the ordinary estimates\nof even the educator engaged in this special work. The writer has estimated that were the United States, as a whole, to provide as liberally for\nthe technical education of the people as do some of the provinces of\nFrance, and of Germany, especially, there would be established :\nTwenty technical universities, having in their schools of engineering and higher\ntechnics 50 instructors and 500 pupils, each.\nFifty trade schools and colleges, of 20 instructors and 300 students, each.\nTwo thousand technical high-schools, or manual-training schools, of 10 instructors\nand 200 pupils, each.\nThat is to say, there should be in the United States, to-day, 1,000 university professors and instructors, and 10,000 students under their tuition studying the highest\nbranches of technical work; there should be 1.000 college professors and 15,000 pupils\nin trade schools, studying for superior positions in the arts; 20.000 teachers engaged in\ntrade and manual -training schools instructing pupils, 400,000 in number, proposing to\nbecome skilled workmen. We have in this country 10,000,000 families, among which\nare at least 1,000,000 boys who should be in the latter class of schools.\nThe cost of\n\n"}
{"page": 561, "printed_page": null, "text": "TECHNOLOGICAL\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\n541\n\nsuch education would be, per annum, about 50 cents per inhabitant additional to the\npresent school tax. and in the shops of these schools something less than $100 per\nstudent, and under $300 per annum per student, for total costs of higher education.\n\nThe actual number of schools of the highest class in this country,\nschools which are neither technical universities nor colleges, but, usually,\neither schools of restricted curricula, as engineering schools, or single and\nnarrowly limited departments of colleges of general and mainly liberal\nlearning, is about fifty. The number of real trade schools, prepared to\ngive proper training, scientific and practical, in any one trade, is unknown to* statisticians, but they are exceedingly rare, and a thoroughly\nrepresentative trade school, like hundreds of those scattered all over\nEurope, is unknown. We have perhaps a dozen good manual-training\nschools in the larger cities ; but we have no system of carefully organized,\ncomplete, and well-sustained schools of either class, supported by nation,\nby state, by city, or by any form of public or private permanent, systematic effort. \"Such is the intimidating comparison, also, of the condition of our country, and the more enterprising and wisely governed\ncountries of Europe. The latter have had two generations the start of us,\nand only the extraordinary natural advantages of our country, and the\nmore extraordinary general intelligence and enterprise of its citizens, can\npossibly prevent this disadvantage under which we labor telling fatally\nagainst us in the course of time, when the inevitable competition of the\nworld shall affect us.\" *\nOn the other hand, every State is doing more, and seeing more each\nyear of the duty before it and its importance, and the State universities\nand the independent colleges and schools are feeling their way constantly,\nthough slowly, toward the solution of this tremendous problem. Our\npeople are peculiarly well fitted to benefit by the opportunities which may\nbe thus offered, and to secure, in the interim, those kinds of training and\nthose forms of knowledge which are the essential basis of the as yet incomplete technical system, and to compete with other nations at this disadvantage. The freedom of our institutions has engendered freedom of\nwill and of intellectual action ; and the free action of a thousand minds,\nuntrammeled though untrained, preserves us against dangerous rivalry\nfrom the better schooled but intellectually enslaved masses of the world\noutside. What will be the final outcome of the changes which are uow\nslowly evolving an educational system in this country, and at the same\ntime giving freedom and stimulus to European peoples, no one can predict. It can only be hoped that we may, in good time, have our own,\nand an ample and efficient, \"complete and perfect,\" system of education\nof our people for the life and the work of our people. At the moment,\nwe have no system of suitable education of the nation; but we are making\nsome progress toward the production of what is needed.\n* Reports of the Director of Sibley College.\n\n"}
{"page": 562, "printed_page": null, "text": "542\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nThe character of our technical schools remains as yet as unsettled and\nvarious as their independent and far-separated points of origin permit.\nThe State universities usually offer a few fairly well-defined courses in\nengineering and architecture and in the science and art of agriculture,\nand a few of the independent colleges stand beside them. The larger and\nolder literary colleges usually do but little in this field, and do that only\nunder pressure and rarely well. The independent schools have as many\nstandards of work as they have foundations. Some demand a good highschool preparation; others only a few selected preparatory studies, and\nthey, often, very elementary. Of the endowed schools, some, as the\nMassachusetts Institute of Technology, are able to offer numerous courses\nin science and in the constructive work of applied science; others, as the\nRensselaer Polytechnic and the Stevens Institute of Technology, elect to\noffer a single but strong course. Some approximate the technical university in their magnitude, extent, and variety of work; the others, often\ndenominating themselves engineering colleges, give a nondescript tradeschool course. A few, like the Pratt Institute of Brooklyn, the Cooper\nInstitute of New York, aid thousands of artisans ; others give costly\ninstruction to the wealthy few.\nWe need in every State a technical university, or a technical-school\nside to a university, in which the highest possible grade of professional\nschool shall be maintained, and for all the professions based upon learning. Law and engineering, medicine and architecture, theology and agriculture— all have their scientific basis, and their highest provinces and\ngrandest fields lie where only the highest scientific training and widest\nknowledge can make them satisfactorily productive of good. Their\ncourses should be precisely adapted to the presentation of all modern\nscience and the best of contemporary practice, to educated and well-prepared disciples, by the great leaders of each. That only can be rightly\ncalled a learned profession which demands of all its practitioners a thorough familiarity with the science as well as with the art of that vocation. The planning of the courses taught in professional schools should\nbe capable of being very exactly defined and adjusted to the needs of the\nprofession. The courses of the now more common mixed schools are\nless easily prescribed.\nWe need a trade school, or a technical college embracing trade schools,\nin every large city in the country. We should have at least one in each of\nthe smaller States, and from two to four in each of the larger and more\ndensely populated States. The East needs weaving schools and schools\nof industrial art to serve as a foundation for her manufacturing system\nand her decorative work ; the West is in especial need of similar schools to\nstimulate the introduction of manufactures among her agricultural districts. The South is in want of technical and trade schools to give her\nmaterial to introduce into her cotton mills and metallurgical works.\nAll\n\n"}
{"page": 563, "printed_page": null, "text": "TECHNOLOGICAL\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\n543\n\nparts of the United States need many such schools where at the moment\none exists. Manual-training schools are required wherever boys and\ngirls are growing up to lives in which industry and skill are their only\nways to competence, or even to security from an old age of poverty and\nsuffering. There should be not less than ten of these schools to every\ncongressional district in the country, and they should be open to the\npoorest, offering instruction in all the trades to the boys, in all the\ndomestic arts to the girls.\nThe Curricula of the Schools furnish a subject for constant discussion, not only among educators, but among parents and pupils. In\nrelation to those of the ''culture schools,\" those of the scholastic character which have grown into shape from the monastic period in which\nthey originated, and under the influences of that form of culture which\nthey are intended mainly to perpetuate, there is little question. The\npurpose and method of the classical education are well defined and settled\nfrom primary school to university; but the later scientific and mixed\nschools, and the technical schools, have a less well-defined form, as they\nhave a less exactly prescribed purpose. Were we permitted to organize\nthe ideal school and system of education, the task would be comparatively\neasy, and we should lead the pupil of the primary through the secondary\nschool into the college and the university, finally giving him his professional training after he had acquired as good an education as time and\nmeans may permit. But, even at this advanced period, we find, often,\nless than one-half the students in our law schools holding college diplomas\nand already well educated. The young man seeking to enter a profession must very often, if not usually, either secure his professional training before entering upon a college course, or not at all ; and we cannot shut\nout the best youth of the country from the professions because, not having inherited wealth, they cannot first secure a liberal education. If this\nproposition be correct, we find a reason for the fact that the professional\nschools, as a rule, demand of their entering students only that preparation\nwhich is essential for the successful prosecution of the professional studies.\nIt is, at the same time, well understood by all that the possession of a\nliberal education is in the highest degree desirable, and every young\nman of sense and ability seeks as much of this great good as his circumstances permit.\nThe great problem which confronts the educators of this country is\nthus to so organize their school- systems that the sous and daughters of\nwell-to-do people may pass by a regularly graded course from primary to\nsecondary school and on into college, and, if they choose, into the higher\nwork of the university ; while the children of parents less favored by fortune may similarly pass from secondary school into the professional or the\ntrade school, and even, in the case of the poorest, from primary into trade\nschool ; the latter, in this case, becoming the secondary or high school,\n\n"}
{"page": 564, "printed_page": null, "text": "544\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nbeyond which these pupils cannot afford to go. In eacli school the ideal\nmethod and plan is marred by the practical conditions of life. In each\nschool two, if not three, classes of pupils are to be cared for. The primary school, only, prepares all alike ; the secondary school completes the\neducation of the poorer, and gives the children of the wealthy only the\nfirst step in their preparation for the higher education which they are\nto be given later. Its work may even be that of a trade school as well.\nThe college, similarly, may be required to educate the youth, in one case\nfor a professional school, in another for the world, in another for the\nwork of the university in the highest fields of research, in science, in\nliterature, in art.\nThe professional school, of whatever kind, obviously can do its best\nwork when it makes professional instruction its whole purpose and work.\n\"This one thing I do,\" is the motto, in education as in business ; both\nbecause it is by concentration that most is accomplished, and because it\npresupposes the best preparation that the student can give time and\nmeans to secure. That law school, that school of medicine or of engineering which gives its whole time to professional work, and employs\nspecialists for the whole list of studies thus given, will be able, as a matter\nof course, to do the most and best work in the time allowed it. It will,\nother things equal, have the best prepared and most mature students, and\nbe thus able to cover most ground with its special curriculum. This is\none notable feature of progress during the generation in our representative scientific and professional schools. All are moving their requirements\nupward and eliminating the elementary and non-professional work, and\noffering a larger and larger proportion of the purely professional and\ncharacteristic branches. With the engineering schools, this progress is\naccelerated and compelled by the need of higher and higher mathematical\npreparation ; and, with each step in this direction, the student gains in\nhis whole range, the additional time demanded for the increased mathematical preparation being also certain to insure more attention to the\nlanguages and the literatures, as well as to the scientific studies of the\npreparatory schools, which, in turn, are by this pressure continually\nraised to a higher grade. The demand of the school of engineering for\nhigher algebra brings in students familiar with French ; the call for solid\ngeometry insures the offering of chemistry or of physics ; and the requirement of trigonometry brings in students who have studied, very likely,\ntwo modern languages.\nBut a large class of students desiring to enter the professional engineering or other schools cannot give time and money to a course of eight years\nduration, dating from the termination of their elementary studies at, say,\neighteen, taking first a liberal education and then a professional training.\nThese will seek the school which offers the more essential professional\nstudies, and so much of general education as can be crowded with them\n\n"}
{"page": 565, "printed_page": null, "text": "TECHNOLOGICAL\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\n545\n\ninto four years. The majority of our schools at present supply this\ndemand, and rarely approximate the ideal type above alluded to. This\nmust probably long remain the fact with most technical schools.\nPreparation for the technical school, or for those which are attaining\nthe rank of professional schools, at least, is settled as to character and\nextent by the demands of those schools ; and they, in turn, are governed\nand controlled by the conditions of their environment. They require as\ncomplete preparation as they can secure from the schools which feed them ;\nthe latter give as good a preparation as the circumstances and age of their\npupils and their own facilities permit. In neither case is it a matter of\nchoice, purely. Each is continually demanding more of the schools below,\nand forcing, as fast as practicable, schools and pupils alike to higher levels\nof scholarship. Every influence tends to compel the more and more careful and judicious selection of the work of the whole series of schools,\nmore systematic work in instruction, specialization on the part of school\nand teacher, and of pupil, and higher efficiency in the work of both,\nas well.\nThe separation of the technical from the purely educational schools has\nbeen by many, especially by foreign educators, considered essential to\nthe prosperity of both, and especially in the higher grades, where the\ncurriculum of each is forced to receive much, and to reject more, of the\ncontinually and rapidly widening and deepening current of human knowledge. That their coordinate, and even mutually helpful, operation may\nbe possible is now coming to be seen in the United States, as never before\nor elsewhere, in the workings of the State universities ; but the existence\nof and the reputation attained by a number of our independent technical\nschools — higher, in fact, usually, perhaps, than has been reached by the\naverage adjunct university school — indicates that independence is not\nnecessarily dangerous to success ; and the lesser distractions of the latter\nand the broadening influence of the former may perhaps be by many set\noff against each other as fairly compensating circumstances.*\n* There exists among the members of the professions, even, a somewhat strong impression — one which,\nit must be confessed, has some justification in the experience of the past, throughout the world— that a\ntechnical school cannot be made to succeed, fully and satisfactorily, as a part of an organization including academic schools ; but that, in the presence of these apparently conflicting interests, the school of\nengineering must suffer, if not absolutely fail. This conviction has been expressed very strongly by\nPresident Eliot of Harvard, and still more so by the German educator. Professor Rouleaux, the head of\nthe great technical university at Berlin, and who is by many regarded as the leader in the profession in\nEurope. In his address entitled \" Cultur und Tecnik,'\" he says that, \"notwithstanding their intended\npursuit of a strictly scientific aim, the technical schools have not concluded their peace with the universities. Even with the best of good will, none of our efforts toward a real amalgamation of the two has\never been successful.\" He quotes Professor Koechly, who says : \"And if not side by side, at least we\ncan fight back to back,\" in the great contest with ignorance and barbarism. He considers this unfortunate difference as arising from inherent differences in aim, and goes on to say that a blending of the two\nmovements has been tried in the United States, our universities being both classic and technic, but that\n\" the experiences hitherto gathered have not shown, so far as observation permits a judgment, that the\nunion can be permanently maintained, or that it has furthered the interests of education in the way that\nlegislators had anticipated.\"\n\" It is a great pleasure to be able to testify that, although the influences tending to produce such dif-\n\n35\n\n"}
{"page": 566, "printed_page": null, "text": "546\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nIn studying the history of the rise and progress of technical schools —\nnot only in this country hut in Europe, and not only in our generation but\nin the earlier generations of European history — we may note that, as General Walker once remarked, \" the schools of technology illustrate in an\neminent degree the law of human progress which I have stated. These\nschools have not come into existence in obedience to a demand for them.\nThey were created through the foresight, the unselfish devotion, the strenuous endeavors of a few rich men, and of very many poor men, known\nas professors of mathematics, chemistry, physics, and geology.\" They\nhave now become, as he goes on to say, an essential part of the educational\nsystem, and he adds : \" They are to-day doing a work in the intellectual\ndevelopment of our people which is not surpassed, if indeed it is equalled,\nby that of the classical colleges.\" And, further : \" In the schools of applied\nscience and technology, as they are carried on to-day in the United States,\ninvolving the most thorough and most scholarly study of principles directed\nimmediately upon the useful arts, and rising, in their higher grades,\ninto original investigation and research, is to be found almost the perfection of education for young men.\" And, again : \" That all the essentials\nof intellect and character are one whit less fully or less happily achieved\nthrough such a course of study, let no man connected with such an institution for one moment concede.\"\nIk conclusion, and in direct reference to the queries which form the\nbasis of the discussion of the Educational Congress of 1893, at Chicago,\nthe writer may be permitted to submit the following, not as criticisms of\nexisting schools, but as indicating what seem to him the lines of improvement and advancement of our schools and of our systems of education for\nthe immediate future :\n(1) Progress is visible toward the organization of one \"complete and\nperfect \" system of education in every State, from primary school to State\nuniversity, which shall be so organized as to offer every citizen, as Huxley\nputs it, \"a ladder from the gutter to the university,\" and entrance into\nany one of the existing and of the rising learned professions, into the\ntrades, or into any vocation of work, of leisure, or of self-improvement,\nthat he may be able and willing to choose, and with, perhaps, a national\nuniversity over all.\nferences as are here referred to, do and must, as I think, necessarily, and probably should, exist at Cornell University, there is as yet no evidence that they are to be apprehended as likely to produce permanent effect for ev^l. It seems more than probable that— every officer of the university understanding\nclearly its aims, and, as must be evident from the fact of his acceptance of duties in connection with it,\napproving those aims— the presence of representatives of such a variety of phases of educational work\nmust exercise a conservative and beneficial effect in the development of a university planned, as is Cornell, with the object of adding to its 'leading' departments every adjunct necessary to enable the student to acquire a thoroughly liberal as well as practical education. To the technical student, frequent\ncontact with liberally educated men and familiarity with a variety of non-technical work must bring\ngreat advantages, aside from the other general liberalizing influences of his university life.\"— Report of\nthe Director of Sibley College, 1886.\n\n"}
{"page": 567, "printed_page": null, "text": "TECHNOLOGICAL\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\n547\n\n(2) The technical schools, from kindergarten to the technical school of\nthe university or the great independent professional school, are coming to\nhave more definite curricula, to adapt themselves more perfectly, on the\none hand, to the needs of the people ; on the other, to the great educational\nsystem of which they are to form a part. The higher schools are developing into professional schools ; the intermediate grades into trade and\nmixed schools; the lower into manual-training and primary schools, with\nthe manual-training element descending, in the form of the kindergarten\nsystem, into the primary schools. Whether, ultimately, the representative school will have a purely technical or a mixed curriculum is, of\ncourse, as yet indeterminable ; but the forces of economical change are\nworking strongly in the direction of steady rise, with tendency toward\nconcentration and specialization, from kindergarten to professional school.\nYet, as President Walker has suggested : \" Possibly some ultimate form\nfor institutions of the higher learning may yet be developed which shall\nembody much of both the modern school of technology and of the oldfashioned college, with, perhaps, something- taken from neither, but\noriginating in the larger, fuller, riper life of a happier and richer future.\"\nFor the present, the independent schools will probably continue to offer a\ncurriculum containing extra-professional studies. The universities will\nprobably more and more restrict their professional schools to professional\nwork, leaving the student the privilege of either taking bis educational\ncourse in advance, or as contemporary elective work in other departments.*\n(3) The universities are establishing, continually, more and more definitely separated schools of culture and of the applied sciences and of the\nprofessions ; each having its strictly defined place, purpose, and curriculum, its exactly prescribed conditions of admission to its courses, and\nemploying a staff of specialists to give the instruction which it offers as\n* It is a curious fact that while the whole tendency, in the United States and in other countries, is\nobviously toward the organization of a system of state-supported schools, with a state university at the\nhead, and toward a constantly more and more completely hierarchic form, there has arisen in France, at\nthe very fountain-head of this movement, a sentiment favoring the destruction of the whole system, the\nbreaking up of the state organization and replacement by local and limited organizations. The system\nnow in operation, as established in 1808, by the first Napoleon, constitutes the Minister of Public Instruction the hvad of the national organization. He provides for the inspection of the schools and colleges,\nthe conferring of degrees, on recommendation by the proper authorities, and the appointment of profeseors and teachers, and thus controls the whole educational machinery of Prance. The country is divided\ninto academic districts, each having its special faculty, with a rector at its head, who is assisted by a corps\nof inspectors ; the scheme being in some respects like that of the University of the State of New York,\nbut endowed with larger scope of operation and greater powers. In each district an academic council\nhas charge of matters of discipline ; a faculty of letters attends to the curriculum in its field, and another\nof science takes charge of that branch. Faculties of law, medicine, theology supervise the work of the\nprofessional schools in each of those departments. Of late, Jules Simon, Jules Ferry, Taine. and others\nhave proposed the reconstruction of the system in such manner as to produce a considerable number of\nlocal systems, corresponding somewhat to our own separate State systems, each with its own local university and underlying secondary and primary schools ; breaking up the University of France, as the\nwhole is now called, into a collection of independent but very similar smaller provincial universities.\nOne reason urged for this change is that the Academy of Paris secures too large a proportion of students ;another is thai greater independence is thought desirable in the provincial sections and in the\nlarge cities outside Paris.\n\n"}
{"page": 568, "printed_page": null, "text": "548\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nits peculiar work. The college is confining itself more and more closely\nto its work of education of the graduate passing into business life or of\nthe man going upward into the university. The schools are similarly taking defined places in the general system, and complying more fully with\nthe demand of the college and the university for good preparation of their\nentering classes, and with the demand of the people for a fitting preparation of the youth passing out from them into the common vocations of\nlife. The independent schools are choosing their work, concentrating\ntheir strength and energies, and better and better performing a more and\nmore precisely defined part of the great work.\nOrganization, systematization, concentration, specialization, union of\ndistinctly separated and different elements into an orderly and complete\nwhole, are the striking characteristics of the changes now progressing in\nour whole educational system. The outcome will probably be the formation of complete State organizations of schools, constructed with reference\nto the needs of a people, from kindergarten and primary school to college\nand university and professional school, including manual -training and\ntrade schools, properly distributed as above indicated to be desirable, and,\ncooperating with this organic whole, here and there a special school independently doing its chosen work and serving as a stimulus and example\nto the official school. Washington's great hope — the Washington national university — may, perhaps, ere long take form and assume as its\nprovince that of preparation of strong men, of refitting learned teachers\nand professors for the universities and colleges of the States, and, especially, of carrying on and promoting research in every field of human\nknowledge. We have had no real university since the days of the Ptolemies and the foundation of the Alexandrian school. The monastic and\nscholastic element gave us but a narrow and fragmentary education. The\nintroduction of the sciences during the years since Newton and Gilbert,\nof the applied sciences since Lavoisier, of the arts since Vaucanson, and\nof instruction in the constructive professions, beside that offered the\nolder \"learned\" professions — these have reconstituted the university;\nand now, as never before for two thousand years past, we have looming\nup before us the outlines of an all-enclosing educational structure which\ncomprehends the learning and the principles of the whole range of the literatures, the arts, and the sciences of contemporary human development.\nOf this horizon and zenith reaching arch, perfect and complete as it\nsoon may be, culture and learning are the voussoirs, and technical education is the keystone which sustains the whole and its superincumbent burden, the higher life of a people.\nThose hundred \" prophetic voices concerning America,\" preserved by\nCharles Sumner in his remarkable little book under that title, unite in\npredicting marvelous growtli and a wonderful future for the people of\nthe United States — which means, at a not distant future time, at least the\n\n"}
{"page": 569, "printed_page": null, "text": "DISCFSSIOK\n\n549\n\ncontinent of North America ; but this can only prove true prophecy when\nthe people of the United States and of every State shall have performed\ntheir greatest work and their noblest duty by insuring to all their successors the lofty privilege of education, each for his own life, and of systematic training, each for his own chosen work in life. De Tocqueville says :\n\" The Americans of the United States, whatever they do, will become\none of the greatest nations of the earth.\" * We may confidently hope\nand believe that his prophecy will be ultimately fulfilled ; but it will come\nof highest statecraft, not of politics ; of real wisdom, not of policy ; and\nonly when the \" complete and perfect education \"of a great people for the\nlife and work of a great people shall have fitted it for its final destiny.\nIt is the steady and rapid evolution of this great system of preparation\nfor a grand destiny that we see now progressing throughout the country,\nand which will soon result in a combination of private, State, and national\nsupport of this most substantial of all possible foundations for nationality\nand life such as will make safe the accomplishment of that most remarkable of all these predictions :\n\" Westward the course of empire takes its way;\nThe first four acts already past,\nA fifth shall close the drama with the day ;\nTime's nob'est offspring is the last.\" f\n\nDISCUSSION.\nProfessor R. H. Richards, of Boston : I would like to say a word in regard to my\nexperience in three points that have been brought up by the speakers : (1) Who is the best\njudge, the engineer or the teacher? (2) Is the immediate or ultimate success to be sought?\n(3) Is it better to seek first for culture and then professional training, or to seek culture\nby and with professional training?\nIn regard to the question, Who is the best judge, the engineer or the teacher? we have\nhad recently a very interesting point come up. A very prominent engineering paper\nin one of our large cities had articles upon the different professional schools, coming\nout in successive numbers, and among other subjects was taking up the mining schools\nof the United States. I am to be connected with one of the mining schools, and am\nparticularly interested in these papers. The editor was an engineer ; he was a teacher.\nTherefore his opinions come directly within this question, Who is the best judge, the\nengineer or the teacher? He looked up statistics for his opinions, and quoted statistics,\nami from these he found that there was a lower percentage of mining engineers, of\nstudents who had been trained as mining engineers, than in any other profession. He\nargues that because there are a lower number of mining engineers, therefore the\nschools of mining engineering are not doing their work as well as the schools in the\nother engineering lines. This set me thinking a little, and I began to look at our own\nexperience in the school with which I am connected. He also argues that our schools\nare too general ; our mining course too general.\nThey do not differentiate sufficiently.\nWe happened three or four years ago to put in a set of differentiations in our mining\ncourse. We divided it into a course of steam engine and power, and a course in chemistry, and so on. We made a third course, in which students took a very much larger\nproportion of civil engineering, and we still gave them the title, upon graduation, of\nmining engineers.\nThe first result of this differentiation was that one-third of our\n* \" De la Democratic en Amerique,\" 1864, t. ii. cliap. x. p. 399.\nt Bishop Berkeley, \" Works,\" vol. ii. p. 443.\n\n"}
{"page": 570, "printed_page": null, "text": "550\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nstudents who had been given a thorough professional education, with the very minimum\nof chemistry — went into steel-works, the very works that needed the highest education in chemistry. The second year following 1 have one instance of a student who\nfollowed chemistry to the greatest degree that was given, and he immediately went into\nmining engineering without any call, or very little call, for chemistry. Now the question comes up, Are we correct in saying that we can differentiate ? 1 think the answer\ncomes from practice; and, so far as it appears, we cannot.\nIn our school we have a general course, a general mining engineer course, and that\nis the course which I advise the students at the present time to take unless they are\nsure of some definite opportunity that is coming to them.\nThe second point of which I would like to speak is the immediate professional success or the ultimate professional success. The functional method, the older collegiate\nmethod, points to no profession at all during the four years of college life. This leaves\nthe matter entirely with the pupil to take his profession when the time comes. The\nearlier course in the technical schools pointed, to be sure, toward the professional\ncourse, but did not put the pupils into position where they were ready to enter those\ncourses. I remember many instances in our own school. In one of the departments\nthe professor was particularly good in mathematics, and we thought there was no need\nwhatever of introducing the pupils to that profession, but simply to give them a\nthorough mathematical training in the mathematical sides of that profession without\ngiving them any introductions. This teacher was not particularly enjoyed by the\npupils during their course in the school. He was not looked up to during the first\nthree or four years of their professional training. The pupils in leaving school met\nwith a great many impediments in finding their positions in professions. They went\nright back and changed their minds, from which it appeared that they had had a good\ncourse, and the only objection that one could see was that during the course the students were not introduced to their profession. They might have been shown many\nthings at the school.\nNow the later technical schools have profited by this experience, and they now put\nin a certain amount of work and training in the school which enables them to launch\nsuccessfully in the world in their profession. We, at the present time, in our engineei'ing schools, believe that the three great branches, chemistry, physics, and mathematics,\nstand at the bottom of success in the engineering professions; that we must in addition\nto this give some culture training, and some training to start the pupil in life without\nnecessitating his banging his head against the obstacles and obstructions that are in\nhis way; and that is, as 1 understand it, the key of the modern technical schools to-day.\nThird, culture training, then professional training. I do not wish to go into a discussion of this. I know a man who went through one of our leading universities, took\nthe four years' collegiate course, and took it standing at the foot of his class all the way,\nand he was practically struggling, as the faculty said, with another man for the bottom\nof the class. After leaving college he went to his professional school, and then he\nbegan to work, and he began to show that he had a very fine mind and a very good\nintellect, and he has since taken a place equal to the first in his line. Now, what good\ndid those\nyears\nat the foot of the' class do him ? He is to-day standing at the very\nfront\nrank four\nof his\nprofession.\nPresident Henry T. Eddy, Terre Haute, Ind. : In relation to our scientific and\nmining schools, we recall at once that the greatest impulse this country ever received in\nthat direction was due to the land grant of the United States which has set up so many\nscientific schools. The great land grant which was the outcome of the war, which was\na patriotic impulse, and which had in the hope of the framers thereof an increase of\npatriotic feeling throughout the country, it seems to me lies at the bottom of it. Now\nthe thought which came to us in the address of Dr. Weishold last evening, was that the\nclassical study, the study of Greek and Roman literature and the classical course of our own\ncolleges, was of such a nature and had such an effect upon the human spirit as in a certain\nsense to undermine something really valuable in our present civilization. We are on\nthis continent, the dominant power, asserting ourselves. It is not necessary to assert\nourselves over against surrounding nations, as the German or French nation finds it\nnecessary to assert its nationality, at all. I think we leave that in the background, and\ndo not feel it and assert it in the way we should. These technical schools are unconsciously astronger assertion of our individuality than any old classical colleges which had\ntheir roots far back in the past while we were provinces of Great Britain. I merely\ntouch upon this thought, believing that it is already in your minds, and that it relates\nto the discussion in connection with the two very interesting and valuable papers that\nhave already been presented.\n\n"}
{"page": 571, "printed_page": null, "text": "DISCUSSION.\n\n551\n\nMrs. Charles Henrotin, of Chicago : Mr. Chairman— I have been very much interested in the feeling in this country toward technical schools, having sons, and 1 am very\nmuch surprised to notice that the education given by technical schools is usually conadapted that\nto perhaps\nwe may\ncall thefrom\nmiddle\ndon't know any\nclass in sidered\nthisonly country\nseems what\nto suffer\nso much\ntheirclasses.\nlack of Ispecialization\nas\nvery rich classes. I notice that Professor Thurston spoke as if, first, you were to give\nthe general culture to the rich and then the special culture. Now, in my experience in\nlife I should reverse that entirely. I should be inclined to give to the very rich the\nspecial and then the general. I have watched the children of some very rich people,\nand I have found that when the children are young and show pronounced taste for\nspecialization in study, parents often try to insist on the pure culture and education. I\nhave in my mind the sons of several men who had made a mark for themselves in railroading, and their sons have shown the same tendency ; and their parents have discouraged itas soon as they reached the age of ten or twelve years, and have insisted, in\nspite of the manifest disposition of those boys for technical education, to throw them to\nthe universities of strictly literary and classical training. Now, as I look about the\nworld I see that the men who are leading great financial enterprises, and enterprises\nespecially that have to do with specialization, as engineering, suffer largely from the\nlack that their view of life was not broad enough, that their early training was not sufficiently along the lines of specialization to enable them to seize with advantage the\ntremendous future of the country.\nI am greatly interested in this subject, because I see this great tendency among people\nwho can easily afford it to discourage this special course of education. I think manual\nand scientific training are the most interesting signs of the times.\nProfessor Waterman, of the University of Chicago : I have just a few words in\nregard to one of the points which were raised in the paper, and that is the relation of\nbroad culture training to the curriculum of a higher technological school. It was my\nprivilege to take the broadest culture course which was offered in the Institute of Technology in Boston ; to get all of the methods of scientific investigation and applications\nto natural sciences, to political and economical sciences, and to get at them without any\nof the professional work which goes in preparing the man directly for a single profession, during the four years which I spent in the Institute of Technology. 1 now feel\nthat the training which was offered in that course prepared for almost any life work by\nputting the men who took the course closely in touch with what was going on about\nthem, and giving them thoroughness in what they did.\nIt seems to me that what has been said regarding the classics putting a man in touch\nwith what has been rather than what is, is very much to the point ; and that by giving\nemphasis to the present rather than the past a man is best prepared to live completely,\nand to be an effective citizen and member of society.\nProfessor Allen : The first point that I had specially in mind to speak about was\nthe matter brought out in the first paper by President Walker in relation to the view of\nthe engineer, the practical engineer, as compared with the teacher, and I desire to express\nmy opinion in favor of the value of the teacher's opinion. Being a teacher myself, I\nshould do that with some reluctance, except for the fact that perhaps more of my time\nhas been spent as an engineer than as a teacher, and for that reason I am able through\nmemory to gauge my opinion both as an engineer and as a teacher. I am quite sure\nthat an educator can far better gauge the requirements for an engineer's education than\ncan the engineer himself.\nWe as members of the faculty find that it is not altogether safe to allow the pupil or\nhis parents to decide as to individual and separate studies, and wha't sequence of work\nshall be carried out. In the colleges the elective system is carried to such an extent as\nto allow any selection of isolated studies, while in technological schools we decide what\nsubjects necessarily depend upon others, what studies can be carried on to advantage in\nconnection with other studies. I know that students of our own who have afterward\nbeen in colleges where the elective system was in full force, have experienced difficulties\nof that kind. It seems to me the progress we have made in that way does have its\nsignificance.\nProfessor Thurston : Taking up the points as they come in order, I would like to\nsay, in reference to the example cited by Professor Richards, of the young man who\nbecame good afterward, that I think it is extremely possible, and is extremely likely,\nthat in the case where the young man takes the college course and graduates regularly\nwith his A.B., he may get and probably would get a large amount of culture and a less\n\n"}
{"page": 572, "printed_page": null, "text": "552\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGliESS\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\namount of learning. I think 1 should have proposed to the young man to give up that\ncourse and go to the institute and obtain a grand, good course, in which he certainly\nwould have a good professional training and just as much of culture as could be introduced with it. You must train young men as you find them. You must take the block\nas it is formed. If you attempt to cut an Adonis out of a Hercules, you would be disappointed, especially if you attempted it the other way round.\nOne of the extremely hard cases is how to treat a gentleman of wealth. He comes to\nme with his son and wants to put his boy in the engineering school. He says : \"That\nboy has no interest except in dynamos and things of that sort ; he has gone through the\nhigh-school, and I don't think it is worth while to send him to school any longer.\" If\nI can get hold of the boy I can generally settle that question pretty promptly. As a\ngeneral rule. I tell the father to keep the boy in college just as long as possible, keep\nhim there until he has had a good liberal education ; keep him at that for two reasons —\nit will give him the kind of work that he needs to make his character a little more symmetrical, and the boy who sat at the foot of the class for lour years needed most the\ntraining that he wasn't able to get. As to the question of preparation for rich or for\npoor or for the middle class, I should say the schools have nothing to do witli that.\nThe problem of our schools and system of education is to prepare a course of education\nof which our pupils may avail themselves. Give them that selection, election, and gradation of courses which would allow any man to attain the aim that he ultimately seeks.\nAs between the rich man and his son, and the man in moderate circumstances and his\nson, 1 should presume that in either case the same preparatory work would apply. He\nwants a general acquaintance with literature and sciences in their development, and the\narts so far as they have been developed, as time and means will permit. Now if a man\nis rich enough to give his boy eight years of continuous study, he may take one of two\nmethods. He may send him to a good technical school, if the boy's taste leads that\nway, and then he may undertake to give him a liberal education beyond that. Or he\nmay send the boy from the preparatory school into college. Give him a course in\ncollege, for there is a wide range in college now. Let him complete his course in the\ncollege, let him acquire that knowledge of history, of literature, of the arts, that the\ntrue university course ought to give : then send him to his professional school.\nI am so situated as to be able to make many observations. We have, as some of you\nknow, in the institution with which I am connected, a set of courses laid out in the university, each one of which embodies a large line of elective work. We also have courses\nlaid out in engineering, and other courses which make a man a professional man so far\nas training may do so. The great mass of our students come directly from preparatory\nschools and enter the technological school ; come there and go right on into business\nHere and there a young man comes into the university, takes up a course in science and\nletters — so-called arts course — and continues that until he is ready to pass out of the university into a professional school. If he has come from the engineering school his taste\nand opportunities combine to make his two years of study largely of pure and applied\nscience. When he graduates and enters the technological school he then will have had\nall your mathematics and applied mathematics and physics and chemistry, and even a\nlarge amount of applied science working in the laboratory, so he has practically completed two years of work in the technical school, and so he goes and gives two further\nyears in the technical school, and finally graduates at the end of six years.\nIf this boy attempts the other system, and goes into the technical school, and later\napplies for entrance into the university, he usually finds that he is required to know\nancient and modern languages, perhaps more than he is able to obtain, and be has to\ngo back into the preparatory school first, and then to the technical school. The proportion of young men who are taking advanced work in these schools increases, and is\nin larger proportion made up of the young men who have had their general training\nbefore they have had their special training. If the young man cannot find time or\nmeans to take a good general course first, in which he shall be made acquainted with\nwhat in modern times is termed culture, and then takes his professional course, he then\nhas no alternative. He must go into the professional school as soon as he can. It is\nnot a discrimination between rich and poor. That is made by nature, and the school\ncannot control it.\nThe question is raised whether the educator or the professional man should determine\nthe choice. I think the educator should have the majority vote or veto power over all\npropositions relating to this matter, but I think if he is wise he will keep himself in\ntouch both with the man of the profession and the pupils of the classes from which that\nsupport is drawn.\nA wise general listens with great interest and care and candidness to those who constitute his council of war.\nIn the engineering business that council of war is composed\n\n"}
{"page": 573, "printed_page": null, "text": "DISCUSSION.\n\n553\n\nlargely of those who are the leaders of the profession, and I think there is no difficulty\nin having the subjects cut and carved if the educator holds the control with due regard\nto all who have any interest, even to the student himself.\nProfessor Woodbury: If I had with me the address that was made by President\nWalker before the convocation at Albany, I could give you just such an address as I\nwould like to give. Of all the literature that we have had upon the subject of the\nsciences for truly educating the man, I have seen nothing like it. and if you have not\nseen it, I wish you would look it up and study it. We have lived to see this subject\ngrow up in our day. 1 remember with great distinctness the position that was taken by\nclassical men in the study of the sciences in the place of classics. That prejudice was\nstrong, and I think in a great measure natural, for the men who opposed the study of\nthe sciences had not themselves studied them. They were brought up in another line,\neducated in another line, and they really feared, it seemed, that it was going to overthrow their cherished notions, and that will rouse men to opposition in any day, if anything will. And this address of President Walker, showing what might be done and\nwhat ought to be done, and what might be expected in training the mind by the use of\nthe sciences, was opportune. It is not many years since, it is true, but I have heard no\nridicule thrown upon scientific studies and courses of scientific studies since.\nThe point I wish to make is this, that the professor pives to the men under him a part\nof himself. If he is a true man, he is educating the men under him in a way that will\nbe felt not only for the three or four years that he is there, but he carries it with him as\nhe goes forth from the school. It is that zeal, that earnestness for truth, earnestness\nfor investigation, earnestness to cultivate a love of study that is of greater benefit to the\nyoung man than any particularly well-designed course. Not that I cast any reflection\non well-balanced courses, but if a man stands before his class well prepared, and with\nthe earnestness to call out the thoughts, the ideas, the energies of the men, he is\ninvaluable.\nF. 0. Marvin, State University, Lawrence. Kansas : As to the value of general\ntraining,\nI simplyprecede\nwant specialization.\nto add my belief That\nto\" what\nhas from\nbeen my\nsaid own\nheretofore,\nthatandgeneral\ntraining should\ncomes\nexperience\nfrom\nmy own observation. Of course 1 am speaking from the standpoint of an instructor in\na higher technological school. As to what weight the opinion of a practicing engineer\nshould have. I have this to say, talking from the standpoint both of a teacher and an\nengineer, to a limited extent. I believe that the teacher should have the casting vote,\nbut we should look into the profession outside, and we should look into our constituency\nto see what we can do for them ; and what may be true in Massachusetts may not be true\nat the Mississippi River, for the time being, at any rate. You cannot establish a standard that will be true from the Atlantic to the Pacific coast. Out West we have to serve\nour people, and you have to serve your people, and yet we should all strive toward a\ncommon standard of admission for all preparatory schools.\nAs to the weight that should be given to those things which prepare for immediate\nsuccess, I want to say just a word. I don't believe there is a school in this country that\ncan turn out an engineer. Engineering, if I understand it, in its practice, is the application of the higher sciences to definite special problems that come up from day to day,\nand I believe that only judgment and experience will teach a young man or a practitioner how to solve those problems. I believe it is the province of the schools to build\nthe foundations on which the practicing engineer can build this structure which we call\nengineering.\nI would like to emphasize just one other point. After all, the best things that come in\nan engineering course for a young man are those things which he acquires imperceptibly rather than through his text-book — the influence of the atmosphere in which he\nlives, the personality of the men with whom he comes in contact, and particularly of the\npersonality of his instructor. It is the influence of the man on men. I believe that is\nof the first value, and in those schools that contain that class of men you find that\nthey gradually are turned out into the world, and become men among men, as well as\nspecialists among specialists.\nThey are good citizens.\nMr. Boos-Jegher, Official Representative from Switzerland : Our system differs in\na great many points from yours ; that makes it more difficult still. I think there is a\ngreat difference between our country and your country, but we have a system of\napprenticeship that you do not know of at all, and our children are generally trained\na couple of years practically before they study theoretically. The schools we have are\ndivided into middle and upper grades, and perhaps you know of the high technical school\n\n"}
{"page": 574, "printed_page": null, "text": "554\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nat Zurich, which has about one thousand pupils and one hundred and twenty professors, special departments for engineers, architects, chemists ; and we have a second grade,\nwhich is supposed to educate young men who have heen practicing in some industrial\nwork for several years. Then it takes them three years of theoretical training, and then\nso much manual training as you have is not perhaps wanted. The lower grades we have\nnot at all. We have got only an apprenticeship board. We have the general instruction, which has no such manual training as you have.\n\nTRAINING\nBY\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nJOHN\n\nFOR\nM.\n\nSCIENTIFIC\n\nORDWAY,\n\nTULANE\n\nPROFESSIONS.\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nNEW\n\nORLEANS.\n\nHow far do the technological schools, as they are at present organized, accomplish\nthe training of men for the scientific professions, and how far and for what reasons do\nthey fail to accomplish their primary purpose ?\n\nCould we gather a mass of frank, unbiased testimony showing how far\nthe graduates of our technological schools have really satisfied the requirements of the situations to which they have been called, it would be of\ngreat service in the discussion of the subject before us. But a just census\nof the good, the unfit, and the indifferent men is out of the question, and\nwe must fall back on the indirect evidence afforded by the fact that those\nwho are sent out into the world by these institutions readily find good\nplaces, and the demand exceeds the yearly supply. And it may be\nobserved that those who have employed one well-trained student have not\nuucommonly found places for more. It is fair to infer, then, that the\nmanagers of industrial enterprises are finding out that mere so-called\npractical men are not always to be preferred to such as have studied the\nprinciples on which their work is based.\nTime was when men laughed at theorists, and not without reason ; for\nmany a one has made egregious failures because he knew not his own\nlimitations and the limitations which real matter imposes on abstract\nscience. And though for this a fostered self-conceit was largely responsible, the schools were not wholly blameless. In the instruction of former\nyears the abstract and the concrete were kept too far apart. Teachers\nwere content if their pupils crammed so much that they, could pass the\nset examinations, relying more on memory than reason. They did not see\nto it that the knowledge was thoroughly ingrained so that it could reappear inworks as well as in words.\nBut nowadays the student is expected to materialize his ideas and thus\nrectify his crude conceptions, and get such a grasp of facts and deductions that they become really his own. Now, in all well-appointed schools,\nlaboratory work comes in as the mediator between thoughts and things.\nFormulas are not to be accepted until they are squared with the actual\nrealities. It is true that in times past exceptional men have become well\neducated in spite of defective instruction. But our institutions of learning exist not for the brightest only. They should make good men out of\n\n"}
{"page": 575, "printed_page": null, "text": "TRAINING\n\nFOR\n\nSCIENTIFIC\n\nPROFESSIONS.\n\n555\n\naverage students, of students who need to be encouraged and strengthened,\nand yet should be firmly weaned before they leave their alma mater. For\nsuch are needed all the exercises which can help to break them of leaning\non their teachers, leaning on their books, and leaning on their fellows,\nand to build up habits of wise self-reliance.\nThe tyro in arithmetic looks at a question in the book, and minds only\nthe figures. He adds them, and finds that the result is far out of the\nway. Then he subtracts, and is still wrong. Then he multiplies, and perchance gets the required number. Now he can do the sum in recitation,\nbut can give no other reason except that multiplying gives the answer in\nthe book. Alas ! too often in the higher mathematics the student is satisfied if by various tentative combinations he at last obtains the figures or\nthe algebraic expression that the author gives. It is but a temporary correction of such mechanical floundering to point out, or by Socratic questioning todraw out, the explanation. Put the young man in the laboratory\nor in the field, give him the proper instruments, and let him use his own\neyes, his own hands, his own wits, and make and solve real questions.\nBy so doing you will inspire the dry bones of science with the breath of\nlife ; you will take the listless learner out of the land of dim shadows\ninto the region of stirring realities. If you would make interest interesting, instead of asking the boy in so many words to find how much a dollars will earn in o years and c days, lay before him a real note of hand and\nlet him calculate its present value. One who has actually done so much\ndomestic engineering as is involved in buying and laying a carpet, will\nnot try to solve a similar problem, as we have known a score of teachers to\ndo, by reducing the floor area to square inches and dividing by the number of square inches in a yard of the fabric, regardless of the distinctly\nspecified size of the pattern.\nTo make theoretical instruction effective it should be carried along side\nby side with practical applications. In other words, text-books and lectures need to be supplemented by laboratory work in all branches. Some\nwho will not understand school methods have said that there can be no\nreal application till the fledgling engineer has found a place and has\nbefore him the apparatus that is actually used on the large scale. It is true\nhe has much to learn, but he should have learned in school how to teach\nhimself. The superintendent and the master workman nowadays cannot\nspend time to instruct him. No busy man wants an assistant who is constantly asking what he must do next and how he must do it. Apprenticeship isobsolete, and instruction is tacitly relegated to the schools, for there\nit can be given most economically. It is by no means necessary that one\nshould have the largest operations to learn from. The chemist cannot,\nindeed, safely go at once from working with centigrams in a platinum crucible to tons in a reverberatory furnace. But the metallurgical laboratory should bridge over the gap by affording him the experimental rever-\n\n"}
{"page": 576, "printed_page": null, "text": "556\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nberatory wherein he may use kilograms, and vary his trials at will with\nlittle cost. But when a blast furnace is turning out a hundred tons of\niron in a day, to supply pressing orders, it will not do to change at pleasure the charges and the blast. It is not strange that owners and managers\nof large works hare a horror of what they call experiments, for experiments have too often been made at once with the large apparatus, without\nfirst testing, at little risk, in the working laboratory. But, in fact, without rightly conducted experiments there can be but little learned and but\nlittle progress made in the arts. Experiments should be encouraged, but\nnot on the ruinous scale.\nBut it is hardly necessary at this late day to bring forward many illustrations and labored arguments to show the advantages of object teaching, and laboratory practice, and shop-work, and field exercises. For it\nseems to be very generally felt now that besides the long-established laboratories of analytical chemistry, those of physics, and biology, and mechanical engineering, and civil engineering, and metallurgy, and industrial chemistry, are essential for the professional schools. Certainly those\nthat have in faith provided themselves with these most fully are having\nthe largest attendance and are otherwise the most successful.\nThe development of laboratories and the evolution of the best possible\ncourses of instruction require much money and thought and time. It is\nbut thirty years since ways were first devised for class work in physics.\nMetallurgical laboratories are hardly twenty years old. The mechanical\nare of very recent origin, and industrial chemistry has not got far beyond\nthe beginning. There has been rapid and highly commendable progress\nin some lines, but even our best-furnished institutions cannot claim that\ntheir equipment is full, or that their instruction approaches very closely\nto the ideal. By far the larger part of our schools are quite insufficiently\nendowed, and the newer methods of instruction have vastly increased\ntheir wants. They heroically do all they can with their means, and\naccomplish much, but are forced to send out their students into the world\nwithout having reached the highest standard.\nCapitalists who are to draw leaders of industries from the technological\nschools should see to it that these schools are furnished with all needed\nfacilities for instruction. They should lend a helping hand and a helping purse, and not stand aside and expect perfect men to be made with\nimperfect means.\nEespecting schemes of study there is great diversity of opinions, so\nthat it is impossible to make out one that will fully satisfy everybody.\nThose that are actually followed are the results of many compromises.\nWhat proportion should general studies bear to the special, professional\nbranches ? What subjects can be abridged or omitted with the just expectation that the student will of himself take them up in after life ? How\nmany studies can the average student carry on advantageously at one\n\n"}
{"page": 577, "printed_page": null, "text": "TRAINING\n\nFOR\n\nSCIENTIFIC\n\nPROFESSIONS.\n\n557\n\ntime ? How far should the higher mathematics be carried in the different courses ? Should any studies be pursued with chief reference to\nmental discipline, or cannot real work in applied science be made to give\nas good a setting up as mere intellectual gymnastics ? Shall French and\nGerman be taught with reference to anything more than reading scientific books and papers ? Can anything be done to give scientific students\na better command of the English language than they now show ?\nTo enlarge on these topics would provoke more discussion than the\npresent occasion will allow. Suffice it to say that the student should\nbecome a man as- well as an engineer, and it is not right to let the youth\nconfine himself to a narrow groove for the sake of saving time and intellectual labor. If he is to carry much sail he must lay in much ballast.\nHe must make up his mind to study hard, to study much that is not at\nfirst attractive, and to study always, or else fall behind his more industrious fellows in the race of life.\nThe sciences are so intertwined that no one can be understandingly\npursued by itself alone. The young man should lay broad foundations\nwhile he can, for all too soon will the constraining duties of life force him\nto specialize, to merge the full-souled man in the automatic machine.\nYet, as the courses are now arranged in many of the technological institutions, the average student does not and cannot obtain a mastery of the\nmany subjects which are crowded into the four years. Much time is taken\nup in making up the deficiencies of the preparatory schools. A partial\nremedy might be effected by cutting out some things of least importance.\nAnd here it may be said, at the risk of touching some tender spots, that\nit were well if more of the professors were men who had spent some years\nin professional life, so as to have gained a fair appreciation of what the\nworld of action requires. Real business can best correct one's mental\nperspective and show him what properly belongs in the foreground.\nThe higher institutions would gain much by confining themselves more\nclosely to their proper work, and throwing back some of the general studies into the lower schools. Of course the preparatory schools should be\nraised to the highest efficiency by adopting all the modern methods and\naids of education, and these schools should be properly coordinated with\nthose above them. The standard for graduation can be most surely raised\nby having greater and more rigid requirements for admission. Of course\nthis involves some lengthening of the previous years of schooling, and a\nslight advance of the age for graduation, and such reforms can only be\nbrought about slowly. But looking back twenty years, we can see that\nthere has been already some improvement, and we may reasonably hope\nfor more.\nIf any institution would gain a high reputation in the industrial world,\nits faculty must fight strenuously against the desire to make a show\nof numbers ; they must look out for quality rather than quantity.\nA\n\n"}
{"page": 578, "printed_page": null, "text": "558\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nrigid and relentless exclusion of unfit applicants for admission, a thorough sifting of the undergraduates every year, are for the good of the\nschool, the students themselves, and the world. A pupil who proves to\nbe lacking in mathematical ability can never become a civil engineer,\nand, as soon as he is found out, it is a merciful thing for all parties to\nturu him aside to something adapted to his powers. That institution is\nentitled to the most credit which makes the best showing of graduates in\nplaces of trust and power, rather than a long catalogue of undergraduates.\nWe have tried to view the subject from without as well as from within\nthe school, and in summing up can say :\nThe graduates of our best technological schools have shown themselves\nto be fairly qualified for their work.\nThe number of well-furnished institutions is still very limited, and we\nmust not consider every one who has a degree of B.S. as necessarily a fair\nrepresentative of all who are really entitled to the degree.\nThere is room for improvement in all the schools. One of the indispensable means of increasing the efficiency of schools of technology is to\nprovide well-equipped laboratories of all kinds.\nThe schools should also keep in touch with the industrial world by\narranging frequent visits and excursions to manufactories, mines, engineering works, and specimens of architectural skill.\nThe courses of study might well be revised, but this work must necessarily be left to the faculties of the respective institutions.\nThe higher schools cannot do their best until the preparatory schools\nare much improved.\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nBY\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nVALUE\nALFRED\n\nM.\n\nTECHNOLOGY,\n\nOF EXACT\nMAYER,\n\nOF\n\nHOBOKEN,\n\nMEASUREMENT.\n\nSTEVENS\nN.\n\nINSTITUTE\n\nOF\n\nJ.\n\nModern physical science may be defined and distinguished from the\nknowledge of the ancients, as knowledge founded on exact measurements.\nIt had its birth about the time Newton was born, toward the middle\nof the seventeenth century. At that period two notable inventions were\nmade: one, the vernier, the invention of Pierre Vernier, of France, who\ndescribed it in \"La construction, V usage et les proprietes du Cadran Nouvean,\" 1631 ; the other was the application of the screw to exact measures,\nfirst made in 1640 by William Gascoigne, who died at the fiarly age of\ntwenty-four, on the field of Marston Moor, while fighting for Charles I.\nGascoigne placed in the eyepiece of the telescope a screw micrometer, and\nthen attaching the telescope to a divided circle, he presented to science\nan instrument capable of making the exact measurements which subse-\n\n"}
{"page": 579, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATIONAL\n\nVALUE\n\nOF EXACT\n\nMEASUREMENT.\n\n559\n\nquently furnished Newton the data on which to frame his theory of the\nlunar motions and to show that they were conformable to his law of gravitation. Also, by measures made with the micrometer eyepiece, Flamsteed gave Newton and Halley the data which enabled them to compute\nthe orbit of the comet of 1680.\nThe micrometer screw was subsequently used by Ramsden in his\nmachines for dividing the straight line and the circle. Ramsden's invention, improved by our distinguished countrymen Rutherfurd and Rowland, has in their hands done noble work in ruling diffraction plates with\ngreat precision, and in giving the most exact measures yet made of the\nwave-lengths of light.\nThe vernier I need not describe. It is familiar to all educated persons.\nSuffice it to say that its immediate adoption as a means of subdividing\nthe smallest divisions of a scale, either linear or circular, introduced a\ndegree of precision in measurement not thought of before the middle of\nthe seventeenth century.\nPrecise science is not older than two hundred and fifty years, only five\ntimes the length of the fifty years which to one of the age of sixty is looked\nback upon as a short period, in which but little can be accomplished by\nindividual effort.\nThe effects on the formation of modern science of the two notable inventions Ihave referred to are undeniable, and it will be noted by all students\nof physical science that in every addition to our means of exact measurement, whether of geometric magnitudes or of the units used in light,\nheat, or electricity, sudden advances are made in knowledge ; for to measure the connected parts of phenomena is the first and indispensable step\nto the advance to the knowledge of the law which connects the associated\nfacts of the phenomena.\nSuch advances are recalled by all of you. After the invention of the\nrevolving mirror by our countryman, Joseph Saxton, in 1830, it was\napplied by Wheatstone in 1834 to the measurement of the velocity of\nelectricity ; and its subsequent use by Arago, Foucault, and Michelson to\nexact measurements of the velocity of light marks a notable progress in\"\nmeasures of precision. Rood, of New York, using the same invention,\nsucceeded in measuring precisely a fraction of time as small as the\n?Woooo of a second.\nSimilar advances in our knowledge of the radiant euergy of the sun,\nmoon, and stars, and of the distribution of heat in the solar spectrum, followed the invention of the holometer in 1881 by Professor Langley, the\npresent secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. To enumerate all the\nadvances due to the invention of new instruments for exact measurements\nwould be to give a good part of the history of modern physi-cs and\nastronomy.\nIf exact measurements, as I have attempted to show, permeate all the\n\n"}
{"page": 580, "printed_page": null, "text": "560\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nlaws and doctrines of modern physical science, I need hardly add that\nstudents of science must make themselves familiar with the instruments\nand methods used in exact measurements, to have an intelligent appreciation of modern science and to have confidence in the truth of its statements, which, without that knowledge, are to many \" a stumbling-block\nand foolishness.\"\nNow, it seems to me that the study and use of the instruments used in\nexact measurements, and of the methods used in combining these measures\nto arrive at the most exact measure possible, are, from an educational point\nof view, highly important. The student thus has his mind opened to the\nview of things and the workings of nature where the minutia, generally\ndisregarded as unimportant, appears of the greatest importance in the\ncorrect interpretation of nature.\nWorking with the instruments used in exact measurements gives, in an\neminent degree, control of the hand, and training of the eye to minute\nand careful vision ; and after the measures are made, the plotting of them\nin a curve in which the correctness or incorrectness of the measures made\nis shown to the eye at a glance, cannot fail to further the appreciation\nof careful and exact work on which often depends success in the practice\nof a profession or of an art.\n\nTHE\nBY\n\nED UCA TIONA L VALUE OF A P PLIED MA THEM A TICS,\nINCLUDING\nENGINEERING.\n\nF. B. HUTTON,\n\nC.E., PH.D., PBOFESSOB\nSCHOOL\n\nOF\n\nMIXES,\n\nOF MECHANICAL\n\nENGINEEBIXG,\n\nCOLUMBIA.\n\nThe committee on programme for the Department Congress of Technological Instruction has requested the writer, through Commissioner W.\nT. Harris, to prepare a brief paper on the above subject in order to open\nthe debate upon it. The compliment is accepted in the hope that, while\nsecuring agreement in the main, there may yet be additional light and\nconfirmation thrown upon the subject by those who will participate in the\ndiscussion.\nAssuming at the outset that the important work of the lower and preparatory schools is well done, to fit the student for his technical course of\ntraining, there would appear to lie behind the course of instruction in the\ntechnical schools two fundamental starting points. The first of these is\nthat which has for its object the familiarizing of the student with those\nprinciples of pure science and knowledge which the engineering student\nmust have as the foundation of all his later work. If we receive that\ndefinition of engineering which represents it as aiming to bring to humanity, for the progress of civilization, the utilization of those laws and forces\n\n"}
{"page": 581, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE EDUCATIONAL\n\nVALUE\n\nOF APPLIED\n\nMATHEMATICS.\n\n561\n\nwhich have been provided by a wise and loving Creator for the progress of\nthe race onward and upward, then it is impossible to lay too much stress\nupon this solid groundwork of scientific principles and laws. These principles, in themselves, are valuable as means of education where they are\nderived either by deduction from accepted axioms, or from foundation\nprinciples intuitively apprehended, as well as by induction from the observation of phenomena.\nThe educational value of this class of instruction is even most considerable in the domains of mathematics and what is called natural science.\nIn these we get that mental training which comes from deduction and\ninduction in their most rigid and exacting forms. After a certain point,\nhowever, it becomes rarely possible to take the time to compel each student\nto convince himself of the existence of a particular law or principle, and\nthe instruction takes the form of the predication of law and principle by\nauthority, and the familiarity of the student with the law becomes a question of his exact memory of what he has read or heard. While it is of\ncourse helpful and convincing to know that a certain theorem is accepted\nas true because it has been proved to be so by some one whom the student\nrespects, yet is it not possible for a man with a good memory to pass successfully through the requirements of this part of his course in a condition\nof mental Nirvana, where he is satisfied with the exalted plane of achievement in the text-book or lecture-room atmosphere, while the other faculties of his mind, which education must bring out and strengthen, lie comfortably and lazily undisturbed so far as the course of study is concerned ?\nThe second starting point in technical instruction is that from which\nthe paths lead to the application of these scientific principles and natural\nlaws to the problems of civilization and industry as they come to the\nengineer. This is instruction in applied mathematics, applied physics,\nor applied chemistry, as distinguished from the study of these as pure\nsciences, and is an instruction which is deemed of paramount importance.\nIt begins, perhaps, at the middle of the school life of the student, but it\nends only with the end of his natural or active life. It forms that part of\na man's education which is never completed, and possibly does not stop\nwith the end of existence upon this planet. It is difference in ability to\napply successfully his knowledge of principles in the conduct of practical affairs, which differentiates the successful practitioner of engineering\nfrom him who is professionally but a cumberer of the ground, for whom\nno one has any use.\nThis instruction in applied science or engineering will, of necessity, be\ngiven along two lines. Every formula of practical value must have its\ntheoretical expression which is deduced a priori, modified by coefficients\nof experience and practice, which shall take account of variable conditions\nor factors which the exact theoretical formula cannot, from the nature of\nthe case, embrace. The two lines of instruction in this field will there36\n\n"}
{"page": 582, "printed_page": null, "text": "562\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nfore involve, first, descriptive and explanatory instruction, which shall\ndiscuss these conditions of service, shall record successful achievement,\nand shall present and explain empirical formulas.\nThe second line, based somewhat on the first, but having its own special peculiarities, must aim at a broad and far-reaching training which\nshall make a man competent not only to repeat the achievement of a\npioneer, but competent to predict, on the basis of past performance, what,\nwill be the action and result of new combinations in advance of experience.\nIt is a man with this latter capacity who is the engineer.\nThere is no question that this second division is the most important.\nThe first division is most admirably provided for by the engineers'\npocketbooks and handbooks of formulae, but we are unwilling at this\ndate to say that a knowledge of pure science and a shelf-full of handbooks will make an engineer. We have a safe and conservative plodder\nand subordinate, but we have not a man of resources, nor have we the\nbest man that could be made.\nPermit the digression to say that by the foregoing it is not intended to\nundervalue the pocketbooks. The engineering student should be taught\nto use them wisely and accurately, as a part of his school training in the\ndrawing-room. But exactly as his knowledge of the use of the slide rule\ncannot be permitted to take the place of drill in the use of logarithms, so\nthe handbook cannot be used exclusively, to the exclusion of individual\nresponsibility and thought, without a tendency narrowing and belittling\nin its character so far as the man himself is concerned.\nThe thesis of this paper, then, is that the applied mathematics, including engineering, is as efficient a means of educating a man as any study of\nthe curriculum ; and the reason for this is that the study of engineering\ngives a scope and an occasion for the development of the reasoning\npowers, of the critical faculty, and of the power of intelligent and wise\nchoice, and that the development of these powers will result in a stronger\nman, a more reliable and firm character, and a broader grasp of the significance ofprofessional opportunity.\nIt has been conceded that a fundamental defect attaching to the study\nof languages, either classic or modern, is their tendency to overtrain the\nmemory for verbal forms and syntactical peculiarities at the expense of\nthose mental capacities of judgment, criticism, or selection which have\nmost to do with the affairs of everyday life. It is this which lies at the\nbottom of satire upon the unworldly helplessness of merely literary professors and others, and which has again given sting to the valuelessness\nof a scholar's training as it used to be, as a fitting school for technical\naffairs and business. If our principle is right, it explains why, under a\nsystem of marks, in a purely classical course, the man who ranked first in\na class graded upon ability to cope with the intricacies of grammar should\nrarely have been as successful in winning reputation as some less con-\n\n"}
{"page": 583, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE ED UCA TIONA L VALUE\n\nOF APPLIED\n\nMA THEM A TICS.\n\n563\n\nspicuous wight further down the roll. The valedictorian had an excellent\nmemory and extensive vocabulary. Down the class, however, were those\nwho had more reluctance to yield themselves to the guidance of recorded\nrule, and yet had in compensation the faculty of perception, of wise\ndeduction, and even of origination. In engineering, when properly\ntaught, from the very fact that it is not an exact science, like the pure\nmathematics, there is an opportunity given to bring out this most important principle, that successful mastery over circumstances means success\nand reputation, which these faculties bring, if other things are equal.\nTo a pure mathematical problem there is either no solution, the solution is indeterminate, or there is a fixed number of solutions. In engineering this is not so. He is easily discouraged who says there is no\nsolution to a problem in engineering. The whole history of this century\nrepeats over and over again the solution of that which was formerly said\nto be impossible, even by high authority. In engineering, the problem\ncannot be indeterminate when its solution, as in a manufactured article or\nin an achievement, is presented in a concrete form.\nIt is a most important consideration of any which can be impressed\nupon a young man, that in engineering problems there are many practicable solutions to every one ; and (here mark the essential kernel of the\nwhole matter) that it is left for him to make the choice of the most suitable solution under the special circumstances in which that particular\nproblem comes to him. It is this exercise of a trained, critical, or judicial\nfaculty, called by whatever name — common sense, horse sense, shrewdness,\nacumen, or what not — which engineering, more than any of the other\nprofessions, medicine alone perhaps excepted, demands from its successful\nrepresentatives.\nIt is to be noted further that the considerations which are to be guiding\nfactors in the exercise of this judgment, or critical faculty, or common\nsense, are not to be found in the school text-books nor in the pocketbooks usually, nor from an authority calling down the vista of even an\nhonored past. The choice has to be guided from the conditions of the\nday and the hour. The achievement of to-morrow must be built upon the\nsuccess of to-day, the discovery of the last new combination, and even\nthe commercial environment of the district where the solution is to be\nrealized. It therefore comes back upon the teacher of engineering so to\nshape his instruction in this field that the men under his instruction shall be\nable to make the most of themselves, he standing by to help all in his power.\nHow shall this be done ?\nFirst. Teachers of engineering should be engineers possessing this element of sense, judgment, and critical faculty, rather than scientists only,\ncompetent authorities in pure science, but nothing more.\nSecond. Teachers of engineering should be practitioners in touch with\nthe competition of the day, familiar with achievement of colleagues and\n\n"}
{"page": 584, "printed_page": null, "text": "564\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nrivals, and with their critical and judicial faculty cultivated and in active\nuse. They should be able to exhibit the action of the trained mind before\nthe student, and not merely to theorize about its action. They should\nnot be compelled to follow too far behind the lead of those who are at the\nhead of their specialty. This is the great difficulty connected with the\npromotion to responsible professorships of young men who are put into\nsubordinate positions in the schools immediately upon graduation, without an opportunity for contact with the competitive conditions of professional practice.\nThird. Teachers of engineering should have some capacity as administrators and business men. Here at once a difficulty is presented ; a comparatively small number of our professors can be the executive head of\ntheir institution, although American technical education exhibits notable\ninstances of success along these lines. On the other hand, business exigency demands that the head of a corporation or firm shall give his entire\ntime to its business, which the professor of engineering is, of course,\ndebarred from doing.\nThe most practical solution of this difficulty has been reached where it\nhas been possible for the teacher of engineering to have his work supplemented bylectures, isolated or in course, by successful practitioners who\nhave made a name for themselves in their specialty. This procedure is\nnot without its difficulties in spite of its obvious advantages. The advantages are the contact with student and practitioner, which is stimulating to the former in the highest degree, and he feels sure that the point\nof view of the lecturer is that of the competitive conditions of the day.\nThe disadvantage is the danger lest these very competitive conditions\nprevent the lecturer from giving due recognition to the excellence of rival\nachievements. There is the further danger of disagreement between the\nlecturer and the regular professor, while both may be right. The student\nis likely to suspect errancy on the part of him who disagrees with a specialist, and the taint of errancy in one subject may extend so as to seriously\naffect the efficiency of the regular instructor in all subjects, which is, of\ncourse, unfortunate. There is the further difficulty that the lecturer may\npass over the heads of his auditors, and the difficulty of finding time in a\ncrowded course for much of this sort of additional work.\nIt would take us too far afield to pursue this discussion in detail, but it\nis the opinion of the writer that the advantages overweigh the disadvantages, and that instruction by such lecturers is desirable when practicable.\nFourth. So far as the student himself is concerned, his fundamental\ntraining in science should begin back in the preparatory. schools, so that\nthe latter part of the curriculum in the professional school can be specially devoted to this advanced training of the man, and the strengthening of his faculties by devotion to the applications of law and principle,\nand the strengthening of the mental powers in this direction.\n\n"}
{"page": 585, "printed_page": null, "text": "DISCUSSION.\n\n565\n\nFifth. There should be symmetrical culture of the body, both muscle\nand skill and perceptive capacity, no less than training of the mind.\nHow capable soever the mind may be as a tool, the handle by which it is\ndirected by the will must yet remain the body and its ability to carry out\nthe directions which the intelligence gives.\nFinally, if it be the object of education to lead out and develop the\nGod-given capacities of a man, to give him a kit of sharpened tools\nand a trained capacity to use them to make him more the master of\nunfriendly environment, to make him more capable of lending a hand to\nhelp upward those about him less favored than he, to teach him the basis\non which to decide between that which is wise and unwise, between right\nand wrong, then the contention of this paper is that there is no training\nin education superior to engineering, when properly carried out, to produce self-reliant, independent, creative thinkers — to produce God-like\nmen.\nDISCUSSION.\nProfessor Robert H. Thurston, of Sibley College, Ithaca, N. Y. : The educational value of applied mathematics and of engineering has, I think, always been\nmore or less recognized from the earliest times. The fact has been that applied mathematics have not, until these later days, been looked upon as of sufficient importance,\neducationally, to secure for them a very important place in the curricula of the schools.\nThe only university giving instruction in all the literatures, arts, and sciences of its\ntime was that of Alexandria, the home of Euclid ; and Hero the Younger, Archimedes,\nand their kind were teachers of applied mathematics, even though they, like all Greeks\nand all learned men of every nationality of that time, took no great interest in their\npractical employment.\nBut their value as a discipline was recognized and utilized.\nDuring the succeeding centuries, up to recent times, the arts progressed and science\nmade great strides, and, more important than all, science found application in the arts ;\nbut for a thousand years the schools remained under the influence and direction of the\ncloisters, and only literature had real interest for them. The natural sciences made\nslow progress ; mathematics gained little until the times of Newton and Descartes ; and\napplied science, of whatever department, remained unrecognized by the schoolmen.\nTo-day for the first time, and in the United States mainly, we find this attempt made\ndeliberately and earnestly — usually by the State governments of the West and of the\nMiddle States ; while the independent schools, having for their main purpose the promotion of professional training in the constructive arts — in engineering, as we have come\nto call them — are taking a more complete form as educational institutions than the\nolder schools ever approached. It is these schools which have done most to illustrate\nthe educational value of the applied sciences, and especially of applied mathematics.\nThese studies, given as a matter of business and for a business purpose, have shown\nthemselves to have extraordinary educational value in ways which make them helpful\nin every department of a \" complete and perfect education.\"\nThe peculiar discipline afforded by the mathematics, pure or applied, is that of the\nreasoning and logical faculties. The study of pure mathematics gives power of starting\nfrom precisely defined premises, with quantities of exactly measured value, and of proceeding step by step, with absolute accuracy and quantitatively precise measures to a\nresult which is as exact and certain as the premises upon which it is based. Precision\nof definition and measure, accuracy of process, and exactness of each operation become,\nunder this drill, intuitive and habitual. No qualities of mind are of greater importance,\neither to the development of character or to the acquirement of those qualities which\ngive life success and value.\nEngineering and the applied mathematics do still more. Engineering consists in the\napplication of all available scientific knowledge, of applied science in every field, to the\narts of construction.\nThe purpose and outcome of the education given by these profes-\n\n"}
{"page": 586, "printed_page": null, "text": "566\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION.\n\nsional schools is business ; but an inevitable result of this course of intellectual application is the training of the reasoning and constructive faculties, and the production of a\ncertain combination which no other course of instruction ever yet gave or could give.\nHere the judgment comes in as an element of education, and is itself a product of education ;and the man inevitably acquires wisdom where he before too often attained only\nto cyclopedic knowledge, and that of the most unavailable and valueless kind. The\nqualities acquired by the gymnastic training of the older curriculum were only the cultivation and strengthening of the faculties, as the gymnast in the ring or in his boat\nbuilds up and symmetrizes his muscles. It does not follow that he is more useful to himself or to his fellows for the possession of a better disciplined mind or body. He is simply\nprepared to make himself a more useful member of society, and to get more out of life\nfor himself and others. Engineering, in its applications of science to specific ends,\nto the solution of problems exactly defined in advance, fits the man to make direct and\nproductive application of his faculties, to conquer the world for himself, and to help his\nneighbor and the race.\nEngineering, more than any other, is a profession based upon applied mathematics.\nIt affords the mind that combination of exercise and discipline, that power of doing,\nand that knowledge of the ways of doing, which best trains the man and best prepares\nhim for life and work. 1 should say that applied mathematics, as a study, may be\nrelied upon to give the mind apprehension of exact and clear thinking, and of absolute,\nchain-like logic, such as no other intellectual exercise can give ; that the study of the\nsciences generally gives the habit and the power of precise observation and accurate\nstatement ; that the application of the sciences to the constructive arts, in the higher\ndepartments of engineering, trains the mind, and the character as well, and gives judgment, and the habit of using it with discretion and with fruitfulness of result.\nI would, in view of these well-established facts, go even further than the writer of the\npaper under discussion, and would uphold the thesis that, in the most important branches\nof education, engineering and its preliminary studies give the man a better training in\nthe most important elements of the perfect character, intellectually, than any other\nknown element of the curriculum ; and I would assert that they give development in\ndirections in which the old curriculum was comparatively useless and ineffective. The\nolder schools gave knowledge; these give wisdom. The older gave a leading- stri ng ;\nthese give the power and the confidence needed to go alone. Those gave every opportunity to develop the weaknesses of human vanity, to make a pedant, or an intellectual\n'•dude\" ; these prune out every such folly, and teach the man to stand upon a real\nfoundation of knowledge and power, or, if unequal to his task, to fairly judge, to admire,\nand to respect those who can and will. Pedantry in engineering is even more nearly\nunknown than in medicine. It flourishes only among half-trained or unsym metrically\ntrained minds, and then only when the experiences of practical life do not come in to\ndiscipline the callow brain.\nThe applied mathematics, the professions, engineering even, do not give a complete\nand perfect education, nevertheless ; and I am only the more earnest in advocacy of the\nvalue of the \"liberal education,\" after long observation of the effect of an education\nrestricted to professional studies, whether in law, medicine, theology, or engineering,\nA truly \" liberal \" education is one which embodies in the curriculum the elements of\nall the literatures, all the sciences, and all the arts which make the life of the time.\nThe older schools, especially those of a century and more ago, did not and could not\ngive a liberal education in the true sense ; such, for example, as could the school at\nAlexandria in its time. Nor could the professional schools of any time, so far as they\nrestricted themselves to professional work and the preparation for it, provide an education in any proper sense liberal. The classical education of the Latin schools is as far\nfrom a liberal education as is the modern education of the professional schools. The\n\"complete and perfect education\" of Milton involves and insists upon the whole basis\nof intellectual life : literature, the applied as well as the pure sciences, and the intellectual substance of the arts of the time. All these unite and constitute essential elements\nof the whole. Give the boy and the girl as broad and liberal an education as time and\nmeans permit ; send the youth into the higher schools and the colleges to obtain from\nthe great masters in all the departments of real education such know ledge and discipline\nas they can provide ; then semi the matured and trained mind into the professional\nschool to secure familiarity with the arts of doing as well as the knowledge and judgment required for successful doing. Only then will the character and the faculties of the\nindividual have become all that can be made of them in the morning of life. Thenceforward the soul must travel its own path, in its own way, and by its own light.\n\n"}
{"page": 587, "printed_page": null, "text": "MEANS\n\nSHOP-WORK\nBY\n\nAND\n\nOF DEVELOPING\n\nSLOW\n\nPUPILS.\n\nDRA WING AS MEANS\nSLOW PUPILS.\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nR.\n\nH.\n\nRICHARDS,\n\nOF\n\n567\n\nOF DEVELOPING\n\nBOSTON,\n\nMASS.\n\nWe shall all agree that a teacher should have in his possession as many\nmeans or tools as he can, in order that he may meet the needs of as many\nvarieties of mind as possible. The analytical or mathematical method\nstands at the head of the list, and always will do so. There are minds,\nhowever, which have difficulty in accepting the dictum of pure mathematics, while a graphical representation or solution quickly removes their\ndoubts and they go forward with renewed confidence. We might allude\nto the graphical method as the perspective of mathematics. Simple illustration :A student is to compute from the number of cart-loads of potatoes the number of bushels to the load, and the cost per bushel and the\ntotal cost of the lot. If he is to do the same for a lot of carrots, the bright\nboy will see through it at a glance. The slow boy may get mixed up and\nmultiply his potatoes by his carrots, and lose his way. If the problem is\nshown him in the form of a parallelopipedon, with the number of loads\nscaled off on one edge, the number of bushels to the load on a second,\nand the price per bushel on the third, he gets the perspective or comprehensive view of the whole, and sees the value of the areas as well as the\nsolid, and the foolishness of multiplying potatoes by carrots.\nThe graphical method always helps to clear the mind when it is in\ndoubt. The bright, quick minds see at once. The doubting Thomases\nhave to try in order to see. Shall we condemn the doubters and tell them\nthey are not worthy of an engineering education, or shall we help them ?\nThere are easily ten places waiting for this class to one for the bright\nclass ; and in some instances the plodding fellows will fill those ten places\nmore satisfactorily than the bright, quick fellows who are hurrying to the\nlead, even while the latter are en route.\nNow graphical methods run through everything in physics, chemistry,\nand mathematics, and the engineering applications thereof. We have\ngraphical statics, showing the relations of stresses in structures, telling us\nhow strong the various beams, posts, ties, and struts should be in bridges,\nroofs, and other structures ; making a complete check upon mathematical\ncomputations, and a completely new and different side of attack for the\nmind which has trouble with the analytic method.\nWe have graphical dynamics, if I may use the phrase, giving the relations of time-space-force which go together to constitute power. We have\ngraphical hydrostatics, showing pressures and columns. We have graphical\nhydrodynamics, showing columns pressures, deliveries, velocity of motor,\nvelocity of wheel, velocity ratio for best economical results.\n\n"}
{"page": 588, "printed_page": null, "text": "568\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nIn plotting results we have, for instance, Thurston's triangle of the\ncopper-zinc-tin alloys, combined with their tensible strength, showing at\na glance where the highest and where the lowest result is to be found, with\nthe percentage compositions thereof. In slag calculation we have the fiveline problem, designed by myself, of solving at a glance the computation\nfor mixing two compounds in such a proportion as to produce a desired\ncompound.\nWhen a young man reaches the point that he asks for paper and pencil\nin order to answer your question, then you may know he is going to give\nyou some real information and is not going to talk generalities. Need I\nsay anything more in favor of drawing ? I think not.\nHow, then, are we to get this result ? We must teach him drawing —\nfree-hand drawing, mechanical drawing, projections, descriptive geometry— so that he may draw the rear side of a cube or any regular solid\nwithout going round to see it, so that his imagination carries him through\nthe solution of intricate problems in points, lines, planes, surfaces, and\nsolids. These studies will be found to greatly help his analytical studies,\nexplaining and clearing them up at every point.\nSo far I have only spoken of drawing. Now I will speak of shop-work,\nand will begin by saying that just as drawing is a means of explaining\nand clearing the intricate parts of mathematics, of analytical and applied\nmechanics, and of the study and design of structure and of machinery,\njust so also is shop-work upon the use of materials. No engineering\ncourse can afford the time for a great deal of shop-work. The time\nrequired to make elaborate work is quite foreign to a school of engineering.\nBut a course should be given of sufficient length that the student shall\nfeel at home in the use of wood, cast-iron, wrought-iron, and steel ; and\nhe should reach the point where he would feel as great a shock to see a\nmaterial misused — for instance, cast-iron used as a tie-rod — as he would if\nhe saw a horse harnessed up with his face toward the cart.\nI have now mentioned drawing and shop-work independently ; it remains\nfor me to speak of them in their relation to each other. Mechanical\ndrawing and shop-work are each independent forms of language. Drawing\nis an expression of thought upon a flat surface. Shop- work is an\nexpression of thought occupying space. The making of a drawing from\nan object is a good mental exercise, as is also the making of an object\nfrom a drawing. But when a student has made a drawing from an\nobject, and, without further reference to the object, has made a reproduction of it from his own drawing, he has felt and understood that\nmost useful of modern appliances — the working drawing.\nNow, am I taking too radical a position if I— after lamenting, as we have\nall lamented, our inability to take from the brain of the departing octogenarian something which can be mechanically given to the rising youth,\nwhereby he may start in life with a distinct advantage over what we had\n\n"}
{"page": 589, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATIONAL\n\nPROCESS\n\nOF TRAINING\n\nAN ENGINEER.\n\n569\n\nwhen we began, starting on a higher plane, higher by the amount that\nhe has received mechanically from the brain of the dying man — am I\ntaking too radical a position if I say, Let us use to a certain safe extent\nrapid methods of acquiring experience ? Let us not take off from or\ndiminish one iota from our mathematic and analytical methods of teaching ;but if we can enlarge our student's sphere to some extent by the use\nof graphical methods, may we not safely do so ? Must he be required to\nplod through every single thing without a short cut anywhere ? I think\nnot, and I think there is no place where shortened methods can be more\neasily found, adapted, and used, than in graphics. The danger of too\nfree a use of them must, however, be kept constantly present.\nI believe a judicious use of shortened methods will enable us to increase\nsomewhat the training and experience as well as the culture of our pupils.\n\nTHE EDUCATIONAL\nBY\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nG.\n\nPROCESS\nENGINEER.\n\nOF TRAINING\n\nLANZA,\nOF\nMASSACHUSETTS\nTECHNOLOGY.\n\nINSTITUTE\n\nAN\nOF\n\nIn order that I may be able to do justice to the main portion of my\nsubject in the time at my disposal, I shall begin by laying down a few\nfundamental propositions, without stopping to prove them.\n(1) In order to impart to any individual the best mental training, and\nhence the best education, the course to be pursued should depend upon\nhis natural aptitude.\n(2) Scientific study, and the study of science as applied to the industrial\nwork of the world, is fully capable of giving the very best mental training\nto those whose aptitude lies in that direction.\n(3) The development of the technological schools of the country during\nthe last twenty-five years has been phenomenal, whether we consider the\nnumber of the schools, the number of the pupils, or the character of the\ncourses of instruction, and the facilities offered for scientific and industrial\neducation.\n(4) An engineering course should aim to fit the student to become an\nengineer in the best and most thorough manner ; and it is mainly on the\nscientific and practical work of the course that reliance should be placed\nto impart mental power, and hence mental training.\n(5) The training of the hand and eye should form an important factor\nin all education, and especially in a scientific and technical education.\n(6) The recognition of the foregoing statement has led to the introduction of laboratory work in chemistry and in physics, of laboratory and\nfield work in natural history, of manual training in the use of tools, and\n\n"}
{"page": 590, "printed_page": null, "text": "570\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nC0NGHES8\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nfinally of laboratory work on a practical scale in the various kinds of\nengineering.\n(7) Those who carry on industrial establishments in this country find\nthat it pays them best to have as assistants young men who understand\nscientific principles, and who are consequently able to take a certain\namount of responsibility and who can grapple with an emergency ; for\nin a live industrial business emergencies are constantly arising, and the\nheads of these establishments have less and less use for men who are\nmerely drilled in performing one operation.\nIn England the above stated condition of things is not yet realized, but\nthe facilities for an engineering education are increasing, and there is a\ngrowing sentiment in favor of it. Moreover, the influences at work are\nsuch as cannot fail to bring about, before very long, a condition of things\nsimilar to that which exists in America.\nIf we analyze carefully the work to be done in the different kinds of engineering, commonly known as civil engineering, mechanical engineering,\nmining and metallurgical engineering, electrical engineering, and chemical engineering, and perhaps some other industrial pursuits which are not\nusually called engineering, we shall find that, in many of them, and I might\nalmost say in all, there are, first, certain processes to be carried out, and, second, attention must be given to devising and preparing the means of carrying\nout these processes efficiently and cheaply; to the best kinds of machinery\nto be used for all the steps in the process, including a consideration of\ntheir efficiency, durability, first cost, the expenses necessary for attendance, also for their maintenance and repair, etc.; to the construction and\narrangement of the power plant, whether water or steam ; the system of\ntransmission ; the design and construction of the buildings adapted for the\nwork, including foundations, water supply, drainage, heating and ventilation, light, lighting, fire protection, and a large number of questions of\na similar character, all of which are generally recognized as engineering\nquestions.\nIn the infancy of manufactures the processes are liable to be the\nall-absorbing problems ; but as any one of these manufacturing interests\ndevelops, the processes become more or less settled. When this state of\nthings is reached, the manufacturer who would succeed is forced to pay\nattention to the engineering problems that arise in his business. Hence\nthe mining, the metallurgical, the electrical, or the chemical engineer\nmust be primarily an engineer, but he must also be sufficiently versed in\nthe special mining, metallurgical, electrical, or chemical processes, to be\nable to adapt his engineering work to their needs.\nWhen we come to the terms civil engineering and mechanical engineering, which have both been used in different senses at different times, it is\nimpossible to draw a line of distinction, and to assert that any one set of\nengineering operations belongs exclusively to the civil or to the median-\n\n"}
{"page": 591, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATIONAL\n\nPROCESS\n\nOF TRAINING\n\nAN ENGINEER.\n\n571\n\nical engineering profession. Indeed, the term civil engineer has been\nused, at different times, to denote all grades from a thoroughly equipped\nengineer to a mere surveyor who knows no engineering at all. Hence we\nmay properly consider what is the education which a young man needs to\nfit him for the profession of engineering, whatever be the special line of\nengineering which he is to enter. Naturally, we wish, as far as any education can accomplish it, to put him in the best condition to meet and\ngrapple with the duties, the problems, and the responsibilities of his profession as they arise.\nNow there are two things which are absolutely necessary for a successful engineer ; first, a knowledge of scientific principles and of the experience of the past ; and, second, his own experience. The latter cannot be\nimparted in a school, and each man must acquire it for himself subsequently.\nThe man who is not familiar with the scientific principles which concern the work he has in hand, is not a safe man to trust with responsibilityfor\n;\nscientific principles are merely the laws of nature as far as\nknown, as shown by the experience of the past. Hence it is that the first\nand most important thing to be done for the student is to give him a\nthorough drill in the scientific principles which find their application in\nhis profession, for these are the things that should be acquired in school,\nsince it is only with great difficulty and very imperfectly that they can be\nmastered after the young man begins practice ; and this view is borne out\nby those engineers who have been successful, and who have had to acquire\ntheir scientific principles, little by little, during the practice of their profession. Too much cannot be said by way of insisting that a thorough\nmastery of such scientific principles far outweighs in importance anything\nelse that can be done for the student ; and this is so true that it is a\ndecided mistake to neglect this part of his training in order to impart to\nhim greater skill in such processes as will probably engage his attention\nthe first year after he goes to work.\nThe two fundamental sciences upon which the scientific principles of\nengineering are especially dependent are mathematics and physics.\nThe function of mathematics is to draw necessary conclusions from the\nassumed data. Mathematics has nothing to do with the correctness or\nincorrectness of the data. No natural law can be discovered by mathematics alone ; the discovery or proof of natural law requires experiment\nand observation in all cases.\nThe engineer should have a thorough working knowledge of whatever\nportions of pure mathematics he needs to make the calculations that are\nliable to arise in his work, and also to draw the necessary conclusions\nwhich concern the engineering and scientific subjects with which he must\ndeal in his profession ; and this latter is an all-important matter.\nWe may say that arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, analytical\n\n"}
{"page": 592, "printed_page": null, "text": "572\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\ngeometry, descriptive geometry, and the differential and integral calculus\nare an absolute necessity for our prospective engineer ; and differential\nequations is very desirable. The special work to be done in each of\nthese subjects is a matter of judgment with the one who lays out the\ncourse.\nThe student should acquire the ability to use his mathematics as a tool,\nnot only for making computations, but also for drawing necessary conclusions of the kinds that apply to his engineering work ; and this last is the\nfeature that is most frequently lacking in the mathematical instruction\ngiven to engineering students.\nAn important matter to be attended to throughout the engineering\ncourse is that the student should be taught to distinguish between the\nmathematics of his work and the assumptions made at the beginning or\nin the course of the work of the proposition he is dealing with. The\nstudent is too prone not to draw this distinction, and to consider things\nthat are pure assumptions as being the deductions of the pure mathematics, and hence as conclusively proved. Such a course is fraught with\ndanger and leads to all sorts of errors, often very serious. In order to\navoid it, the student must be taught to think.\nThe other fundamental science which I have mentioned is physics.\nPractically, a course in physics is the suitable preparation for a proper\nunderstanding of the scientific principles of most of the engineering work\nwith which the student will come in contact. Mechanics, light, sound,\nheat, and electricity are all matters that concern the profession of the\nengineer so intimately that he cannot afford to neglect a careful study of\ntheir first principles.\nA certain amount of work in the physical laboratory is of great importance for the student, since it teaches him how to ask questions of nature\nand how to obtain correct answers ; in other words, how to make careful\nand accurate experiments. It is 'true that the greater part of the experimental work of the engineer will have to be performed on a considerably\nlarger scale than that of the physical laboratory ; but, on the other hand,\nsome of his most important and delicate work involves the doing of just\nsuch experimental work as he is taught to perform in a well-organized and\nwell-equipped physical laboratory.\nNext, as to chemistry. I cannot claim for it a similar position of fundamental importance in the engineering part of an engineering course that\nbelongs to mathematics and physics. Nevertheless, a certain amount of\nchemical knowledge is of great importance to all engineers ; but when\nthis amount has been acquired, although a further knowledge would be\nuseful, it is not one of the most important things. Chemistry, however,\nwhen given in the freshman year, fulfills another important function ;\nviz. : it introduces the student at the very threshold of his course to a\ncharacter of scientific work that obliges him to think, and to think in\n\n"}
{"page": 593, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATIONAL\n\nPROCESS\n\nOF TRAINING\n\nAN ENGINEER.\n\n573\n\na direction in which, as a rule, he has not been trained in the preparatory\nschools. Especially is this true of the laboratory work, since chemistry,\nunlike mathematics, is an experimental science; and we often find that it\ntrains the thinking powers of the student even more than do algebra,\ngeometry, and trigonometry.\nTurning next to the subject of drawing, there are two objects to be\naccomplished : first, the execution ; and, second, the power to express\nideas by means of drawing, and power to read the ideas of others when\nexpressed by the same means. Of course a certain amount of time will\nhave to be employed at the outset to teach the use of instruments, and to\nenable the student to perform the actual work of drawing. As soon,\nhowever, as he begins to do his work with a fair degree of accuracy and\nneatness, the attempt should be made to teach him the language of\ndrawing, so that he can readily translate ideas into drawing, and vice versa.\nNow the mathematical theory of drawing is descriptive geometry ;\nhence he should at once be taught descriptive geometry thoroughly, so\nthat he may have a thorough grasp of this subject.\nFree-hand drawing and lettering are both very important matters — i.e.,\nfree-hand drawing to such an extent as will enable the student to sketch\neasily and readily any part of a machine or structure, and to make neat\nand plain letters and figures.\nNext comes mechanism, which is, I suppose, the most elementary of\nthe subjects that are commonly considered strictly professional work of a\nmechanical engineer. It deals with the combination of the means by\nwhich each of the machines of the world is enabled to accomplish its own\nspecial functions when the power has been furnished to it. It aims to\nmake the student familiar with the methods by which these results are to be\naccomplished, and to teach him the principles governing them, so that he\nmay undertake intelligently the devising of new arrangements, and avoid\nmaking impossible or undesirable combinations. The mathematics principally needed are algebra, geometry, trigonometry, and descriptive geometry ;but it will often save work and enable one to reach results more\neasily to have a knowledge of analytic geometry and calculus. After he\nhas had his systematic study of mechanism, it seems to me that he ought\nto become familiar with the usual machine tools in general use ; and,\nbesides this, that he should make a study of some machines involving\nexamples of decidedly complicated mechanism by actually examining and\nhandling them. Then, again, we have a special class of problems in\nmechanism which concern machines that furnish power, as the mechanism\nof the steam engine ; but the one portion of the mechanism of the steam\nengine that requires special attention is the valve gear. Hence the\nstudent must have thorough instruction in valve gears and link motions,\nwhich shall drill him in the mathematical principles for working out\nvalve gears in all their details ; and also he should be taught the different\n\n"}
{"page": 594, "printed_page": null, "text": "574\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nways of designing and making those in use to-day, the ways of constructing them, and their adjustments.\nThe next course of which I shall speak is one which vitally concerns the\nengineer at every turn, and therefore one in which it is absolutely necessary\nthat he should be very thoroughly drilled— I refer to theoretical and\napplied mechanics. This term has been used in different senses at different times and in different places, but, in the sense in which I shall use it,\nit includes a general and mathematical discussion of the action of forces\nupon bodies at rest or in motion, and also a full treatment of the strength\nand elasticity of the materials used in construction, both from a mathematical and from an experimental point of view. To speak more in\ndetail, it includes such subjects as the following, viz. : Composition and\nresolution of forces, condition of equilibrium, determination of the centers\nof gravity of lines, of areas, and of solid bodies ; the general laws of\ndynamics, as a treatment of uniform and varying motion ; the pendulum ;\ndetermination of moments of inertia and of centers of percussion ; the\nlaws of friction, determination of the work used up in friction, both by\nmathematical calculation and by actual experiment, etc.\nThen come the determinations of the stresses in the different members\nof trusses of all sorts ; and then a study of the mathematical discussion of\nthe theories of the strength and elasticity of materials — i.e., study of the\ndistribution of the stresses acting in tension rods, struts, or compression\npieces, beams or other pieces bearing a transverse load ; also in all sorts of\npieces that are subjected to shearing, including, of course, riveted joints,\nshafting, and beams, as well as in other pieces ; the distribution of the\nstresses acting in a hook or in any tension or compression that has to bear\nan eccentric load ; the modes of determining the deflections of beams,\nthe angle of twist of shafts, or the amount of yielding of pieces generally\nunder load ; theories and modes of calculation of the stresses at different\nparts of continuous girders ; determinations of the stability of, and of the\nstresses acting in, arches which bear a load, whether of stone or of iron ;\nstability of domes, and a study of the theory of elasticity. Then, turning\nto the experimental side, the student should be made familiar with what\nexperiments have been made, and with what results they have shown as to\nthe strength and the stiffness of such pieces as are used in construction\nto bear a load. Moreover, the account of these experiments should be\nbrought up to date, and special emphasis should be laid on the results of\nthose experiments where the conditions of practice as to size, manner of\nloading, and treatment generally have been exactly, or at least approximately, copied. The student should be made to study carefully the actual\nresults that have been obtained in these experiments ; to collate and compare, and to draw from them such conclusions as are warranted ; to see\nhow far and in what ways they may modify the ordinary mathematical\ncalculations and the ordinary ideas in regard to the action of such pieces\n\n"}
{"page": 595, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATIONAL\n\nPROCESS\n\nOF TRAINING\n\nAN ENGINEER\n\n575\n\nin bearing loads; in short, to put himself as nearly as possible in such\na condition that he knows what is the extent of our knowledge of the\nfacts, as shown by experiment, in regard to the behavior of the materials\nof construction — wood, iron, steel, stone, cement, concrete, etc. — when\nsubjected to such loads as they have to bear in practice.\nThere are a good many cases where some people, who think they are\ncalculating everything with all due care, neglect to determine correctly\nthe forces acting on a piece, or the stresses produced by those forces. A\nfew examples will serve to illustrate. Take the case of one of the columns\nof a building. When the greatest load per square foot covers the entire\nfloor above, the resultant of the load on that floor acts along the center\nline of the column, and the stress per square inch due to this load is uniformly distributed over the section. When, on the other hand, the floor\non one side is fully loaded and the floor on the other side is not loaded,\nthen the total load is less than it was in the other case ; but its resultant\ndoes not act along the center line of the column, but is eccentric, and the\nconsequence is a tendency to bend the column.\nWhen a column in a building is to be calculated, we should determine\nwhat is the greatest stress on one side due to having as great an eccentricity of load as is possible to be attained in the use of the building, and we\nshould see that the dimensions of the column are such that this greatest\nstress should not exceed safe limits.\nAnother illustration is to be found in the matter of fly-wheels of steam\nengines. Every once in a while we hear that some fly-wheel has burst ;\nthe pieces have, in consequence of the breakage, been hurled in all directions, carrying death and destruction in their paths ; people are killed,\nbuildings demolished, and property destroyed. In several cases of wheels\nwhich I have examined, the stresses in the bolts uniting the separate portions of the rim and the stresses in the separate portions of the rim near\nthe joints were greater than a proper regard for safety would allow, and\ngreater than the designers of the wheels would have allowed had they\nrealized their existence. The difficulty was that the designers had\nneglected to make allowance in their computations for the fact that the\nbolts were not placed in the line of direction of the resultant tension, but\non one side of that line.\nAnother case where the disaster came about in consequence of having\nneglected to consider the effect of an eccentric load is to be found in the\nBussey bridge accident which occurred a few years ago, where one of the\nhangers had a very eccentric pull upon it, while it was only strong enough\nto bear the load if it had been central. This disaster caused heavy\ndestruction of property and large loss of life.\nFrom the foregoing it is evident that the man who trusts to formulae\nderived from some handbook to make his calculations for the strength of\nmaterials, while he does not know the principles upon which those formulas\n\n"}
{"page": 596, "printed_page": null, "text": "576\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nare based and is unable to deduce his own formula?, is a dangerous man to\nbe trusted with responsible work, and that just as there is no royal road\nto learning, so there is no means by which formulae can be substituted for\na knowledge of principles.\nTurning now to a consideration of the constants to be used, the fact is\nthat it is only within the last fifteen years that a great deal of activity has\nbeen displayed in testing the strength of pieces of practical size, and under\nconditions imitating closely those of practice, and that a flood of light has\nbeen thrown on the question as to what are and what are not reliable\nconstants to use in practice. Of course, calculations based upon incorrect\nconstants cannot give rise to safe structures and machines. What I have\nsaid is enough to show how very important it is that the study of strength\nof materials, both the mathematical and experimental portions, should be\nvery thorough and in detail.\nThe next course to receive our attention is thermodynamics and steam\nengineering. It might be assumed by some that this was peculiarly the\nprovince of the so-called mechanical engineer ; but that it is the province\nof every engineer of whatever name, becomes evident when we consider\nthat steam is the principal source of power, and that without power all\nthe works would have to shut down.\nNow, let us consider how such a course should be laid out — assuming,\nof course, that the student is already familiar with valve gears and with\nthe mechanism of the steam engine ; also assuming that he has had a\ncourse of heat in his course in physics, and that, in this course, he has\nbeen taught thermometry, calorimetry, and the laws of the transferrence\nof heat.\nHe should then be taught the nature and construction of the steamengine indicator, how it is to be used, how the indicator card is taken,\nand what it means, and he should acquire some familiarity with interpreting the characteristic and also some of the peculiar features of indicator cards; and then he should know the general characteristics — i.e.,\noutward characteristics — of the different types of steam engines.\nNext he should receive a thorough drill in the principles of thermodynamics. What is thermodynamics, and what kind of a course should\nour prospective engineer have in the subject ? Thermodynamics is simply the mechanical theory of heat, or, in other words, the science of\nheat with special reference to the production of motion. The subject\nwas originally developed from the standpoint of the mathematical physicist, and books have been written from this point of view by such men as\nClausius and others. Besides the fundamental principles of the science,\nthey take up elaborate discussions of the nature of heat, and a large mass\nof applications and developments in the direction of pure science rather\nthan in the direction of what we need in the study of the steam engine,\nor of other heat engines, as the gas engine, the hot-air engine, etc.\n\n"}
{"page": 597, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATIONAL\n\nPROCESS\n\nOF TRAINING\n\nAN ENGINEER.\n\n577\n\nNow, in the course to be given we must include a thorough treatment\nof the fundamental principles of the subject, a study of the laws of\nthermodynamics, Carnot's function, and the whole set of fundamental\nequations and their interpretations. Then come the applications of these\nfundamental principles to the gases and vapors used in practice for producing power, especially steam, and also gas and air. Then a study of\nthe experiments that have been made, and the results of the experiments\non the properties of vapors and gases ; experimental determination of the\nmechanical equivalent of heat ; tables of the properties of saturated steam\nas pressure, temperature, density, specific heat, latent heat, entropy, etc.;\nalso the same for other vapors, and a study of the laws governing the flow\nof fluids, both gases and vapors, through orifices and in pipes, including a\nconsideration of the resistances. The . steam injector comes next ; and\nthen the student is prepared for a study of the behavior of steam in the\ncylinder of a steam engine.\nIn this connection he should be taught the modern methods of analyzing and separating the various actions of the steam that passes through\nthe engine, and of giving to each its proper consideration, both in the\ncase of single and in that of multiple expansion engines ; and (in the\ncases of the latter) the effects of different sizes and arrangements of\nreceivers, the methods of proportioning the cylinders, etc.\nNext he should learn how to make a proper engine test, both when it\nis for commercial purposes and also when it is to be made in a thoroughly\ncomplete and scientific manner for the purpose of obtaining definite\nknowledge as how to produce the best results by means of a steam engine.\nThe day when the taking of a few indicator cards from an engine, or\nthe making of tests in which scientific principles and scientific accuracy\nare not attended to, and claiming that such tests can furnish information\nas to what are the real effects of different arrangements, is rapidly\npassing away, the advocates of such a course confounding themselves by\nreaching too many contradictory conclusions by means of their tests.\nThe student should have presented to him, in a carefully systematized\nform, an account of the experiments that have been made with such\ndegree of accuracy and such regard for scientific principles as to render\nthem worthy of study ; and he should thus become familiar with what is\nthe extent of our knowledge of the subject up to date. He should then\nhave a good course in steam boilers, their characteristics, construction,\noperation, and accessories, including chimneys, economizers, etc. Parallel\nwith this course of steam engineering in the classroom, the student should\nbegin work in the laboratory by making steam-engine tests, alternating\nhis duties at each successive test until he has been drilled in performing\nall the different parts of the work, and in making all the calculations\nnecessary. For this purpose it is much better for the education of the\nstudent if his work can be done upon an engine large enough to work\n37\n\n"}
{"page": 598, "printed_page": null, "text": "578\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nwith an economy comparable with that found in such engines as are used\nin large and well-designed modern plants. In these tests all the work\nshould be performed with the greatest accuracy possible, and this accuracy\nshould be such as to render the test thoroughly reliable. This can be\naccomplished,, provided the instructor sees to every detail. Later on the\nstudent should make accurate and carefully conducted boiler tests on\nsome large boilers.\nThe whole idea of such a course in steam as I have mapped out is to\ngive the student a thorough drill in the fundamental principles of the subject, and then to teach him how these principles apply to the work of the\nengineer, the deductions and developments from the fundamental principles being made in the direction of engineering work instead of pure\nscience ; and also, by teaching him where we stand to-day in regard to\nreliable experimental results, to fit him to appreciate and take part in the\nbest and most scientific engineering work of the present time, and of the\nfuture.\nAnother fundamental subject is hydraulics. Our prospective engineer\nshould study the principles of hydraulics, or the laws governing the pressure of water, and the flow of water in pipes, in open channels, through\norifices, or over weirs. He should also become familiar with the character\nand results of such experiments as have been made upon these subjects,\nand should know how to conduct such experimental work. In whatever\nspecial line of engineering he is subsequently engaged, he may have to\nestablish a water supply or a system of sewerage, or the necessary works\nfor a water-power plant, or river or harbor works, or at least a dock, a\nwharf, or a quay, if his works are on the water's edge. Unless his specialty isto be hydraulic work, he cannot in his four years' course study in\ndetail all these things, but he should become familiar in any case with the\nprinciples stated above, and then, either by means of an option in the\ncourse, or after graduation, he can make a special study of a part or all of\nthese subjects, if he has occasion to do so.\nAs to how far electricity ought to be accounted as a fundamental subject, and consequently required of all engineering students whatever their\nspecial lines, it is customary now to require some electricity in connection with the general physics, any further study of the subject being\nreserved for those who take the electrical engineering course.\nWhether a considerably larger amount should be put in the list of fundamental studies will depend upon how far electrical appliances associate\nthemselves with the everyday work of the engineer, whatever his special\nline. The probabilities are that in the future we shall have to insert a\nmuch larger amount of electricity in the work required of all engineering\nstudents, whatever their specialty.\nThe subjects thus far enumerated are fundamental, and our prospective\nengineer cannot afford to do without them, whatever be the special line of\n\n"}
{"page": 599, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATIONAL\n\nPROCESS\n\nOF TRAINING\n\nAN ENGINEER.\n\n579\n\nengineering to which he is to devote himself. In laying out, therefore,\nany engineering course, of whatever name — whether civil, mechanical,\nmining, metallurgical, electrical, or chemical engineering — we should\narrange first to give good courses in the fundamental subjects already\nenumerated ; and thorough instruction in these should not be sacrificed to\nany other subjects, whether of an engineering or of a general character.\nWhen this has been done, we must next consider what other subjects\nshould be added, and they may be classified as follows : (1) Those of a\nprofessional nature, bearing on the work of an engineer in general, whatever his specialty. (2) Those of a professional nature bearing on the\nspecial line of engineering the course is intended to teach. (3) Those of a\ngeneral character suited to impart general information. (4) Those which\nfulfill partly one of these functions, and partly another. In the first\nclass I should place (a) machine design, (b) dynamics of machinery,\n(c) metallurgy of iron, (d) heating and ventilation, (e) stereotomy, (/)\nsurveying, (g) shop-work.\nHow many and which of these subjects can be added will depend upon\ncircumstances.\nUnder the term, dynamics of machinery, I include such subjects as\ngovernors, fly-wheels, dynamometers, the action of the reciprocating parts\nof the steam engine, etc. The mere mention of these subjects will make\nplain their importance, and the same is true of metallurgy of iron and heating and ventilation. Stereotomy is merely a species of advanced descriptive geometry, and can easily be acquired by one familiar with the latter.\nNext as to surveying and topographical drawing. Of course, every engineer ought to know some, but the principles of surveying are easily learned\nby any one having a scientific training and some skill in handling measuring instruments ; and nicety of execution can only be attained by long\ncontinued practice, which can be acquired after leaving school. Surveying has sometimes been assumed to be the chief function of the civil engineer, and frequently a man who was merely a surveyor would call himself\na civil engineer; but the progress of the world is sweeping this away, and\na mere surveyor is no longer considered to be an engineer any more than\na machinist is an engineer. When we come to geodesy, it requires a\nthorough training, but it is a subject by itself and does not form a part\nof engineering.\nNext, as to shop-work, remarks might be made very similar to those\nalready made in regard to surveying. It is a matter in which every\nengineer ought to have some practice, but which should not be allowed to\ncrowd out more important engineering work. Indeed, it would be well if\nthis could be acquired at a manual-training school before the student\nenters the engineering school.\nNext, as to the studies of the second class, we may make two subdivisionsFirst,\n:\nthose requisite for such specialties as can be developed\n\n"}
{"page": 600, "printed_page": null, "text": "580\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nby a suitable addition of certain lines of work, and where these lines of\nwork depend upon the previous training that has been given ; and,\nsecond, those where a considerable knowledge of and hence a drill in\nchemistry are necessary. In the first subdivision I should place bridges,\nhydraulic engineering, railroad engineering, with special reference to\npermanent way ; railroad engineering, with special reference to motive\npower and rolling stock ; marine engineering, mill engineering, naval\narchitecture, electrical engineering, and others as they may arise. In the\nsecond subdivision I should place mining, metallurgical, and chemical\nengineering, and others as they may arise. The essential difference\nbetween these two subdivisions is that in the latter a certain amount of\nchemistry becomes one of the essential fundamental studies, and must be\nso treated in planning the course, though we must bear in mind that these\nare engineering courses, and are intended to fit men to become engineers\nand not analytical chemists.\nLet us assume, now, that we have fixed upon the fundamental subjects\nand the time that must be given to each ; we are then prepared to map\nout the course to be pursued in what I have called the second class, or\nspecial line of studies, including whatever of the first class we deem best\nto insert in the list. I shall only mention a few geueral rules to be\nobserved in making the selection :\n(1) To drill the student in all the details of his profession, or to impart\nto him experience, is not possible in a school. (Experience can only be\ngained after he leaves school and enters upon his profession.)\n(2) To attempt to perfect him in those things that he will have to do\nwhen he first goes to work, at the expense of his later success, is a very\nshort-sighted policy.\n(3) The work in these special lines should be so laid out as to fit him as\nthoroughly as possible to grapple with the classes of problems that he is\nlikely to meet in the practice of his profession, in a thoroughly scientific\nmanner, and thus to teach him the relations of his scientific study to the\npractical problems he will meet later in life.\nAs to the third class of subjects, or those intended for general information, itis desirable to insert as much as is possible without sacrificing the\naccomplishment of the main objects for which the course exists. Such\nsubjects are mainly linguistic and literary studies. The first, however, if\nconfined to the modern languages, are also to a certain extent professional,\nfor without modern languages some of our most valuable engineering\nliterature would be closed to the student.\nHaving thus marked out the character and the scope of the studies that\nshould enter into an engineering course of one or another kind, there\nremains for me to speak of the graduating thesis, and the extent to which\nlaboratory practice should enter into the course.\nFirst, as to the graduating thesis, we ought, in determining what should\n\n"}
{"page": 601, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATIONAL\n\nPROCESS\n\nOF TRAINING\n\nAN ENGINEER.\n\n581\n\nbe its nature, to refuse to consider any possible functions tbat it may\nfulfill as a method of ascertaining tbe amount of progress the student has\nmade, or his capability, and it should be planned solely with reference to\nthe part it will play in imparting instruction of the kinds necessary to\nprepare the student to make a success in his professional life in the long\nrun. Its special feature should be original investigation, and its chief\nobject to teach the student how to carry on scientific research.\n. Next, as to laboratory work, I will first say that in giving the instruction Ihave outlined, it should not be merely classroom instruction that\nis- given, but also laboratory work. Of course, the student will have, in\naddition, laboratory work in his own special line, as in the mining laboratory, electrical laboratory, industrial-chemistry laboratory, etc., besides\nwork in the chemical and physical laboratories. But, leaving on one side\nany consideration of these special laboratories, and confining our attention\nto what are understood by the term engineering laboratories — i.e., those\nbearing upon the work common to all kinds of engineering, such as\nlaboratories for testing the strength of materials, steam-engineering laboratories, hydraulic laboratories, etc. — we may say that the three principal\nobjects to be accomplished by them are :\n(1) To give the students practice in such experimental work as an\nengineer is constantly liable to be called upon to perform in the practice\nof his profession, as tests of the strength of materials, evaporative tests of\nsteam boilers, steam-engine tests, calorimetric tests, valve setting, etc.,\nteaching him to carry on his work with accuracy, and to take all proper\nprecautions to avoid error.\n(2) To give the students opportunity to carry on original investigation\nin the engineering line, as investigations in strength of materials, in steam\nengineering, etc.\n(3) Another important function of such laboratories, which is entirely\nconsistent with the other two, is that of taking up and carrying on systematic investigations of engineering problems ; and this can be done in a\nlaboratory, whereas it is only with very great difficulty that it can be done\nin a machine shop or in a manufacturing establishment. By publishing\nthese results from time to time the laboratory will serve to add gradually\nto the common stock of knowledge.\nOriginal researches should also be carried on by means of the graduating\nthesis, and, in this case also, some one of the teachers should take so large\na part in the thesis, by way of aiding the student, and making suggestions\nand guiding him, and exercising the proper supervision over him, as to insure\nthat the work shall be well done, and that the results may be of real value.\nIn closing, I will say that the introduction of laboratory work into our\nengineering courses and the work done by the laboratories have exerted a\nvery great influence toward bringing closer together the engineering\ncourses of the schools and the actual work of the engineer in practice.\n\n"}
{"page": 602, "printed_page": null, "text": "582\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nDISCUSSION.\nProfessor C. M. Woodward, Dean of the Polytechnic Department of Washington\nUniversity, St. Louis, Mo. : The scheme mapped out by Professor Lanza may seem\nvery extensive, but I do not see that it can be cut down without serious loss. I am\nglad to indorse the view that the last year of the course should be spent on profound\nstudy of those principles of mathematics, physics, and mechanics which are true for all\ntime and for every place, instead of attempting to become familiar with prices and\nmechanical methods of making estimates, the former of which change with both time\nand place, and an educated man may learn the latter readily enough when he goes to\nwork.\nWashington University has adopted two features in her course of training an engineer which insure an abundance of time for the work as laid down by Professor Lanza,\nand which provide for a fuller preparation.\nFirst. The greater proportion of its engineering students are graduates of the Manual Training School. They have, therefore, fairly mastered the rudiments of instrumental drawing and brush-work, and may. at the start, be considered as proficient in\nmere drawing. Hence the drawing required in descriptive geometry, surveying, and\nengineering is done rapidly and accurately, with no waste of time.\nSecond. They are familiar with the use of tools and materials and the elementary\nprocesses of construction ; consequently they do not have to stop to learn \"shop-work.\"\nWashington University expects soon to require his manual training as a condition\nof admission to its Freshman class in the Polytechnic School.\nThirdly. The \"thesis\" or \"professional report\" is not required till the fifth or\ngraduate year. The degree of bachelor of science in some branch of engineering is\ngranted at the end of the fourth year, while the professional degree is deferred till\nthe elaborate thesis has been presented during a post-graduate year, or years of professional practice. In my judgment the student is not fit to begin his thesis till the\nend of the fourth year's work. If he begin earlier, he is handicapped in the higher\napplications, and he spends time over his thesis that should be spent in the study of\nwhat is already well known and established.\nOur students generally select the subjects of their theses on consultation with the\nheads of the departments, but they write and elaborate their theses by themselves in their\nown way. Of course they are faulty, and as a rule they ought not to be published, yet\nthey may admirably serve the purpose intended — i.e., they show the would-be engineer\nsome of the difficulties that he will meet with, and how he may overcome them, while\nyet he is shielded from the pecuniary consequences of failure.\nI am constrained to add a word of warning. Is there not danger of our neglecting the\nthorough study and grasp of general principles and general methods as illustrated in what\nis already well known and well established, in our feverish haste to push our students\ninto original work and to publish the discovery of something new ? Is that not getting\nto be the unfortunate ambition of colleges, technical schools, and universities ? I\nthink it would be possible to point out whole faculties who appear to be more anxious\nto build the fifth, sixth, and seventh stories of scholarly attainment than they are to\nproperly finish the first four.\nProfessor G. Lanza, of Boston : In reference to the remarks of Professor Woodward, Iwill say that the thesis should be performed under the direction and supervision\nof the teacher; hence that residence should be required during its preparation. The\nobject of the thesis is to teach the student how to make investigation, and, in order to\naccomplish this object properly, it must be under the immediate supervision of some\none of the instructors who must see that it is properly carried on ; and hence the thesis\nis really the joint production of the teacher and student; the teacher generally having\nhad the greater part in the ideas. Then, when the thesis is deemed worthy of publication, it should be published with the name of the teacher attached, and no thesis\nshould be allowed to be published without it.\n\n"}
{"page": 603, "printed_page": null, "text": "VALUE\n\nOF APPLIED\n\nED UCA TIONA L\nBY\n\nHENRY\n\nT.\n\nMATHEMATICS\n\nAND\n\nVALUE OF A P PLIED\nAND ENGINEERING.\n\nEDDY,\nC.E.,\nINSTITUTE,\n\nPH.D.,\nTERRE\n\nENGINEERING.\n\n583\n\nMA THE MA TIC 8\n\nPRESIDENT\nOF ROSE\nHAUTE,\nINDIANA.\n\nPOLYTECHNIC\n\nThe general object of this session to-day is to attempt to estimate how the educational\nvalue of the various branches pursued in our technical colleges is affected by the fact\nthat they, in such institutions, are essential yet strictly subordinate parts of general\ncourses of professional study.\n,\nThe fact that applied mathematics, for example, is an essential part of all our\nengineering courses, requires the student to master an amount and kind of mathematics\nwhich he otherwise would usually have no thought of taking ; while the fact that this\nstudy is subordinate in its character imposes certain limitations otherwise not thought of.\nIt shall be our object to discuss for a few minutes the manner in which the stream of\nmathematical culture is affected, and, as it seems to me, rendered educationally more\nvaluable, by what the engineer would call its canalization — by erecting dams, impounding reservoirs, and gates, in order to make its whole flow as useful as possible and let\nnone of it run to waste at its own sweet will.\nPerhaps the first and most evident consideration which forces itself upon our attention\nin regard to this study, is the precarious foothold mathematics had in this country\nuntil its study in connection with its applications lent vitality to it, and, in fact, made\nit an indispensable part of the outfit of the professional engineer. Since the establishment of the technical colleges — and I think we can unhesitatingly say because of their\nestablishment — the study of mathematics has increased many-fold. Not only has the\nnumber of students pursuing it as a serious part of their course of study greatly\nincreased, relatively as well as actually, but the extent to which it is pursued by the\naverage student has been greatly enlarged. It is self-evident that this enlargement has\nnecessarily multiplied its educational value, simply from the fact that it is more used.\nThe facts respecting the spread of the mathematical culture in this country within\nthe quarter of a century of my own experience are so far beyond what anyone would\nimagine who has not investigated them as to be well-nigh incredible ; and this has been\nalmost exclusively due to the cultivation of the field of applied mathematics by the\ntechnical colleges. The designing of bridges and other engineering structures, of steam\nengines, of hoisting apparatus, of pumping machinery for water supply and sewerage ;\nthe designing of dynamos and motors, of blowers, rock crushers, stamps, and rollingmills, together with the ever-increasing demands of public transportation in its protean\nrequirements, have constantly called for and rewarded the increasing mathematical\nknowledge brought to the solution of its problems. The discussion of these problems\nin the engineering societies and college classrooms has constantly added to the stream\nof common mathematical knowledge. It is as if the application of mathematics to its\nlegitimate and necessary uses had transformed it and enlarged it, much as the river\nClyde was transformed and enlarged by canalizing it from Glasgow to the sea. It was\nthereby changed from a creek which at certain stages of the tide might with difficulty\nbe used for large craft, to a broad and deep waterway, such that the largest shipbuilding industries of the world use it at their convenience. I dare say a Ruskin\nlaments the transformation.\nI do not.\nTrade and commerce the world over, and so humanity in general, have been benefited\nby the improvement of this stream ; and so it is with the improved mathematical culture\nin our technical schools.\nIts proved utility and importance have reacted upon the study\n\n"}
{"page": 604, "printed_page": null, "text": "584\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nitself so as to enhance the esteem in which it is held and thereby greatly increase the\ncare and attention bestowed upon it by the faculties of those schools— all of which has\ncontinually increased its educational value.\nOne of the results of the careful consideration thus given to the mathematical part of\nour technical courses, is that its relative demands for time are duly weighed. Its definite relationship to other work demands that the time allotted to it shall be very sharply\ndefined and conscientiously accounted for, because the student must, within the allotted\ntime, cover a predetermined amount of a given branch of the subject.\nA due sense of responsibility for time spent is perhaps one of the most difficult\nthings to enforce in higher mathematical study, yet one of whose educational value\nthere can be no question. Now, as I am pointing out, the control exercised over the\nstudy of applied mathematics in our technical courses is perhaps quite as effective as\nthat exercised over any other study.\nHaving now called your attention to the increased vogue of mathematics in this\ncountry, as having been largely due to the fact that it meets a real need now brought\nto the consciousness of the professional engineer, and having noticed the improved\nquality of the instruction following upon fixing responsibility and focusing attention\nupon a matter to be of so great practical importance, we may profitably discuss for a\nmoment the distinctive scope and character of applied mathematics as affected by its\nsubject matter. It seems to me that the distinction to be drawn between this study and\nthat of pure mathematics, is like that existing between the literary culture of the poet\nor imaginative writer, and that of the logician or writer upon scientific subjects. The\none strives to develop his sense of the artistic and harmonious, of rhythm and cadence,\nof proportion and form, of sound as well as sense ; while the other must first of all\nhave regard to the facts of the external world, and to truth as it exists in nature apart\nfrom suggested ideal relationships.\nI think this evident distinction in the nature of the work done in the higher parts of\nundergraduate or professional work in pure and applied mathematics, carries with it on\nthe part of the student an attitude of sustained attention and interest toward applied\nmathematics which is very largely wanting in the average student of pure mathematics.\nI am tempted to the utterance of very strong statements as to the educational value\nof serious, attentive study of this kind, which has behind it the powerful stimulus\narising from the student's consciousness that it is the pathway to a successfid professional career. Attention and sustained interest form the keystone of the educational\narch ; without them, educational values cannot be said to exist.\nJust consider the case a moment. Here is this study of applied mathematics in its\nvarious ramifications built upon a solid foundation of descriptive geometry, calculus,\nand analytical mechanics. Its difficulties (as all admit) are more serious than those of\nany or all other studies in the student's technical course. He cannot expect to gain the\nadvantages of the course until he shall have mastered the grammar and vocabulary of\nthis new language — until, in fact, he is able to think and express himself in the mathematical forms which are the accepted medium of technical intercourse.\nWhat element of educational value is here lacking that can be attributed to mathematical study in general ? In the study of applied mathematics the impelling motive\non the part of the average technical student is not, it must be confessed, his interest in\nthe subject itself. He regards it as a means to an end ; but he must, and he does,\npatiently exert his powers for a long period to master this means to reach the end\nsought.\nHas not that a great educational value of itself ?\nAll will accord great value to effort like this, yet its effect upon the mind of the student\nis not so great, I am convinced, as if he had an overmastering interest in the subject\nitself. Its effect upon the formation of character may, however, be quite as great and\n\n"}
{"page": 605, "printed_page": null, "text": "VALUE\n\nOF APPLIED\n\nMATHEMATICS\n\nAND\n\nENGINEERING.\n\n585\n\nquite as salutary as the more absorbed study of mathematics for its own sake. That\nthis attitude of willing study for valuable ends prevails largely in the study of applied\nmathematics will, I think, be generally conceded.\nIt may further be said that in the course of such study many a student finds his very\nhighest interest and intellectual ambition aroused as to the subject matter of the mathematics under consideration. Such students, as it seems to me, reap the greatest advantage to be gained from this study.\nI think it but just to assert that no higher educational advantage can be gained from\nmathematical study in any of its fields than is gained by these students of applied\nmathematics.\nThis last proposition, however, is one from which some might be inclined to withhold\ntheir assent. They would be inclined to think, perhaps, that some of the educational\nvirtue of mathematical study is sacrificed when its subject matter is largely restricted\nto the range of subjects lying at the basis of the constructive arts. On the contrary,\nhowever, I am convinced that the gain in definiteness and clearness of conception as to\nthe precise purport of the discussions brought to the attention of the student, more than\ncompensate him for any loss he may possibly experience in their lack of breadth or\ngenerality.\nThe very fact that the mathematics is applied, within clearly understood limitations,\nto problems many of which are capable of experimental verification, in no way detracts\nfrom its educational value or vitiates it as a discipline.\nPutting aside all consideration of accidental circumstances which render applied\nmathematics of such great disciplinary and educational value in our technical colleges,\nI think it can be made clear that it is in itself as valuable educationally as pure mathematics bya brief analysis of the educational value of mathematics as compared to that\nof language, which is perhaps the only other study that in range and importance can\nbe properly compared with it.\nAs has been well remarked by Mr. Todhunter, the celebrated Cambridge mathematician, \"it is the prerogative of mathematics especially, to supply from the earliest\nperiod exercise for the reason as well as for the memory.\" The manner in which this\nexercise for the reason is supplied by mathematical study deserves our brief consideration.\nA mathematical symbol of any kind, be it a numeral, a letter, a line, a sign of an\noperation or an equation, is of such a clearly defined nature that the ideas intended to\nbe expressed by it may be fully grasped by the mind. Usually each symbol stands for\nbut a single property or relation of simple character. This is in striking contrast with\nlanguage, where the elements used are words. Those in most ordinary use have such a\nmultitude of modifications of sense, and such a bewildering entourage of subtle suggestions and relationships, that before they can be used for any exact reasoning, the sense\nin which they are to be used must be carefully defined. Is it strange, then, that the\nimmature mind of the student finds that language, with its infinitude of suggestions\nand hazy indeterminateness, is but a quicksand when he attempts to use it as a basis for\nhis first attempts at reasoning ? He needs something simpler and more precise in its\nnature, and something whose laws are capable of being more explicitly stated. He\nfinds this in mathematics.\nTo quote again from Todhunter : \" There is no study which can call forth the faculty\nof original thought and combination of known truths, like the problems and exercises\nof the mathematics.\" Now is it not this ability to form ideas and distinguish relations\nwith precision which is the supreme intellectual value of education ?\nIt seems to me that in the earlier part of education this can be accomplished by no\nstudy so surely and rapidly as by mathematics. It alone is sufficiently simple in its\nsubject matter and relations. Later, when the mind is able to carry the more complex relationships, and deal with the probable conclusions of practical life, language\n\n"}
{"page": 606, "printed_page": null, "text": "586\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION.\n\nmay be the vehicle of equally valuable educational work ; but the crudity of all\nyouthful literary efforts gives ample evidence that the young mind is unable to firmly\ngrasp the complicated relations involved in the definitions of words. Mathematics\nrightly taught is more suited to this stage of mental development.\nTo return to the educational position of applied mathematics. There is no question\nbut that its complexity and range is sufficiently great to tax the best efforts of the student\nat the time he meets it, and there is no question, also, but that by reason of the fact of\nits application to design it powerfully stimulates that inventive mind-building process\nwhich is one of the highest kinds of mental culture to be attained at the average\ncollege age.\nWe are led, then, to reassert emphatically, not only that mathematics, in our technical and engineering courses, has lost none of its educational value from the fact of its\nstudy along the lines of its applications, but that, on the contrary, this value has been\nenhanced from this very cause, as well as from the several other practical circumstances\nbefore enumerated.\n\nDISCUSSION.\nProfessor Gr. Lanza, of Boston : There are a few thoughts that present themselves\nto my mind to which, I believe, Professor Eddy has not referred in his paper. In any\nengineering course, one of the principal objects to be accomplished is to teach the\nstudent to think for himself ; and a constant struggle is required on the part of the\nteacher throughout the four years of the course. The earlier the attempt to make the\nstudent, think is begun, the better. Whereas the study of natural and experimental\nsciences plays an all-important part in teaching the student to think, the study of\nmathematics, if suitably conducted, would be one of the most efficient agencies to\naccomplish this result.\nThere are two functions to be fulfilled by the instruction in pure mathematics which\nis given to engineering students, viz.:\n(1) To enable them to perform the calculations necessary in their engineering work.\n(2) To enable them to draw the necessary conclusions from the assumed data.\nBoth these functions are all-important, and neither should be neglected, but it is the\nlatter that involves the development of the power of thinking in the student.\nThere is one method, often pursued, where the whole aim is to make the student as\ngood a calculating machine as is possible in the time at command, and where but little\nattention is paid to the latter function ; in that case the study of mathematics does not\ndevelop the thinking powers of the student, and its educational value is not at all what\nit should be.\nAnother method, often pursued, is to exercise the student's ingenuity in performing a\nvariety of (sometimes puzzling) problems, which are of purely abstract interest, and are\nnot so planned as to bear upon engineering work. This course tends probably to make\nthe student do more thinking, but does not direct his thinking in the channel most\nsuitable for his engineering work.\nI do not think that enough has yet been done by way of adapting the courses of pure\nmathematics taught in engineering schools to the objects which they ought to accomplish. Then, in the subsequent teaching of the engineering subjects, care should be\ntaken to make the student distinguish between the mathematics of the work and the\nassumptions made at the beginning or in the course of the work of the proposition in\nhand. A failure to draw this distinction renders the student liable to consider as\ndemonstrated, things which are only proved to hold provided certain assumptions are\ntrue, whether they are true or not being left for experiment to determine ; and hence\nhe is liable to draw erroneous conclusions.\nWhat I have said is a plea for so arranging the courses in mathematics given in our\nengineering schools as to develop the power of thinking, thus causing them to fulfill\ntheir legitimate purposes, and therefore to endow these courses with their full educational value.\nProfessor De Volson Wood, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, N. J. : I\nonce heard General Walker deliver an address in which he showed the advantages of\n\n"}
{"page": 607, "printed_page": null, "text": "587\nDISCUSSION.\nscientific studies over the classics for the development of the true man. I do not anticipate that any particular study will make an untruthful man true. Over and above the\nuse of books or of science is the impression made by the instructor upon the student.\nThe manner of the instructor, the impressions given out, his zeal in his subject, the\nability to excite an interest in problems for study, will be remembered by the student\nlong after books are forgotten. These impressions may be useful in forming his character after the instructor has passed away.\nMany of us remember the growth of scientific and technical subjects almost from the\nfirst. Early in the history of the subject, one of the first great movements was the\nestablishment of scientific courses in colleges, which consisted chiefly of mathematical\nand scientific studies already in the old classical courses, and made a three years' course.\nNow the literature is so extensive, and text-books on science so numerous, there is a\ntemptation and tendency to \" cram.\" This process is to be deprecated. Each professor\ndesires that the student shall learn so much ; he too often assigns vastly more than it is\npossible for him to digest or even absorb. A less number of pages, or even of topics,\nwith more thoroughness in attainments, is desirable.\n\n"}
{"page": 608, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 609, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nCONGRESS\n\nINDUSTRIAL AND MANUAL\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nOF\n\nINSTRUCTION.\n\nREPORT.\n\nSESSION— Wednesday, July 26, 1893.\n\nThe Department Congress of Industrial and Manual Instruction met in Hall No. 6,\nArt Palace. Chicago. The first session was called to order by the Chairman, Professor\nJ. D. Runkle, of the Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass., who made the opening\naddress.\nProfessor C. M. Woodward, of Washington University, St. Louis, read a paper on\n\" The New Demands made by the World's Industries upon the Elementary Schools.\"\nThe next subject considered was embodied in the \"Thesis: A shorter course in the\narts, and then a specialization with reference to some definite industrial pursuit, as in\nthe French schools.\"\nM. Eugene Martin, Director of the Primary and Higher Elementary Schools of Paris,\ngave an interesting account of the French system of industrial and manual training\nschools as it now exists. This subject was discussed by Professor Deatrick, of the\nKeystone Normal School, Penn.; Mr. Grant, of Rhode Island; Mr. George B. Kilbourn,\nof Springfield, Mass. ; and Professor C. M. Woodward, of St. Louis.\nThe only part of the proceedings pertaining to industrial pursuits and manual training in the French system secured for publication is that contained in the discussion by\nProfessor Woodward.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Thursday, July 27, 1893.\n\nThe second session of the Department Congress of Industrial and Manual Instruction\nwas called to order by the Chairman at 9.30 a.m., Thursday.\nProfessor Gustaf Larsson, Principal of the Sloyd Training School, Boston, Mass.,\nread a paper on \" The Sloyd or Swedish System compared with the Russian System\nof Manual Training.\"\nProfessor Larsson exhibited samples of sloyd work in illustration of his subject.\nThe official delegate from Russia, E. Kovalevsky, read a paper on \"Manual Training\nin Russia.\"\nDr. H. H. Belfield, Director of the Chicago Manual Training School, discussed the\nmerits of the Swedish system.\nProfessor C. M. Woodward, of St. Louis, followed, comparing the sloyd system with\nthe Russian, as used in manual-training schools.\nDr. James MacAlister, of Drexel Institute, gave a brief account of the introduction\nof manual -training work in Philadelphia. The small attendance in the high-schools\nfirst induced its trial. The attendance soon increased in the high-schools from five\nhundred to fourteen hundred.\nIt did not seem to work so well in the other schools.\nThe discussion of this subject was continued, and participated in by Dr. Paul Hoffman,\n\n"}
{"page": 610, "printed_page": null, "text": "590\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nAssistant Superintendent of Public Schools, New York City ; Professor Woodward, of St.\nLouis ; Professor Richards, of Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y. ; Professor Bennett, of\nthe College for Training of Teachers, New York.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION— Fkiday, July 28, 1893.\n\nPresident Ruukle, of Boston, in the chair.\nA paper was read by \\Y. B. Powell, Superintendent of Public Schools. Washington,\nD. C, on '• Should Boys and Girls have the same Industrial and Manual Training\nInstruction in all the Grades ?\"\nThis subject was discussed by Edward Boos-Jegher, of Switzerland ; Dr. Paul Hoffman and Professor Charles A. Bennett, of New York, and others.\nAfter farewell remarks by President Runkle, the congress adjourned.\n\nLIST\n\nOF\n\nPERSONS ACCEPTING THE OFFICE OF HONORARY VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE DEPARTMENT CONGRESS\nOF INDUSTRIAL AND MANUAL INSTRUCTION.\nAUSTRALASIA.\n\nDr. J. H. Maiden, Curator of Technical Museum,\nSydney, New South Wales.\nAUSTRIA.\nHerr R. Petzel, Principal Manual Training School,\nVienna.\nBELGIUM.\nM. Adrien Kcelhoff, Professor, Industrial School,\nAnver6.\nM. Eugene Rombaut, Inspector-General of Industrial and Professional Schools in Belgium,\nBrussels.\nM. C. Van Sweevelt, Professor in Manual Training,\nSaint-Gilles, Brnssels.\nM. H. Van Kalken, Brussels.\nM. Eugene Monseur, Professor, University of\nBrussels, Brussels.\nCHILI.\n8efior Jose1\nMaria Courbis\nMuiioz, Santiago.\nSefiora\nEnriqueta\nde Valencia, Santiago.\nFRANCE.\nM. Hunsicker, Under-Inspector for Instruction in\nManual Training, Paris.\nM. Baudrillard, Director of the National Professional School of Vierzon.\nM. Berthuin, Director National Professional School\nof Voiron.\nMile. Elise Luquin, Inspectress of Special Courses\nfor Commercial Instruction, Lyon.\nM. Felix Mnrtel, Inspector of Primary, Superior\nand Professional Schools, Paris.\nM. Denis Poulot, Municipal Councillor, Paris.\nGERMANY.\nProfessor Biedermann,\nProfessor, University of\nBerlin.\nDr. Woldemar Goetze, Director Manual Training\nCollege, Leipzig.\nGREAT\n\nBRITAIN.\n\nF. K. I. Shenton, Head of Educational Department,\nCrystal Palace, London.\n\nThe Hon. Mrs. R. E. Colbourne, Directress of Needlework, Canada Buildings, London.\nWilliam Mather, M. P., London.\nArthur Monteflore, London.\nC. G. Holyoake, Member National Association for\nPromotion of Technical and Secondary Education, London.\nMiss Emily Robinson, Honorable Secretary of the\nYorkshire Ladies' Council of Education, Leeds.\nSCOTLAND.\n\nJohnSchool,\nG. Kerr,\nM.A., Head Master Allan Glen's\nGlasgow.\nITALY.\nProfessor Luigi Sutto, Ascoli-Piceno.\nJAPAN.\nMr. Tokyo.\nKoyama\n\nKenzo, Tokyo Technical School,\nNORWAY.\n\nHerre K. Kjennerud, School Inspector, Christiania.\nRUSSIA.\nM. A. de Nebolsine, St. Petersburg.\nSWEDEN.\nHerre Augusto Abrahamson, Naas, Floda Station.\nDr. Ambrosius, School Inspector, Gothenburg.\nFrOken Hulda Lundin, Superintendent of Needlework in the National Schools of Stockholm\nProfessor K. E. Palm<;ren, Practical Industrial\nSchool for Boys and Girls, Stockholm.\nFrtiken Eva ltodhe, Gothenburg.\nHerre Otto Salomon, Principal of the Seminary for\nSloyd-Teacheis, Naas, Floda Station.\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES.\n\nCALIFORNIA.\nMrs. S B. Cooper, San Francisco.\nPaul Garin, Principal or Drawing, Public Schools,\nOakland.\nMiss Emma Marwedel, Berkeley.\nCONNECTICUT.\nL. L. Camp, Principal Dwight School, New Haven.\n\n"}
{"page": 611, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIST OF HONORARY\nDISTRICT\n\nOF\n\nCOLUMBIA.\n\nW. B. Powell, City Snperintendent, Washington.\nILLINOIS.\nAlbert R. Robinson, Principal English High and\nManiiiil Training School, Chicago.\nH. H. Belfleld, Director Manual Training School,\nChicago.\nAugustus Jacobson, Chicago.\nMiss Josephine Locke, Board of Education,Chicago.\nKANSAS.\nJohn D. Walters, Manhattan.\nLOUISIANA.\nWilliam C. Stuhbs, Sugar Experiment Station,\nNew Orleans.\nProf. William Woodward, Tulane University, New\nOrleans.\nMARYLAND.\nDuncan C. Lyle, McDonogh School, McDonogh.\nJohn W. Saville, Principal Manual Training School,\nBaltimore.\nDr. Richard Grady. Baltimore.\nHon. John T. Morris, Baltimore.\nMASSACHUSETTS.\nCharles H. Ames, Boston.\nC. H. Balch, Teacher of Drawing, High School,\nRoxbnry.\nT. M. Balliet, Superintendent Schools, Springfield.\nGeneral A. Hun Berry, Boston.\nMrs. Mary Dana Hicks, Boston.\nProfessor George B. Kilbon, Principal Manual\nTraining School, Springfield.\nAlbert P. Marble, Superintendent City Schools,\nWorcester.\nMrs. Quincy A. Shaw, Boston.\nMINNESOTA.\nW. F. Decker, Supervisor of Manual Training,\nMinneapolis.\nMiss Fannie S. Guptill. Minneapolis.\nC. M. Jordan, Superintendent\nPublic Schools,\nMinneapolis.\nMISSISSIPPI.\nDr. Robert Frazer, President Industrial Institute\nand College of Mississippi, Columbus.\n\nVICE-PRESIDENTS.\n\n591\n\nMISSOURI.\nProfessor C. M. Woodward, Director Manual Training School, St. Louis.\nNEW\n\nYORK.\n\nProfessor\nF. W. Hooper, Brooklyn\nInstitute,\nBrooklyn.\nDr. Felix\nAdler,\nSociety\nfor\nEthical\nCulture,\nNew\nYork.\nMiss Grace H. Dodge, New York.\nW. S. Goodenough, Board of Education. Brooklyn.\nHon. Charles H. Ham.\nUnited States General\nAppraiser, New York.\nDr. Paul Hoffman, New York.\nSamuel G. Love, James Pendergast Free Library,\nJamestown.\nF. B. Pratt, Pratt Institute, Brooklyn.\nProfessor\nCharles R. Richards, Pratt Institute,\nBrooklyn.\nOHIO.\nFrank Aborn, Drawing Master, Public Schools,\nCleveland.\nProfessor Newton M. Anderson, Principal Manual\nTraining School, Cleveland.\nProfessor H. W. Compton, Principal Manual Training School, Toledo.\nMiss Annie Laws, Cincinnati.\nPENNSYLVANIA.\nF. Mason Mitchell, Manual Training Department\nGirard College, Philadelphia.\nR. D. Crawford, A.M., Principal of Schools, Tidioute.\nDr. A. H. Fetterolf, President Girard College, Philadelphia.\nH. C. Missemer, Superintendent Public Schools,\nErie.\nProfessor J. Liberty Tadd, Principal Industrial Art\nSchool, Philadelphia.\nTENNESSEE.\nOlin H. Landreth, Engineering Department, Vanderbilt University, Nashville.\nVIRGINIA.\nC. E. Vawter, Miller Manual\nTraining School,\nCrozet, Washington.\nGeorge R. Carothers. Manual Training Department\nPublic Schools, Tacoma.\n\n"}
{"page": 612, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDUSTRIAL\n\nAND MANUAL\n\nINSTRUCTION.\n\nINTR OD UCTOR Y A DDRESS.\nBY\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nJOHN\nBOSTON,\n\nD. RUNKLE,\nOF THE\nINSTITUTE\nOF TECHNOLOGY,\nAND PRESIDENT\nOF THE\nDEPARTMENT.\n\nThe proper introductory word on this occasion is one of rejoicing. I\nheartily congratulate you that it is possible for the subject of industrial\nand manual instruction to get a hearing in so public a place as this International Congress of Education. Only a few years ago, as you well\nremember, it would have been deemed questionable, if not an impertinence, to ask a large body of educators to discuss its merits seriously ; and\nthe fact that, to-day, advocates of the cause are not simply tolerated, but\ncordially invited to present its claims in your presence, marks a long step\nin the general recognition of this department of public education.\nIt is obvious that the social and economic conditions of a country not\nonly suggest, but must ultimately determine, its system of public education. What to teach, and how to teach it, must mainly depend upon the\ndemand which will be made upon the rising generations when they leave\nthe school and enter upon the duties of active life;\nAll history pronounces this a trustworthy test.\nIf the empire of Confucius accented the old in education rather than\nthe new, it was because the groundwork of the Chinese civilization was\nlaid in tradition and not in science and the industrial arts. If the\nancient Romans trained their youth for politics and war to the neglect of\nthe arts of peace, it was because there was not then'a demand for skilled\nproductive labor.\nDid the men of the middle ages think hand-work degrading ? That\ncontempt for honest toil had its source in the low social and economic\nconditions of the times. To-day science and the useful arts are the large,\nif not the controlling factors of our civilization, and it is in these directions that the tide of greatest activity is constantly flowing. The World's\nFairs, as they are called, of the past fifty years, have been great public\nobject-lessons in proof of our proposition. In every one of these international expositions the products of the world's industries have largely predominated, showing that a correspondingly large proportion of the world's\nworkers must be engaged in industrial pursuits, and therefore need an\neducation in which industrial considerations and ends shall not be entirely\nignored.\n\n"}
{"page": 613, "printed_page": null, "text": "INTRODUCTORY\n\nADDRESS.\n\n593\n\nNor should we overlook in this connection the great educational value\nof these expositions. It will be sufficient simply to refer to the artistic\nrevolution which the porcelain and textile industries of Great Britain\nhave undergone since the exposition of 1851 ; and to the further fact,\nthat industrial and manual instruction, in the public and higher schools\nof the United States, is largely the result of our Centennial Exposition at\nPhiladelphia in 1876.\n- It is also certain that the great Columbian Exposition of 1892 will not\nfail, in still larger measure, to produce like results, and to convince the\nmost skeptical that the future prosperity of the nations is bound up and\nmade one with the development of industrial and manual skill through\nproperly arranged systems of education.\nJapan has already broken through her centuries of isolation and adopted\nthe forms and spirit of our modern civilization ; but, in so doing, she has\nalso recast her ancient educational system in line with modern industrial\ndevelopments and needs, that the rising generations of her children may\ngrow up in the spirit of their new environment. When China shall substitute the forces of steam and electricity for human muscle, and introduce\nthe railroad and the telegraph, with all the useful arts which minister to\nmodern needs, then will the old education be fouud useless and meaningless, and the new will take its place, as in Japan.\nThe duties of children in all their family relations may well be left to\nthe parents, and in all their religious and spiritual relations to the home\nand the Church ; but it is the bounden duty of the State to so educate all\nits children, that, when they come to assume the duties of citizenship,\neach shall find the place in the body politic which it is best adapted\nto fill.\nThis means that all should be educated in the language of the State,\nthat they may best grow up in harmony with its laws and institutions ;\nand so educated both bodily and mentally that they may enter upon the\nduties of active life imbued with its spirit, and best prepared to meet all\nits demands and responsibilities.\nThe truest unity in the body politic consists in the broadest development and widest activity of each individual member. Feudalism, slavery,\nand all forms of serfdom, have been passing away with the advent and\nprogress of the useful industrial arts. Even Indian savagery is yielding\nmore readily to the arts of peace than to brute force. What other proof\ndo we need of their civilizing and refining agency than the work of the\nsainted Armstrong and Hampton ?\nIf the United States Government would coverall the waste fields of our\nilliteracy with such schools, the millennium of our highest hopes would\nsoon dawn upon the new world given to us by Columbus.\nWhen the social and economic relations, in even the best centers of our\ncivilization, have been fully and rightfully adjusted to the new industrial\n38\n\n"}
{"page": 614, "printed_page": null, "text": "594\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nconditions, we shall find that industrial and manual instruction has had\nthe great, if not the greatest, effect in producing this beneficent result.\nAn eloquent writer has well said : \" The discovery of America was the\ncrowning act of man's emancipation. In sweeping away the last vestige\nof the theory on which patristic geography was based, Columbus freed\nmankind. In the cry of 'Land ho !' with which he greeted the new\ncontinent, he sounded the death-knell of intellectual slavery.\n\" The discovery of another continent startled the people of Europe\nfrom the deep sleep of a thousand years, and sent a fresh current of blood\nsurging through their veins. A new world having been discovered by\none man, it was natural that all men should be put upon inquiry ; hence\nthe era of investigation, the resulting discoveries of science, and their\ninnumerable applications, through the useful arts, to the fast-multiplying\nneeds of man.\"\n\nNEW\nBY\n\nDEMANDS\nPROFESSOR\n\nC. M.\n\nUPON SCHOOLS\nINDUSTRLES.\nWOODWARD,\n\nBY\n\nTHE\n\nOF WASHINGTON\n\nST. LOUIS,\n\nWORLD'S\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nMO.\n\nThesis : The new demands which the world's industries make upon the elementary\nschools. This question will be considered under the heads of Ethics, Education,\nEconomics.\n\nDr. Samuel Johnson thought that the chief aim of education was\nto cultivate high ideals and enable one to enjoy educated society. He\nthought one rarely needed science, but was perpetually a moralist. He\nsaid the orators and poets and historians furnished the most maxims of\nprudence and the best materials for conversation. According to his view,\nif a boy was to make knives at Sheffield, ships at Glasgow, or engines at\nManchester, he had no need of education beyond such as he would pick\nup while learning his trade. He had no idea of educating more than one\nboy out of ten. As a rule, these selected boys went through the great\nendowed schools to the universities, and became the leading scholars,\nstatesmen, and gentlemen of leisure in England.\nElementary education, as the term is used in our thesis, deals chiefly\nwith the other nine boys. What demands do the world's industries make\nupon them ? The purpose of this question could be got at equally well\nby asking : \"In view of the world's industries, what new demands do the\nchildren make for elementary training?\" The children have rights, and\nthey make demands. What are they ? First, they have the right to be\nharmoniously educated. They are to live in a broad community, one\nwith many interests, many activities, many kinds of culture ; it is their\n\n"}
{"page": 615, "printed_page": null, "text": "NEW\n\nDEMANDS\n\nUPON\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\n595\n\nright to prepare for all, to come in contact with all, to participate in all\nfinally.\nThe children have a right to ask for any kind of real culture. I have\nsaid that there are many kinds. Let me expand that statement. There\nis a culture that comes from a knowledge of Latin and Greek. No one\nfamiliar with it doubts its value. There is a culture even more profound\nin the study of mathematics and its application to the whole domain of\nphysics and mechanics. There is a culture in history and literature,\nwherein all of us share, though no one can absorb it all. There is a culture in art and architecture, another in zoology, another in chemistry and\nits applications to industry, and still another in the theories of construction and the processes of mechanism — and I know not how many more.\nThese cultures are not only possible, but real, and I am persuaded that\ntheir influences upon character and life are more nearly equal than is\ncommonly supposed. You may find pure, high-minded, useful men and\nwomen in eveiy field of culture. If we consult the needs of society we\nshall find that we need them all, and that the more highly each is developed,\nthe better for society. Beyond question our children have a right to all\nthese cultures.\nNow, what do they demand ?\nThey demand equal preparation for all. The head cannot say to the\nhand, I have no need of thee ; the feet cannot say to the body, We have\nno need of you.\nFor all are necessary to each, and each to all.\nThis demand is not fully met in the elementary school. Let us lay\naside pride and call things by their right names. Don't shut the book in\nmy face and declare that I am an enemy, when I am only a friend who\nloves the schools and who would do them good. They are not perfect ;\nthey can be improved. New elements are demanded. Let us see what\nthe schools do, and what they fail to do.\n1. They teach reading and something of composition and literature.\nGood. I will only ask that with their writing and reading they cultivate\nthe art of talking, so that one may not, as now, write one language and\ntalk another.\n2. They teach the rudiments of mathematics. Good again. Every one\nneeds'them.\nOur thesis directs us to consider ethical, educational, and economic\nvalues : i. e., we are to consider how a culture affects morals and conduct ;\nhow it develops and invigorates the intellectual powers ; and how it shall\nultimately enable one to earn his bread, build his home, and fill it with\ncomforts and luxuries, the arts and refinements of good living. These\nthree aspects of elementary education are all to be considered separately,\nas well as in their interdependence. They are mutually dependent, for\ntrue economy comports only with intellectual power ; and without material prosperity there can be neither morals nor art.\nThe points already named cover the three R's, but it is clear that not\n\n"}
{"page": 616, "printed_page": null, "text": "596\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nmore than half the demands are met. Even when you introduce the study\nof geography with maps and models, and the history of the race as given\nin books, you have covered not more than half the ground. Thus far the\nschoolroom might as well have closed walls, with light from the sky, so\nthat not a glimpse of the world of to-day, its life and activities, is possible.\nI have been in scores of such schools, and so have you. Half the people\nin America never were in any other.\nSome people defend such schools. They admit that the child's total\neducation should be much broader, but that school education does not,\nand ought not to, attempt to cover the whole ground. School education\nis mainly concerned with books, they say : all else is outside. The study\nof the life and activities that surround us ; the use of hands and eyes and\nexecutive powers; the formation of habits of close observation, exact\nexpression, and precise doing ; the cultivation of systematic thinking and\nplanning ; of stimulating a love for what is beautiful, and a respect for\nwhat is useful — all these things lie beyond the domain of the school.\nThat claim I deny. Doubtless schools were first organized to teach\nreading and writing, and little else ; but their function to-day is broader,\nand it is our duty to make them broader still. I care very little for what\nthey were two hundred, or twenty years ago. I am concerned with what\nthey should be to-day. The children, society, and the world's industries\nmake these new demands, and they must be met.\nLet me specify exactly what I mean. The children are between six\nand fourteen years of age.\n1. One hour per day should be spent in the study of biology — insects,\nanimals, birds, plants, trees, and flowers. I am ashamed to say that I am\nalmost as ignorant of birds and insects as though I had been born blind,\nyet nothing would have delighted or stimulated me more when I was a\nboy at school. How easily, with a competent teacher and few appliances,\nI might have studied the forms, growth, characteristics, habitats, and\nfunctions of living things ! One bird, one insect, one plant, or one animal\nper week ! Why, I should have been a different man in many ways, with\nsuch a culture. But no ; for nearly half the hours I was in school, so far\nas sharp intellectual activity was concerned, I was industriously doing\nnothing — just killing time. I venture to doubt even the moral value of\nthat self-control which comes from compelling one's self to sit still and do\nnothing.\n[Color versus form.]\n2. Another hour per day should be devoted to the culture of the executive powers, an appreciation of what is beautiful and useful, and a mastery\nof some few instruments and materials. I got nothing of all that in my\nelementary schooling — my early education was fearfully neglected. If I\ngot anything on those lines among the hills of New England, I owe no\nthanks to the school for it. These elements are not difficult to teach, and\nthey are easily provided for. The materials most convenient are paper,\n\n"}
{"page": 617, "printed_page": null, "text": "DISCUSSION.\n\n59?\n\npaints, textiles, clay, and soft woods ; the instruments are knives, pencils,\nbrushes, scissors, needles, and for the oldest classes, small saws, planes,\nchisels, gouges, bits, hammers, etc.\nI do not wish to specify this work in detail any more than I would what\nstories the teacher shall tell, or what birds shall be studied during the\nnatural history hour. It is important that whatever is done be done\ndeliberately, on a clearly defined plan, and for the purpose of illustrating\na definite process, showing the correct use of a tool, or effecting a definite\nresult. My emphatic warning is that the teacher be modest and not attempt too much. Be careful not to mistake the shadow for the substance.\nBy attempting too much, you will secure less.\nNo special industrial work should be thought of in elementary schools ;\nbut let the work look broadly and equally in the direction of language,\nscience, art, and industry. You will thus secure harmonious development and culture, aud at the age of fourteen your pupils will be in the\nbest possible condition to enter upon secondary education.\nThus my answer to the thesis is : The world's industries, the wellbeing of the commonwealth, and, above all, the conditions of harmonious\ndevelopment, demand that the study of natural history by the laboratory\nmethod, and that an elementary form of manual training, each occupying\nfrom forty to sixty minutes, according to grade, should enter into the\ndaily program of every elementary school.\nTo gain time for this work, I would extend the school sessions a total\nof from forty to sixty minutes, and I would shorten the time given\nto arithmetic, definitions of words, and remote geography by an equal\namount, unless, as in many cases, there are idle hours which may be filled\nwith this work.\nT submit these views without further argument.\nTHE\n\nFRENCH\n\nSYSTEM OF INDUSTRIAL\nINSTRUCTION.\n\nAND\n\nMANUAL\n\n[This subject was presented in a paper by M. Eugene Martin, director of a primary\nand higher elementary school in Paris. The paper was not secured for publication.\nThe following discussion of this subject, by Professor Woodward, will enable the reader\nto understand the main features of the French system of industrial and manual instruction, including the changes recently adopted.]\n\nDISCUSSION.\nProfessor C. M. Woodward, of the Washington University, St. Louis, Mo.\n\nI was\n\nglad to learn from Mr. Martin that the plan of \" a shorter course in the arts, and then\na specialization with reference to some definite industrial pursuit,\" is no longer their\nonly system ; that general manual training schools, much like our own, now exist in\nPrance.\nSeveral years ago I visited the school on the Boulevard de Villette in Paris. It was\nof the type referred to in the thesis. Some four trades were taught. The \" shorter\ncourse in the arts\" consisted of a rapid tour through the four departments, with a\n\n"}
{"page": 618, "printed_page": null, "text": "598\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nview to finding out what each was like, and how the work would suit one's taste or\nfancy, or outside opportunity ; then came a choice, and a devotion of all the rest of the\ntime to one course. The school did commercial work, having several skilled workmen\nwho had charge of the apprentices and helped them in their work. Tn another congress (elementary education) I have spoken against trade schools in public education.\nThey doubtless have a proper place in private institutions, but not in the schools we are\nhere considering.\nAccordingly I shall here confine myself to a comparison of the methods (a) and (6).\n(a) A series of graded models embracing the fundamental principles of the art.\n(b) A series of completed, and more or less useful, articles.\nNo particular art is here referred to. It is presumed to be one where special materials\nare wrought, and special tools are used. The object of the training is supposed to be to\nmaster both tools and materials. By the mastery of a tool a good deal is meant. The\nforms of tools are not matters of caprice or accident. They have been evolved from\nthe brains of the most skillful users, and no one can use an important tool correctly\nwithout teaching and practice, any more than he can a sword, or a rifle, or a tennis\nracket.\nTake a joiner's chisel. It has two functions, mortising and paring. Its use is\nmastered by mortising and paring under the instruction of a skillful user. The wood\nmay be hard or soft ; it may split easily or with difficulty ; the mortise maybe \" open\"\nor \" blind.\" Now, what is the educational method for mastering the use of the chisel on\ndifferent woods ? The \" points \" in a good mortise are. that it shall be exactly to the\nline on every side ; that it shall be sunk in exactly the right direction ; that the material\nshall not be split or jammed on either side, or at the end ; that the inner faces shall be\nsmooth and true ; and, finally, it must be made with the least possible expenditure of\ntime and energy. Now, shall the pupil make several doors, or window-sashes, or toy\ncarts (one in each kind of wood), or shall he practice on small pieces of wood of different\nkinds, making mortises in each, till he is reasonably perfect in his work — not covering\nthe mortise by a great deal of other work that he has no need to do ?\nHow does your man with a rifle ? Does he go about shooting at cats, and dogs, and\nthieves, and other ' ' useful articles,\" till he has learned to use his gun correctly, or does\nhe shoot at a target at different distances till he is a good shot before he shoots at game ?\nShall a child at the piano or violin learn difficult movements by practicing those movements by themselves, or only as they occur in regular \" pieces \"?\nI am convinced that the demand for \"complete\" articles is based on a misconception\nof the object in view, and a failure to see where \" completion \" and perfection lie. If the\nobject is a perfect mortise, then nothing but a perfect mortise can \" complete \" the task.\nBut you ask, Where is the tenon which is to fit the mortise ? Should that not\nalways be made too ? I answer, There is no educational need of it. The tenon is\nanother step, a different exercise ; requires different tools and different methods. The\ntenon is not going to determine the quality of the mortise. The possible fact that one\nfits the other does not prove that either is correct, for both may be wrong. There is an\nabsolute standard in every case, and nothing should be allowed to obscure it. The fact\nthat in the construction of a useful article a mortise and tenon do fit is apt to cover up\na multitude of sins. Your maker of useful articles will often continue to be a poor\nworkman, because he will never stop to learn. He gets a certain amount of exterior\nform-study, but he masters nothing. He gets excessive practice where he does not\nneed it, and too little on difficult points.\nFrom what I have said, it is evident that in a manual-training school — I am not\nspeaking of the elementary grades, but of boys of from fourteen to eighteen years of\nage — time is too precious to be spent in construction. A skilled and educated teacher\ncan cull out the principles, the essential processes, and devise exercises which shall\n\n"}
{"page": 619, "printed_page": null, "text": "SLOYD\n\nAND\n\nRUSSIAN\n\nSYSTEM\n\nOF MANUAL\n\nTRAINING.\n\n599\n\nembody them logically with the least amount of waste material. I hold that the making of a bureau by a boy who is aiming at educational growth is wasteful in the extreme.\nA thing is educational which increases the range of our vision or the strength of our\ngrasp. Repetitions of familiar steps profit little and consume time. I was told the\nother day of four boys who spent all their shop-time for twenty weeks making a desk to\nbring to the Fair. To permit such a thing was an educational crime. As well stop\nyour class in arithmetic, and have them add the census tables, or extract the square root\nof two to a hundred places.\nFinally, why this feverish anxiety to produce something useful ? Is the economic\nbearing of manual training less evident than in science and literature ? Is it not sufficiently useful if one masters tools and materials, learns to make and read exact drawings, and acquires the ability to analyze a construction into steps which he knows he\ncan take if he wishes ? The school is to fit one to be useful ; it is not a factory, nor a\nplace for manual labor. To get the greatest educational result from manual training\nwe must extend as much as possible the range of rational study of the arts which underlie constructions, applying those arts only when it is necessary to illustrate its economic\nbearing. In the St. Louis Manual Training School it is our custom to require of each\nstudent a single example of synthetic work at the end of each series of elementary principles. For instance, the alphabet of iron and steel forging, where the ever-present\nagency is that of heat, consists of a very few letters. The number of applications in a\nscore of industries is very great, but one can count the fundamental processes on his\nfingers. We study these processes separately, unmixed with foreign elements, till each\nis clearly seen in its nakedness ; and at the end of the series, each pupil by himself —\nnot the whole class together — designs or selects a synthetic exercise, embodying as\nmany elements as possible, and yet lying within his easy range, and constructs it.\nThese composite pieces are technically known as \" finals.\" These \" finals\" are chiefly\nuseful in showing the pupils how all-embracing the elements are. A child who has\nlearned to write correctly the twenty-six letters can copy a play of Shakespeare or an\noration of Webster if he will but be patient. These ''finals\" differ with different\npupils and from year to year, and they make an interesting display at our June exhibitions but\n;\nif too freely used at a World's Fair they are in danger of misleading, for\nthey do not reveal — they rather hide — their mission.\nI am clearly in favor of the graded series of exercises, embodying as nakedly as\npossible the fundamental principles, with a single \"final \" at the end. Please bear in\nmind I have not been speaking of primary grades, where the pupils are quite too young\nto be able to sustain an interest in details and abstractions. They want things, not\nparts of things. Neither have I spoken of grammar grades, where great care must be\nexercised that one does not philosophize too much. In every case the end in view must\nbe wholly in view, not only to the teacher but to the pupil.\n\nSLOYD FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS CONTRASTED WITH\nTHE RUSSIAN SYSTEM OF MANUAL TRAINING.\nBY\n\nGUSTAF\n\nLARSSON,\n\nPRINCIPAL\nBOSTON,\n\nOF SLOYD\nMASS.\n\nTRAINING\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nThe sloyd system had its origin in Sweden, where it has been practiced\nfor over twenty years ; the word sloyd at once suggests its history, gives\ncredit where credit is due, and, being an unusual word, it attracts attention\nand stimulates inquiry.\n\n"}
{"page": 620, "printed_page": null, "text": "600\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nThe word sloyd means manual training for the sake of general development, physical, mental, and moral ; and it also means that kind of handwork which will best stimulate the right kind of head-work ; and as this\nword alone sets forth the true aim of this system, it seems desirable that\nit be retained. The general aim of sloyd, then, is the moral, mental, and\nphysical development of the pupil, the mental development being secured\nby help of the physical. In other words, a definite effort is made to provide such manual work as will arouse a mental enthusiasm, the value of\nwhich will be felt in all the intellectual work of the school. I am aware\nof the fact that this is the aim of all truly educational manual training.\nThe difference is found here in means and methods.\nThe methods of the Swedish sloyd system are based upon the following\nideas :\n(1) The exercises should follow in a progressive order, from the easy to\nthe difficult, from the simple to the complex, without any injurious break,\nand with such carefully graded demands on the powers of both mind and\nhand that the development of the two shall be equal and simultaneous.\nThis duality of progression is an essential feature of sloyd. It cannot be\nshown in any course of manual work ; nothing but careful observation of\nthe child's gain of power in many directions will show the result aimed at\nin manual training.\n(2) The exercises should admit of the greatest possible variety ; they\nmust avoid any tendency either to too great mental tension, confusion, or\nphysical strain. There is a danger here not always recognized, for it\ntakes a careful observer and a true teacher to discover that a model may\nbe at the same time too easy for the hand and too difficult for the mind ;\nor, in other words, the hand may be well trained by a model which gives\nthe mind little or nothing to do.\n(3) The exercises should result in the making of a useful article from\nthe very outset ; that is to say, the use of which is appreciated by the\nchild. This arouses and sustains the child's interest in his work, helps\nhim to understand the reason for every step, for he can see to what these\nsteps lead. It makes him careful in his work, for he soon learns that\npoor work will spoil a model which is worth something. The child's selfrespect and pride are also aroused ; he is not only learning to make, but\nis actually making. He has joined the great army of producers, and he\nhas before him tangible proofs of his progress. If the child is encouraged\nto make these things for others, it helps to develop unselfishness. Much\nof the moral value of sloyd inheres in this \" useful \" model. Some persons, ignorant of its true purpose, have thought it owed its place in this\nsystem to its industrial value only. But the truth is that the useful\nmodel is valued above all for the mental and moral development secured\nby exercise of the creative faculty.\n(4) Sloyd seeks also to cultivate the aesthetic sense by combining in the\n\n"}
{"page": 621, "printed_page": null, "text": "SLOTD\n\nAND\n\nRUSSIAN\n\nSYSTEM\n\nOF MANUAL\n\nTRAINING.\n\n601\n\nmodels beauty of form and proportion with utility.* Throughout this\nsystem, as in the kindergarten, the love of beauty is regarded as an important factor in education, while an eye for symmetry and grace, although\na rare possession, has been proved to have great practical value even for\nan artisan.\n(5) Every model should be so constructed that it can be drawn by the\npupils themselves, not copied or traced. Drawing is an essential feature\nof sloyd as applied in Boston, and should always be preliminary to the\nmaking of the model.\n(6) For children who are old enough for the regular sloyd, it is\nbelieved that the knife should be the first and fundamental tool. There\nare several reasons for this which will be mentioned later.\nA radical difference between the Russian and the Swedish systems is\nthat the Russian methods are based upon the idea of teaching the use of\ncertain tools by making incomplete articles, with the belief that out of\nsuch teaching will come good educational results, even without much\nattention to the special needs and capacity of the growing child, either\nby the choice or the sequence of tools or exercises.\nThe Swedish system, on the other hand, is based upon the Froebelian\nidea of the harmonious development of all the powers of the child ; tools\nand exercises being chosen with reference to this end, and all merely\nmechanical methods being carefully avoided. The sloyd teacher does not\nsay, \" Now I will teach this boy to saw, and he shall continue to saw\nuntil he can saw well,\" regardless of monotony or the too prolonged use\nof the same muscles. The problem of the sloyd teacher is to find the\ntool, whether knife or saw or plane, and also the series of exercises, best\nadapted to the present need, not of man, but of the average pupil ; and\nalso to vary or alternate the tools and to graduate the exercises with constant reference to the growing capacity, the formative age, and to the\nvarious activities of body and mind. It should be said right here that\nwhile the methods of sloyd are less like those of the mechanic than those\nof the Russian system, not aiming at immediate technical skill, there is\nabundant proof that the results of a thorough sloyd training will be found\nto include all that is gained even mechanically by the Russian methods,\nplus a far more generous general development, including greater delicacy\nof observation and of manipulation.\nThe sloyd course now being used in Boston calls for the use of fortyfive different tools in seventy-two exercises applied in thirty-one models.\nAmong these exercises are fifteen different joints.\nAnother important difference is seen in the importance which sloyd\n* It has been said by one interested in manual training that \" the pupil must be led to see and feel the\nsimple beauty of proportion, of harmony of parts, as well as grace of outline : elements of beauty which\nare a direct outgrowth of the useful, as well as the beauty of mere ornament, which is sometimes more or\nless externally added. For this reason sloyd attaches much importance to the free-hand modeling in\nwood of solid forms.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 622, "printed_page": null, "text": "602\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nattaches to the use of the knife as the first tool given to the child ; regarding it as the most familiar and least mechanical of tools, which gives a\ndevelopment of the muscles of hand and wrist peculiar to itself, a development which modern psychologists teach us is also conducive to the physical development of the brain; the familiarity of the tool, as well as its\ndanger, making it possible to secure constant concentration of thought\nupon the exercise at the outset.\nSloyd methods are unlike Russian methods in giving great prominence\nto form study, and in the method by which all form work is made —\nmethods which are quite unlike those of the carpenter, because the first\ncare of the sloyd teacher is that the muscular sense of form be developed\nin the child rather than that the curves be accomplished in the quickest\nand easiest way. .\nAgain, the exercises of sloyd furnish greater variety than those of the\nRussian system, and the fact that small models can be finished in a reasonably short space of time helps to increase and maintain a healthy interest\nand to train the sense of completeness which is so unfortunately wanting\nin many educational processes.\nSloyd methods provide more carefully than is true of some others for\nthe physical development by a judicious choice and sequence of tools, positions, and exercises.\nFinally, and most prominent of all differences between the systems, is\nthe insistence of sloyd upon the nse of the completed model, in place of\nthe prevalent Russian exercise with tools. The reasons for this faith in\nthe educational value of the completed useful model are identical with\nthose which have so largely influenced modern pedagogical methods in\nother departments of education, that the phrase has now driven the spelling-book out of school, and the writing-lesson is no longer confined to the\ncopy-book.\nSloyd demands a trained teacher. It is easily seen that the successful\ncarrying out of these ideas depends upon the teacher's comprehension of\nthe object of the teaching, and of the capacity and needs of the child, as\nwell as upon his ability to impart-the knowledge he has acquired. A good\nteacher is not necessarily possessed of the great manual skill of an expert,\nbut he must understand childish intelligence and know how to lead the\nchild in his work.\nI am happy to state that a large number of Boston teachers are now\nstudying the subject of manual training, and that over ninety-five are\ntaking a normal course in sloyd.\nIt is not always enough that a child should be told how to use a tool.\nThe teacher must oversee the work of each child, to make sure he has a\nclear idea of what he has to do. Sloyd puts much emphasis on the value\nof individual instruction, but it must not be supposed that by individual\ninstruction is meant a constant watchfulness of each pupil, much less\n\n"}
{"page": 623, "printed_page": null, "text": "SLOYD\n\nAND\n\nRUSSIAN\n\nSYSTEM\n\nOF MANUAL\n\nTRAINING.\n\n603\n\nthat the teacher shall take the work into his own hands and give the pupil\ntoo much help. A good teacher will not teach too much, even if he has\nbut one pupil. Class instruction can be given as regards much of the\nmanual work, drawing, positions at the bench, the use, adjustment, and\ncare of tools, etc. ; but the best results of sloyd will not be attained unless\na teacher is able also to oversee individual work enough to satisfy himself\nthat his pupil has a clear idea of what he is to do, that he understands\nthe reasons for it, and is not working without thought, mechanically following half-understood directions, and so losing the intellectual value of\nthe exercises. To do this it will be seen that classes must not be too\nlarge. Allowance must be made for difference in physical and mental\ncapacity. It is no matter if two-thirds of the class is in advance of the\nother third, provided that each pupil receive as much as he can digest.\nThis is not a lesson in memorizing, a test of which is easily applied ; here\nis an attempt to appeal to the perception, the judgment, the ingenuity, the\nreason, by means of the hand and eye— the visible results of which may be\ngood, while the unseen object of it all is unattained. Special individual\ncare, therefore, is necessary to make sure that the intellectual development\nof the child is secured, and teachers must be constantly warned against\nthe danger of satisfaction with mere manual skill.\nTrue slovd is taught only when by the exercise of many faculties the\nmind is led, step by step, to careful and accurate thinking. Sloyd, like\nthe kindergarten, has suffered much from inadequate presentation, and the\npublic have been made more or less familiar with its outward form while\nwholly ignorant of the aims and psychological basis of its methods. It is\nfor this reason that while a certain number of persons are always to be\nfound who are attached to the sloyd models merely because they are useful, others, equally unthinking, are suspicious of the same models because\nthey are not those of the carpenter's shop, for which reason they are\ncharacterized as impractical. Neither of these classes of persons is in a\nposition to do justice to the subject, because neither of them understand\nthe aim of the system or the significance of the exercises embodied in the\nmodels, each one of which holds its place in a progressive course of work\nfor a definite reason and as an essential step in the ladder. It will be\nseen, although sloyd models may be adapted to the differing needs of\ntimes and places, they must not be taken bodily out of the course, transported, and even arbitrarily combined with other systems and methods\nwhereby they at once lose all their educational value. It is by such rough\nhandling of its outward symbols that sloyd has suffered, as its mother, the\nkindergarten, did before it. Let us hope that a better understanding of its\nmethods and of the principles upon which they rest may commend it to\nstudents of the philosophy of education.\n\n"}
{"page": 624, "printed_page": null, "text": "604\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nBY\n\nE.\n\nCONGRESS\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nKOVALEVSKY,\n\nOFFICIAL\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nIN RUSSIA.\n\nDELEGATE\n\nFROM\n\nRUSSTA.\n\nHaving been apprised only yesterday evening that my name had been\nplaced in the programme of to-day, I had not time enough to prepare a more\nimportant report, and beg therefore to be excused if I confine myself to a\nshort answer to the questions tbat have been asked concerning tbe claims\nof the two systems of manual training, the Russian and the sloyd.\nManual training, according to the opinion of the Russian pedagogue,\nmust be :\n(1) Taught in a thoroughly systematic manner.\n(2) Awaken the interest of the children for physical exercise.\n(3) Give certain practical results.\n(4) Develop some amount of dexterity of the hands.\n(5) Accustom the children to order, punctuality, and cleanliness.\n(6) Correspond to the physical and intellectual powers of children.\n(7) Develop the cesthetic feeling.\n(8) Serve as recreation for children when they are tired by the intellectual work.\nWe consider manual training entirely as an object of general education,\nbut not as one of a special professional character.\nManual training was much thought of in Russia as early as the twelfth\ncentury; somewhat later in the Moscow period of Russian history it was\ntbought advisable to teach it to children. Our great reformer, the\nEmperor Peter the First, himself gave an example of manual exercises\nby his carpentering and other kinds of work. He introduced manual\ntraining into the military schools. This sort of training, abandoned in\nthe second half of the eighteenth century, was once more introduced in\nthe year 1856, in the Finland primary schools, according to the project of\nthe Rev. Unos Signeus, and some years later it was put into the normal\nschools.\nIn Russia, on the proposition of the Permanent Commission of Technical\nInstruction, it was organized in 1880 ; lectures upon this subject were\ngiven during six weeks of the summer season of the normal school for\nthe rural teachers. In 1884 tbe regular occupation in manual training\ntook place in the teachers' college at St. Petersburg. The system of\nmanual training at this college was accepted later in all the schools where\nthat branch is taught. Now it is taught in four teachers' colleges, fifteen\nseminaries for teachers, six civil gymnasiums and schools ; in eighteen\nmilitary colleges, in eleven places of temporary manual-training courses for\nteachers, and in about one hundred and fifty town schools and elementary\nvillage schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 625, "printed_page": null, "text": "DISCUSSION.\n\n605\n\nThe difference between the Russian system and the Swedish sloyd is that\nin Russia the instruction in manual work is connected, as it is in France,\nwith the teaching of drawing and geometry, the course being formed of\nseries of successive lessons of woodwork. Any one interested in this question is kindly invited to visit the Russian section of the Liberal Arts\nBuilding, where can be seen an album treating of this subject.\n\nDISCUSSION.\nDr. H. H. Belfield, Director of the Chicago Manual Training School : I do not\nregard sloyd as a rival of the system of woodwork practiced in the schools known as\n\"manual-training schools\"; on the contrary, I welcome it as a possible means for filling the gap between the kindergarten and the manual-training schools, since it is\ndesigned for younger pupils than those found in the last-named training-schools.\nThe system just presented to us by Mr. Larsson is a great departure from the\nSwedish sloyd which came to us several years ago. In common with many others,\nI had no hesitation in condemning that system as not adapted to American ideas and\nconditions. Mr. Larsson has shown courage and pedagogical knowledge in introducing\nthe Swedish models, and in insisting upon drawing and in adding to the tools supplied\nto the pupils. I welcome Mr. Larsson's system, therefore, as an earnest effort to solve\na problem which has occupied our attention for years.\nOne of the fundamental principles of sloyd, as I understand it, is the presentation of\nmodels and exercises that will develop and retain the interest of the pupils. As Mr.\nLarsson puts it : \"That system is best which creates the most interest in the pupil.\"\nThis is also one of the strong features of the kindergarten, and is at once both a strength\nand a weakness. In the training of young children this development of the child's\ninterest is essential toisuccess. I think the American child, with his acute perceptions,\nis on the alert, like the old Athenians, for something new, and his attention will be\nattracted to other things than the matter in hand unless the teacher succeeds in fixing\nhis mind upon the lesson. But as the child advances in years he should cultivate the\nfaculty of concentration, even upon uninteresting subjects, sustained by the thought\nthat the present tedious work will find its reward in the future. It is wise, therefore,\nI think, that the sloyd work should consist of useful articles or toys, deferring systematic instruction in the elements of joinery, etc., till a more advanced age.\nProfessor C. M. Woodward, of St. Louis : As to these contrasted systems, two things\nshould be said. First, the \" sloyd '' system as presented by Mr. Larsson is not the Swedish sloyd in any proper sense. Sloyd involves very few tools, chiefly the knife ; Mr.\nLarsson uses the whole kit of joiner's tools. Sloyd used no drawings ; Mr. Larsson\nuses drawings continuously.\n(Drawing has recently been imported into Sweden.)\nSloyd models, as I knew them freshly imported several years ago, were typical of the\nuseful tools and implements found in a peasant's home in Sweden. Mr. Larsson has\nretained only the single idea of use with complete change of forms. This work presented byMr. Larsson is four parts American to one from Sweden.\nSecondly, the distance between this system and what is known as the Russian system is exceedingly small. Take, for instance, this tool -rack model of Mr. Larsson.\nIts construction involves three elementary processes, namely : (1) The exact use of the\ntry-square and gauge for determining where to saw and bore ; (2) sawing to lines ;\n(3) the use of bits or augers of several sizes. Mr. Larsson does all these Ihings on one\n\n"}
{"page": 626, "printed_page": null, "text": "606\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION.\n\npiece. The Russian plan would teach these processes on three or more separate pieces\nas is here shown in three exercises.\nMr. Larsson insists that it is best to teach a process or the use of a tool only in the\nconstruction of a model which shows one way in which it may be applied. The Russian plan assumes that the pupil's entire attention and aim is directed to the mastery\nof the processes one by one.\nNow it is evident to all that Mr. Larsson does analyze his processes into elements,\nand that he teaches those elements separately, albeit on one piece of wood. On the\nother hand, it is equally evident to every teacher of the other method that, having mastered the elements of construction, the pupil sees around him countless illustrations of\ntheir use. In every frame, door, bureau, box, or chest ; in every staircase, mantel,\ncarriage, and car, he sees the elements he has mastered and the evidence of skill.\nWhile with young pupils in early stages Mr. Larsson's plan may have the preference,\nit seems to me that with older and more observing pupils the elements may be learned\nmore completely, and may be taken up in a more logical order when no special combination is insisted on.\nAgain, the ulterior object may have the effect of covering up the steps and of dulling the edge of precision. For instance, if this rack is merely to hold tools, dropped\ninto these holes, the pupil does not see any necessity for sawing the ends so carefully\njust half-way across, nor does he see why it is so very necessary to box the holes exactly\nsquare to the surface. Of course the teacher insists upon the utmost care and accuracy,\nbut it is easier to secure it if accuracy and correct methods are the only things aimed at.\nFinally, it may be said that the particular model introduced to illustrate the use of a\nprocess or tool imposes a limitation which is unnecessary. When Mr. Larsson's pupil\nthinks of a dove-tailed joint, he thinks of the bracket which uses it, and he may stop\nthere. The other boy, who has mastered the abstract joint, is directly led to see its use\nin a dozen constructions which lie all around him. He is the more truly free. Still, as\nI have already intimated, the interval between these different systems, which to day are\nmore American than anything else, is so narrow that any one may step across, and I hope\nwe shall not hesitate to step over and help ourselves to the best there is on either side.\nPardon one word more. I have frequently protested against the \"prematurity\" of\nputting fourteen-year-old work into the hands of eleven -year-old boys, and 1 have doubted\nthe propriety of putting joiners' tools (saws, chisels, planes, etc.) into sixth -grade classes\n(counting from the kindergarten). I still urge extreme caution, but I have seen and\nheard enough during the past week -to convince me that it is entirely proper to put\nedge-tools into the sixth and higher grades. I make this confession with great pleasure,\nand I desire to say that it has been brought about by the thoughtful reports of Mr. Larsson, the work of the charming little class he has organized in the Children's Building,\nand the exhibits from Massachusetts, New York City, and Loudon.\n\nINDUSTRIAL\nBY W. B. POWELL,\n\nAND MANUAL\nTRAINING\nSCHOOL COURSE.\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nIN THE\n\nOF SCHOOLS, WASHINGTON,\n\nD. C.\n\nThesis : \" Should boys and girls have the same industrial and manual training in all\ngrades ? \"\n\nIn planning for manual training, which it is assumed is an integral\npart of the school course, it is first of all uecessary to consider the relation\nthat it bears to the other work of the school.\n\n"}
{"page": 627, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDUSTRIAL\n\nAND\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\nCOURSE.\n\n607\n\n(1) The child must learn to read. Every consideration of good teaching demands that he shall seek information first-hand by contact with\nthings before he is required to learn symbols. The child's first effort in\nlearning to read must be to recognize his own words representing his own\nknowing, his own feeling, his own willing. It is all-important that these\nwords represent correct and exact ideas.\n.Knowing by perception from original channels gives to the mind its\nnuclei, its standards of comparison. Much of this kind of knowledge\nmakes apperception varied and valuable, and insures an ability to know\nbroadly and easily by reception through symbolic channels. The testimony of eye and hand must be compared many times before each becomes\nindependently reliable. Touch, movement, muscular effort are necessary factors in the training of the eye. This contact with things involves\nhandling them, involves preparation of them, adjusting, making ; this is\nmanual training, whose early steps must precede, and whose later steps\nshould accompany, every effort in learning to read.\n(2) The child must learn number and quantity, the beginnings of\nwhich must be learned, if learned properly, by dealing with things. The\nfundamental conceptions of square and cubic measure are learned by\ndealing with things, conceptions that make work in these departments of\nreckoning in later study comparatively easy. The fundamental conceptions of plane surfaces are learned best by making, transforming, and\nmeasuring them. This sensuous primary learning renders it not only\npossible but easy to give the child the elements of plane geometry before\nhe leaves the grammar school. Involution, evolution, and plane and\nsolid geometry are learned first by hand, so to speak. Without the use\nof the hand in learning these subjects, it is doubtful whether they are\never thoroughly understood.\nMuch of this manual work is for the purpose of preparing the child for\nfuture study, for a correct and adequate conception of what he is to learn\nlater. An appreciation of sensible objects, their manifold conditions and\nvarious relations, cannot be neglected in learning mathematics without\ninevitable loss and even the possibility of failure. We must begin with\nthings, however free from and independent of them we think our way\nafterward. These things must be handled, must be separated, must be\nput together, must be divided by measurement, must be compared by\nmeasurement with and without instruments — all of ivhich is manual\ntraining of the best possible character.\n(3) The child is expected to learn the elements of science. To do this\nhe must handle and examine nature forms, and must adjust them for purposes of accurate examination. He must experiment, must project ; then\nhe must estimate and determine quantitatively, requiring close and accurate work with the hand ; he must make and adjust his apparatus. The\nprimary study of plants, to be profitable, includes an investigation of them\n\n"}
{"page": 628, "printed_page": null, "text": "608\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nas living organisms. A correct examination of seeds and buds, to learn\nwith what care they are protected, and the provision that is made for their\nlife and development before they become independent food -seekers, involves dissection, which, to be valuable, requires much close and accurate\nexercise of the eye and hand. Then the child must give much care to\nthe preservation of specimens.\nThis is all manual training.\n(4) The child must learn geography. To start in this work he must\ncome in contact with things ; these he must learn to represent in sand and\nother plastic materials. He must cause steam to be created and to be\ncondensed again, creating rivulets for transporting substances, that he\nmay learn of the carving of mountains and of the creation of valleys ; for\nwithout an appreciation of the wonderful work of the sun with water, he\nwill never know and understand the chief cause of geographic phenomena.\nThis is manual training, than which there is no better.\n(5) The child must learn history. The learning of beautiful and useful forms made by man are the beginnings of the study of the humanities,\nthe beginnings of a knowledge of man's influence in the world and of its\ninfluence on him ; his dependence on, his control of his environment.\nThis is a part of the child's preparation for the study of history. The\nearly steps of this work are essentially exercises in manual training.\n(6) The child must learn to draw, which is one important branch of\nmanual training. But the early steps of learning to draw are exercises in\nhandling things in numberless ways, to learn of the facts of form and of\nthe texture of things, and of the facts that are the causes of form and of\nthe texture of things. This is accomplished only by muscular effort in\ntesting, adjusting, and arranging; making or transforming by manual\neffort, intelligently directed and carefully executed.\nEfforts at learning nature forms and other facts of natural phenomena\nare the first steps in learning geography, for these forms and facts are all\ngeographic phenomena, whether plant or animal, whether biological or\nphysical. Learning the same nature forms and talking about them is\nthe best possible beginning in getting something definitely known to talk\nabout, which, in turn, is the first step in the work of learning to read.\nSo, while accomplishing the many purposes of a varied curriculum, the\nchild, is really engaged in but one thing : putting himself in condition to\nlearn most profitably.\nThe primary purpose of manual training is at least two-fold : first, it is\nto train the eye and hand to do the bidding of the will, thus securing a\nmore equable development of the person ; second, it is to give the learner\nincreased power and adaptability in getting correct information at every\nstep. Of these two purposes, the latter is of the greater importance in the\nearlier stages of growth and development. Information received without\nthe use of eye and hand is in many instances unreliable, because not full\nor complete, and is consequently ofttimes misleading.\nIt is therefore\n\n"}
{"page": 629, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDUSTRIAL\n\nAND\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\nCOURSE.\n\n609\n\ndesirable that the training of eye and hand should begin early., that they\nmay help in the work of getting information ; and since this training is\nnot only possible, but is desirable or necessary in the pursuit of all otber\npurposes of elementary instruction, it is left for us only to adjust such\ntraining to the conditions of the schoolroom, to properly grade it, and to\nallot to it its proportional time, and to assign its various kinds of work to\nthe appropriate seasons of the year respectively.\nTo do this, the superintendent or director of work must know by what\ninstrumentalities and by what processes the child can best learn and can\nbest be trained and cultivated ; he must know each subject in its entirety,\nmust be able to select from each subject that which the child can learn,\nand must know its relation to all other things he is expected to learn in\nthe grade.\nWith this knowledge and power on the part of the instructor, it will\nnot be difficult to give the child all the eye and hand training it is desirable for him to get, during the first five or six years of his school life, as a\npart of the study of such subjects as are now generally agreed should be\ntaught in the primary school. The exercises of manual training connected with the teaching of these subjects, that are assigned to the elementary school curriculum, mast not be regarded, therefore, as an extra\ntraining, as something that may be given if there is time, but that may\nbe omitted if there is not. It is not so regarded by him who knows what\ncorrect teaching is, who knows how the child learns properly. But it\nmust be regarded as a necessary part of correct teaching, as a part which\ncannot be omitted if the child is to do intelligent work and is to be put\nin a correct learning attitude toward the work he is trying to do.\nNow, since the boys and girls who are to learn the use of their mother\ntongue, learn to read, learn arithmetic and geography, learn the elements\nof science, learn the elements of humanistic phenomena or the beginnings\nof history, must learn them in the same way ; and since manual training\nis a fundamental part of the learning of the beginnings of all the branches\nenumerated, it follows that the manual training for boys and girls during\nthe first five or six years of school life not only may be but should be\nthe same.\nIt will be observed that in what I have said I make no plea for manual\ntraining for its own sake, its value having been assumed, but that I contend that all the manual training it is desirable to give the child during\nthe first five or six years of school life is a necessary part of teaching him\nproperly the various branches of knowledge he is expected to acquire;\nand that it is a necessary part of the training that will put him in a correct intellectual attitude toward the world he is trying to know.\nThis is not the time or place to give a detailed course of work. It\nmust be enough to say that such a course as is here shown to be necessary involves work in selecting, isolating, comparing, and determining\n39\n\n"}
{"page": 630, "printed_page": null, "text": "610\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nnature forms ; work with laying sticks and fastening them ; work with\nfolding, measuring, dividing paper, and pasting it ; work with measuring and dividing lengths, surfaces, and volume ; work with comparing by\nmeasuring and adjusting sizes with respect to length and breadth and\nvolume ; work with paper in measuring, marking, cutting, folding, and\npasting, which involves accuracy in details of fitting and matching of\nparts ; work in representing, in plastic materials, nature forms and conventional forms ; work in handling, and in many cases in the preparation\nof, tools by means of which it is possible to do all this — it involves the representation ofthe nature forms that have been made and of parts thereof\nby means of the pencil and brush. Every part of this work requires\nexact seeing of forms, of texture, of position, of use, of change, and\ndemands exact work of the hand in measuring, adjusting, arranging,\nmaking, representing, coloring, and otherwise decorating. It is thus seen\nthat no inconsiderable part of a rational and correct teaching of the\nbeginnings of arithmetic, reading, language, geography, science, humanistic phenomena, may be made at once a natural, thoroughly systematic,\nand an efficient means of manual training.\nIt may be said further that all this manual training is possible in, and\nis very appropriate work for, the ordinary schoolroom, which is another\nreason for giving it to boys and girls in the same grades and at the same\ntime.\nIt is difficult to say how much time should be given to this work, as it\nis so connected with and related to other work as not easily to be considered apart from it ; but it is safe to say that the manual part of elementary learning need not occupy more than two or two and a half hours of\nthe week of twenty-five hours, including all the time spent in drawing.\nWhile doing this Avork the child, if taught rightly, learns the value of\nexactness in making forms and getting size ; he learns to be exact in all\nhe does ; his eye and hand learn to do the bidding of his will. He learns\nthe use of some tools ; he uses the square and compass, the rule and\nmarker, the knife and scissors, the pencil and brush. He learns to use\nhis fingers and the entire face of his hand in determining and making\nforms of plastic materials ; he learns the care necessary in the use of hand\nand tool in arrangement of plastic materials for the representation of delicate or frail parts ; he learns the use of hand for the care and preservation\nof materials, and thus trains it to be provident ; he learns to estimate\nvalues in length, surface, volume, and strength, and learns the relation of\nhis own powers to each and all of these.\nAs I believe that the elements of the physical and biological sciences\nwill never go into the elementary schools as a permanency unless they are\ntaught in their relations as helps to or parts of other requirements of\nschool work ; that their supplementary or complementary values as\nsources of information or as means of discipline or culture, as seen even\n\n"}
{"page": 631, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDUSTRIAL\n\nAND\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\nCOURSE.\n\n611\n\nby the most sanguine, will not alone secure for them a permanent place\nin elementary school work : so I believe that the iutrinsic value of manual training will not soon secure for it a permanent place in the elementary schools below the seventh or eighth grade as a separate branch of\nschool work.\nFortunately, as there are more potent pedagogical reasons for the introduction of science study, than that the pupils may learn the facts of science, so there are stronger pedagogical reasons for employing manual\nexercises in learning the elements of the various branches of the school\ncurriculum than that the children may become skilled in the use of their\nhands.\nIf the different lines of manual exercises made necessary by the character of work suggested in the foregoing were detailed for our inspection,\nwe should be able to see many schemes of systematically arranged employments for hand training, any one of which would delight the heart of the\ndevotee of industrial education. We should see \" courses of training\"\nwith sticks, with tablets, with colored paper, with cardboard, with clay,\nwith physical apparatus, as well as with other things. But we are not\narranging work to interest or satisfy this person. We are seeking to do\nall the work of the school as it should be done ; nothing more.\nIn our presentation of exercises so far, the boys and girls have worked\ntogether. AVe have, however, yet to state that the girls have been giving\none hour a week to sewing, for two or three years, in which the boys have\nhad no part. While the girls have been sewing or cutting and fitting, the\nboys have given attention to numerous exercises in details of work in\nwhich they had fallen behind their sisters, such as neatness of penmanship, care with spelling, and style in expression ; while the loss in manual\ntraining occasioned by not taking the sewing has been made good by play\nwith playthings requiring skill in their management, such as bicycles,\ntennis racquets, and other things. There is much manual training in\nmodern play of which the girls, however, do not get their share. The\nextra work made necessary by the sewing makes good this loss to some\nextent, and gives opportunity to make good the loss in care and accuracy occasioned by too mucli interest in games on the part of the\nboys. Baseball is the cause of the misplacement or omission of many a\ncapital letter or punctuation mark, the cause of many a misspelled word.\nOpportunity for correcting these two inequalities is needed in mixed\nschools, which the sewing lessons give.\nUp to this time the child has done most of his hand work without\ntools. His hand has been trained to help in discovering an infinite variety\nof texture, and almost as great a variety of causes of texture. Nerves,\nhaving their end-organs in muscles, have cooperated with dermal endorgans of nerves, and the two with nerve end-organs of the special senses,\nto identify and correlate qualities of texture or appearance with weight\n\n"}
{"page": 632, "printed_page": null, "text": "612\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nand toughness and other like qualities ; so that the eye sees and the\nnaked palm feels weight or toughness, or the absence of the one and\nthe opposite of the other ; and, according to the care and thoroughness with which the training has been carried on, shades or degrees of\nqualities can be seen and felt without muscular effort. The ear, too,\nhas been so trained that it hears density, brittleness, and other like\nqualities. Facts have been learned by hand, in conjunction with the\nspecial sense organs, until information given by the latter may be relied\non as correct. It is largely for the accomplishment of this end that the\nwork has been done at all, and for the accomplisbment of it in the\nshortest time and by the most economical means, that it has been largely\ndone witbout tools. Without the assistance of muscles and dermal surfaces the special sense organs are not trained. The special sense organs,\nparticularly those of sight and hearing, are labor-saving machines ;\nbut their testimony, their registerings, are not reliable unless the organs\nhave been trained. The eye cannot be made to register distance or size\nwith any degree of accuracy except by measuring and looking in conjunction many times. For the purpose of giving to these labor-saving\nmachines the training they should have, manual-training exercises with\nfew tools must be a part of all truly scientific primary and intermediate\nschool work. I have never advocated manual training in the lower-grade\nschools for any other purpose than that of securing a correct cultivation of\nthose organs through which information and pleasure must chiefly come\nthrough life.\nThis hand training, which has been shown to be advisable or necessary\nin the beginnings of all elementary work, is also required as a preparation\nfor a training in the use of tools.\nTools are artificial media whose use is acquired with great difficulty. If\na knowledge of the reciprocal values of muscle, dermal, and special sense\nimpressions is not secured before the tools are put into the child's hand,\nhis disadvantage will be great. The learner's first effort with tools is to\nlearn to appreciate values through them. If these values are not previously known, but are to be acquired now for the first time, he will not\nonly be trying to do two things at once, but will be attempting to secure\ninformation and training through artificial media, which of course will be\na slow and laborious process, and which may never be done properly. The\nvalues of the correlated instruction of nature's media are best and most\neconomically secured free-hand.\nThere comes a time in the development of manual training when, to\nsecure for it a permanent place in the school curriculum, reliance must be\nhad on its intrinsic value as a distinct acquisition of educative effort. I\nhave tried to show that such time does not come before the sixth or seventh year of school life above the kindergarten. In my own practice I\nhave assumed that it comes at the beginning of the seventh year.\n\n"}
{"page": 633, "printed_page": null, "text": "DISCUSSION.\n\n613\n\nFrom this time on the work shows two marked changes, although both\nchanges have been anticipated to some extent ; the one by attempts at\nartistic effects, the other by the use of a few simple tools.\nThe work with hands, without tools, continues, but becomes more creative than before, being less imitative ; or, if imitative, attempts are made\nto represent what creative minds have seen in and derived from nature\nforms. The hand becomes a producer now instead of a learner, the work\n-with clay and paper and with pencil and brush being continued. As\nthis is all done in the schoolroom, the boys and girls work together.\nThe second change alluded to involves the use of tools for the chief\npurpose of learning their use. For this, workshops and more elaborate\noutfits of tools are required.\nSince the conventionalities of our civilization decree that women are\nnot to do the heavy mechanical labor of our industries, and that men are\nnot to do the skilled work of domestic affairs, it has been found desirable\nto separate the boys and girls at this point.\nThe girls go to shops to learn cutting, fitting, and trimming, and to\nlaboratories to learn cooking, while the boys go to other shops to learn the\nuse of tools and machines.\nThis separation, which continues through the grammar and high\nschools, is made necessary not only because of the character of tools used,\nbut also because of the character of the materials they work with or upon.\nThe children are getting manual training now for its own sake, and not\nas before as a part of their academic training. As they are trained for\ndifferent purposes, with differeut materials and different kinds of tools or\ninstruments, they must have separate shops and different teachers.\n\nDISC US SI OK\nEdward Boos-Jegher, Director of the School of Art and Female Education, Zurich,\nSwitzerland : In relation to industrial and manual instruction for boys and girls, when\nmade a method of training and combined with other lessons, as advocated in the paper\njust read, there can be hardly any difference of opinion as to whether the pupils of both\nsexes should receive essentially the same instruction But before this question — whether\nboys and girls should have the same manual training — can be answered, another question must first be answered : Shall any difference at all be made in the education of the\ntwo sexes ? The opinions about this will differ in different countries. 1 think all civilized people now tend toward the views common in republican countries — that the same\nopportunities for general education should be provided for both boys and girls.\nIn Switzerland we believe that men and women have different duties to fulfill in\nsociety, and that the education for both boys and girls should develop mind, intelligence, morals, character, and physical culture, that the men and women may become\nuseful members of society. We do not educate for the sake of education alone, but to\nsecure practical results for the individual and for the general public. Therefore our\ngovernment pays all the expenses of the schools, including the materials used in them,\nand school attendance is made compulsory up to the ages of twelve and fourteen.\nWe give the girls a good training in female hand work — sewing, a little of dressmaking, embroidery, pattern drawing and cutting, and needlework — and think the\nresults show good manual training.\nI do not object to girls learning how to use the\n\n"}
{"page": 634, "printed_page": null, "text": "614\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION.\n\ndifferent tools used by boys in manual-training classes. In general education we have\nreading, writing, arithmetic, natural science, and gymnastics in all the grammar grades,\nand two languages in the higher grades. We do not have the time to give the girls\nthe same manual training as the boys have ; besides, we should not like to give up any\nof the hand work for the girls to make room for the hand work for the boys. In any\nschool that provides instruction only in the three R's for the girls, the girls should have\nan opportunity to learn the manual training in paper and cardboard work, and in carving, etc. ; but 1 do not like to see a girl or a young woman at work with a plane in\nschool. I do not want a woman to work in a blacksmith's shop, as 1 saw it in England ;\nnor work at bricklaying, as I saw in towns in the south of Germany ; nor with a girdle\naround her waist, drawing a ship, as may be seen in Holland.\nDr. Paul Hoffman, Assistant Superintendent New York Public Schools : Much\nmanual training can be given in school without the use of tools ; the first three books\nof Euclid can be demonstrated by manual work. [He illustrated this statement by\nfolding papers, demonstrating several propositions, and thus showing one phase of\nmanual-training work in the New York public schools.]\nMr. Charles Bennett, of New York, believed that manual training was a distinct\nsubject of instruction, not a method ; and that the material instruction should go hand\nin hand with the intellectual.\n\n"}
{"page": 635, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nCONGRESS\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION.\n\nOF\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nREPORT.\n\nSESSION— Wednesday,\n\nJuly 26, 1893.\n\nThe Department Congress of Physical Education meet in Hall No. 26 of Art Palace.\nDr. E. M. Hartwell, Director of Physical Training, Public Schools of Boston, presided.\nThis session was called to order at 9.30 a.m., July 26th.\nThe Chairman made the opening address.\nThe first paper read was by Dr. T. D. Wood, Professor of Hygiene and Physical Training, Leland Stanford Jr. University, Palo Alto, Cal., on \" Some Unsolved Problems in\nPhysical Education. \"\nAn abstract of a paper on \" Training of the Human Body,\" by Dr. Angelo Mosso,\nProfessor of Physiology, University of Turin, Italy, was read by Dr. Luther Gulick, of\nSpringfield, Mass.\nThis paper was discussed by Bergman Oesterberg. Dr. George W. Fitz said the investigations of Dr. Lombard oppose the conclusions of Dr. Mosso. Dr. Sargent emphasized the necessity for gymnastic experiments to corroborate or disprove the results of\nphysiological investigations in the laboratory.\nDr. George W. Fitz, Instructor in Physiology and Hygiene, Harvard University,\nCambridge, Mass., read a paper on \" The Psychological Aspect of Exercises with and\nwithout Apparatus \"\nThis paper was discussed by Baron Nils Posse, Boston ; Mrs. M. A. Harper, of Texas.\nDr. J. Gardner Smith, Special Instructor Physical Training in Public Schools, New\nYork City, read a paper on \"Physical Exercises for School Purposes — How Selected\nand Graded.\"\nA paper by Dr. Tait McKenzie, director of McGill University Gymnasium. Montreal,\nCanada, on \"The Regulation of Athletic Sports in Colleges,\" the writer being absent,\nwas not read, but was presented for publication.\n\n|\n\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Thursday, July 27, 1893.\n\nThe session was called to order by the Chairman, Dr. E. M. Hartwell, at 9.30 a.m.,\nJuly 27, 1893.\n\" English Experience in Providing the Poor of Cities with Parks, Gardens, Gymnasia, and Playgrounds,\" by the Earl of Meath, London. In the absence of the author,\nthis paper was read by Miss Mary Willetts, of Wilmington, Del.\n\"Physical Training of Criminals,\" by Hamilton D. Wey, M.D., State Reformatory,\nElmira, N. Y., was read by the Secretary, the writer not being present.\nIt was discussed by Dr. Sai-gent, by Baron Nils Posse, and Dr. E. M. Schaeffer.\n\"The North American Turner- Bund —Its History, Aims, and Achievements,\" by\n\n"}
{"page": 636, "printed_page": null, "text": "616\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nHugo Muench, ex-president of the organization, St. Louis, Mo.\ndiscussed by Miss Le Garde, of Providence, R. I.\n\nThis paper was\n\n\" The Royal Central Institute of Gymnastics in Stockholm — Its Aims and Work,\" is\nthe subject of a paper by Professor L. M. Torngren, Director of the Institute, in Stockholm, Sweden.\n\"History of Physical Education in Denmark\" was presented by Joakim Larsen,\nSuperintendent of the Fredrichberg School, Copenhagen. This paper was read l>y\nBaron Nils Posse. Following the paper, Professor Torngren spoke of the Danish\ncommission appointed to draw up a gymnastic code for public schools.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION— Friday, July 28, 1893.\n\nDr. Hartwell in the chair.\n\" Gymnastics in the Kingdom of Saxony — A Historical Review,\" is the subject of a\npaper furnished by Professor Moritz Zettler, of Chemnitz, Saxony.\n\" The Physical Training of Deaf-Mutes,\" by Dr. A. Gutzman, Instructor in Institute\nfor Deaf and Dumb, Berlin, Prussia.\nA few other papers were presented during the sessions of the Congress of Physical\nEducation, but not furnished for publication.\nThe large number of papers presented precluded lengthy discussion.\n\nLIST OF PERSONS ACCEPTING THE OFFICE OF HONORARY\nVICE-PRESIDENT OF THE DEPARTMENT CONGRESS OF\nPHYSICAL EDUCATION.\nAUSTRIA.\nDr. Leo Burgeretein, Professor in Vienna.\nProf. Jaro Pawel, University of Vienna.\nGERMANY.\nHerr W. Bier, Director R. Training School for Gymnastic Teachers. Dresden, Saxony.\nDr. Ferd. Gotz, Manager German Turner Association, Lindenau Leipzig. Saxony.\nHerr A. C. Gntzman, Teacher City School for Deaf\nand Dumb, Berlin.\nProf. Dr. J. Hermann, Berlin.\nDr. J. C. Lion, Director City School Gymnastics,\nLeipzig.\nDr. F. A. Schmidt, Bonn.\nGREAT\n\nBRITAIN.\n\nENGLAND.\n\nThe Earl of Meath, London.\nCharles Roberts, F.R.C.S., London.\nMadame Bergmen Osterberg, Hampstead, N. W.\n\nThoma9 D. Wood. A.M., M.D., Professor of Physical Training, Leland Stanford Jr. University,\nPalo Alto.\nDISTRICT\n\nOF COLUMBIA.\n\nJ. W. Sims, Physical Director Y. M. C. A., Washington.\nILLINOIS.\nGeorge W. Ehler, Y. M. C. A., Chicago.\nPhilip Greiner, Instructor in Physical Culture,\nNorthwestern University, Evanston.\nE. L. Hayford, M.D., Physical Director Madison\nStreet Y. M. C. A., Chicago.\nA. Alonzo Stagg. A.B., Directorof Physical Culture,\nUniversity of Chicago, Chicago.\nINDIANA.\nMrs. Harriet Colburn Saunderson, Director of\nWomen's\nGymnasium, Indiana University,\nBloomington.\n\nSPAIN.\n\nLOUISIANA.\n\nDr. Alfredo Serrano Fatigati, Director Normal\nSchool of Gymnastics, Madrid.\nSWEDEN.\n\nClara G. Baer, Instructor in Gymnasium, Tnlane\nUniversity, New Orleans.\n\nCapt. C. Silow, Royal Central Gymnastic Institute,\nStockholm.\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES.\n\nCALIFORNIA.\nF. H. Payne, M.D., Director of Physical Culture,\nUniversity of California, Berkeley.\n\nMAINE.\nFrank N. Whittier, A.M., M.D . Director of Gymnasium, Bowdoin College, Brunswick.\nMARYLAND.\nGulliCollege\nJ. Oberg,\nInstructor Baltimore.\nin Gymnastics, Woman's\nof Baltimore,\nH. a. Watson, Director of Gymnasium for Men,\nWestern Maryland College, Westminster.\n\n"}
{"page": 637, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIST OF HO NOR ART\nMASSACHUSETTS.\nThomas G. Adams, A.B , Director of Gymnasium,\nWilliams College. Williamstown.\nEliza S. Clark, Instructor in Physical Culture, Mt.\nHolyoke College, South Hadley.\nFrank W. Dnrkee, A.M., Director of Gymnasium,\nTufts College, Tufts College.\nC. W. Emerson, M.D., Boston.\nClaes J. Enebuske, Boston Normal School of Gymnasium, Boston.\nLuther Gulick, M.D., Director Training School of\nY. M. C. A.. Springfield.\nLucile E. Hall, Director in Gymnasium, Wellesley\nCollege, Wellesley.\nEdward Hitchcock, A.M., M.D., Professor of Physical Education, Amherst College, Amherst.\nMiss School\nAmy Gymnasium,\nM. Homans, Buston.\nDirector \"Boston Normal\nMajor Hobart Moore, Boston School Regiment,\nBoston.\nHaitvig Nissen, Instructor in Physical Training,\nPublic Schools, Boston.\nBaron Nils Posse, Director Posse Gymnasium,\nBoston.\nMISSOURI.\nCarl Betz. Director of Physical Training, Public\nSchools, Kansas City.\nHenry Braun, President Vorort National Turnerbund, St. Louis.\nAugust H. Muegge, Instructor in Gymnastics,\nWashington University, St. Louis.\nW. T. Porter, M.D., Investigator of Physical Condition of School Children, St. Louis.\nNEW\n\nJERSEY.\n\nIsaac J. Turner. Superintendent of Gymnasium,\nCollege of New Jersey, Princeton.\nNEW\n\nYORK.\n\nHarriet I. Ballintine, Director of Gymnasium, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie.\n\nVICE-PRESIDENTS.\n\n617\n\nEdward Hitchcock, Jr., A.M., M.D., Director of\nGymnasium, Cornell University, Ithaca.\nHeinrich Metzner, Principal of School of the New\nYork Turnverein, New York.\nJ. Gardner Smith, M.D., Physical Director Harlem\nBranch Y. M. C. A., New York.\nHamilton D. Wey. M.D., New York State Reformatory, Elmira.\nOHIO.\nMary E. Carr. Ph.M., Mt. Union College, Alliance.\nAnton Leibold, Superintendent Physical Culture,\nPublic Schools, Columbus.\nMrs. Francis W. Leiter, National Superintendent\nPhysical Culture W. C. T. U., Mansfield.\nProf. Henry C. Myers, University of Woostcr,\nWooster.\nPENNSYLVANIA.\nBlanche Best, Allegheny College, Meadville.\nWinfleld S. Hall, M.S.. M.D., Haverford College,\nHaverford College.\nProf. Anna D. McNair, A.B., Bryn Mawr College,\nMawr.Western University of Pennsylvania,\nOscarBryn\nScheer,\nAllegheny.\nProf. J. K. Shell, M.D., Swarthmore\nCollege,\nSwarthmore.\nProf. George D. Stahley, A.M., M.D., Pennsylvania\nCollege, Gettysburg.\nTENNESSEE.\nProf. J. T. Gwathmey, Vanderbilt University,\nNashville.\nVIRGINIA.\nW. A. Lambeth, University of Virginia, Charlottesville.\nEd. M. Schaeffer, M.D., Washington and Lee University, Lexington.\n\n"}
{"page": 638, "printed_page": null, "text": "PHYSICAL\nOPENING\nDR.\n\nEDWARD\n\nM.\n\nEDUCATION.\n\nADDRESS\n\nHARTWELL,\n\nOF THE\n\nDIRECTOR\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nBOSTON,\n\nOF\n\nCHAIRMAN,\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nTRAINING,\n\nPUBLIC\n\nMASS.\n\nDespite the printed announcement of an address, it is not my intention\nto make any extended remarks on this occasion, which marks the formal\nopening of the section on physical training, as our programme, which is a\nfull one, has been arranged with a view to giving appropriate prominence\nto addresses and papers from eminent European workers in the field of\nphysical education. It is manifestly fitting, however, that I should call\nyour attention to the significant and representative character of this\nconference, and that I should attempt to express the grateful appreciation felt by the promoters of this congress on account of the hearty and\ngenerous manner in which our requests for contributions from abroad\nhave been met.\nThanks to the cooperation of many distinguished collaborators on the\nother side of the Atlantic (some of whom, I am happy to say, are to grace\nour meetings by their presence), our programme is much more varied and\nrepresentative than any hitherto presented in this country to an audience\nspecially gathered to consider topics pertaining to the physical side of\neducation. We may well congratulate ourselves on securing such a variety\nof papers from Canadian, English, Danish, German, Italian, and Swedish,\nas well as American writers, for consideration at this time. So far as I am\naware, this conference is more broadly and truly international in its character than any meeting which has yet been held, on either side of the\nocean, to discuss the historical, theoretical, and practical aspects of physical training. May it have many and illustrious successors !\nTo those of us who have studied and labored in various parts of the\ncountry to promote the recognition and serious consideration of the just\nclaims of physical training, the organization of this section has an especial\nsignificance. It marks, we hope, the opening of a new chapter in the history of physical training in America. We have watched and mayhap promoted the expanding and diversified interest in athletics and gymnastics\nwhich has developed since the close of the war, and especially during the\nlast ten years, but we have waited in vain hitherto for the cordial recognition and substantial help of the leading educational association of America,\nthe National Educational Association.\nBut now, for the first time in its\n\n"}
{"page": 639, "printed_page": null, "text": "OPENING\n\nADDRESS\n\nOF THE\n\nCHAIRMAN.\n\n619\n\nhistory, I believe, the National Educational Association has a section on\nphysical training, and this is its first meeting.\nIs it too much to hope that the meetings in this hall and the publication of this congress shall arrest and awaken the attention of school\nsuperintendents, school boards, and the trustees of secondary schools and\ncolleges throughout the country, to the fact that physical education is\nmore highly developed, more thoroughly and effectively organized, more\nintelligently and generously supported in most of the leading countries of\nEurope, than they have ever dreamed it could be ? It may be folly to\nexpect the immediate or brilliant fruition of our hopes, but hope we must\nand shall for wide and permanent results from such gatherings as this.\nThe teachings of science, of the best experience, favor our contention that\nphysical training is an indispensable and effectual element toward securing\nthe health, increasing the intelligence, and strengthening and fortifying\nthe character of the rising generation ;. and in the end these teachings\nwill prevail over apathy and ignorance.\nProgress in our cause has been materially impeded by the prepossessions and prejudices of the teaching class, which, like the general public,\nis still largely ruled by ancient and traditional conceptions of mind and\nbody, and has so feeble a comprehension of the new physiology and the\nnew psychology that it is unprepared to acknowledge the just claims of\nphysical education. Progress there has been during the past half century,\nbut for the most part it has been sporadic, fitful, and retarded. Too\noften the experiments in our field of endeavor have been characterized\nby furor, hurry, and failure. We are still prone to rash experiment and\nto uncritical imitation. It is in the comparatively rude and primitive\nfield of athletics that our greatest triumphs have been won. Our originality has been chiefly shown in the improvement of buildings and the\ninvention of apparatus.\nIn the field of superior education, the interest of faculties and trustees\nin physical training is most usually manifested by costly offerings of\nbuildings or other plant to the unappeasable \"animal spirits\" of their\nstudents and younger alumni. In the field of elementary education,\nthough cheapness is a sine qua non, we have succeeded in initiating a number of tentative schemes, a few of which are decidedly promising. In the\nprofessional training of the teaching class, bodily training is commonly\nconsidered superfluous ; and it is only here and there that public normal\nschools have taken any measures to provide for ifc. A large proportion of\nthose who are rushing forward to fill the role of apostles and teachers of\nphysical education are self-educated or insufficiently trained.\nSince physical training, on its theoretical side, belongs to a class of\nquestions that fascinate doctrinaires and dabblers, it has suffered much\nat the hands of its vociferous friends. Agitation, discussion, crude and\nshort-lived experiment, have been the dominant factors in the growth of\n\n"}
{"page": 640, "printed_page": null, "text": "620\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nthe American physical education movement hitherto. We cannot pass to\nthe stage of constructive development, unless respect for experience,\naccurate knowledge, clear ideas, definite aims, thorough training, and\nthe capacity for sustained effort shall become much more general within\nour ranks and among our allies than is yet the case.\nBut our prospect is not wholly dark. I am constrained to believe that\nthere are gleams of promise in the sky. It is a significant and encouraging fact, that the question of bodily training is like Banquo's ghost, and\nwill not down. In one form or another it rises and shall rise before every\ngeneration of civilized men. For us and our successors it has assumed\nportentous proportions, by reason of the untoward influences of city life\nupon the rising generation. Never before have the teachings of medical\nscience been so clear and authoritative as they are to-day regarding the\nnecessity and the means of securing and conserving the health of the student class. Physiology and psychology have been revolutionized within\nsixty years, and the critics of our educational aims and methods are beginning to use the weapons thus furnished to their hands. The existing systems of physical education and \"culture\" are largely empirical in their\nnature ; but the time is at hand when they shall be subjected to the scrutiny\nand tests of disinterested scientists, and shall have judgment passed upon\nthem by men who are able to. distinguish between claims and proof, between shadow and substance. Our present fashion of lauding apparatus\nand of multiplying gymnasia, club-houses, and grounds is, after all, somewhat of a blessing in disguise, as it tends to force the question as to the\nreal purpose of such appliances and the best means of securing their\nproper use.\nThat our educational authorities as a class shall continue much longer\nboth deaf and blind to the plain teachings of science and experience as to\nthe nature, scope, and legitimate results of physical education, seems improbable. To my mind, the most hopeful and distinctive characteristic of\nthe present diversified and expanding interest in physical training is found\nin the growing conviction that trained intelligence must be employed to\nsupplement and reenforce enlightened enthusiasm, and in the evident\ndesire of a few benefactors and governors of educational foundations to\nprovide ways and means for developing and seconding such intelligence.\nIn various quarters, including two of our leading universities, attempts\nare in progress to embody that conviction and to realize that desire. These\nattempts, and such meetings as this, betoken the dawning of a new day.\nLet us gird ourselves and go forth to meet it !\n\n"}
{"page": 641, "printed_page": null, "text": "SOME\n\nSOME\n\nUNSOLVED\n\nUNSOLVED\n\nBY T. D. WOOD,\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nIN PHYSICAL\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nIN PHYSICAL\n\nM.D., PROFESSOR\nLELAND\n\nSTANFORD\n\nOF\n\nHYGIENE\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nAXD\n\nEDUCATION.\n\n621\n\nEDUCATION\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nTRAINING,\n\nCALIFORNIA.\n\n[AB8TRACT.]\n\nThe great need in physical education to-day is the scientific spirit — the\nspirit which inspires the student to seek for truth and for its useful applicationthe\n; spirit of generosity toward all, and of mutual helpfulness among\nthose engaged in the same or similar lines of work ; the spirit which precludes petty personal competition or jealous rivalry among those who are\nworking for other than selfish ambition or mercenary ends.\nThere is to-day, in an embryonic and crude form, a science of physical\neducation ; and for the sake of the honorable future, the idea of the\nscience should exist first in the minds of the profession, and then in minds\nof the laity. The science of physical education should take the place of\nthe so-called systems of physical training. We can conceive of a system\nor series of definite exercises, arranged to produce a desired effect upon a\ngiven person, or upon a class of persons ; but the only adequate name for\na department of human knowledge and of research is that of a science.\nScience is classified knowledge ; but for the most part the words \" unclassified ignorance\" represent the present condition of our new science —\nphysical education. Now, the intelligent understanding of the problems\nwhich need solution is the first step in the opening out of any new field\nof study. Here is a field of study as broad as human thought, involving\nquestions important, far-reaching, and impossible of immediate settlement.\nThe term physical education is so misleading, and even misrepresented,\nthat we look for a name which shall represent fairly the real idea of the science. What is physical education ? This is one of the unsolved problems.\nMany people answer : \"The training and development of the physical \" ;\nand they consider that the aim and end may be found in anthropometric apparatus, physical measurements, athletic contests and exhibitions,\nwith graphic representations of measurements and of averages.\nNow these things are very well in their places, but if our science is to\nbe worthy of the best efforts of men and women, and of the respect and\nrecognition of the educational world, physical education must have an\naim as broad as education itself, and as noble and inspiring as human\nlife. The great thought in physical education is not the education of the\nphysical nature, but the relation of physical training to complete education, and then the effort to make the physical contribute its full share to\nthe life of the individual, in environment, training, and culture.\nThe aim must not be primarily utilitarian, simply physical betterment,\nstrength, skill, or fine proportions.\nIt must be high and comprehensive.\n\n"}
{"page": 642, "printed_page": null, "text": "622\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nThe ethical teacher tells us that the human ideal, the first and chief end\nof life, should he self-realization, the attainment of the best that there is\nin the possibilities, powers, and faculties of the individual. This guiding\nthought, this one ultimate end, brings into harmony all departments of\nhuman training. This ideal gives us the basis of our science, and suggests many questions of fundamental importance.\nFor example, What is the relation, more exactly than we know yet, of voluntary muscular activity to the activity and training of motor brain centers,\nand through these to general development ? Again, what are the laws\nwhich indicate the order and method of growth and development in all\nthe tissues, organs, and activities in man ? In such study as this, thousands of individuals must be carefully observed and accurately tested,\nand the various laws determined by induction, tabulation, charting, and\nthe various methods of statistical study, which has come to be a distinct\nspecialty. Then types are to be brought out in strong relief, not to mislead but to assist us. Independently of all personal bias or prejudice\nthese questions must be settled, through the scientific study of man himself. Here are the fields for the biologist, the physiologist, the psychologist, the physical and the general educator. These fields have been too\nmuch separated. They should overlap with generous margins, so that\neach may verify the results of the others, and that there may be unanimity among all. At present our exact knowledge with reference to these\nmost important problems is very meager, especially in the field of physiological research.\nDr. George W. Fitz has well brought out this thought in his excellent paper in the September number of Harvard Graduates' Magazine:\n\"In the absence of exact physiological knowledge, various more or less\nreasonable and far-reaching hypotheses have been assumed, and elaborate\ntheories and systems of training based thereon. The advent of new systems, and discussions provoked by them, have made clear to physiologists\nthe ignorance in relation to some essential facts.\"\nThe rational study of the science of physical education will stimulate\nthe efforts of investigators in many fields, and make plain the vital\nconnection between facts hitherto unrelated even in the scientific mind.\nThe work of the physical educator lies much in the field of the physical,\nbut always from the standpoint of the ideal man, in whom the physical is\nthe essential condition of his existence and activity. \"It is seen,\" says\nDr. G. Stanley Hall, \"that the most perfect physical development involves\nthe choicest knowledge, the best morals and religion.\" Here \"best\nphysical development \" is related not to the material brute body, but\nto the possible admirable man or woman.\nWhat forms of exercise will best develop, or assist in development of,\nstrength, speed, skill, self-control, accuracy, grace, endurance, automatism, courage, moral fiber, mental power, will power, character ? The\n\n"}
{"page": 643, "printed_page": null, "text": "TRAINING\n\nOF THE\n\nHUMAN\n\nBODY.\n\n623\n\nquestion of movement and the precise effect of each movement upon the\nhuman organism is to be determined by exact laboratory method.\nWe are glad to know of the investigators who are working upon these\nproblems. We rejoice at the establishment of such workshops as the\nlaboratory in the Lawrence Scientific School of Harvard University,\ndesigned for the experimental study of the physiology of exercise.\nSeveral new and important pieces of apparatus testify to the early success\nin this special laboratory.\nMay such institutions be multiplied !\nThe field of deformity, abnormality, and disease is of great importance\nfor the physical educator, because the conditions named exist in slighter\nform and complicate the problem of many lives with which the teacher\nhas to deal.\nWhat I have given you will serve to suggest the scientific basis of\nphysical education. Here we must have definite knowledge. Whatever\nindividual investigators have contributed to our scanty fund of knowledge\nwe recognize with gratitude. The history of physical education among\nthe different nations offers us much of great value.\nThese two thoughts, then, let me emphasize :\nFirst, That there is a scienoe of physical education, based, with the\nother human sciences, upon a philosophy of human life. This science\npresents problems which are at once most interesting, important, and\ndifficult, whose answers must form part of the foundation of all education.\nSecond, That the ever-present, interesting, important, and difficult\nproblem in physical, as in all education, is the individual living human\nbeing.\n\nTRAINING\nBY\n\nDR.\n\nANGELO\n\nMOSSO,\n\nOF THE\nPROFESSOR\nTURIN,\n\nHUMAN\n\nBODY.\n\nOF PHYSIOLOGY,\nITALY.\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nMany people, even so-called experts, think that a physical exercise, to be\nof use, must be executed with great energy and velocity. Imbued with a\nmilitary spirit, they ask for exercises which consist of jerky motions,\nstrong and violent grips and leaps. According to military judgment, a\nsudden motion is preferable to a slow one, because it is apt to be a decisive\naction; but the characteristic step of a Prussian soldier and the manner\nof his handling the gun are not admired by either physiologist or artist ;\nthey are entirely unsuitable for woman's gymnastics.\nThe activity of the muscles consists in their contraction caused by a\nchemical process. The chemical action is, however, useful also to the\nmuscle itself. We are reminded of the old usage of the ''cupper,\" who\nasked his patient to hold his instrument case and turn it in his hands, so\n\n"}
{"page": 644, "printed_page": null, "text": "624\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nthat the blood should flow better ; and we see from this that a very gentle\nmuscular activity suffices to accelerate the flow of blood.\nEven without contraction of the muscle we may make it stronger and\nmore massive by means of massage. Concerning this phenomenon, important investigations have been made which prove unquestionably that\ngymnastics owe their greatest usefulness to the fact that the muscles in\ntheir activity \"knead\" themselves, and that light motion aids the constant flow of lymph and blood better than strong and sudden motion.\nIn the gymnastic exercises used at present, the tests of strength nearly\nalways consist in lifting the weight of the body by means of arms and\nlegs. Many believe that in order to increase muscular strength great\nfeats are necessary. This is an error. I believe that muscular contractions of short duration, involving less than one-tenth of the body's weight,\nare far more effective in strengthening and enlarging the muscles. Such\nmovements may be made with dumb-bells or clubs. Experiments proved\nthat girls between eight and thirteen years of age doubled and trebled the\nstrength of their arms in fourteen days. I do not believe that the efforts of\nexercising on the horizontal ladder and bars can have a similar result,\nbecause the muscles, in lifting the whole weight of the body, work less\nunder physiological conditions.\nIt is remarkable, also, that slow physical exercises not only increase the\nstrength of the muscles, but make them more economical in their performances— that is to say, decrease secretion by means of respiratory\naction, hence decrease the amount of nourishment required. Female\ngymnastics never aim at extraordinary performances of strength ; they are\nintended to facilitate mobility and gracefulness.\nInstead of given instructions, concerning every single movement, a series\nof movements should be practiced with a physiological purpose. How\nhard it is for mothers to teach their daughters to walk gracefully ! It is\na complicated study to learn the combination of movements necessary for\nthe girls to know how to carry themselves well.\nIt is an error of gymnastic teachers to apply the same method and the\nsame apparatus for both sexes. To women, the muscles used in respiration and those of the abdomen are much more important than for men.\nThose are terrible moments in which the contractive power of these\nmuscles is so feeble that the labor in giving birth is prolonged, and may\neven cause death. German gymnastics, invented for soldiers, have not\ntaken woman into consideration, and have done nothing for the development of the muscles of the diaphragm and the abdomen, although a long\nline of exercises for these purposes lies near at hand and seems absolutely\nnecessary.\nMoreover, the present method of gymnastics does not seem to be favorable to the training of soldiers for the field. The Swiss Monthly for\nArmy Officers, of November,\n\nJ892, contains an instructive report: \"I\n\n"}
{"page": 645, "printed_page": null, "text": "TRAINING\n\nOF THE\n\nHUMAN\n\nBODY.\n\n625\n\nrecently commanded forty-six teachers as recruits. During the first two\nor three weeks this teachers' section, which exercised gymnastics, was the\nbest in the company ; but soon this section was overtaken by others, whose\nsteps became longer and faster, whose march became more enduring ;\nthey bore the burden of arms and baggage more easily, and soon the\nteachers' section was the weakest of all in the company, and the one which\ncould not stand the hardships of a prolonged march. This is explained\nby the fact that these teachers practiced more military gymnastics and less\nmechanical military drill.\"\nWe must not be pedantic and insist upon the same programme for all\nexercises ; it would lower the self -activity of the pupil. Gymnastic exercises should have a physiological aim. If the aim in view is plain, much\nmore liberty may be granted.\nGerman gymnastics are tedious ; and when I see how complicated and\ndifficult are the representations of the easiest and simplest performances\nof life, I cannot help remembering Goethe's irony with which he makes\nMephistopheles iustruct the student.\nFor reasons previously mentioned, instruction in gymnastics should be\nsimplified, and games be introduced into the schools. Some \" Freiiibungen \" that are now prescribed in schools I deem not only useless but decidedly dangerous. Among these I class the clapping together of the feet,\nwhich promotes the growth of flat feet. A beautiful foot should always\nshow a semicircle between the heel and the beginning of the toes. The\nnarrower the bridge is, between heel and ball, the more perfect is the foot.\nWe physicians judge the arching of the foot from a person's walk. If\nwhen walking he throws his feet a little forward he is apt to be flat-footed.\nThis form of the feet represents a fault which in military service may\nprove disastrous, because on the inner part of the sole main arteries and\nnerves terminate.\nHence flat-footed soldiers cannot march well.\nAnother mistake of gymnastics for women is that no regard is had for\nstrengthening the muscles of the organs of respiration. The ancients\nknew better. Orbasius devotes two chapters of his work to breathinggymnastics, which were then called apotherapie. He prescribes holding\nthe breath, and loosening the muscles of the abdomen by strong contraction of those of the chest. This should alternate with an opposite movement, etc.\nOur present idea of beauty is different from that of the Greeks. To-day\nwe still consider qualities as characteristic of female beauty which owe\ntheir value to prejudices of middle-age aesthetics. I believe Schadow was\nthe first who pointed to the fact that the Venus of Medici had enormously\nlong feet, and that the chests of Greek statues of women were larger than\nthose of women of our time. The Venus of Milo must have been a woman\nof gigantic strength, if we consider the size and structure of her limbs.\nHer muscles show a character which reminds us of the distinguished\n40\n\n"}
{"page": 646, "printed_page": null, "text": "626\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nPolyklet's statue of an athlete. The Venus of Knidos, in the Vatican\ncollection, also displays masculine physical structure.\nThere are tender ladies and vain mothers who fear gymnastic exercises\nbecause they develop the arms too much ; but a uniformly cylindric arm\nis not beautiful ; it may please some, but never anyone who is educated in\nart forms. Muscular action makes the fat disappear somewhat, and then\nthrough the skin the well-formed muscle may be noticed, for they are not\nrelaxed entirely even in repose. The well-formed, full shoulders and the\nmajestic gait of the women in the Albanian and Sabinian mountains are\nthought incomparable, and some people think that these women owe their\nbeauty to the ease with which they carry light weights, or hold their hands\non their heads.\nIf we wish to learn the pure type of Roman women, it will not suffice\nto look at the few excellent forms one meets in the streets of Rome ; we\nmust ascend the heights of the Apenninian mountains and visit the villages where artists get their most beautiful models. These places resemble\neagles' eyries on desolate mountain peaks. The people lead a very laborious life. The women climb daily up and down those steep mountain\nsides, carrying water in crocks on their heads, and like queens they walk\nto their huts. Undoubtedly this light daily exercise in pure air and the\nshining sunlight has facilitated the development of rare bodily excellences.\nIt is an exaggeration to say that the ancient Romans had received their\naesthetic sense of beauty from the Greeks. They always valued physical\nbeauty. Without this feeling the Scipios would not have caused to be\nplaced on the tomb of Cornelius Lucius Barbatus (300 B.C.) the Saturnian\nepitaph : \" His bodily form was similar to his virtue : Perfect.\" How the\ntimes have changed ! To-day we dare not tell a woman that her physical\nforms are as perfect as her virtue.\n\nPSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT OF EXERCISES\nWITHOUT APPARATUS.\nBY G. W. FITZ, M.D., INSTRUCTOR\nHARVARD\n\nIN\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nPHYSIOLOGY\nCAMBRIDGE,\n\nAND\n\nWITH\n\nAND\n\nHYGIENE,\n\nMASS.\n\nThe many conflicting theories and assumptions in discussions on physical education have discouraged most of us, and made the task of reconciling them, or even sifting out the good, seemingly hopeless. In our study\nof these problems we are forced, by lack of evidence to the contrary, to\nrecognize the bases of many comprehensive theories to be a priori, and\nvalueless as working hypotheses. We must go deeper, must search out\nthe fundamental phenomena and conditions. In this field, where so little\nis definitely known, one must be extremely cautious in making positive\n\n"}
{"page": 647, "printed_page": null, "text": "EXERCISES\n\nWITH\n\nAND\n\nWITHOUT\n\nAPPARATUS.\n\n627\n\nstatements. In what follows, please interpret all that is stated positively\nto be questions which I wish to present for your discussion.\nIt makes little difference in the general or local hygienic results whether\none takes an hour of routine gymnastics, involving all the muscles of the\nbody, and without variation from year's end to year's end, or takes an\nequal amount of exercise which constantly presents new coordinative\nproblems ; yet the development of power would be very different. The\nhygienic and educative results are so independent that I shall omit all\nmention of the former and limit myself purely to the latter.\nFor years the feeling has prevailed that the nerve centers take a large\npart in so-called muscular activity, but only recently has it been experimentally demonstrated. The evidence now seems to justify the belief\nthat it is the actual fatigue of the nerve cells which limits muscular power ;\nthat the muscle is not exhausted, even when it can be made to contract\nvoluntarily no longer. Hodges' brilliant work, showing the profound\nchanges in structure resulting from motor nerve cell activity, is of the\nutmost value to us, for it suggests the extreme power of adaptation\npossessed by the nerve cell, and probably the power to change quickly its\nway of reacting, thus demonstrating the physical basis of growth in skill.\nWhen a movement is made toward one's eye, or a particle of dust is\nblown into it, the eyelid closes quickly ; and if the time interval between\nthe stimulus and reaction is measured, it will be found to be a small fraction of a second. This is a type of a large class of movements which have\nbeen called reflex, because apparently the sensory stimulus is immediately\nreflected to the muscle, causing a contraction. The movements which are\nthe result of such reflex actions always follow the stimuli after a short\ninterval, and usually so as to protect the part stimulated. If the hand is\ntouched by a hot iron, it is snatched away from the iron even before we\nare conscious of being burned. This intelligent control of the muscles is\nnot the result of brain action, and in fact takes place before the brain\nknows what has happened ; certainly before it could either help or hinder\nthe movement. The movement follows the stimulus invariably ; it is\nfatal, it does itself. The nervous stimulus passes over a certain path\ncalled the reflex arc ; beginning in the peripheral sense organ, it passes\ninward to the sensory nerve cells in the cord, then to selected motor\nnerve cells, and out to the corresponding muscles. There is a clear\nchoice between many possible movements, and that one is selected which\nwill best protect the individual.\nWhen a child sees a bright ball and reaches out for it, we have almost\nan identical process, only now the reaction to the stimulus is slower, and\nwe say the child wills to pick up the ball. Here certain brain-cells are\nused in addition to those of the cord, and the child is conscious of the\nball and desires to possess it. As such movements are studied, it is seen\nthat they are fatal, that the perception of the ball brings about the desire\n\n"}
{"page": 648, "printed_page": null, "text": "628\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nand the attempt at possession. The willing is here of slight importance.\nThe act is reflex, but higher and more complicated in character than the\nreflexes of the cord, and slower in time.\nNow, practically all of our physical activity falls under this type of\nreflex action. Walking is reflex, the sensory stimuli coming from the\nsoles of the feet and the eyes ; the walking does itself. So also in eating\nand manual work of all kinds. We have the sensory stimuli acting as\nguides to the motor responses, and all unconsciously. The curious part\nis that we can react best when we are unconscious, for as soon as we\nbecome conscious we react less accurately and more slowly.\nThe small boy who throws a snowball at a passer-by is perfectly unconscious of the ball, of his hands, and of the dozens of muscles he is about\nto use, but he is vividly conscious of his victim — his whole attention is\nupon the target. He does not estimate the distance and the necessary\nelevation to carry the ball, nor the force to get it there : he simply makes\na vague, violent effort, and the snowball rises in the air, falls in a graceful\ncurve, and hits squarely. In the first place, the boy has a reflex desire to\nthrow the snowball, which all the policemen in the neighborhood cannot\ninhibit ; secondly, a reflex control of all the muscles, which makes them\nwork together with that perfect harmony that insures success, allowing\nfor force and elevation so as to overcome the distance, and perhaps also\nallowing for the wind, and movement of the target. Of all of this, our\nsmall boy is totally unconscious.\nAnalysis of other acts will show that they are made in response to sensory stimuli, and that we are unconscious of the means, being conscious\nsolely of the ends sought ; all else is done for us, so far as we are consciously concerned. We know, moreover, that this is true throughout the\nanimal kingdom, and doubtless has been true in part through the ages of\ndevelopment. We not only do things now in this way, and have always\ndone them in this way, but we possess nerves and muscles developed by\nthis plan of interaction ; hence our conclusion must be that the mutual\nwork is thus best done — that it is the natural way.\nWe find that our ordinary activities are stimulated by our perceptions\nof external conditions ; that our plan of procedure is dependent upon our\ninterpretation of those conditions, and a stimulation of just the right\nmuscles to accomplish the result. During this time we are intent upon\nthe end to be reached, the target to be hit, the book to be lifted, the car\nto be stopped, etc.; this seems to be the most important factor, for our\nskill is directly proportional to our success in this concentration. What\ndo we get from this besides clear judgments of size, distance, etc.? It\nseems that these are essential factors for our motor responses, and that\nthey start, reflexly, the whole complicated train of accurate motor\nresponse ; thus they act as guides of the responses as well as stimuli. It\nis this function which is of greatest importance to us as physical trainers.\n\n"}
{"page": 649, "printed_page": null, "text": "EXERCISES\n\nWITH\n\nAND\n\nWITHOUT\n\nAPPARATUS.\n\n629\n\nApparatus work presents these conditions fully and completely. This\nis palpably true in all heavy work, but is still true in work with dumbbells, Indian clubs, wands, etc. We have the sensory stimuli appearing\nmore or less strongly, acting as guides, and controlling the motor impulses.\nAs the Indian club swings about the head it tends to move uniformly and\nin a true curve ; the hand, feeling this, is guided thereby. Consciousness\nis centered in the club, and there is no inhibitory consciousness of the arms\nand their muscles. In case of heavy work, such as pitching hay, this\nguidance is most perfect, unifying the whole effort of the body, and forcing the workman into beautiful attitudes. Is not the grace of the gondolier due to the same perfect interaction of perception and motor\nresponse ? Give the awkward boy something to do with his hands, and he\nloses his self -consciousness and awkwardness, for the reflex arcs are occupied, and the motor impulses are guided naturally ; his consciousness is\nprojected into the thing to be done, and all goes easily. It is interesting\nto note that the games which have held the activities of youth, such as\nfootball, baseball, handball, cricket, and a thousand others, bring into\nplay the higher reflex processes, involving the perception and interpretation of external physical conditions, and the quick, appropriate, motor\nresponses.\nApparatus work may be defined as work which involves reflex stimulation and control of motor activity by sensory stimuli.\nFree work is, conversely, such work as does not involve reflex stimulation and control of the motor activities by sensory stimuli.\nLet us now consider the problem presented in free exercises. The socalled order movements for the arms given by the Swedes and the free-arm\nexercises of the Germans are typical examples. The exercises of the trunk\nand legs belong properly to the class of apparatus movements, for here we\nhave a distinct guiding by sensory impulses'. If the order is given to\nbring the arms to a horizontal position outward at the sides, we have an\nentirely different chain of events from that which we have discussed.\nHere we have a stimulus to the ear, but one that has no direct natural\nrelation to motor activity ; it only gives rise to a motor response through\nthe complicated process of calling up a concept of the movement demanded.\nThe consciousness is immediately introspective, becoming fixed on the\nmovement and on the arm itself ; if on the individual muscle, so much\nthe worse. Katurally the accuracy of the movement will depend on the\nvividness and accuracy of the remembered concept, for it must duplicate a\nprevious movement. Such movements are difficult, but where is the difficulty ? The small boy who has had no so-called systematic training is\nable to hit a fly on the wall in such a position in relation to his shoulder,\nand to do it instantly ; yet when you order him to execute the aforesaid\nmovement, he gets his hand perhaps four or five inches too high, or too\nlow, or too far forward, or too far back, usually upward and backward.\n\n"}
{"page": 650, "printed_page": null, "text": "630\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nHis difficulty is not that he cannot do the movement, for his nerves and\nmuscles are all right, but he has only a vague concept of this conventional\nposition in relation to the sense of position of his arm. The sense of\nposition is in itself good, for he must have known just where his arm\nstarted from to hit the fly. We are forced to consider the concept as at\nfault. In order to do it exactly, he must be able to perceive the identity\nof his arm sideward-horizontal position concept, and the arm position\nsense, and furthermore must know when he is approaching it. The fact\nthat it is difficult for him shows that there has been little call for it in his\nnatural activity, or in the activity of the race. The demand is not a\nnatural one, the conditions are unnatural. The question arises, Does it\nrequire education because it is undeveloped ? Is it not shown to be of\nslight value by the fact that it has not been developed ? But aside from\nthis consideration, what is its value ? Necessarily such concepts are of a\nfew arbitrarily chosen positions, the positions having no greater value than\nan equal number selected at random from an infinite number of oblique\npositions. It is difficult to conceive of any real value from the training\nof such concepts, except to a soldier; while the soldier illustrates the'\ndecided disadvantages attached, for his angularity and stiffness show the\ntendency gained for the nervous discharges to go in the well-grooved paths\nresulting from the drill, and so thus prejudice the movements to the directions exercised. Fortunately, training of this sort, while it does little good\neducationally, can result in but slight harm, for the actual use of the\nmuscles and nerve cells in these exercises amounts to so small a part of\nthe total day's hap-hazard activity that its influence may be ignored. Only\nwhen systematic training goes beyond the daily ordinary experience in\namount or range, does it come in as marked factor in development. In all\nseries exercises made up of sets of simple movements there can be only\nslight gain, for the series per se have no intrinsic value, except as in\npiano practice, typewriting, etc., where one recognizes a distinct utilitarian\nend.\nDr. Wey, of the Elmira Reformatory, has made a significant observation in regard to arousing enthusiasm in exercises. The free exercises\nwere tried, but the class could not be kept interested ; they wanted to feel\nthey were doing something. When given apparatus work they became\ninterested, and showed good results from the training. Is this not due to\nthe fundamental psychological difference existing between the two — one\nbeing a natural, concrete set of conditions, while the other is abstract and\nunnatural ?\nWhen we consider physical training in its educational aspect, we must\nclaim manual training as a part of our work, for here we have preeminently all the conditions of apparatus work — the clear perception of external conditions of material and tools, and the motor responses guided by\nsuch perceptions.\n\n"}
{"page": 651, "printed_page": null, "text": "PHYSICAL\n\nEXERCISES\n\nFOR SCHOOL PURPOSES.\n\n631\n\nI believe fully that it will not be many years before much of so-called\ngymnastic teaching will be a thing of the past, and in its place we shall\nhave a well-ordered series of games and occupations, which will furnish\nfull free play to all the physical activities, giving to the child the opportunity for his true physical upbuilding. Such training, or rather such\nopportunity, should begin in the cradle, and continue till the physical\nactivities are in full power and the body has reached its complete development.\nEeference to movements that are primarily aids to expression has been\npurposely omitted, and many points naturally related to the foregoing\nhave been avoided, that the main question might be left clear for discussion.\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nBY\n\nJ. GARDNER\n\nEXERCISES\nFOR SCHOOL\nPURPOSES\nSELECTED AND GRADED.\n\n— HOW\n\nSMITH, M.D.,* SPECIAL\nINSTRUCTOR\nPHYSICAL\nPUBLIC\nSCHOOLS, NEW YORK\nCITY.\n\nTRAINING\n\nIn discussing the subject of physical exercises for schools, we must\nremember that we are dealing with a very large class of our population ;\nthat we are dealing with a class which is under better control and discipline than any other class of individuals except our military forces ; that\nwe have to deal with these children through a board which in many towns\nis slow to believe in the necessity of and expenditure for physical training.\nTo accomplish much, we must urge progressive measures through the\nboard of health and otherwise for the betterment of the bodily training\nof public-school children.\nNeed. — The need of such training is apparent both as a hygienic and a\npedagogic measure. Scholars are taught words and facts and figures ;\ntheir cerebral centers are engorged with blood at the expense of their\nbodily growth and development. Teachers wonder why the little mind\ndoes not show more energy, why it does not grasp and retain and digest\nall this mental food. The fact is forgotten that the voluntary muscles\ncontain perhaps one-fourth of the blood in the body, and that through\ntheir activity a large proportion of the potential energy of the body is\nchanged into work and heat.\nAs a pedagogical measure, physical exercise, properly directed, is a\nnecessary factor. One need but observe the standing or sitting position\nof public-school children, their awkward gait, difficult breathing when\nsinging or speaking, to appreciate a need of training.\nKindergarten and manual training to a limited extent affect both\nmuscles and mind, but the need to-day is a definite system of physical\n•Member New York County Medical Society, Director Physical Department Harlem Branch Y. M. C. A.\n\n"}
{"page": 652, "printed_page": null, "text": "632\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\ntraining which by graded and more or less intricate exercises shall not\nmerely develop muscles but educate the mind to control and coordinate\nthe whole voluntary muscular system. For, as Dr. Keating says in his\n\"Cyclopedia of Diseases of Children\": \"Every movement of the body\ndepends as much upon the proper coordination of the muscles for its\naccuracy, grace, and force, as upon the strength of their contraction.\"\nThe need of physical training as a hygienic measure is more imperative.\nDuring the past two years I have examined upward of eight thousand\npublic-school children. A large proportion of these children stood with\nabdomen protruding, shoulders and neck forward. The average expansion of the chest at the nipple, in breathing, of boys was 1.1 inches,\nof girls, .9 inch. The breathing was sufficient to support life, but the\nquantity of reserve and complemental air was very small. Very few could\ndistinguish between diaphragmatic and costal breathing.\nAbout ten per cent, had an apparent scoliosis. Comparatively few\nrachitic children were found. The step in most cases was fairly good,\nas the children had already been trained in marching. After eight\nmonths the chest expansion in boys was 1.9 inches, in girls was 1.8\ninches ; scoliosis improved in eighty per cent, of the cases. These\nexaminations showed a most urgent need of training in the sitting\nand standing position, for development of muscles of trunk and upper\nextremities, and especially in the carriage of the body and mobility of\nthe chest. For all these reasons, and many more, it is highly imperative\nthat a rational system of physical training be pursued during the ages\nof school attendance. Such a system should meet the demands hygienic,\neducational, and recreative.\nThe practical question which now arises is as to the method and its\nadaptation. Shall the system be German, Swedish, or what ? I say, Let\nthe system be American, comprising the best of all known exercises.\nLet the special teachers be well informed upon all so-called systems and\nthoroughly familiar with the human body, able to examine the scholars\nand adapt the exercises to their needs. Too much time is spent to-day\nin discussing systems, and too little in the study of needs and how to meet\nthem.\nMethod. — As to the method or selection of exercises, it must vary in\ndetail according to circumstances. We must consider the condition and\nneeds of children first. This may be done by some form of physical\nexamination relative to the heart, the lungs, the thoracic cavity, the\ncondition of bones of trunk and limbs, the strength and development of\nvoluntary muscles ; all of these should be considered. Measurements of\nheight, weight, chest, abdomen, hips, arms, and other important notes\nshould be recorded. In this way the director of this department is\nenabled to place the children in proper classes, and to arrange and adapt\nthe work intelligently.\nOn the other hand, the children are thus stimu-\n\n"}
{"page": 653, "printed_page": null, "text": "PHYSICAL\n\nEXERCISES\n\nFOR\n\nSCHOOL\n\nPURPOSES.\n\n633\n\nlated to work for their physical improvement, and not merely to learn how\nto perform certain mechanical exercises with no definite end in view.\nWe must consider the building, the room or rooms to be used, the number of teachers and number of grades, the length of time spent in each\ngrade, the sex, and the apparatus available. Next we must consider the\nmental capabilities of the children, and suit the exercises to the various\ngrades from this standpoint also. The system must be progressive, from\nthe ABC to the graduates who enter college or business. In this progression, however, fun and recreation should be prevalent. The three\ngreat needs — hygiene, education, and recreation — should underlie the\nwhole system. There are two other very practical considerations : First,\nthe cooperation of the teachers ; and second, the necessary financial outlay. This latter need not be very extensive, although it should be sufficient to secure the best talent and means for the best result. One competent man, with the cooperation of regular teachers, might have the\noversight of from five thousand to twenty thousand pupils, or with special\nassistants he might direct an almost unlimited work. I have been agreeably surprised to see the unanimous and hearty way in which the principals and teachers have supported and aided in the exercises of physical\ntraining in the schools of New York City.\nWith these facts before us, we proceed to a more definite outline of\nexercises. It is not the province of this paper to discuss school furniture,\nbut it is of course important that desks and seats be adjustable, so that\nthe child can touch his feet to the floor, for instance, and so that physical instruction can be carried out. Exercises permissible in school may\nbe classified as follows :\nTraining in sitting position ; training in standing position ;\nBreathing exercises, upper thoracic, lower thoracic, diaphragmatic ;\nMarching, walking, running, hopping, skipping, jumping;\nCalisthenic exercises (innumerable) without apparatus ;\nLight gymnastic exercises with apparatus — rings, dumb-bells, wands,\npoles, bell-bars, Indian clubs, etc.\nHeavy gymnastic exercises — horse-buck, parallel bars, horizontal bar,\nvaulting, jumping, ladder, rings, etc.\nGames, indoors and out. — Innumerable games, especially in spring\nand fall, with much of the other exercise, can and should be done out of\ndoors.\nIt is not necessary to go into much detail regarding this classification, but some explanation may be profitable. Assuming that we have a\nroom well ventilated, with two hundred cubic feet of air space for each\nindividual, and the most modern adjustable desks and seats, there are\ninnumerable groups of enjoyable exercises which might be done by the\nchildren, as often as every half hour at least. Motion is one of the\nmeans of rest to the growing child.\nHo should not be restrained in one\n\n"}
{"page": 654, "printed_page": null, "text": "634\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nposition longer than live or ten minutes. Neither should faulty positions,\ntending to scoliosis and other deformities, be permitted.\nExercises in the sitting position may be alternated with risings and\nfacings, and marchings at intervals. This rest and recreation for body and\nmind need not be longer than a minute or two, or perhaps five, at a time.\nStanding — Before children are taught to march they should be taught\nto stand in the position of the soldier. (See revised tactics, United States\narmy.) Ask the untrained child to sit or stand erect, and you will\nobserve the shoulders thrown backward, head tipped back, and abdomen\nprotruded, in many if not most cases. Considerable training will be\nnecessary to properly \" set up\" the child.\nPerhaps the next most important point is the control of thoracic muscles, both for the health of the child and to improve his singing and\nspeaking. He should be taught to use the upper and lower thorax and\ndiaphragm at the same time, and each separately. These ideas and\nhabits inculcated into the minds of children might do much to encourage\ndress reform, because the child could see the impossibility of sufficient\nchest expansion while the chest is constricted. There may result more\nmuscular strength under restriction, but not so much elasticity and\nexpansion of the chest.\nMarching. — Many evolutions in accordance with the United States tactics will prove interesting and beneficial to scholars — an improvement in\nthe way of school discipline that would give us better men and women,\nand better soldiers.\nCalisthenics. — This field is almost unlimited where large, airy rooms\nare at command. In many school houses calisthenics must be limited to\nsuch as can be done in a classroom with desks. It must be remembered,\nas Dr. Lincoln remarks in his article on school hygiene to Dr. Keating's\n\" Cyclopedia\": \" Above the age of twelve years scholars begin to look down\non them [referring to free exercises] as childish ; and with good reason,\nfor they lack one essential element — they do not call for exertion to overcome resistance. For better work scholars should have light dumb-bells,\nwands/' etc. I would note another lacking element, viz. : the recreation\nafforded by the fact that some apparatus is held in the hand and used in\nthe exercise. We see this desire for apparatus before the child reaches\ntwelve years, and in New York City five primary grades use apparatus.\nCalisthenic exercises may be grouped in drills, for assembly or classroom or gymnasium, occupying from one to twenty minutes. The progression proposed by Professor Ling (see Keating's \" Cyclopedia of Diseases of Children \"), the grace and ease of movement as taught by Delsarte,\nand the recreative \"rounds\" of the Germans, can be made exceedingly\nattractive when adapted to the needs of the scholars. The United States\nsetting-up drill, arranged to 4-4 time, has proved very interesting and\nattractive in assembly and classroom drill.\n\n"}
{"page": 655, "printed_page": null, "text": "PHYSICAL\n\nEXERCISES\n\nFOR\n\nSCHOOL\n\nPURPOSES.\n\n635\n\nLight Gymnastic Exercises (tot'th apparatus). — This affords better\nopportunity to grade the exercises to suit the body and mind of the child\nfrom five to twenty years of age, and to cultivate not alone, muscles and\nstrength, grace and agility, but to train the perception, memory, judgment, and almost every faculty of the mind, at the same time affording\nmuch recreation. Indian-club swinging, for instance, while simple and\neasy, can be made most intricate and interesting. This fact was illustrated at one of the New York school receptions, where the graduating\ngirls gave a very creditable exhibition of club-swinging, showing grace\nof movement, complexity and variety of exercises. The following is a\nclassification of graded drills in New York City schools (June, 1893) :\nIn the grammar departments :\nFirst Grade (highest). — Advanced Indian-club drill No. 1.\nSecond Grade. — Advanced bell-bar drill No. 1.\nThird Grade.— Wood dumb-bell drill No. 1.\nFourth Grade.— Bell-bar drill No. 2.\nFifth Grade. — Indian-club drill No. 2 ; or wood dumb-bell drill No. 2.\nSixth Grade. — Short-wand drill No. 1.\nSeventh Grade. — Wood dumb-bell drill No. 3.\nEighth Grade. — Calisthenic dumb-bell drill No. 4 ; or free drill No. 4.\nFor the primary departments :\nFirst Grade (highest). — Indian-club drill No. 3.\nSecond Grade. — Anvil chorus dumb-bell drill, or bell-bar drill No. 3.\nThird Grade.— Short-wand drill No. 2,\nFourth Grade. — Wood dumb-bell drill No. 5.\nFifth Grade. — Military drill, and ring drill No. 1.\nSixth Grade. — Free drills Nos. 1, 2, and 3, and breathing exercises.\nIn the higher grades of grammar departments, where ages range from\nfourteen to seventeen years, especially in the male department, heavy\napparatus — horse, horizontal bars, etc. — can be used to advantage. This\nwork need not be limited to the boys' classes, though of course the work\nby the girls must be much simpler and easier of accomplishment. The\nelement of resistance to exertion here satisfies an evident demand, and\naffords an increased amount of recreation. Here the class should work in\nsquads under competent leaders, who set the exercises and see that they\nare properly carried out.\nGames. — Of course the element of fun is greatest in the so-called\n\"games.\" The rivalry and exertion completely change the mental condition, and recreate body and mind. These should not be carried to\nfatigue. Baseball, handball, basket-ball, tag, etc., can be utilized in a\nmost profitable way ; and I believe games will hold a much more prominent place in the future than they do to-day in school, association, and\ncollege gymnasiums.\n\n"}
{"page": 656, "printed_page": null, "text": "636\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION.\n\nHow Taught ?— In answer to this question we would say, By the class\nteacher, supervised by a competent director. This plan has been followed\nin New York for two years with good results. The director of physical\ntraining should visit each school at intervals (perhaps once each week),\nreviewing the past work and setting some new exercise for each class. The\nexercise of each grade should be printed, illustrated by photographs, and\nplaced in the hands of the teachers. The assembly work and marching\norders will be about the same for all classes, but the grade work, of course,\nwill vary in progression. When the exercises are well understood by the\nscholars, the piano or other music increases the interest and recreation of\nthe work, and becomes the only leader needed for the class. The exercises,\ntaught by the class teacher, will prove mutually beneficial.\nIn closing, let me urge the necessity of more recreation in our schools,\nmore study of this branch of education, and more hearty cooperation by\nall interested in this common cause.\n\nBY\n\nR.\n\nTHE\n\nREGULATION\n\nTAIT\n\nMcKENZIE,\n\nOF ATHLETIC\nCOLLEGES.\n\nB.A., M.D.,\nGYMNASIUM,\n\nDIRECTOR\nOF\nMONTREAL.\n\nSPORTS\nMcGILL\n\nIN\nUNIVERSITY\n\nEvery department in college work has its honor course in which results\nare decided by competition. But there is always an ordinary course\nwherein steady work, not peculiar excellence, is required. In the department of physical culture, however, in many colleges all work is competitive. Thus in \"athletics\" there is no \"ordinary course.\" Freshmen in\neveryway unprepared encounter the full strain of a hard game, such as\nfootball, like raw recruits rushing into battle before they have learned\nthe first rudiments of drill ; in fact, the value of drill is often entirely\noverlooked.\n\"It is the intent of gymnastics,\" says Jahn, \" to restore to our education that completeness which has been lost, to add bodily training to\none-sided mental culture, and to balance over-refinement by manliness\nregained.\" Athletic sports, supplying as they do nourishment to the\nphysical wants of our college men, may by regulation minister to that\n\" completeness \" which the great German reformer had in view. Certainly\nathletics in some form will continue as a college institution so long as a\nyoung man's glory is in his strength. He will devise some method of\nmeasuring it with his fellows, and of displaying his prowess, even if it be\nat the expense of the unfortunate policeman or the innocent street lamp.\nHe must have some safety-valve to let off his surplus vital force.\nFroebel, in designing the kindergarten, instead of ignoring this \"play\n\n"}
{"page": 657, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE\n\nREGULATION\n\nOF ATHLETIC\n\nSPORTS\n\nIN COLLEGES.\n\n037\n\ninstinct,\" made gymnastic games a part of his system, thus bringing the\nmost coustant and prominent characteristic of the child's nature strongly\nto bear on his education and development.\nHap-hazard as their regulation is, athletic sports have had a powerful\ninfluence in molding the lives. of men. Wellington's historical remark :\n\"All the victories of my life were fought years before on the football\nfields in England/' is as true to-day as it wus then.\nOur modern college education is sometimes a process of over-refinement ;the intellectual is so emphasized that men are made unfit for the\nrough-and-tumble fight of life by their lack of physical courage. The\nstruggle is distasteful to them. \"The need of the pre-scientific age was\nknowledge and refinement ; the need of our age is health and sanity, cool\nheads and good digestion.\" On the campus a man is disciplined in quick\ndecision and prompt action, and learns resolute pluck when opposing\nforces are greater than his own. The timid boy, needing such discipline\nmost, gets it least.\nLet us be glad, with Wadsworth, that \"the spirit of athletics is abroad\namong our young men, enlarging muscles, broadening shoulders, and\ndeepening chests. The result will be a fine race, and that paragon of\nanimals, the noblest result of the ages, a strong man.\"\nThe Greeks as a nation cultivated athletic sports with a passionate\nenthusiasm. Their games were warlike, as became their social conditions\nand environment, but even they distinguished educational from military or\nathletic gymnastics. The modern city does not, for walls, need the bodies\nof her young men as did Sparta, but in the nineteenth century, when life\nis a keener struggle than ever for existence, the man with the most physical stamina will produce the most work and the best, other things being\nequal, just as surely as the disciplined soldier of Rome proved himself\nsuperior to the untrained barbarian in the hand-to-hand conflicts of his\nday.\nAs the hypertrophy of any muscle or set of muscles is produced at the\nexpense of the whole body corporate, so the undue prominence of this\nfeature of college life may become an abuse, and seriously interfere with\nthe work of the classroom.\nThose who see little if any value in athletic games say that time so\nspent is not only wasted but is stolen from the useful and legitimate college studies. This objection, which is heard usually from the teaching\nstaff, certainly has foundation when a large amount of class-work has to\nbe done in a short term. Why not settle this disagreement in the manner\nproposed by the little boy about to be spanked by his mother: \"Don't\nstrike; let's arbitrate \" ?\nFrom the standpoint of hygiene, Professor Mosso, of the University of\nTurin, backed by able medical authorities, including the Lancet, proves\nthat mere strength of limb tends to weaken and impoverish the body ;\n\n"}
{"page": 658, "printed_page": null, "text": "638\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nthat great muscular strength impedes the circulation, interferes with\nrespiration, and makes the pulse irregular. Also that the brain does not\nrest during exercise. Assuming his conclusions to be correct, as they\ndoubtless are, the fact remains that college men will insist upon playing\nfootball, running, jumping, and heaving weights ; but as we are at present trying to regulate and control this Saxon characteristic and minimize\nits attendant dangers, his conclusions are hardly relevant, for they apply\nto extremes only, and in the case before us are like half-truths in evidence— more misleading than mistakes or direct falsehoods.\nPhysical education is becoming a department of preventive medicine\nat the cost of the recreative element that Herbert Spencer lays so much\nstress upon in his essay on that subject. If the authorized physical\ndepartment does not recognize the \"play instinct,\" it will manifest itself\nas a discordant factor, opposing where it should cooperate, interfering\nwith and detracting from the popularity of the official work. Apropos\nof this, a philosopher once said it was hard to understand why football\nshould be called play when shoveling coal was considered hard work.\nThat such is the case proves that a great deal of hard work can be disguised bythe spirit of play, and if some ingenious mind were to plan\nintercollegiate coal-shoveling contests, it would doubtless become a new\nand popular sport.\nIn the English universities we find sports at their best, for England is\nthe mother of athletic games, and has a large family of them. So much do\nboating, cricket, and football take up the time and strength of the Oxford\nundergraduate that Ruskin, seeing in this a waste of valuable energy, said\nit might mend all the roads in Oxfordshire — a most productive form of\nathletics. As there is little or no control exercised over such athletics,\nand as the open weather extends throughout nearly the whole year, outdoor sports and games almost entirely take the place of indoor gymnastic\nwork ; in fact they leave little room for it. In America we find that his\nsporting proclivities have followed the Englishman, and the same love of\ngames and admiration of physical prowess are there seen. But sport has\nbecome changed by the more stimulating climate, and has taken on some\nnational characteristics. Everything is done under high pressure and\ngreat excitement ; and because of interested crowds and big gate-money at\nstake, ingenious tricks are indulged in to gain advantage in the match.\n\"Whoa football\nbut an American\nfor\nmatch ? would have thought of greasing his canvas jacket\nAthletics are, however, taken seriously in most American colleges, and\nare undertaken with a characteristic intenseness. There is not much fun\nor freedom in the life of a candidate for the university crew or the football team. A stranger is astonished at the spirit of keen competition in\nthe athletics of American colleges. It is in danger of interfering with\nfair play in many intercollegiate contests.\nThe mere winning is an inci-\n\n"}
{"page": 659, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE\n\nREGULATION\n\nOE ATHLETIC\n\nSPORTS\n\nIN COLLEGES.\n\n639\n\ndent in the game, and should not be so magnified as to become the sole\nobject for which the game is played, that before which everything else\nmust give way. A team which cannot win on its merits, often resorts to\ntrickery. The motto seems to be : \" Get there honestly if you can, but\nget there.\" Codes of signals are practiced behind closed gates, spies are\nsent to discover the enemy's tactics ; in fact, an outsider is apt to think\na civil war is about to break out, instead of a friendly trial of strength\n-between two sister institutions. This intense rivalry smothers the spirit\nof fair play, and leaves the game shorn of one of its greatest attractions.\nThe newspapers make capital of this in exaggerated paragraphs, and the\nannual football match assumes the appearance of a gladiatorial show. It\nis played before enormous crowds, on neutral grounds hired for the occasion. The question of gate-money has the first consideration in choosing\nthe scene of action. For example, in 1893 the receipts at the YalePrinceton football match were over $30,000 ; about $12,000 of this went\nto each club, and was used principally in training the team, paying\nattendants, hotel bills, and railway fares — everything, expenses included,\nbeing on a truly gigantic scale.\nThis money-making value of the game is dragging sport down from its\ntrue place as a recreation, and, together with the rivalry before alluded to,\nmust tell against its best interests. But the evil does not stop here, for\nthe smaller colleges, like small boys, try to imitate their big brothers,\nand so offer distinguished players large salaries to coach their football\nteams that they may compete with some hope of success ; and thus many\nof the men who become noted in college athletics have professionalism\nthrust upon them.\nOur Canadian colleges occupy a position entirely unique. Their strong\nleaning toward American forms, to be expected from their social and\ngeographical relationship, is offset by the influence of British customs,\ntraditions, and official connection. The form and character of the sports\nare therefore rather more English than American. A football match is\nalways played on the ground of one of the competing colleges ; the competitive and professional elements do not enter so much into sport there\nas they do further south, the visiting team being entertained as guests.\nThe annual 'Varsity-McGill Rugby match is always followed by a complimentary dinner, and the rivalry is most friendly and good-natured.\nIn no college in Canada do the university authorities have any voice on\nthe athletic boards, except as honorary members or officials of the games.\nBut experience goes to show that some government is beneficial and even\nnecessary ; that if left entirely in the hands of the undergraduates, without\nassistance from those who have been through the mill, blunders are made,\ntime, labor, and money are wasted yearly by raw committees, and the\nathletic interests of the college have to bear the loss. If members of the\nteaching staff were also members of th.3 athletic committees, these faults\n\n"}
{"page": 660, "printed_page": null, "text": "040\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nwould in part at least be remedied, as a certain official recognition would\nbe given to athletics. They would then assist physical training very much\nas practical demonstrations or Saturday excursions enlarge the course in\ngeology or botany.\nA scheme for the government of the athletic interests of any college\nmust of necessity vary in detail with the special conditions of the institution. In the first place, if games were confined to intercollegiate events,\nthe rougher element would be excluded. Secondly, games would be\nplayed on college grounds only, and the admission be by invitation rather\nthan by payment, so that the right audience, the friends of the players\nand of the college, would have the first opportunity of witnessing the\ngame. This would empty the coffers, it is true, but college athletics\nwould rise from the plane of a mere money-making advertisement, which\nthese sometimes occupy, to that of the pure recreation so necessary for the\nwelfare of the present-day student. Thirdly, as the laurel wreath at\nOlympia was valued not for its intrinsic worth but as a mark of distinction and souvenir of the event, so should the contestant nowadays esteem\nhis prize, though of little money value. Other outlay being on the same\nscale, a small compulsory fee charged all students would easily cover the\nnecessary expenditure. Fourthly, let the control of all the athletic\ninterest of the college be in the hands of a committee composed somewhat as follows :\nThe principal or president (ex-officio) ; one governor, or trustee, elected\nannually ; one professor from each faculty, elected annually ; the director\nof the gymnasium ; one graduate, elected annually by the graduate society\nor similar organization ; the president of the athletic association, an\nundergraduate ; one undergraduate representative from each football or\ntennis club, etc., elected annually by the respective bodies at their first\nmeeting.\nThere would be about twelve in all, equally divided between graduates\nand undergraduates. The duty of this committee would be to control the\ncollege athletic grounds, to confirm all rules and regulations of the different clubs before they became valid, to decide any inter-club disputes\ninvolving the general welfare, to insist on a medical examination before\nallowing men to take the risk of competing in games of strength and\nendurance, and to make a report at the end of the year to the governing\nbody of the university of work done, with comments and recommendations.\nNext in order of precedence would come the athletic association, the\ncentral managing undergraduate society, in which would be represented\nfootball, hockey, cricket, and tennis, each of these clubs managing its own\naffairs, and requiring legislation on certain questions only, such as grants\nof money. If a scheme like this were adopted there would be a system of\nathletic law courts from the individual to the club, from the club to the\n\n"}
{"page": 661, "printed_page": null, "text": "ENGLISH\n\nEXPERIENCE\n\nWITH PLAYGROUNDS.\n\n641\n\nassociation, from the association to the committee, and from the committee to the supreme court, the governing board of the college. Athletic\ninterests would then be regulated by the men best fitted by inclination,\nexperience, and ability, to check abuses and encourage new and better\nideas, and the chaos of conflicting interests and authorities, now unfortunately too prevalent, would be replaced by the cosmos of harmony and\norder.\n\nENGLISH EXPERIENCE IN PROVIDING THE POOR OF\nCITIES WITH PARKS, GARDENS, GYMNASIA, AND\nPLAYGROUNDS.\nBY\n\nTHE\n\nEIGHT\n\nHONORABLE\n\nTHE\n\nEARL\n\nOF\n\nMEATH,\n\nLONDON.\n\nFifty years ago the world, comparatively speaking, did not contain\nmany large cities. It is only within the memory of living men that the\ngreat exodus has set in from the country to the town. In former ages, no\ndoubt, the city always exercised a certain fascination over the bucolic\nmind ; but locomotion was difficult and expensive, social custom and laws\nantagonistic and often almost prohibitive to migration, especially in the\ncase of the peasant, and the city fenced itself round not only with material\nwalls, but with prohibitive tariffs and with regulations which rendered all\ningress and egress troublesome, and change of residence a painful labor\nrather than a pleasure. The attractions of the city, too, were not so\nmarked as to outweigh the disadvantages attending residence within its\nwalls. In the town work was often scarce, food dear, dirt ubiquitous,\ndisease endemic and sometimes rampant, and life and property not infrequently less secure than in the country, which did not offer to the idle and\nevil-disposed so easy and rich a prey.\nIt was not until steam power superseded hand labor, till factories arose\nrequiring the daily cooperation of numbers of human beings to carry on\nthe work, till delicate machinery needing the constant attention and repair\nof skilled artisans came into use, till encompassing walls were razed, octroi\nduties and regulations either abolished or modified, locomotion made easy\nand inexpensive, and city life comparatively safe, healthy, and agreeable,\nthat population began to leave the country and settle in the town, attracted\nby work, high wages, and the brighter and more varied aspects which life\nassumes in the midst of crowds. As towns improved in their sanitation,\nin their outer beauty and inner life, so wealth was attracted, and labor\nfollowed in the footsteps of its patron, until by degrees grew up the city\nas we know it, where may be found all that can make existence agreeable\nto the rich man, who, when he is satiated with the pleasures of the city,\nmay retire to the country and enjoy (all the more for the contrast) the\npeace, the freshness, aud the beauty of nature. But those masses of\n41\n\n"}
{"page": 662, "printed_page": null, "text": "642\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nhuman beings who have been congregated through the exigencies of\ncommerce, of manufacture, and of wealth, cannot migrate at their will.\nThey are bound to remain cooped up, year in, year out, within the walls and\nstreets of the crowded city. They have been driven by hard fortune from\ntheir country homes, and like wild flowers torn by some careless hand\nfrom the meadow bank, are left to fade and die on the hard and pitiless\npavement. If artificial social necessities have demanded the permanent\nbanishment of the masses from the country, and from all that the country\nmeans to man, it is but just that society should endeavor to minimize the\nloss to them by bringing back to the city as much of the beauty and\npleasures of nature as money and circumstances will permit.\nWith this view, the Metropolitan Public Gardens Association and the\nKyrle Society have labored with marked success to increase the number\nof public open spaces, gardens, and playgrounds in the metropolis, and\nhave lost no opportunity of fostering a public opinion within Great Britain\nfavorable to the acquisition and maintenance by municipalities of numerous public open spaces easily accessible to the masses of the people. So\nsuccessful has this propaganda been that London alone has, since the formation of the Metropolitan Public Gardens Association in 1882, increased\nher open spaces by one hundred and fifty-seven, containing 4,998 acres,\nwhilst the entire number of public parks and gardens within easy reach\nof the inhabitants of the metropolis is two hundred and seventy-one, containing 17,876 acres, which include 6,280 acres acquired and maintained\nby the Corporation of the City of London.\nDuring the same period the provincial municipalities have added largely\nto the open spaces under their control, but it is difficult to give an accurate statement as to their number. In the year 1883, in answer to a\ncircular letter issued by the writer to the authorities of forty-two provincial cities and towns, it was found that they possessed an aggregate of one\nhundred and thirty-one open spaces, containing 12,343 acres. Since then\nit is probable that at least one hundred more have been added, so that we\nmay roughly say that the cities and towns of the United Kingdom, including the metropolis, possess some five hundred open spaces, over 40,000\nacres in extent. These public grounds are of course in addition to the\ninnumerable private gardens and squares which are to be met with in\nalmost all British towns, and which, though not open to the public, still\ngladden the eyes of all by the sight of nature, materially increase the number of cubic feet of pure air which each citizen may breathe, assist in the\nproduction of oxygen and the consumption of carbonic acid gas, and give\npleasure and health to a large majority of the inhabitants of the towns in\nwhich they are situated. It is calculated that there are some five hundred private squares (and frontages) in London, as well as one hundred\nand seventy three closed burial grounds, containing an aggregate area of\nabout 1,500 acres.\n\n"}
{"page": 663, "printed_page": null, "text": "ENGLISH\n\nEXPERIENCE\n\nWITH\n\nPLAYGROUNDS.\n\n643\n\nThe operations of the Metropolitan Public Gardens Association have\nbeen largely directed toward the transformation into pleasant gardens,\nand the throwing open to the public, of these closed burial grounds and\nsquares ; and no less than sixty-one of the former and eighteen of the\nlatter have been thus treated by the society since its formation. The\nLondon County Council, the governing body of the metropolis outside\nthe city, has been most energetic in furtherance of the open-space movement, and within four years has itself contributed £170,000, whilst other\npublic bodies have subscribed £171,000, in jointly adding 418 acres to the\nopen spaces of the capital, besides receiving three noble gifts amounting\nto 66 acres.\nIt should here be mentioned that many years before the existence of\neither the London County Council or of the Metropolitan Public Gardens Association, the ancient corporation, which rules over the one square\nmile in the heart of the metropolis known as the City of London, and\nwhose head is the lord mayor, initiated the policy of encircling London\non its outskirts with a series of large commons and open-spaces. In 1882\nthe corporation acquired the noble domain of Epping Forest, 5,350 acres\nin extent. Up to the present time the corporation has provided ten or\neleven of these large open areas, amounting to 6,380 acres, at a total cost\nof £310,000, and is still continuing its large-hearted policy of enclosing\nLondon in a green ring, a policy which not only promotes the welfare of\nits own citizens, but to a far greater extent benefits the inhabitants of\nLondon at large, outside the narrow limits of the City.\nThere are some who are of the opinion that London possesses for the\nmoment a sufficient number of extensive parks and gardens, and that her\npresent need is a large increase in the small gardens and playgrounds to\nbe found scattered amongst the more densely packed portions of her population. The ideal of the writer of this paper is that a small garden or\nplayground, divided into two portions, one for boys and one for girls, both\nsupplied witli gymnastic apparatus and appliances for suitable games,\nwith a certain portion roofed in in case of bad weather, and under the\ncare and supervision of special attendants, should be opened and maintained bythe municipal authority in every large city within a quarter of\na mile's walk of each working or middle-class home.\nAs a rule in cities the large parks — and this is especially the case in the\nUnited States — are too far from the masses of the population to be of\nmuch practical benefit to them except on a Sunday; but if small playgrounds under the strict supervision of careful attendants were scattered\nall over the town, work-people would be able to send their children to\nthem, even for a short time, between, before, and after school hours, confident that they would be in safety and well looked after. Such playgrounds would seem to be more needed in America than in Great Britain,\ninasmuch as almost all British schools have playgrounds attached to\n\n"}
{"page": 664, "printed_page": null, "text": "644\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nthem, which, as far as the experience of the writer goes, is not usually the\ncase with those on this side of the Atlantic. Public playgrounds may\nhave been constructed in the more crowded portions of American cities\nsince my visit in 1889, when, as chairman of the Parks Committee of the\nLondon County Council, I drew up a report, for the use of the committee,\non the public open spaces of America ; but at that time the only playground of which I heard, outside those attached to parks, was one at\nBoston.\nThe usefulness of these institutions cannot be doubted by anyone who\nhas once seen such grounds crowded with children thoroughly enjoying\nthemselves, and unconsciously strengthening their limbs and constitutions\nby games and gymnastic exercises performed under the open canopy of\nheaven. The London County Council and the Corporation of the City of\nLondon have been so convinced of the benefit which these playgrounds are\nto the rising generation, that they have not only taken over several originally made and temporarily maintained by the Metropolitan Public Gardens\nAssociation, but have constructed and enlarged others in the parks under\ntheir control. Open-air gymnasia, in addition to those scattered about\nthe metropolis, are now to be found in the following London parks :\nFor Men.\n\nVictoria Park\nBattersea Park\nRavenscourt Park\nBrockwell Park\nClissold Park\nWapping Recreation Ground\nVauxhall Park\nSouthwark Park\n\n■\n\nFor Boys under Ten\nYearsGirls.\nof Age, and\nfor\n\n2\n1\n0\n0\n0\n0\n0\n1*\n\n2\n2\n1\n1\n1\n1\n1\n1*\nand\n1 girls only.\n\nFinsbury Park\nKennington Park\n\n0\n1*\n\n1\n1*\n\nonly\n{(1boys\nIt is only in the royal parks of London that no public gymnasia are as\nyet to be found. Years ago I remember to have seen them in Manchester\nand Salford. I believe there are now many in the towns of Great Britain.\nOne of the first open-air playgrounds ever constructed was at Manchester ;\nit was made and maintained by Messrs. Armitage for the use of their\nwork-people. Following their example, some years ago I constructed two\nfor the use of the tenants on my property in the city of Dublin. The\nlargest is divided by a railing into two portions, one for boys and the\nother for girls. It contains a giant stride, climbing mast, horizontal and\nparallel bars, swings, jumping board and cat gallows, skittle ground,\n* Only one gymnasium, but separate hours for women and girls.\n\n"}
{"page": 665, "printed_page": null, "text": "ENGLISH\n\nEXPERIENCE\n\nWITH\n\nPLAYGROUNDS.\n\n645\n\nskipping ropes attached to a central post, horizontal ladder, trapeze\nand swinging rings, and a sandpit in which the little children dig and\nplay whilst their mothers and nurses can sit round on benches, watching them or chatting. The other ground is too small to be divided, and\nis therefore on alternate days devoted to the exclusive use of boys or\ngirls, as the case may be. A large painted board informs all whether it\nis a boys' or a girls' day. In each playground there is a care-taker, attired\nin uniform. The rush of children when these grounds were first open\nwas so great that it was almost impossible, though two care-takers were\nemployed in each ground, to keep any order for the first week, and consequently afew accidents occurred ; but since then I have had no complaint,\nnor have I heard of any further accident, though the grounds have now\nbeen open for five years. They are in constant use, and, now that the\nnovelty of the thing has worn off, not so inconveniently crowded as\nformerly.\nIt was feared by some that the existence of these grounds might prove\ndetrimental to the educational interests of the children, but it has practically been discovered that the playgrounds save the school officers a deal\nof trouble, as, if a child is absent from school, they have not now to hunt\nfor him as formerly, but know exactly where he is to be found. Experience has shown that in Great Britain public playgrounds must never be\nleft without a caretaker, and should be closed after dark ; but if these precautions are taken, and if in rough districts special aid be given the caretaker for the first two or three weeks after their opening, no further\ndifficulty need be anticipated.\nUp to the age of ten it appears advisable to allow boys to enjoy the use of\nthe girls' playground, and after that age to provide them with a ground of\ntheir own, to which no adult should be admitted. The girls' gymnasium,\nto which admittance should be strictly forbidden to males, should be\nunder the charge of one or more able-bodied women, and it should, if\npossible, be screened from view, so that the elder girls, who often need\nexercise even more than the boys, owing to the sedentary nature of their\nemployment, should be able to use their limbs in perfect freedom from\nobservation, and without injury to their sense of modesty.\nThe London playgrounds are of all sizes, from those in Spa Fields,\nClerkenwell, and Union Road, Walworth, which contain respectively\ntwo acres and two and a quarter acres, to the little ground at Russell\nCourt, Drury Lane, which is about the size of a West End drawing-room.\nSome of the smaller ones are asphalted ; the larger ones are covered with\nCroydon screened gravel, well rolled. The latter foundation is much safer\nthan asphalt for the children to run and play on, but on the other hand the\nformer has the advantage of enabling the children to enjoy the amusement of roller skating.\nOpen spaces and playgrounds should be provided on a systematic and\n\n"}
{"page": 666, "printed_page": null, "text": "646\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nwell-thought-out plan, by which they may be scattered at easy distances\nthroughout the different districts of a town or city, and not be placed at\nbap-hazard, as is too often the custom at present.\nThe money required for the acquisition of open spaces should, in the\nopinion of the writer, be partly derived from a tax, say of ten per cent., on\nall new ground rents accruing after the passing of the act or ordinance\nlegalizing the above proposal, a tax which land-owners intending to build\nshould be able to contract themselves out of by presentation to the\nmunicipality of ten per cent, of their land, for conversion into public\ngardens and playgrounds for the enjoyment of the people.\n\nPHYSICAL\nBY\n\nHAMILTON\"\n\nD.\n\nWET,\n\nTRAINING\nM.D.,\n\nSTATE\n\nOF CRIMINALS.\nREFORMATORY,\n\nELMIRA,\n\nN.\n\nT.\n\nIt is not necessary in this connection to enter upon a description of the\ngeneral features of life within a reformatory, so I pass on to a consideration of my subject proper. As the years went by, and the population of\nthe Keformatory, steadily increasing, became more and more heterogeneous,\nit also became apparent that while methodical living, coupled with an\nunrelaxing discipline, reached a majority of the inmates, as evidenced by\ntheir responsiveness and improvement, there appeared to be an element\nbeyond the operation of these agencies. Some were apathetic and listless,\nthough possibly capable ; others dull and stupid, as if their mental and\nperceptive faculties were dormant or undeveloped ; many were brutes\nin human form, sodden and debased ; and a number appeared incapable\nof prolonged manual application and mental exertion, and exhibited a\nproneness to nervous explosions of temper, combativeness, and destruction.\nThey could not be classed as imbeciles and dements, or as of unsound\nmind, in the common acceptation of the term, but rather crude, unformed,\nand degenerate men.\nAfter a disappointing experience, extending through a number of years,\nwith this class of men and boys, the idea suggested itself that if they\nwere such animals as they appeared to be and their propensities indicated,\nwhy not treat them as a stock-raiser does colts — regulate their food as to\nquantity and kind, groom thoroughly, and put them daily through their\npaces for physical betterment, that their potentialities, if any, might be\nrealized and made apparent ?\nWe were familiar in those days with the principles of physical education as taught both then and now, and their application for pedagogic\nends. The more the idea of physical renovation of the class of boys and\nmen just described was considered, the more it commended itself to us,\nuntil finally we determined to experiment.\nIt was really an experiment,\n\n"}
{"page": 667, "printed_page": null, "text": "PHYSICAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF CRIMINALS.\n\n647\n\nas none of us had had any experience with physical training upon a\nselected number, and the writer was assigned to inaugurate the work.\nIn June, 1886, the initial class was formed. It consisted of twelve\nmen, from nineteen to twenty-nine years of age, who for a period ranging\nfrom one to two years had made no appreciable progress in school work\nand hand-craft, and whose sensitiveness and susceptibility were upon a\npar with those of any other domesticated animal.\n- The plan proposed to be followed was the substitution of a special\ndietary for the regular prison fare, weighing out to each one his rations,\nthat all might be observed under similar conditions. A common diet for\nall, the same in quantity and kind, was altogether scientific in its application, as the needs of certain individuals might indicate different forms of\nfood; but this course was rendered necessary so as not to embarrass the\ndomestic arrangements of the place too severely, and the difficulty was\npartly remedied by a varied diet.\nThe school work was to be continued upon a common plane, as all were\npractically illiterates. The reduction of the most advanced to the level\nof the lowest wrought no detriment to the former, and possibly might\nthrough companionship enthuse the latter. The class was organized June\n6th, at which time the men were examined, weighed, and a few simple\nmeasurements taken. They were supplied with a new outfit of clothing\nthroughout, and placed, so far as could be — even to the extraction of all\ncarious teeth — in a condition to most readily respond to the plan of treatment mapped out for them. They were placed under the immediate care\nof the writer, under supervision of a fellow-convict, a man of energy who\nprevious to arrest had associated in the training of prize-fighters and other\npseudo athletes.\nThe morning, from eight to twelve, was occupied with school and bathing. Three baths per week were given, a tub and vapor bath alternating.\nEach was followed by douching and massage, and an hour allowed before\ndinner for relaxation, which was usually passed in sleep. I improvised a\nbath that was a hybrid — neither a Eussian nor a Turkish bath — by turning\nsteam into a room until a temperature of 120° Fahrenheit was reached.\nIn this moist atmosphere the men were placed for half an hour. The\ncrude bath served its purpose well enough in that it excited the glandular\nfunctions of the skin and corrected the \"hide-bound\" appearance of the\nmen.\nThe afternoon was devoted to free-hand exercises, marching, military\nevolutions, etc., which usually occupied three hours or more, with frequent\nintervals of rest. This may appear an excessive length of time for a daily\nsetting-up drill and calisthenic exercises, but we considered it better so\nthan to undo our efforts and promote inertia with corroding thoughts by\nconfinement in a cell. The experiment was continued for five months, at\nthe end of which time they were returned to the routine of prison life,\n\n"}
{"page": 668, "printed_page": null, "text": "648\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nto which conditions they formerly had failed to adapt themselves. Our\nfacilities were imperfect, and a crudeness of procedure marked our efforts,\nyet there was a decided improvement manifested in the men in physiognomy, carriage, muscular increment, and general betterment of tissue and\nvegetative functions. But better than these were the evidences presented\nof mental stimulation and quickening.\nThe subsequent labor, conduct, and progress of these men during the\nremainder of their prison life was markedly in advance of what it was\nprior to the time of taking them in hand in the manner described, and it\nwas demonstrated that the effects of five months of physical education\nwere not ephemeral, even with most unpromising subjects.\nIn 1887 other classes were formed, and from this time dates the introduction of physical training into reformatory measures at Elmira. The\nwork was, however, still experimental. Some men were treated in connection with a special dietary, while others received the ordinary prison\nfare. The value of this year's work consisted in the demonstration it\nafforded of the value of a special dietary. The men receiving a restricted\namount of specially prepared food did better and were more responsive\nthan those who had an unlimited amount of ordinary prison fare, sufficiently nutritive for all ordinary purposes, but not apparently meeting\nindividual conditions in a particular class.\nFrom 1887 the number of men subjected to physical training increased\nyearly. Instead of fools, dullards, and apparent incorrigibles, we began in\naddition to include those whose health declined simply as the result of imprisonment, those who had organic disease, together with those in whom\nthere was functional impairment or perversity. In other words, the\nphysical training class, by a process of natural selection, came to supplement the hospital as it had previously supplemented the school.\nWe were embarrassed through a lack of proper quarters. One week,\nwith our classes, we occupied the main hall of the prison ; the next we\nwere in the end of a shop, where we were disturbed by the vibrations of\nmachinery ; and for a time our classes were in the loft of a barn ; and\nbetween times, weather permitting, they used the quadrangle, either in\nthe heat of the sun or the shadow of the building, according to the time\nof the day. We became accustomed to the order \"move on\" or \"step\nlively,\" and acquired the Arab's facility in folding tents and silently stealing away.\nThe report for 1886, together with those of succeeding years, brought\nto public notice this phase of prison work. To many it was a novelty in\nprison administration, while to others it was simply the application of an\neducational measure of established value. In 1889 the legislature granted\nan appropriation for a gymnasium and bath-house, to be used in the scientific treatment of inmates physically and mentally deficient. The work\nof construction was begun early in the summer of that year and pushed\n\n"}
{"page": 669, "printed_page": null, "text": "PHYSICAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF CRIMINALS.\n\n649\n\nforward with such a degree of rapidity that the cold weather found the\nbuilding under cover. During the winter the interior was completed,\nand March 20, 1890, in the presence of a few invited guests, the building\nwas used for the first time. The opening exercises were simple in character, consisting of a few musical numbers, an exhibition drill by an inmate\nmilitary company, and class work in gymnastics.\nThe building is without architectural pretensions, constructed of brick\nand slate roofed. Being detached, an abundance of light and air is obtained. The main floor is eighty-three by one hundred and two feet, and\nfree from post, pillar, and obstruction of every kind. The roof is an open\ntruss, and the ceiling of Georgia pine. Suspended from the roof and supported bythe walls is a running track, eleven feet above the floor, on\nwhich seventeen laps and a fraction equal a mile. - The distance from\nfloor to ceiling along the lateral walls is twenty-one feet, and from floor to\npeak, forty-two feet. The equipment is a fairly complete one, of the\nSargent apparatus. Situated in the east end of the building are the\nmeasuring and dressing rooms and bath. The bath is a dry vapor, Turkish, and comprises a hot and warm room, shampooing and douching\nroom, and plunge. The floors of the bath, together with the sides and\nbottom of the plunge, are of marble. The walls are brick, painted white.\nWith the exception of the iron work entering into the truss, and the\nslating of the roof, the building is the work of prison or inmate labor.\nThe building, with plant of bath and apparatus, cost $16,000, and for all\npractical purposes compares favorably with the more elaborate and costly\ngymnasia of note throughout the country.\nThe work of the gymnasium has increased year by year. In 1890 there\nwere eighty-five assignments ; one hundred and twenty-one in 1891 ; one\nhundred and thirty-two in 1892; with a prospect of a still further increase\nin 1893, or about ten per cent., year by year, of the entire prison population.\nThe various functions of this prison gymnasium may be inferred from\nwhat has been already said. It is in touch with every department, second\nto none in importance, and particularly related to the schools, the hospital, and to discipline. In its relation to the schools it is a place of preliminary setting up, of physical renovation and betterment, that vegetative functions and volitional processes may be quickened and amplified and\na higher grade of man evolved, which is sought, not for increased immunity from disease, decline, and death, but for corporal excellence in its\nentirety, with resultant impress upon mind and manners. It is in touch\nwith the hospital in that it receives many cases of functional disturbance\nand perverseness not in themselves inimical to life, but whose continuance disturbs the rhythm of the organism and the correlation of its several\nparts.\nErrors of circulation, repair, and waste are more readily overcome by\n\n"}
{"page": 670, "printed_page": null, "text": "650\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nsupervised exercise, bathing, and massage than through detention in the\nhospital and efforts at improvement through chemical therapeutics. Then,\nagain, in many affections convalescence is hastened by removal from the\nhospital and its atmosphere suggestive of morbid conditions, and the substitution ofthe activities of the gymnasium. The routine of the hospital\nis food, medicine, quiet, and sleep, with draughts and dominoes in moderation, and healthy reading — all good under certain conditions and serving a healthful purpose, but contradicted in others as favoring inertia and\npseudo invalidism. The man in the hospital, unable to work, but up and\nabout, who sleeps at night because the lights are down and nothing else\nremains for him to do, is not nearly as well off as the same individual\nplaced in the gymnasium and a cell, and sleeping at night as the result of\nphysiological fatigue. In particular has the gymnasium proved of service\nin the treatment of convalescence from epidemic influenza attended by\npersistent physical depression and mild melancholia. Physical training\nis related to discipline through the greater amenability established to law\nand order from the strengthening of parts, regulation of function, and\nremoval of nervous irritation arising from nnharmonious adjustment of\nthe several systems of the body. In many instances mind and conduct are\nhampered and fettered by body conditions, and a man is unconsciously\nirritable and insubordinate in consequence of a morbid physiology.\nThe experience gained by extended contact and association with the\npopulation of a corrective penal institution has strengthened the conviction that the latent good there is in a man is not alone developed by hard\nlabor for the profit of the state or other employer, in conjunction with three\nmeals a day, a change of clothing, and at night a bed to sleep upon. Occupation, food, clothing, sleep, are all good in their way ; all serve a useful\npurpose, and are what we accord to any beast of burden. But in the\ndevelopment of traits that mark a man, especially in one defective and out\nof adjustment with society, they do no more than perhaps contribute to\nlength of days and the development of an Ishmaelitish state. Nor does\nsentimentality displayed through appeals to the emotions and the excitation of a state of nervous tension elevate the character of a man whose life\nhas been one of criminous habitude.\nWhen we refrain from profitless discussion concerning the duality of\nmind and body, and accept the former as an incognizable portion of the\nlatter, we shall be in a position to better appreciate how mind and judgment, accomplishment and will, may be advanced or retarded by physical\nconditions.\nThe Keformatory plan of treatment recognizes that the erring boy has\nother claims upon the state than to be simply worked and fed and put\nto bed at night, that energy may be accumulated for the morrow's task.\nThe state only essays to deprive him of his liberty for a limited length of\ntime, during which it should, by rational and scientific means, at least\n\n"}
{"page": 671, "printed_page": null, "text": "PHYSICAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF CRIMINALS.\n\n651\n\nattempt to raise him to a plane where the operations of his body and the\nworkings of his mind shall be in unconscious harmony with the social\nconditions he formerly antagonized. As an economic problem, it is far\ncheaper to educate a delinquent boy, bestowing upon him an education\nand knowledge of hand-craft, that he may be able to maintain himself by\nhis own efforts in some specific calling, than to sentence and resentence\nhim to institutions where the animal wants are supplied, and the labor of\nhis hands utilized for the profit that may accrue to the management.\nSuch an education should be rounded, symmetrical, and comprehensive ;\nnot confined to occupation and moral means alone, but including every\nagent known to intelligence, and seeking the development of body, hands,\nintellect, judgment, and will. It is not assumed that every boy who has\ngone astray is reclaimable, or that physical education is a sole specific for\nmoral ills of every description ; but the contention is, where there is an\nexcellence of physical conditions, as you understand the term, an increased\npower for conformity to normal living is conferred over what obtains in\nthe case of corporal depreciation, nervous irritation, and other conditions\nthat appertain to an unstable man.\nSystems and apparatus have been the cause of much variance of opinion, contention, and feeling among physical educators, and their discussions have waxed as warm as those of theologians concerning religious\ndogmas and beliefs. Without entering into the whys and wherefores, I\nwould state we have employed the German system in the. main, not in its\nentirety or according to the ideal of a Turner, but so far as we were able\nto adapt it to the peculiar conditions and restrictions under which we\nlabored. As time went by, and we came into the possession of a gymnasium with a fairly complete equipment of the Sargent apparatus, consisting\nof chest weights, inclined plane, quarter circle, vaulting, horizontal, and\nparallel bars, flying and traveling rings, climbing ropes, poles, ladders,\netc., we began to employ the so-called developing mechanisms. Not that\nwe were disappointed in our efforts, or that our results were much if any\nbelow our reasonable expectations, but because we saw an indication for\nthe employment of apparatus of the kind just named.\nMany of the men, dull and stupid to a degree of not knowing the right\nhand from the left, were untaught of hand, and had no true coordinated\ncontrol of the muscular system save for purposes of locomotion. They\nfailed to comprehend the purpose of free-hand exercise, and were deficient\nin ability to promptly respond to a command, even when they understood\nits import. For this reason they failed to appreciate, in the effort and\nexpenditure of force, an equivalent for themselves ; calisthenic exercises\nwere drudgery to this class of men, and they regarded them in the spirit\nthat they formerly did the policeman's command to \" move on,\" which\nconveyed to them no other motive than the desire to compel them to do\nwhat they did not wish to do. But they could climb ropes and ladders,\n\n"}
{"page": 672, "printed_page": null, "text": "652\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nhold fast to rings, raise themselves upon the horizontal bar, and hit the\nstriking bag. These things were within their comprehension for the\nactivity and muscular development they conferred. As the result of this\napparatus, work with it paved the way for better performance of freehand exercises through increased confidence in self, comprehension of a\ncommand, and celerity in the execution of the same.\nWe do not consider apparatus work essential to the betterment and\nrenovation of the class of men comprising the gymnasium contingent, but\nas desirable in hastening the accomplishment of our ends.\nWe regard the bath of great importance. The tub has been discarded,\nand the dry vapor, or Turkish bath, substituted. The increased activity\nof the skin, through the agency of heat and stimulation by douching and\nmassage, yield most satisfactory results in the treatment of the more common forms of cutaneous disease. It increases the glandular and eliminative functions of the skin ; equalizes the circulation by the dilatation of\ncutaneous vessels, thus tending to relieve areas of localized internal congestion, and stimulates peripheral nerves. Each man is allowed three\nbaths per week, and, on intervening days, a plunge at the close of the\nmorning's work. We have yet to witness any injurious effects from the\nemployment of the bath, even in cases of enfeebled cardiac action. To\nbe sure, all are not subjected to the same degree of heat. Those who are\ngreatly reduced, together with cases of cardiac disease, are treated in the\nwarm room, where a temperature of 120° Fahrenheit is maintained ; all\nothers in the hot room, at a mean temperature of 150° Fahrenheit. Following the bath, as a reactionary agent, is the plunge, which is used by\nall, affording relaxation and pleasure, and an opportunity for learning how\nto swim. Since we adopted the plan of heating the water in the plunge to\n70° Fahrenheit there have been no instances of shock or other unfortunate\nsymptoms.\nExcepting Sundays, the gymnasium is in daily use from seven A. m. to four\np.m. At noon there is an intermission of an hour. The men are divided\ninto general divisions — a morning and an afternoon division. Those in the\ngymnasium in the morning are distributed among the various industries\nin the afternoon, and are enrolled in the military. The afternoon squad\nis similarly employed throughout the morning. The men are divided\ninto classes and sections according to their needs, deficiencies, and measure of responsiveness to treatment. The hours are long as compared\nwith those of other gymnasia, and, as the result of general conditions\nobtaining throughout the place, are necessarily so, as it is inconvenient to\ndivide a morning or an afternoon into two or more divisions each for a\nspecific purpose. It is impracticable to place a man in the gymnasium\nfor an hour a day, assigning him to a shop for the balance of the time.\nSuch a plan would work confusion in both gymnasium and shop, and\ninterfere with the performance of a specified common task in the latter,\n\n"}
{"page": 673, "printed_page": null, "text": "PHYSICAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF CRIMINALS.\n\n653\n\nnecessitating special allowance for shortage of task, besides creating discontent in the matter of special privileges. But as the hours are long, we\nseek to do in half a day, less the time consumed in bathing, what perhaps\nis accomplished elsewhere in an hour or so. To compensate for the\nunequal length of time, as between the morning and afternoon, we have\nintroduced into the morning scheme the element of play, and devote an\nhour to games, as basket and foot baseball. To those of you who are\noccupied in the contemplation of serious things, the introduction of games\nmay appear to be a prostitution of the gymnasium. But as there is such\na thing as overwork, and mindful of the saw to the effect that Jack needs\nplay as well as work, we have, in response to certain conditions from which\n'we cannot well escape, introduced the element of play, which has served a\nuseful purpose in awakening interest, creating increased competition, and\nbreaking the monotony of what would otherwise be a repetitious course,\nsave as it was broken by progress and advancement.\nSuch, in brief, is the history of physical training in a penal institution.\nNo one is more conscious than ourselves of our deficiencies and failure to\nreach an ideal plane. But as compensatory for a disagreeable retrospection, we compare with pleasure present means of treating physical insufficiencies, and accompanying shortcomings of mind and will, with former\nmethods and the time when medicine and dosing followed every allegation\nof malaise and pain.\nWhile the personnel of our class is constantly changing, it retains the\nsame general characteristics. The man of to-day is the facsimile of his\npredecessor, and will in turn be resembled by his successor of to-morrow.\nThe most manifest deficiency of the men we are called upon to treat\nrelates to the thorax. Pigeon-breasts are frequently encountered, and\nrecently two cases of funnel-chests have been noted. This last, I take it,\nis not a common malformation, as these two cases are the only ones that\nhave occurred in my experience. There seems to exist a particular susceptibility topulmonary diseases, even in cases where there is no history\nof a family tendency. I have noted, also, the unusual frequency of\nmorbid conditions relating to the pleura, and the repeated following of\npleurisy by an effusion. While thoracic disease in these men is in many\ninstances the result of former living, dissipation, exposure, and poor\nhygiene, it occurs in so many instances in which they cannot be considered\nas factors as to suggest that an unusual proportion are inherently weak\nin chest and possess small resistive power against conditions whose tendency isthe production of thoracic disease.\nWhile it is comparatively an easy matter to develop the pectoral muscles\nand add to the chest a symmetry of form, it is difficult to confer upon the\nintrinsic muscles of respiration an adequate and sufficient power. Shallow\nrespiration, and insufficiency of vesicular capacity and power, are common\nthroughout the prison.\nJ notice it in connection with the military, and\n\n"}
{"page": 674, "printed_page": null, "text": "664\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nnote it in the gymnasium. Chest apparatus and free exercises appear\ninadequate to overcome the defect. Running accomplishes but little more,\nas shallow respirations attend this exercise, which, if continued in beyond\na point not excessive and within the range of an ordinary growing boy, is\nfollowed by vertigo and nausea. Repeated commands result in mental\nconfusion, with increased inability to properly fill and empty the lungs,\nand the pupil becomes discouraged. What the pupil canuot consciously\nor will not voluntarily do, he can be brought to do unconsciously, and for\nthis purpose the tank is frequently employed. Those who can, inflate and\nempty their lungs to the limit of their power, in the tank ; and those who\ncannot, but are attempting to learn, in response to a feeling of self-preservation and to keep afloat, manage to use their lungs as if they were\nblacksmiths' bellows. Two wooden cylinders, four feet long and one foot\nin diameter, are of great assistance in the tank. The boys attempt to climb\nupon and ride them, which, as they revolve, is no easy matter ; and in\nanticipation of an involuntary plunge, a full, deep, unconscious inspiration occurs. Nearly every city boy can swim, while the number of those\nfrom the country who can do so is surprisingly small.\nThe popular idea is that nearly every cutaneous redness is erysipelas,\nand that pain and stiffness are of rheumatic origin. Every now and then\ninstances occur where pain is referred to the ankle and foot upon standing for any length of time, and after running, jumping, and continued\nwalking. The story in nearly every case is that the trouble is rheumatic\nand recurrent, and accompanied by slight swelling of the feet and\nfrequently disqualification for work. Medical attention and medicine ad\nnauseam afforded no relief. An examination shows the most of these\ncases to be instances of talipes valgus, splayfoot or flatfoot, a condition\ndeclared by authors to be rare in the congenital form and common in the\nacquired. My experience has not been in accord with the writers. But\nthen this maybe due to the fact that these cases occurred in a class dominated bysome degenerate condition, and which, if so, may be accepted as\nevidence of such degeneracy. Five cases of talipes valgus occurring\namong one hundred and fifty men, or plus three per cent., is a large\npercentage.\nIn pulmonary tuberculous disease, arrest of the morbid process within\nthe lung has occasionally occurred in connection with physical training.\nThe arrest of the disease, however, was nothing more than a suspension\nof process, as in time the cases terminated in the usual manner. The\nmajority of cases of this affection pursued the usual course, uninfluenced\nby this means of treatment, which is at best but the application of a better\nhygiene. Baer states, as quoted by Osier, the mortality from consumption is four times as great in prison as outside.\nResults somewhat more satisfactory are obtained in the class of cases\nformerly termed scrofulous or strumous, involving the lymphatic glands,\n\n"}
{"page": 675, "printed_page": null, "text": "PHYSICAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF CRIMINALS.\n\n655\n\nmost commonly the cervical, and which is now regarded as tubercular in\nnature. The course of these cases is frequently deceptive, as disappearance\nof glandular swelling is in many instances followed by involvement of\npulmonary tissue.\nFunctional disturbances of the nervous system, circulation, skin, digestion, bowels — frequently the result of prison life and deprivation of outdoor living — are treated in the gymnasium, instead of, as formerly, by\nsojourn in the hospital and drugging.\nThe line of your education and the trend of your ideas have prepared\nyou to regard physical training, however you may apply it, as the development of the body to the measure of its fullness for the benefits that\nmay accrue to the subject through the realization of the potentialities of\nthe organism and the conferred increased resistance to morbid processes\nwhich impair activity and usefulness. While we have cherished the same\nidea, and attempted to uphold it, as a matter of fact successive years have\nin a measure characterized the gymnasium as a place for the treatment of\nminor ills. Thus, in 1892, ninety-two percent, of those who participated\nin its benefits were there for this purpose.\nIt would be difficult, through the absence of well-defined lesion and\nspecific disease, to apply a scientific nosology to all the conditions that\nprompted selection, which should rather be regarded as instances of faulty\nfunctionating and systems out of balance. A proper comparison would be\nto a piece of machinery whose integrity is unimpaired, but whose performance is faulty, due to lack of adjustment or disproportion of its several\nparts. Cutaneous diseases were a cause of selection to the extent of eleven\nper cent., comprising acne, eczema, and ringworm of the scalp. There\nwere eight cases of acne, or six per cent, of the men were selected for the\ntreatment of this disease. Among the inmates of the Reformatory, as\noutside, this figures as one of the most common forms of skin disease. It\nis not a grave affection, though in chronic and exaggerated form it may\ncause permanent disfigurement; but selection is had for treatment for the\nreason that its continuance denotes either errors of digestion, improper\nfood, constipation, or self-indulgence. The pimply boy cannot be regarded\nas in the best physical condition, nor in position to give expression to the\nlimit of his capabilities ; hence he, together with those affected with other\ncutaneous troubles, are subjected to the influences of the gymnasium and\nbath, that a greater and higher degree of functional activity may be enjoyed.\nIt is upon this class of cases in particular that the beneficial effects of\nbathing and massage are witnessed.\nCutaneous venous congestion appears in a large number of the men,\nimparting to the surface a livid or dappled appearance, resembling a faded\npiece of castile soap. Where no facilities exist for the vapor bath, excellent\nresults, so far as stimulation of cutaneous functions is concerned, can be\nhad through douching and rubbing.\nWe have discontinued, in the bath,\n\n"}
{"page": 676, "printed_page": null, "text": "656\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nthe use of cold water. No good effects were seen to follow its use. There\nwas a certain degree of shock attending, and an aversion to the bath was\ninspired. The opposition by some of the men toward the bath is almost incredible. At first it was a matter of surprise, but later we came to regard\nit simply as the displayed opposition to a radical change of habit. Three\nbaths per week appeared a work of supererogation, particularly to those\nwhose habit it had been to dispense with a general bath throughout the\nwinter months, and whose general person never came in contact with\nwater from fall to sheep- washing time in the country, and from the\nclosing to the opening of the public baths in the city. To many country\nboys the plunge bath was particularly repellent, and persuasion, command,\nand sometimes force were necessary to get them into it for the first time.\nThe question is frequently asked, How do your men enjoy the gymnasium ? Some throughout the entire time they are there are interested\nand heartily cooperate ; others, when the charm of novelty has passed\naway, do their exercises perfunctorily and examine themselves as they\nnever did before in the hope of finding some overlooked and latent disqualification. Some are interested in the apparatus and class work and\nindifferent in the games, while others attempt to shirk the former and\ndisplay great interest in the latter. What is distasteful in the work is\nnot excused. It is considered a part of the man's education to do the work\nthat is set before him, even though it be displeasing, to the end that what\nwas originally unpleasant may become a pleasure as proficiency is attained.\nThere is scarcely a day but what some men, not in the gymnasium, request to be placed there, and those who are already there ask to be transferred to other activities. Generally, in either case, the request is illconsidered and arises from a morbid desire for change. Some even go\nso far as to discredit the work of the gymnasium and make it appear they\nare deriving no benefit, but, on the contrary, are sustaining an injury\nfrom the continuance of physical training. They may even go so far as\nto provoke fictitious disease, decrease their weight, induce pallor and a\nquickened pulse through the ingestion, sometimes habitually, of soap, tar\npaper, rosin, chalk, vinegar, and molasses in excessive quantities, sucking\ncopper, etc.\nAnd again we are asked : Are the men you treat in the gymnasium\nbenefited sufficiently by physical training to justify the additional expense\nincurred, and is an equivalent returned equal to the interest upon the\nmoney in the building ? It is a wise man who can figure out in dollars\nand cents a net return resulting from an expenditure of money for\nhygiene and educational purposes. We are probably as successful as our\nneighbors in assisting those whom we treat to structural amplification,\nto gain in strength, to increased functions, vegetative and intellectual,\nto greater range of coordinated action, and to subordination of animal to\nthe ethical and intellectual.\nIt is impossible to gauge the full measure\n\n"}
{"page": 677, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE\n\nNORTH\n\nAMERICAN\n\nTURNER-BUND.\n\n657\n\nof success or failure by means of charts and tabulated figures, as reference\nis not had solely to the present or immediate future, but to remote afterdays, that the influence of our instrumentalities may manifest themselves in other and happier phases of life. Gross corporal results can be\ntabulated. Those more subtle and relating to mind and conduct cannot\nbe formulated, but must be evolved by association and observation of\nsubsequent living. The same measurements in vogue in prominent gymnasia are employed and repeated in a given case, from time to time, to\ndemonstrate the degree of responsiveness.\nIt is not measurements alone, important as anthropometry is, that conveys an idea of the success of this gymnasium or that. The fullness of\naccomplishment should not be gauged by structural increase alone, as\nrevealed on tape-line, calipers, and measuring rod ; or augmented muscular power, as shown by the dynamometer and other tests ; but rather\nas it develops potential power and brings out that which will be of the\ngreatest value to the individual. The training should be carried out\nalong the line of greatest proficiency, keeping in view the law of natural\nlimitation.\nIt must be development, not creation.\nThe material we have to work upon is not the most promising. It is a\ndeluded stream of beings of defective ancestry, inauspiciously conceived\nand antagonized before birth, whose surroundings, voluntary and involuntary, operated to reduce physical forces and nullify that subtle power,\nthat unknown quantity, that determines the quality of a man.\n\nTHE NORTH\nBY\n\nHUGO\n\nAMERICAN TURNER-BUND— ITS HISTORY,\nAIMS, AND ACHIEVEMENTS.\n\nMUENCH,\n\nEX-PRESIDENT\nNORTH\nST. LOUIS, MO.\n\nAMERICAN\n\nTURNER-BUND,\n\nThe North American Turner-Bund (Gymnastic Union) is an organization which now unites over forty-two thousand members, distributed over\nwell-nigh all the States of this Union ; which looks back upon a history of\nover forty years of gradual and steady growth, and which is not founded\nupon those principles of modified selfishness which cement most modern\nsocial organizations, but which, on the contrary, demands, and has always\nreceived, from its members many forms of personal sacrifice. It must\ntherefore be based upon some living principles that are both humane and\ninspiring, and which do not spring merely from temporary need or personal advantage.\nAn understanding of the nature and principles of the Turner-Bund\ncannot well be had without recalling the history and fortunes of its\nfounders.\n42\n\n"}
{"page": 678, "printed_page": null, "text": "658\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nThe science of \"turning\" (true gymnastics) was created by Jahn,\nGutsmuths, and other educators and leaders, at a time when Germany's\nonly hope of throwing off the Napoleonic yoke seemed to lie in a regeneration of the German race itself. By restoring to its pristine vigor the\nbody of the German youth, Jahn and his co-workers sought also to restore\nindependence and strength of mind ; and how well they succeeded in this\nendeavor was shown by the bearing of their disciples in many a subsequent contest.\nThe spirit of liberty, however, which the followers of Jahn had imbibed,\nand which rapidly spread into the German high-schools and universities,\ngrew so inconvenient to the organized despotism of Europe that \" turning \" was for a season proscribed in Germany, and Jahn himself was\nrewarded for his trouble by a term of prison life. But the love of independence that had been implanted could not so readily be eradicated.\nThe so-called \" Eevolution of 1848 \" united the best and brightest minds\nof Germany in an effort to republicanize their native land. They had\ncounted, however, without that element whose aid alone could have rendered their efforts successful — the common people — and their lot was\nfailure and expatriation. The great majority of this band of patriots were\ncast upon our shores, where they met with varying success in their efforts\nto begin life anew.\nOne thing can always be said in their praise. Not one of them, in the\nland of their second love, ever forgot or denied those high ideals which had\nbeen the inspiration of their youth. These were the men that called into\nbeing the first organization for physical culture, the legitimate fruit of\nwhich is the present \"Turner-Bund.\"\nIt was certainly natural that these founders, being themselves at once\nexponents and products of the high training which the universities of their\nnative land afforded, should be desirous of preserving for themselves and\ntheir posterity the advantages of German culture, literature, scieuce, and\nart ; and believing that the preservation of language was prerequisite for\nthe maintenance of those accomplishments, they ordained that the Bund\nthus formed should be German-American, and that in its proceedings,\nas well as in its interpretation of gymnastic science, the German language\nalone should be used.\nThe origin of our Bund, thus traced, easily leads to an understanding\nof the fact that one of its tendencies has always been and is now an\nextremely patriotic one. Not only must every foreign-born member\nacquire the rights and duties of citizenship at the earliest practicable\nmoment, but the various societies composing the Bund are held to arrange\nlectures and discussions upon the principles of pure republicanism, to\ncommemorate patriotic dates and events, and to preserve from forgetfulness the names of those whose lives were devoted to the cause of human\nfreedom and enlightenment.\n\n"}
{"page": 679, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE\n\nNORTH\n\nAMERICAN\n\nTURNER-BUND.\n\n659\n\nNot in mere words has this patriotism found expression, but the Bund\ncan refer with pride to the fact that during the late civil war every\nTurner hall in the United States had to be closed, owing to the fact that\nevery member capable of bearing arms was actively engaged in the field ;\nand in that struggle for the preservation of our Union we believe that\nnone fought more manfully than our brethren, and, when the contest\nwas over, none were more swift to extend a helping hand to their fallen foe\nthan the survivors among the so-called \"Turner regiments.\"\nTrue to the original plan of Turner societies, a social feature also\nforms an element in the composition of our Bund. A common bond of\nfellowship, a community of aims and thought, forms a living tie between\nits members, the firmness of which is strengthened through periodical\nfestivals, both in districts and by the national organization. Old and\nyoung are thus thrown in happy contact, and besides furnishing a valuable\ngauge of intermediate progress, such festivals serve to establish new\nfriendships and to cement the old.\nBy far the most important feature of our organization, however, and\none which has wholly outgrown the limited notions of its founders, is the\neducational one.\nWith the development of our educational, business, and professional\nlife has arisen a most unanswerable demand for physical development as\na curative of the errors and exactions in the direction of mental overstrain. Possessing a system of physical culture the superior of all, carefully built up and scientifically created not by any one man but as the\nresult of the study and research of a long line of eminent scientific men,\na system at once ample in its present means of physical training and\ninfinite in its opportunities for further development, the Turner-Bund\nsoon felt it a privilege, and recognized it as a duty, to spread and nationalize that system for the common good of the entire country.\nOut of its by no means ample resources it dared to attempt the education of fit persons in the art of scientific gymnastic training, and from\na small beginning in that direction has grown that institution known as\nour normal school, the history and merits of which form the topic of my\ncolleague's address, and which may well be termed the proud keystone of\na structure reared by over thirty years of persistent effort.\nIt goes without saying that with the attempt to nationalize our German\nsystem of physical culture arose the necessity for yielding at least a part\nof that exclusiveness which had characterized the early years of our Bund.\nWhile it is still an organization which believes in bi-linguistic culture, and\nwhich bears its part in preserving in this country those characteristics of\nGerman art, culture, and science that will and do adorn and develop true\nAmerican character, yet the Turner-Bund has long since recognized the\nnecessity for transcribing the garb in which the science was originally\nclothed into the language of this country, and has so fitted its instructors\n\n"}
{"page": 680, "printed_page": null, "text": "660\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nthat each and all of them are capable of entering every American schoolroom fully equipped for the work of conducting all classes in school\ngymnastics.\nOur aim has been, and will ever be, to make the standard of proficiency\nin our instructors so high that the possession of a diploma from our\nnormal school shall be a surer guarantee of fitness for their chosen profession than any fanciful degree that has hitherto served to gain appointment for gymnastic instruction.\nIn conclusion I would say, therefore, that to aid in the physical regeneration ofour race is one of .the chief aims of the North American\nTurner- Bund, and to have borne its full share in the labor of that reform\nwill have been one of its proudest achievements.\nWe fondly hope that the Turner-Bund will never tire in its efforts until\nthe glorious end has been achieved.\n\nDISCUSSION.\nMiss L. Garde, of Providence, R. I. : The first point noticeable in the Fatherland is\nthe fact that the proper culture of the body is compulsory. The Germans in America\nhave the same thought. They do not lose many moments in arguing this point, but\nhave put their methods into the schools of the States where they largely predominate,\nbecause the underlying principle — the need of a trained physical being — must be established. Iam well aware not every one will agree with me when I state that we need\ncompulsory laws in this country to train the body, just as we need and have such laws\nfor the training of the mind.\nWe have a large class of persons in every community in America who give no attention whatever to anything above the mere material demands of an animal existence.\nThe most ignorant parent among this class appreciates the worth of what he does not\npossess — a common school education. . While he uses all means to keep his son or\ndaughter at school, and impresses upon his children the great worth of understanding\nthe three R's, he says nothing about the equally priceless worth of a well-trained body.\nWhy not educate him and his children to this knowledge? Make, as in Germany, a\nnational law enforcing daily physical exercise in our common schools: and as we grow\nmore quickly to the appreciation of a good thing than in the older civilizations, a noticeable change for the better would soon be observed. It is to the German-Americans we\nowe the first step in this direction. Ohio has passed a compulsory law, and sees no\nreason to regret it. Pennsylvania has another on the docket ; Wisconsin has just\ndefeated a bill, but such matters die hard ; and little Rhode Island will be the first of\nthe New England States to follow the lead of the North American Turners' work.\nThe permanence of the work of the German- Americans is shown by the manner in\nwhich they establish indoor and outdoor gymnasiums, as in the home country.\nFather Jahn, sensible man that he was, recognized the truth that the natural child\nwanted something more than the mere moving of arms, legs, and head ; that he wanted\nplaythings; that he used resistance, and must have objects to cultivate his powers.\nAnd so he built places where real boys and real girls could play with each other and\nwith something in the never-idle hands.\nAnd though there is not that lavish expendi-\n\n"}
{"page": 681, "printed_page": null, "text": "DISCUSSION.\n\n661\n\nture of money in Germany that there is in America, gymnasiums are to be found all over\nthe country, in every hamlet as well as in every city.\nEducators in Germany do not sit in solemn conclave and reason with each other as to\nthe manner in which body training can be put into the public schools as cheaply as\npossible. Nor do the German-Americans here. Whatever is required in apparatus is\nsecured. The gymnastic appliances in the cities in which their teachings are established are as much a part of the school furniture as the books, ink, or furnaces. They\ngo farther and supply the school gymnasium. Instead of keeping the children con■ fined in school two and three hours continuously, and then allowing them a five minutes' drill in the aisles, they should be sent at least once in each session for twenty\nminutes' vigorous work in the school gymnasium.\nEach city in Germany of over fifteen thousand inhabitants contains one or more outdoor gymnasiums, and is taxed for the maintenance of the same. Would it not be a\nwiser policy to maintain such places, keeping them open at all times, under proper\nsupervision, than to employ policemen and truant officers to hold under control the\nlarge numbers of American children who literally live in the streets for want of a better\nhome or other playground? I make a plea for the German outdoor gymnasium. The\nsuccess of the two at Charlesbank, Boston, is the best guarantee of what this German\nidea would do for the uneducated mass from which our criminals come by the natural\nprocess of street, reform school, and prison. Through German-American forethought,\nSandusky, Ohio, has the first out-door school gymnasium.\nThe individual instructor of German nationality sinks his own personality in his\ndesire for the common weal. He is heartily in earnest, has no axe to grind, and is not a\ncarping critic of his fellows. With the German- Americans the happiness of the child is\never uppermost.\nThe German-American idea is to exercise for recreation, for relief from study. Their\npupils respond cheerily to the commands given; they obey because pleased and happy\nin gymnastic play. The German-American child, dismissed with a good hearty game,\nis radiant with happiness and an appearance of health.\nTwo other points in the aims of German- American teachings are worthy of notice.\nThe German idea of gymnastics, according to the great writer Spies, must be object\nteaching, after Froebel's thought. Consequently we see the greatest diversity, not\nonly in muscular movements, but ideas preceding the same. This educates the child\nnot alone physically but mentally, leading him to think out what he is to do, and making the will act on the muscles. Imitation gymnastics, the worst and most common of\nall school gymnastics, are not seen if the true German principle is kept uppermost.\nEverything in the curriculum of the schools leads toward independent thought and\naction. If children are to be made reasoning beings, why not carry out this idea in\ntheir gymnastic study ? A child ought to be able to comprehend which is up, down,\nsideways, and forward, to the right and to the left ; and yet teachers of gymnastics go\non, year after year, showing intelligent pupils how to step back and how to jump and\nhow to twist their heads and how to pose in so-called beautiful attitudes. These instructors would be the first to assert that such children, if not able to show the top and bottom of a slate, or the northeast corner of a map, were candidates for the asylum for\nthe weak-minded. The German-American method trains the mind of the child. Few\nother so-called systems do it. The final thought demonstrated in Germany is that\nbefore a man or A woman is allowed to study for leadership in physical work, it must be\nshown both by education and physique, and some measure of grace inborn or acquired,\nthat the profession will be dignified, not the profession dignifying the individual.\nI believe this to be another principle which governs the leaders in the progress made\nby the North American Turner-Bund, as allied with the gymnastics in the public\nschools.\n\n"}
{"page": 682, "printed_page": null, "text": "662\n\nTHE\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nROYAL\n\nBY\n\nCENTRAL\n\nL.\n\nM.\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nINSTITUTE\nSTOCKHOLM.\n\nTORNGREN,\n\nDIRECTOR\n\nOF\n\nOF\n\nGYMNASTICS\n\nTHE\n\nINSTITUTE.\n\nIN\n\nThis institute was erected by the Swedish government after the plan\nof P. H. Ling. His intention was to make it a normal school for teachers\nof gymnastics, by which a perfect physical education should radiate to all\nparts of his fatherland. To the realization of this plan Ling devoted all\nhis energy.\nLing met with many obstacles ; but he was understood by a few, and\namong them was Bernadotte, the crown prince at that time. His royal\nHighness understood what Ling aimed at, and supported him in his struggles. The result was that some old buildings that had been used as a foundry\nin Stockholm were changed into a gymnasium, a fencing-hall, and other\nrooms for necessary purposes. In addition a very limited sum of money\nwas given.\nThus the institute was enabled to begin operations in 1814.\nIt is well known that Sweden at that time had gone through several\nwars, that it had lost a great part of its territory, that it was on the\nvery verge of ruin in all respects. What should be done ? was a question\nthat occupied all patriots. Ling was most active and successful in his\nwork of answering the question. His idea was to make physical education as perfect as possible for all children throughout the whole country ;\nand he aimed to carry his idea into effect through the students of the\ninstitute. The idea itself was not new, but no one had as yet tried to\ncany it out on a large and practical scale.\nAt first there were but few persons of education who would sacrifice\ntheir time to such a dubious undertaking as gymnastics, which in general was considered a juggler's joke. Meanwhile, some practical experiments showed what could be done for the development of the physique\nby gymnastics, given methodically and with good judgment. Some officers of the army were ordered to go through the course at the institute,\nand some other patriotic individuals went through by their own impulse.\nSuch was the beginning.\nThe course of instruction at the institute was at that time, and is still,\nfree from charges of any kind, and foreigners are received, though to a\nlimited extent. The institute developed more and more under Ling's\nskillful hands, and it soon became recognized in foreign countries. For\na short time it was connected with the army department, but it was soon\ntransferred to the educational department, where it still belongs.\nLing was the director until his death, the 2d of May, 1839. His pupil,\nGabriel Branting, succeeded him as director, which post he held until\n1862, when he resigned.\n\n"}
{"page": 683, "printed_page": null, "text": "ROYAL\n\nCENTRAL\n\nINSTITUTE\n\nOF GYMNASTICS\n\nIN STOCKHOLM.\n\n663\n\nAt this time a reorganization of the institute took place. A new code\nof regulations was promulgated in 1864. It was then put under a separate\nadministrative board of directors, consisting of four men nominated by\nthe king. These directors are not salaried ; they have to meet at least\nonce a month, when the preceptor shall present reports and propositions.\nThe preceptor is chosen from among the head-teachers for a period of five\nyears. Until 1862 the institute had been subordinate to the same authority as the schools and colleges in Stockholm, and until that time the\ncourse was finished in one year. In 1862 it was stipulated that the course\nshould be extended to two years. These rules were valid until 1887,\nwhen some essential changes were made. These changes consisted in\nmaking out three courses, or classes, that come one after the other, each\ntaking one year. The first course prepares instructors ; the second prepares teachers of gymnastics; and the third course or year is entirely given\nto medical gymnastics. Each of these courses ends with a public examination. The first course gives a right to become a teacher in the lower\nschools, if no one with a certificate of a higher examination applies at the\nsame time. The second course, that for two years, trains teachers of\ngymnastics for the larger schools, where the pupils' ages vary more, for\nwhich reason the teachers must have a corresponding knowledge and\nexperience. The third course is, as already said, based upon the two\nothers, and is entirely given to medical gymnastics, the study of which is\nbegun in the second year. It will be readily understood that all studies\nbelonging to this latter course are of great value to all teachers of gymnastics, and this circumstance is a reason for those who wish to become\nteachers to take the whole or the three years' course.\nConcerning the theoretical studies at the institute, it may be enough\nto say that they are anatomy, physiology, hygiene, pedagogical and medical gymnastics, science of movements, pathology, the theory of fencing,\nand the different manuals.\nAll regular teachers of gymnastics in our normal and public schools\nmust have passed the two courses first mentioned at the institute ; the\nreason for this being that the same method of gymnastic instruction is\nnowadays carried out throughout the whole country.\nThe institute has also to inspect the exercises in the different schools all\nover the country. These inspections are very useful. A young teacher\nreceives thereby suggestions and advice, if in any way he shows himself to\nbe mistaken about the application of what he has learned at the institute.\nThose who wish to take a course at the institute must at least have\npassed the examination of maturity, which is the same as that exacted of\ncandidates for entrance to the universities. At first the institute was\nonly intended for male students. Very few female students passed any\nof the courses there before 1864, and up to that time such courses were\nprivate rather than public in their nature.\nBut in 1864 a regular course\n\n"}
{"page": 684, "printed_page": null, "text": "664\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nfor women was instituted, and now this course is very much appreciated,\nas is shown by the great number of females that apply for admittance to\nit. It is required that women who wish to attend the institute shall\nhave the same standard in their studies as those who enter the normal\nschool for the higher education of teachers. The institute has about\ntwenty-five female students and fifty male students. The reason for\nadmitting a larger number of men is that the army and navy are also\nsupplied with teachers of gymnastics by the institute. There are now\nthirteen teachers, of whom two are lady teachers.\nLing's idea, to have one system all over the country, is thoroughly\ncarried out ; and all authorities that have had occasion to give an opinion\nupon the exercises have without exception affirmed their good influence.\nWe have also had the pleasure of seeing a great number of foreigners\nat the institute. They study there for a longer or shorter time, and carry\nthe idea of our gymnastics with them. We have also witnessed how\ninstitutes, with the same plan, have been established in other countries.\nI can but use this occasion to express my great satisfaction of what I\nhave seen in America in this regard ; and I confidently hope for a lively\nand strong cooperation in the future between the institutes on this side\nthe Atlantic and those in the Old World.\n\nHISTORY\nBY\n\nJOAKIM\n\nOF PHYSICAL\nLABSEN,\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSUPEEINTENDENT\nOF THE\nSCHOOLS,\nCOPENHAGEN.\n\nIN DENMARK.\nFBEDBICKBEBG\n\nThe history of gymnastics in Denmark begins with the philanthropic\nmovement in the educational world. Before that time some of the better\nschools had indeed their fencing- and dancing-masters and calisthenic\nexercises, and games were used, but any special instruction in gymnastics\nwas not given until introduced by Franz Nachtegall, who was born in\nCopenhagen, 1777, graduated at the University of Copenhagen in 1794,\nand had commenced to study theology when the death of his father obliged\nhim to become a teacher in order to support his mother. From his earliest\nchildhood he had been fond of all sorts of bodily exercises ; later he had\nlearned gymnastics and fencing, and now he accepted a situation as teacher\nof gymnastics at the educational institute established by the Rev. Christiani, chaplain to the king, and soon after he also became teacher of gymnastics at another private school. The manual published by Gutsmuths,\nteacher at the philanthropic institute at Dessau, was used by him as a\ntext-book.\nIn the beginning of 1799 he founded in Copenhagen a gymnastic society,\nwhose members were students or young commercial men, and whose object\n\n"}
{"page": 685, "printed_page": null, "text": "HISTORY\n\nOF PHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN DENMARK.\n\n665\n\nwas to promote gymnastic exercises. Here Nachtegall got an opportunity\nto train himself as a teacher, and in November he sent out an invitation to\nfound a private gymnasium. He succeeded in his plan, and the Copenhagen gymnasium, opened in January, 1800, was the first educational institute in Europe entirely devoted to the training of the body. In a few\nyears after its foundation it counted one hundred and fifty pupils, children\nand adults, among the latter being a Swedish theological student, Mr. P.\nH. Ling, afterward the founder of the Swedish gymnastics. Nachtegall\nsucceeded in interesting in the cause a number of influential government\nofficers, university professors, clergymen, and teachers. Some of these\nsent their children to attend the gymnasium, others wrote its programmes\nand were present at the annual exhibitions, or recommended gymnastic\nexercises in articles and lectures.\nThe Rev. V. K. Hjorth, afterward bishop, even published in Danish\nan extract of Gutsmuths' manual. Besides this, Nachtegall interested the\nprince regent in gymnastics, so that he helped him to get a good hall for\nthe purpose. The prince also frequently visited the gymnasium, and\ncaused several of the royal princes to be sent there for instruction.\nGymnastics as a regular branch was now introduced into several Copenhagen schools, not only in private schools, as \" Efterslogts-selskabet's \"\ngrammar school, where a young theological student, Mr. H. I. Mdnster,\nwho afterward became bishop, was the teacher, but it was also introduced\ninto several charity schools. In 1802 Nachtegall and Mdnster delivered\na series of lectures on the subject of calisthenic exercises, and when Nachtegall in 1804 was appointed professor of gymnastics, he lectured on the\ntheory and different methods at the normal school, established in 1790, a\nshort distance from Copenhagen.\nIn 1804 Nachtegall founded the \" Society for Promoting the Art of\nSwimming,'' that gave gratis instruction to charity-school boys, arranged\nswimming matches, and distributed prizes. In the beginning they carried\nzeal so far as to swim more than eight thousand eight hundred yards.\nIn the preface to the second edition of his manual (1804) Gutsmuths\nwas fully justified in mentioning that with regard to gymnastics Denmark had outstripped all other countries in Europe. It is also necessary\nto remark that an educational stamp was given to the gymnastic exercises\nfrom their first introduction into Denmark. They were introduced by a\ndivinity student, and altogether supported by men occupying civil positions. They were practiced in schools before being introduced into the\narmy, and the first teachers were theological and normal-school students.\nIn 1804 the government established a military gymnasium for the training of non-commissioned officers to become teachers in the army, thus\nfounding the first government institution of the kind in the world. Mr.\nNachtegall was appointed principal, and left the charge of his own private\ngymnasium to one of his pupils.\nIn 1805 Nachtegall published his first\n\n"}
{"page": 686, "printed_page": null, "text": "666\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nil Handbook of Gymnastics/' a small text-book for the use of military\ngymnasiums prepared after the Gutsmuths system. In the same year he\nalso began the training of some theological and normal-school students for\nteachers of gymnastics. At the end of the course they had to pass an\nexamination in theory and practice as well as in teaching.\nThe training of teachers was carried on more extensively after the king,\nin 1808, founded the civil gymnasium, to procure teachers of gymnastics for\nthe public schools. From 1809 to 1816 pupils were sent from the different\nnormal schools to Copenhagen, and they not only received free tuition,\nbut even their traveling expenses and board and lodgings were paid by\nthe government. Their training finished, they returned to teach gymnastics at the normal schools. They also formed classes for country\nteachers who already had positions. Mr. Meedom, a teacher of gymnastics at a normal school in Jutland, published a guide-book in gymnastics\nto enable teachers who had not received special training to teach calisthenic exercises. By the law of July 29, 1814, that organized the public\nschools all over the kingdom, it was ordered that if the teacher possessed sufficient proficiency he should give the children an hour's instruction in gymnastics daily, outside of the regular school hours, and\nif possible he should also teach swimming. At every school there\nought to be drill-grounds and apparatus for gymnastics. The regulations of 1818 for normal schools also admitted gymnastics as one of the\ncompulsory branches. Still the movement was not received with great\nenthusiasm outside the capital, except where it was furthered by zealous\nmagistrates, civil and clerical. The population on the whole did not understand the importance of the training of the body ; besides that, teachers\nwere wanting in many places, and everywhere money was scarce, owing\nto the miserable economical state of the country. This also caused a\nreduction of the army, and Nachtegall only kept his place as principal\nof the military gymnasium by giving up his salary. He retained the favor\nof the king, drew up regulations for the gymnastic instruction of recruits,\nand was appointed superintendent of gymnastics in 1821. In this position he had, especially the first year, the charge of the educational institutions ofthe army and the navy, for they as well as the civil and military\nschools were under his care. This connection was not, indeed, in all\nrespects favorable to the school gymnastics, but at all events it served to\nkeep up the interest for the cause in certain circles until better times\nshould come.\nWhen the financial state of the country had improved and the importance of bodily training was better understood, Nachtegall drew up a proposition for a guide-book to be used for gymnastics in the public schools.\nConsidering the heterogeneous local conditions, he had arranged the instruction in three different grades, and, besides, had partly adapted it to the Lancaster method, which the king greatly admired.\nThis method was eagerly\n\n"}
{"page": 687, "printed_page": null, "text": "HISTORY\n\nOF PHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN DENMARK.\n\n667\n\nadvocated by a committee appointed to adapt the proposition to the different conditions existing in city and country, so as not to hinder the progress\nof the cause. Nachtegall was obliged, though reluctantly, to submit to\nthe adoption of methods still more approaching to the Lancaster system.\nOn the 25th of June, 1828, Nachtegall's manual was authorized as a textbook to be used at the instruction of gymnastics, and four thousand\ncopies were presented by the king to schools and school authorities.\nFurthermore, gymnastics was noiv made a compulsory branch, to be introduced into all the schools. In the country the simplest of the three\ngrades in the text-book was to be used at all events, and in the towns\nand the capital one of the two more complete grades. Furthermore, a\nnormal school was established at the military gymnasium for the free\ninstruction of teachers. This school was opened in 1828, and was attended by more than two hundred teachers in the first year. During\nthe following years gymnastic exercises Avere introduced into all the\nDanish schools. Copenhagen was at the head of the movement by providing accomplished teachers (non-commissioned officers) and good hall?,\nand by appointing an especial municipal superintendent of gymnastics.\nForty country schools in all the provinces were arranged as model schools,\nand a couple of years after Nachtegall was sent on a tour of inspection\nto the normal schools in the country. In 1834 he published a text-book\non gymnastics for the use of grammar and high schools, and in 1837 he\ndrew up new regulations for the army, thereby finishing his meritorious\ncareer. In 1842 he resigned his office as principal of the gymnasium, and\ndied in 1847.\nThough the government, even after the death of Frederick VI. in 1839,\ncontinued interesting itself in having calisthenic exercises performed in\nthe schools, and by a number of instructions tried to overcome the obstacles that, especially in the country, stood in their way, yet it was only in\nthe towns that the movement progressed. In the country schools gymnastic exercises were indeed taught — judging from the annual reports — but\nin many of the schools this teaching was very insigni6cant. In many\nplaces the schools had not even gymnastic apparatus or a suitable drillground. Owing to this condition, Colonel Niels George la Cour, who had\nbeen Nachtegall's assistant from 1829, and had succeeded him as principal\nof the gymnasium, and in 1847 as superintendent, tried to improve the\nteaching of gymnastics. In 1855 he succeeded in getting his new textbook authorized, in which the antiquated Lancaster system was entirely\ngiven up and some slight changes introduced into the exercises. He also\ninfluenced the Department of Public Instruction to make an attempt to\nimprove school gymnastics by enjoining the teachers to keep the drillground and apparatus in good order, and by enforcing the inspection of\nschools. In the severe season the schoolroom was to be used as a hall.\nThese arrangements were not exactly welcomed by several teachers and\n\n"}
{"page": 688, "printed_page": null, "text": "668\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nschool boards, and when the superintendent also began personally to\ninspect the instruction at the schools, and thus found out that the state\nof gymnastics in many places was very deficient, the displeasure at last\ngave itself vent in a bill presented in the House of Commons, petitioning\nthat it might be left to the different school boards to decide whether\ngymnastic instruction was to to be given or suspended for a while. The\nbill did not pass, however, yet several authorities did not look upon gymnastics with favor for some years after.\nWhen La Cour in 1870 resigned his office as gymnasium superintendent\nthe place was not again filled, but the office of \" inspector \" was substituted.\nThe inspector has nothing whatever to do with the army, but has only\nthe charge of institutions belonging under the Department of Public\nInstruction, and has also to be a member of the board of examiners. This\noffice has been filled by Colonel John Theodore Wegener, Chamberlain,\nand afterward by the former principal of the military gymnasium,\nColonel Julius Amsinck. The latter is the author of a new text-book\nauthorized for the use of schools.\nAVith few exceptions, only boys were taught gymnastics ; but during the\nyears 1860 to 1870 the physician, Professor A. G. Drachmann, made an\nattempt to introduce Laisne's French gymnastics into girls' schools, only\nsucceeding, however, in very few cases in Copenhagen.\nFavorable to the gymnastic movement, however, were the rifle corps\nformed by young men in 1861. Already, four years after, these corps had\nbecome popular, and everywhere in the country new ones were formed.\nOf course they aimed principally at making the young men good shots,\nbut bodily exercises were also on the programme, and as gymnastic exercises were performed at their public exhibitions, the interest for them\nincreased. Division captains were trained for teachers of gymnastics by\nthe military teachers, and Mr. Ainsinck's new manual was published as a\ntext-book for rifle corps. In these, and independent of them, gymnastic\nsocieties were formed that tried to surpass each other at the public exhibitions that have been given since 1878.\nThrough voluntary contributions gymnasiums were erected in the country, as many as thirty in the same district. At present there are about two\nhundred and fifty halls and seven thousand to eight thousand grown-up members in these societies. The increasing interest, spreading from adults\nto children, was also furthered by the \"people's high-schools,\" attended\nin the winter by young men, and in the summer by girls belonging to the\npeasant class. Almost every high-school had its own gymnasium, and\nhere it was that the Swedish gymnastics was first introduced. They sent\nfor lady teachers from the Central Gym nasi um at Stockholm, and young\nmen from the high-schools went to Sweden to get acquainted with the new\nsystem. The high-schools of Vallekilde and Askov especially distinguished themselves. A teacher of gymnastics at the former school, Mr.\n\n"}
{"page": 689, "printed_page": null, "text": "HISTORY\n\nOF PHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN DENMARK.\n\n669\n\nN. H. Rasmussen, civil engineer, in 1883, was the first advocate of the\nnew system. He completed a full course at the Swedish Central Gymnasium, and in 1887 opened an institute for Swedish gymnastics in Copenhagen that during the last years has been attended by four hundred and\nthirty-six gentlemen and a number of ladies. Other private gymnasiums\nhave also been established in the course of the last few years, many of them\nexclusively for women. Of these gymnasiums, some have adopted the\nSwedish system ; others, as Mr. Paul Petersen's, have tried to combine\nthe exercises of the Swedish system with that of the Danish.\nMany, however, saw that a reform was needed. It was recognized that\na fault had been committed in not following the healthy track Nachtegall\nhad entered, and that a more pedagogical and physiological stamp ought\nto be given to gymnastics. After a lively discussion, that lasted a couple\nof years, the Department of Public Instruction appointed a committee,\nconsisting of the inspector, Colonel Amsinck ; a physician, Dr. Hertel ;\nand of Professor Kromann, a leading educational authority, to devise a\nplan for the improvement of the instruction in gymnastics. After having\nvisited Stockholm and Berlin, the committee gave as its opinion that the\nfaults in the Danish way of teaching had their origin, first, in the defective training of the teachers ; second, in the imperfect apparatus of the\nschools; and third, in the exercises not being chosen judiciously with due\nregard to physiological and pedagogical demands. The committee therefore proposed, first, that gymnastics in all the boys' and girls' schools in\nDenmark should take rank with any one of the most important regular\nbranches ; second, that it should be taught during a greater number of\nhours ; third, that suitable halls and apparatus should be provided ;\nfourth, that a well-arranged physiological and pedagogical system of exercises must be procured, suited to the. different sexes and ages ; fifth, that\na staff of lady and gentleman teachers should be trained whose physiological and pedagogical knowledge should enable them to use advantageously the new system of exercises ; and finally that a gymnasium for\nthe training of lady and gentleman teachers should be established under\nthe Department of Public Instruction.\nThis department has now appointed a committee to prepare a new system of exercises according to the principles indicated, and, furthermore,\nhas taken steps to secure a piece of land near Copenhagen for the intended\ngymnasium for teachers. The committee above mentioued is expected\npresently to finish its work by publishing a new text-book on gymnastics.\n\n"}
{"page": 690, "printed_page": null, "text": "670\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nGYMNASTICS\n\nBY\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nIN THE KINGDOM OF SAXONY— A\nHISTORICAL\nREVIEW.\nMORITZ\n\nZETTLER,\n\nOF\n\nCHEMNITZ,\n\nSAXONY.\n\nThe beginnings of organized efforts in behalf of gymnastics in Saxony\nmay be traced back to the year 1818, when a club of about one hundred\nstudents of the University of Leipzig devoted two evenings per week to\nexercises in gymnastics. They did this during the summer in a garden.\nDuring the earlier part of the third decade several academic gymnastic\nsocieties were formed, the founders of which were students who had come\nfrom Berlin and had been Jahn's pupils. But in Leipzig, as in other\nparts of Germany, the agitation against demagogues caused by the\nassassination of Kotzebue in 1819, destined the first organized efforts in\nbehalf of gymnastics to an early death. In order to uproot this \"evil\ndangerous to the state,\" the police of Leipzig in 3825 ordered the parallel\nand horizontal bars and other apparatus of the societies to be sawed off.\nThis did not prevent the disciples of Jahn from continuing their exercises\nin secret.\nIt is important to note that in 1824 the educational institute established\nby Hander in Leipzig mentioned gymnastics as an integral part of its\ncourse of study. All indications point to the fact that this institution\nwas the first school in Saxony in which gymnastics were fostered. For\nthe further development of physical education in Leipzig, the two afterward very distinguished physicians, Bock and Schreber, were especially\nactive. They familiarized the people, by means of example, the spoken\nword, and the press, with the aims and effects of bodily exercise.\nIn Dresden a few army fencing-masters had made use of parallel and\nhorizontal bars in their instruction, but with little effect. The conditions\nchanged, however, when Joh. Ad. Ludwig Werner, a retired army officer,\nopened a gymnastic hall in 1831 in Dresden, and conducted it with great\nskill. Most of the private and public schools aided the enterprise, so that\nthe number of its pupils soon rose to several hundreds. Also girls' gymnastics found much favor. It cannot be denied that the instruction in\ngymnastics given by Werner contained much charlatanism, but the fact\nremains that he induced many noted people of authority and influence to\nexamine into the educational merits of physical exercise, a thing that had\nbeen despised hitherto.\nAlmost at the same time (in 1833) Otto Heubner established in his\nnative city, Plauen, in Vogtland, a gymnastic hall that was well patronized.\nAs a consequence, in other cities of the Vogtland similar institutions were\nopened.\n\n"}
{"page": 691, "printed_page": null, "text": "GYMNASTICS\n\nIN THE\n\nKINGDOM\n\nOF SAXONY.\n\n671\n\n\"Werner, in 1836, submitted to the Saxon Chamber of Deputies (Standekammern) two of his works, with the request \"to take suitable measures\nto secure for physical education of the youth the same consideration that\nis given to intellectual education.\" The matter caused considerable discussion inboth chambers. The result was the passage of a resolution \" to\nintroduce gymnastics into all the high and normal schools of the kingdom,\nand to appropriate one thousand five hundred Reichsthaler ($1,125) per\nannum for that purpose.\"\nWithout delay gymnastics were introduced (in 1837) into all state highschools (gymnasia) and training-schools for teachers. Though it took\nsome time before satisfactory results could be shown, the resolution\nreferred to had established something which was destined to be of lasting\ninfluence. Many years after that — namely, in August, 1876 — gymnastics\nwas made an integral branch of the course of study in all secondary schools\n(in gymnasia, \" real-schools,\" and seminaries), and obligatory for all students. Two hours per week was the time appointed for regular gymnastic\nexercises. At present the faculties of these schools have each a teacher\nwho has passed the state examination in gymnastics for high-schools and\nconducts the exercises. Every secondary school of whatever kind in Saxony has a gymnastic hall and suitable grounds. A state inspector of gymnastics, appointed by the minister of education, supervises the work of\nphysical training in secondary schools of the kingdom.\nThe first institutions for gymnastics were intended for male youth only,\nbut from the very beginning men of riper age became interested in physical exercise, and hence boys, youths, and men exercised together. When\na boy had succeeded, by means of good results, in becoming a \"Vorturner\" (a section leader), he was in some institutions, by virtue of his\nposition, allowed to take part in the deliberations of the members. This\nled, in many towns of Saxony, shortly after 1840, to the formation of gymnastic societies for adults, who, however, made it a special object to facilitate and foster physical exercise among the boys of their town. They\noffered special instruction for boys in their gymnastic halls, or, in some\ncases, placed their own teachers at the disposal of the public schools.\nSoon followed efforts to draw the girls into the movement by interesting\nthe parents in the matter, and appointing special hours for girls' gymnastics. The societies which did most in this direction were those of\nPlauen, Leipzig, and Dresden. In these cities gymnastics for children\nreached a high standard of excellence.\nGymnastic societies developed in Saxony especially during the period\nfrom 1843 to 1848. Fifty-four flourishing societies sent delegates to the\nconvention of gymnasts that met, November 1, 1846, in Dresden. At this\ntime the society at Dresden was the largest ; it assumed a leading position\nby affording an example for imitation, in its admirable organization, to all\nother societies in the kingdom.\nMany of its members aided energetic-\n\n"}
{"page": 692, "printed_page": null, "text": "672\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nally the periodical The Gymnast {Der Turner), which was first issued\nin January, 1846. This publication was so well conducted and found so\nmuch favor that during the \"second German gymnastic festival,\" held\nin Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1847, it was made the official gymnastic organ\nof entire Germany.\nThe society in Dresden also arranged for two courses for the training of\ngymnastic teachers. The society's propositions to the minister of education, concerning the establishment of a state training-school for gymnastic\nteachers, found approval. The minister announced as early as March 16,\n1849, \" that he considered it his imperative duty to give gymnastics a\nplace of equal importance with other branches of public education ; that\ntherefore he had concluded to establish a training-school for gymnastic\nteachers, who could conduct such exercises in the light of pedagogic science, and that he had ordered the necessary preparation for the opening\nof such a school/' At Easter of 1849 the institution was to be opened,\nbut the insurrection which took place during the following May prevented\nthe execution of this plan. Not until October 23, 1850, was the institution formally opened, and the principal, Moritz Kloss, introduced into his\nnew office.\nThe insurrection mentioned was the cause of preventing the contemplated introduction of gymnastics into the lower schools. Many noted\ngymnasts from the different societies for physical culture had participated\nin the insurrection (popularly styled the Revolution of 1849), and after it\nwas quelled, an undiscriminating reactionary movement against gymnastic\nsocieties was inaugurated, so that the development of gymnastic art was\nchecked. At many places it was entirely destroyed, and its practitioners\nwere pursued with unusuaT severity. Life in gymnastic societies took a\nfresh impetus when preparations were made for the third national gymnastic festival, to be held in Leipzig in 1863. The wars of 1864 and 1866\nimpaired the activity of the gymnastic societies in Germany but little.\nBut the glorious war of 1870 offered the Saxon gymnasts opportunities,\nboth in the field and at home, for giving energetic expression to their\npatriotism.\nPolitical discussions have been prohibited on principle in the Saxon\ngymnastic societies. This has enabled them to grow undisturbed by police\nauthority. At present there is in Saxony no city or good-sized village\nwithout at least one gymnastic society ; even many small settlements have\na society of that kind. A statistical enumeration of January 1, 1892,\nrecords 615 cities and towns with 757 gymnastic societies, that have 87,388\nmembers over fourteen years of age ; of these, 51,901 are active gymnasts,\nled by 4,597 \" Vorturner \" (leaders of sections). If we consider the fact\nthat the entire empire had at the same date 4,597 societies, with 447,046\nmembers, of whom 227,628 were active gymnasts, it is seen that the\nkingdom of Saxony occupies the sixth place in regard to the number of\n\n"}
{"page": 693, "printed_page": null, "text": "GYMNASTICS\n\nIN THE KINGDOM\n\nOF SAXONY.\n\n673\n\nsocieties, the fifth place in regard to the number of members, and the\nfourtli place in regard to the number of active gymnasts.\nThe royal government approached the question of gymnastics again in\nthe year 1857, by adopting a set of rules for the examination of teachers of\ngvmnastics, and in 1863 it permitted the introduction of gymnastics into\nlower schools by \"recommending it to the local authorities most urgently.\"\nBut it is to be regretted that few cities and villages availed themselves\nof the opportunity, for, according to the statistical report of the German\nGymnastic Union of 1869, the schools of only twenty-seven cities and\nthree villages, and four state schools situated in villages, had obligatory\ngymnastic exercises in their courses of study. Hence not ten per cent,\nof the school population received gymnastic training.\nThe new school law of April 26, 1873, admitted gymnastics, as a \"dietetic means of education for boys as well as for girls,\" among the essential\nbranches of study in all the schools. The school authorities. now began to\nintroduce gymnastics into elementary schools where hitherto it had not\nbeen done. Since the law fails to state at what year of age the exercises\nin gymnastics are to begin, the curricula of the different schools and cities\nvary on this point quite considerably ; but it comes very near the truth to\nsay that, as a rule, gymnastics begins with the fourth year of school, or the\ntenth year of age. Also some differences are noticeable with respect to\nthe time devoted to physical exercises. In some communities only one\nhour per week is given to gymnastics, while in the majority two hours are\ngiven.\nThe transitional regulations issued to secure an effective execution of the\nnew school law of 1873 permitted the postponement of the introduction\nof gymnastics until 1878 in communities where the necessary institutions\ncould not at once be established. The local authorities of many country\nschools took advantage of this privilege, and after the transitional period\nof five years numerous petitions asked the minister and the House of\nDeputies for a further extension of the time. Statistical material gathered\nby the president of the Saxon Gymnastic Teachers' Society from the\nreports of the school inspectors confirms the fact that only one of the\nschool districts of Saxony has introduced gymnastics in all its schools ;\nthat, furthermore, in twenty-three districts a number of schools are still\nwithout gymnastic apparatus. In seventeen of these districts no less than\nfifty per cent, (the highest was 93.8 percent.) of the schools fail to live up\nto the law.\nIt is the rule in elementary schools ( Volksschuleri) to have gymnastics\nconducted by the regular class teachers. Very few of these schools employ\nspecial teachers. In extensive institutions, such as city ward schools in\nLeipzig and Dresden, it has been found expedient to place this instruction\nin the hands of specially trained and experienced teachers.\n43\n\n"}
{"page": 694, "printed_page": null, "text": "674\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nPHYSICAL\nABSTRACT\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION\nPAPER\n\nBY\n\nALBERT\n\nFOB\n\nDEAF\n\nAND\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nOF THE\n\nDEAF\n\nGUTZMAN,\n\nINSTRUCTOR\n\nDUMB,\n\nBE KLIN,\n\nAND\nIN\n\nDUMB.\nINSTITUTE\n\nPRUSSIA.\n\nThe question of the physical education of the deaf and dumb is not the\nsame as with the education of persons in a normal condition. There are\nmany defects found in deaf-and-dumb persons that are independent of\ndeafness. These defects arise largely from the mode of life during their\nchildhood. These children, if they belong to the poorer families, are seldom\nallowed an opportunity to become familiar with streets, fields, and forests.\nSometimes they are locked up, day by day, while their parents go to work ;\nand their natural powers, physical and mental, remain dormant. Improper food and inattention to their manner of eating are causes of physical weakness and of many defects not common in children who hear.\nBy comparing statistics relative to persons who were deaf from birth\nand those who subsequently became deaf, it is found that those of this\nlatter class are most numerous. From the fact that the deaf-mute does\nnot use his organs of speech, the organs of breathing remain undeveloped,\nand a larger percent, of this class die between the ages of twenty and\nthirty than of persons in a normal condition as to hearing and speaking.\nThe physical exercise of the deaf and dumb has first of all to adjust and\nrepair the defects of these pupils. The way to do this must differ from\nthe training for hearing, healthy children. So the physical education of\nthe deaf-mutes is first gymnastics, for curing and to develop the organs of\nbreathing. The purpose in view in their physical exercises is quite different from that in public schools in general. There is little or nothing done\nfor the physical education of the deaf and dumb child before he is sent\nto school.\nThe first condition of all development is movement. So the deaf-mute\nchild must be trained to stand, walk, and run. He must be given much\nmovement, not only at home, but in garden, field, and forest. In standing and moving the breathing is quicker, and with it the strength is\nincreased. F. Smith has calculated that if one gives the magnitude of\nbreath in lying as 1, it is in sitting, 1.33 ; in walking slowly, 1.9 ; in walking quickly, 4 ; in running, 7.\nKeeping the bodies of small children straight in sitting, standing, and\nwalking is a very important exercise. The trailing of the feet, characteristic of deaf-mutes, is a sign of physical relaxation and want of physical\nagility ; and the causes of this are nearly always to be found in the first\nyears of the child's life. Here much could be improved even by suitable\neducational influence.\nIn rich families, the attentive and conscientious\n\n"}
{"page": 695, "printed_page": null, "text": "PHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF THE\n\nDEAF\n\nAND\n\nDUMB.\n\n675\n\nfamily physician will look after it, but in the cottages of the poor this\nhelp is wanting.\nThe more movement and change of mode of life the deaf-mute child\nhas, the more it is incited and prepared for the development of oral language. With normal children this is the time of their greatest evolution\nin speech. This is also the period of the greatest spontaneous movement.\nThe hearing child practices his speech seldom while in a state of full bodily\nrest, but along with moving, catching, walking, and running. The deafmute child without instruction does not learn the formation of articulated\nsounds of speech.\nThe influence of deafness on the development of the lungs cannot be\nespecially great if the deaf-mute child is early incited to talk and receives\ninstruction in speech. We can see this in the well-known fact that the\nsmall deaf-mute child usually laughs and cries as much and as loud as the\nhearing child and thereby exercises the lungs. A great number of deafmutes do not become deaf before a later age, after they have learned to\nspeak. The neglected exercise of oral language is undoubtedly a great\ndisadvantage to the physical development of deaf-mutes.\nInstructors of experience with deaf-mutes think that loud speaking is\nmost advantageous for the health of the deaf-mutes ; that the instruction\nin oral language ought to be introduced generally and as early as possible.\nThe oral language is the principal means, fixed by nature, for strengthening the breast organs, which are always weak with the deaf-mutes. Oral\nlanguage is for the deaf-mutes the real gymnastic-hygienic exercise. When\nthe celebrated Gall performed the duties of a physician in a deaf-and-dumb\nasylum at Vienna, he observed that after introduction of oral language\nthe diseases of the lungs were rarer than before.\nEvery deaf-mute who is fit for education ought to get instruction in\noral language, particularly on account of his physical education. Speaking implies an activity of breathing conducive to the ventilatiou of the\nlungs that we do not find in any other human performance. While\nthe usual breathing is done regularly, and inspiration and expiration are\nof nearly equal duration, in speaking the inspiration is short and deep,\nbut the expiration long and often interrupted. The speaking requires a\nmore frequent and deeper inspiration, therefore an increased ventilation,\nwhich is beneficial for the lungs. And not only for the lungs is the\nspeaking of beneficial effect, but for other important organs. Arthur\nAmes Bliss, a well-known laryngologist in Philadelphia, Pa., has recently\nmade examinations with four hundred and fifteen deaf-mutes, of whom\nthree hundred and three were taught only by the sign-language. With these\nhe found a far greater number of deformities than with those taught by\noral language. These defects were in the nares, at the tongue, at the\npalate, at the tonsils, at the pharynx, at the larynx, and at the vocal\nbands.\nMost of the deaf-mutes who did not use oral language had vocal\n\n"}
{"page": 696, "printed_page": null, "text": "676\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nbands of a dull gray color, bowing or wavy at their free margins ; or they\nwere so thin and narrow as to be unusually obscured by the ventricular\nbands. Efforts at phonation showed the adducent muscles to be weak\nand inefficient.\nOne ought not to undervalue the way of rational teaching in oral language on account of real sanitary causes. Teaching may even be dangerous for the health of the deaf-mute child. Schmalz says: \"In cases\nwhere speaking has been neglected in early childhood, it must certainly\nbe done with greatest cautiousness, that the inactive lungs be not suddenly fatigued.\"\nIn bis first development of speech the hearing child shows us how the\nteaching of speech is to be done. He learns the language while walking\nand running, leaping and jumping, and nearly unconsciously in playing.\nTherefore the deaf-mute children ought to practice speaking under quite\nfree conditions. Instruction in speaking must not turn into training and\ndrilling. When the sounds and the utterance of them are developed, the\nchild should practice them first under guidance of the teacher, and later\nwithout him. The activity of breathing is the base for the voice as well\nas for articulation.\n\" Much movement during the time of formation of oral language is the\nlaw of nature.\" This law should be carefully observed in the instruction\nof the deaf-mutes in oral language.\nAlso in the further instruction of the deaf-mutes in school, besides the\nsystematic gymnastics, there should be frequent interruption of work\ndone in sitting by work done in standing or walking during the lessons,\nand likewise more out-door exercise, as is usual with hearing children.\nLessons in object teaching, geography of the surrounding country, and\nnatural history could be given in the open air. Besides the proper gymnastic games, suitable youthful games should be used in the physical education of the deaf-mutes. The German school gymnastics are best for\ndeaf-mutes. The Swedish gymnastics are simply mechanical exercises\nof the muscles, and the least suitable for deaf-mutes. German gymnastics are not only gymnastics of the muscles but of the nerves too, and\nproduce not only strength of the muscles but skill of the muscles, and\nsecure a thoroughly harmonious physical education.\nLooking at that adjusting question, we find in the first school years the\nphysical training of our deaf-mute pupils must be kept in the foreground\nof the plan of education, while the mental and moral-religious education\nand the appropriating of knowledge may be left to the later life. Therefore the physical exercise in the first school years must have an essentially\ndifferent plan of instruction for the deaf-mutes than that for later years.\nDuring the first years of instruction we have to do with a more or less\nspoiled and neglected organism, that must be prepared by systematic\nexercise of usual life in childhood for the purpose of education.\n\n"}
{"page": 697, "printed_page": null, "text": "PHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF THE DEAF\n\nAND\n\nDUMB.\n\n677\n\nI have the opinion that gymnastics on horizontal and parallel bars,\ntrestle, etc., in the first school years of the deaf-mutes, must give place to\nfree exercises in simple standing, walking, running, leaping, and jumping,\nwhich increase the strength of breath and voice. Boys may climb up\nand down on a perpendicular bar, or practice on the rope in moderate\nheight. During the first three or four school years I never allow the prescribed exercises to be exceeded. But the pupils should have at least\nthree systematic lessons in gymnastics weekly till the end of the schoollife and still longer. The two weekly lessons in gymnastics usual in our\npublic schools are not sufficient. The gymnastic lessons during the week\nare like food that is too much to allow starving and too little to live on.\nThe deaf-mutes in larger towns like to keep together ; and who can\nblame them for that ? Even the well-educated deaf-mute feels lonely\namong hearing people, while he is well understood by his equals. Under\nthese circumstances it cannot be difficult to unite the deaf-mutes who have\nleft the school.\nIn the year 1888 I established with some of my former deaf-mute pupils\na gymnastic club, which succeeds very well. The first years I conducted\nit myself, and had much pleasure with it. At present they get on very\nwell without my help. One member of the club — a deaf-mute — is gymnastic guard, and commands the free gymnastic exercise in oral language.\nThe head masters of gymnastic exercise conduct and guide the classes by\noral language. The club makes excursions independently and with much\nbenefit.\nTheir language of intercourse is the oral language.\nBeing at present the chairman of this club, I do myself the honor to\ninvite the members of the World's Congress to visit our club, which practices four hours weekly.\nIn March of the year 1884 I made the following gymnastic fixations of\nthe first gymnastic class of boys of the deaf-mute school here :\nThe section contained thirty-seven pupils, of whom the three eldest\nwere seventeen years old, the youngest ten years ; the average age was\nfourteen years. The heaviest pupil weighed 50 kg., the lightest 25 kg. The\naverage weight was 38£ kg. The tallest figure was, in easy position, 1.62\nm. ; in straight position, 1.64 m.; the height of the smallest boy was 1.19\nand 1.20 m. ; the average height, 1.41 and 1.43 m.\nThe greatest extent of the breast was, in easy position, 79 cm.; in\nstraight position, 83 cm.; the least-was 56 and 59 cm.; the average width\nof the breast was 03 and 67 cm. The pupils practiced gymnastic exercise\non an average two lessons weekly, during five years and a quarter. The\nperformances were as follows :\n(a) Bowing of the arms on the horizontal bar, from hanging stretched\ntill touching the bar with the chin : The highest fifteen times, the least\nonce ; on the average, six and a half times.\n(b) Bowing of the arms in lying leaned on the parallel bars : Highest\n\n"}
{"page": 698, "printed_page": null, "text": "678\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nnumber, twenty-five times ; the least, twice ; on the average, eleven\ntimes.\n(c) Racing in the open air : The least performance two and a half minutes ;the highest, twenty minutes ; on the average, about ten minutes.\nThus, a boy of fourteen years, weighing 38£ kg.; ].43 m. tall, with a\nwidth of the breast of 67 cm., having practiced gymnastic exercise for five\nyears and a half, performs climb-drawing on the horizontal bar only six\ntimes and a half, bowing of the arms in lying leaned on the parallel bars\neleven times, and racing in the open air only ten minutes.\nThis is hardly the measure in capability of performance which I have\nattained under most unfavorable gymnastic circumstances with, on the\naverage, younger boys (hearing) in the school in Biitow.\nA third fixation of similar kind I made especially for this essay with\nthirty-one active members of the \" Friedrich \" gymnastic club. The number is composed of the smallest and tallest, of the youngest and eldest\nmembers, as well as of those who in age and height are between those.\nTherefore this measurement, even in this small number, is of some value.\nSUMMARIES.\n\n(1) The deaf-mute child has many important bodily defects which\nendanger his life and his later capability to earn his bread.\n(2) To adjust this, or partly to prevent it, one has to begin as early as\npossible the physical education of the deaf-mute child in family and school,\nand to carry it through systematically over the school time.\n(3) The most excellent means for the physical education of deaf-mutes\nare exercise in oral language and physical gymnastics. To the latter, as\nthe most perfect system of education for the human body, one ought to\ngive the suitable time and position in the plan of education of the deafmutes.\n\n"}
{"page": 699, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\nCONGRESS\n\nOF RATIONAL\nSECRETARY'S\n\nFIRST\n\nPSYCHOLOGY.\n\nREPORT.\n\nSESSION— Wednesday, July 26, 1893.\n\nThe Congress of Rational Psychology in Education, which met in Room 27, Art Palace, was called to order by Dr. W. T. Harris at 9.30 a.m., Wednesday, July 26th.\nProfessor G. T. Ormond, of Princeton, announced the following official secretaries :\nMessrs. C. O. Scudder, W. C. Dodge, and Miss Luella Little.\nDr. Harris then introduced Dr. James McCosh, of Princeton, who presented a paper\non \"Reality — What Place has it in Philosophy ? \"\nThis subject was discussed by Dr. Harris ; Professor Ormond, of Princeton ; Dr.\nLaws, former President of the University of Missouri ; Dr. Boardman, President of\nMaryville College, Tennessee ; Dr. Black, of Missouri Valley College ; Dr. Hayes, of\nMaine ; Professor Mills, of Western College ; Mrs. Maynard, of Cornell ; Miss Buckingham, Mr. Russell, and Mrs. L. P. Brightman, of Chicago.\nA paper by Dr. Josiah Royce, of Harvard, was read by Dr. Harris. Subject, \" Can\n1 sychology be founded upon the Study of Consciousness alone, or is Physiology needed\nfor the Purpose ? \"\nAmong those who took part in the discussion were Professor Ormond. of Princeton ;\nDr. Boardman, of Maryville College, Tennessee ; Professor Shorey, of the University of\nChicago, and Dr. Lewis, of Chicago.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Thursday, July 27, 1893.\n\nThis session of the Congress met at 9.30 a.m.\n\nDr. James McCosh presided.\n\nThe first paper was presented by Professor G. T. Ormond, of Princeton, on \"The\nSoul as the Basal Concept of Rational Psychology.\"\nDr. Laws, formerly of the State University of Missouri, opened the discussion ; he\nwas followed by Dr. Lummis, of Appleton, Wis. ; Dr. Boardman, of Tennessee ; Dr.\nCharles Lewis, of Chicago ; Dr. Black, of Missouri Valley College ; Dr. Foster, of the\nUniversity of Chicago ; and Mr. Sanders, of Georgia.\nThe Very Rev. Augustine F. Hewit, D.D., of the Catholic University, Washington,\nD. C, being unable to be present, the Rt. Rev. John J. Keane, of Washington, D. C,\nread his thesis on \"The Theory of the First Principle in the Eleventh Book of Aristotle's\nMetaphysics.\"\nProfessor Ormond was given an opportunity to answer his critics.\nBishop Keane opened the discussion of Dr. Hewit's paper. Dr. Smith, of Connecticut, asked Bishop Keane several questions, which were ably answered. Dr. Boardman,\nof Tennessee, continued the discussion. He was followed by Dr. Foster, of Chicago ;\nDr. Ormond, of Princeton; and Dr. Lummis, of Appleton, Wis. Bishop Keane closed\nthe discussion.\n\n"}
{"page": 700, "printed_page": null, "text": "680\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nTHIRD\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nSESSION— Friday, July 28, 1893.\n\nThis session met at 9.30 a.m., Dr. McCosh in the chair.\nDr. J. Gould Schurman, President of Cornell University, not being present, his thesis,\n\" Self-Activity in Education,\" was read by George P. Brown, of Bloomington, 111.\nThis subject was discussed by Dr. Harris ; Dr. Ormond, of Princeton ; Miss Crozier,\nof the State College of Mississippi ; Dr. Boardman, of Tennessee ; Mrs. Brightman, of\nChicago ; Dr. Laws, of Missouri; and Dr. Harris.\nA thesis, \" Wundt's Psychology of the Will,\" prepared by Professor E. B. Titchener,\nof Cornell University, was read by Professor Ormond, of Princeton.\nDr. McCosh did not comprehend the paper, and felt like making a rule that no paper\nshould be presented except by the one who wrote it. Dr. Ormond explained the theories of the paper as he understood them. Dr. Boardman, of Tennessee, felt that there\nwere ultimate truths which the paper seemed to deny. Dr. Hayes, of Hayes College,\nMaine, and Dr. Laws further discussed the subject.\nDr. McCosh remarked that in general the agreement between the participants in the\ndiscussions was greater than at first appeared. The discussions were in a reverent\nspirit. \" We are gradually approaching a belief in reality, in realism.\" More attention had been paid to education at this than at any other meeting. He complimented\nDr. Harris's labor, and moved a vote of thanks to Dr. Harris for his services in preparing for this meeting and for the cause of education in this country. Unanimously\ncarried.\nProfessor Ormond moved also a vote of appreciation of, and thanks to, Dr. McCosh\nfor his eminent services and advice. Carried unanimously by a rising vote. After\nwhich the session adjourned sine die.\nA paper by Rev. Dr. Samuel W. Boardman, of Maryville College, Tennessee, on\n\" Theo-centric Education,\" had been submitted, but time failed for its reading.\n\nLIST OF PERSONS ACCEPTING THE OFFICE OF HONORARY\nVICE-PRESIDENT OF THE DEPARTMENT CONGRESS\nOF RATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY.\nCANADA.\nProf. John Watson, Queen's College, Kingston,\nOntario.\nGREAT\n\nGeorge M. Duncan, A.M., Yale University, New\nHaven\nEdwin\nW. Runkle, A.B., Yale University, New\nHaven.\n\nBRITAIN.\n\nEngland.\nBernard Bosanquet, Esq., A.M., University College,\n\nGEORGIA.\n\nRev. j. e. Dickey, A.B., Emory College, Oxford.\n\nILLINOIS.\nProf. William Wallace, Oxford University, Oxford.\nRev. E. L. Rivard, C.S.V., St. Viateur's College,\n„,„__.\n„,j. . _.„„\nBourbonnais Grove.\nUNITED\nSTATES.\nEzekiel G. Robinson, D.D., LL.D., University of\nChicago, Chicago.\nCALIFORNIA\nWalter\nA.M., Ph.D., Lake Forest University,\nLakeSmith,\nForest.\nRev. W. S. Matthew, A.M., D.D., University of\nJames H. Tufts,\nSouthern California, University.\nChicago.\nCOLORADO.\n\nA.M.,\n\nUniversity\n\nof Chicago,\n\nINDIANA.\n\nCharles Caverno,\nA.M., LL.D.,Boulder.\nUniversity of ColRev. lege,\nGregory\nBech I old, O.S.B., St. Meinrad's Colorado,\nSt. Meinrad.\nCONNECTICUT.\nIOWA.\nPev. Andrew C. Armstrong, Jr., A.M., Wesleyan\nBarton O. Aylesworth, A.M., Drake University, Des\nUniversity, Middletown.\nMoines.\n\n"}
{"page": 701, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIST OF HONORARY\nRev. John D. Burr, A.B., B.D., Central University\nof Iowa, Pella.\nR. C. Glass, A.M., 8.T.B., University of the Northwest, Sioux City.\nRev. Richard C. Hughes, A.M., Tabor College,\nTabor.\nJ. S. Mills, A.M., D.D., Western College, Toledo.\nJames Simmons, Jr., A.M., Iowa College, Grinnell.\nKANSAS.\n\nVICE-PRESIDENTS.\n\n681\n\nJoseph II. Gilmore, A.M., University of Rochester,\nRochester.\nnectady.\nFrank\nS. Hoffman, A.M., Union University, ScheJames H. Hyslop, Ph.D., Columbia College, New\nYork.\nBrother Ivo. O.S.F., St. Francis' College, Brooklyn.\nRev. Charles M. Tyler, Cornell University, Ithaca.\nNORTH CAROLINA.\n\nRev. Solomon A. Alt, A.M., Wichita University,\nWichita.\n-Rev. William R. Kirkwood, D.D., College of Emporia, Emporia.\nKENTUCKY.\n\nRev. W. M. Hardgrave. D.D., Biddle University,\nCharlotte.\nHenry H. Williams, A.M.. B.D., University of North\nCarolina, Chapel Hill.\n\nJ. V. Logan, D.D., Central University, Richmond.\nRev. John M. Worrall, D.D., Centre College, Danville.\nLOUISIANA.\n\nHorace B. Woodworth, A.B., University of North\nDakota, University.\n\nRev. George W. Henderson, A.M., Straight University, New Orleans.\nMAINE.\nRev. Benjamin F. Hayes, D.D., Bates College, Lewiston.\nMARYLAND.\nRev. John J. Tierney, A.M.,Mt. St. Mary's College,\nMt. St. Mary's.\nMASSACHUSETTS.\nWilliam E. Huntington, S.T.B.,Ph.D., Boston University, Boston.\nEdgar Pierce, A.B., Harvard University, Cambridge.\nBenjamin Rand, Ph.D., Harvard University, Cambridge.\nEdmund C. Sanford, Ph.D., Clark University,\nWorccstGr.\nWilliam G. Tousey, A.M., B.D., Tufts College,\nTufts College.\nMICHIGAN.\nWilliam T. Bland, B.S., Battle Creek College, Battle\nCreek.\nRev. Henry E. Butler, A.M., Alma College, Alma.\nAlfred H. Lloyd, A.M., University of Michigan, Ann\nArbor.\nMINNESOTA.\nJohanS. Carlson, A.M., Gustavus Adolphus College,\nSt Peter\nVery Rev. Dr. Peter Engel, O.S.B., St. John's University, Collegeville.\nMISSISSIPPI.\n\nNORTH\n\nDAKOTA.\n\nOHIO.\nElias Compton,\nPh.D., University of Wooster,\nWooster.\nRev. Henry Garst, D.D., Otterbein University,\nWaterville.\nRev. Henry C. King, A.M., Oberlin College, Oberlin.\nRev. M. Loy, D.D., Capital University, Columbus.\nRev. Francis P. Nussbaum, S.J., St. Xavier College,\nCincinnati.\nOREGON.\nBenjamin J. Hawthorne, A.M., University of Oregon, Eugene.\nPENNSYLVANIA.\nWilliam R. Newbold. A.B., University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.\nRev. Matthias H. Richards, D.D., Muhlenberg College, Allentown.\nRev. Henry T. Spangler, A.M., Ursinus College,\nCollegeville.\nSOUTH CAROLINA.\nRev. J. W. Flinn, A.B., South Carolina College,\nColumbia.\nGordon B. Moore, Funnan University, Greenville.\nTENNESSEE.\nCollins Denny, B.L., A.M., Vanderbilt University,\nNashville.\nThomas C. Karns, A.M., University of Tennessee,\nKnoxville.\nEdward E. Weir, A.M., Cumberland University,\nLebanon.\nTEXAS.\n\nRichard M. Leavell, A.M., University of Mississippi,\nUniversity.\nMISSOURI.\n\nWalter Lefevre, A.M., Ph.D., University of Texas,\nAustin.\nVIRGINIA.\n\nJ. Louis Kessler, Ph.D., Central Wesleyan University, Warrenton.\nRev. Cleland B. McAfee, A.M., Park College, Parkville.\nRev. W. R. Rothwell, A.M., D.D., William Jewell\nCollege, Liberty.\nC. M. Towles, A.M., La Grange College, La Grange.\nNEW JERSEY.\n\nRev. Luther A. Fox, A.M., D.D., Roanoke College,\nSalem.\nRev. John A. Kern, D.D., Randolph-Macon College,\nAshland.\nRev. James A. (Juarles, D.D., LL.D., Washington\nand Lee University, Lexington.\nWilliam D. Thomas, A.M., D.D., Richmond College, Richmond.\nWEST VIRGINIA.\n\nRev. Princeton.\nJohn G. Hibben, A.M., College of New Jersey,\nNEW YORK.\nWilliam Caldwell, A.M., Cornell University, Ithaca.\nMiss 8. L. Chapman, Elmira College, Elmira.\nRev. W. P. Coddington, D.D., Syracuse University,\nSyracuse.\nRev. Absalom G. Gaines, D.D..LL.D., St. Lawrence\nUniversity, Canton.\n\nRev. P. B. Re3'noIds, D.D., West Virginia University, Morgantown.\nWISCONSIN.\nRev. waukee.\nE. J. Gleeson, S.J., Marquette College, MilRev. Henry Lummis, D.D., Lawrence University,\nAppleton.\n\n"}
{"page": 702, "printed_page": null, "text": "RATIONAL\nREALITY— WHAT\nBY DR.\n\nJAMES\n\nPSYCHOLOGY.\n\nPLACE IT SHOULD\nPHILOSOPHY.\n\nMcCOSH, EX-PRESIDENT\n\nPRINCETON\n\nHOLD\n\nIN\n\nUNIVERSITY.\n\nThis is an important question. I regard it as the most important in\nphilosophy in the present day. Scanty systems have arisen from the oversight of it.\nI.\nIn establishing my positions I remark that every one believes in realities.\nEveryone believes in two kinds of realities. He believes in his own existence. He believes, or rather knows, that he thinks and feels ; that he is\nliable to grief and joy, to hope and fear. He believes and knows things\nwithout him ; in that man or woman, in the various organs of his body, in\nthat wall or house, as also in that tree before him, in the greenness of its\nfoliage, in the hardness of its trunk, and in the smell and taste of its fruit.\nWe can appeal to the proper tests in justifying reality. First, the\nobjects are self-evident. We know ourselves by simply looking within,\nand objects around by simply looking without. We need no further evidence. But secondly, this is confirmed by the circumstance that this\nbelief or knowledge is necessary ; we cannot be made to believe or know\notherwise. We cannot be made to believe, by any argument or by any\nreasoning, that these objects do not exist. But all the while we have a\nbelief or conviction which abides with us. Then, thirdly, this belief or\n, knowledge is universal. Not only do I believe in these objects, but every\nman does the same. He is sure that he himself exists, and that certain\nobjects around him exist. He carries this conviction with him wherever\nhe goes. Philosophy which is an expression of our nature should do the\nsame.\nII.\nReality cannot be established by syllogistic or mediate proof of any\nkind. No man can prove mediately his own existence, or the pains he\nfeels in his own body, or the existence of that stone or plant which he sees\nand touches. To prove that there is life or mind, we must have life or\nmind in the premise. Without this, the alleged proof will evidently be\nillogical. For it is acknowledged on all hands that in order to a right con-\n\n"}
{"page": 703, "printed_page": null, "text": "REALITY—\n\nWHAT\n\nPLACE\n\nIT SHOULD\n\nHOLD\n\nIN PHILOSOPHY.\n\n683\n\nelusion we must have the object or truth in the conclusion involved in the\npremise or premises.\nThe attempt to prove Reality has ever led to unmeasurable confusion\nand error. Descartes, the father of modern philosophy, propounded an\nargument, Cogito ergo sum. But if the ego be in the cogito the whole\nalleged argument for Reality is an evident assumption, for already we\nhave the Reality there. If the ego be not in the cogito we have no proof\n\"whatever, as what we have in the conclusion is not in the premise.\nWAY\n\nIN\n\nWHICH\n\nREALITY\n\nIS DISCOVERED.\n\nStarting in this way with real objects, we prosecute farther investigation\nby induction. This is the method pursued by Reid and the Scottish\nschool. It was derived originally from Francis Bacon, and had already\nreached many important points in the discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton and\nothers. The Scottish school perceived this, and were anxious to secure\nlike results in the study of the human mind, using self-consciousness\nrather than the senses in the gathering of the facts. In this way they had\nbeen so far successful in the account which Reid and Stewart and others\nhad given of the faculties of the mind. Not that they for one instant\nregarded this induction as the foundation of their philosophy, which had\nits foundation within itself in the principles of common sense (Reid) and\nfundamental laws of thought (Stewart). But they represented Induction\nas the means of discovering these laws. Thus they built up a philosophy\nresting on deeper principles, but discovered by the cautious and safe\nmethod of Induction.\nWe may consider more carefully the way in which Reality is discovered. Take this stone or this tree. I perceive them to be realities by the\nsenses, especially of sight and the sense of touch, and I cannot be made\nto decide otherwise. I cannot prove it mediately or by syllogism ; I have\nno premises to establish the point that this stone exists or this tree exists.\nThe mind has cognitive powers by which it discerns these objects, that\nthey exist. In the same way, by the inner sense or reflection, we discover\nwithin us at once certain things, such as hope and fear, joy and grief,\nexciting us.\nBy the same or farther cognitive powers we may come to know farther\nqualities of these objects — of this stone, that it is hard ; of this tree, that\nit grows rapidly. This knowledge may increase from day to day till the\nnumber of objects becomes beyond our calculation. When there is an\naddition or multiplication of these real objects there is no lessening or\nincreasing of Reality, which continues the same.\n•Having Reality in the individual object— say in the stone or tree — we\nhave Reality in the general notion, in stone or tree. Having Reality in the\nqualities of concrete objects, we have Reality in the abstract. Thus, Reality\nin the hardness of the stone implies Reality in its quality of hardness\n\n"}
{"page": 704, "printed_page": null, "text": "684\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nThus we have Reality in every form of it when we have Reality in the\nconcrete individual.\nFinding Reality in all these quarters, I think we are entitled to call the\ninquiry and the results which issue from it the philosophy of Realism,\nand to adopt it as the true philosophy.\nIII.\nReality is got not by reasoning, but by immediate inspection — by what\nis usually called Intuition. We have cognitive faculties for this purpose, especially the inward and outward senses. We know ourselves, and\nespecially our various ideas, moods, sufferings, by self-consciousness. We\nknow these extended things by the senses as cognitive, particularly by\nsight and touch. We need no mediate proof. In regard to these things,\nproffered probation woiild be felt as an incumbrance and would turn out\nto be invalid.\nWe have here primary truth which does not need support, but which\nmay give support to other truth reared upon it. Knowing objects to be\nreal, we may draw other objects from them which are also real, by argument— say by mathematics, by ordinary science, by common observation.\nThere may be times when we are not sure whether the object is a reality\nor a phantom, whether that whiteness seen in the darkness is a ghost or a\nsheet put out to be dried. We are to settle the question by an examination of the appearance, using, if need be, all the senses.\nIt is to be understood that when we have the real we can also have\nthings, derived from it logically, also real. Thus, having the individual\noak as real, we have oaks in general as also real. The reality in the singular goes up into the general.\nThere are some who maintain that Realism must not only establish the\nreality of objects, but must show what the reality consists in. Now, I am\nwilling to admit in establishing reality we must know somewhat of the\nnature of the reality. It is thus that we can separate it from other things;\nonly thus we can think or speak of it. Still it is not by psychological but\nby the Real sciences that we must determine the real nature of the object.\nMental science must know somewhat of the nature of water before it can\ndeclare it to be a reality. But it is not psychology but chemistry that\nmust settle what this reality is, that water is composed of oxygen and\nhydrogen. It is astronomy and not philosophy that must show us what\nis the relation of the planets one to another.\nIt is to be understood that while the mind has the Real by the cognitive\npowers, it may also have the Ideal by the imagination, and the two not\ninconsistent one with the other. It may form a figure of ugliness or\nbeauty to which there is no corresponding fact. With these we may be\namused, or we may be exalted above ourselves and ahove the earth. These\nfancies will present themselves spontaneously, or we call them up by an\n\n"}
{"page": 705, "printed_page": null, "text": "REALITY— WHAT\n\nPLAGE\n\nIT SHOULD\n\nHOLD\n\nIN PHILOSOPHY.\n\n685\n\nact of will. If reality has its solid blessings, so has ideality its pleasing\nfancies. We should profitably retain and cherish both. But we should\nalways distinguish between them.\nThe prevalent philosophy in the present day is that of Kant ; and this\nin all countries, European and American, in which philosophy is valued.\nI wish it to be understood that I look on Kant as one of our great thinkers.\nThere never can come a time when certain truths of Kant and the German philosophy are to be regarded as superseded. But Kant was guilty\nof one great oversight. He did not start with Reality in his primitive\nassumptions. While we cannot dispense with him, the crisis has come in\nwhich the Critical Philosophy should be critically examined, when it will\nturn out that its supremacy should be set aside.\nKantians of all descriptions are forever referring to space and time as\nforms of sense. I do not say that too much importance has been attached\nto space and time, while light has been thrown upon them by these discussions. But along with these forms there should have been assumed\nReality in the things made known to us. Reality is not an end to be gained\nafter a process or by a process, but is a means to an end. We are to\nbegin with Reality and carry it on with us throughout with that mother's\nkiss, with that nurse's lap, and it should run on throughout the whole\nlife.\nThere is admirable system in the Categories and in the Ideas with which\nKant follows up his Forms of Sense ; and in them Reality is not to be\nregarded as superseded or set aside. But if we have not Reality throughout, the foundation is insecure ; and hence the vacillations through which\nthe German philosophy has passed, and which are not to be arrested till\nReality has its place to stay the whole.\nKant began with phenomena. But the phrase has two senses. Inordinary science it means a fact to be explained that is referred to its law.\nOr it may retain its Greek meaning and signify appearance to be explained.\nIt is in this sense that Kant uses the phrase. With these appearances he\nstarts, and from these he never could derive and infer any real object\nwithout having in the conclusion what was not in the premises. He\nshould have begun with realities as made known by the consciousness and\nthe senses. Only thus can we have a true philosophy with a well-laid\nsuperstructure. A philosophy which does not thus begin with Reality must\nalways have something insecure in its foundation.\nHitherto America has had no special philosophy as the ancient Greeks\nhad, as the Scotch have had and the Germans have had. But there is a\nphilosophy lying before it, and it should appropriate it and call it its own\n— an advance beyond Locke, beyond the Scottish school — the American\nphilosophy. This would be in thorough accordance with the American\ncharacter, which claims to be so practical.\nThe change from the speculative to this thoroughly realistic philosophy\n\n"}
{"page": 706, "printed_page": null, "text": "686\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nwould not be unlike that from the European monarchies to the American\nrepublics.\nREALISM\n\nAND\n\nRELIGION.\n\nThe Eealistic view as true is the one most favorable to religion, as it\nproceeds on facts, and not phenomena in the sense of appearances. Thus\nwhen it says (Rom. i. 20): \"For the invisible things of God from the creation of the world are clearly seen, being understood by the things that are\nmade, even his eternal power and Godhead,\" where both \" the invisible\nthings of God \" and \" the things that are made \" are facts and not mere\nj)henomena. A like affirmation may be made of such passages as these:\n\"Rejoice with them that do rejoice, and weep with them that weep.\" All\nsuch passages refer to facts and not to vague appearances, and carry with\nthem our convictions and our confidence.\nIn Germany they follow Kant, and regard what they discern, and consequently what is revealed to us, as in Scripture, as phenomena — that is,\nas appearances. The view which they take is, in consequence, pliable and\ninsecure, first in their philosophy, and then in their theology as swayed\nby their philosophy. These views, fermenting in Germany, come over\ninto Great Britain and America, and trouble our students and our\ntheology.\nDISCUSSION.\nDr. Harris indorsed the paper read by Dr. MeCosh. Kant made an error in the high\norder of reality ; said that time and space had no objective reality ; he makes them subjective only.\nProfessor Ormond followed, justifying the place of reality in philosophy. Philosophy\nleads us to the realization of God.\nDr. Laws could not find the Absolute aside from its attributes. Pyrrhon and Hume\nare the advocates of the doctrine that every phenomenon is illusory.. We must know\nwhat reality is, before we can defend it. Immediacy is necessary to the comprehension\nof reality. We have a direct knowledge of distant matter only by the perception of the\nego ; hence, by inference. The mistaking of abstract for real space has been one of the\nmisleading ideas of philosophy.\nDr. Boardman said in part: \" We must assume the reality of mind and matter and\nof time and space as the dictate of the intuitions. The soul spontaneously affirms the\nreality of mind and matter by the constitution which it has received from its Creator.\nThese affirmations are primary, self-evident, necessary, and of course universal. If they\nare not true, the benevolence and veracity of the Creator are impeached, for He has made\nthe human mind to affirm their truth. The mind cannot be more sure of any knowledge\nthan it is of these intuitions.\"\nDr. Hayes said that we are not conscious of outside realities ; only know our own\nconsciousness.\nMrs. Mayxard:\n\nWe have no immediate knowledge of matter.\n\n"}
{"page": 707, "printed_page": null, "text": "PSYCHOLOGY\n\nCAN\n\nAND\n\nPHYSIOLOGY.\n\nPSYCHOLOGY BE FOUNDED\nCONSCIOUSNESS ALONE, ORIS\nFOR THE PURPOSE?\nBY\n\nPROFESSOK\n\nJOSIAH\nROYCE,\nCAMBRIDGE,\n\nI.\n\nOF\n\n687\n\nUPON THE STUDY OF\nPHYSIOLOGY NEEDED\n\nHARVARD\nMASS.\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nThe importance for psychology of the study of the physical aspect of\nman's nature is, I insist, no longer a matter of doubtful question. We\ncan, indeed, very usefully ask ourselves the reflective, the philosophical\nquestion, Why has the study of psychology come to involve a study of the\nphysical aspect of man's nature ? Be'flective inquiry into the meaning of\nknown facts is never out of place. But it would be vain to doubt, in view\nof these known facts, that the further advances of psychology will largely\ndepend upon the advances of a number of allied scientific undertakings,\namongst which the study of the functions of the nervous system, in the\nwidest sense of the term function, will necessarily hold a very important\nplace.\nA division of scientific labor is indeed indispensable.\nThe psychologist proper will never be, in his undertakings, either merely\na psychologist, or, on the other hand, a worker at home in all parts of the\nphysiologist's realm. The physiologist will far transcend the student of\npsychology in one direction, since the former will be interested in the\nwhole range of the physiological functions ; the student of psychology will\nfar transcend the physiologist in another direction, since, as psychologist,\nhe will take interest in the functions of the nervous system only in so\nfar as they run parallel to the mental processes, whilst the physiologist,\nas such, will have only a subordinate interest in the latter. Thus the\ntwo doctrines will indeed never coalesce. Nor will either science ever\nbecome part of the other.\nAuguste Comte was certainly wrong in declaring that mental science\nwould properly be definable as identical with cerebral physiology. But\nthe whole matter is not a question of identity or of subordination, but of\ncommunity and of cooperation. Certain regions of nervous physiology will\nalways be common territory for both sciences — will always be as important\nto the psychologist as to the physiologist. The latter student will view\nthe facts in question, in these regions of biology, as a sub-class of the facts\nof the biological processes in general. The former (the psychologist) will\nstudy the same facts as embodying a highly significant expression of the\nprocesses and the laws of mental life. What is sure is that the psychologist, as his doctrine grows, will never get on without the study of these\ntypes of physical facts. This, I insist, is already decisively indicated to\nus by the whole course of recent investigation.\n\"\nOur main question, in so far as it is a question of real doubt, relates to\n\n"}
{"page": 708, "printed_page": null, "text": "688\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nthe philosophical definition of the reason, and consequently of the limits\nof this dependence of the psychologist upon the study of the physical\naspect of man's nature. I shall venture, then, to discuss that aspect of the\nproblem assigned to me — that aspect, I repeat, which alone seems to me to\nbe, in the present state of knowledge, a matter of serious philosophical\ndoubt — by first slightly altering the statement of the issue as announced to\nme in the wording of the assigned topic. \" Why and to what extent is\npsychology forced to study the physical life of man in addition to a study\nof consciousness in itself ?\" For, after all, a mere repetition of the known\ncommonplaces of recent inquiry could not, in the presence of this Congress, prove enlightening. That an answer to the question as I now word\nit involves a sufficient answer, for our present purposes, to the question as\nstated in the programme of the Congress, will appear, as I hope, in the\nsequel.\nII.\nHuman knowledge, as it tries to get itself organized into the form of\nscience, takes two different and, on the whole, pretty strongly contrasted\nshapes, whose relations, indeed, are of the most intimate, but whose distinction, when once it is defined, is none the less obvious. Our knowledge, namely, as it develops, shows itself either as what may be called\nreflective knowledge, or as what, in a very wide sense of the word, may be\ncalled descriptive knowledge. Of an attempt at organized reflective\nknowledge, general philosophy is the typical example. Of highly developed descriptive knowledge, analytical mechanics may be instanced as a\nclassical representative. The goal of reflective knowledge is a completed\nmetaphysic and ethic. The goal of descriptive knowledge is a completed\nnatural science. Neither goal can be completely attained in finite time by\nbeings situated as we men are ; both goals must be regarded as in some\nmeasure approachable, by every rational inquirer.\n\"We actually\ncan ; take\nunder\nwithout\nreflection\nwe canno asstep\nlittleindothought,\nour mental\nworkhuman\nwithoutconditions,\nan effort\nto describe what we call the nature of external reality. Philosophy is an\neffort toward a consistent and thorough-going reflection upon the presup ositions oflife and of thought. But every man is unconsciously a\nphilosopher from the moment he begins, as every rational being does, to\nreflect. Natural science is organized knowledge about the external world.\nBut every man, whether he is conscious of the fact or not, actually begins\nthe study of natural science from the moment he begins to observe. And\nso the inevitable presupposition of our conscious life is that both sorts of\nknowledge are possible, and, in us men, are progressively perfectible. As\na fact, as I have just said, both sorts of knowledge go together, and are\nnever, except by abstraction, to be divorced from one another, although\nthe abstraction which notes their actual contrast, and which organizes\n\n"}
{"page": 709, "printed_page": null, "text": "PSYCHOLOGY\n\nAND\n\nPHYSIOLOGY.\n\n689\n\nthem into seemingly separate systems of knowledge, is indeed useful and\ninevitable.\nIn studying philosophy one reflects, but still reflects concerning what\nthe world of facts, which is the object of descriptive science, has suggested\nto one's mind. So the philosopher, like the student of natural truth,\nmust have his descriptive science of facts in mind. Only he describes in\norder that he may thereby the morq wisely reflect — i.e., he studies facts\nto find out, if possible, their significance. On the other hand, in studying\nnatural science, one describes — that is, one notes, classifies, and brings\ninto orderly relation masses of facts. But as one does this one must,\nindeed, continually reflect as one goes upon the meaning of one's own\nthoughts ; for without such inner considerateness outer observation would\ncome to nothing. Yet here, while reflective and descriptive knowledge\nare once more combined, it is now the reflection which serves as a handmaid to the descriptive process. One is considerate, in order that one may\nget the facts in hand. Both natural science and philosophy, therefore,\nunite reflective with descriptive knowledge, but in sharply contrasting\nways. Natural science reflects only in order that it may describe the\nfacts of the world. Philosophy describes the outer world only as a means\ntoward the end of reflecting upon the meaning of truth. And so, once\nmore, despite the actually inseparable connection of reflective and descriptive knowledge, we have a right to say, as we just said, that philosophy is\nthe embodiment of reflective, natural science, as such, of descriptive\nknowledge.\nTo come still a little nearer to our present distinction. I reflect when\nI ask myself the question, What do I mean by this my thought, my\nbelief, my intent, my plan, my passion, my life, my insight, my world ?\nWhatever is for my consciousness may as such be made the topic of reflective insight ; and, conversely, in so far as I reflect, I regard the truth\nin so far as it is just truth for consciousness, and, in fact, in so far as it is a\ntruth for my consciousness, and not in so far as it is truth beyond my\nconsciousness. The world of self-consciousness, as such, is the world of\nreflection ; and, conversely, I can reflect only upon what belongs to the\nworld of self -consciousness as such.\nLogic is an excellent example of a department of reflective knowledge.\nBecome fully conscious of what you mean when you think that all men are\nmortal, and you reflectively see that you can otherwise embody the same\nmeaning by saying that no immortals are men. For reflection, then, selfconsciousness is the necessary and sufficient condition. And each of us\nreflects only at home — within what he regards as his own hidden and solitary finite selfhood. Eeflection, as such, can be conveyed in finished form\nto nobody else. Nobody can observe from without a reflective truth.\nOn the other hand, descriptive truth, as such, is definable as the truth\nwhich can be 44verified by many observers, either successively or together.\n\n"}
{"page": 710, "printed_page": null, "text": "690\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nDescription is the setting forth of the nature of facts in so far forth as all\nobservers, apart from their individual reflections, give the same account of\nthese facts. The world of reflection is the world for me. The world of\ndescription is the world for us. When I describe facts I lay aside for the\ntime, as far as possible, the interfering constructive tendencies of my individual reflection. I care not how tilings are for me, unless they are also\nso for you. The external world is definable as the truth that finite\nbeings explicitly share in common, and that they know only so far as they\ndo share it in common. Destroy all finite beings save one, or cut off nil\ncommunication among finite beings, and you do not touch, for the insight\nof the survivor or of the isolated beings, whatever reflective truth happens\nto be known, nor do you exclude the possibility of further reflective progress. But what you then do destroy is the basis for any further real definition of a knowledge of external truth, of physical fact, as such. For, I\nrepeat, description of facts is essentially a social process. The external\nworld of fact is definable as the world that the people tell about, and as\nthe world that, in the end, they tend, all of them, to describe in the same\nway.\nComplete reflective knowledge I should then get if I could grow up to\nfull self-consciousness. Complete descriptive knowledge I should get if\nI could learn what would be common to the experiences of all possible\nobservers of the truths that are themselves common objects for all finite\nselves. Think for yourself is the maxim of reflective knowledge. Compare observations, describe, and verify — this is the maxim of descriptive\nknowledge. The multitude of observers forms the presupposition of\ndescriptive science, and the external truth is what, in the end, proves to\nbe the ideally common object for them all. The single self-consciousness\nis the presupposition of reflective knowledge, and the truth is, in the end,\nwhat this self-consciousness becomes aware of for itself.\nSuch is the bare outline of the contrast between two forms of knowledge which, from a higher point of view than the human, may, and in\nmy opinion must, once more coalesce, but which, from our human point\nof view, remain stubbornly distinct. Logic, ethics, metaphysics are\nprimarily concerned with reflective truth, which for each of us must be\nworked out in self-consciousness. Physical science is concerned with a\ntruth which can be reached only by a ceaselessly continued comparison of\nthe accounts which endlessly numerous observers give of what has come\nto their conscious notice. That which in the long run they tend to\ndescribe in the same way, is here the humanly accessible truth.\nIII.\nAnd now for psychology. Psychology is the natural science, or the\nattempted natural science, which endeavors, as it were, to describe the\n\n"}
{"page": 711, "printed_page": null, "text": "PSYCHOLOGY\n\nAM>\n\nPHYSIOLOGY.\n\n691\n\nlife of the thinking being ; in other words, to describe the life of the being\nwho is himself the subject for whom the world of inner or reflective truth\nexists. Plainly such a science is, amongst sciences, in an anomalous position. Its topic is the life of a conscious — that is, of a reflective — being.\nIts method is that of trying, not like metaphysics or logic to reflect upon\nthe meaning of his inner life, but, like physics, to describe him as he is\nknown or knowable in a relatively external way. If he, the thinking subject, studies psychology, he is invited, without losing hold on his own\nexistence as a conscious self, to see his life ' ' as others see it,\" to regard\nhimself not only as the self-knowing, reflective being of the inner life,\nbut also as the object of the social consciousness, of the common observation of his fellows.\nHow is this possible ?\nOnly, so I answer, only in so far as there actually exists in the world\nof truth an intimate correlation between what self-consciousness reflectively discovers in the inner life of the individual, and what the common\nconsciousness of mankind detects somewhere in the describable processes\nof the physical world. Were there no such correlation discoverable, there\nwould be no psychology possible, but only metaphysical, logical, ethical\nreflection. There is no \"science of the laws of mental life \" possible for\nthe subject himself alone, in his reflective isolation. For when he reflects\nalone he discovers truth indeed, but logical truth, ethical truth, metaphysical truth — never truth about the natural history of his own being.\nHe must \" see himself as others see him\" before his inner life can become\na topic for a natural science at all. Now he knows himself indeed, but\nnot as an object for general observation, only as the subject of the inner\nlife. And this inner life, again, has infinite meaning indeed, but, so far\nas the individual subject reflectively knows it, it conforms to no observable\nnatural laws, because it is so far not observable from without, and is no\nobject of the common human experience at all. On the other hand his\nfellows know, not the subject of his inner life at all, but a complex phenomenon called his bodily functions, which are a proper topic for physiological knowledge. How then, I once more ask, is a psychology, a science of the subject in so far as he can be treated as if he were also an\nobject for the common observation of his fellows — how is such a science\nconceivable ? How can there be a descriptive knowledge of the life of the\nvery subject of reflective knowledge ? And I answer once more : Only by\nvirtue of a correlation, which experience indeed shows to be real, but\nwithout which no psychological science would be a priori possible — only\nby a correlation which actually ties the whole inner life of the reflective\nbeing to the changing states of a describable physical process, only thus\nis a psychology conceivable. Apart from an embodiment, a manifestation\nof the inner life in a psychophysical process, there would be no psychology thinkable. For only thus, in a two-fold process, could we have in the\n\n"}
{"page": 712, "printed_page": null, "text": "692\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nworld of truth a life that, seen from within, is the life of a self, and that\nat the same time can, in one of its aspects, be seen from without.\nThis necessity for a correlation such as shall unite the world of reflective insight with the world of descriptive knowledge, such as shall make\nthe man who knows himself (hut not from the point of view of natural\nscience) also, in another aspect, a being who can be an object for others —\nthis necessity is, I insist, a condition prior for any psychology. That the\ncorrelation in question is given us in case of the nervous system is a matter\nof experience. As a fact, furthermore, it is by the pathological study of\ndefective nervous functions in case of disease, by the comparative study of\nthe nervous functions in man and the animals, and by the experimental\nstudy of complex nervous functions in the healthy man, that we have of\nlate come for the first time to have a developed notion of what the future\nscience of psychophysics is to be. And I have merely insisted, in the foregoing paper, upon the thought that if there is ever to be any knowledge\nof the inner life except such as reflective philosophy has attempted, that\nknowledge must necessarily take the form of psychophysics. And that\nsuch a science may come to pass, every student and lover of human nature\nin its natural — i.e., in its socially accessible — aspects must needs devoutly\nhope.\nDISCUSSION.\nProfessor Ormond : I wish to express my high appreciation of Professor Royce's\npaper. It is characteristically able and clear. It seems to me. however, that he makes\nthe distinction between the spheres of description and reflection too absolute. We are\nin danger of having our universe cleft into two incommunicable parts. Besides, the\ndistinction tends to isolate the individual consciousness so far as it is an organ of reflection. My own preference is to regard the distinction as merely relative. Consciousness\nis the organ of both, and it develops its descriptive and reflective categories in a process\nwhich is continuous. I do not think that we can regard our categories of reflection as\nbeing any less objective or universal than our categories of description. It is one world\nthat presents itself to our consciousness, but in the order of knowledge the material and\ndescriptive is first, and then the spiritual. The basis of this duality of categories must,\nI think, be sought in the constitution of the soul itself.\nDr. Boardman complimented the paper highly, but dissented from the belief that\npsychology needs physiology as a basis. He remarked : \" Have Plato and Aristotle\ndone nothing in psychology r We all greatly value the contributions of modern physiology to psychology. All the sciences constitute one sisterhood. Fach contributes\nto the advantage of all. Especially has neurology brought a most acceptable offering.\nBut it is possible greatly to exaggerate the value of the additions to our knowledge of\nthe soul thence derived. Ancient philosophy, exploring chiefly consciousness, made\nvast acquisitions and searched many of the deepest foundations of knowledge.\"\nDr. Shorey held that the new psychology has not yet shown results that render\nit worthy of usurping the place of the old.\nDr. McCosh believed in pure mental science and pure physical science ; that each\ncan throw light upon the other, but that, so far, investigation had not shown a close\nconnection between them.\n\n"}
{"page": 713, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE SOUL AS BASAL\n\nTHE\n\nSOUL\n\nAS\n\nBY PROFESSOR\n\nTHE\n\nCONCEPT\n\nOF RATIONAL\n\nBASAL\nCONCEPT\nPSYCHOLOGY.\n\nG. T. ORMOND,\n\nOF PRINCETON\n\nPSYCHOLOGY.\n\nOF\n\n693\n\nRATIONAL\n\nUNIVERSITY.\n\nPart I. — Psychology and the Postulate of the Soul.\n\nIn modern psychology the question of the relation of the idea of the\nsoul as a permanent subject of conscious experience, to the problems of\npsychic science, has been variously answered. Among empiric.il psychologists itis common to take the position that except as a species of working\nhypothesis the idea of a soul has no value for psychology. In dealing\nwith mental phenomena it is conceded that there is a need for the assumption of some unitary principle as a thread to hold particulars together,\nbut beyond this it is said psychology has no more concern with a soul in\nman than physics has with a soul in nature. Without any disposition to\ndeny that it may be possible, within certain limits, to ignore the problem\nof the soul without serious detriment, we are concerned here to maintain\nthat a point will be reached where the laissez faire principle must break\ndown. In their initial stages all sciences may confine themselves to\nempirical generalization from phenomena, and in these processes it may\nnot be necessary to look deeper than the facts and relations of the external\nseries. But every science that progresses far enough inevitably reaches a\npoint where it ceases to be purely empirical and tends to become rational.\nKeflection will show that this transition is made when the science in question begins to transcend the phenomenal and to achieve an idea of the\nnature that underlies the class of facts with which it deals.\nMost obviously does the law of which we are speaking apply to psychology. In consciousness not only do we come upon phenomena, but\nwe are also conscious of the bond that holds them together. Consciousness is aware of the unitary principle at its basis, and cannot, therefore, dismiss it as a mere assumption.\nNow while the unitary principle forces recognition, it has been thought\nthat all the requirements of psychology will be met by simply postulating\nthis unitary principle while dismissing all attempts to determine its\nnature. The character of our consciousness, however, renders all such\ncompromises nugatory. Consciousness bears witness not merely to some\nunitary principle, but to one of a specific character; namely, the idea of\nself. The unity of consciousness inevitably ripens into the conscious\nidea of self as a subject and bearer of the conscious life. The problem\nhere, then, is not that of an abstract unitary principle, but rather that of\na concrete subject and bearer of conscious experience.\nNow, there are certain predicates which normally and necessarily\nattach themselves to this subject.\nAmong these are unity, personality,\n\n"}
{"page": 714, "printed_page": null, "text": "694\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nindividuality, and persistent identity. Psychology finds itself unable to\nconceive these attributes as being predicable of a mere flowing stream or\nseries of conscious states. Professor James, who treats the question with\nmuch more than the ordinary insight, only escapes the difficulties of the\n\" serial \" theory by postulating a dualism between the objective flowing stream and a passing subjective \"thought\" which assumes all the\ncharacteristic functions of a permanent and transcendent ego; so that\nfrom James* point of view there is not merely a stream of states, but a\nvirtually persistent self that owns the stream and can contemplate it forward and backward. James, it is true, thinks he has discovered a substitute for the soul in his perishing thought which knows itself and the\nstream and passes on its possessions as a heritage to the thought that\nreigns after it has been gathered to its fathers. But the old-fashioned\nsoul is dispensed with in appearance only, and not in reality. For when\nwe sum up the duties which this thought is called on to perform, we find\nit clothed in all the trappings and prerogatives of a full-fledged and richly\ndowered soul. James' \"passing thought\" is just the soul itself represented in the form of one of its manifestations ; for it is evident that the\nsoul does think all the things that this \"thought\" thinks, aud that in\naddition it supplies a reason, where James can supply none, why \"the\nsuccessive passing thoughts should inherit each other's possessions.\"\nThe nature of the demand for the soul as basal concept in psychology\nmay be indicated as follows : An organic self-consciousness like man's\nrequires not simply a principle of abstract unity, but a bearer of concrete\nattributes like personality and individuality. In short, the bearer of\nself-consciousness must be a being and not a mere abstract force or principle. For selfhood, which includes the maintenance of personality and\nindividuality of the conscious subject, can only exist, as Lotze subtly\nargues, in a reality that has the capacity of internal reaction or self-assertion against that which would impair its individuality ; and in this capacity\nwe find the germ out of which the idea of the soul rationally develops.\nConsciousness presents a trinity of manifestations — emotional, volitional,\nand intellectual. It also reveals a unitary principle which, as we have\nseen, can be adequately conceived only in the idea of a subject. Now if\nwe refer consciousness back to the soul as its spring, we will be able to\nconnect its threefold manifestation with that capacity for internal reaction\nwhich we have seen to be essential to the soul's life. We thus arrive at\nthe notion of the soul as the spring of consciousness and the subject of a\ntrinity of manifestations — emotion, volition, and intellection. The manifestations as a whole are to be conceived in one sense after Herbart, as the\nefforts of the soul toward self-preservation and self -maintenance ; in\nanother and higher sense, as the efforts of the soul toward the self-realization of its own inherent activity. We arrive, then, at the notion of the\nbearer of consciousness as a self-maintaining being which contains a syn-\n\n"}
{"page": 715, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE SOUL\n\nAS BASAL\n\nCONCEPT\n\nOF RATIONAL\n\nPSYCHOLOGY.\n\n695\n\nthesis of intelligence, emotion, and will. This synthesis expresses itself in\npersonal manifestations, and it is contained in the self-maintaining individuality of the concrete subject of experience.\nThe idea of the soul that then arises is that of a real bearer of the\nwhole concrete life of man. No abstract principle whatever is an adequate basis for personality and individuality. Man cannot regard himself\nas a mere phenomenon, for his own nature forces on him the distinction\nbetween phenomenon and ground, and this reveals to him the metaphysical quality of his being. The only postulate that satisfies the whole demand of the case is that of the soul as the metaphysical ground and\nsubject of the whole concrete manifestation of our conscious life.\nThe means by which the soul reveals itself to our apprehension cannot\nbe elaborated here. They fall into two categories — the intuitive and the\nreflective. The intuitive embrace the immediate self -revelations, and may\nbe grouped under three heads : (1) Self-feeling. (2) Self-perception. (3)\nSelf-ideation. Self-feeling is the indefinite apprehension of self that\naccompanies the simple exercises of sense. Self-perception is the more\ndefinite self-reaction that accompanies the perception of objects in which,\nas McCosh says, the soul is aware of itself in a particular state. The intuitive phase of self-ideation is the immediate consciousness of our unitary\npersonality which accompanies the higher exercises of our intelligence.\nIt is the immediate aspect of the rational self-consciousness.\nThe reflective knowledge of the soul arises out of the indirect study of\nits manifestations. It emerges when we reflect upon our conscious life as\na whole and seek its rational explanation. Through this reflection we\nconstruct from the data of intuition that notion of the soul, as the metaphysical ground and subject of experience, which, as we have maintained,\nmust constitute the basal concept of psychology in its rational stage.\nPart II. — A Theory of the Soul and its Implications.\n\nThe idea of the soul as developed in the first part of this discussion\nleaves undetermined its essential relations and its type. The main problems as to the soul's relations are (1) the connection of the material and\nspiritual in the sphere of the soul-life, and (2) the dependence of the soul\non some absolute ground of its existence. The first problem can be solved\nonly by achieving some definite conception of the psychic constitution,\nand this will in turn assist us in conceiving the soul's relation to the absolute ground. The dependence of the soul on the corporeal is a truth that\nall the facts of experience concur to demonstrate. Physiology shows that\nthe physical is the basis, or at least a necessary condition, of the psychic.\nThis result has on the one hand been materialistically construed to signify that the psychic has no distinctive reality of its own, but is a mere\nphenomenon of matter. Spiritualism, on the other hand, in order to\nescape materialism, has felt obliged, with Berkeley, to virtually deny the\n\n"}
{"page": 716, "printed_page": null, "text": "696\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nreality of the material by reducing it to a mere psychic phenomenon.\nNow, I believe in a spiritualistic metaphysics as supplying the only adequate\ntheory of the ultimate reality of things. But it seems to me that the\nessential requirements of spiritualism are more completely satisfied by the\nfollowing postulates, which cannot be developed here, than by any purely\nmonistic theory, whether materialistic or spiritualistic :\n(1) That the absolute ground of existence is a spiritual nature in which\nthe dualism between the material and spiritual, that dominates the relative sphere, lapses.\n(2) That in the relative, which is to be conceived as resting upon and\ngenerated from the absolute, a dualism emerges between matter and spirit,\nand that the order of development is first the material and then the\nspiritual.\n(3) That in the relative sphere, therefore, there is a relative dependence\nof the spiritual upon the material, matter being everywhere an indispensable ground of spiritual manifestation.\nNow, while we reject materialism which construes the dependence of\nspirit on matter in an absolute sense, and thus raises matter to the position\nof the absolute, we cannot, on the other hand, regard the idea of the\nsoul as a purely spiritual monad as satisfactory. We reject it here mainly\non two grounds : (1) Because it virtually denies the relative dependence\nof the spiritual upon the material and reduces matter to a mere psychic\nphenomenon ; (2) because it treats the relation of the soul to the material\nin a purely external and therefore unsatisfactory manner.\nWe must, it seems to me, in order to really solve the psychic problem,\nconceive the soul not as a spiritual monad, but as a duad. The spring of\nthe soul's unitary and conscious life must, of course, be regarded as a\nspiritual principle. But there is no pure spiritual manifestation in the\nrelative sphere, but everywhere the conscious life of the soul is held in\ntemporal and mechanical categories. It falls into a series, follows\nthe temporal order, and only escapes for an instant from its empirical and\ntemporal self when it retires into the citadel of what the Kantians call\nthe \" pure ego.\"\nThis close dependence on the material cannot be adequately explained\nby representing the soul as a self-contained spiritual individual which\nreacts externally upon a material substance outside of itself. Rather we\nmust use our postulate of a spiritualistic absolute to deny the Cartesian\ndualism which raises an absolute barrier between matter and spirit, and\nto assert that the distinction between them is only relative, while they are\none in the absolute.\nThis will enable us to conceive the soul as a synthesis of material and\nspiritual principles. The real nexus between spirit and matter must be\nsought in the sphere of the atoms, and the psychic duad may be represented as arising out of the nuptials which join a material atom and a\n\n"}
{"page": 717, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE SOUL AS BASAL\n\nCONCEPT? OF RATIONAL\n\nPSYCHO LOOT.\n\n697\n\nspiritual principle in a bond which no force but that of the absolute can\npart asunder.\nThis duad is to be conceived as the atomic nucleus of the soul's life.\nOut of it, by virtue of its spiritual principle, spring those attributes which\nhave been dealt with in the first part of this discussion. Out of it, by\nvirtue of the psychic synthesis of the material and spiritual, springs the\ninseparable connection of the life of the soul with the material, its immersion in the forms and categories of space and time and sense.\nDeductions from the Duality of the Soul's Constitution.\nFrom the dual idea of the soul as developed above, a number of deductions may be made. We shall notice only four. In the first place, it\nleads (1) to a conception of the law of the soul's progress or development\nwhich is of the highest pedagogical importance. Assuming that, in the\nrelative sphere to which our life belongs, the material is the basis of the\nspiritual, and that the soul contains a synthesis of material and spiritual\nprinciples, it follows that the progress of the soul-life will be from a stage\nin which the material dominates the life, to a goal in which the spiritual\nshall dominate and transform the material. This will be the common law\nin the spheres of the mental, moral, and aestheti co-religious. In each the\npsyche will pass ideally through three stages, which we may designate the\nsensuous, the sensatio-rational, and the rational. But underlying this\ntrinity of stages in the soul's evolution will rest, as the motive-spring out\nof which it emerges, the duality of the soul's constitution, giving rise to\nan everlasting struggle of the spiritual, which contains all the ideal norms,\nto transform the material and to lift the soul to higher stages of rational\nand spiritual life.\n(2) The Knowledge of the Soul. — In this dual conception of the soul may\nbe found a ground of reconciliation between apparently inconsistent processes of knowledge. In the sphere of cognition we find a duality. The\nsoul seems to construct its world out of its own resources, and on this subjective idealism founds. But the objective character of its apprehensions\nis just as coercive, and it cannot escape the conviction that its cognitions\nare perceptions of real objects. The key to the dilemma is to be found in\nthe fact that the material principle in the soul supplies it with categories\nthat are common to it and to its objective environment. The world it\napprehends is therefore a real world, objective to itself, although the\nprocess by which it apprehends it is subjective. Again, the complete\nmethod of science is dual — a synthesis of empirical and rational processes\nwhich play into each other's hands. This empirico-rational interplay can\nbe rationally grounded only in a dual conception of the soul's nature.\nFor if the soul were monal in its constitution, the process of knowledge\nought also to be monal. But it is essentially dual — a fact that implies a\ndual constitution of the subject of knowledge.\n\n"}
{"page": 718, "printed_page": null, "text": "698\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\n(3) The Freedom of the Soul.— The dual idea of the soul has also a\nbearing on the problem of freedom. Empirical psychology can go so far\nas to identify voluntary choice with self-determination in view of alternatives, among which the choice is the exercise of a selective function. Now\nself-determination is in form free determination. But what seems to be\nfreedom lapses into a species of necessity in view of the fact that the life\nof the soul belongs to the temporal series in which preceding choices act\nas factors in determining choices that follow. A man cannot escape his\nempirical character, which holds him to the series and its law. Now,\nwere the soul a monal substance there would be no help for this. But\nsince it is dual, and its history is to be conceived as a struggle of a spiritual principle to overcome and transform the material, freedom may be\nrepresented as the law of the spiritual, and may be teleologically conceived\nas the end and goal of the whole spiritual struggle of the individual. We\nhave an intimation of what this means, in conscience, which imposes its\nethical standard as an ideal law upon the actual and empirical, and we\nhave only to enlarge our conception so as. to include the whole rational\nand spiritual nature of man in the ideal sphere in order to see how the\nachievement of freedom becomes the great and all-absorbing business of\nthe whole life of man.\n(4) The Destiny of the Soul. — What Lotze calls considerations of value —\nthat is, reasons arising from our estimates of the spiritual worth of things\n— have always borne strongly, especially when reinforced by the faith and\nsentiments of religion, in favor of the postulate of immortality ; yet science\nhas never been able to clearly conceive the possibility of the soul's survival\nof the body. The inductions of physiology seem to bear so strongly in\nfavor of the absolute dependence of psychic phenomena on the body as to\nvirtually overcome and neutralize in advance all considerations of value.\nIt seems to me, however, that much of the force of this negative implication has been due to the fact that no distinct conception of any type of\nsoul-life apart from the bodily organism has seemed possible. This want\nis supplied by the dual concept of the psyche developed here. It not only\ngives a definite concept of the psyche, analogous to the atomic conception\nof matter, but it also supplies a basis for a distinction between what we\nmay call the essential and the modal conditions of the soul's life. The\nessential conditions rest in the synthesis of the psychic atom and its dependence on the absolute, while that rolled-up neurotic knot which we call our\nbrain is to be regarded as a modal condition of the present form of the\nsoul's manifested life. Once distinguish between the atomic constitution\nof the soul and the organized material conditions in which it manifests\nits life, and the scientific presumption will, I think, be reversed. For I\nsee no reason why it should not be intrinsically as difficult to conceive\nthe destruction of the soul atom as it is conceded to be to conceive the\ndestruction of an atom of matter.\n\nThe dual type enables us also to con-\n\n"}
{"page": 719, "printed_page": null, "text": "DISCUSSION.\n\n699\n\nceive a possible mode of future existence. For if the soul carry its dual\nconstitution with it, not only is it secured from the danger of losing itself\nin the absolute, but it has the nucleus of organization within itself, and\nmay go on everlastingly weaving for itself temporal garments for its phenomenal life. We may possibly find here a philosophic basis for the doctrine of a resurrection of the body. At all events the field will be cleared\nfor the considerations of value to assert their full power over the thoughts\nand convictions of men.\n\nDISCUSSION.\nDr. Laws dissented from the views of the paper. A principle underlies. The human\nmind is incapable of anything apart from its phenomena or its appearances. Two\ngroups of facts come within apprehension of consciousness. In the first group every\nobject may be quantitatively determined ; in the second, there is no object which may\nbe quantitatively determined. Dissented from the amalgamation of the two groups.\nOur knowledge of God is by inference and not by intuition. The soul is a substantial\nentity .\nDk. Lummis : A satisfactory definition of the soul is conscious entity; of matter,\nextended entity. Things are cognized concretely; not motion, but moving things. There\nis no such thing as unconsciousness ; an unconscious spirit is unthinkable. Phenomena\nexist only when present with intelligence.\nPresident Boardmax : As to the first part of the learned essay. Its able argument\nfor the reality of the soul in distinction from matter was obviously conclusive. Such\nreality, the very soul itself, is a direct object of consciousness. Its existence is a primitive intuition If we do not know our mental existence we know nothing. Self existence is the fundamental intuition. No thought is possible without this underlying\nground. Not activities or states alone, but the soul itself, is directly known in all selfconsciousness. As to the second part of the essay, there might be much more question.\nThe synthesis of mind and body proposed, said to be derived in some way from the conception of the Logos, was not clear That a profound idea was involved in the conception\nof the Logos, whether as embodied, tangible, concrete thought, or still higher as designating the incarnate Godhead, was obvious. But it seemed to the speaker unphilosophical to blend, confound, and mix mind and matter in the way which seemed to be\nproposed in the essay. It was an intermarriage, an amalgamation unknown to science.\nNo sucli tertium quid, which is neither mind nor matter, could in the nature of things\nexist. It was contrary to consciousness, which directly affirms the existence of both,\nand their diversity, wide apart as the poles of existence. The essay affirmed the neces\nsity of such an hypothesis to bridge over the chasm between mind and matter, and so\nexplain their interaction one upon the other. The speaker felt no such necessity. He\nbelieved such interaction of matter and mind to be an ultimate fact, and, like all other\nultimate facts, to need no further explanation. To go beyond the ultimate is a contradiction in terms.\nDr. Lewis : I ask Professor Ormond if I am correct in the saying that the \" soul is\na unitary principle which holds together threads of ideas \" ; or, in other words, that the\nsoul brings into oneness successive series of ideational experiences? \\Answer. — Not\nexactly; well, yes, practically.] Knowledge in the main is the product of senseimpression, and it is probable that of our ideas but a very few are from any other source.\nThe senses are not referred to in the paper as being of value, singly or conjointly, in the\nprocess of unifying successive series of ideas.\nThat this is an oversight is the more probable when we consider that one sense or endorgan is not generally sufficient to gather and send over its nerve to the idea-making\nregion of the cerebral cortex a sufficiently forceful impression of an object to elaborate\ntherefrom a finished idea. This is more satisfactorily accomplished when neural energy\narrives in the cortical centers from two or more of the senses.\nTo hold that this neural\n\n"}
{"page": 720, "printed_page": null, "text": "700\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nenergy or successive series of ideational processes is changed into comprehended ideas\nby that being denominated the soul, is more arbitrary than to assume that we have a\nvery proficient unitary principle, which Professor Ormond calls the soul, in the combined\naction of the senses, which is presumptively an emanation from the individual senseenergies.\nThe soul, or that mysterious something which changes an unconscious idea into a\nconscious one, and is continuously acting upon ideas in all sentient beings in series, to\nthe end of bringing about a state of conscious experience, is problematical, hypothetical— yea, wholly inexplicable, save in the sense sum total of neural energy proceeding\nfrom the special senses. We have, when these unite their forces as changed by the\ngray matter, a conscious whole, a conscience — yes, if you please, a soul.\nDu. Black expressed his surprise at the revival of the doctrine of duality by the most\nconservative university (Princeton) of this country. Laws of matter are irreversible.\nIf the thought of the essay were carried out to its ultimate issues it would concede the\nimmortality of the animal and vegetable world, a doctrine which the speaker was astonished to hear proceeding from Princeton.\nDr. Foster : We are always confronted with a dualism which takes the form of\na conflict between mind and matter. He suggested that there is a third ground or\nmedium in which mind and matter originate. This third ground or matrix is thought,\nwhich is capable of thinking both matter and mind.\nMr. Sanders expressed the belief that we have extra senses besides \" the five senses.\"\nbut that they are now closed. The move of this age should be to open these closed\nsenses.\n\nTHE\nTHEORY\nOF THE\nFIRST\nPRINCIPLE\nIN THE\nELEVENTH BOOK OF ARISTOTLE'S METAPHYSICS.\nBY\n\nDE. AUGUSTINE\n\nF. HEWIT,\nOF THE CATHOLIC\nWASHINGTON, D. C.\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nThe eleventh book of Aristotle's Metaphysics is the most interesting\nand important part of the whole work. In the closing books of the Metaphysics, Aristotle sums up and brings to a focus the previous speculations of his physics and metaphysics, in what is, properly speaking, his\nontology. In the tenth book he reasons of that kind of imperfect being,\nwhich is called being in a certain relative sense. It is being, inasmuch\nas it presents an object of apprehension and thought, is something thinkable, and yet it is not anything which subsists in and by itself ; it is only\nan appurtenance, a relation, or even a merely negative notion, such as\n\" the not white \" or \" the not straight \" ; which is to be referred to that\nwhich is being in the perfectly real sense. This perfect being, having its\nconcrete, subsisting essence in itself, and when complete by itself, is\nsubstance.\nIn the eleventh book Aristotle proposes his theory of substance as that\nwhich is primary and fundamental in ontology. His ultimate object is\nto discover its first principles and causes, to determine its reason of being\nand its origin. He sets out, therefore, to trace back all modes, qualities,\nmovements, all essence and nature, all form and matter, all relations\nand order, to the first principle and cause, and to the final cause, from\n\n"}
{"page": 721, "printed_page": null, "text": "FIRST\n\nPRINCIPLE\n\nIN ARISTOTLE'S\n\nMETAPHYSICS.\n\n701\n\nwhich substantial being and its consequences depend, in respect to\nactual existence, energy, and every kind of movement.\nThe science which embraces all these topics — viz. : ontology or general\nmetaphysics — is called by Aristotle wisdom, primal philosophy. It is the\nscience of the deepest and universal reasons which are the underlying and\ndominant principles of all the particular sciences. Aristotle finds that\nthe preceding philosophers had recognized yet failed to solve the great\nproblem of ontology, viz. : the first principle and cause of all being,\nespecially of substance, subsisting under specific forms, and also underlying all phenomena. The question, What, whence, and wherefore is\nthe force energizing in the universe multifariously, and giving the spring\nto all its movements from some beginning or from eternity ? remained in\nAristotle's view unanswered. If it is unanswerable, then metaphysics\nis an impossible science. Aristotle insists that it is in the highest sense\nscience, and that its principal part is the theory of substance. He makes\na threefold division of substance — into sensible substance which is corruptible, sensible substance which is incorruptible and subject only to\nthe change of local motion, and substance which is immovable, unchangeable, free from all contingency and potentiality. Corruptible substances are subject to transmutations in respect to their quiddity, quality,\nquantity, and location. There is, therefore, in them an element of contingency, acapacity which is not in itself a sufficient reason of coming\ninto act ; a potency or potentiality which is a kind of receptacle of substantial forms, a kind of term for an active power, a first matter, as it is\ncalled, and which is a first element and constitutive principle of every\nessence and nature, except that of God. The first matter of incorruptible\nsubstances — viz. : of the heavens and their spheres — is, however, different\nfrom the matter of the substances whose primary and simple forms were\nsupposed to be earth, air, fire, and water ; and hence it is often called in\nAristotelian physics by the name of \" Fifth Matter/'\nThe next step in the argument of Aristotle is to the consideration of\nthe immovable being as the principle and cause of all motion in the universe— i.e., of all transmutations and every kind of transition from potentiality into act, of capacity into energy. The argument is based on\na principle which is found everywhere in Aristotle's metaphysics, that\npotential being can be reduced to act only by the application of motive\npower from a being already in act. Ontologically, act is prior to\npotency, and as an infinite series of received and transmitted movements\nhas in it no sufficient reason of its energy, no ultimate principle and cause\nof motion, it is necessary to go back to a first mover. Evidently the first\nmover cannot have any prior principle and cause from which he receives\nany kind of being in act, any active power, any perfection. His essence\nis most perfect and most pure act and energy, without any mixture of\npotentiality, without any capacity for change into something better or\n\n"}
{"page": 722, "printed_page": null, "text": "702\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nworse.\nHe is unchangeable and immovable in his eternal and infinite\nplenitude of being.\nAristotle proceeds to prove that this supreme being whose essence is\nenergy can have nothing material and corporeal in his nature. The only\nkind of being in the universe, depending from him which furnishes an\nanalogical concept of his nature, is intelligence and will. He is the intelligible and the intelligent, the lovable and the loving, in his essence ; and\nhis life is beatitude in the contemplation with complacency of the best —\nthat is, of his own being ; the object of intellectual cognition, and of the\nloving complacency of the will. Subject and object in this most pure act\nare identical in a perfect, indivisible unity.\nThe question concerning the relation of the universe to the supreme\nbeing as its first mover, comes next. As Aristotle teaches that God rests\nimmovably in himself in a most pure and perfect act of contemplation,\nso also he affirms that the universe is in a perpetual motion toward the\nsame object of intelligence and love, but in different modes, according to\nthe different natures of its various substances ; rational beings consciously,\nthe rest unconsciously. That is, Aristotle presents the idea of God as\nfinal cause most prominently. It is well known that many philosophers\ninterpret him as denying or ignoring any exercise of intelligent and voluntary energy in God, as first efficient cause, either of the movement and\norder of the universe, or of its first being. In that case, the attractive\nforce which is the first principle of all movement from potential into\nactual being must be both necessary and unconscious. Consequently,\nthere can be no love of God toward the beings who depend from him, no\nprovidence over them, no relation of friendship between men and God,\nand no religion. Here, I conceive, lies the principal field of discussion.\nAs it is the object of this paper merely to introduce this discussion, I will\nnot engage in it. I will merely take the liberty of suggesting that it is\nimportant to discuss thoroughly threje distinct topics :\nFirst. What is explicitly affirmed and argued by Aristotle in respect to\nefficient causality in the supreme being.\nSecond. What is implicitly contained in his metaphysical and moral\ntreatises.\nTliird. What is virtually contained in them — i.e.., deducible from his\npremises by reasoning, or, at least, capable of being proved to be not in\ncontradiction to his principles and conclusions, but rather in harmony\nwith them, and to be a further development of theodicy on his lines, and\naccording to his methods. It is evident that so far as it can be fairly\nproved that the philosophy of Aristotle is in harmony with Christian\nnatural theology, a great gain accrues to the cause of pure Christian theism. And it is needless to add that the study and elucidation of the\nworks of the great Grecian sage are worthy of the best efforts of scholars.\n\n"}
{"page": 723, "printed_page": null, "text": "SELF-ACTIVITY\n\nIN EDUCATION.\n\n703\n\nDISCUSSION.\nBishop Keane : Aristotle means that God acts consciously. Considered the idea of\nthe tertium quid being \" thought,\" an absurdity.\nDr. Harris agreed with Dr. Hewit's thesis. Aristotle's book was the foundation of\nscholasticism. God is a personal being ; hence man also, a personal being. Rational\npsychology reaches this point.\nDr. Foster : The main question is whether God is a conscious being. It is true that\nthought thinks itself, and hence all things else. He did not agree with Bishop Keane\nthat there was no antagonism between mind and matter.\nDr. Ormond : How does the manifestation of a perfect being as illustrated from the\ncreation of the purus actus come to change into an imperfect being ?\n\nSELF-ACTIVITY\nBY\n\nDR.\n\nJ. G.\n\nSCHURMAN,\n\nIN EDUCATION.\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF\n\nCORNELL\n\nUNIVERSITY.\n\nI observe that in the history of psychology two views of the nature of\nmind have always prevailed. There is the sensationalist theory, and there\nis the rationalist theory. However named, the fundamental difference is\nbetween the conception of mind as active and the conception of mind as\npassive. In the one case the human spirit is regarded as a thing subject\nto the universal law of causation ; a thing of a peculiar nature, it is true,\nyet a thing taking its place without reserve or remainder in the world of\nknowable objects. That objects are known at all only through this intelligence isa fact whose significance is strangely overlooked. And it is this\nconsideration that justifies our rejection of the conception of mind as\nmerely another thing among the objects which make up the universe. It\nis opposed to these as the subject which knows them. It is not, therefore,\nto be described in metaphysics borrowed from the material world. It is\nnot a machine, it is not an organism ; but it is spirit. And the mark by\nwhich it distinguishes itself from everything else is the self-activity, the\nabsolutely unique self-activity, in which the life of mind or spirit essentially consists. Of this activity we are conscious alike in perception, recollection, thinking, and in volition.\nIt requires strenuous thinking to hold fast to the notion of mind as\nessential self-activity, even after the still greater initial difficulty of forming this notion has once been overcome. All objects may be conceived as\neffects ; but the subject which knows them, the human mind, is never an\neffect. Objects are dependent for their existence and attributes upon\nother objects, but mind is an independent and self-subsisting original.\nWe form just views of the human spirit only when we think of it as\n\n"}
{"page": 724, "printed_page": null, "text": "704\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\ncreative and self-creating. And of nothing- else in the universe can these\nterms he predicated.\nNow this conception of mind has fruitful consequences both for the theory and practice of education. In a paper, or rather in the draft of a\npaper, whose only object is to provoke discussion, I cannot pretend to\nenumerate all these consequences, much less to describe them in detail.\nAH that can be attempted is to indicate some of the most obvious of them.\nFirstly, then, this conception of mind as essential self-activity enables\nus to take a view at once just and inspiring of the real nature of education. Its ultimate cbject is not the communication of knowledge to\nthe pupil — though this is obviously the proximate end — but the awakening, the energizing of the pupil's mind by contact with the knowledge\nimparted. In physiological language, knowledge is the food on which the\nintellect is nourished ; or, without analogy, the intellect realizes itself as\nintellect, passes from a mere capacity to an actuality of intellect, in and\nthrough the process of receiving, elaborating, and reacting upon the\nmaterials of instruction communicated by the teacher.\nSecondly, this conception of his work is one calculated to stimulate the\nteacher and give him an exalted sense of the dignity of his vocation. The\neducator in training the minds of his pupils is enabling them to attain the\nhighest goal of their existence. The true teacher is, as it were, a fellowworker with the Creator.\nThirdly, the conception of mind as self -activity throws some light upon\nthe problem of the proper materials of instruction. Those subjects are to\nbe taught which are most provocative of mental activity. The test is\nindeed a very general one. But by means of it we can justify, for example,\nthe teaching of arithmetic and languages. On the other hand, since only\nthose subjects will prove provocative of mental activity which the pupil\nfeels some interest in, we see at once how variety of interest renders it\ndifficult, apart from the great fundamental similarities of all minds, to lay\ndown a uniform curriculum of study.\nLastly, the conception of mind as self-activity, and of education as a\nprocess whereby this essential nature is developed from original potentiality, shows the shallowness of all short and easy roads to culture, science,\nand scholarship. There is no real education till the mind is stirred into\nlife, till it takes up the material presented, makes it its own, and uses it\nas a factor in its own development. Perhaps the best test of such attainment is the ability to use what has been acquired. The presence of this\nutility is sure proof that the mind has grown by what it has fed on.\nIf these remarks lead to a discussion of this important subject here\nbriefly described, they will have served the end for which they were\ndesigned.\n\n"}
{"page": 725, "printed_page": null, "text": "WUNDT'S\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nWILL.\n\n705\n\nDISCUSSION.\nDr. Harris : Self-activity is one of the essential qualities of mind. The new school\nis trying to get rid of the idea of self-activity, and this is one of the prevailing faults of\nthis school. The greatest writer on self -activity is Hegel, in the third book of his\n'• Logic.\"\nDr. Ormond : The paper shows a theory of the connection of mind to education. It\nis right in saying that self-activity is the central category. We must, however, combine evolution with the idea of self-activity. Only thus can we get a correct theory of\neducation. He had learned more psychology from his children than from Plato, Aristotle, and Hegel. The psychology of the child helps to interpret that of the philosophers. No theory of education should be founded upon an abstraction. First the\nlower categories ; then a development through the middle up to the spiritual categories.\nMiss Crozier : Children are being over-educated. They should be let alone. When\nthe child asks, \" Who made God?\" let him develop up to the point when he can understand, instead of trying to impregnate the mind of the child with our ideas.\nDn. Boardman : The self-activity of the soul is a matter of direct consciousness. It\nis a matter of fundamental characteristic of mind. The essav has incidentally spoken\nof the intellectual as the part of mind most susceptible of progress toward perfection.\nWe believe that this honor should be accorded to the moral rather than the intellectual.\nThe moral involves the intellectual ; and in this function of mind, doubtless, selfactivity has its highest field and makes its noblest progress.\nDr. Harkis : Self-activity is necessary in order to interpret the external world. In\nthe analysis of causality it appears that A determines B. But before A can send an\ninfluence to B it must be active itself . Cause must be self -active.\n\nWUNDTS\nBY\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\nE.\n\nB.\n\nTITCHENER,\n\nOF\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCORNELL\n\nWILL.\nUNIVERSITY.\n\nWundt is the founder of the new psychology. His views deserve our\nconsideration for two reasons. Firstly and generally, because of the\nstanding and authority of their promulgator. \"Just in philosophy/' said\nthe late Croom Kobertson, in a different connection, \" where because of\n-its supreme human interest anybody may claim to have a voice, is there\nmost need for the . . . help of ' those who know.' \" Secondly, and\nmore specially, however, because of their frequent and continued misunderstanding. Inmany passages of his writings Wundt directly asserts\nthat his position is that of empiricism. Consciousness is, for him,\nnothing more than the sum total of mental processes present (given to the\nindividual) at a particular moment.* The word \"processes\" is important ;the inner experience is in perpetual flux, f The datum of psychology isthis momentary fusion of conscious processes (consciousness) ;\nits object is the elimination and determination of the mental elements,\nand the conceptual reconstruction of the concrete mind from them. J\n* Phil. Stud., vi., p. 250. Vorlemmgen, 2d ed., p. 252 ff.\n% Phys. Psych.,\n45 i., 4th ed., p. 3.\n\nt Ethik, 2d ed., p. 434.\n\n"}
{"page": 726, "printed_page": null, "text": "706\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nIf, then, we may trust the author's own account of his work, that work is\ncertainly empirical. Yet we find Professor Muensterberg repeatedly representing the Wundtian apperception as a foreign power which arbitrarily\ninvades the content of consciousness;* and Dr. Ziehen finds in Wundt's\ndoctrine of the will a survival from the old faculty-theories, a return to\nthe pre-Herbartian standpoint ; f while the views which these two writers\nhave propounded to the German public have been set before the English\nby Professor Bain \\ and Dr. Bastian.§\nThese, then, are the reasons which have led me to present to you a\npurely exegetical paper, rather than one which should be critical or constructive. We cannot criticise until we have understood ; we should not\nconstruct without reference to the labors of those who laid the foundations of our science.\nI. — THE CONATIVE\n\nELEMENT,\n\nQUALITATIVELY\n\nREGARDED. |\n\nThe datum of psychology is consciousness, as this term has been defined\nabove. Its first problem is the determination of the number of the ultimate conscious elements, from the interaction — fusion and combination —\nof which we may build up this consciousness. We have seen that various\nwriters posit variously one or two or three such elements. Our question\nhere runs : Is conation a mental ultimate or a mental derivative ?\nIf now, as we say by metaphor, we \" look into \" the mind — \" introspect \"\n— we find among the ideas which go to compose it at the moment a certain\ndifference. (1) Some are clear, vivid; some indistinct, blurred. Eetaining our visual metaphor, we may say that the former are situated at the\nconscious fixation-point, while the latter are scattered over the conscious\nfield-of-vision — not in the least meaning to imply, by this language, that\nthere is a \"consciousness\" outside of or beyond the ideas, which turns to\nthem, and illuminates them, as the eye turns to the objects of the external\nworld ; but simply wishing to illustrate by a familiar analogy what is a\nstriking fact to the beginner in introspection. (2) But not only are the\n\"fixated\" ideas more distinct and vivid than the rest; they are more\nunified, more firmly welded together. They constitute a whole, which is,\ncomparatively speaking, permanent ; the remaining ideas are detached,\nfleeting, unconnected. (3) Further, if we consider the indefinite ideas\nwhich lie outside of the conscious fixation-point, we find that they pass,\nand are succeeded by others, in a kind of independent panorama. We\nare not \"interested\" in them;\n\nwe\n\nare passive, as they come or go.\n\n* Beitrdge, i., ii., Hi., passim.\nt Leitfaden, 1st ed., pp. ill., 118, etc. Cf. Wundt, in Phil. Stud., vi., p. 17. Cf. G. E. Mfiller, in Gott.\ngel. Am., June, 1891, p. 429.\nt Mind, 1887, p. 161 ff.\n§ Brain, pt. lvii., p. 20.\n\\Phys. Psych., ii., 3ded., p. 235 ff. Ethik, 2d ed.,p.433ff. Phil. Stud., i., p. 337 ff. System, p. 380 ff.\nVorlesungen, 2d ed., p. 252 ff. Kiilpe, I. c, p. 427 ff.\n\n"}
{"page": 727, "printed_page": null, "text": "WUNDT'S\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nOF THE\n\nWILL.\n\n707\n\nWhereas, with every clear idea, every fixated idea, there is bound up\nthe experience of internal activity, or activity of the self. These three\nobservations are equally empirical. It is not a question of what we wish\nto find in consciousness, but of what we actually do find, when we\nexamine it.\nThe fixation of ideas we term apperception; their entry into the conscious\nfield-of-vision, perceptiou. In other words, the distinct unified ideational\nmass, with its concomitant activity-experience, is an apperceived content ;\nthe loose and indistinct ideas are perceived contents. Note the conclusion. There is, given to introspection, an observable process of unifying\nactivity — this process of apperception. But the properties of activity and\nunification are just those which attach to the concept of conation, and\nwhich do not belong to the notions of sensation and affection (pleasure\nand pain). We are justified, therefore, (1) in speaking of a special conative element, and (2) in regarding apperception as its quality — as that\naspect of it by virtue of which it is elemental.\nThree points of objection arise at once. (1) Despite the plea of empiricism, do we discover this internal activity by introspection ? We find Dr.\nZiehen saying to his student-hearers, in the course of his analysis of\naction : \"Ieh bitte Sie nun, durch Selbstbeobachtung zu bestaetigen, dass\nzwischen das Erinnerungsbild der gewollten Bewegung und die Empfindung der vollzogenen Bewegung sich in unsrem Bewusstsein nichts dazwischenschiebt.\"* Dr. Ziehen should, as a professing psychologist, know\nthat the use which he is making of introspection is a totally illegitimate\nuse. Between the results of his observation and that of Wundt each one\nmust finally decide for himself ; only, let the decision be made with\nknowledge — i.e., after a fair practice in the employment of this psychological method. (2) It may be urged that certainly not in every case of\nattentive observation do we experience this apperceptive activity. This\nobjection simply says, as Dr. Kuelpe points out,f that not every apperceptive act is apperceived. Why should it be ? Not every affection, not\nevery sensation, is apperceived. (3) Is it not perhaps a logical 'error to\ncoordinate \"active\" (as quality of will) with \"pleasant\" (as quality of\naffection) or \"blue\" (quality of sensation) ? The term is so much more\nabstract. Here, again, the answer is given by Wundt in a reference to the\nfacts. If we eliminate from conscious experience the \"blues\" and the\n\" pleasants,\" there remains just this singly-qualitative \"active\" process,\nwhich is not otherwise describable.J\nII. — THE\n\nCONDITIONS\n\nOF\n\nAPPERCEPTION.\n\n§\n\nEvery apperceptive process — all conation — is conditioned. For convenience' sake, we distinguish apperception as (1) active and (2) passive. But\n* Leiffaden, Uted., pp. 16, 17.\n$ Cf. Staude, in Phil. Stud., i., p. 140 ff.\n\nt L. c, p. 431.\n§ Wundt, U. cc. Kfllpe, /. c, p. 428, 429.\n\n"}
{"page": 728, "printed_page": null, "text": "708\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nneither does \"active\" signify \"unconditioned,\" nor do we intend by the\ndistinction to mark off two separate qualities of will. The apperceptive\nact is passive when it is univocally* determined — a loud sound \"forces\"\nour attention, as we say. It is active when it is multivocally determined\n— when different \" motives \" are at work, striving to determine it in different directions. The division is one of degree, not of kind ; the criterion\nexternal, not internal.\nThe chief conditions of apperception may be briefly tabulated as\nfollows :\n(a) External. — (1) Relative adaptation of the (in the particular case)\nappropriate motor apparatus ; (2) character of sense-impressions (intensity, quality, duration, extension) ; (3) absence of complicating impressions.\n(b) Internal. — (1) The affective value of impressions; (2) the relation\nof impressions to the (individually different) psychophysical \"stock \"or\n\"capital\" — to a man's \" psych ostatical conditions,\" as Lewes calls them\n(memory, education, mood, habits, etc.) ; (3) absence of complicating\nmental processes.\nIII. — THE\n\nSPHERE\n\nOF\n\nCONATIVE\n\nACTIVITY.*\n\nWundt's doctrine of will was classed above with those of Beneke and\nFortlage, as being more broadly conceived than the views of the other\npositivists. The critics have, of course, not been slow to remark on this\nwidth and extent of apperceptive activity in his psychology. Professor\nMuensterberg speaks somewhere of the great Sam meltopf of apperception ;\nand Dr. Ziehen, in his preface,! indulges in similar sarcasm. But if once\nthe actuality of the activity-experience is granted, its far-reaching character must be also allowed. Without going into full detail, I will attempt\nto shown in outline the rdle which Wundt ascribes toit. (1) As regards the\nother conscious elements. A sensation can be apperceived. And not only\nis affection a frequent determinant of will, but the sense-feeling is itself\nthe mode of reaction of apperception upon sense-impression-. (2) As regards fusions of the conscious elements. The idea (fusion of sensations)\ncan be apperceived. Attention, desire, instinct, obviously all involve the\npresence of conation. Emotion implies, at least, passive, and the \"intellectual feelings \" (aesthetical, religious, ethical, logical) active apperception. (3) As regards combinations of conscious elements. The idea (combination of sensations) can be apperceived. Associations of ideas must\nexcite the passive apperception, and may also be actively apperceived, and\nthus transformed to \"apperceptive combinations. \" Impulsive movements\nand voluntary movements alike demand for their analysis the recognition\nof the conative element. (4) As regards the self -consciousness. This arises\n* Phys. Psych., i., 4th ed., p. 587 ff.; ii., 3d ed., 239 ff., 361 ff., 408 ff., 487 ff. Phil. Stud., I. c.\nlesungen,p.238fi.\nSystem, p. 562 ff. Kuelpe, /. c, p. 432 ff.\nt P. iii.\n\nVor-\n\n"}
{"page": 729, "printed_page": null, "text": "WUNDT'S\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nOP THE\n\nWILL.\n\n709\n\nfrom a sum of (a) permanently present ideas, (b) standing in a relation of\ndependency to the will. In the last instance, the activity-experience or\napperception-experience usurps the full dominion, and of itself constitutes\nthe ego — the ideational content becoming of secondary importance.\nThis scheme is, as I have said, but a bare outline. It must be filled in\nfrom the writings of Wundt himself. But we can see clearly from it the\nvast importance predicated of the will. As Dr. Kiilpe puts it :* \"In the\nadult consciousness there is but one content which is either not dependent\non conation, or not fused or combined with it— the perceived sensations\nand ideas. In all our remaining mentality, apperception is somehow\nimplicated.\"\nIV. — THE\n\nPHYSIOLOGICAL\n\nSUBSTKATE\n\nOF\n\nAPPERCEPTION\",\n\nf\n\nLike all other mental processes, the activity-experience must hare a\nphysiological (neural) correlate. There are two points to notice : (1) We\nfind, as a matter of pathological fact, that lesion or degeneration of the\nfrontal lobes brings with it disturbances of the \"intelligence,\" of the\nmoral nature, and of the \"will.\" (2) There is a relativity of neural function, as there is a relativity of mental process. Neural function is a matter of neural connections and relations. Now apperception requires both\nsensory and motor connections. The special sense-centers must excite\nthe organ of apperception centripetally ; excitations from the organ must\nbe able to reach the motor centers centrifugally, and issue in voluntary\nmovements. These conditions are given in the frontal lobes. \" Highestlevel neural synthesis\" J may be safely predicated of them. From this\npoint of view also, then, the seat of apperception seems indicated with\ntolerable clearness. But the localization of the \"organ of apperception\"\nis confessedly hypothetical and tentative.\nV. — THE\n\nGENESIS\n\nOF\n\nCONATION.§\n\nThere are, plainly, two opposed views, prevalent in psychology, of the\ngenesis of the will : the heterogenetic and the autogenetic view. The\nformer derives conation from the non-conative, the latter declares that\nwill cannot be deduced from any process but its own. Herbart and Lotze\nare typical adherents of heterogenesis ; Wundt maintains the autogenetic\nstandpoint ; Bain occupies an intermediate position between the two\nschools.\nThe question of the ultimate origin of will, psychology cannot attempt\nto answer.\nIt asks as much or as little about this as it asks about the\n* L. c, p. 437.\nt Phys. Psych., i., 4th ed., p. 228 ff.; ii., 3d ed., p. 240 ff. Kfllpe, I. c, pp. 438 ff.\nX Qf. Waller, Brain, lix. and lx., p. 393.\n§ Phys. Psych., ii., 3d ed., p. 4(53 ff. Essays, p. 286 ff. Phil. Stud., 1. c. Vorlesungen, p. 238 ff., 461 ff.\nSystem, p. 579 ff. Kfllpe, ;. c, pp. 440 ff.\n\n"}
{"page": 730, "printed_page": null, "text": "710\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nultimate origin of sensation or affection. But when we have recognized\nconation as an elemental conscious process, qualitatively irreducible, existing alongside of the other two ultimates, we can proceed to ask questions\nas to its successive concrete manifestations — its post-natal development,\nso to say. And here three topics present themselves for discussion :\n(1) The relation of conation to its fellow-elements ; (2) the passage from\ninternal to external conative activity ; and (3) the genesis of complex\naction from simple.\n(1) The first issue has already been discussed under III. above. (2) The\npassage from internal to external conative activity is explained in accordance with Wundt's general conception of apperception. Logically, at\nleast, the internal is the prior of the two. The external is, when psychologically formulated, nothing more than the apperception of an idea of\nmovement.\nWe may distinguish apperception itself (the internal activity of will)\nnot only as passive and active, but as impulsive and reproductive. In the\ncase of the latter form, it is the memory-image of a particular movement\nwhich is apperceived ; in the former, the will-process accompanies the\nmovement itself. The hypothetical apperception-center, it must be\nremembered, is connected both with the sensory and motor areas ; it\nmodifies incoming, it can set in motion out-going excitations. There is,\ntherefore, nothing forced in the notion of an impulsive form of apperception.* We find now (a) that in the scale of conscious life univocally determined volitions appear to precede those which are conditioned by a play\nof motives ; (b) that the sensation comes before its reproduction, the fact\nof movement before its memory-image ; and (c) that reproductive apperception implies the play of motives just now alluded to, and therefore\ninhibits impulse. Putting all this together, we conclude : (1) That the\ninternal act of will, apperception, is the primitive act ; there is no consciousness without apperception ; f and (2) that the external voluntary act\nsprings from impulsive apperception (simultaneous apperception of a\nsense-impression and the movement which this impression physiologically\nconditions), developing by way of taking into itself, at a later stage, the\nidea (memory-image) of movement. From which statements follow two\nimportant corollaries : (a) Eeflex acts are originally impulsive acts, which\nhave become mechanical; and (b) the movement-ideas, which are so essential to the heterogenists, are on Wundt's theory secondary phenomena ;\nthe primitive, impulsive movements were performed without their aid.\n(3) The third problem was that of the genesis of complex action from\n* We must not be led, in this connection, to ascribe to Wundt the positing of an Innervationsempftndung. (Cf. the collation of passages bearing on this point in Mind, Jan., 1893, p. 143.) His phraseologyis, unfortunately, loose in places : cf. Phys. Psych., ii., 3d ed., p. 235. But revision comes with new\neditions : Phys. Psych., i., 3d ed., p. 233, is improved in i., 4th ed., p. 228; Ethik, 1st ed., p. 380, in 2d ed.,\n•\np. 442, etc.\nt Phyt. Psych., ii., 3d ed., p. 470.\n\n"}
{"page": 731, "printed_page": null, "text": "DISCUSSION.\n\n711\n\nsimple. Conscious life begins, for Wundt, with the simple impulse — i.e.,\nwith a mechanically conditioned movement, in which, however, both toned\nsensation and motion are apperceived. Not, of course, that the three processes of sensation, affection, and conation are already differentiated in the\nprotozoan consciousness. But they are present in germ. From the\nimpulse, which possesses in some measure the characteristics both of voluntary and of reflex action, there are two lines of development : one of\ndegeneration, to the physiological reflex ; the other of ascent, to the decision after deliberation.\nSuch, in brief, is Wundt's Psychology of Will. No such cut-anddried presentation as 1 have given will be found in his manifold publications. Eather does he approach the matter in various works from the\nstandpoints of various sciences ; so that often there occur seeming contradictions inhis doctrine, statements which are, however, easily reconcilable\nwith the central thesis, if their context and special setting are noted.\nWundt does not attempt to be \" easy \" ; rather has he the fault of so many\nconstructive thinkers, that of regarding a difficult problem, which has\nbecome for himself from long consideration familiar almost to contempt,\nas equally well-known to and apprehensible by his audience. Hence many\nobscurities and some carelessnesses in the course of his exposition. The\npresent paper may, I hope, serve as a sketch-map, based on his survey, of\nthe most difficult field in psychology to English-speaking students, as that\nof Dr. Kulpe * has been to so many Germans. Two things should, at\nany rate, have been now made clear : that Wundt's Psychology of Volition is indeed empirical, and that it is— intelligible.\n\nDISCUSSION.\nDr. Boardman : Freedom is an ultimate fact. It is sui generis. It is known intuitively to consciousness. Much has certainly been determined and stated coucerning its\nconditions, and results, by philosophy. Plato and Aristotle affirmed important truth concerning it. Much has been added in modern, and as it seems to me in recent, times.\nAll concerning it can never be known to finite minds. Its relations to environment,\ninward and outward, to the universe, and to God, will invite study, will reward labor,\nand will forever extend beyond the reach of finite investigation. Notwithstanding the\nobscurities of Wundt's treatment of it, we catch many profound statements. His apperception seems to be substantially voluntary and resolute attention to an object. Liberty\nis far more than this. It is not mere intellect, or the object chosen. There is a third\nelement, choice, not accounted for in either of the others. It is a distinct, primitive,\nfundamental activity ; a sui generis activity of the soul.\n* Phil. Stud., II. cc.\n\nAlso procurable as off-print.\n\n"}
{"page": 732, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 733, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\nOF EXPERIMENTAL\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nCONGRESS\nPSYCHOLOGY.\nREPORT.\n\nSESSION— Wednesday, July 26, 1893.\n\nThe meeting was called to order, at 9.30 a.m., by President G. Stanley Hall, of Clark\nUniversity, Worcester, Mass., a large audience being assembled. President Hall delivered the opening address, choosing as his subject, \"Child Study as a Basis for Psychology\nand Psychological Teaching.\"\nThe following additional papers were presented during the session :\n\" The Imaginations of Children,\" by E. Harlow Russell, Principal of State Normal\nSchool, Worcester, Mass.\n\" Mental Waste and Economy,\" by Professor G. T. W. Patrick, State University of\nIowa.\n\"Dominant Seventh in Education,\" by Miss H. E. Hunt, Pd. D., Hartford, Conn.\n\"Constitutionally Bad Spellers,\" by Miss Adelaide E. Wyckoff, Packer Institute,\nBrooklyn, N. Y.\nAn animated discussion followed the reading of the paper by Miss Wyckoff, in which\nProfessor Russell, President Hall, Professor Krohn, Mrs. E. R. Sunderland, Mrs. Barns,\nMiss Gillet, Professor Patrick, Professor Harvey, Dr. Burnham, Mrs. Weston, Professor Soldan, Professor Trendly, and Miss McDowell joined.\nThe session adjourned at the close of this discussion.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Thursday, July 27, 1893.\n\nDr. G. Stanley Hall, president of the department, presided. Before begining the\nregular exercises Professor Compayre, the well-known author of \"Intellectual and\nMoral Evolution of the Child,\" \" History of Education,\" and many other works, briefly\naddressed the Congress in French.\nProfessor Earl Barnes, of the Leland Stanford, Jr., University, California, read a\npaper presenting the thesis, \" A Study of Children's Theology.\" A lively discussion\nfollowed. Those who took part in it were : Dr. Schaeffer, State Superintendent of\nPennsylvania ; Rabbi Lyons ; Superintendent Brooks, of Philadelphia ; Professor Sinclair, of Hamilton, Ont. ; Dr. Winship, of Boston ; Mrs. Western, of Chicago ; Mrs.\nTupper-Maynard ; Miss Lloyd, of Pennsylvania ; and Mrs. K. V. Grinnell, Mayfair,\nIlls. Miss Lloyd's criticism was greeted with applause.\nProfessor W. H. Burnham, of Clark University, Worcester, Mass., read a paper on\n\" Child Study as a Basis of Pedagogy.\" This was followed by a paper on \" The New\nPsychology in Normal Schools.\" by Miss Lillie A. Williams, State Normal School of\nTrenton, N. J. Professor Barnes, of California, and Mr. Galvin, of the Wisconsin State\nNormal School, took part in its discussion.\nDr. F. Tracy's paper on \" Infant Vocabularies \" was read by Professor Hervey.\n\n"}
{"page": 734, "printed_page": null, "text": "714\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nThe next paper was presented by Dr. E. M. Hartwell, director of physical culture,\nBoston public schools. Its subject was : \" Principles of Physical Training and their\nApplication to the Prevention of Stuttering in Children.\" An interesting discussion\nfollowed.\nThe Secretary read the paper of Mr. James Sully, of England, on \" Dreaming and\nPoetic Invention.\"\nAfter the reading of this paper the meeting adjourned.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION— Friday, July 28, 1893.\n\nThe session was opened by President Hall, who called for the report of the committee\nappointed to draw up a plan for the organization of a national society for child study.\nThe committee submitted the following plan, which was adopted :\n\nThis organization shah be known as the American Association for the Study of\nChildren.\nII.\nIts object shall be to forward, through the organization and co-operation of its members, the scientific study of children.\nIII.\nIts officers shall consist of a president, ten vice-presidents, a secretary and a treasurer.\nIV.\nAny man or woman interested in the study of children shall be eligible to membership on the payment of a fee of ten dollars.\nAn annual fee of two dollars shall be paid\nV.\nby each member, the money to be used for printing and distributing outlines of study\nand suggestions for work.\nThe association shall hold one meeting each year, at the same time and place as the\nNational Council of Education.\nVI.\nThe president and vice-presidents shall constitute an executive committee, the duty\nof which shall be to prepare and circulate among the members of the association, within\ntwo months after the annual meeting, a suggestive outline of work for the year. This\ncommittee shall also assign papers to be prepared for the annual meetings, and it shall\narrange to have data sent to the persons having special subjects of study in hand by the\nmembers of the association.\nVII.\nOfficers shall hold their positions for one year, and shall be elected at the annual\nmeeting, by a majority vote of those present. .\nVIII.\nThese by-laws may be amended by a majority vote at any annual meeting.\nIX.\nThe National Association will foster the establishment of local chapters, and will\nreceive as adjuncts such local associations as are already in existence, and who present\nthemselves for due and proper affiliation.\n\n"}
{"page": 735, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIST\n\nOF HONORARY\n\nVICE-PRESIDENTS.\n\n715\n\nThe following were proposed and elected officers of the association :\nPresident— Dr. G. Stanley Hall, Clark University.\nVice-Presidents — Miss Lillie A. Williams, State Normal School, Trenton, N. J. ; Miss\nMillicent Shinn, Editress Oberlin Monthly; Professor E. R. Shaw, University of the City\nof New York; Professor Earl Barnes, Leland Stanford, J r. , University ; Professor O'Shea,\nMankato, Minn.; Dr. Shaeffer, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Pennsylvania Professor\n;\nJ. M. Bailey; Professor E. Harlow Russell, State Normal School, Worcester, Mass. ; Professor Gr. T. W. Patrick, State University of Iowa ; Mr. Louis J.\nBlock.\nSecretary and Treasurer — Professor W. L. Bryan, State University of Indiana.\nThe above report was signed by the following members of the Committee on Organization :Professor Earl Barnes, Miss Lillie A. Williams, and Mr. Louis J. Block.\nThe following papers were presented during this session :\n\"On the Observation and Study of Movements and Mental States, Based on the\nExamination of some Fifty Thousand Children,\" by Francis Warner, M.D., of London,\nEngland.\nThe paper was read by Professor Crohn.\nTests reported by Professor Bryan were directed mainly towards the questions of Eye\nand Ear-mindedness. This was followed by a brief \" Plea in behalf of one kind of childstudy, namely, that in which methods already scientifically developed in the laboratory\nare applied to large numbers of children.\"\n\" Some Association Tracks Involved in Reading and Spelling,\" by Superintendent T.\nM. Balliet, Springfield, Mass.\n\"First Two Years of Childhood,\" by Miss Millicent Shinn, Editress of Oberlin\nMonthly.\nThe discussion, which owing to the length of the programme was very brief, was\nengaged in by Professor Bryan, Professor Cook, Professor Hervey, Miss Rebecca Rice, of\nChicago, Mr. Butler, and Dr. Cams.\nThe Nomination Committee reported as follows :\nFor President : Professor Earl Barnes, Leland Stanford, Jr., University.\nFor Vice President : Professor W. L. Bryan, University of Indiana.\nFor Secretary : Miss Lillian A. Williams, State Normal School, Trenton, N. J.\nThe meeting then adjourned after some felicitous remarks by Dr. G. Stanley Hall.\n\nLIST OF PERSONS ACCEPTING THE OFFICE OF HONORARY\nVICE-PRESIDENT OF THE DEPARTMENT CONGRESS OF\nEXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY IN EDUCATION.\nFRANCE.\n\nILLINOIS.\n\nProf. Beaunis, Faculty of Medicine, Nancy.\nGeorge A. Coe, Ph.D., Northwestern University,\nDr. Alfred Binet,at the Hospital Salpetriere, Paris. Evanston.\nHiram K. Jones, M.D., Illinois College, JacksonGREAT BRITAIN.\nWilliam O. Krohn, Ph.D., State University, ChamDr. Fletcher Bench, M.B.,F.R.C.P., Medical Superof Dareuth Asylum for Imbeciie Chilintendent\ndren, Dareuth.\n\n„ Pai?n... . M „.. „\nBenjamin Smith, A.M., Chicago,\n\nProf. E. A. Schafer, Medical Faculty University\nINDIANA.\nCollege, London.\nWilliam\nL. Bryan, Ph.D., Indiana University,\nBlooniington.\nTT\\na<rj'T\\\ncm a m-mo\nRev. Stanislaus Fite, C.S.C., University of Notre\nUJNIIED blAlE\nb.\nDame. Notre Dame.\nEdward H. Griggs, Indiana University, BloomingDISTRICT OF COLUMBIA.\nton„ ,\nAlexander Martin, D.D., De Pauw University,\nProf. C. C. Cook, Howard University, Washington. Grcencastle.\n\n"}
{"page": 736, "printed_page": null, "text": "716\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nIOWA.\nGeorge T. W. Patrick, Ph.D.. University of Iowa.\nIowa City.\nKENTUCKY.\nJohn P. Fruit, A.M., Bethel College, Russellville.\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nOHIO.\nRev. George P. Coler, Ohio State University, Columbus.\nRev. John M. Ellis, A.M.,Oberlin College, Oberlin.\nRev. Lorenzo D. McCabe, D.D., LL.D., Ohio Weeleyan University. Delaware.\nArthur C. Pierson, Ph.M., Hiram College, Hiram.\n\nMARYLAND.\n\nPENNSYLVANIA.\n\nEdward H. Griffin, D.D., Johns Hopkins Univer-.\nsity, Baltimore.\nJohn B. Van Meter, D.D., Woman's College of\nBaltimore, Baltimore.\n\nRev. Addison Bailard, D.D., Lafayette College,\nEaston.\nRev. George Stuart Fullerton, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.\nLightner Witmer, A. B., University of Pennsylvania,\nPhiladelphia.\nRev. Elwood Worcester, Lehigh University, South\nBethlehem.\n\nMASSACHUSETTS.\nMaryley.Whiton Calkins, Wellesley College, WellesHenry N. Gardiner, A.M., Smith College, Northampton.\nCharles E. Garman, A.M., Amherst College, Amherst.\nMrs. Mary Graham. Ph.B., Mount Holyoke College,\nSouth Hadley.\nMISSOURI.\n\nRHODE\n\nISLAND.\n\nEdmund B. Delabarre, Ph.D., Brown University,\nProvidence.\nTENNESSEE.\nRev. P. A. Shoup, D.D., University of the South,\nSewanee.\n\nJ. P.lumbia.\nBlanton, A.M., University of Missouri, Co-\n\nVERMONT.\n\nStanley Stoner, LL.B., Washington University, St.\nLouis.\n\nRev. Henry A. P. Torrey, University of Vermont,\nBurlington.\n\nNEW\n\nHAMPSHIRE.\n\nRev. Gabriel Campbell, D.D., Dartmouth College,\nHanover.\nNEW\n\nVIRGINIA.\nNoah K. Davis, LL.D., University of Virginia,\nCharlottesville.\nWISCONSIN.\n\nYORK.\n\nProf. F. C. French, Colgate University, Hamilton.\nPres.ter.David J. Hill, Rochester University, RochesGeorge B. Newcomb, Ph.D., College of City of New\nYork, New York.\n\nJames J. Blaisdell, D.D., Beloit College. Beloit.\nJoseph Jastrow, Ph.D., University of Wisconsin,\nMadison.\nRev. Edward H. Merrell, D.D., Ripon College,\nRipon.\n\n"}
{"page": 737, "printed_page": null, "text": "EXPERIMENTAL\nCHILD\nABSTRACT\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nIN EDUCATION.\n\nSTUDY AS A BASIS FOE PSYCHOLOGY\nPSYCHOLOGICAL TEA CHING.\nOF\n\nOPENING\n\nADDRESS\n\nCLARK\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nBY\n\nSTANLEY\n\nHALL,\n\nWORCESTER,\n\nG.\n\nMASS.\n\nAND\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF\n\nThe history of the scientific study of children began in this country in\n1879, when four kindergartners in Boston, acting under Mrs. Quincy\nShaw's lead, took three or four children at a time aside and endeavored to\nfind the contents of their minds. The results of this work were published\nin the Princeton Review in 1880. The work showed great gaps, so great\nthat it was dubbed \"a. study of ignorance of children.\" It came out that\nthe primers were made for country children, while the great bulk of children are city born. This line of work has since been carried on into the\ncollege ranks. As the study has already thrown light on common-school\nproblems, so, it is hoped, like aid will come to college problems.\nAnother line of study is the measurement of children. More children\nhave been measured in the United States than elsewhere, but the results\nhave not been worked over so well here as in Europe. It has been found\nthat children grow tall in spring, and stocky in fall ; further, that different parts of the body have different periods of best growth. Times of\nphysical growth are also times of mental growth in acquisition, though\nchildren then are not able to systematize well. Hence, in time of great\nacquisition ease up the constraint of methods ; take the child to the World's\nFair, but don't ask him to explain it all.\nA third line of study is of exceptional and defective children. '* Study\nthe child \" is becoming \" Study this child.\" The method-enthusiast\nprides himself on results gained from stupid children ; but we must let\nthe bright children set the pace. I would rather have a teacher who knew\nnothing of methods for defective children, if he but knew the childhood\nof distinguished men, to put in the model school that I should like to see\nestablished. An experiment was made a few years ago in Paris which\nshowed that methods adapted for bright children enabled a class of average\nboys to complete the six years' course of the Lycee in a little over two and\none-half years, although no extra time was given. By such means I am\nconfident we can work twice as fast with the brighter half of our classes.\nThis is not theory ; I have tried it.\nA fourth line of child study relates to health.\nThe modern school is a\n\n"}
{"page": 738, "printed_page": null, "text": "718\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\ntremendous engine to drive the child organism. Five hours a day, five\ndays in the week, and nine months of the year — history shows no other\nsuch test of child-nature. It is an irremediable bad, if the child's health\nor system is in any way seriously impaired ; better let children grow up in\nidyllic ignorance than vitiate their health.\nThese are four lines of child study ; now for two points farther. First,\nlet us look ahead and see what is to come of it. As I see it, there are two\nmovements in the air at present. One of these, shown in art, government, or other lines, is a \" back to nature,\" even to primitive peoples and\nways. This tendency is especially in place in our country, which is without historic background ; we are freer to accept and use a good idea when\nfound. Wagner, it is said, got his fundamental movements from the\nHungarian folk-songs ; and he is reported to have said the next great\ncomposer would make his fame by working over the negro melodies of\nAmerica. So, the school of the future must be based on original childnature. The other movement is engaged in an effort to reconstruct the\ngrammar-school course. To do this work well, there is needed a union of\nteachers, who can tell what the people will stand being taxed for, and how\nmuch can be put in a course, with scientific men who can give insight into\nwider relations. But both of these movements are parts of a far larger\none which desires that school-hours, curricula, exercise, buildings, etc.,\nshall all be reconstructed in accordance with child-nature, the true norm,\nin order to obviate the dangers inherent in our present great machine. If\nthe showing of bad bodily results made by investigators of European\nschools shall be found to hold good of our schools also, public opinion will\nno longer give them the support they now have. Our public school system is our pride ; we must keep it efficient if we wish it to retain confidence.\nCHILD\nABSTEACT\n\nOF\n\nSTUDY\n\nAS\n\nPAPER\n\nWILLIAM\n\nBY\n\nTHE\n\nBASIS\nH.\n\nWORCESTER,\n\nOF PEDAGOGY.\n\nBURNHAM,\n\nCLARK\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nMASS.\n\nI do not deem it necessary to maintain the thesis involved in my subject, namely, that the study of children is the basis of pedagogy ; for if\nthere be any pedagogy, what else could be the basis of it ? I wish, rather,\nto recount very briefly some of the pedagogical principles that seem\nalready to have been settled by child study. And when I speak of the\nstudy of children, I use the word in the broadest way. Teachers and\npsychologists are by no means the only ones who have studied children.\nSome of the most important studies have been made by physicians, neurologists, and anthropologists. The child study upon which pedagogy is\nbased should include every scientific study, wherever made, relating to a\n\n"}
{"page": 739, "printed_page": null, "text": "CHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\nAS THE\n\nBASIS\n\nOF PEDAGOGY.\n\n719\n\nchild's mind or body. This paper will be confined chiefly to a few\nprinciples that result from psychological and anthropological study of\nchildren.\nThe first pedagogical principle settled beyond controversy by this broad\nstudy of children is that no development is possible without the functioning of the nervous system. This is no barren truism, for it follows that\nthe laws which express the development and activity of the nervous\nmechanism must determine pedagogical principles.\nAmong these laws, one of prime importance is the following : The\nfundamental is developed before the accessory. This is best seen in the\ndevelopment of the motor centers. The centers that control the muscles\nof the trunk, of the shoulders, and of the limbs are developed first ; those\nthat mediate the delicate muscles of the fingers and the vocal organs are\ndeveloped later. The same is true in general. The simple and fundamental processes are first ; the fine, delicate, and complex processes come\nlater.\nThis law of the child's nervous system is the basis of a most important\neducational principle. First the fundamental, then the accessory. This\napplies not only to the various forms of motor training — manual training,\ngymnastics, and the like — but, in general, first a strong, healthy development of the fundamental nervous processes is necessary, then may follow\nmore delicate and complex acquisitions. A reversal of this order, the\nimposition of delicate, subtle, and complex occupations in the kindergarten or the primary schools, may please parents and committees, but it is\ncontrary to a law written in the child's nerve centers.\nAgain, all parts of the body do not develop at the same time. Each\norgan has its peculiar nascent period. Moreover, there is a close relation\nbetween the function of any organ and its development ; and the highest\ndegree of skill in the use of an organ can often be acquired only during\nthe period of growth. The acquisition of language, for example, is\nprobably a case in point. If, during the period that the vocal organs and\nthe corresponding nerve centers in the brain are developing, attention is\ngiven to educating some other part which is not ready for training, twofold loss is likely to be the result — waste of energy or injury in case of\nthe latter, loss of opportunity in case of the former. So, too, if manual\ntraining be neglected in early life, during the nascent period of the motor\ncenters, great skill can seldom be attained afterward.\nCorresponding to the nascent periods of the motor organs are the\nperiods of interest in the child's mental growth. This year your boy has\nthe collecting mania ; next year it will be baseball or the secret language ;\na third year it will be the debating society ; or he may be hunting or\nstuffing birds and snakes. These interests are sacred. Some of them\nshould be turned into new channels ; others should be made permanent,\nas a part of character.\nBut, in all cases, the time of interest is the time\n\n"}
{"page": 740, "printed_page": null, "text": "720\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nof opportunity ; and here opportunity seldom comes twice. Special\nstudies have shown the sequence of children's interests. This must be\nconsidered in determining the course of study ; for, as Professor James\nputs it : \"To determine the moment of instinctive readiness for a subject\nis the supreme duty of every educator.\"\nPsychological studies have also brought into prominence the active side\nof child nature, and one of the most important movements to-day is the\ntendency to emphasize the active side of education. Pedagogy based upon\nchild study seeks to use all the light that comes from the various fields of\npsychology, and with that light to appropriate all that is best in all the\nvarious systems of education. It admits with Pestalozzi the fundamental\nimportance of sense perception. Things before words, the concrete\nbefore the abstract, clear perceptions before the working over concepts.\n\"With Herbart it maintains also that sense perception is not enough.\nThere must be mental assimilation and the study of causal relations, but\nalso there must be the expression of thought ; and, more than Pestalozzi\nor Herbart, it places emphasis upon the active, the productive, the creative processes in education.\n\nTHE DOMINANT\nBY\n\nMISS\n\nHATTIE\n\nE.\n\nSEVENTH\n\nIN EDUCATION.\n\nHUNT,\n\nHARTFORD,\n\nPD.D.,\n\nCONN.\n\nIt has been said that \"music is the harmonious voice of creation, an\necho of the invisible world, one note of the divine concord which the\nentire universe is destined one day to sound.\"\n(Mazzini.)\nHarmony is the one common and constant element which serves to link\nall existence in one complete whole. '\nSince harmony of sound, or music, is taken as the type, let us give it a\nmoment's consideration.\nThe physical apparatus for hearing is such that auditory discriminations approach the marvelous, and yet the laws of harmony from the\nartist's point of view are comparatively simple. Let me mention two of\nthese laws. First, every perfect cadence must close with the tonic chord,\nthe fundamental tone of which is the key of the cadence. The other law\nrelates to a peculiar combination of tones forming a chord which produces\nin the mind of the hearer a feeling of unrest, of expectancy, a feeling of\nlonging, which can be satisfied only by hearing the tonic chord. This\ncombination of tones is known as the chord of the dominant seventh, and\nit must always be followed by the tonic chord. As its name implies, it is a\nruling chord, and it determines the key.\nThese then are the two most important rules of harmony in music —\n\n"}
{"page": 741, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE\n\nDOMINANT\n\nSEVENTH\n\nIN EDUCATION.\n\n721\n\nevery perfect cadence has its fundamental or key tone, and the chord of\nthe dominant seventh determines this key.\nWe hear much in these days of harmony in education. That, however,\nis a very old thought. Plato gave as the type of the cultured man one\nwho is harmoniously constituted. Let us see what the centuries evolved\nout of Plato's idea of harmony. To be harmoniously constituted means\nin this age to be physically, spiritually, ethically, and intellectually developed. All the superiority that we can claim for this conception over that\nof Plato's is, possibly, a little finer discrimination, that is all. We cannot\nimprove very much on Plato's idea of a harmonious constitution. It is\nthe idea of \"man\" that has changed. In Plato's time \" man\" meant a\nfew favored Athenians, but now it has come to mean not only the citizen,\nbut the slave, and even woman. In a word, education has become the\nbirthright of humanity, and to secure to each individual his right, four\ngreat institutions have been established ; the family, the church, the state\nand the school. According to the popular idea, however, the school is\nalone responsible for the education accorded to man. The school is\nexpected to produce the perfect cadence, the tonic chord.\nBut we have seen that there is a chord, namely the dominant seventh,\nwhich precedes the tonic chord, and determines what its fundamental\ntone or key shall be. \"Now if the school is to produce the tonic chord,\nwhat period of education is to produce the dominant seventh ? When is\nit that the key of our harmony is determined ? It is the period prior to\nthe kindergarten period — the home period. That is the dominant seventh\nin education, for it is then that all those forces that make or mar the harmony of our lives are aroused and given direction. Of all the stages of\ndevelopment through which a child passes on his way to maturity, none\nprovides him with more unqualified tutors than does this period, for it\nmust be remembered that the care of infants devolves upon the young\nparents, and not upon those whose experience has afforded a certain\namount of empirical knowledge, together with a deeper sympathy for\nhumanity. Usually their education is left, as Spencer says, \"to the\nchances of unreasoning customs, impulse, fancy — joined with the suggestions of ignorant nurses and prejudiced grandmothers.\"\nLet us see what modern pyschology and child-study has to say concerning some of the \"unreasoning customs\" that everywhere obtain in the\nhome training of children.\nWith regard to the treatment of the will — I cannot say \" training of the\nwill,\" for there is little conception of that — there are two opposing theories.\nOne is that the will should be broken, and the other is that the child\nshould be allowed his own way until he is old enough to understand the\nwhys and wherefores. Neither of these theories contains even so much\nas a suggestion concerning the real nature of the will nor its proper\ntraining.\n46\n\n"}
{"page": 742, "printed_page": null, "text": "722\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nDesire is the controlling element of will, and Preyer tells us that ''desire\npresupposes ideas, and through the cultivation of ideas of a higher order\nthe will may be directed even in the second year, and thereby character\nformed ; but only through the inexorable consistency which allows no\nexception to a prohibition, is it possible to maintain the form once\nimpressed on the character. \"\nThe will plays a very important part in the process of living; indeed,\nit would almost seem that the combined action of the psychologists of\nto-day would succeed in reducing all mental activity to some form of will ;\nand can parents afford to neglect so important a duty as the training of\nthe will ? Or, worse still, can they afford, through ignorance, to misdirect it,thus warping the characters of their children ? Many a child has\nbeen saved by an enthusiasm — by some line of diversion that has been\nopened to him generally by some one other than his father or mother. The\ndiscipline of parents is usually negative — what you may not do, not what\nyou may do.\nAgain, take the matter of heredity. Who knows so well as the parent\nwhat tendencies the child is likely to inherit ? Yet how far has empirical\nknowledge advanced along this line ? May not the sum total be expressed\nin the saying, \"He is a chip of the old block\"? This phrase suggests\nSpencer's law of least resistance, but there is in it no suggestion of the\nsuppression of evil tendencies through the establishment of new and better\nones. Whether one believes with Galton that \" nature prevails enormously\nover nurture, when the differences of nurture do not exceed what is commonly to be found among persons of the same rank of society and in the\nsame country,\" or whether one holds tbe opposite belief, certain it is that\nonly through a knowledge of these laws can one be led to feel the responsibility ofparentage or to intelligently discharge these responsibilities.\nThe popular conception concerning habit is that there are certain bad\nhabits, such as smoking, gambling, reading trashy novels, etc., which\nchildren catch much as they do whooping cough or measles, when they\nreach the right age for being exposed to them. This conception of habit\nis most disastrous in its results. Evil habits are only the fruitage of\ncertain tendencies, which in their earlier stages have seemed harmless.\nHabit is somewhat like that fresh-water mussel, Unio, in which the young\ndiffer so widely from the adult that they were supposed to be parasites,\nand were so described. Habit is a subtle thing, and requires a far-seeing\neye to detect the tendency of its growth. The theory of \"sowing wild\noats \" has always been warmly advocated by the old, and devoutly followed\nby the young. The truth that \" Whatsoever a man soweth, that shall he\nalso reap,\" seems to be disregarded.\nSince total ignorance concerning the development of mental activities\nobtains so largely among parents, and, we may add, teachers as well, the\nperiod of sense-perceptions (if I may so designate the period when these\n\n"}
{"page": 743, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE\n\nDOMINANT\n\nSEVENTH\n\nIN EDUCATION.\n\n723\n\nactivities predominate) is almost wholly ignored, and other activities are\nforced upon the child.\nWe are told that gaining knowledge is seeing relations. If parents were\nfully aware of the meaning of that statement, how much they could do in\nincidental ways to open the minds of their children to see relations !\nLearning to see is not a matter of eyesight. Training the power of\nobservation means to furnish the mind with concepts with which to see ;\nit is rendering the mind sensitive to relations; relations of force and life,\nas well as relations of number as expressed in dollars and cents.\nTo observe carefully and state accurately is a rare accomplishment.\n(Those of you who have the pleasure of working with little children\nmust have discovered how thoroughly every father and mother believes in\nthe veracity of their child, and how very far from the mind of the average\nparent is the fact that at times any child is quite likely to be careless in\nobservation and consequently inaccurate in statement.) If children are\nnot trained to accuracy at home, where will they be so trained ?\nThus briefly I have endeavored to bring to your notice a few of the\n\"unreasoning customs \" that obtain in the home period of education.\nThat these customs work positive evil is clearly evident.\nThe question now comes, How can this difficulty be overcome ? How\nmay the masses be fitted to intelligently discharge the duties of parenthood ? I think we shall all agree that in the prosecution of any new line\nof work it is always more economical to make use of already existing\ninstitutions, than to establish new ones, and we have not far to search in\norder to find those institutions which should do this work. Those persons\nwho are to be the future mothers and fathers, and who are now passing\nthrough the school period, must look to the colleges and high-schools to\ngive this most necessary part of their training. No doubt every one\npresent this morning is interested in the discussion now going on concerning the introduction of pedagogy into colleges and universities. If we\nmay judge from the number of cities and states that are now making a\nknowledge of pedagogy one of the requirements for teaching, I think we\nmay say that it is now generally admitted that teachers as well as lawyers\nand physicians should have professional training. But how about parents,\nshould they be left to experiment in ignorance ?\nFor example, it is entirely within the province of a liberal education\nto furnish a knowledge of the general laws of the development and the\nworking of the human mind. But where, and how ? We cannot expect\nto reach the masses through the colleges. To get a step nearer we must\ngo the high-schools. I do not mean the metaphysical psychology that\ndeals with abstract speculations, but I refer to the new experimental\npsychology, such as is being carried on by Dr. Sandford of Clark University, Professor Scripture of Yale, and others throughout the country,\nthough, of course, the work must be appropriately simplified.\nSuch a\n\n"}
{"page": 744, "printed_page": null, "text": "724\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\ncourse of psychology and child-study as I have in mind need not necessarily be introduced as a new branch, but can very naturally be incorporated\nin the work of physiology, and be made to contribute its share toward the\ncultivation of the powers of observation and judgment in the student. I\nam sure that the facts contributed to the general sum of knowledge by\nthis subject are of such vital importance that we cannot afford to set them\naside.\nWith regard to those persons who have already passed the school period\nand yet lack the necessary knowledge and interest in this subject, I am\nsure the time is ripe for action. The University Extension and kindred\nsocieties which are doing so much toward raising the standard of general\nculture can certainly lend a hand, by providing courses in psychology and\nchild-study for parents.\nAlready in London there has been formed a society known as the\n\" Parents' National Educational League,\" of which the Earl and Countess\nof Aberdeen were presidents. This is a step in the right direction, and\nhas been followed by the establishment of a class of mothers for the purposes of child-study in connection with the Brooklyn Institute, Brooklyn,\nN. Y. The exact character of the work of this latter class I do not know,\nbut it serves to indicate that a demand for such work exists. In these\ndays of societies and clubs all that is needed is suggestion and intelligent\ndirection. But there must be some one to suggest and some one to direct,\nand I am going to take the liberty of placing the responsibility of this\nupon the advocates of child-study. The knowledge that you are seeking\nis just the kind of knowledge that parents need. These questions which\ninterest you from a scientific point of view, should be made of interest to\nfathers and mothers from a practical point of view ; and I want to ask\nyou of what avail are all your research and splendid achievements, if after\nall they do not directly benefit the children ; and how can they benefit the\nchildren except through the parents ?\nLet me entreat your interest in this movement, for the initiation of\nwhich two things are necessary: first, literature adapted to the use of\nparents. Will you not formulate the methods and results of your investigations in such a way as may be available in carrying on this work ? The\nsecond requirement is interest. Will you not, each one here present,\ntake it upon yourself to create in your own social circle, whether it be\ngreat or small, such an interest in child-study as shall move parents to\nseek that enlightenment which is so necessary to the intelligent direction\nof home training ?\nAnd as we witness the marvellous harmony of things just over in the\n''White City\" by the Lake, may we resolve to sound the chord of the\ndominant seventh in education, the resolution of which will ever bring us\nto the perfect harmony of man.\n\n"}
{"page": 745, "printed_page": null, "text": "MENTAL\n\nMENTAL\nBY\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nG.\n\nT.\n\nW.\n\nWASTE\n\nAND\n\nECONOMY.\n\nWASTE\n\nAND\n\nECONOMY.\n\nPATRICK,\n\nSTATE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\n725\n\nIOWA.\n\nI shall try to show in this paper that there is among our school children, and older students as well, a large amount of mental waste; that\nthis waste is in part preventable by proper education in early years ; that\nit is one of the functions of experimental psychology to determine the\ncauses and amount of waste and the means of preventing it ; that our\nschools give the matter little or no attention ; that they ought to give it\nthe most careful attention. Furthermore, I shall give some examples of\nmental waste, and propose some means of teaching the practice of mental\neconomy.\nIn the study of cerebral physiology the first great fact that presents\nitself is that the brain is a machine, doing work and using up material.\nThe material used is the chemically complex nervous substance itself, constantly built up and replaced by a rich supply of oxygenated blood. The\nwork done on the mental side is in the form of conscious and unconscious\nthought, feeling, memory, volition, etc. Now some of this work is effective ; some of it is useless. Could we examine a theoretically perfect\nmind, one using up as little material as possible and turning out the\ngreatest amount of effective work, and could we compare such a mind\nwith that of the average brain-worker, we should be astonished, I think,\nat the amount of mental dissipation in the latter.\nThe art of mental economy must take account not only of the nervous\nenergy consumed, but also of time. Never before have we realized so fully\nthe need of economy of time in mental work. Never before have we felt\nso much the truth of Buskin's remark, \" Life is too disgustingly short.\"\nOur school curricula are crowded with things that the pupil must know,\nand there is no time for all. To meet this difficulty, we hear much talk\nabout the unification and coordination of studies. This is well. Since so\nenormous an amount of mental food must be administered to the young\nstudent, let it be prepared for easy assimilation, to be sure. But I think\nbetter results would be obtained if half this care were given to the study\nof child psychology, to the end that his mental digestive processes might\nbe carried on with greater economy.\nWhen I speak of mental 'economy as that condition in which, with\na limited amount of time and nervous energy, the largest amount of\neffective mental work may be accomplished, I do not speak from a utilitarian standpoint. I do not count as useless any mental activity which\ncontributes in any way to culture, whether intellectual, aesthetic, or\nmoral, or in any way promotes the mental health of the individual, or\nadds to the sum of his pleasure. All such mental activity let us encourage\nfully as much as that effective work which wins bread, advances science,\n\n"}
{"page": 746, "printed_page": null, "text": "726\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nand perfects mechanical arts. What I refer to is that large amount of\nutterly useless pyschosis which uses time and nervous energy and brings\nnothing physically but exhaustion, and nothing mentally but vexation.\nLet me cite a single instance from my own experience. When, as a\nschoolhoy, I studied Latin, my plan was to sit at a table with two open\nbooks before me — one, the text to be translated; the other, a Latin lexicon. Most of the words were familiar in form, and yet the meaning of\nthe text was not apparent. Then began the mechanical and humiliating\ntask of looking up words which it is no exaggeration to say I had in\nsome cases looked up fifty times before. I searched through the English\nequivalents of the word as given by the lexicographer till I found one\nthat fitted the case. Next day, the word occurring in a new connection,\nthe same process had to be repeated. I mention this not as the way that\nlanguage is taught now, but as a mere illustration of worse than wasted\neffort, encouraging, as it did, superficial perception, weakening the\nmemory, and destroying robust mental confidence and self-respect. In a\ncase like that it is the teacher's duty, for the sake of the student's mental\nhealth, to pitch the Latin lexicon out of the window.\nI will now try to point out one or two of the more serious forms of\nmental waste. The first one relates to the attention. There is a common\nfailure on the part of school-children to concentrate the attention upon\nthe work in hand. As the pupil sits at his reading, his composition, his\nhistory, geography, grammar, and all studies of this order, his thought\ndwells intermittently upon the work, and between times runs away to the\nfour corners of the earth. When attention is not determined by mechanical necessity, it is largely determined by interest ; and by this law the\npupil's attention is called from the work before him to a variety of other\nthings with which his interests are more concerned. The result is a\nvicious habit of mind-wandering, consuming a large amount of nervous\nenergy and time for the work accomplished. Besides the immediate\nwastefulness of this habit, the indirect evil effects are far-reaching. One\ncontracts the habit of diffuse psychosis in other things, particularly in\ntwo — sleep and recreation. Having allowed one's thoughts to go at all\ntimes to the things of supreme interest, one finds, especially in adult life,\nthat during the hours of recreation one cannot divert his thoughts from\nthe cares of business or working hours, so that recreation becomes only\npartially restorative. Similarly at night, one cannot devote one's self\ninstantly to sleep, for the mind wanders to the cares, troubles, hopes, and\npleasures of waking hours. Hence our American insomnia, with its\nserious nervous waste.\nIt is imperative that the science of pedagogy shall find some remedy for\nthis form of mental dissipation. There is far too much to do in school\nyears now, to put up with this old vice any longer. Sound psychology\nand sound pedagogy unite in demanding that in mental work there must\n\n"}
{"page": 747, "printed_page": null, "text": "MENTAL\n\nWASTE\n\nAND\n\nECONOMY.\n\n727\n\nbe concentration. One thing at a time, and that intensely. The student\nmust study intensely while he studies, then rest intensely. Concentrated attention is the normal and natural condition of the mind. Overexertion arises not from studying too hard, but from studying too many\nhours. It may be too many hours in a day, it may be too many hours at\na time. Either is bad and causes plenty of mischief ; but there is no psychological warrant for any injury resulting from intensity of mental work.\nOne of the chief causes of mind- wandering is the undue prevalence of\neye and hand study. The pupil is supposed to sit at his desk and gather\nhis knowledge from the dead symbols of the printed page. Every natural\nimpulse of the child rebels against such drudgery, and, drawn by these\nimpulses, his thoughts fly away to the images of real beings and real\nthings. This is one of the long list of evils that have followed the invention of printing. I am aware of the present popularity of the graphic\nmethod of teaching, and I am aware of the readiness with which many\nthings may be presented through the eye ; but yet through the ear there\nis a certain fixing of the attention and impression on the memory, a certain intimate relation with the emotional life, and a certain immediate\naccess to the soul of the child, that leads me to hope that in the future of\npedagogy less stress will be laid upon the eye and the hand and more upon\nthe ear and the tongue.\nLeaving these considerations for whatever speculative value they may\nhave, this much at least would seem to be demanded in the interests of\nmental economy. Let the pupil when studying by himself be engaged with\nstudies which necessarily engross the attention — such, for instance, as drawing, or such manual work as demands constantly changing adaptations ;\nand for older students, algebra, geometry, or other subjects which, though\nnot absolutely requiring the whole attention, yet for that individual student have sufficient interest to hold it. As for all other branches, let\nthem be taught orally. In oral teaching there is not the same opportunity\nfor the straying of the attention. The pupil must listen, for the teacher\nwill not, as the text-book, repeat innumerable times. If, furthermore,\nthe teacher would insist on the pupil's learning by once hearing, the\ntraining of concentrated attention would rapidly advance. I shall welcome the time when again, as in ancient Greece, the lifeless text-book\nshall give place to the vital words of the teacher.\nI pass now to a second source of mental waste closely connected with the\nother. It relates to the memory. I insist on two points here. First,\nthat our system of education is not calculated to strengthen the retentive\npowers as much as it strengthens other mental powers, and that this neglect, working with conditions of modern life, is gradually weakening retentive ability. Second, that as a consequence of defective retention an\nimmense amount of nervous energy and time are wasted in relearning what\nhas been forgotten.\n\n"}
{"page": 748, "printed_page": null, "text": "728\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nDespite our modern and perfectly sound view of education, as something\nfar broader than instruction, nevertheless it is obvious that instruction\nwill always form a considerable part of education. Now, suppose we have\na body of truth in which the pupil is to be instructed. If he possessed\ntheoretically perfect retentive powers, each truth, being clearly presented\nand clearly perceived once, would become a permanent mental possession.\nThis would evidently be mental economy. If, on the other hand, the\npupil possesses a slovenly memory, so that each truth must be presented\nand perceived twenty times and forgotten nineteen, thus evidently nineteen-twentieths of the work is wasted.\nHere I suppose I shall be met with objections. No human being, it\nmay be said, is expected to have a perfect memory ; furthermore, our\nschool -children and college students are not abnormally deficient in memory, and it is not the function of our schools at all to stuff the memory\nwith a lot of facts. I am well aware that anyone in these days who raises\nhis voice for memory training puts himself in an unpopular position. We\nare living now right in the heat of the reaction against the old memory\neducation — a reaction begun by Locke, Kousseau, and Pestalozzi — and\nwith more feeling than reason we hate everything pertaining to the antereformation system. As is usual in reformations, we have swung too far\nin some things, and particularly in our contempt for memory culture.\nModern theories of education tend to develop acutely the perceptive,\ndiscriminative, and volitional powers of the mind, to the neglect of the\nretentive. In our object lesson, pedagogy teaches to see accurately, to\ndiscriminate fully, to execute carefully. It is well designed to turn out\ngood scientists, good critics, good inventors, good mechanics. These\nends meet the demands of the day, and we are satisfied. We are more\ninterested in the undiscovered than in the past, hence we prefer to cultivate perception rather than retention. In my opinion, this ideal of the\neducated man leaves something to' be desired ; but my point now is that\nour neglect of memory training is likely to lead to serious and unfortunate mental waste in acquisition.\nIncidentally, also, the conditions of modern life are unfavorable to\nmemory. Before the mind of the student passes an infinite variety of\nnew perceptions. There is too much to see, to hear, to read, to allow us\nto dwell carefully enough upon one thing to remember it.\nIt is useless to say, quoting some eminent psychologists, that the\nmemory is incapable of being much strengthened by training. In the\nlong run, those mental powers which have the greatest emphasis put upon\nthem in our schools will be developed, while those which are neglected\nwill suffer. There is a certain time in the early life of the child when\nthe memory can be greatly, perhaps almost indefinitely, strengthened by\ntraining, but it cannot be done by any incidental hit-and-miss training ;\nit can be done by training that is definite and systematic, directed solely\n\n"}
{"page": 749, "printed_page": null, "text": "DISCUSSION.\n\n729\n\nto this end. In my opinion, not only would such training pay a hundredfold in mental economy, but it would be a step toward obtaining that\nmental balance which so characterized the education of the ancient\nGreeks, and which possibly our modern education is in danger of missing.\nThe great men of the world have been men of strong memories. They\nhave not had to waste nervous energy and time in relearning what they\nhave forgotten. They have thus been able to go steadily forward, and\naccumulate intellectual wealth, which others have acquired and lost.\nI have dwelt upon dissipated attention and poor retentive ability as\ntwo of the more common sources of mental waste. Although so briefly\ntreated, they will illustrate at least what I mean by mental waste and\neconomy. Two or three other sources of waste I must pass with a word,\nand still others leave unmentioned.\nI believe that we still keep children at work too many hours at a time,\nand too many hours in the day. The result is cerebral anaemia, spiritlessness, and inefficiency.\nIt is not economical.\nWe still fail to appreciate how much the emotional and volitional powers of the mind need educating. We develop thought, perception, etc.,\ntoo much relatively ; hence fail to get the necessary mental balance.\nFinally, we have found yet no way of checking the waste that comes\nfrom the play of unhealthy and useless emotions, such as fear among\nchildren, and worry in later years.\nIn conclusion, then, present conditions of life and education make the\nstrain upon the nervous system so great that it becomes absolutely necessary to stop all needless sources of mental waste, and to consider systematically the science of mental economy.\nDISCUSSION.\nPresident W. L. Hervey, New York College for Training of Teachers: Economy\nof effort is a most difficult matter for the teacher, because of the individuality of the\nFupils. To be of use, the teacher must know his pupil and apply aid to the weak spot,\ntake issue with the paper on the point of concentration. There are two lines of study,\nabsorptive and analytic. In the former — e.g., reading — we passively follow an author in\norder to get his meaning ; concentration is in place in analytic study.\nDr. W. H. Burnham : Did Professor Patrick speak of the waste of being economic ?\nNo ? Then I will. Edward Eggleston says that when a boy he read Miss Edgeworth's\nstory of the whipcord, and that ever since he has been haunted by it. He says he has\nsaved a deal of cheap cord, and in so doing has lost a greater amount of valuable time.\nWhat I wish to emphasize in economy is the need for a due sense of proportion. Get\nan economic perspective, and dwell on essentials. This is fully as necessary as concentration.\nDr. Jerome Allen : We speak of economizing memory, but let us first find what\nkind of memory is needed for a business man. Do we want the portative kind, useful\nfor examinations ? Where do we find a man who has or uses a great memory in daily\nlife ? Business demands ability to concentrate on one thing to-day or this week, and\nthen\nwork. to throw all this off and take on another load. This is well shown in a lawyer's\n\n"}
{"page": 750, "printed_page": null, "text": "730\n\nINTER\n\nNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION.\n\nDr. Dk Garmo : I've been trying to accustom myself to this criticism on the excessive use of the eye and hand. To me it comes to this : If these are used badly, then it\nis bad. But why not use them well ? The old style of \" science \" used to be all reading; that is no science at all. But vow the eye reads objects, and is an aid to thought.\nThe observation of isolated details is bad. I apprehend Professor Patrick had in mind\ndiffused observation, in the line of the much abused Pestalozzian method. For my part,\nI lay great stress on the saying of Herbart, \" Bring thought out of observation.\"\nPrincipal F. L. Soldan, St. Louis, Mo : A story of Madame de Stael runs as follows :\nAt a dinner-party she was unable to get a word from her partner, a famous author.\n\" Poor man ! \" she said, \" he has put so much thought into his books that he has none\nleft for himself.\" In a way this criticism will apply to our schools. Time spent on\nmemorizing has left no time for thought. This, at least, is one place for economy.\nBut the cause of excessive eye training lies in matters we cannot control. The eye sees\nquicker and better than any other sense. We feel heat, but to express our feeling we\nmake use of a scale that appeals to the eye. Yet, with Professor Patrick, I recognize\nthe great importance of the ear in all social intercourse. The ear is the only sense that\nhas deteriorated in civilization ; I am glad it has declined. The days of Buddhist\npriests who memorize and transmit orally thousands of words have gone by. Memory\nmust not be formal, serial, but closely connected with thought.\n\nDREAMING\n\nAND\n\nPOETIC\n\nBY\n\nJAMES\n\nSULLY,\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nINVENTION.\n\nLONDON\",\n\nENGLAND.\n\nAt the close of an article on \"Dreams as related to Literature, \" published in the Forum, March, 1889, I threw out the conjecture, already\nadumbrated by Lamb, that the dreaming faculty is akin to the poetic faculty, and that the development of either must tend to react on that of the\nother.\nWith a view to see whether this guess was supported by fact, I decided\nto carry out a little statistical investigation. I drew up a schedule of\nquestions, with reference on the one hand to frequency and coherence of\ndreams and other allied points, and on the other hand to mode of literary\nactivity. These questions were sent to persons engaged in the production\nof imaginative literature in England, America, and elsewhere.\nAs might have been expected, some of the recipients of the questions,\npossibly feeling, as a distinguished novelist put it, that it was disagreeable\nto be turned inside out in this way, declined the friendly challenge sent\nthem. At the same time my appeal drew out a fair number of responses.\nThese included a large number of leading names in the contemporary fiction of England and of America.\nThe number of complete sets of answers was twenty-eight. This was,\nof course, far too small to serve as the basis of an exhaustive statistical\ninvestigation. At the same time it seemed to me sufficient to suggest\nsome probable conclusions. I may add that some of my correspondents\nfurnished me with particularly interesting details of their modus operandi\nin literary production. I judged, therefore, that I had collected material\nenough for a further elucidation of the subject.\n\n"}
{"page": 751, "printed_page": null, "text": "DREAMING\n\nAND\n\nPOETIC\n\nINVENTION.\n\n731\n\nThe first point to which the questions addressed themselves was the\namount and quality of nocturnal dreaming. With respect to amount of\ndream experience, the large majority — viz. : twenty out of twenty-eight\n— informed me that they dreamt frequently. Six, including two names\nhigh up in English and American fiction, dreamt \"constantly,\" or\n\"every night.\" On the other hand, more than one distinguished novelist\nhad to confess that, so far as he knew, most of his nights when he was in\nhealth were passed without dreams; and one lady writer assured me that\nshe never knew what it was to dream.\nAs to quality, the dreams of the majority were characterized as distinct\nand vivid. Only five described their dreaming as indistinct. In other\nrespects the character of the dream-experience differed in a curious way.\nThus, while some spoke of it as simple in construction and amazingly\ntrivial and commonplace, others described it as connected and elaborate.\nOn the whole, dreaming of a significant or pointed character, whether\nfrom a logical or aesthetic point of view, seems to be decidedly a rarity\namong our producers of fiction. Again, there are odd differences in\nrespect to the connection between dreams and waking experience. One\nwell-known writer says that her dreams are but a continuation of the\nevents of the day. In the case of the majority, however, the connection\nseems to be very loose, if discoverable at all. More than one distinctly\nstate that they never dream of the occurrences of the day. One of my\ncorrespondents, a constant dreamer, makes the remarkable confession that\nthough he has lain motionless on his back for eighteen years, he habitually\ndreams of himself as on his feet, and has only once dreamt of lying on his\ninvalid couch.\nOn another point investigated — viz. : composition of the dream, and\nmore particularly the place occupied by the visual or scenic and the auditory or linguistic element respectively — differences also betray themselves.\nIn most cases the dreamer both sees scenes, persons, etc., and hears the\npersons speak ; yet this manner of dreaming is not constant. There seems\nto be, in certain instances, a suppression of the auditory element. Thus\none writer says : \"There are often intervals of dumb show \" ; another goes\nfurther and says : \" I never hear the figures speak, yet always understand\nwhat they say.\" In one or two cases, again, there appears to be a lack of\nsensuous vividness and directness altogether. Thus one lady writes : \"I\nneither seem to see things nor to hear words during dreams. I am somehow conscious that things are so and that people say so. it is a bald narrative in the present tense.\" On the other hand, some writers make the\nlanguage element, as lecturing, speech, or reading, a prominent feature.\nThis seems to be illustrated by the case of a well-known American novelist, who, while describing his dreams as distinct and fantastic, adds that\nin respect of their composition they are marked \"by \"much dramatization\nand logic.\"\nThe dramatic aspect becomes marked in the case of one lady\n\n"}
{"page": 752, "printed_page": null, "text": "732\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nwho describes the attitude of mind in her dreams by saying that she is\n\"in a story, \" though not as a principal actor, and that the other dramatis\npersona are unable to understand the occurrences which she can explain.\nOnce more : The dreams of imaginative writers, to judge from our\nsamples, are not of any remarkable poetic value. Only one respondent\ndescribes Jier dreams as of extraordinary beauty. What is particularly\nstriking is that writers distinguished by their humor do not, apparently,\ncarry this happy endowment with them into dreamland.\nWe may now pass to another point. I had been much struck by a fact\ntold me by. one of the most charming of living English writers, viz.: that\nhe possessed a certain power of controlling his dreams, so that he could,\nwhen disturbed in the midst of an agreeable dream, will to resume its\nthread. It occurred to me that other imaginative writers might share in\nthis power, and I accordingly addressed one of my questions to this point.\nThe outcome of this part of the inquiry was slight enough, yet not wholly\nwithout value. Most of my correspondents acknowledged that they had\nno power of the kind. Yet three assured me that they could voluntarily\nprolong a dream. One, moreover — a writer, by the by, whom I should\ninclude with the other just referred to among the three most brilliant English novelists of the hour — went further. \" I can,\" he wrote, \"postpone\nwaking while I finish hearing some lecture or story or reading some page\nin the dream \" ; and further : \" / frequently alter the development of a\ndream to something else, if I object to it, precisely as in writing a story.\"\nAnother question directed to the subject of illusions and daydreaming\nelicited only .a scanty result. Illusions of the senses seem to have been\nexperienced by nine out of the twenty-eight. Since, according to E.\nGurney, occasional hallucinations occur in normal life in about one case out\nof ten, this would be considerably above the average (roughly as one-third\nto one-tenth). This relative frequency suggests that there may be a special\npredisposing cause, such as the delicacy and lability of nervous organization\nwhich frequently accompany great imaginative ability, and this conjecture\nis borne out perhaps by the fact that in several cases, including that of a\ndistinguished German novelist, the hallucinations are confined to periods\nof illness. As to day-dreaming, the vivid half-hallucinatory realization of\nfancies, as when one sees pictures in the fire and so forth — the art seems to\nhave been lost with the halcyon hours of childhood, or if it has been preserved, itis only in the altered form of an artistic weapon deliberately\nsubordinated to some literary effect.\nThis brings us to another and distinct kind of question, viz. : that which\nsought to unveil the mystery of imaginative composition. Is the mental\nattitude of poetic creation akin to dreaming to this extent, that the scenes\nand incidents present themselves suddenly, distinctly, and with the vividness of sense-presentations ? Here again marked variations of experience\nare observable.\nOn one point there does seem, indeed, to be an approach\n\n"}
{"page": 753, "printed_page": null, "text": "DREAMING\n\nAND\n\nPOETIC\n\nINVENTION.\n\n733\n\nto agreement. When rapt from his actual surroundings in some imaginative vision the senses of the novelist are not muffled as when he sleeps and\ndreams. One writer can indeed do imaginative work when people are\ntalking in the same room ; but then Mrs. Somerville could carry on scientific work under the same circumstances, and in each case this seems to\nshow merely a special power of withdrawing the attention from the sensible world, and not a torpidity of the senses as in sleep.\n;- With respect to the precise degree of vividness ascribable to the artistic\nimagery, there is a general agreement that this is high. The common way\nof describing it is by saying that the scenes, persons, etc., are distinctly\nseen. When, however, we probe this kind of answer more deeply, we find\nthat it stands for very different types of experience. Thus, one of my\ncorrespondents is careful to say that the degree of vividness of his imagination is comparable with that of vivid recollections, and another tells me\nthat the images are \" nearly as vivid \" as dreams. While, however, some\nthus distinctly put the products of artistic imagination below dream images,\nothers reverse the order. Thus a distinguished American novelist informs\nme that he sees things when writing much more clearly than when dreaming. An equally eminent English novelist adds the interesting fact that\nin his case some time, about six weeks, has to elapse after the characters\nand history have been decided upon before the former begin to be really\nalive, and to move and talk of their own will. But by that time, he adds,\n\" the pictures are too real to resemble dreams and visions at all.\"\nIn one or two instances it is distinctly told me that the images tend\nto project themselves on the actual visible scene. Thus, one well-known\nlady novelist writes : \"I have seen the persons in a story of mine crossing\nthe room, but they are more like the figures in a magic lantern than anything else.\" Another eminent novelist writes : \"In imagining scenes I see\nthem enacted. I do not find it necessary to close the eyes, but can make\nthem quite distinct in front of the actual scene.\"\nOn the closely connected point of vividness of presentation like disparities of testimony occur. And here I cannot do better than begin by quoting from the letter of the eminent German novelist. Dr. Paul Heyse, who\nkindly allows me to use his name. \" The images of my poetic creations\n[he writes] have never the character of visions, but I imagine them in pure\noutlines [ Umrissen~\\, with full consciousness that I myself am producing them in my mind. As, however, I have drawn a good deal, I see them\nwith the greatest clearness, and so am all the more the foe to illustrations,\nsince the artist never brings my own forms before the eye.\" This testimony does not, however, agree altogether with that of others. What certain writers specially emphasize is the feeling that the imagined scene or\naction is given to them and not consciously produced by their minds. For\nexample, one well-known lady writer says : \" I have often seen a face in a\ncab or train, and I invent a story to it ; or, rather, gradually the story\n\n"}
{"page": 754, "printed_page": null, "text": "734\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\ninvents itself while I look on. Thus, on one occasion, after vaguely conceiving the plan of a story, I happened to see a woman at a railway station\nand said, ' There she is/ and the rest of her history, every thought she\nhad, and all she felt, flowed gradually into my brain.\" Another puts it\nthis way: \" The process is like a dream in seeming to be independent of\none's will ; one feels as if one were deciphering or remembering, not inventing.\" The reader need hardly be reminded that Mr. E. L. Stevenson, in\nthe charming \" Chapter on Dreams,\" * tells us that both in literary composition and in dreaming it is not he but the \" Brownies \" who do the\ncreating for him.\nOne curious fact may be added on the mode of artistic representation.\nJust as the dramatic impulse seems to play a prominent part in many of\nour dreams, so it figures in poetic production. One lady writes : \" While\nthe pictures resemble dreams in a degree, they much more resemble dramatic performance. I find myself imitating the gestures of my persons\nand representing to my mind the tones of their voices in just the same\nway that I should represent to myself — and have done — a play in which I\nwas to take part.\"\nMy last question, or group of questions, aimed at finding out whether\nthere was any observable overlapping and interaction of dreaming and\nartistic invention. Thus it was asked whether dreaming seems to increase\nwith amount of imaginative work, and so forth. Here, too, the results\nwere largely negative. A writer by exercising his. imaginative gift in\nwaking hours does not necessarily add to its activity during sleep. In a\ncertain proportion of cases, it is true, the filmy creations of imagination\nfind their way across the confines of sleep. Thus more than one novelist\nhas told me that after writing late into the night he is apt, on falling asleep,\nto reencounter the figures of his romance. On the other hand, an eminent and voluminous producer of fiction says that though dreaming is\ncommon with him he has neverdreamt of any figure or situation of his\nown creation.\nThe most interesting fact captured by this final cast of the interrogatory\nnet is that a modest proportion of novelists appear to have worked up\ndream products into their stories. I was put on the track of this fact by\nwhat Mr. E. L. Stevenson told me four years ago respecting the genesis\nof the \" Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde,\" information which he\nhas since given to the world.\nAbout twelve out of my twenty-eight correspondents are clear that they\nhave made vise of dreams in stories, and one or two more are doubtful, so\nthat if our sample is a fair one we may say that about half of our novelists\nowe some of their literary inspiration to the nocturnal pranks of Queen\nMab.\nI may add that the most distinguished names find themselves on\n* Across the Plains, chapter viii.\n\n"}
{"page": 755, "printed_page": null, "text": "DREAMING\n\nAND\n\nPOETIC\n\nINVENTION.\n\n735\n\neither side of the line, some answering the question with an unqualified\n\"no.\"\nOne of the positive instances is so remarkable that it deserves to rank\nby the side of the experience of Mr. Stevenson, to which I shall return\npresently. This is Dr. Paul Heyse, whom one may name the creator of\nthe modern German novelette, to whom reference has already been made.\nAfter remarking that his customary mode of composing a story is by setting out with some mental or spiritual problem to which the external form,\nscenery, and figures afterward add themselves, he goes on to say : \" It\nhas, however, frequently happened to me when dreaming to be present at\na more elaborate kind of action which afterward in the morning twilight\nquickly expanded into novelistic form. In this way I heard the novelette\n' Frau Marchese ' (' La Marchese ') narrated by a sacristan, who pointed out\nto me and a friend, in a church at Sestri Levante, a woman's form and\ncommunicated her history. I wrote down at once in the morning what I\nhad dreamt, and no doubt a good deal was transformed. But I retained\neven some of the names. A similar thing befell me with the novelette\n'Kleopatra,' the wonderful underlying motif of which I have clearly\nbefore me even to-day in the form of a dream.\"\nIt would not be difficult, I think, to point out certain dreamy characteristics in these novelettes. In the first the two scenic elements, the\nItalian garden with its lush vegetation and its two uncanny figures, and\nthe hushed church with the veiled corpse of the Marchesa, seem to me to\nhave come straight out of a dream. In \"Kleopatra\" the dream note is\nstill more distinct. In its weird confusion of beauteous and hideous forms,\nin its ground tone of haunting memory, and more than all in its weaving\nof a personal love tragedy into the classic story of the Egyptian queen, it\nseems all compact with the stuff that dreams are made of.\nThese inferences would, I think, be confirmed by an examination of the\nstories in which, as he himself has told us, Mr. Stevenson has made most\nuse of dream material. I refer more particularly to the \"Strange Case\"\nand to \"Olalla.\"\nThe result of our inquiry may perhaps be summed up in the following\nconclusions, which, however, must be regarded as provisional and requiring further confirmation :\n(a) There is a certain connection between dreaming and fictive production. By this I mean that imaginative writers appear, so far as my information reaches, to be distinctly above the average in respect at least of\nthe quantity of their dreaming. The connection is seen further in the\nfact that the two modes of brain activity interact. Thus waking imagination sometimes hands on its production to sleeping phantasy, while, reciprocally, dream products pass over into the region of artistic invention.\nThe explanation of the connection will probably be found when we know\nmore respecting the mode of brain activity involved in each case. At\n\n"}
{"page": 756, "printed_page": null, "text": "736\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\npresent we know next to nothing. The attempts of most psychologists to\naccount for the processes of imaginative creation seem to me among the\nweakest things in scientific literature, and admirably adapted to conserve\nthe ancient belief that this creation is a mystery which science cannot deal\nwith and which must be referred to some supernatural influence. As to\nwhat goes on when we sleep and dream, physiologists are, I think, agreed\nthat we are still in the stage of crude guessing. What seems clear, however, in both cases, is that the new juxtaposition, the new sequence of\nimages, is at bottom an automatic process with which will and conscious\nselection have nothing to do. This is what Mr. Stevenson expresses in\nhis own fine manner by saying that it is his little people, the \" Brownies,\"\nwho do the work for him, both when dreaming and when inventing. This\ndependence of all new imaginative work, whether in a waking or a sleeping\nstate, on a sub-conscious mode of cerebral action would lead us to expect\nthat the two domains of activity might interact.*\n(b) At the same time, the connection between the two spheres of\nimaginative activity is not as close as has been supposed — by Charles Lamb,\nfor example. For according to this writer, we ought to be able to gauge\na man's poetic faculty by means of his dreams, and we have found that\nthis is not so. If my courteous correspondents have been perfectly open\n(and it seems unlikely that they would knowingly understate the value of\ntheir dreams), we should never be able to infer, from the poor things\nwhich the dream fairy sends to some of them, the graceful and delightful\nforms which their waking imagination throws off.\nAnd here, again, we appear to find what such knowledge of the mental\nprocesses as we possess would lead us to anticipate. Whatever sleep may be,\nit certainly induces very special cerebral conditions, which conditions make\nany surviving mental activity profoundly dissimilar to that of the normal\nwaking state. Thus there is by common consent during sleep a very considerable suppression of all that we 'mean by the regulative or volitional\nfactor : we do not reflect and choose ; we look on at whatever happens to\ncome. In artistic creation, on the other hand, we have this regulative\nfactor trained to be a special faculty. Even Mr. Stevenson admits that\nwhen he writes it is the \" will to live \" which urges him. This volitional\neffort maintains the whole process of imagination as of scientific thought\n— a fact fully attested by the many well-known sayings touching the\nnature of genius. This disparity between the two spheres of imaginative\nactivity is emphasized by one of my correspondents, a novelist known and\nappreciated on both sides of the Atlantic, when he writes : \" There is no\nparity whatever between the dream-fiction and the thought-fiction, the\n* Of course, it may be said that I am making a large assumption in supposing either dreams or waking\ncombinations to be absolutely new. Much that seems new to us in a dream may be a revived past, forgotten as such ; and if, with M. Pierre Loti, we extend this idea to the ancestral past, who is to say that\nwe ever dream a new thing ? This fascinating conjecture must, however, I fear, for the present be put\naside as rather far-fetched.\n\n"}
{"page": 757, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE\n\nLANGUAGE\n\nOF CHILDREN.\n\n737\n\ninvoluntary and the voluntary ; though I dare say many people . . .\nwould like to pretend otherwise.\" I venture to think that this statement\nis too strong, for, as we have seen, though in invention volitional effort\nkeeps the Active process going and maintains a critical supervision of its\nresults, it exercises no direct control over the particular arrangements of\nimagery which actually arise.\n(c) My last conclusion is the most tentative of all. Cases like that\nof Dr. Paul Heyse and of Mr. Stevenson, together with the other cases\nreferred to of power to fashion a dream by help of a process of critical\nreflection, point to the existence in a few imaginative men of a rudiment of\na higher kind of dream faculty, a power of giving to the dream creation a\nmore elaborate and coherent form and a finer poetic quality. This power\nincludes a germ of volitional control, and so is an extension into the realm\nof sleep of the true artistic faculty. It is conceivable that in the course of\nages this rudimentary power may be evolved into a useful faculty. A\nwriter who, having all the luxuriant wealth of dream imagery, can learn to\nadd the plastic purpose of art, would certainly have a considerable advantage in the struggle for literary existence ; and indeed Mr. Stevenson must\nbe grateful to his nocturnal Brownies for such brilliant suggestions as that\nof the transformation scene in the \" Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr.\nHyde/' It may be, however, that the tendency to dream better than one's\ncompetitors would not prove so beneficial. If sleep ought to be brain rest,\nelaborate dreaming were surely a thing to be shunned. A kind-hearted\nperson, on reading Mr. Du Manner's clever and gracefully told dream\nstory, is tempted to pray the author to bestow on poor Ibbetson just\none good, honest sleep. Hence it may after all turn out that the great\ndreamers will, in the long run, be beaten by the little dreamers in the race\nfor literary fame.\n\nTHE\nBY\n\nF. TRACY,\n\nLANGUAGE\nOF\n\nCLARK\n\nOF CHILDREN.\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nWORCESTER,\n\nMASS.\n\nHaving spent considerable time on the study of the language of children just learning to speak, I feel justified in laying before this congress\none or two points which seem to me of the greatest interest and importance.\nSeveral studies have already been made upon child vocabularies, and\nresults published, but, so far as I know, one essential point has always\nhitherto been overlooked — viz.: the phonetic arrangement of the words ;\nthat is to say, the consideration of the sounds rather than the letters.\nThe child's words have been classified according to the initial letter, on\nthe basis of the traditional English alphabet. It is obvious that such an\narrangement is entirely misleading as regards the real nature of the sounds\nuttered by the child. For example, in such a classification many words\nbeginning with the sound of k are classified under c, because they\n47\n\n"}
{"page": 758, "printed_page": null, "text": "738\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nare spelt with a c (such as \"corner,\" \"come,\" \"crown,\" and the like).\nAnd so the list of h appears small, and the conclusion is hastily\ndrawn that this is a difficult sound for the child to make because he has\nbut few words beginning with it as initial letter. Several other false conclusions of a similar nature are reached. It is very desirable that those\nwho classify child words henceforth should take the greatest pains to\narrange them not alphabetically, but phonetically.\nIn a careful study of some twenty-five child vocabularies, comprising\nnearly six thousand words, some facts have come to light different from\nwhat might ordinarily be expected, as a result of this phonetic arrangement. The k sound turns out to be not at all a difficult sound for the\naverage child. As an initial sound it occupies third place in order of\nfrequency, standing indeed above m, which is usually supposed to be one\nof the easiest of sounds.\nI have several times met with the remark that the young child learns to\nspeak largely by watching the lips of those who speak in his presence, and\nimitating the movements which are there visible. Hence, on this theory,\nthose sounds will be best and earliest learned the movements involved in\nwhich are most plainly visible, and therefore most easily imitated, such as\nthe labials, for example. This theory is not at all borne out by my observations. The h sound, whose movements are absolutely out of sight, is\nlearned more readily than some other sounds whose movements are\nplainly visible, such as tli in \" think.\"\nSo far as I am able to judge, the earliest vocal movements are not imitative at all, or only so to a very limited extent, and are what Preyer\nwould call impulsive movements. The child utters sounds before he is of\nan age to be able to appreciate and imitate the sounds and movements of\nothers. He combines these sounds afterward in imitation of others, but\nthe faculty of imitation seems to play little or no part in the first beginnings of infant articulation.\nThe consideration of the relative frequency of the different parts of\nspeech in the vocabulary of the child also yields some interesting and\nvaluable results.\nAmong those who have studied the language of children it has generally\nbeen supposed that substantives, names of things, are more readily learned\nthan predicative words, inasmuch as they are usually more numerous than\nthe latter in the speech of children. But it is obvious that we must take\ninto account not only absolute but relative frequency ; that is, we must\nnot only compare the number of nouns in the child's speech with the\nnumber of verbs, but also compare the speech of the child with that of the\nadult, and prove that he has acquired a larger proportion of his future\nsubstantive vocabulary than of his future verb vocabulary. But according\nto the child words examined by me, the opposite is the case. In the\nvocabulary of the child of two years of age (taking the average of my\n\n"}
{"page": 759, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE\n\nPREVENTION\n\nAND\n\nCURE\n\nOF STUTTERING.\n\n739\n\ntwenty-five cases), sixty per cent, of the words are nouns and twenty per\ncent, are verbs. But in the vocabulary of the ordinary adult, sixty per cent,\nof the words are nouns, while only eleven per cent, are verbs. In other\nwords, the child of two years has made nearly twice as much progress,\nrelatively, in the acquisition of those words that are associated with movements (verbs), as he has with the acquisition of those words that are merely\nnames of objects.\nThe same is true, even to a more striking extent, when we compare the\nacquisition of adverbs with that of verbs. The average child makes nearly\nfour times as rapid relative progress with the adverbs as with the verbs. It\nis interesting in this connection to remember that Max Miiller says that\nthe primitive Sanskrit roots of all our Indo-Germanic words originally\nindicated actions, and not objects.\nThe principle itself is one that is revolutionizing modern pedagogic\nmethods. Its germ may be found as far back as Aristotle, whose whole\nethical system is based upon the formation of good habits by constant\ntraining of the activities, and who has said that even as we learn to play on\nthe harp by playing on the harp, so we become virtuous by doing actions\nof virtue, and just and brave by doing actions of bravery and justice.\n\nAPPLICATION\nOF THE\nLAWS\nFOR THE PREVENTION AND\nBY\n\nEDWARD\n\nMUSSEY\nTRAINING\n\nOF PHYSICAL TRAINING\nCURE OF STUTTERING.\n\nHART WELL,\nPH.D., M.D.,\nIN THE\nPUBLIC\nSCHOOLS\n\nDIRECTOR\nOF\nOF BOSTON.\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nMy main contention is that physical training should be adequately\nsupported and effectively organized as a co-ordinate department in our\nelementary and secondary schools ; not simply or chiefly because of its\nvalue in promoting the health of the school population, but for the perhaps weightier reason, that as an educational discipline it lies at the basis\nof the most usual procedures employed, by teachers to secure the ends of\nmental and moral training. In attempting to show the value and importance of physical training as a necessary and irreducible factor in intellectual training, I shall confine my remarks in the main to a single\nbranch of the obviously fundamental department of language training, viz.,\nthat of the education of the organs concerned in the production of speech.\nStuttering, as is well known, is most frequent among children and\nyouth of school age ; and certain of the most authoritative writers on\nthe subject, as, for instance, Kussmaul, the Gutzmanns, and A. Melville\nBell, characterize it as a school disorder. \" The schools,\" says Bell,\n\"are the nurseries of stuttering.\" I shall have occasion further on to\nspeak of the evidence which supports this view, and also of our reasons\nfor believing that very much of the stuttering which infects our schools\n\n"}
{"page": 760, "printed_page": null, "text": "740\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\ncould be abated or prevented if our educational authorities would only\nlearn to recognize and apply those principles of physical training which\nunderlie and determine the formation of correct and natural habits of\nspeech. Deferring for the present the closer study of those principles,\nand the proper mode of carrying them into effect in the special field\nunder consideration, let us note some of the more salient facts regarding\nthe nature of the human body, and the general laws of bodily training.\nBroadly speaking, the body is a complicated living machine for doing\nwork. Its work is to transform potential energy into active energy. It\nderives its store of potential energy from the oxygen and food-stuffs furnished by the blood. Since the body is a self-building, self-sustaining\nmechanism, only a portion of the active energy set free by the metabolism\nof its tissues is available for external and internal mechanical work. A\nlarge amount of motor and molecular motion is expended in renewing\nand enlarging the tissues of the body, in maintaining its animal heat, and\nin effecting the various chemical changes incident to blood-making and\nblood-cleansing. In other words, the active energy expended in thinking,\nwilling, and doing is derived from the fund of energy which is available\nafter the fixed changes of construction, maintenance, and repair have\nbeen met. This may be characterized as the free capital of the body.\nFrom this stand-point the main end of education, speaking in general\nterms, is to develop, in the individuals subjected to training, the power\nof making the most of their fund of free capital.\nMoral, mental, and physical training, each and all, aim at developing\nthe power or faculty of acting ; in the first case, of acting according to\nthe rules of right and wrong ; in the second, of acting intelligently, so\nthat the modes of action shall be adapted to appropriate ends ; and in the\ncase of physical training, of acting as easily as possible, i.e., with the least\npossible waste of energy in useless, irrelevant, round-about, or self-defeating movements. Since physical training aims at perfecting the body as\nan instrument, and at rendering it the willing, prompt, and efficient\nservant and minister of an intelligent mind and a sensitive and enlightened soul, it cannot be gainsaid that physical training lies at the foundation of moral and mental training, or that it enters inevitably as a more\nor less prominent factor into most educational procedure.\nThe success or failure of physical training, therefore, is not simply a\nquestion of the size and strength of the red tissues we call muscles, but is\nmeasured in part by our achievements in the domain of morals and of\nmind. In other words, we judge of the mental and moral worth of a man\nby the purpose, number, consecutiveness, and skillfulness of his habitual\nand ordinary acts, which acts, when viewed objectively and concretely, are\nreducible to more or less complicated muscular actions.\nThe body is a communal structure, a kind of federated union of tissues and organs, arranged so as to form general mechanisms, having\n\n"}
{"page": 761, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE\n\nPREVENTION\n\nAND\n\nCURE\n\nOF STUTTERING.\n\n741\n\nleading parts, and special mechanisms, with minor parts to play. General mechanisms, such as the circulatory, assimilative, and respiratory\norgans, and the nervous system, which subserve somatic needs, or the\nneeds of the whole organism, are built up and set going first and earliest ;\nwhile minor mechanisms, with more special functions to perform, as, for\ninstance, the organs of locomotion, of manipulation, and of speech, are\nformed later ; the greater their differentiation as to parts, and the higher\ntheir specialization as to functions, the later they are in attaining to\nstructural completeness and full functional powers.\nSo largely do the master tissues of the body — as the nervous and muscular tissues have been happily named — enter into the composition of both\nits somatic and the special mechanisms, that the due exercise of those\ntissues is a sine qua non to the normal growth of the hody and the orderly\nand complete development of the functional powers of all its members.\nThat is to say, the health and effectual training of the leading and minor\nmechanisms of the body are largely conditioned on the amount and character of the activity of the master tissues. Now, the conjoined action of the\nmaster tissues constitutes what is ordinarily termed muscular action in\nexercise, since every skeletal muscle is but the executive end organ of a\nmotor nerve cell, with which it is connected by a motor nerve. The nerve\ncell animates and controls the contractions of the muscle. When one acts\nthe other acts, and the resultant action is better termed neuro-muscular\naction than simply muscular action. The neural part of the dual organ is\nsaid to represent the movements which the contractile moiety is capable\nof executing. We are all familiar with the fact that exercise of the\nmuscles leads to an increase in their size, strength, and working power.\nThere can be little doubt that the neural moiety of the neuro-muscular\nmechanisms is similarly affected by \"muscular exercise ;\" but it would\ntake us too far afield to marshal here the evidence which favors the view\nthat the growth of nerves and nerve centers is measurably dependent upon\nsuch exercise. In passing, I would suggest, however, that possibly a\npartial explanation of the fact that man has a larger brain than woman\nmay be found in his larger musculature, and the need of more cerebral substance to animate and regulate it. That our neuro-muscular mechanisms\nare functionally improved by exercise, is indisputable. Through exercise\nin repeated practice they become habituated to working more promptly,\neasily, and harmoniously with other similar mechanisms, than can unexercised organs, t. e., they become trained or developed through varied\nand repeated exercise. It is through drill and repetition that nerve acts\nbecome habitual, then automatic, and finally, it may be, are organized, so\nto speak, as more or less reflex acts. It is by the practice and repetition of\nspecially selected and properly ordered neuro-muscular actions, which have\nto be learned, that the apprentice is developed into a master workman,\nthe tyro into an adept, the stammerer into a Demosthenes ! The intrinsic\n\n"}
{"page": 762, "printed_page": null, "text": "742\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\neffects of exercise, then, are chiefly these : the heightened health of the\nmechanism, which involves the attainment and maintenance of a normal\ndegree of size, strengthening working power in all its structural parts ; and\na more complex and special effect, in the acquisition or organization by its\nneural parts of responsive and orderly habits as regards the origination,\ntransmission, and regulation of stimuli. The ends of muscular exercise may\nbe characterized, therefore, as the promotion and conservation of health,\nand the formation or acquisition of well-regulated habits of action. The\nfirst is a hygienic end, and forms the basis of most of the arguments which\nare advanced in favor of the physical education of children and youth : the\nsecond is a distinctly pedagogic end, which is more generally overlooked than\nrecognized. Failure to recognize and adopt the proper means of securing\nthe educational end of exercise in the training of the several neuro-muscular\nmechanisms concerned in the production of speech is largely responsible,\nI believe, for the presence of the nervous disorder termed stuttering in so\nmany schools.\nIf we compare an adult man with a new-horn babe, or one of the highest\nof the lower animals, in respect to the movements of which they are capable, we find that they possess many in common, but that the adult man\nis distinguished from the infant and brute by certain movements, such as\nthose involved in maintaining the erect posture, and in the action of the\nhands and vocal organs — to go no further — and that corresponding to\nthese classes of movements there are two classes of nervous mechanisms by\nmeans of which they are represented. The neuro-muscular mechanisms\nabove mentioned have been well termed fundamental and accessory, respectively. The law of evolution, already referred to, whereby general\nfunctions and organs are developed first, and tend to outlast the special\norgans and functions which are later developed, applies to the nervous\nsystem, as well as to the collective mechanisms of the body. It is a law\nwhich all who engage in education of any kind should ponder upon and\nbe guided by. This law has been especially emphasized by Dr. Boss in\nhis \" Diseases of the Nervous System.\" \"During the evolution of the nervous system of man,\" he says, \" the fundamental portion is first developed.\nBut after birth the accessory portion, which up till this time only appears\nin a rudimentary condition, undergoes progressive development. . . .\nThe superaddition of the accessory portion greatly increases the multiformity, the complexity, and the specialty of the human nervous system, and\nit is the latest product of its evolution.\" According to the views of Dr. Ross,\nthe movements of the fingers and hand are accessory as compared with\nthe larger movements of the elbow and shoulder. Among the fundamental\nneuro-muscular mechanisms which are well organized in the new-bora\ninfant are those concerned in the circulation and ventilation of the blood.\nMercier, an English alienist, classifies movements, \" which he defines as\nany set of co-ordinated muscular actions,\" as either central or peripheral ;\n\n"}
{"page": 763, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE\n\nPREVENTION\n\nAND\n\nCURE\n\nOF STUTTERING.\n\n743\n\nthese categories being approximately identical with the fundamental and\naccessory movements of Ross respectively. Central movements are those\nof the diaphragm, trunk, shoulder, and hips; among peripheral movements\nare those of the digits, mouth, and eyes. Among typical central movements are included those involved in walking, riding, swimming, rowing,\nbicycling, and various feats of gymnastics; typical peripheral movements include such as those concerned in articulation, writing, violin playing, and\nsewing. Central movements form the course adjustment for the movement\nof the more peripherally situated parts. Intermediate movements are characterized as \"more central\" or \"more peripheral/' as the case maybe.\nCentral movements, according to Mercier, are represented in the lower or\nmore central portions of the brain ; and peripheral movements are represented in \" higher level centers,\" which have been developed later than the\n\" lower level centers. \" \" The cerebellum,\" says Mercier, \" represents first\nand most the most central muscles. The cerebrum represents first and most\nthe most peripheral muscles. The cerebellum maintains a continuous same\naction, the cerebrum breaks up the continuous same action into interrupted and various movements. The cerebellum actuates co-ordination\n(i.e., combinations of movements by different groups of muscles) in\nsimultaneity, the cerebrum actuates co-ordinations in succession. . . .\nCenters representing movements of the extreme periphery are most superficially situated in the cortex cerebri. . . . Centers representing the\nseveral segments of a limb are superposed on one another ; the centers\nrepresenting the most central movements being most centrally situated,\nand those representing the more and more peripheral movements being\nplaced one above another towards the surface of the brain.\"\nIt remains to point out the application of certain of the facts and arguments thus far set forth to the production of normal and disordered\nspeech. Mercier has nothing to say regarding stammering and stuttering, but his description of the movements involved is speech is in point\nhere. \" In vocal utterance there are three sets of movements,\" he says,\n\" those of breathing, those of phonation, and those of articulation. Breathing is effected mainly by the most central of all muscles, and its movements occur in simplest succession and in brief and simple rhythm.\nVoice is produced mainly by movements of the larynx — movements that\nare midway between the central movements of breathing and the peripheral movements of articulation ; and the sequence of these movements\nis intermediate in complexity between those of breathing and those of\narticulation. . . . Now advance to the extreme periphery and take\nthe movements of articulation. Each spoken word, like each written\nword, requires for its formation several movements succeeding each other\nin definite order at definite intervals ; and each sentence is a long sequence\nmade up of many such short sequences arranged in a definite order. The\nnumber of different movements of the articulatory apparatus that go to\n\n"}
{"page": 764, "printed_page": null, "text": "744\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nmake up even a short speech is therefore enormous, and these movements\nand sequences of movement occur rarely, and at intervals that are extremely irregular.\nIt is important to note here that the three sets of neuro-muscular\nmechanisms mentioned above are not of the same order. The organs of\nrespiration are the most central or fundamental of the series. The\norgans of phonation, which give vocal character to the stream of expired\nair from the lungs, are intermediate, and their neural mechanisms are,\ntherefore, to be considered as accessory in comparison with those of the\nbreathing organs, but relatively fundamental in comparison with the\ncenters which represent the movements of the more peripheral organs\nof articulation. It is indisputably certain that the young child learns to\nbreathe and cry aloud before it can speak, and that there is a progressive\ndevelopment in his power to imitate and reproduce the consonant sounds,\nafter he has begun to speak. It seems to me that we may safely aver\nthat the law of the evolution of the nervous system is of great pedagogical\nimportance, since it suggests the natural order which should be followed\nin training the organs concerned in any complex co-ordinated movements. For instance, it is transgressing the laws of nature to emphasize\nthe training of the ringers before the neuro-muscular mechanisms of the\nhand, arm, and shoulder have become thoroughly organized, and their\nrespective movements been brought under control; or to attempt to teach\na child to read aloud before he has learned to speak plainly and readily.\nDr. H. Gutzmann declares that in fully half of the children who enter\nschool the power of speech is undeveloped.\nDr. Ross has criticised the tendency to follow an inverted or unnatural\norder in education, as follows : \" Until a few years ago the natural order\nof development was reversed in the education of youth, and especially in\nfemale education, so far as this could be accomplished by human contrivance and ingenuity. . . . No sooner had what is technically called\neducation begun than the professional trainer began to exercise the small\nmuscles of vocalization and articulation, so as to acquire the art of reading;\nthe small muscles of the hand, so as to acquire the art of writing ; and, in\nthe case of young ladies, the still more complicated movements necessary\nin running over the keyboard of the piano; while little attention was\npaid to the development of the larger muscles of the trunk and lower\nextremities, upon the full development of which the future comfort of\nthe individual depends.\"\nStuttering is generally recognized now, by all competent persons, as a\nneurosis or functional disorder of one or another of the neuro-muscular\nmechanisms concerned in vocal utterance. Professor Kussmaul, of Strasburg, whose book, \"Die Storungen der Sprache,\" deservedly enjoys the\nhighest reputation, defines it as follows — I quote from the English translation of Ziemsen's \" Cyclopaedia,\" vol. xiv. : \" Stuttering is a spasmodic neu-\n\n"}
{"page": 765, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE PREVENTION\n\nAND\n\nCURE\n\nOF STUTTERING.\n\n745\n\nrosis of co-ordination which obstructs the utterance of the syllables by spastic\ncontractions at the stop-points for vowels and consonants in the articulating tube. . . . If we examine more closely the processes that interfere with the proper sequence of syllables in stuttering, we shall find that\nthe three muscular actions, the expiratory, the vocalic, and consonantal,\nwhich are combined in the enunciation of sentences, are not harmoniously\nco-ordinated. . . . These three muscular actions are not correctly\nbalanced with regard either to the force or the duration of the contractions. On the one hand, the respiratory action required for speech is defective, and on the other, the tension of the vocalic or consonantal muscles\nis spasmodically increased.\" Clouston, in his book \" On the Neuroses of\nDevelopment,\" assigns stammering and backwardness of speech a prominent place in the neuroses peculiar to what he denominates the period of\nmost rapid brain-growth, of special sense education, and of the development\nof the leading motor co-ordinations, viz., from birth to seven years of age.\nThough any one or all of the series of organs concerned in speech may\nbe affected in one who stutters, the primary vice is so often uncontrolled\nrespiration, that the first procedures employed by those who are most successful inthe treatment of stuttering consist of respiratory gymnastics. In\nother words, they begin by training the most fundamental mechanisms in\norder to restore co-ordination, thus instinctively, if not willingly, taking\nthe law of evolution as a guide. It would be an easy matter to multiply citations showing how largely gymnastic measures are employed in the cure\nof the stuttering habit, especially in the severer cases in which involuntary\nspasms of the facial, throat, and other muscles constitute a marked and\ntrying feature ; but it seems to be sufficiently clear from what has been\nsaid, that, both in preventing and in abating stuttering, we must needs\napply the principles of rational physical training. The training of the\nspeech -producing organs is essentially a special branch of physical training.\nI hold that if the motor education of the youngest children in our schools\nwere properly organized in the departments of free play and gymnastics,\nvery much stuttering would be prevented. Effectually to prevent the\ndevelopment and spread of stuttering, more radical measures are called for.\nIn this connection, the opinion of Professor A. Melville Bell should\ncarry weight. So long ago as 1866 he wrote as follows : \" No part of\neducation is, in general, so lightly esteemed as that of first learning to speak\nand read ; yet, rightly considered, none is of more consequence. The\nfirst governess, tutor, or schoolmaster should be a model of distinctness in\nhis own practice, and should be also intimately acquainted with the physiology of articulation, that he may, both by wise precept and potent example,\nmold the plastic mouth to grace, and give easy play to the delicate machinery of speech. With proper initiatory training and school surveillance,\nstammering and its train of silent errors would he, altogether unknown.\"\nThe literature on stuttering is voluminous ; much of it, owing to the\n\n"}
{"page": 766, "printed_page": null, "text": "INTERNATIONAL\n\n746\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nwide prevalence of stutter-doctors and fanatical elocutionists, is unscientific and worthless. The subject has not hitherto received the attention\nwhich it deserves from the teaching class and those to whom teachers turn\nfor inspiration and guidance. Strange to say, our educational literature,\nso far as I can ascertain by inquiry and search, does not contain a comprehensive and satisfactory statement of the psycho-physics of reading\naloud. Yet psychology is a shibboleth in our normal schools. Eecently,\nhowever, thanks to the well-directed efforts of A. Gutzmann, an accomplished and successful teacher in the City School for Deaf Mutes in Berlin,\na hopeful and growing movement has arisen in Germany for training ordinary school-teachers to attack the stuttering habit in its breeding-ground,\nnamely, the elementary school. Those who desire to inform themselves\nfully regarding this movement in Germany, will do well to consult the\n\"Zeitschrift fur Schulgesundheitspflege/' and Gutzmann 's \" Medizinischpadagogische Monatsschrift fur die Gesammte ; Sprachheilkunde,\" now\nin its fourth volume. Among recent works on stuttering, Dr. H.\nGutzmann's \" Vorlesungen tiber die Storungen der Sprache und ihre\nHeilung,\" Berlin, 1893, easily holds the first place. It contains a bibliography numbering four hundred and thirty-nine titles.\nHaving failed to find any satisfactory statement as to the frequency of\nthe stuttering habit in American schools, I instituted a statistical investigation on my own account as to the number, sex, and age of the stutterers\nin the public schools of Boston. The results of the returns made by the\nteachers are set forth in the appended tables.*\nSHOWING\n\nNUMBER\n\nAND\n\nPERCENTAGE\n\nOP\n\nTABLE\n\nI.\n\n8TUTTERERS,\n\nBY\n\nMAY\n1.\n\n\"\n\"\n\"\n\"\n\"\n\"\n\"it\n\"\n\n\"\n\n7\n8\n109\n11\n12\n13\n14\n15\n16\n17\n18\n19 +\n\nSEX,\n\nIN\n\nBOSTON\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\n8.\nNumber\nof girls\nat\neach age.\n\n9.\nNumber\nof girls\nwho\nstutter.\n\n10.\nPercent.\nwho\nof girls\nstutter.\n\n0.00\n0.33\n\n5.\nNumber\nof.boys\n\n6.\nNumber\nof boys\n\n7.\nof boys\nPer\ncent.\nwho\n\nterers.\nstut-\n\nat\n\nof\nstutterers.\n\neach age.\n\nwho\nstutter.\n\nstutter.\n\n0\n6\n12\n44\n52\n\n0.00\n0.52\n0.32\n0.81\n0.87\n\n0\n4\n9\n33\n\n0.68\n0.45\n1.15\n\n126\n603\n1.708\n2,575\n\n0\n162\n3\n11\n\n6,081\n6,021\n6,237\n5,822\n6,157\n5.649\n4,505\n3,105\n1.672\n923\n392\n290\n\n0.97\n0.73\n0.75\n0.68\n\n1.11\n1.86\n1.11\n\n2,824\n2.860\n\n59\n47\n44\n\n0.99\n0.99\n1.14\n1.40\n1.10\n\n2,962\n2,927\n\n15\n8\n14\n10\n11\n14\n11\n\n63,374\n\n5000.78*\nor\n\npupils.\nUnder 4\n4\n56\n\"\n\nAND\n\n4.\nPer cent.\nof\n\n2.\nTotal\nnumber\nof\n\nAge.\n\nAGE\n\n1, 1893.\n\n251\n1,184\n3,695\n5,432\n5,958\n\nTotal\n3.\nnumber\n\n40\n51\n38\n54\n18\n25\n3\n3\n4\n\n0.82\n0.95\n0.84\n0.80\n1 07\n0.32\n0.76\n1.37\n\n125\n581\n1,987\n2,857\n3,134\n3,221\n3,059\n3,310\n3,050\n3,229\n3,053\n2,433\n1,546\n780\n397\n145\n51\n32,958\n\n44\n36\n33\n36\n28\n37\n19\n43\n13\n29\n3\n2\n4\n3731.1356\nor\n\n0.00\n\n1.22\n1.6«\n1.37\n0.76\n\n2,772\n2,928\n2,596\n2,062\n1,559\n526\n892\n239\n247\n\n7.84\n\n6\n5\n0\n1\n0\n0.41*\n127 or\n\n0.18\n0.56\n0.42\n0.46\n0.26\n0.36\n0.43\n0.47\n0.36\n0.38\n0.41\n0.00\n0.64\n0.00\n0.40\n\n30,416\n\n* Since the meeting of the Congress at Chicago, I have had a second census of stutterers made, and\nhave compiled the tables of growth and death raies given herewith.\n\n"}
{"page": 767, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE\n\nPREVENTION\n\nAND\n\nCURE\n\n747\n\nOF STUTTERING,\n\nThe above table shows the distribution by age and sex of the \" habitual\nstutterers\" in the Boston public schools in May, 1893. In calculating\nthe percentage of stutterers I was obliged to employ the figures given in\ncolumns 2, 5, and 8, which stand for the number of pupils at each age\nbelonging to the schools on January 31, 1893. The percentages printed\nfull-faced type should be particularly noted, since it would appear that\nthe maximum incidence of stuttering is not even relatively similar for\nboys and girls of a given age. The percentage of stutterers to total\nnumber of pupils is 0.78 ; that of boys who stutter, to total number of\nboys, is 1.13, and the corresponding percentage of girls is 0.41. These\nresults agree with the statements of various European observers ; viz.,\nthat stuttering is about three times as frequent among males as among\nfemales. The table also shows, what has frequently been noted, that\nstuttering is most frequent at the period of second dentition, and at the\nonset of puberty, which are periods when the nervous system is specially\nsusceptible to disturbance.\ntable n.\nSHOWING\n\nNUMBER\n\nDERIVED\n\nAND\n\nFROM\n\nPERCENTAGE\n\nOF\n\n8TUTTERER8,\n\nBY\n\nAGE\n\nAND\n\nSEX,\n\nIN\n\nENUMERATION\n\nOF\n\nMAT\n\nAND\n\nJANUARY\n\n31,\n\n1894,\n\n1, 1893,\n\nB08TON\nTAKEN\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nTOGETHER.\n\n10.\n1.\n\n2.\n\nAge.\n\nTotal\nnumber of\n\nTotal\n3.\nnumber\nof\nstutterers.\n\npupils.\nUnder\n\n\"\n\"\n\"\n\"\n\"\n\"\n\"\n\"\n\"\n\"\n\n4\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n10\n11\n12\n13\n14\n15\n16\n17\n18\n19+\n\n568\n\n0\n9\n87\n\n2,909\n7,793\n11,253\n12.104\n12,333\n12,107\n12,360\n11,811\n12,256\n12,783\n9,212\n6,231\n3,560\n1,903\n1,012\n653\n\n107\n84\n102\n50\n84\n36\n8\n5\n8\n\n129,060\n\n9980.77*\nor\n\n81\n112\n89\n96\n90\n\n4.\n5.\nPer cent. Numl)er\nof boys\nof\nat each\nterers.\nstutage.\n0.00\n0.37\n0.47\n0.71\n0.73\n0.90\n0.74\n0.77\n0.71\n0.87\n0.86\n0.91\n0.80\n0.95\n0.41\n0.49\n1.07\n\n262\n1,217\n3,189\n6,007\n6.317\n6,502\n6,2(58\n6.458\n6,515\n6,201\n6,237\n4,982\n3,124\n1,666\n863\n586\n121\n67,287\n\n6.\nNumber\nof boys\nwho\nstutter.\n\n0\n676\n29\n68\n62\n\nPer\ncent.\nof boys\n\nNumber\n\n7.\nstutter.\nwho\n\nof girls\nat each\n8.\n\n0.00\n\nage.\n306\n\n0.49\n0.90\n1.11\n0.98\n1.08\n1.29\n\n84\n65\n78\n71\n28\n57\n37\n816\n3\n7\n1.11*\n749 or\n\n1.04\n1.00\n1.20\n1.29\n1.14\n1.14\n1.67\n0.69\n0.51\n0.57\n\n1,292\n3,604\n5,246\n5.831\n5,787\n5,839\n5,846\n5.798\n6,612\n5.446\n5.236\n3,111\n1,899\n1,038\n544\n532\n61,773\n\nNumber\nof girl 8\nwho\n9.\nstutter.\n0\n3\n28\n14\n27\n22\n19\n27\n29\n25\n13\n218\n2\n1\n10.40*\n\nPer cent.\nof girls\nwno\nstutter.\n\n0.00\n0.23\n0.26\n0.21\n0.46\n0.48\n0.37\n0.42\n0.50\n0.38\n0.51\n0.42\n0-28\n0.41\n0.19\n0.30\n0.18\n\n249 or\n\nThis table is comparable to Table I., but differs from it in that it is an\nanalysis of the returns of the enumeration made January 31, 1894, and\nof that made May 1, 1893, combined. On January 31, 1894, the total\nnumber of stutterers in 65,686, the total number of pupils, was 498, or\n0.77 per cent. Of the total number of stutterers there were 376, or\n1.11 per cent., in 34,290 boys, and 122, or 0.40 per cent., in 31,396\ngirls.\n\n"}
{"page": 768, "printed_page": null, "text": "INTERNATIONAL\n\n748\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION\n•a\n\nTABLE\nSHOWING\n\nPERCENTAGE\n\nOP STUTTERERS\nTO WHOLE\nIN EACH\nGRADE,\nBT CLASSES,\n\nIII.\n\nNUMBER\nOP BOTS, OP\nIN TUB BOSTON\nPUBLIC\n\nGIRLS,\nAND\nSCHOOLS.\n\nBOT9\n\nAND\n\nGIRLS\n\nHigh\n!s\n\nPrimary\n\nClass\nIII.\n\nM\n\nGrammar\n\nGrade.\n\nII.\nClass\n\nClass\n\nClass\nI.\n\nClass\n\nSchool\nGradb.\n\nGrade.\n\nIV.\nClass\n\nIII.\nClass\n\nII.\n\nI.\n\nClass\n\nClass\n\nVI.\n\n■(Boys....\n■< Boys —\n\n0.55\n1.05\n0.08\n0.27\n0.48\n0.07\n0.41\n0.75\n0.08\n\n0.86\n1.13\n0.54\n0.69\n1.00\n0.32\n0.77\n1.06\n0.43\n\n0.89\n1.55\n0.41\n0.82\n1.17\n0.40\n0.86\n1.25\n0.41\n\n0.76\n1.14\n0.35\n0.90\n1.26\n0.50\n0.95\n1.06\n0.43\n\nso\n0.50\n0.77\n0.00\n0.85\n1.46\n0.00\n0.69\n1.10\n0.00\n\n0.79\n1.23\n0.31\n0.76\n1.22\n0.24\n0.78\n1.28\n0.28\n\n00\n\n<\n\nV.\n(Total....\n1893.\n•< Boys\nMay 1.\n(Girls....\nTotal....\n1894.\nJune 31\n(Girls....\n1893\n(Total....\nand\n1894.\n( Girls. . . .\n\nOQ\n\n0.80\n1.01\n0.55\n0.74\n1.16\n0.28\n0.78\n1.08\n0.43\n\n0.76\n1.09\n0.43\n0.61\n0.81\n0.68\n0.40\n\n0.78\n0)\n1.43\n\n0.76\n0.80\n0.56\n0.98\n0.07\n1.28\n00.S8\n65\n0.62\n1.13\n\n0.94\n0.41\n\n0.95\n0.37\n\n0.71\n1.24\n0.80\n\n1.33\n0.91\n0.78\n0.51\n\n0.16\n1.30\n\n1.14\n0.44\n\n0.25\n\n0.34\n1.27\n0.75\n\n0.16\n0.99\n0.64\n0.30\n0.71\n1.20\n0.23\n\nThe above table is constructed to show the percentage distribution of\nthe stutterers of each sex, and of the two sexes combined, in the different\ngrades. The marked increase of stutterers in the primary grades, in the\nvery beginning of instruction in reading aloud, is noticeable and highly\nsignificant.\nTABLE\nSHOWING\n\nTHE\n\nPERCENTAGE\n\nIV.\n\nDISTRIBUTION,\nBT AGE AND\nTHE\nBOSTON\nPUBLIC\nSCHOOLS\n\nSEX, OP SLIGHT\nAND\nIN 1893 AND\n1894.\n\nSlight Stutterers.\n\nUnder 4\n4 years\n\n5\n6\n7\n8\n10 9\n11\n12\n13\n14\n15\n16\n17\n18\n19\n\n\"\n'•\n\"\n\"\n\"\n\n\"\n\"\n\"\n\"\n\"\n\"\n\"\n\"\n\"\n\"\n\nSevere\n\nSEVERE\n\nSTUTTERERS\n\nStutterers.\nTotal.\n\nBoys.\n\nGirls.\n\nTotal.\n\nBoys.\n\nGirls.\n\n0.00\n1.03\n5.19\n11.22\n9.97\n11.85\n8.52\n9.77\n8.73\n9.14\n9.14\n\n1.88\n0.00\n\n0.00\n1.20\n4.21\n10.00\n10.46\n12.34\n8.43\n9.37\n\n0.38\n0.00\n1.52\n\n0.00\n0.00\n6.23\n10.41\n\n0.00\n0.27\n2.79\n\n6.23\n8.33\n9.37\n13.56\n\n9.18\n6.14\n10.05\n10.33\n12.29\n12.84\n7.54\n\n8.10\n3.51\n2.91\n0.20\n0.20\n\n1.25\n6.28\n11.94\n13.83\n8.17\n7.54\n9.43\n11.94\n7.54\n9.43\n5.03\n3.14\n0.62\n1.25\n0.62\n\n8.90\n9.84\n8.75\n8.43\n3.90\n2.81\n0.31\n0.46\n0.15\n\n2.67\n5.34\n1 10.30\nj 10.30\n9.16\n8.77\n12.97\n14.12\n6.87\n5.72\n7.33\n1.90\n1.52\n0.76\n\nIN\n\n4.16\n10.41\n9.37\n12.50\n5.20\n3.12\n1.04\n0.00\n0.00\n\n4.74\n\n6.98\n8.37\n5.02\n1.67\n0.55\n1.11\n\nNo attempt was made to have the teachers distinguish between stammerers and stutterers, as the distinction is not generally apprehended in\nEnglish-speaking countries. Every stutterer whose name was returned\nwas, however, characterized as \" slight\" or \" severe.\" The result of analyzing the returns, in accordance with the distinction noted, is set forth in\n\n"}
{"page": 769, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE\n\nPREVENTION\n\nAND\n\nCURE\n\nOF STUTTERING.\n\n749\nTable IV. The greater frequency of slight stuttering during the period of\nsecond dentition, and of severe stuttering near the onset of puberty, is\nshown by the figures in bold type. This fact seems to me to be of considerable importance.\n-6\ntable v.\nSHOWING\n\nRELATIONS\nAND\n\nOF\n\nFREQUENCY\n\nGROWTH-RATES\n\nAMONG\n\nOF\n\nSTUTTERING,\n\nBOSTON\n\nSCHOOL\n\nACCORDING\n\nCHILDREN,\n\n32\n\no a\na*\n\n'- X\n\n.\nO 00\n\notss\n\n►.66,5\n\nSI\n\n6-\n\n4*\n\n21.14\n15.65\n13 39\nr>- 9.49\n7.10\n7\" 626\n'\nI 5.00\nlo- 8- 3.76\nll 3.87\n185.19\n184.90\n145.61\n156.57\n16.\n7.22\n17.\n18.\n8.17\n10.37\n19.\n20.\n8.72\n\n8 a\n\nS5\n\ng -2°\n1\n\nC -* 30\n\n2\n20.71\n14.85\n13.40\n9.35\n6.09\n7.41\n4.77\n4.28\n344\n4.18\n3.98\n5.31\n6.58\n6.43\n10.40\n10.25\n11.21\n\ngo\n\n3\n\n.\n\nMS\n\n»o o\n\n05\n\n■\n\nAND\n\nTO\n\nSEX\n\n4.68\n4.01\n1-75\n0.77\n\nAGE, TO\n\nBoston 0 epl! •i\nterers,\n\n4\n\n£ OO.J5\n\n10.25\n8.78\n9.86\n9.79\n10.40\n7.43\n9.74\n10.31\n11.66\n13.02\n12.96\n5.23\n3.97\n\n8.88\n9.69\n8.83\n10.68\n9.26\n10.24\n13.78\n12.23\n10.94\n7.83\n5.61\n3.14\n\nQO\n\nMl!\n\nti • 0 J. - s>js i\n8 0\n\ng a -\n\nti 0 -1\n\na, .2\n5\n\n\"2\n\nX ^\n\n- — —\n\ngo\n\nAGE.\n\nh om\n\nfe Oo\n\n0H.S\n\nDEATH-RATES\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\n,\n\n= --* 30\n\n6\n\n7\n21.55\n\n5.20\n4.58\n4.38\n4.03\n4.04\n3.12\n3.39\n3.78\n\nAND\n\nCHILDREN\n\n4.00\n4.08\n4.58\n3.72\n3.98\n4.06\n4.56\n4.08\n1.90\n3.11\n0.77\n0.51\n\n8\n\n9\n\n0.23\n0.21\n0.26\n0.46\n0.48\n\n0.49\n0.90\n1.11\n0.98\n1.29\n1.08\n\n5.11\n8.11\n5.23\n3.23\n4.30\n6.17\n5.83\n\n0.37\n0.42\n0.28\n0.50\n0.38\n\n1.00\n1.04\n1.20\n1.29\n\n7.94\n6.32\n10.48\n6.95\n\n10\na,\n\n16.44\n14.38\n9.62\n\n5.89\n6.57\n\nij P 2 ■\n\n0.51\n0.41\n0.42\n0.30\n0.19\n0.18\n\n1.14\n1.14\nI.C7\n0.69\n0.57\n0 51\n\n02^\n0.37\n0.47\n0.71\n0.73\n0.90\n0.74\n0.77\n0.71\n0.87\n0.86\n0.91\n0.80\n0.95\n1.07\n0.49\n0.41\n\nFrom measurements made in 1875 of some twenty-five thousand children of the Boston public schools, Professor H. P. Bowditch, of the Harvard\nMedical School, determined that the growth-rates of the two sexes differ\nfrom one another ; that the pre-pubertic growth of girls in height and\nweight begins earlier, proceeds faster, and culminates sooner than is the\ncase with the pre-pubertic growth of the boys. Table V. shows that\nthe death-rates of Boston boys and girls vary; i.e., that the years of age\nin w.hich lowest death-rates occur are not identical, being for the three\ncensus years 1875, 1885, 1890, the year eleven to twelve for girls, and\ntwelve to thirteen for boys. And, in general, that the years of greatest\ngrowth grouped together are the years of lowest death-rates. It is of\ninterest to note that the largest percentage figure for stuttering among\ngirls is at the age of twelve, or the year following the lowest death-rate\namong girls ; and that thirteen to fourteen, the year in which the largest\nnumber of stuttering boys is found, is the year immediately following\nthe year of their lowest death-rate, viz., twelve to thirteen. It may be\nthat greatest susceptibility of each sex to the special neurosis of stuttering\nis closely related to the condition of the body when its power of greatest resistance to death begins to decline-\n\n"}
{"page": 770, "printed_page": null, "text": "750\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nDISCUSSION.\nBy a Member : May I ask a question ? I have noticed that a great many pupils\nwho stutter, some of them very badly, in reading or talking, in singing seem to sing as\nreadily as any other people.\nI would like to know the real cause of it.\nDr. Hartwell : In the use of the voice in speaking we have the very irregular\nrhythm, and we have none of the benefit of the rhythmic series of discharges from the\ncells to help to carry the stimulus over the point where the check comes, as it does\ncome upon particular letters and sounds, from positions of the vocal organs where those\nare concerned in the production of voice or articulation.\nBy a Member : 1 should like to speak of one point in connection with the curve, to\ncall attention to the general correspondence of the curve which Dr. Bartwell obtains\nbetween the ages of twelve and sixteen, and that which I have obtained with respect\nto voluntary motor ability. There is a maximum at the age of thirteen or fourteen,\nfollowed by a sharp descent, and I think I have observed that the ascent and descent\nare sharper in the case of girls than in the case of boys, and that it is followed by an\nascent at the age of sixteen. This is a parallel to some extent to the result obtained in\nthe measurements of height and weight of children. I do not know to what extent\nfurther investigation might show these things to be connected, but it certainly is a\npoint of some interest, I think.\nBy a Member: Will Dr. Hartwell tell us what he means by the second and third\nstages of neuro-muscular development ?\nDr. Hartwell : I suppose I used those terms for the lack of any other. That is to\nsay, neuro-muscular development may be divided into stages, which shall correspond\nmore, or less closely with the physical changes which characterize the stages of infancy,\nchildhood, adolescence, and so on. That is all that I meant. 1 did not mean that\nthere was accurate law to develop, with regard to which the developed neuro-muscular\nmechanism of the coarse and fine adjustments respectively has been worked out. I am\nperfectly satisfied, and could show from neurologists that it is generally held that\nthere is such a development. Its stages and steps and lines of demarkation remain to\nbe worked out from further investigation, in which we can all take part.\n\nOBSER\n\nVA TION AND\n\nBY FRANCIS\n\nWARNER,\n\nSTUD Y OF MO VEMENT\nSTATUS.\n\nAND\n\nM.D., LOND.,\nF.R.C.P., ENG., PHYSICIAN\nLONDON\nHOSPITAL.\n\nMENTAL\nTO\n\nTHE\n\nAt the request of your committee, I have the honor to present some\nresults of observation and study of movements in children as indications\nof mental status, with remarks on the adaptation of educational methods\nto the mental peculiarities of certain children. My difficulty has been to\nselect the material and to present new work, with explanation of the facts\nseen, and the teaching they suggest, while preserving due limits to my\nthesis. The observations are drawn from my report on fifty thousand\nchildren whom I inspected in various schools, which has been published by\nthe Washington Bureau of Education. It seems to me that our knowledge\nof children and their educational requirements should be based upon\nobservation of the children themselves ; such knowledge I have endeavored to acquire by individual inspection, as follows :\nThe children are best observed in a large and well-lit room. They are\ndrawn up in ranks, a \"standard\" (grade) at a time, so that the observer\n\n"}
{"page": 771, "printed_page": null, "text": "STUDY\n\nOF MOVEMENT\n\nAND\n\nMENTAL\n\nSTATUS.\n\n751\n\ncan see each child individually. To fix the child's eyes while he is under\nobservation it is convenient to hold up some object for him to look at. I\nuse a shilling at the end of a pencil. The children are then asked to hold\ntheir hands straight out in front of them with the palms toward the floor,\nand for a moment the action is done before them. At each stage of the\ninvestigation children that present deviations from the normal are asked\nto wait with the teacher. Each selected child is reexamined individually, and a schedule is filled in describing the points seen, while the\nteacher's report of mental status is subsequently written in. Nine\nthousand one hundred and eighty-six cases were thus recorded.\nThis inquiry was specially arranged for the enumeration and classification of children below the normal standard, and notes were taken on such\ncases only. It is gratifying to find that boys 79.3 per cent, and girls 84.5\nper cent, were normal in body and in nerve condition ; the proportion of\nnormal children is the foundation of a national educational and social\nsystem, while the abnormal present a social danger.\nNow as to the points observed — passing over the individual defects in\ndevelopment of the body (physiognomy, cranium, palate, ears, etc.) — I shall\nonly refer to children presenting such defects as \"development cases.\"\nMovements and postures of the parts of the body are indices of the\naction of portions of the nerve system (nerve centers) corresponding ;\nabnormal actions of this class are termed \" nerve signs\" ; children presenting one or more nerve signs are called \"nerve cases.\" The most\nfrequent nerve signs may now be defined ; their frequency among the\nfifty thousand children and the co-relations indicate their significance.\nGeneral balance defective. — Under this heading are entered cases when\nthe balance at the body is asymmetrical as to spine, shoulders, feet, etc. ;\nshoulders at unequal height, back bent, slouching gait.\nExpression defective. — Without expression, as in a paralyzed face ; one\nconstant unchanging appearance ; want of changefulness ; vacancy ; a\nfixed look — or it maybe a fixed, unchanging bad expression. No anatomical definition can be given.\nFrontals overacting. — The frontal muscles produce horizontal creases\nin the forehead, which may be strongly marked if these muscles overact\ncoarsely. Sometimes the muscles are seen working under the skin in vermicular fashion, with an athetoid movement. In other cases the action\nis fine, producing what may be called a dull forehead. This over-muscular action does not necessarily erase expression.\nCorrugation. — Knitting the eyebrows ; contracting the eyebrows. Vertical creases are thus produced. This may coexist with overacting\nfrontal muscles.\nOrbicularis oculi relaxed. — There is a thin muscle, the orbicularis oculi,\nwhich encircles the eyelids ; its tone gives sharpness to the curvatures\nof the lower lid, so that its convexity is seen. Its action is increased in\n\n"}
{"page": 772, "printed_page": null, "text": "752\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nlaughter; when this muscle is relaxed there is a fullness or bagginess\nunder the eyes.\nEye movements defective. — Some children, when an object is moved in\nfront of them, follow it not with their eyes only, but with the head, keeping the eyes fixed. In other cases there is restless wandering of the eyes,\nwhich do not fix well on the object looked at.\nHead balance weak. — In the normal the head is held erect. In these\ncases it lolls over to one side or other or droops forward.\nHand balance nervous. — In these cases, when the arm is extended forward, the wrist droops, the palm is slightly contracted laterally, the thumb\nand fingers are extended backward at their junction with the palm of the\nhand.\nHand balance weak. — In this type of balance the wrist is slightly\ndrooped, the palm contracted laterally, and the digits are slightly bent.\nA frequent sub-type is for the hand to be straight except as to the thumb\nand its metacarpal bone, which are drooped or somewhat adducted toward\nthe palm.*\nFinger twitches. — This may be observed when the hand is held out,\nparticularly if the fingers are separated. The twitches may be up and\ndown, or lateral.\nLordosis. — In those cases, when the hands are held out, an altered balance of the spine may be seen, with an arching forward of the lumbar\nregion, while the upper part of the body and the shoulders are thrown\nback.\nOther nerve signs. — Signs less frequent, though not of less importance,\nare here given as one group, including such as the following : Slowness\nof action in response to a command, as when the children are told to hold\nout their hands ; uncertainty or irregularity in response to such command ;\ndefects of speech ; oversmiling or grinning ; openness of mouth ; tremoroversmiling or grinning ; nystagmus.\nMovement in man has long been a subject of profitable study. Visible\nmovement in the body is produced by muscular contraction, following\nupon stimulation of the muscles by efferent currents passing from the\ncentral nerve system. Modern physiological experiments have demonstrated that when a special brain area discharges nerve currents, these are\nfollowed by certaiu visible movements or contraction of certain muscles\ncorresponding. So exact are such reactions, as obtained by experiment\nupon areas in the brain cortex, that movements similar to those produced\nby experimental excitation of a certain brain area may be taken as evidence of action in that area. Movements are then the visible signs of\naction in certain brain areas corresponding, and form our data for the\nstudy of brain action.\n* In the normal, when the hand is held out, all parts are In the same horizontal plane. The limb is\nthen held on a level with the shoulder, without flrxion at elbow, wrist, or other joint.\n\n"}
{"page": 773, "printed_page": null, "text": "STUDY\n\nOF MOVEMENT\n\nAND\n\nMENTAL\n\nSTATUS.\n\n753\n\nPostures or attitudes of the body depend upon the ratios of nervemuscular action, and to some extent indicate the ratios of force produced\nby the nerve centers concerned.\nThe \" nerve signs \" given above are movements and postures which\nample experience shows may be taken as indices of the nerve state.\nAll expression of mental action and mental states is by movement and\nresults of movement, whether by acts done, gesture and facial expression,\nspeech or writing. It is by the careful observation and analysis of movements that we may hope to determine the kind of cerebral action corresponding to mental states. In mental research we must study not only\nthe simple movements already described, which I have employed in school\ninspection ; but also series of movements, the time and quantity of individual acts, their antecedents and sequents, need description.\nSpontaneity of Movement in Children. — Common observation affords\nabundant evidence that the members and parts of a healthy infant\npresent constant movements. AVhen the infant is awake, movements\nwithout any known stimulation through the senses may be seen in the\nlimbs, especially in the digits or small parts ; they are slower than most\nof the movements of adults and are almost constant. They occur in\nno apparent order, but appear to be quite irregular. A short period of\nwakefulness is usually followed by sleep, indicated by subsidence of all\nmovements except those of respiration, and closure of the eyelids.\nReenforcement of Movements. — A series of movements may occur\nsequential to some stimulus, in which the final movement is much\nstronger than the force of the primary stimulus, each group of movements\nas the series progresses increasing in number and in force. It is the\nspreading area of movement, or the increasing number of parts moving as\nthe action proceeds, that is here specially indicated, such augmenting\nseries of movements being started by a very slight stimulus. The prick\nof a pin or a sharp word to a child may be followed by depression of the\nangles of the mouth, alternate tonic contraction and relaxation of the\nmuscles of the limbs, altered respiratory movements causing screaming,\nflushing of the face, and finally spasmodic contractions spreading over the\nbody. Such action I have termed \"reenforcement of movements.\"\nIn the pupil and adult this is antithetical to good coordinated action and\ngood mental action, often being accompanied by mental confusion.\nWhen the hands are held out, if thrust violently forward, there may be\naccompanying finger movements ; the head may be coincidently inclined\nto one side. When spoken to, the head may be inclined jr the tongue\nprotruded, as I have seen in examinees. Such habits are examples of\nreenforcement of movement, and are bad economy of nerve force.\nInhibition of Movement. — When the infant is five or six months old,\nthe sight of an object may arrest spontaneous movement, and this may\nbe followed by or replaced by turning of the head, the eyes, and the\n48\n\n"}
{"page": 774, "printed_page": null, "text": "754\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nhands toward the source of light or sound. Thus we see inhibition of\nmovement followed by new coordinated action.\nThe endeavors of brain training are directed to bringing about the\ncoordination of the nerve centers, and in young children spontaneous action\nmust for this purpose be temporarily inhibited ; yet it must always be\nremembered that it is only their spontaneous action that you can coordinate and train. Encourage spontaneity, then train it. Coordinated\naction in the child must ever be aimed at in education ; the child's spontaneity and movements must be controlled by school discipline. This is\nprincipally effected through the eye and the ear, by sight and sound.\nI find the methods used vary much ; the best teachers control mostly\nthrough the eye. It seems to be thought easier to check spontaneity of\nmovement in tongue, hands, and eyes, through the ear ; hence the school\nbell, the cane struck on the table, and the whistle sometimes used, and\nprincipally the word of command, in which the teacher's voice as well as\nwords used are sometimes ill adapted to the purpose in view. My experience isthat all the noises and the vocal command often produce reinforcement of movement, with mental confusion when direction through\nthe eye translates this spontaneity, or a part of it, into preparedness for\nmental action and coordinated movement. In the best classes, I have\nseen silence and quietness of action with commencement of the proper\nwork by the children effected by the teacher's gesture without a word\nspoken — a great saving of energy to pupils and teacher. Further, I have\noften found that classes whose movements are habitually controlled by\nverbal command are more apt to present abnormal nerve signs when they\nare inspected singly, than children that are mainly controlled through the\neye.\nImitation is the great means of control. Let a teacher present an illbalanced hand or head, many of the children will be seen to follow.\nEvery movement, every mode of balance iu the teacher tends to repetition\nin the class. Children tend to imitate much from one another, especially\nthe bright ones ; hence the importance of classification and proper\ngrouping of children in school. Children naturally tend to exact imitation of teachers' movements ; hence some teachers hold out the right hand\nfor imitation by the child's left. No wonder there is often a mental confusion in pupils as to which is their right hand. Facial gesture, expression,\nfrontal overacting, etc., may often be controlled and temporarily removed\nby a face that smiles at them, which the child imitates ; a command to\ncease the grimace is apt to be followed either by its increase or by arrest\nof all spontaneity.\nHaving described certain abnormal nerve signs and shown that they\ncorrespond to certain brain states, let me show their significance as to the\nbearing of movement on mental status. Of 5,487 children presenting\n\"nerve signs,\" 2,250 were reported by the teachers as dull mentally — i.e.,\n\n"}
{"page": 775, "printed_page": null, "text": "STUDY\n\nOF MOVEMENT\n\nAND\n\nMENTAL\n\nSTATUS.\n\n755\n\nforty-one per cent. If the nerve signs were removed, the brain would be in\nbetter order and probably the mental action would be brighter.\nWith so difficult a problem before us as the means of improving these\nchildren's brains, we must take the \" nerve signs \" separately. Say, the boy\nwho is dull at lessons also shows \"frontals overacting. \" You wish to lessen\nthis sign. Observe : Is it more or less frequent and marked when he is\nspoken to, or when he is controlled through the eye ; when doing arithmetic, or when receiving an oral lesson ? Is it more marked before lessons\nor in history class ? You will soon find out under what conditions the\nsign is least developed. From my own observations I think this sign most\nfrequent when the child is least under mental influences. You see the\nlower eyelids full and baggy. This sign is a frequent accompaniment of\nbrain exhaustion, with or without headaches ; it may be due to late hours\nover-night, to prolonged work or to ill ventilation at home or in school.\nChildren in whom mental processes are otherwise active are often bad\nand inaccurate readers because they have never been trained to move their\neyes well ; they are also bad observers, and if the eyes move much spontaneously they see objects imperfectly, and need eye-drill, which should occupy\nan important place in the infant school. This defect can usually be overcome. So when the nerve signs are recognized they can be attacked in\ndetail. There are two great groups of \"nerve cases\": those with accompanying defects in development — i.e., \"development cases with nerve\nsigns\" — and \"nerve cases without development defects.\" Of the former\ngroup forty-three per cent, were reported as dull ; of the latter, only thirtynine per cent.\nIn this last group, removal of nerve signs is more hopeful.\nThere are two results to be sought by good training. The normally developed children should not present abnormal nerve signs ; while for those\nof defective development much may be done to remove such signs. It is also\ndesirable to lessen mental dullness. An assessment of the results of training in a given school may be made by observation and report as described,\nfrom which calculations may be made contrasting educational results in\nthis school with others.\nIt may be shown that in some respects boys differ from girls in their\nconstitutional tendencies ; girls present a larger proportion of the normal.\n\" Development defect cases \" among girls present a smaller proportion with\nnerve signs than among boys ; but these girls suffer more from low nutrition\nand mental dullness. There are fewer ill-made girls than boys, but the\ngirls of constitutional low make tend in larger proportion to bodily and\nmental feebleness.\n(Tables were appended to this paper giving further detailed information. The work\nof investigation is being continued by a committee appointed by the International\nCongress of Hygiene and Demography; and the secretary, C. \"W. Wallis, Esq., Parkes\nMuseum, London, W., will be glad to supply the tables and any other information\nasked for.)\n\n"}
{"page": 776, "printed_page": null, "text": "756\n\nSOME\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nBY THOMAS\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nTRACKS\nINVOLVED\nAND SPELLING.\n\nM. BALLIET, SUPERINTENDENT\n\nIN\n\nREADING\n\nSCHOOLS, SPRINGFIELD,\n\nMASS.\n\nIt is a fact fairly well established that the impressions received through\nthe different senses are perceived by different areas, or \" centers,\" of the\ncortex ; and in like manner the process of ideation, or recalling these\nsense impressions, is carried on by various centers, located for each sense\nprobably in the same general region of the brain in which the impressions\nof that sense are perceived ; if indeed ideation is not a function of the\nvery same groups of cells which perform the process of perception. Concepts of objects of sense are therefore reproduced in memory through an\nactivity of these centers of ideation ; and a complex concept, such as that\nof an orange, gained through a number of senses, involves for its complete recall an activity of a number of different areas of the cortex.\nIn like manner it is fairly well established that special groups of cells\nor centers have been differentiated in the cortex for the purpose of language. The facts of aphasia show quite clearly that there is a wordhearing center, a word-seeing center (a reading center), a speaking center,\nand a writing center.\nThe different centers of ideation are connected by fibers, or association\ntracks, which make it possible for one center to arouse to activity all the\nothers. It is in virtue of these association tracks that an entire concept,\nconsisting of ideas gained through a number of senses, can be recalled as\na whole and appear in consciousness as a unit. In this way the visual\nperception of a piece of granite recalls its hardness, its roughness, its\nweight, and other qualities, in idea. When these association tracks are\ndisturbed or destroyed by disease, the person perceives an object without\nrecognizing it as having ever been perceived by him before and without\nrecalling any of its uses. In short, he suffers from what is pathologically\ntermed apraxia.\nLike the centers of ideation, the various language centers are connected\ntogether by association tracks, both with one another and with the centers of ideation. If these association tracks, or the centers themselves,\nare injured by disease, there arise various disturbances of speech, known\nas ivord-deafness, word-blindness, aphasia proper, and agraphia.\nWithout aiming at an exhaustive enumeration, I may say that the most\nimportant of the association tracks involved in the use of language are the\nfollowing :\n(1) In hearing spoken language, an association is made (a) between the\noral word in the auditory word center and the ideas constituting a con-\n\n"}
{"page": 777, "printed_page": null, "text": "ASSOCIATION\n\nTRACKS\n\nIN READING\n\nAND\n\nSPELLING.\n\n757\n\ncept in the centers of ideation ; (b) between the spoken words as they\nfollow one another in groups.\n(2) In talking, there are at least three association tracks involved : (a)\nBetween the muscular movements of the vocal organs and the thought,\nor between the motor speech center and the centers of ideation ; (b)\nbetween the oral word and the muscular movements of the vocal organs,\nor between the auditory speech center and the motor speech center ; (c)\nbetween the successive muscular movements of the vocal organs in uttering words in groups or sentences.\n(3) In writing, the following seem to be the principal associations which\nare, or ought to be, made : (a) Between the thought and the muscular\nmovements of the hand in writing it, or between the centers of ideation\nand the writing center ; (b) between the visual or printed form of the\nword and the muscular movements of the hand in writing it, or between\nthe visual word center and the writing center ; (c) between the auditory\nword center and the visual word center ; (d) between the visual word\ncenter and the muscular movements of the hand in writing.\n(4) In reading, there are, or ought to be, at least three associations\nmade : (a) Between the printed word and the thought, or between the\nvisual word center and the centers of ideation ; (b) between the oral word\nand the printed word as wholes ; (c) between the separate letters and\ntheir corresponding sounds ; these last two involving association tracks\nbetween the visual and auditory word centers.\nThe more unconsciously these associations are made, the better the\nteaching. It is a serious fault of education that many of them are still\nmade with far more consciousness than is necessary.\nAs the language centers are differentiated in each individual human\nbeing, and are therefore, at least as far as the reading and the writing\ncenters are concerned, not inherited to any great extent, it follows that\nthe order in which the association tracks shall be established depends\nmainly on the method of education. Moreover, the order in which they\nare established determines largely the mode of thinking, and through it\nthe mode of speaking, of reading, and of writing. It would seem, therefore, that most children may be made either ear-minded or eye-minded in\nreading, at the pleasure of the teacher.\nThought moves along the lines of least resistance, and these are either\nthose association tracks which are first opened, or those which are used most,\nthe latter being usually identical with the former. Several questions of\nfundamental importance at once arise here in regard to reading and spelling.\nIn learning to hear and understand spoken language, as also in talking,\nthe child makes an association between the oral word and the thought ;\nin teaching him to read, ought the first association to be made in his\nmind between the oral and the printed word, or between the printed word\nand the thought ?— i.e., ought he to be made ear-minded in reading, and be\n\n"}
{"page": 778, "printed_page": null, "text": "758\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nobliged all his life to translate mentally printed speech into oral speech\nbefore he can get the thought ? or ought he to be made eye-minded, and be\nable to get the thought directly from the printed page ? Ought a direct\nassociation to be made between the printed vocabulary and his thought, so\nthat a stimulation of the visual word-center may directly arouse the ideational centers and bring the thought into consciousness; or ought an\nindirect association to be made, as is done in current methods of teaching,\nbetween his printed vocabulary and his thought, by associating the former\nfirst with his oral vocabulary, so that a stimulation of the visual word\ncenter by the printed page will awaken the auditory word center, and\nthrough it bring the thought into consciousness by arousing the ideational\ncenters ? Should the child be taught reading in such a way as to enable\nhim to think in printed speech when he reads silently, or in such a way\nas will make it necessary for him to translate mentally the printed words\ninto oral words and do his thinking in oral language ?\nIt seems to me there can be but one answer to these questions. In teaching a child to read, the association between the printed word and the\nthought should be made first, as is the case with all children who have\nnever had the sense of hearing. After this association has been made, that\nbetween the oral vocabulary and the printed vocabulary should be made.\nOral reading, even if the thought is in consciousness, as is not the case when\nsuch reading is mechanical, tends to establish and to intensify the association between the two sense products — the visible printed word and the\naudible oral word. Silent reading tends to establish and to intensify the\ndirect association between the printed word and the thought, provided\nthe association between the oral word and the printed word has not yet\nbeen made so firmly that the latter calls up the former vividly in idea in\nsilent reading. That is, silent reading will make the child eye-minded in\nreading, provided he has not yet been made strongly ear-minded through\noral reading.\nFrom this it would seem to follow that the first steps in reading should\nbe in silent reading, and that it is a mistake to let oral reading precede or\naccompany too much from the beginning the silent reading.\nA person who is eye-minded in reading, and gets the thought directly\nfrom the printed symbols, can read from two to three times as fast silently\nas he could read orally ; whilst a person who is ear-minded and is obliged\nto get the thought indirectly through the oral symbols recalled in idea by\nthe printed symbols, cannot read materially faster silently than he can\nread orally. Eapid reading in the case of light literature is not inconsistent with intelligent reading, and it does not follow that the silent and\nindirect process of the ear-minded reader is a more thoughtful one than\nthe more rapid one of the eye-minded person. There are not wanting\ninstances indeed which go to show that quite the reverse is true, as far as\nlight literature is concerned.\n\n"}
{"page": 779, "printed_page": null, "text": "ASSOCIATION\n\nTRACKS\n\nIN READING\n\nAND\n\nSPELLING.\n\n759\n\nIt is, however, not merely the gain in time which is- of most importance.\nThe process of thinking directly in printed speech in reading is also easier\nthan that of translating first the printed symbols into oral symbols ; and\ntraining a child to get thought by the most direct route, as it were, and\nalong the line of least resistance, contributes largely to fostering in his\nmind a love for reading. That children, coming from intelligent homes,\nwho have done much silent reading from their earliest years, are for the\nmost part eye-minded in reading, read intelligently and yet with great\nrapidity, and love reading, goes far toward confirming the ground here\ntaken.\nBy a line of reasoning similar to this in regard to spelling, it may\nbe shown that the first association which should be made is not that\nbetween the oral word as pronounced by the teacher in the spelling exercise and the muscular movement of the hand in writing (spelling) it, but\nthat between the visual or printed form and this muscular movement on\nthe one hand, and between the thought and the muscular movement on the\nother, the latter soon displacing the former association. In other words,\nchildren should not be made ear-minded in spelling, nor even eye-minded,\nin so far as it can be avoided, but motor-minded. This would eliminate\nmuch self -consciousness from spelling, and would remove a frequent cause\nof misspelling from schools and from everyday life — misspelling a word by\nspelling it phonetically.\nIt has been a fundamental error in teaching reading and spelling to\ntreat printed and written language as if it were primarily the representation of oral language instead of the immediate representation of thought.\nIn the historical development of written language in the human race, the\nwritten symbol was at first the picture of the object which it denoted ;\nthat is, it was the immediate representation of the object itself, and only\nin an altogether secondary sense a representation of the oral name of it.\nThe invention of separate letters to represent separate sounds was a late\nand altogether artificial device of immense practical advantage to the race,\nbutNa misleading device as far as the first steps in teaching a child to read\nand spell are concerned.\nThis false assumption of the relation of printed and written language to\nthought in primary education has been used as the basis for an argument\nin favor of spelling reform whose force is largely fictitious. Spelling reform\nis, no doubt, one of a number of very desirable reforms, but a phonetic\nsystem of spelling would not save the time which it is supposed to save in\nteaching a child to read and spell, if, in teaching these subjects, the\nprinted and written word were at first treated as the immediate symbol\nof the thought, and were directly associated with the thought instead of\nindirectly through the oral word.\nSeveral interesting questions present themselves for future investigation :\n\n"}
{"page": 780, "printed_page": null, "text": "760\n\nINTEBNATION\n\nAL CONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\n(1) What per cent, of people are eye-minded in reading, and what per\ncent, are ear-minded ?\n(2) To what extent do eye-mindedness and ear-mindedness in reading\naccompany eye-mindedness and ear-mindedness in other respects ?\n(3) To what extent are eye-mindedness and ear-mindedness in reading\ndue to methods of education ?\n(4) Are the well-known disturbances of other speech centers which so\noften accompany auditory aphasia due to faulty methods of teaching\nlanguage, by means of which wrong association tracks were first established ?\n(5) What per cent, of persons who have occasion to write much are earminded in spelling, what per cent, are eye-minded, and what per cent,\nare motor-minded ?\n(6) To what extent is this determined by ear-mindedness, eye-mindedness, and motor-mindedness in other respects, and to what extent is it due\nto education ?\n(7) What light can be thrown on the problems of teaching language by\na study of the facts of aphasia as they present themselves in deaf-mutes,\nin whose case some association tracks which exist in hearing persons cannot be opened ?\n(8) What effect has eye-mindedness in reading on the reader's appreciation of beauty of style and on his oral reading ?\n(9) What effect has motor-mindedness in spelling on the writer's style ?\nDISCUSSION.\nProfessor Bryan : It has been shown by recent investigations in aphasia, not that\nthere is a separate center for sounds and the words of which those sounds are the\nelements, but that there is at any rate a separate psychical function. In one very\ninteresting case reported within the last few months, a patient was found who was able\nto recognize certain of the letters and sounds of the alphabet and not to recognize\nothers; but in many cases where he could recognize every sound that made up a word,\nhe could not tell what word it meant. He could give the separate sounds, but not the\nword ; and the reporter of this case holds not that there are separate centers, but that\nthere are at any rate separate functions for those. Now the question I wish to ask\nSuperintendent Balliet is, whether it would follow from the general line of his paper\nthat the sounds should not be taught separately ?\nSuperintendent Balliet : My impression is that there are a great many reasons\nwhy that should not be done. Years ago we began by a sort of histology of the English\nalphabet, did microscopic work in reading. We taught the elements, and then combined the elements into principles, and the principles into letters, and so on. We have\nnow given that all up. The next step was to teach children to write by writing entire\nletters. The result was that the connecting lines between one letter and another, and\nmaking up a whole word, made the muscular movement seem different from what the\nmuscular movement was in making a separate letter, and we have given that up.\nChildren now write the entire word, and are drilled on the technical work of making\nthe letters strictly accurate until after they have been trained to make entire words.\nThe same thing applies to reading. I think phonics in pronunciation ought to be\ntaught by pronouncing entire words, and if a child makes a sound imperfectly, that\nsound ought to be prominent in some word, but ought not to be singled out. There are\n\n"}
{"page": 781, "printed_page": null, "text": "discussion.\n\n761\n\nvery few people, and I am not one of them, who can make the sounds that correspond\nto the English alphabet separately, and make them correctly, because they do not sound\nquite, when they are separate from one another, as they do when they are combined in\ngroups ; so I think there is every reason why children should not be taught to make\nthe separate sounds very early, and I think there are many reasons that go to show that\nit is possible to live and die happily without doing that.\nMb. Cook : It strikes me the speaker was making a point in regard to association\nthat was not quite valid. Is not the symbol merged with the thing so that we look\nright through the symbol at the thing? Now we begin, for example, to translate this\nnew symbol, 50$, and we say 50<2 equals -flfl,, or another expression for the same\nthing exactly ; and do not these three blend, so that there are three phases of the same\nthing, rather than that we should go through series here, and afterward get to the\nobject itself? And if we are to use an object of this kind, are we to go through the\nsymbol by tracing, and end with this? This is a particular thing itself. It seems to\nme that the idea of association is held to obtain in the child's mind if it has really disappeared. Now I have made quite a little study upon this particular point, Mr.\nBalliet, and I find that if the pupil is required to talk in either of these languages, if you\nplease, that there is no movement through a series. You move from one line to another\nsimultaneously.\nIt is simply three phases of the same idea.\nProfessor Hervey, of New York : There is one question I would like to ask. Is it\nbetter for me to know how to spell a word by knowing the way it feels when I write it,\nalone, or is it better for me to know how it looks, and how it feels to see it, and to pronounce the letters? In other words, is it better for me to have three hooks or only one ?\nNow, in my own experience I cannot find any instance where the possession of those three\npegs in my mind has been at all burdensome, but there have been times when I was very\nglad of the other two pegs when the first one had refused to do duty for me. I would\nlike to ask if that does apply in this question ?\nMiss Rice, of Chicago : I should like to know if those who read by sight, in thinking\nof the sound, speak as well or read as well orally as they would if they thought the\nword when they read. Many of us have learned our Latin in the beginning in that way.\nMy experience with pupils has been that those write best, most perfectly in form, and\nread best orally, who read by the ear, as you say. I should like to know what your\nexperience is in this matter.\nProfessor Balliet : It is true that children do not read as well orally at an early\nage, if you train them silently. On the other hand, if you begin with oral reading,\nthey will not read as well silently And it is purely a question whether it is oral reading or silent reading that you wish learned best. Reading ought to be made the leading\nmethod of interpreting literature. We can well afford to read aloud that part of literature which is very fine, the aroma of which we want to get, and the beauty and balance of sentence ; and we can well afford to read that aloud, and get it in that way,\nrather than to be ear-minded and be hampered when we want to look up facts quickly,\nnot being able to read more than one-third as fast as we ought to read. It is the silent\nreading that tells in a child's life, and it is with rapid silent reading the same as it is\nwith rapid addition, the quicker you do it the better you get it. That applies to light\nliterature only, of course. It trains children how to study. It trains children how to\nmaster books, and how to master them thoroughly and quickly.\nAs far as the spelling is concerned — whether it is better to hold a word by different\nhooks, several hooks, than one — I should say, in the first place, that it does not pay to\nhold words by any hook that you use only once in three months. You can afford to\ngo to Webster's dictionary in such cases. It does not pay to drill in school upon words\nand spelling which the children use very rarely. They can afford to go to the dictionary.\nWhat we want to do is to make spelling a function of the muscles of the hand, and a\nfunction of the nerve centers of the brain that control the hand. In other words, make\nchildren motor-minded, so that as a thought comes into the mind it moves the hands\nto record it unconsciously ; then, as in speaking, the thought, as it enters consciousness,\nmoves these muscles. Spelling is to printed speech exactly what pronunciation is to oral\nspeech. It is harder to make them motor-minded in spelling thau it is in talking, but\nso far as their vocabulary is concerned they can be trained to spell unconsciously, and\nthen comes the economy of force. The child wastes energy to the extent to which he\nis conscious of his spelling.\nWe are wasting children's time by having them spend it\n\n"}
{"page": 782, "printed_page": null, "text": "762\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION\n\non punctuation and capitalization. They ought to be trained in such a manner that all\ntheir mental power can be concentrated in the thought. I think spelling ought to be\nmade a function of the spinal cord instead of a function of the brain, just as we shake\nhands with the spinal cord. I am very sure that a great deal can be relegated from the\nhigher brain centers to the spinal cord.\nProfessor Sinclair : 1 find in teaching children reading that where a boy has\nlearned this sentence : \" The pitcher is on the table.\" he has associated the word-form\nwith the object ; that when he comes to read silently, or orally, he does not know what\nthe thought is, and is apt to make no distinction between reading '\"The pitcher is\non the table\" and \" The table is on the pitcher.\" Thus, while he has associated the\nword-form with the object itself, he has not trained himself to go down into the sentence and think the thought in that. The great difficulty in learning language is, we\ndo\nnot\nacquireitself\nthe tohabit\nof getting\nauthor's\nthought.to beginners.\nThat is a difficulty\nthat\nhas presented\nmy mind\nin the the\nteaching\nof reading\nI have found\nthe cure for that difficulty in silent reading.\n\nCONSTITUTIONAL\nBY\n\nADELAIDE\n\nE.\n\nWYCKOFF,\n\nTHE\n\nBAD\n\nPACKER\n\nSPELLERS.\nINSTITUTE,\n\nBROOKLYN,\n\nN.\n\nY.\n\nIf a child cannot learn to spell, it is well to locate the difficulty before\ntrying to deal with the case. Knowledge of spelling begins with perception through eye or ear, and ends with the establishment of a chain of\nmemories.\nSomewhere along this line we may find a defective provision.\nLet any one watch himself in writing slowly, and he will perceive that\nthe words flow from the pen under the suggestive influence of a series of\nmental images. He will either hear the words mentally recited, or he\nwill see them mentally in print or writing. Let him write more rapidly,\nand these images fade to mere suggestions of themselves ; yet some clew\nremains by means of which an automatic series of muscle memories is\naroused and the hand is guided in the correct motion. Knowing that the\nmuscle images are linked to eye or ear images, we trace the maintenance\nof the sense images to physiological retentiveness, and their origin to the\nact of perception ; while we find the results of this act determined by the\nway in which attention is directed, and by the conditions of sensation.\nThus our line of investigation naturally divides itself as follows :\nFirst, the sensation ; second, the directing of attention ; third, the\nretentiveness ; fourth, the mental image ; fifth, the automatic circuit.\nTwo series of tests are given by the writer, one for eye and one for ear\nimpressions.\nThese experiments, briefly described at the Round Table of Educational\nPsychology at Toronto in 1891, are conducted with children from the\ntime that spelling lessons begin. As an aid in the investigation, a special\nseries of tests, more exact and detailed, was given during the past year to\nfive young women over twenty years of age. These students were able\nand faithful, but were recommended by their teachers of English as incor-\n\n"}
{"page": 783, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONSTITUTIONAL\n\nBAD\n\nSPELLERS.\n\n763\n\nrigible bad spellers, whose early training and experience seemed to offer\nno adequate explanation of the difficulty. For comparison, the tests were\nmade upon two good spellers. Eeference will be made to only a few\nexperiments selected from the visual series. The tests for optical defects\nshowed astigmatism in four of the poor spellers; short-sight in one;\nnormal vision in one only of the five.\nThe natural mode of directing the attention was tested by exposing for\none second a card containing an unpronounceable combination of letters,\nthose that had been seen being instantly written down in the position and\norder perceived. The test was repeated with combinations of different\nlengths. For purposes of comparison the same test was given to forty\nother students, who answered an accompanying series of questions. The\nresult showed three distinct modes of directing the attention.\nIn the first mode two or three letters only were seen, frequently the\nfirst, second, and last, the relative location and distance being correctly\nreproduced. The impression made was that of a whole with characteristic\nfeatures.\nIn these cases the number was estimated by after-calculation.\nIn the second mode most of the letters were correctly perceived, the\norder was right, and in a majority of cases the number was a part of the\nperception. The impression made was that of a whole composed of\ndistinct parts.\nIn the third mode most of the letters were seen, but the order was not\nknown. In one case, the only pure instance of the type, nine correct\nletters were given in shuffled order, the student declaring that she had\nreceived no conscious impression of their arrangement. The number was\nobtained by counting afterward. Here, apparently, the impression was\nof individual, unrelated letters.\nComparison between the character of the perception and the characteristics of the student showed that these three fundamental modes of attention were correlated with three distinguishable and familiar types of mental\naptitude and interest. The first favored the synthetic, the second the\nanalytic, the third the individual and practical. For example, the first\nclass preferred the group of studies including geometry, history, philosophy,\nand the classics ; the second, that including algebra, modern languages,\nand the natural sciences. In the third the choice of studies was less\nsignificant than the mental method, which was exact, clean-cut, and\nscrupulous.\nThe bad spellers of the first type were two students who always sought\nout the general principle and remembered by means of it. Conspicuous\nas thinkers, they were comparatively slow readers, having the habit of\nreading one word at a time. Almost all their mistakes in spelling occurred\nin the latter half of the word. For this fact a slight astigmatism failed to\naccount. Further tests made it clear that attention was habitually directed\nto the beginning of the word.\nHere, then, seemed to be one type of con-\n\n"}
{"page": 784, "printed_page": null, "text": "764\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nstitutional bad speller, proved by subsequent test to have good powers of\nvisualization and sound imaging and fair retention, but gifted with a\nnatural mode of attention unsuited to purposes of spelling.\nOf the second mode of attention we will speak later. The third, the\nindividual or disjunctive, furnished no bad spellers. Here a fact was\nevidently a fact, and the fact that c-a-t spelled cat had been duly observed\nand pigeon-holed. The ensuing tests served still further to define the\nmode of directing attention. The best natural speller perceived long words\nin two or more groups of letters, none of the poor spellers having this\nhabit. Words and irregular geometric figures variously marked were\nexposed, and a list written down of the points of relation observed within\na given number of seconds. The poor speller who observed most points of\nrelation failed utterly in the tests on visualizing and retention. She could\nnot write fast enough to get the points on paper before they were forgotten.\nShe represented the pure type of the second or organic mode of attention,\nbeing able to perceive instantly and correctly a combination of niue letters.\nTests for direct and constructive imaging were given by requiring the\nstudent to spell a word backward from the visual image. In the case of\nthose whose attention centered on the first part of the word, only this could\nbe distinctly visualized.\nThe automatic circuit was tested by having a paragraph written with\nhand concealed. Mistakes were made of insertion, omission, inversion,\nand substitution.\nComparison of the eye and ear series of tests brought out the fact that\none of the poor spellers was an audile.\nIn conclusion, the following points may be emphasized :\n(1) Many constitutionally bad spellers have defective sight ; some defective hearing.\n(2) The same causes that have operated to impair the sight or the hearing have frequently impaired the retentive power.\n(3) Constitutionally bad spelling may, in part, be the result of a strong\nnatural bent toward selective attention.\n(4) In such cases, where the syllable method of teaching might be\nespecially ineffective, the mechanical memory would be helped by assisting\nattention in its selection. For example, above the word separate might\nbe written, as an invitation to the eye, the syllable p-a-r.\n(5) Apperceptive methods should be employed from the outset in the\nteaching of spelling.\nFor the class of students just mentioned they are a necessity ; for all\nthey are an economy. The children could use a set of cards, each containing a word so chosen as to furnish material for induction, in the finding\nof root, prefix, and suffix, and the meaning of each. Then, using these\nas tracers, they could notice in reading and blackboard exercise such new\nwords as contained the familiar elements.\nThe words \"separate,\" \"pre-\n\n"}
{"page": 785, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE THEOLOGICAL\n\nLIFE OF A CALIFORNIA\n\nCHILD.\n\n765\n\nparatory,\" and \"reparation\" could form the nucleus of such a group for\nthe use of children old enough to understand their meaning.*\n(6) It might be well to devise some exercises for perfecting the automatic circuit. Possibly practice in writing with hand concealed might be\nof service, use being made of selections that had been memorized.\n\n' THE\nBY\n\nTHEOLOGICAL\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nEARL\n\nLIFE\n\nBARNES,\n\nOF A\n\nOF LELAND\nCALIFORNIA.\n\nCALIFORNIA\nSTANFORD\n\nJR.\n\nCHILD.\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nThis study is not intended in any sense as an inquiry into the child's\nreligious life and feeling. It is intended simply to show the theological\natmosphere in which California children live, and their mental attitude\ntoward their theology at different ages.\nThe materials on which the study is based are :\nI. One thousand and ninety-one compositions written by children from\nsix to twenty years old, in the various schools of California, on the subjects of heaven and hell. They were simply given the subjects, and asked\nto write compositions in the presence of their teachers, without suggestion\nor comment.\nII. Sixteen reminiscences prepared by adults, in which they tried simply\nto recall and state their early beliefs.\nIII. Twenty-seven studies on young children made by mothers and\nteachers through conversations, working along the lines of this syllabus :\nOod — Where is he ? What does he do ? Why cannot we see him ?\nDeath — Why do people die ? Where do they go ?\nHeaven — Where is it ? Who goes there ? What do people do there ? What will\nchildren have there ?\nHell — What must a person do to go there ? What is it like ?\nAngels — What do they do ?\nGhosts — Why are people afraid of them ?\nWitches— What can they do ?\nPrayer — Why do we pray ? What do we pray for ? Why do we not always get what\nwe pray for ?\nReligious Ceremonies— Why do we celebrate Christmas ? Why do we go to church ?\n\nEvery variety of faith was represented in the papers : Catholics, Methodists, Presbyterians, Universalists, Christian Scientists, Mormons, Baptists,\nAdventists, and Spiritualists. With only two or three exceptions the children treated the questions seriously, and the papers bear internal evidence\nof honest effort to express the truth.\n* It is expected that a few of these groups will be prepared for test in the classroom during the\ncoming year.\n\n"}
{"page": 786, "printed_page": null, "text": "766\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nThe data were collated in the following groups :\nGod, his appearance and activities.\nThe devil, his appearance and activities.\nHeaven, its location, its inhabitants, and their appearance and activities.\nHell, its location, its inhabitants, and their appearance and activities.\nIndications of a critical attitude ; acts which take people to heaven ; acts\nwhich keep them out of heaven.\nSince the children were not answering any set questions, we cannot state\nwhat proportion accepted any particular idea, but only how many of the\nchildren who mentioned an idea accepted or rejected it.\nIn studying the data an attempt was first made to bring together the\ntheological conceptions expressed in the compositions, and then to determine the attitude of the children toward these conceptions.\nThe central figure in the theology is naturally God. The pictures\ndrawn of him are often misty and indistinct, but more than half the\npapers represent him as a great and good man. He is so large that \"he\ncould stand with his feet on the ground and touch the clouds with his\narras upraised.\" \"He is a man that has six hands and feet and eyes\"; or,\n\"He is a huge being with numerous limbs spread out all over the sky.\"\nHe is generally an old man, with a long white beard and flowing white\ngarments ; often he is represented as having wings and a crown on his head.\nHe is most often described as good and kind ; the stern quality is seldom\napparent, but the whole figure is shadowy, unreal, and indistinct.\nA considerable number of children speak of him as being able to do\nanything, as being everywhere, and as knowing everything. Omnipresence\nseems hard for the children to conceive, and it probably accounts for his\nbeing represented with several heads and members.\nOmniscience is easier : \" God can see everything you do and hear everything you say, even if you are inside of a house.\" \"I have thought and\nbeen told that he can see through anything; it makes no difference if it is\niron, steel, glass, wood, or anything.\" Many of the children feel that\nGod is watching them, and some say \"he writes it all down.\"\nOmnipotence is mentioned by many children, but there are few concrete\ninstances given. One girl of twelve says that \" God could have an earthquake at any time.\" His activities are seldom described ; less than five\nper cent, of the children speak of him as ruling the universe, making\nthings grow, or caring for our material needs. One boy of ten says in perfect earnestness that \" God is bossing the world.\"\nChrist is seldom mentioned, and his relation to the Father is rarely\nbrought out ; where it is, in one-fourth of the cases the relation is\nreversed, and God is spoken of as the Son of Christ. The Trinity is\nmentioned by only two children. Christ is mentioned as our Eedeemer\nby some twenty-five children.\nHeaven is generally, even with children up to the age of twelve and beyond,\n\n"}
{"page": 787, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE\n\nTHEOLOGICAL\n\nLIFE\n\nOF A\n\nCALIFORNIA\n\nCHILD.\n\n767\n\nsimply an improved earth. More than five hundred children locate it \"in\nthe sky,\" \"in the clouds,\" or \"up.\" The next most common location is\n\" where the good go \" or \" where God is ;\" while a few say it is \" in the\nearth,\" \"all about us,\" \"on some star,\" or \"in the east,\" \"and no one\nin a balloon could reach it, it is so far away.\" More arguments are produced to prove the location of heaven than to prove any other one point.\nChrist, they say, ascended ; Elijah went up ; and several close the argument for locating it in the sky by saying : \"Besides, where else could\n•it be ? \"\nAmong those who are in heaven, four hundred and eighty-two\nmention angels ; three hundred and sixty-seven, God ; four hundred and\ntwelve, the redeemed ; and sixty-four, Christ. A few mention dead relatives, the saints, Santa Claus, and unborn babies.\nHeaven is most commonly described as \"a beautiful place ;\" but large\nnumbers describe it as \" a city,\" \"a mansion,\" \" a palace,\" \" a fine\nhouse,\" \" a garden,\" or \"a park.\" It has streets and gates, plants,\nflowers, birds, and trees. The concrete particular most commonly mentioned isgold. The streets are of gold, the walks are of gold, the houses\nare of gold, and one boy has the angels eat gold bread. Several say there\nis no night, and opinion is about equally divided as to whether there are\nanimals in heaven.\nThe redeemed and the angels are generally the same. Three hundred\nand forty-six children mention their wings ; nearly the same number\nspeak of them as looking like people dressed in white. A considerable\nnumber say they are women, because they never heard of any men being\nangels, while a few say they are fairies, birds, ghosts, or little babies.\nSeveral think of them as always small, others as having \" just babies' heads\nand wings.\"\nThe appearance is sometimes carefully described, as when a girl of\nthirteen says : \" I think they wear white gowns shirred around the neck \";\nand she adds: \"I should think the boys and girls would wear their hair\nalike.\" Another says : \"I thought angels were all the same size ; that\neven if before they died they were fat, they grew thin.\"\nThe activities of the redeemed, or the angels, furnish the most difficult\ndetail in the children's theology. Several say they do not know what the\nangels do ; but most of the papers represent them as flying around, playing on harps, and singing praises to God. Sometimes they are said to\nhelp God, and a very few have them help the people on earth. Children\nof twelve or thirteen often mention the monotony of the life.\nSeveral mention the angels as carrying the souls of the dead to heaven,\nand bringing babies to the earth. Some of the children declare that the\nangels work, while an equal number say no one works in heaven. To some\nof the children this freedom from work is the chief attraction.\nThe evil spirit and his abode are pictured far less often and with less\n\n"}
{"page": 788, "printed_page": null, "text": "768\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\ndetail than is given to the abode of the blest ; but there is much greater\nuniformity in the descriptions.\nThe general type of devil is well described by a boy who says: \" I\nthought the devil had a man's head, with a long hooked nose and pointed\nchin, with an ox's ears and horns. He had a man's body, and one leg like\na man and the other like that of an ox. He had a tail with a ball of\nthree points at the end. He carried a spear with three prongs, the same\nas his tail. He could spit fire, and had a tongue like a snake.\" Often\nhe is black, sometimes red ; three or four speak of him as a fallen angel ;\na few as a serpent or monster.\nHis activities are tempting and fooling people, and killing and burning\npeople. Some say he bites and scares people, or carries off children.\nGenerally, however, the children do not go into any detail about him, but\nsimply say he is a bad man who tempts people.\nHell is generally located under the earth, or below us. It is a place of\nfire, some say like a furnace, and a very few add snakes and darkness ; but\nhell and the devil play a small part in the compositions, and disappear\nalmost entirely from the compositions written by children over ten years\nold.\nIn all this scheme of theology natural phenomena play but a small\npart. The stars and moon are a very few times spoken of as lighting\nheaven. In two or three cases the clouds support or hide heaven. Two\nor three speak of God as like a cloud, and one says the devil is like smoke ;\nbut there is little connection in the compositions between the celestial\nhierarchy and the mountains and hills, the plains and woods, the deserts\nand oceans of this world. Thunder and lightning, birth and death are\nhardly mentioned in these connections. God is certainly not seen in his\nworks by our ordinary school children.\nTo summarize briefly the theological ideas of California children, we\nshould say : The world of spirits is for the most part attractive ; there is\nvery little dark and forbidding imagery ; terror is unknown ; the ideas are\ngenerally vague, and the standard theological beliefs are often quoted in\nways that show that the children have had little or no teaching.\nThe attitude that children of different ages take toward this theology\nis an important question for the educator.\nThe young children under six examined by mothers and teachers\nalmost always accept what they have been told, without question or comment. They, however, recast their theology into forms that appeal to\ntheir experience and their modes of thought.\nThe spirit world is simply a beautiful playroom or playground where\nchildren have what they want ; God is a more serious form of papa, the\nangels are playfellows, and Satan is simply a \" boogie;\" while hell is a\ndark closet.\nFrom seven to ten there are occasional vague questionings, but under\n\n"}
{"page": 789, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE\n\nTHEOLOGICAL\n\nLIFE\n\nOF A\n\nCALIFORNIA\n\nCHILD.\n\n769\n\nten years old there are few indications of a questioning or doubting frame\nof mind. From that time on, however, questions arise ; the children try\nto reason things out and to relate their theology to what they have learned\nthrough experience and through their studies. This critical spirit seems\nto culminate at thirteen or fourteen, and criticisms are far more persistent and severe at this time than later. Of course, in this work, as in all\nstudies on children, we must recognize the fact that some children develop\n.much more rapidly than others, so that there are many exceptions; but\nthere is a clearly marked difference between the compositions of children\nof eleven and of thirteen which must strike even the most careless observer.\nOne sees this difference even when the children are doing the same grade\nof school work ; age marks differences better than school gradations do.\nForty papers were selected at random from one thousand to illustrate\nthe critical attitude. Ninety per cent, of them were written by children\nbetween twelve and fourteen years old.\nThe critical spirit first appears in an effort to place the responsibility\nfor the doctrines stated in the compositions. Thus at eleven and twelve\nthere begin to appear in the compositions such phrases as, \"I think,\"\n\"I've been told,\" \"my idea was,\" \"the Bible says,\" \"I was taught in\nSunday-school,\" or \"they say.\" By thirteen or fourteen these phrases\nbecome, \"we imagine,\" \"I used to believe,\" \" I doubt,\" etc.\nA girl of thirteen modifies her statements as follows : \" We cannot exactly tell who\nis in heaven, but it is supposed that everyone that serves Him probably goes there.\"\nAnd a girl of twelve thus tries to place the responsibility for the statements she offers :\n'• If heaven is a place where you are said to be always happy, I think it must be very\nbeautiful. One of the most lovely things to beautify a place is flowers, and it is my\nopinion that we will find lovely flowers there. It is said that the people that go there,\nwho are angels, have wings and dress in white. Of course, I have never seen them.\nSo I don't really know how they do look.\" The most common form of criticism is that\nwhich appears in efforts to harmonize theology with experience.\nThus one boy says : \" I used to believe that the air was full of bad spirits which\nwould hurt you, but I don't believe it now, because they don't hurt.\" A girl of fifteen\nsays : \" I don't see how people can stay in heaven forever, without nothing to do except\nto play and sing, but people might be different there from what they are here.\"\nThe new desire to exercise the critical judgment seems at times the only reason\none can find for the questions raised. Thus a boy of fourteen says : \"I thought that\nthe devil and all the other things were just as they say they are in the Bible, from which\n1 got my impressions, but beyond that all is a mystery. My idea of heaven has changed,\nand now I think that heaven is space. Hut if that is so, how could the heavens open, as\nit says they did in the Bible ?\" And a boy of fourteen says : \" I think it is strange\nthat when one dies his soul goes to heaven if he is good, and if he is bad his soul does\nnot go to heaven ; and I don't see what good it does for your soul to get to heaven,\nbecause when you are dead you know nothing of it.\"\nThe children at this age also try to make their theology harmonize with their humanitarian feelings and their sense of justice One boy of fourteen says : \" I think when a\nmother sees her son, if such things happen, left among the bad, she will not be very happy\nfor a while.\" 49\nFrequently the children of this age say they do not believe that savages\n\n"}
{"page": 790, "printed_page": null, "text": "770\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nand babies will go to hell, while very many who accept the standard theology for God,\nthe angels, and heaven, declare that they do not believe there is any devil or bell.\nThis, of course, may be due simply to their teaching, but it seldom appears in compositions bychildren under eleven or twelve years old.\nA very few assert their disbelief in any form of theology, but these few atheistic statements are more dogmatic in general than the statements of orthodox Sunday-school\nchildren, and bear all the marks of having been simply accepted from parents or others.\nFor example, a girl of eleven writes: \"Heaven is our dear mother and father, and\nheaven don't help to grow, nor he don't give us bread nor anything.\" And, again:\n\" When people die they put them in a hole and put some ground on them and leave\nthem there — and they don't go up in heaven or any place ; they always stay in that\nsame place.\"\n\nAfter children pass fifteen they generally avoid telling what they believe\nby saying : \"I used to believe,\" or, \"When I was little I believed,\" etc.\nIf they express their present beliefs they raise very few concrete doubts.\nThey use more abstract terms, describing God as a great, all-powerful\nspirit, and heaven as a beautiful abode of the blest. Angels are celestial\nspirits, and the devil is the great evil influence in the world.\nOne cannot help thinking that they have accepted an abstraction and a\nname, and have, temporarily at least, laid the questions that perplexed\nthem aside. Certainly from fifteen to eighteen there is no such persistent\nexercise of the critical judgment in matters theological as there is between\ntwelve and fifteen.\nIn all these reasoning processes the Bible is only occasionally referred\nto as an authority, and in citing it the children show a very great ignorance of the most common Biblical allusions.\nIncidentally this study throws a strong side light on what children are\ntaught to consider good and bad acts. Naturally most of the children\nsay that to go to heaven we must be good, and that if we are not good we\ndo not go to heaven ; but in many cases they specify virtues and vices\nsupposed to be especially prominent.\nNext to being good, the virtue most commonly named is obeying God,\nand then come in order of importance : \" keeping the commandments,\"\n\"believing in God,\" \"loving God,\" \"praying,\" \"trusting God,\" \"obeying parents,\" and \"telling truth.\" Less than one per cent, of the\nchildren mention \"going to church and Sunday-school,\" \"reading the\nBible,\" \"keeping Sunday,\" \"working hard,\" and \" being baptized.\"\nA boy of four says : \"You must be good on the earth and be quiet \" ; while a boy of\nten sums up the virtues with : \" God wants you to obey your parents and to do what\nthey say, and he wants you to be polite to everybody you meet on the street.\"\nThe whole career of the good man is summed up as follows by a boy of twelve: \"The\ngood man will first join the church on probation, and then in six months he will join\nthe church and be a member. He will push the work of God along as much as he can,\nhelp the poor and the church, and probably be successful in heaven. He will die a\nhappy man and go to heaven.\"\nAmong the bad qualities, next to being bad, the children mention \"disobeying God.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 791, "printed_page": null, "text": "DISCUSSION.\n\n771\n\nVery few concrete sins are mentioned; less than one in a hundred mention \"swearing,\"\n\"lying,\" \"talking dirty talk,\" \"drinking,\" and \"using tobacco.\"\nMany allusions also throw light on the sources of the theological ideas which the\nchildren hold. Many say : \" My mother has told me,\" \" I have heard in Sunday-school,*'\nor, \" they say in church ; \" not one mentions what his teachers have told him. Evidently\nthe effort to secularize our schools has been but too successful. One boy says he got his\nideas of the devil from a Punch and Judy show ; two say their ideas of the devil came\nfrom the pictures on deviled ham. Several mention the hired girl as an authority, and\na large number say their ideas came from pictures.\n\nFrom the study of the data in hand it would seem that we could safely\ndraw the following conclusions : If young children are to be taught a\ntheology, it must be in an anthropomorphic and realistic form. We\nmay teach that God is a spirit, but the child's mind at once invests him\nwith a form and human attributes. If we do not furnish exalted and\nworthy imagery, the child fills out the form with random pictures, Punch\nand Judy impressions, and images of grocery labels.\nSince pictures furnish so much of this imagery, children should be\nsurrounded with worthy pictures — e.g., Raphael's Sistine Madonna.\nThrough\nconfidential\nconversation with \"the child, grotesque images\nshould\nbe detected\nand corrected.\nMany California children seem to be ignorant of the most common and\nmost generally accepted theological conceptions of Christian people.\nThey should be given this knowledge, if for no other reason, because it is\nessential to an intelligent understanding of the literary and artistic life of\nour times.\nThe period of most intense critical activity is the period of puberty.\nSome special effort should be made at that time to assist the child in\nrearranging and adjusting his philosophical and theological conceptions.\nIn the schools literary, historical, and scientific studies should be dealt\nwith in a large and philosophic spirit. The child's desire to grasp the\nuniverse should be encouraged, not discouraged. Later he will settle to\ndetailed work.\nThe general absence of references to nature would seem to indicate that\nchildren are accepting scientific explanations as final. It would seem that\nthe schools should lead them to feel and realize that Greater Power which\nlies back of our superficial explanations and makes this a sane universe.\n\nDISCUSSION.\nBy a Member : I would like to ask if there was found among the authors of those\npapers a single. Swede nborgian.\nProfessor\n\"We had every\nfaithway,\nrepresented,\nand\nthey\nwere not Barnes:\nrequired toI cannot\nput theirtell.\ndenomination\non thevariety\npaper inof any\nso that except\nin cases where I asked the teachers to put that on paper there were no cases given.\n\n"}
{"page": 792, "printed_page": null, "text": "772\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION.\n\nRabbi Lyons: I must differ from Professor Barnes when he states that this matter\ncan be reduced to some scientific status. I do not think that there exists among children in regard to their theology anything that is capable of such reduction, for there is\nnothing original to children in this direction. What we find in the mind of the child\nis but the voicing of a sentiment that has been implanted in its mind by the lips of the\nparent, and the more speedy way to reduce this to a scientific basis would be to direct\nour attention immediately to theology as it exists in more mature minds. I believe\nvery firmly that in theology all of us are the children of one another. We improve on\nthe thoughts of the children in giving to their infantile thoughts a greater polish and\nrendering them more poetic.\nProfessor Brooks, of Philadelphia : It occurs to me that if the significance of\nProfessor Barnes' paper could be impressed upon the minds of the parents of the children of our country, the most practical and excellent lesson could be drawn from it,\nbecause the probabilities are, taking our organization of schools and society as they\nare, that this theological thought, theological doctrine, could better be taught by the\nparents in the family than in the public schools, especially, too, fiom the fact of the\ngreat variety of theological thought in the different families of our country. Is it better\nto impress vivid imagery, concrete ideas of theology, on the minds of Christian children,\nor is it better to deal in more general conceptions ?\nProfessor Sinclair, of Hamilton: I would like to ask whether Professor Barnes\nobserved any tendency on the part of the child to grow toward the perfection of an\nideal in matter and doing, and whether these children have observed, or are learning to\nobserve as they are growing older, that by concentrating their attention upon that form\nor motive, if you will, which will lead them toward that which they conceive to be the\nhighest ideal, they will be enabled to forget those things which drag them down, and\nwill be drawn up toward a conception of the good, beautiful, true, and to the perfection\nof that end. The reason I ask that question is because in a weak way we were endeavoring to carry on this subject of child study for some years, and in the supervision of\nsome three hundred children, between five and seven years of age, and their teachers,\n1 have noticed this, that as the teacher has studied psychology and has investigated\nalong the lines of which Professor Barnes has spoken, we have found invariably that\nthe maximum of child study has resulted in the minimum of child punishment, and I\nthink it is because this point has been emphasized and that children have grown into\nthe way of trying to forget the bad, and are interested in the good.\nProfessor Barnes: Our study would not lead me to make any general judgment\non the subject. I wish Dr. Winship would relate a little incident that I know bears\non this subject.\nDr. Winship: I happened to receive a letter this morning from home in which our\nlittle boy, three years and five months, last Sunday evening declined to say, \"Now I\nlay wanted\nme downhistomother\nsleep,\" to.because he didn't want God to' take care of him over night ;\nhe\nProfessor Barnes: I should like to observe that if my paper shows anything it is\nthis: that you can't put into a child's mind a general conception, a general vague term,\nan abstract definition, a large abstract idea or notion of some kind, and ask him to hold\nthis in its abstract form until he gets old enough to clothe it in its proper image. If he\nholds it at all, he holds it because it is an image.\nMiss Lloyd, of Pennsylvania : I can only speak from personal experience when I differ\nfrom you in regard to the conception that a child can have of God. I am a Quaker.\nI received my theological instruction from a Quaker mother. I can never remember a\ntime when I had anything but an abstract conception of God. As a little child I\nthought of Him as something like clouds and shadows and air and light, that was everywhere and might easily be everywhere, and afterward these thoughts took more\ndefinite shape. I should be very sorry, if teaching Christian theology in our schools\nmeans teaching little children the demonology of Milton's \"Paradise Lost,\" that it\nshould ever find a place in our schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 793, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE\n\nTHE\n\nFIRST\n\nFIRST\n\nBY MISS MILLICENT\n\nW.\n\nTWO\n\nYEARS\n\nTWO\n\nYEARS\n\nSHINN,\n\nOF TEE\n\nEDITRESS\n\nCHILD.\n\nOF THE\n\n773\n\nCHILD.\n\nOF OBERLIN\n\nMONTHLY.\n\nThe baby, coming to his third or fourth year, reaches the extreme\nfrontier line of any region thus far annexed by pedagogy. He is described\nand discussed abundantly — if somewhat loosely — and yet of him but little\nis known by the teacher or the psychologist. With what powers, what\ninterests, what prepossessions, does he come ? What difference would it\nmake in our systems of earliest education if we knew ? Did Froebel or\nJames Mill map a system most in accord with the real psychology of the\nthree-year-old ? The first practical application likely to be made of\nrecorded observations of babies under two or three years old will be to\nthe answering of such questions as these.\nWhat capacity, for instance, has the two-year-old for understanding\ncolor, form, number, time ? What memory ? What reasoning power ? A\nbaby girl of whose development I kept close record, a bright, healthy,\nmatter-of-fact child, of no unusual powers that I could see, found it play\nto learn to name and recognize everywhere the colors and the principal\nplane forms before she was two years old ; before she was a year old, her\ngrandmother taught her to recognize \" 0 \" on a block or a card, and she\nfound a \"Q\" on another card, and held it up, expressing by questioning\nsounds her wonder what this was that so resembled \" 0,\" yet differed from\nit. Yet this same baby, who could discriminate at eleven months so\nsmall a difference in form as the quirl of a \" Q,\" could not comprehend, far\non into the third year, so conspicuous a division of time as a day, nor use\ntime words with any intelligence. \" Howt long did baby sleep ? \" \" Twofee week.\" \"How long ago did you go to the city?\" \"Two-fee\nminute.\" And \" When ?\" would be answered as indiscriminately, \" Next\nyear,\" or \" Six o'clock.\"\nIf color and form are usually so easy to a baby, time so incomprehensible, we ought to know it. Why should we withhold till the later and\nmore crowded years the one knowledge, if the baby is able to receive it\nwith ease and joy and find life the more interesting for it, while we daily\ntake for granted an inborn comprehension of the other, to which the\nmind is really dark ?\nSo again : Does the baby really, as we are perpetually told, grasp first\nthe individual, the special, the concrete ?\nThe first word that Preyer's baby volunteered was At-ta, and it meant\ndisappearance, departure, and all associated therewith. The little girl\nI studied used as her first word All-gone, in a highly generalized sense.\nShe said it when an object was put out of sight ; when one was denied her ;\nwhen she saw an object that had been denied her ; when she swallowed a\n\n"}
{"page": 794, "printed_page": null, "text": "7?4\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nmouthful of food ; when she slipped back, failing to climb a step ; when\nshe had tried to attract some one's attention and failed ; when a person\nleft the room ; when a door blew to ; when a wagon drove away ; when\na person passed by, or a wagon approached ; when she wished to go out\nherself. I have had the mother's notes on another little girl whose\nfirst word was the same, used in a similar wide, vague way. My little\nsubject knew flower before rose; tree before walnut or orange tree;\nand indeed so general was her idea of tree that she called little seedlings\nby the name unhesitatingly, and seeing a twig of pink Japanese maple in\na glass, pointed and cried, \" Tee ! Ba ! \" — a tree in a vase. If the baby's\nideas really go according to Spencer's code, from vague and general ones\nto narrower and clearer differentiations, we ought to know it and have it\nin thought in dealing with his mind.\nSo we might ask many questions, the answers to which we ought to\nhave before we can use the best intelligence in dealing with the baby, or\nwith the little one just beyond babyhood. In so brief a paper I will try\nto suggest but one more ; and this is one as to which observation is so easy,\nand the pedagogic suggestion so direct, that it seems to me the one likely\nto yield the first important results. That is, What are the real interests\nand tastes of the baby ? In what order developed ?\nWe make much effort nowadays to meet them, and talk much of\ndeveloping the child along the lines nature is already taking with him.\nFirst the senses and later the reason, we are told ; first the object and\nthen the word ; first handcraft and then headcraft. I cannot see that\nthe baby holds to any such order, if it is left to him. A certain familiarity with the world around him by the use of his senses he must get before\nhe can begin to use his mind on it or apply words to it ; but just as soou\nas he can he begins, so far as my observation goes, to make sense the\nservant of mind, and language the great and highly prized means of all\nclear understanding of anything. With all his insatiable desire to see, to\nhandle, to move what can be moved and open what can be opened, and\nchange the places of objects, his curiosity goes only to a certain point ; he\nresists efforts to interest him in more precise and systematic use of his\nsenses for their own sake.\nLet me illustrate from the baby girl of. my record. Her first great\ninterest was in getting a rough conception, with eyes, fingers, and mouth,\nof the world about her. In the fourth month she began to inspect the\nroom in which she lived; she would look deliberately from object to\nobject, till one section of the room was thoroughly examined ; then turn\nher head quickly and examine another, until the appearance of the room\nfrom that point of view was mastered. Then she would show impatience\ntill she was carried to another side, to renew her inspection thence ; all\nthis with an expression of surprise and eagerness, eyes wide and brows\nraised.\nBut soon, probably when she had come to recognize the furniture\n\n"}
{"page": 795, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE\n\nFIRST\n\nTWO\n\nTEARS\n\nOF THE\n\nCHILD.\n\n775\n\nfrom any point of view, she ceased to examine the familiar room, but\nrenewed her eager and surprised inspection when taken to another. So\nin widening areas she reduced her world to a certain order and rationality.\nI am obliged to use words that imply more distinct mental operations\nthan hers could have been ; yet in some sort she certainly did have a conception of the aspects and place-relations of objects about the house ; for\nonce, when I carried her out through the kitchen into the woodshed, then,\nopening a door, stepped across a veranda directly into the room we had left,\nher amazement at finding that to go to a strange place, and thence to take\na strange path onward, brought her back into the familiar room, was\nunmistakable. When she could use her hands she practiced to the full\nthe endless investigations of babies. When she could creep, she explored\ntirelessly every corner of the room for a time ; then new rooms only\nexcited her curiosity. For days it was heaven to be taken about the lawn,\ninvestigating the grass, the gravel walk at the edge, the bark of the trees.\nBut soon she had reached such comprehension of these things as she\ncraved, and their mere ministry to her senses ceased to interest; she\nwould coax with all her baby powers to be carried about the shrubbery.\nWhen she could walk and run about the paths, her joy in traversing and\nretraversing two or three of them, reacquainting herself with them on\nher own feet, was extreme ; but every few days a sense of satiety would\nappear, and she would annex a new route, in steadily widening areas.\nMeantime the \"miracle of language\" had come to her. She had had\nfor mere purposes of communication a language by signs before, and even\nin this she showed a cleverness beyond her general development at the\ntime ; but it was quite instinctive, not a conscious joy and intellectual\npossession. When she discovered in her eleventh month, almost simultaneously, that pictures represented objects, and that the sounds we\nuttered also represented objects and acts ; that as we talked around her,\namid meaningless sounds there came to her from time to time intelligible\npictures in vocal form, and as week by week these grew more numerous —\nit was as if the world of sense was made new to her. She turned the\nleaves of her picture-book, selecting the images that conveyed meaning\nto her, and putting her little finger on one after another, looked up into\nour faces with a coaxing sound to hear its name pronounced, then contemplated itagain with a satisfied grunt. She held up her arms and\nasked to be carried about the room and have object after object named at\nher note of interrogation. Had we not watched her as closely as we did,\nand tried to follow the leading of her own mind, of her spontaneous\ndesires, instead of preconceived ideas, we might have failed to see so early\nthis joy in language. But no one can be unaware how persistently the\nchild, when he has obtained the power to speak for himself, desires to\nticket off everything in his mind with a word. \" Fat's dat ? \" \" Fat\ndid he do?\" the baby asks daily. So it was with this little girl; and\n\n"}
{"page": 796, "printed_page": null, "text": "776\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nvery early in her possession of speech she rejoiced to turn over the pages\nof books, naming the pictures she could, and setting down the others under\nthe general title, \"picture.\"\nAt all times the power of delicate distinctions in speech was far beyond\nwhat her general mental development would have seemed to warrant. So\nit is with all babies. By what process of reasoning does a two-year-old\nbaby manage so abstract a signification as that of a personal pronoun ?\nHow should he observe so delicately that we say \" I \" of ourselves, \" you \"\nto others ; and instead of literally imitating, calling himself \" you,\"\nfollow the analogy intelligently ? Yet a dozen distinctions as philosophic\n(if not always this particular one), as impossible without help from\nancient race-habit, the baby will make at an age when you can barely\ncoax the bungling little fingers to string a bead.\nMidway in her second year the application of names to colors — for\nwhich as mere sense impressions she had not greatly cared — opened a wide\nfield of interest to the little girl I speak of; and with a like exercise in\nnaming the forms, plane and solid, made the chief indoor happiness of\nthe rest of the year. The key of the word opened her eyes to notice the\ncolor or the form ; it visibly enabled her to put the sense impression away\nin her mind in available place, and to recognize its counterpart when she\nsaw it, instead of passing blindly by. When she stood on a chair by my\nshelf, and pulled the books off and dropped them on the bed beside, the\nmere mechanical exercise was renewed in interest as she spontaneously\nnamed over the colors : \" That red book ; that book black : that green.\"\nShe waked suddenly one day, in her twenty-second month, with a\nshout of joy, to the discovery that the walls, the doors, the furnishings\nabout her, carried the well-known plane forms ; she rejoiced thenceforth\nin finding and naming them. \" Oblong over there !\" she would shout,\npointing to the door panels. She made people turn and smile in the cars\nwith the sudden joy of her discovery of a \" cunning little square \" in the\npaneling ; or in a store with her loud and jubilant enumeration of \" Red\nstocking ! Blue stocking ! Black stocking ! Pink shirt ! White shirt !\nGreen box !\"\nBy the time she was a year and a half old, stories and verses from\nwhich she could have got little but gleams of clear meaning enveloped in\na cloud of vague suggestions, were liked by her, preferred to many\nthings that were more definite to her. Yet this is probably less true of\nher than of most well-born and well-tended children, for she is unusually matter-of-fact. That most such children by the third or fourth\nyear do get much in the way of an atmosphere, an elusive beauty and\nsuggestion, an invaluable glimpse of a beyond, from words that are outside their comprehension, seems to me indisputable. One three-year-old\nfriend of mine took great pleasure in reciting Blake's. \" Piping down the\nvalleys wild.\" She could not have understood it— any more than the rest\n\n"}
{"page": 797, "printed_page": null, "text": "A PLEA\n\nFOR\n\nSPECIAL\n\nCHILD-STUDY.\n\n777\n\nof us ; but she liked it, and she recited with a sympathy and feeling that\nshowed she found something in it.\nThe two or three other lines of interest that have seemed to me leading\nones I must barely mention. Of the joy in mastering the use of its own\nbody, the endless interest in mere muscular activity, I need say nothing.\nJoined with this I found throughout the first two years an exultation in\nfreedom — freedom of limb, of choice, the free distances and spaces outdoors— that was surprising. None of the obvious reasons were really\nsufficient to account for the perpetual passion to reach outer air. A bare\nstrip of ground was better than a room full of interests. A docile child,\nwilling to accept restrictions, to be denied wishes, the little girl yet craved\nabove all things freedom to follow her own devices in the free air. One\ncan hardly help seeing in this some race-inheritance from a forest life.\nSo, too, if one is not afraid of being fanciful, in the singular interest\nroused by the lower animals in most babies — an interest that in the case\nI observed waked at six months old with a passionate enthusiasm for the\ndog, passed on to eats, and birds, and horses, and bears, and chipmunks,\nand has never failed, now far on into the third year. I cannot dwell\non it here ; and it is well known to all students of children already.\nThe pedagogic suggestion afforded by it and by the similar (but later\nand weaker) interest in growing things, has often been discussed already\nwith reference to the education of children somewhat older. It is so\nstrong in little babies that it must enter into any consideration of their\neducation.\n\nBY\n\nA PLEA\n\nFOR\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nW.\n\nSPECIAL\n\nCHILD-STUDY.\n\nL. BRYAN,\nUNIVERSITY\nBLOOMINGTON,\nIND.\n\nOF\n\nINDIANA,\n\nI wish in substance to make a plea for one special kind of childstudy — that, namely, in which methods already well developed and tested\nin the laboratory may be carried out under the direction of experts upon\nlarge numbers of children.\nThis is not the only kind of child-study profitable. Individual teachers\neverywhere, though little skilled in scientific methods, may gain great\nadvantage for themselves by observing the children under their charge ;\nand if the records of such observations be brought together into competent\nhands, important gains may be made for psychology. The proper direction\nof such work is at preseut of the utmost importance. This is the natural\nhistory of childhood, and it has certain values of its own which cannot be\nreplaced by anything else.\nI wish to urge the timeliness of supplementing such and all other\nmethods by methods more systematic and strictly scientific.\n\n"}
{"page": 798, "printed_page": null, "text": "778\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nIn the last quarter century we have had a vast amount of work in\nexperimental psychology. The bibliography of the subject is growing at\nthe rate of much more than one thousand titles each year. More than a\ndozen laboratories have been established in the United States within the\nlast half dozen years. We are, in brief, on the crest of a great social\nmovement for the regeneration of psychology.\nIt is a fact, however, that, from the highest scientific standards, the vast\nand invaluable work so far done has been largely of a preliminary character. This is, in part, matter of course and a necessity. Questions must\nbe discovered ; one sagacious question — one reasonably definite ignorance\n— is worth more than a World's Fair full of blind \" Outlines for ChildStudy.\"\nThe laboratories of the world are engaged almost exclusively in this\nkind of work. It does not turn out tracts for popular enlightenment. It\nfurnishes few recipes for teachers or preachers or mothers. It supplies\nfew satisfying generalities to philosophy. Its outlay of published results\nlook to the uninitiated like a mass of tedious scraps. From the standpoint\nof those engaged in it, this planning of questions, apparatus and methods\nis for the most part not intended to furnish general laws of conscious life.\nSuch work is essentially preliminary. The ingathering of results must\nfollow after.\nBut those who have been working at the foundations in experimental\npsychology have not been blameless, or at least their accomplishment is\nnot blameless. I think experimental psychology has been peculiarly free\nfrom this danger.\nBut I cannot disguise my fear that the preliminary part of the work of\nwhich 1 have spoken has engrossed too large a share of attention, to the\nperil of our scientific and educational standing.\nWe promise a science of conscious life. As other sciences have traced\nthe development of the physical world, we promise to supplement this by\ngiving the natural history of conscious life from its darkest beginning to\n, the highest achievements of man. But we shall be false to all our promise,\nand we shall turn the confidence and sympathy which has endowed chairs\nand built laboratories, into derision and rejection, if we confine our science\nto a little round of test in the laboratory.\nI believe that the time is fully ripe for a rapid advance in the ingathering of results. The most important things are ready, the things that cannot be hurried. There are many plans scientifically developed. There\nare men who have that knowledge and training which cannot be extemporized, and who are eager to work. But there must be organization,\nand there must be money. The thing most in demand is endowed research in the field of child-study. What we want is a millionaire. Or,\nperhaps, it can come without the millionaire. The people of this country\nlove their children.\nIf the scientists and educational leaders whose repre-\n\n"}
{"page": 799, "printed_page": null, "text": "EYE\n\nAND\n\nEAR-MINDEDNESS.\n\n779\n\nsentatives are here can make the people understand how deep a matter we\nhave in hand, how far into the life of their children and of all the after\nworld this work tends, perhaps, then, from many quarters money will flow\nin to make possible, under the best scientific direction, a national bureau\nfor child-study.\nSuppose such a bureau established, under the direction of our one\ngreatest master, manned by a corps of experts in anthropology, in childdiseases, in the various departments of experimental psychology, in the\nmathematical treatment of results, and the like. Suppose then, under the\ndirection of these, a little Gideon's army of trained agents working everywhere in schools, high and low, in the country and in the city slums.\nSuppose, finally, that an innumerable army of teachers and mothers were\nworking as they were able under this direction. Whatever sane prediction\nwe should make to-day of the outcome of such an enterprise for psychology and all the sciences and arts dependent upon it, would in a few years\nbe surpassed.\n\nEYE\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTESTS\n\nAND\n\nEAR\n\nMINDEDNESS.\n\nMADE\nBY PROF.\nW. L.\nINDIANA,\nBLOOMINGTON,\n\nBRYAN,\nIND.\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nThe experiments of which I shall make a brief and partial report were directed mainly\ntowards the question of eye and ear mindedness. These tests were made by myself and\nwife, with the advice of President Hall and Dr. Burnham, of Clark University. Experiments were made in discrimination of shades of gray, and memory for shades of\ngray ; and in like manner discrimination in memory for length of lines ; discrimination\nin memory for pitch ; discrimination in memory for rates in metronome ticks ; then a\nseries of tests in memory span, for figures seen and heard ; and then a series of tests,\nthe general idea of which was suggested by Dr. Burnham, whose purpose was to determine, if possible, whether associations are stronger between sensations of the same\nmodality or sounds of different modality. There were forty-one tests in all, made upon\neach of about six hundred children.\nOne thing that came out clearly by these tests was the very great individual variation.\nIn matters which seemed to be comparatively simple and to involve comparatively simple\nmental phenomena, the individual variation was so great that it is impossible to determine whether there is a degree's growth from the lower to the highest course. It is\nalmost impossible, for instance, to determine whether the child of the ninth grade can\ndiscriminate shades of color better than the child of the fifth grade ; or whether children\ncan determine pitch of tone better in the ninth grade than in the fifth grade. This\nsimply points out the necessity for far wider investigation, and gives a point for the plea\nwhich I make for further investigation. One thing is certain, that the advance, that the\ngross advances have been made when the child is still very young. The curve is upward\nand nearly straight. It may be that in many of these functions the rapid part of the\ncurve has come before the child entered school at all.\nThis suggests what seems to me to be one of the most important lines for investigation.\nWe need to note in respect to this, and to that, and the other function which it is desirable to cultivate, whether the period of rapid development has occurred already before\n\n"}
{"page": 800, "printed_page": null, "text": "780\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nthe child entered school, or whether that may possibly occur in this or that or the other\npart of school course. This cannot be known in advance of investigation in respect to\nany given function. It opens the way for a great field of inquiry in which every one of\nthe functions which we wish to cultivate comes up for separate and extended examination.\nThe memory-span tests were made in substantially the same manner as those made by\nMr. Boulton, under direction of Dr. Boaz, in the schools of Worcester, except that\nbesides the ear-span tests, eye-span tests were made. As nearly as possible the conditions were made the same for the eye and for the ear. The first general result of this,\nis that, as Dr. Bealey and others have surmised, \"the majority of pupils are not\ndecidedly eye minded or ear- minded.\"\nTake the number of errors made by each pupil with the eye, and with the ear, let them\nbe ascertained, and then if the excess of errors either way be determined for each pupil,\nit will be found that many more than half of all the pupils have an excess either way of\nless than five errors ; that about ninety-four per cent, have an excess either way of less\nthan ten enrors when fifty-two figures were written. Nevertheless it is important to\nremember that there were some who did show extreme eye-mindedness, and others\nwho showed extreme ear-mindedness. 1 should not be safe in saying how many out of\nten thousand there would be ; but in those that I have examined I should say that there\nwere between five and ten pupils who were so strongly inclined one way or the other\nthat they should have special attention given them, unless the individual pupil is going\nto be sacrificed to the exigencies of system. I should say that there are about five per\ncent, of the pupils who will make almost no errors, perhaps none, with one of these\nsenses, and a very great number of errors with the other.\nThe question has been raised as to whether or not there is a tendency from the lower\ngrades to the higher grades in favor of one of these senses. Allow me to read a very\nfew figures on this point. In the third grade the eye-span errors were 200 and\n201 per cent, that is twice as many errors for the eye as for the ear. In the fourth grade.\n140 per cent; in the fifth grade, 107 per cent; sixth, 111, per cent; seventh, 111 percent;\neight, 104 per cent ; ninth and High Schools taken together, 99 per cent ; a class of training girls, 96 per cent; twelve adults recently examined, 80 per cent. These last\nnumbers, of course, are taken on very few individuals. These figures taken alone would\nseem to constitute, if they were representative of that which should be found anywhere,\na tremendously strong support of the position that we are making everybody eyeminded. Some modification, however, must be made with respect to this. I think it\nmay be shown by a study of the results which I got, that the great advance made from\nthe third to the fifth grade is to be accounted for by the fact that children are learning\nat that period very rapidly to recognize digits. That is to say, if we study the shadediscrimination, and shade- memory tests, no such enormous advance is made, indeed a\nvery slight advance is made in those things ; but of course, at this period, the children\nare learning very rapidly to recognize digits by the eye. I think the advance can be\nexplained in that way.\nNow I wish to read only one other list. The last which I gave took account of all\nerrors of all kinds, errors of ear, omission, and errors of insertion — the method being\nthe same as that used by Mr. Boulton, with the advice of Dr. Boaz. Now I wish to read\nthe list with the errors of ear alone, which considers possible deficiencies of eye-sight or\nconfusion of sense perceptions. In the third grade the eye errors are 233 as compared\nwith 100 in the ear ; in the fourth grade. 123 ; in the fifth, 92; sixth grade, 94 ; in the\nseventh, 93 ; eight, 88 ; ninth grade and High School, 86. In the training schools, in\na class of twelve, 86 ; in the case of twelve adults, 65 per cent ; in the case of these\nadults examined, who were students of the summer school of pedagogy of Indiana,\nthe test was made with a high degree of care.\nI have spoken of these things, but I\n\n"}
{"page": 801, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE\n\nNEW\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nIN NORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\n781\n\nwish to use them rather as an illustration in furtherance of my plea that we need more\nextended investigations than these have been in which methods developed in the laboratory are applied to large numbers of subjects. This, of course, is not the only kind of\nchild-study now profitable. Individual teachers anywhere, though little schooled in\nscientific methods, may gain great advantage for themselves by observing the children\nunder their charge and taking the records of such observation, which if brought together\nin competent hands, may be the cause of a great gain in psychology.\n\nDISCUSSION.\nBr a Member: I would like to ask Professor Bryan whether the relatively large per\ncent or the relatively small per cent of errors in the ear test , above the eye test, among\nvery small children, would seem to show that the child is naturally ear-minded, and\nthat he becomes eye-minded only as a result of our system of education. The reason I\nask this is because the theory has occurred to me that possibly the same evolution has\ntaken place in the mind of the child, as has taken place in the history of the world.\nIf we compare ancient Greek civilization with the present civilization, we find that the\nGreeks were eminently ear-minded as compared with the moderns, and we are eminently\neye-minded as compared with them. In modern times our eye-mindedness is illustrated\nby our constant reading of newspapers and magazines and books, the tendency to make\nthe theater and opera spectacular, and the existence of all such exhibitions as the\nWorld's Pair, ninety-nine per cent of which deals with the eye rather than any other\nsense. It seems to me, in the history of the world that there is a tendency towards\neye-mindedness, and I would like to ask Professor Bryan whether in his opinion the\nyoung child is not naturally ear-minded, and becomes eye-minded as a result of\nevolution .\nProfessor Bryan: The facts undoubtedly pledge us to say that in the case of those\npupils examined, the eye gained upon the ear at an enormous rate; and this apparent\ndifference between the third and fifth grade is not to be accounted for by a gain in eyemindedness. I think, as I said before, that it is a matter of practice and recognition.\nThen another consideration is also deduced from these figures. They do not indicate\nthat there is, in a majority of cases, a very decisive superiority of either sense over the\nother, and incidentally it may be said that most persons do not know whether they are\neye-minded or ear-minded. I asked about fifty children, above the age of twelve, who\nthought they knew. Twenty answered as their results indicated ; and eighteen answered\nwrong.\n\nBY\n\nTHE\n\nNEW\n\nMISS\n\nLILLIE\n\nA.\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nIN\n\nWILLIAMS,\n\nNORMAL\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\nSCHOOL,\n\nSCHOOLS.\nTRENTON,\n\nN.\n\nJ.\n\nMy paper is a brief plea for the new psychology in normal schools,\nfirst, because it is specially adapted to the class of learners found there ;\nand, second, because it insures the sort of child study which is needed now\nas a basis for scientific pedagogy.\nEntrance requirements for normal schools must be low enough to\nadmit candidates from the average district schools. Hence, the first year\nis devoted, not to instruction in the art of teaching, but to the common\nschool branches. Fortunately this work now follows the lines of the new\neducation, so that students begin their professional course with observation and discrimination somewhat cultivated, and an acquaintance with\ninductive and synthetic methods, but lacking the discipline of the severer\n\n"}
{"page": 802, "printed_page": null, "text": "782\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nstudies and without breadth of view. Could they give the next two\nyears to mathematics, physical science, and the culture studies, they\nwould even then fall far short of that advancement which is required\nin colleges before taking up psychology. But this science has its present\nprominent place in normal courses, because we believe that it furnishes\na basis for the theory and practice of teaching. To be used in this way\nit must be studied by our pupils at the beginning of their professional\nwork in spite of their scanty preparation.\nThe psychology which has usually been taught is abstract and rationalistic. The text-books, even when simplified, present matter which the\nstudents cannot relate to their own experience. They are not interested.\nIn too many cases the work has become a painful task of word-memorizing. There is no clear showing of what the study of mind can do for\nthe training of mind. Better results can be obtained by a different\nsort of work. The new psychology affords the more excellent way, not\nbecause it is so easy that anybody can learn it— on the contrary, never\nbefore was so difficult and expensive a preparation demanded of the\npsychological investigator — but because its methods adapt it to the stage\nof mental growth of the class of students of whom I speak.\nThe new psychology is so new that its results are yet to be found largely\nin pamphlets and monographs. There is no text-book at once comprehensive enough, simple enough, and concrete enough for our students.\nThis is, I believe, a good thing, since it insures the inductive presentation\nof the subject. The teacher must now select and arrange the topics to\nbe considered, and then, through experiment, introspection, and observation of others, lead the pupils to infer the principles for themselves.\nWe need a psychological library and much use of books by way- of reference, but no text-memorizing.\nFor experimental work in sensation, we have Dr. Sauford's admirable\ncourse ; for the rest, one could be arranged by the teacher. The laboratory work need not involve a large outlay; one hundred and fifty dollars\nwill go a long way, if wisely expended. Where there is a manual training department in the school, many pieces of apparatus may be made\nthere at small expense. Normal schools need not aim at extending the\nboundaries of knowledge, and so can do without the costly appliances for\nquantitative determination.\nThe really serious obstacle to success in experimental work is the large\nnumbers in the classes. These should be so subdivided that the teacher\ncould give each student individual attention. Above all, we must have\ncorrelation of allied subjects. Physiology and hygiene must prepare the\nway for psychology, and for a time must overlap. The teacher of the\ntheory of education, the training teacher, should build on the psychology.\nThe teacher of psychology should be able to turn to the model school for\nconcrete illustrations of principles.\n\n"}
{"page": 803, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE NEW\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nIN NORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\n783\n\nThis brings us to our second point. All Normal psychology must- necessarily bechild psychology. Our pupils must be taught to study children. The first step is to set them to observing, according to Mr. Russell's\nplan, which is now so well known that I need not describe it. They will\nhave had a year of this awakening work before they take up psychology.\nAs this science unfolds itself, and they begin to understand degrees of\naccuracy in observation, the nature of reflection, the importance of measurements, and the use of experiments, it will be more helpful to systematize and specialize in their child study. In a properly related course,\nthe department of physical culture will require measurements of children,\nrecords of pulse-beats with reference to degree of fatigue and excitement,\nschool health statistics, observations on color and other signs of health,\nmovements of children at play, and so on, and psychology can build upon\nthese in its opening study of the relation of mind and body.\nThe modern view that \"man is a creature whose life is the adjustment\nof inner to outer relations, that fundamentally the mental life is for the\nsake of action,\" makes it wise to take up next instincts, emotions, and\nwill. Experimental psychology does not yet cover this field ; it is mainly\nin the observational stage. As a rule, this side of the child's mental life\nfirst attracts our untrained workers, and we may count upon a large mass\nof observations to begin with. Professor Barnes has shown us how observation may be specialized here.\nMotor ability may be studied more exactly by tests. Dr. Scripture has\ndescribed, in the Educational Review, two which any one could apply. Dr.\nBryant's apparatus costs but two or three dollars, and with that his interesting line of experiment could be repeated. Children's vocabularies should\nbe sought, as well as cases of mirror-writing. In sensation, many of the\ntests used in the laboratory may be at once applied by the students to\nclasses of children, especially in touch, hearing, and sight. The pitch-pipe\nmounted upon a graduated scale, contrived by Dr. Scripture, will enable\nthem to get accurate results in regard to sensitiveness to variations of\npitch.\nFor testing color-blindness, my pupils made disks from Professor Jas'trow's description, and found them most convenient. Results should be\nexpressed as far as possible by the graphic method. For attention, we shall\naccumulate much data during our work in sensation. Tests on divided\nattention may be applied, and studies made of parlor games like the\nso-called \"mind reading,\" Ouija, and others. In association, Galton's or\nJastrow's tests are easily made. A great deal may be done in time experiments with a stop-watch, or even with an ordinary watch, if enough tests\nare made.\nThe analysis of children's associations brings out interesting points.\nSome experiments should be made to ascertain the relation between associations, time, and age.\n\n"}
{"page": 804, "printed_page": null, "text": "784\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nIn 'primary memory the children may be tested in their power to repeat\nfigures or nonsense syllables. The latter may be so used as to show\nwhether visual, auditory, or motor images predominate. Some of Galton's\nquestions on the image-making power may be asked the children. The\nentire set should be given to the normal class. Taking as a text their\ncuriously unlike answers to the same questions, the teacher may well point\nout the great differences in mental life and the folly of supposing that there\nis any one method of imparting knowledge. The students should collect\nnumber forms and instances of colored hearing. In memory, many of\nEbbinghaus's experiments may be adapted to work with the children. As\nto creative imagination, we are again dependent on observation, as we are\nalso in the important field, of childish reasoning.\nSuch a course as I have indicated will take up all the time now allotted\nto psychology, but to drop it at this point is to leave all at loose ends, and\nto fail of a good part of the benefit which we ought to derive from it. We\nshould have, in the last year, a higher course. I fancy it would be better\nto make it an elective, in which we take a systematic review of the field,\ndiscussing topics which could not earlier have been seen in their true bearings. If the apparatus is to be had, let the quantitative enter into experimental work. In many places students are sent out, in their last year, to\npractice in the city schools, and thus have a larger field for observation.\nWill the results from such a course pay for the expenditure of time ?\nI believe that they will. Successful testing and experimenting with children is not easy. The training which the young workers thus get in\npatience, sympathy, and insight into childish ways is most valuable.\nTeachers thus trained cannot sink into drudges, nor the work become a\ntreadmill round ; for, as Dr. Hall says, \" Though the ground to be gone\nover each year may remain substantially the same, the children's minds\nwill be seen to be never alike.\" In their schools, such teachers will be careful gatherers of facts, and thus, each contributing her mite, will help on\nthe day when through the new psychology there will be a Science of\nEducation.\n\nDISCUSSION.\nProfessor Barnes : Three people whom I know, who are carrying on the work that\nMiss Williams has described in normal schools, say no matter whether we get any scientific results or not the work will pay, because of the interest it will arouse in the students\nand the scientific spirit it will cultivate in them. 1 would like to ask Miss Williams if\nshe thinks it desirable in our normal schools to have masses of data gathered and experiments made and work carried on, provided we are not able to elaborate and work it up\ninto some form of definite expression.\nMiss Williams : I believe we ought to have the students think that something will\ncome of it. I have tried to do so, and I would tell them that 1 mean to do something\nwith the result. When I first began taking observations I found that the thing which\ninterested the pupils more than anything else was to tell them that I wished them to be\n\n"}
{"page": 805, "printed_page": null, "text": "DISCUSSION.\n\n785\n\nvery careful with these blanks, because in some large institutions they are making collections of these papers and they might want their papers, and the very idea that it might\nbe used seemed to be a stimulus. I think in time we ought in our own school to work\nout these results.\nMr. GrALViN, of Wisconsin State Normal School : I want to know if in this line of\nstudy there could be as much definite knowledge as we have definite knowledge in\npsychology ?\nProfessor Barnes : I would say that it would be infinitely better for a man or\nwoman to have studied three or four psychical phenomena, who is going to be a teacher,\nwith great care, than to have mastered all the rational psychology that we have ever\nthought we had.\n\n50\n\n"}
{"page": 806, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 807, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\nCONGRESS\n\nOF BUSINESS\n\nREPORT\n\nEDUCATION.*\n\nOF SECRETARY.\n\nThe sessions of the Congress of Business Education were held in Hall 29, Art Palace,\nJuly 26-27, 1893.\nOpening address by S. S. Packard, New York, on the \"Evolution of the Business\nCollege.\"\n\"Practical Advantages of a Business College Training.\"\nGeorge Soule, New Orleans.\n\"Relation of Business College Instruction to Industrial, Commercial and Financial\nInterests.\"\nBy A. D. Wilt, Dayton, Ohio.\n\"Higher Aspects of Business Education.\"\nBy R. E. Gallagher, Hamilton, Ont.\n\" Stenography and Typewriting as Branches of Business Education,\" By Isaac S.\nDemert, Chicago.\n\"The World's Need of Business Women.\" By Mrs. Sara A. Spencer, Washington,\nD. C.\n\" Reciprocal Relations and Benefits of Business Colleges and other Departments of\nEducation.\"\nBy Ira Mayhew, Detroit.\nAddress by Dr. James MacAlister, President Drexel Institute, Philadelphia.\n* Explanatory.— Requests were duly made for the papers pertaining to the meeting of the Congress of\nBusiness Education, but no reports of the proceedings, nor any of the papers read at its seasions, were\ndelivered to the Secretary of the National Educational Association for publication, nor to Dr. William T.\nHarris, chairman of the committee in charge of the International Congress of Education.\nAbout the 10th of April several of the papers read at the Congress of Business Education were sent\nto the editor in charge of publication of the proceedings, but too late for any portion of them to appear\nin the order of the departments . It then was only possible to print abstracts of some of the papers, the list\nof which is given in the Secretary's Report.\n\n"}
{"page": 808, "printed_page": null, "text": "BUSINESS EDUCATION.\nTHE\nABSTRACT\n\nEVOLUTION\n\nOF OPENING\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF BUSINESS\n\nADDRESS,\nCONGRESS\n\nCOLLEGES.\n\nBY S. S. PACKARD,\nPRESIDENT\nOF BUSINESS EDUCATION.\n\nOF\n\nThe task is laid upon me, within the limits of a brief paper, to sketch\nthe birth and progress of business colleges ; and the embarrassment which\nit brings to me must be apparent to all who are conversant with that history. The temptation is very great to go back to the beginning, to\nmention names, dates, and incidents which are matters of history and\ninteresting to us all, and to follow consecutively the steps of this evolution\nand the expansion of the idea which, in the course of fifty years, has given\nto this country a distinct system of education, which has planted schools\nin all our large and small cities, which claims a patronage embracing men\nand women in business, in the professions, in charity, in statesmanship,\nin religion and in all the great enterprises of the country.\nThe first teachers of bookkeeping, who are really the pioneers of our\npresent business college system, were not moved simply to open a profession for themselves, but to do a needed work. In the language of one\nof them, it was at that time impossible to learn bookkeeping without getting into business, and impossible to get into business without having\nlearned bookkeeping, and so the first business college began as between a\nman who wanted to know something in order to advance his own interests,\nand another man who was able to impart that knowledge and willing to do\nit for a consideration. It must be borne in mind that when the first bookkeeping class was formed there was no railroad system in this country and\nstrictly speaking no railroad ; the telegraph lay nascent in the brain of\nits inventor; duplex currents and incandescent lights were not even\ndreamed of; the sun had not entered into the picture business, and there\nwere no better means of getting over the surface of the earth than were\nenjoyed by Lot when he wanted to visit his uncle Abraham. Since that\nfirst bookkeeping class, everything worth mentioning has happened, and\nall that was necessary to bring about the conditions which we now contemplate was simply to follow along the line of progress and to meet the\ngrowing demands as they came. The one man in charge of the first business college student sustained as full relations to the demands of business\nin 1843, as the five thousand men, more or less, representing five hundred\nprosperous schools, with a constituency of not less than seventy-five\n\n"}
{"page": 809, "printed_page": null, "text": "TEE EVOLUTION\n\nOF BUSINESS\n\nCOLLEGES.\n\n789\n\nthousand pupils, sustain to the present condition of progress all along the\nlines of enterprise and activity.\nThe Columbian Exposition of 1893, as it is spread before our eyes in\nthis great metropolis of the West, is the legitimate product of education ;\nnot of a particular school, or class of schools, but of the reaching out of the\nhuman mind in all directions, and of making effort effective through the\nprocesses of education. Fifty years ag» there were not only no business\ncolleges, but there were no kindergartens, no trade schools, no specialties\nof study and research requiring a distinct curriculum and aiming in a\nlarge way at a distinct end. If a boy wanted to learn a trade, he must\nspend from four to seven years as an apprentice, and even then he was\nnot so well equipped as would be the graduate of one of our trade schools\nafter a year's instruction. If a young man desired to become an accountant, he must begin in a store as an errand boy, work his way up tediously\nto a clerkship, and in some surreptitious or favored way by contact with\nthe bookkeeper, master the principles and attain the practical knowledge\nwhich would place him in the line of promotion.\nThe business colleges have changed all this; first, by knowing exactly\nwhat is required in the counting-house, and next by supplying that\nknowledge in the most direct and positive way. The future bookkeeper\nor financier, instead of spending years tediously in approaching to the\ndesired attainment, can now, by contact with masters in their special\nlines, gather not only the underlying principles, but enforce by real practice the knowledge requisite for the high duties upon which he is to\nenter ; so that there is to-day no more of a question as to the qualifications\nof a graduate of a genuine business college for the duties upon which he\nis to enter, than there is as to the graduate of a literary college, the medical college, the theological seminary, or the law school. After fifty years\nof growth side by side with other departments of education, the business\ncollege to-day, in its best estate, is guilty of no presumption in challenging\nthe confidence of the community. Thus it is that we come into this convention of educational specialties without apology, and with a full and\nclear sense of our right to the honor that has been given us.\nIt would be a pleasing task for me, had I the time and the occasion\nfavored, to compare the work of the business colleges with that of other\neducational enterprises, each standing upon a distinct idea and looking to\na distinct end. I should be glad to show that in this effort of ours we are\nsimply co-workers in the educational field with all earnest and honest men,\nthat the work we have undertaken to do we mean to do well, and as its\nimportance grows upon us by the demands of our constituency and the\nexpectations of the public, we mean to be able to meet all the requirements. It has been said elsewhere, and on different occasions from this,\nthat we are the gleaners of education, and when that designation is defined\nto cover the facts, there is no higher or more honorable position to be\n\n"}
{"page": 810, "printed_page": null, "text": "700\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\ntaken. It is one of the conditions of the building up of our schools, that\nwe cannot choose our pupils. To a certain extent, we may exclude those\nwhose lack of qualifications would be a bar to their progress, but ordinarily\nour charitable intent impels us to accept, to a greater or less extent, those\nwho have been left by other schools, and who need the instruction which\nwill enable them to enter upon life armed and equipped as best they may.\nThe business colleges in the Country are restricted in their work by\nresponsibilities thrown upon them to make accomplished accountants and\naccomplished correspondents. An accountant must understand thoroughly\nand practically not only how to keep books, but how to manage financial\naffairs, and how to discharge the duties of citizenship. It has been one\nof our delightful privileges, during the past few years, to qualify girls for\npositions as stenographers and correspondents. To be a stenographer and\na correspondent is not simply to be able to write shorthand with facility\nand transcribe it correctly, be able to understand and write an English\nsentence correctly ; but to these some knowledge of business affairs must\nalso be added. I think I may safely say that the course of study which is\ncarefully laid out and practiced in all the departments of our best business colleges is clear, positive, intelligent ; that its faithful administration will secure the best results of education ; and beyond this, the\nopportunities which come to this class of schools, and which I feel it\nincumbent on me to say are the greatest opportunities which occur in life\nfor the advancement of the highest interests of young men and women,\nare not lost sight of, nor underestimated.\nThere is an important part of our duty as educationists that is not\nmentioned in any public curriculum and cannot even be designated here,\nand that is the duty which one human being owes to another ; the duty,\nabove all, which a teacher owes to his pupil, to know the ordering of his\nmind, to come into harmony with his thoughts and his purposes, and in\nthat faithful and conscientious discharge of duty which must ever be the\ntrue teacher's patent of nobility, to direct the mind to healthful channels ;\nto put it into harmony with the best thoughts and the best purposes ; to\nkindle the spark of self-consciousness and personal responsibility, and, in\nshort, to lay the foundations of a noble life. I have said that this part of\nour work cannot be put into a curriculum, cannot be formulated in words,\nand that its existence in any school through the ordinary means of investigation cannot be ascertained ; but knowing intimately, as I do, those who\nare engaged in this work, and the principles that govern them, I feel\ncompelled to say that not only have the business colleges of the country\nestablished their right to stand as special agencies in education, but that\nthe work they have undertaken is in good hands.\n\n"}
{"page": 811, "printed_page": null, "text": "AD VANTAGES\n\nPRACTICAL\nABSTRACT\n\nOF A COMMERCIAL\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nTRAINING.\n\nADVANTAGES OF A COMMERCIAL\nTRAINING.\nOF\n\nA PAPER\n\nBY\n\nGEORGE\n\nSOULE,\n\nNEW\n\n?9l\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nORLENAS,\n\nLA.\n\nLocke tells us that \" the best way to come to truth is to examine things\nas they really are, and not to conclude that they are as we fancy of ourselves, or have been taught by others to imagine.\"\nAnd Narada, a Hindoo sage, wisely says : \" We must study to know,\nknow to comprehend, and comprehend to judge.\"\nTo reach a correct conclusion on the question before us, let us follow\nthe wise counsel of these philosophers, and study and learn the facts of\nthe case. Advancing on this line of thought, let us first, in logical order\nconsider some of the human enterprises and industries of man which are\ncarried on by virtue of the very knowledge tbat is imparted by a business\ncollege training. In the front line stands commerce, graceful and dignified, robed in royal purple, queen of human industries. In her wake,\ncivilization, religion, and humanity, the triune virtues of a people, march\non to grander and to higher altitudes of glory. Commerce invades the\nwilderness, crosses oceans, and through its influences are founded kingdoms, empires, and republics.\nNow the essential qualifications necessary to carry on this commerce and\nto disseminate those principles which result in the social and physical improvement ofthe world, and which make labor, production, manufacture,\nand exchange successful, require a special curriculum of study, which\nmust be acquired either by the slow and costly process of apprenticeship\nand experience, or by schools established and equipped for this especial\npurpose. This special curriculum should comprise, for the merchant, the\nbanker, and all classes of business men, in addition to a literary education, commercial law in all its general applications to partnership, to\ninsurance, to common carriers, to general contracts, to notes and bills, to\nprincipal and agent, to rights and remedies, etc. It should embrace\nindividual and political economy, the ethics of trade, and the principles\nof sociology and of civil government; also correspondence, practical\nmathematics, book-keeping, corporation accounting, partnership settlements, etc. This course of study gives knowledge, system, order, accuracy and discipline to the mind. It unites in action, the reasoning, the\nperceptive, and the moral faculties, which, with caution and acquisitiveness, constitute the capacity to plan and devise those financial campaigns\nthat result in just and honorable gains.\nSpeaking for the business college, I can testify, from an experience of\nmore than a third of a century, that the well-conducted business school\nof the present day does teach the above-named special curriculum of\n\n"}
{"page": 812, "printed_page": null, "text": "792\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nstudies required by all men of business. Therefore, since commerce is so\ngrandly beneficial to mankind, and since a high-grade technical curriculum\nof practical knowledge is required to successfully conduct so great an\nindustry in all its multitudinous ramifications, and since the well-appointed\nbusiness college does impart the knowledge required, it follows that a\nbusiness college training is of practical advantage to its possessor, to commerce, and to the progress of mankind. By the light of this conclusion,\nI submit that the practical curriculum of the business college is not only\nof practical advantage, but is demanded by the commercial and business\ninterest of the world, and by the great social questions of the age, which\nare agitating capital and labor in all the fields of human action. If business men of all classes had a more bountiful supply of this practical\nknowledge, failures and defalcations, violated promises and repudiated\ncontracts, would be far less frequent.\nBut, Mr. Chairman, the benefits of a business or commercial school\neducation are by no means limited to the merchant. The banker, the\nmanufacturer, the artisan, the tradesman, the farmer, the lawyer, the\ntheologian, the professional man, and in brief all classes of society are\nmore thoroughly armed and equipped for service in their respective spheres\nof labor, by the practical education taught in the commercial or business\nschools. All of these classes of men must of necessity have some knowledge of accounts, and of the customs and laws of business.\nA large part of a lawyer's professional business brings him face to face\nwith accounts, with business transactions, with the adjustments of partnerships and of financial settlements. As evidence that the clergy have\nneed for financial knowledge, we have but to consider the financial business of the church. The churches of the United States own over two\nhundred million dollars of real estate. They receive and disburse annually for expenses, for foreign missions, and for educational purposes, nearly\ntwenty-five millions of dollars. The church is also largely engaged in the\npublication of books, magazines and papers. To possess this property,\nand to transact the business of the church, is it not clear that the clergy\nhave need for business and accounting knowledge ?\nTo deny the advantage of the medical school education for the physician, or the law school education for the lawyer, or the theological\nschool education for the clergyman, or the engineering school education\nfor the engineer, or the military school training for the soldier, or the\nschool of mines for the metallurgist, or the manual training school for\nthe mechanic, or the art school for the painter and sculptor, would be a\ndenial of well-known facts, an unpardonable libel on the civilization of\nthe nineteenth century, and an evidence of a mind incapable of discernment or comprehension.\nAnd thus as the above-named schools stand to the science, the profession, or the trade for which they prepare disciples and votaries, so stands\n\n"}
{"page": 813, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDUSTRIAL,\n\nCOMMERCIAL,\n\nAND\n\nFINANCIAL\n\nINTERESTS.\n\n793\n\nthe business school to all classes of business men ; and this, for the reason\nthat all classes require in their respective lines of business, as a supplement to their profession or trade, some knowledge, as previously stated, of\nthe customs of trade, the laws of business, of contracts, of commercial\npaper, and instruments of writing, of shorthand and type-writing, and of\naccount keeping, etc., etc. The business college is not intended to supplant other schools, but to supplement them.\n- The business college recognizes the fact that the school of experience\noccupies the highest altitude of all educational institutions. But while it\nrecognizes this truth, it bases its claims for usefulness to mankind, and to\na place of honor among its educational sisters, upon the self-evident fact\nthat there should be a preparatory course of study and training given to all\npersons whatever may be their vocation in life, before they matriculate in\nthe great school of experience, where the instruction is limited to one\nbranch of knowledge, and the tuition always costly.\nThe commercial course supplements that of all other schools, and is\nequally as beneficial to the graduates of the university, as it is to those\nwhose general education has been limited to the public school. All university alumni must pursue a course in some technical school, such as law,\nmedecine, theology, or business.\nA business college education is of special and practical advantage to a\nlarge class of industrious young men and young women, whose time is too\nlimited and whose treasury is too small to allow them to pursue any\nliterary or scientific course of study, which would require from two to five\nyears.\nThe functions of the business college are well defined and limited. By\nholding the standard of its own curriculum high, and by doing its limited\nwork faithfully and well, it will continue to increase its practical advantages to the business world, and will merit the kindly favor of all rightminded men.\n\nTHE RELATION OF BUSINESS INSTRUCTION TO INDUSTRIAL, COMMERCIAL, AND FINANCIAL INTERESTS.\nABSTRACT\n\nOF A\n\nPAPER\n\nBY A.\n\nD.\n\nWILT,\n\nDAYTON,\n\nOHIO.\n\nIt may be safely claimed by the commercial colleges of the United\nStates that there are to-day in the business enterprises of the country not\nless than one million of their graduates. This will include thousands of\nheads of firms and owners of business, whose training and the boundless\nopportunities our country affords have made them wealthy, independent\nmen.\nThe relationships, therefore, between the business college of this country\nand the commercial, industrial, and financial interests of the country are\n\n"}
{"page": 814, "printed_page": null, "text": "794\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\npeculiar to this country. The sentiment of caste, which in many parts of\nthe world keeps the highly educated class out of business, has never\nobtained here, and as a consequence a considerable percentage of the wellto-do and of the best-educated class are in business ; and the training\ngiven by the business college, which, compared with the broad curriculum\nof the European schools or the long apprenticeship of the English youth,\nwould seem inadequate, is, however, much more effective than it would\nappear to be, because of the excellent preliminary training alluded to.\nThose who have taken it have succeeded ; and it is believed that a fair\ncomparison between the German, French, and English business man and\nthe American business man will not give the advantage in the question of\nability and effectiveness to his foreign brother.\nIn all of the best of these institutions the important part of the course is\nthat which is given the student in what is known as the practice department. In this department the student is furnished with a capital in\nmoney, merchandise, etc., represented by cards or otherwise, and engages\nwith his fellow-students in transactions which elucidate the methods,\nforms, customs, and laws of business in all departments. Thus the work\nof a jobbing house is duplicated in the work of the students with a degree\nof exactness and fullness that enables the graduates to immediately assume\nthe duties of very responsible positions in such houses ; while so much\nattention is given to the opening and conducting of corporations, and to\nthe latest customs and methods of dealing with their bonds and stock, and\nto the relationship of owners and the public, in all aspects, that very many\nof the large corporations have been operated by graduates without further\ntraining.\nNo adequate judgment of the place the American business college has\nin the educational appliances of the country, or the relationship it has to\nthe great industries of the country, is possible without giving due weight\nto these important and significant facts concerning the extent of the control and management which their graduates have of the business of the\nUnited States.\nWhile the methods, laws, and customs of the various commercial\nnations of the world are necessarily similar in many respects, a marked\nindividuality obtains in each, and this notwithstanding the constant\nefforts that are being made by commercial, financial, and industrial\ncongresses to unify these methods, laws, and customs.\nMuch good in this direction is to be hoped for as a result of the various\nconferences of the great Columbian Exposition ; and what may be agreed\nupon, which can be generally adopted, will be at once made a part of the\ncurricula of the commercial colleges, and the large body of their graduates\nwho are taking positions in the business world will aid in giving it effect.\nThe relationship of the million of alumni of these colleges with their\nalma mater has been annually growing more intimate, and the dissemina-\n\n"}
{"page": 815, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDUSTRIAL,\n\nCOMMERCIAL,\n\nAND\n\nFINANCIAL\n\nINTERESTS.\n\n795\n\ntion of these new ideas between the colleges and their alumni is continually and easily made to the great advantage of both.\nNot only are the results of the state, national, and intermediate conferences thus quickly brought to the notice of this great body of students\nand active business men, but the current decisions of the courts in commercial, industrial, and financial affairs are disseminated in the same way.\nIt is on these accounts, as well as the others before alluded to, that the\ninfluence of commercial colleges in the commercial, industrial, and financial world is constantly and highly advantageous.\nNot only is the narrower work of book-keeping, but also the broader\nlabor of the management of business affairs, better done in every city or\nregion in which the best class of these colleges are training the young for\nbusiness pursuits. The most systematic labor-saving methods of accountantship are in use in the counting-rooms, and the broadest and most\neffective lines of management are followed up.\nThese claims for the advantages to the business world that result from\nthe work of these business colleges are supported by the testimony of\nmany of the prominent managers of the great industries, and by other\nhigh authorities.\nThis elaborate plea for business college training would not be justifiable\nor necessary were it not that these colleges, being private institutions, are\nnot so conspicuous to the public eye as the great endowed scholastic and\nchurch schools are, and therefore the great and salutary influence they\nhave had in supplying modern business the great body of trained workers,\nwhich has made possible the enormous magnitude of our colossal undertakings, isnot easily seen and appreciated.\nIt will not be inferred from the foregoing that those now charged with\nthe responsibility of commercial teaching undervalue the advantage of\nthe broadest literary training to the business man and to the business\nworld. When the late President Garfield, himself one of the broadest\nscholars of his time, a graduate of the noble college he highly honored,\ncompared the training that Harvard gave to the training given by the\ncommercial colleges, he said he was animated not less with a profound\nsense of the power that broad scholarship gives in business, as well as in\nthe professions and in all human relationships, than with a regretful\nrecognition of the fact that the graduates of the best American literary\ncolleges have not generally had the specific training that would enable\nthem to quickly and successfully take up the problems of the great\nbusiness affairs.\n\n"}
{"page": 816, "printed_page": null, "text": "796\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nTHE\n\nHIGHER\n\nASPECTS\n\nABSTRACT\n\nOF A\n\nBY\n\nPAPER\n\nR.\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nOF BUSINESS\nE.\n\nGALLAGHER,\n\nEDUCATION.\n\nHAMILTON,\n\nONTARIO.\n\nNo amount of mere intellectual knowledge will render a man educated\nin any high or proper sense of the term. The test of education is action,\nand the educated man is he who has all his faculties strong and active so\nthat he can perform his part rightly and effectually in the world. The\nhonest, the truthful, the upright man, imbued with right principles of\nindustry and economy, is in every proper sense of the word better educated\nfor life than one who has taken degrees at a university, or who has a\nfull acquaintance with all the systems of ancient and modern philosophy,\nbut who is without those qualities. This education is well within the\nprovince of the business college, and, as will be seen, is of the very highest\ncharacter.\nWhile the business college may be said to be a technical school, educating in a special direction, its field is nevertheless a broad one, for every\nperson needs some training in the processes of doing business. You all\nunderstand how much is lost, how much evil results, from the want of\nknowledge of the ordinary methods of transacting business on the part of\nfarmers and artisans. It is possibly as important, or more important than\nfor the young men who go as clerks or bookkeepers in the business\nhouses, for such young men can get a knowledge of business from their\nemployers. These have teachers over them, and they are thus trained\nand promoted in the degree that they take on training; but the man\nundertaking to manage a farm or carry on a mechanical business of any\nsort seldom has an opportunity for such elementary training as is given\nto a clerk by his employer, and he feels the want of it all his life.\nIndirectly (if not in all cases directly) the business college is a great\nethical school. Many schools have the subject of commercial ethics on\ntheir curriculum of study, and by the use of text-books and lectures the\nstudents are specially trained in ethics ; but whether the science of ethics\nis made a special study or not, bookkeeping as taught in the business\ncolleges is one of the grandest exponents of the economic relations of\nsociety. Dr. Anderson says : \" A good set of books, well kept, is in reality\na series of an exact and certain number of rights and obligations ; the\nrights on one side and the obligations on the other. This is the more\nimportant, as men in general are much more cautious in caring for their\nrights than for their obligations. That is a clear-headed and trustworthy\nmerchant who keeps his obligations always less than his rights ; that is\nto say, where he has rights enough to meet, and more than meet, his\nobligations.\nNow this is a mere matter of ethics.\"\nAll business con-\n\n"}
{"page": 817, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE\n\nHIGHER\n\nASPECTS\n\nOF BUSINESS\n\nEDUCATION.\n\n797\n\nsists in the exchange of rights. The moral right that underlies bookkeeping is therefore of the greatest importance. This is not an ideal\nrepresentation. Bookkeeping should be so taught that all this may be\nthoroughly brought out, as it is only second in value to its great practical\nutility, involving as it does all the processes of banking, insurance, transportation, and exchange.\nIt is possible some of the business educators of this country are themselves taking a wrong view of their duty ; are regarding themselves merely\nas machines to satisfy the demands of the business community ; are\nconsidering it as their sole duty to equip young men and women with\npreliminary training necessary to supply the clerk market, or to merely\nmake money in life, instead of giving them such training as will help\nthem to become business men and women in the higher and nobler sense\nof the term. If my apprehensions are correct, let me ask : Are not the\nethical complications among the very greatest ? Are not the problems of\nthe rights and relations of men as important as any commercial study\ncould be ? Is not the commercial world a great commonwealth ? We\nare living in a great business age ; vast combinations everywhere multiplying and extending far and near to change all business relations and\nresults. Who can tell in these days what the real market price of anything is,or what it ought to be, even to money itself 9 Tell me, what is so\nimportant in that vast system as the ethical principles, the questions of\nright and wrong which are involved ? What is so important to the success\nof any business as that there shall be upright principles underlying it ?\nYoung people need to be educated in these respects.\nIt is also the duty of the business college to train for citizenship, and\nso far as possible for the responsible duties of the public office.\nHow important that the problem of a higher education for business be\nconsidered in all its bearings ! There are those who pretend to believe\nthat our obligations to our pupils have been met when we have taught\nthem the usual branches of the business course. These certainly should\nbe well taught, but much more must be undertaken. Even these are\nmeans, and not ends. The work of the modern business school must\nabove all things be so conducted, and its studies so constructed, as to add\ncontinually to the moral force and to the already acquired intelligence of\nthe pupil who comes to it. He must be led into habits of the most careful\nobservation; he must be taught to have confidence in his own opinions and\nhis own skill; but at the same time he must be taught to respect the\nopinions and feelings of others, and to see that his own are well and intelligently formed. He should be required to trace given results back to their\nproducing causes, and to anticipate the legitimate results that might be\nexpected to follow given causes. Patience, perseverance, neatness, accuracy,\nand dispatch are as essential to a suitable preparation for business, as are\ntheory and practice.\nIn no other way, except by this broad and persistent\n\n"}
{"page": 818, "printed_page": null, "text": "798\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nbusiness training, can the pupil be fitted in any true sense to receive the\nbusiness inheritance that awaits him.\nIn addition to the studies of commercial ethics, bookkeeping, arithmetic, penmanship, commercial law, correspondence, orthography, stenography, typewriting, etc., a thorough training in political economy and\ncivil government should be given in every business college, and, if\npossible, instruction in commercial geography and commercial history ;\nthus prescribing a course of study requiring from one to two years to\ncomplete. I understand that some business colleges are working in this\ndirection already, and are not only meeting with great success, but are\ndignifying and elevating business education. All that is required is for a\nnumber of the more prominent colleges to take the lead in these matters,\nand others will of necessity follow.\nThe public expect the business college graduates to perform a leading\npart in the drama of life, and they will not be disappointed. Reinforcements are needed in the ranks of those struggling for the elevation of\nthe human race, whether in society, business, or politics, and the quota from\nthe business college will be equal to the task. It will send out well-trained\nyoung men and women for the real work of life ; will send out those\nwho have the power to apply their knowledge, not merely those who\npossess an array of facts, and no ability with which to make use of\nknowledge. But they will grandly meet the demands made upon them\nin all departments of business life.\n\nSTENOGRAPHY\nABSTRACT\n\nOF\n\nAND TYPEWRITING AS BRANCHES\nBUSINESS EDUCATION.\nA\n\nPAPEE\n\nBY\n\nISAAC\n\nS. DEMENT,\n\nCHICAGO,\n\nOF\n\nILL.\n\nWe have but to glance into the office of any business concern, whose\ntransactions are of any particular moment, to find one proof that these\nbranches of learning are of value. Not only are they of value, but their\nspecial value lies in the assistance which they furnish the progressive and\nhurried business man.\nThere is, perhaps, no study which so trains the mind to a clear perception and a quick analysis as shorthand. Typewriting, too, cultivates\nthese habits of mind, and the other important ones of a full knowledge of\nour language and its presentation in properly constructed periods and\nparagraphs. Both studies, when properly taught, lead the student to\nhabits of neatness in handwriting and typewriting.\nTo go more into detail. The committing of principles and word signs\nnecessarily leads to meditation ; while the necessity of quickly reducing to\nshorthand the rapid utterances of speakers, the raging conflicts between\n\n"}
{"page": 819, "printed_page": null, "text": "STENOGRAPHY\n\nAND\n\nTYPEWRITING.\n\n799\n\nattorney and witness, the brawls of political caucuses, the vehement utterances of the debater, and the excited arguments of counsel, bring into full\nplay acuteness of hearing, sense of harmony, and knowledge of language.\nThis being true, the progressive student soon sees the necessity of thorough\ntraining of the mind in order to become a proficient writer and the recipient of well-deserved fees.\nTypewriting may require less of intellectual capacity ; yet it requires a\nquickness of perception and deep penetration which are not necessary to\nthe shorthand writer, though of value to him. This is illustrated by the\nendeavor of a man, with muffled utterance and little or no knowledge of\nthe English language, to dictate his business correspondence. If the\noperator be thoroughly competent, it will be his duty and natural desire to\ngrasp the full meaning, and his sense of hearing will be put to the utmost\ntension. In addition to the difficulty of understanding the words will be\nplacing together in proper sentences, accurately punctuated, his ideas ;\nand this must be done quickly, for such a dictator would become irritated\nby what might seem to him unnecessary delay.\nIf I take the other view of the meaning of this topic — that I am to\ntreat the subject as a distinct branch of business — the subject is still further broadened.\nThe field for a fully equipped amanuensis is almost unlimited. There\nis scarcely a branch of business into which he may not go. And the time\nis not far distant when stenographers will become as much specialists as\nphysicians and surgeons now do. When that time arrives one student will\nqualify as an amanuensis in the real estate business, another in the grocery\nbusiness, another in the hardware business, another for law offices, and\nothers still for insurance and other offices. Even now reporters are\nbecoming specialists ; for we have reporters of debates, of medical conferences, of legal trials, and even of funeral services.\nWhy I say that amanuenses will qualify for these distinct lines of business is that now the business man is confronted, when he desires to employ\nan amanuensis, with the knowledge that it will take weeks, and maybe\nmonths, before the new assistant will become so thoroughly versed in his\nbusiness as to perform his functions without delay or error. General conventions, local conventions, meetings of associations, etc., are becoming\nso numerous that they afford constant employment for many reporters.\nThe reporter has been schooled in the idea of doing all kinds of work, but\nthe fact that he may obtain a good clientage in any special line of work\nnecessarily creates in him a desire to settle into that single line of\nreporting.\nIf it be true, then, that these studies are to lead into a necessity for these\ndifferences in training, it is safe also to predict that the department of commercial colleges usually termed Department of Shorthand and Typewriting,\nwhich is now considered subsidiary, will rise into such prominence as to\n\n"}
{"page": 820, "printed_page": null, "text": "800\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\ndemand separate institutions. Many teachers of shorthand are now\nendeavoring to produce this result, and their efforts in the end will be\nsuccessful. This demand, which I have outlined, for a divorce of the\nshorthand department from the business college, will force an acknowledgment of its importance. It is not acknowledged ; it is treated as a\nsub-department. True, its revenues are large ; but it is not given that\nliterary standing which it, in and of itself, by virtue of its mere theory,\ndemands.\nI take the broad stand, therefore, that shorthand writing is a profession,\nrequiring just as much study, research, and practice as any other profession. Unlike most professions, however, remunerative employment awaits\nthe novice, and he may either climb or remain an amanuensis.\n\nTHE\nBY\n\nMES.\n\nWORLD'S\nSARA\n\nNEED\n\nA. SPENCER,\nCOLLEGE,\n\nOF\n\nOF BUSINESS\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF\n\nWASHINGTON,\n\nWOMEN.\n\nSPENCERIAN\n\nBUSINESS\n\nD. C.\n\nLAn Abstract.]\n\nShining landmarks in the world's history, commemorating new civilization, are known as \"The Age of Pericles,\" \"The Renaissance,\" \"The\nCourt of Queen Elizabeth,\" \"The Reformation.\"\nThis period of time and events known over the earth as the Columbian\nQuadricentennial, the Golden Wedding of the Old World and the New,\nwill be better known in history as \" Woman's Era.\" \" Columbus discovered America, but the American Congress has discovered woman,\" said an\nAmerican queen, Mrs. Potter Palmer, at the opening of the World's Congress Auxiliary, October 21, 1892.\nAs the centripetal force of humanity, the essential brooding spirit of\nthis new civilization, the mother heart whence the arteries and veins, and\nthence the nerves, muscles, bones, and sinews of a new life grow, it is\nright, fitting, and inevitable that, in this supreme hour, woman's position,\ndevelopment, purposes, outlook, and general relation to the world at large,\nshould be announced, studied and discussed from every conceivable point\nof view.\nWhat the world needs of her is the special topic of this paper. To\nbegin with, one may safely declare that the world needs more dreadwinners.\nThe right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, implies the right\nto the means whereby to live and to secure liberty and happiness. But in\nwoman's case a gigantic obstacle interposes, and unless we can demonstrate\nthat she is needed in remunerative fields of labor, her own needs will count\nfor little. The serene, superior, boundless confidence man has in his ability\n\n"}
{"page": 821, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE\n\nWORLD'S\n\nNEED\n\nOF BUSINESS\n\nWOMEN\n\n801\n\nto provide for, protect, and fix the place and station of every woman on\nearth, is only equaled by the placid unconcern with which he passes away\nfrom this planet without leaving wife or daughter a dollar in the world,\nor a dollar's worth of earning capacity.\nThe truth is, there is no natural nor logical reason why all men should\nsupport, or claim or undertake to support, all women and children. It\nis too large a contract. It is not a true division of labor, nor wise political economy. Nor is there any just reason why the labor of the world\nshould be divided into paid and unpaid labor, and all the paid labor should\nbe man's work, and all the unpaid woman's work. Women, nowadays,\ngenerally know that they are working hard enough to earn, and far more\nthan earn, their own living, and this under the greatest possible disadvantages. The protection and support theory sounds noble, but it isn't\ntrue. Women have found out that it is largely \" pretty talk,\" good for\ncourting days. President Lincoln is reputed to have said, \"You may\nfool some of the people all of the time, or all of the people some of the\ntime, but you can't fool all of the people all of the time.\" The patriarchal\nsystem is dead.\nPeace to its ashes !\nTJie world needs more brain-workers. No man should wait until he\nis obliged to earn his own living before he sets himself about it. All the\nforces within him should cry out for activity. This is equally true of\nwoman. \"Obliged to earn her own living !\" say you ? Yes, obliged to\nwin and preserve her own self-respect, her natural love of independence,\nto fulfill her share of the grand activities of the grandest age the world has\nknown, to live out her surging, abundant life in congenial work. The\nworld needs her rich young brain, her swift, skillful fingers, her keen, intuitive perception, her tender conscience, her tireless devotion to duty ;\nand to withhold all these from their proper expression not only defrauds\nher of her birthright, and harnesses the eagle to the plow, but it defrauds\nthe world of the wealth locked up in her royal capabilities, and is a lavish\nwaste of God's bounty in human brains.\nThe world needs more home-builders. And here the oft-quoted and\never just and timely criticism of Emily Faithfull, of England, should be\nreaffirmed : \" It is a cruel mockery to tell women who have no home, that\nhome is woman's proper sphere,\" and it is far more cruel to taunt gentle,\ntrue-hearted women, who some way have missed marriage, by telling them\nthat every woman should be a wife and mother.\nThe world needs wiser marriages. The most indignant remonstrance\nagainst business training for women I ever heard was from a popular\nmember of Congress, who said, \" Do you wish to make young women so\nindependent that they will not need to marry ? Your ideas would wreck\nthe world, if people believed in them, which, thank heaven, they do not !\"\nOne would think this gentleman, whose wife really loved him devotedly,\n51\n\n"}
{"page": 822, "printed_page": null, "text": "802\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nand blindly indorsed all his opinions, would have preferred a woman who\nfelt compelled to marry him for a home, or impelled to marry him for\nsocial station.\nThe world needs an intelligent distribution of its wealth. Shall millions of men risk their lives exploring the caverns of the earth and the\ndepths of the air and sea for gold, silver, plumage, pearls, and diamonds,\nonly that a few favored women may be decked in jewels or clad in furs\nand seal skins ?\n\" To paint the lily,\nOr add another hue unto the rainbow,\nIs wasteful and ridiculous excess.\"\n\nThis small fractional portion of womankind, whose splendid array and\ngorgeous coming and going through the earth make them appear to be\ntypical of the sheltered and protected ease and luxury of the entire womanhood of the world, will receive in this paper our late but respectful consideration.\nIt cannot be that womankind has no other interest in the precious\nwealth of the world than to make herself irresistibly attractive to its few\npossessors, and thus to bear off the palm before all others, and to win and\nwear their gold and jewels. Ignoble destiny ! Worthy of the Circassian\nslave or the queen of the seraglio !\nFew women of America bear that relation to the wealth of the world.\nAs a fact, the larger portion of the great fortunes made by men in this\ncountry were made after marriage, and the wives of these men, having\nshared with them the early days of poverty and struggle, know well how\nto sympathize with their toiling sisters, understanding also, too well, that\npoverty may be the least of their misfortunes.\nThe world needs a wiser administration of its charities. If it is still\nlargely true that \" one half of the world does not know how the other\nhalf lives,\" and that, in great cities, the '* submerged tenth \" continue to\npoison the air that all must breathe, it is also true that there is to-day\nbeing done, and wisely done, on this planet more truly benevolent work\nfor the genuine uplifting of humanity, than in all the other ages of\nhuman history taken together. Evils are no longer accepted as inevitable, necessary, and eternal, but as symptoms of a state of humanity susceptible of treatment. The work of redemption is largely in the hands of\nwomen. And it is work, real brain and heart work, of the finest, most\nsubtle and delicate description. If it does, as it does, incidentally, involve the handling of large sums of money, the money is not generally\nused to pay people for becoming and remaining paupers, and thus sinking\nthem deeper in degradation, but for disseminating information, living\ntruths, to lift them to a higher plane, educating their children to useful\nlabor, and thus permanently improving their condition; offering \"not\nalms, but a friend and a helping hand.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 823, "printed_page": null, "text": "BENEFITS\n\nOF BUSINESS EDUCATION.\n\n803\n\nThe exhibits of the work of women in all departments of this Columbian\nExposition indicate that the women of all the world are now in kindly\ncompetition with each other in the development of special talent, inherited\ngenius, and acquired skill in invention, construction and production, to\nmeet every phase of human need. And everywhere the truly womanly\nand motherly spirit is manifest, from the kitchen knife that will do execution and not cut the fingers, to the humane cattle car3, and improvements\nin the life-saving service ; from the tender training of infants, to skillful\nmethods of alleviating the horrors of war, and securing safety in public\ntravel.\nEverywhere her work symbolizes the strength, symmetry, grace, and\nbeauty of the usefully trained, nobly developed daughters of this new age,\nthis memorable Woman's Era.\n\nRECIPROCAL RELATIONS AND BENEFITS OF BUSINESS\nAND OTHER DEPARTMENTS OF EDUCATION.\nABSTRACT\n\nOF\n\nA\n\nPAPER\n\nBY\n\nDR.\n\nIRA\n\nMAYHEW,\n\nDETROIT,\n\nMICH.\n\nUnder the prevailing systems of education in this country, up to the\nmiddle of the present century, bookkeeping was not taught in any grade\nof our public schools. It was not required preparatory to admission to\ncollege, neither was it embraced in the curricula of these institutions, nor\ntaught in any of our professional schools. Under such a system of education an enterprising and successful merchant might send his sons through\ncollege, and then through schools of law, medicine, or divinity, without\ntheir having an opportunity to master the principles of accounts. Under\nsuch circumstances, in case of the disability of the father, none of his\nso-called liberally educated sons would be able to carry on or close up\nhis business, or properly to comprehend its condition from an examination\nof his books of account. Surely such a system of education, whatever\nexcellences it may possess, is manifestly radically defective.\nAbout the middle of the century a number of persons, embracing both\neducators and business men, realizing the situation, undertook to remedy\nthe difficulty: some of them, by the preparation of books teaching the\nscience adapted to use in schools, and by opening what were known as\ninitiatory counting rooms, mercantile institutes, and the like, for preparing young men as accountants ; others of them, without the use of textbooks on the subject, taught from manuscript sets, giving especial attention to penmanship, including ornamental work and flourishing. Many\nof these earlier enterprises were conducted by persons of limited general\neducation, who severely criticised established schools for their disregard of\nbookkeeping; and these schools, in turn, criticised this new departure in\n\n"}
{"page": 824, "printed_page": null, "text": "804\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\neducation, conducted by illiterate men (as they claimed), but which, by\nits attractive features, drew largely upon the patronage of old and established schools. These new schools, it was further claimed by their critics,\nwere superficial in their teaching, and on the whole injurious to the cause\nof sound learning.\nBut this era of unfriendly criticism, it is believed, has now become a thing\nof the past, and both literary schools and business colleges better understand and appreciate each other's work. Many of the business colleges,\nat first, were open to criticism, and profited by it ; and the same is true of\nliterary schools. In like manner business colleges, while improving in\ntheir business methods, are gaining in their literary standing.\nThere are various ways in which strictly literary institutions and purely\nbusiness schools mutually benefit each other, and render valuable service\nto one another's students. Cases have come under the writer's personal\nobservation where young men who have not had awakened in them an\ninterest in the studies of the literary school, have fallen behind their\nclasses, have failed to receive promotion, and have finally, under advice,\nleft school. Later, these same persons have entered a judiciously conducted business college, become interested in its range of work and methods\nof study, completed its course with credit, and become successful in\nbusiness, and having thus learned how to study, have taken up literary\nwork in connection with business and achieved success in both. In such\ncases the business school is surely a godsend to the young man it develops\nand saves from becoming a drone in the community.\nThe wrriter has also known of other cases where literary students have held\ntheir positions in their classes until graduation at college, without becoming\nspecially interested in any of their studies, or seeing how these studies could\naid them in preparing for or obtaining a position in business. They\nrealized that they were not qualified to engage in teaching. They had\nneither taste, time, nor means for studying a profession. Their education\nhad not fitted them for business. They were prepared for no work but\nwhat an average school-boy could do quite as well'as they. A few months'\nstudy in a good business school would have better fitted them for business,\nor put them in better condition for obtaining a situation in which they\ncould earn a comfortable support, than the years of unproductive study\nthey had engaged in.\nWe have seen how the remarkable growth of our country has rendered\na correspondingly broad business culture a necessity, and how the business\nschool, which has done much towards creating this demand, has also contributed largely toward meeting it. No matter how ample one's literary\nattainments may be, these alone will not fit him for the practice of medicine or the law. Special training is necessary for the successful practice\nof these professions. The more general culture one has before entering\nupon either of them, the better his opportunity for achieving success in it.\n\n"}
{"page": 825, "printed_page": null, "text": "A BUSINESS\n\nMAN'S\n\nEDUCATION.\n\n805\n\nThe same is equally true of business. Men who engage in it without due\npreparation rarely attain success, and in most cases utterly fail. On the\nother hand, the better the preparation, the deeper and broader the foundation laid, the surer the prospect of attaining success. Occasionally some\ngenius may achieve remarkable results without seeming preparation.\nBut this is the exception, not the rule. The business college bears the\nsame relation to business life that the law school and medical College do\nto professional life. In all cases alike, the more general culture one possesses, the better the prospect of success in his specialty.\nShould business schools simply make good bookkeepers, they would be\nof great benefit in a commercial nation like ours. But the ideal college\nnot only does this, but it so cultivates the judgment and develops the\njudicial powers that its students take a firmer grasp of the great problems\nof life, gain far-reaching conceptions of cause and effect, and entertain\nhigher aims and know better how to realize them. They cannot fail thus\nto prove of incalculable benefit to the country.\nWhat has been said of the need of supplementing the work of literary\nschools with a course of business study, applies equally to scientific and\nprofessional schools, and to complex pursuits where several branches of\narts, manufactures or trades are carried on, and where purchases for use\nin one branch are paid for in sales from another. In all such cases it is\nnecessary to know not only how to operate each branch of business carried\non, but to be able to keep accounts so as to show the cost and returns of\neach branch of business conducted ; otherwise, although the net result of\nthe whole may be determined, while there has been great gain in some and\nloss in others, still the particular sources of gain and loss may not be\nknown. Only a good knowledge and the careful practice of bookkeeping\ncan in such cases bring to light the facts required to be known, in order\nto so change the management of the business as to increase the gains and\nreduce the losses, and thus place the business as a whole upon a better\nfooting.\n\nA B TJSINESS MAN'S\nBY DE.\n\nJAMES\n\nED UCA TION—CONCL\n\nMACALISTER,\nPRESIDENT\nPHILADELPHIA.\n\nUDINO\n\nDREXEL\n\nADDRESS.\n\nINSTITUTE,\n\nI have no right to speak on business education, first, because I am not and never have\nbeen a business man ; and, secondly, I have never studied or taught business as a branch\nof education. I have thought a great deal about it and have a very profound interest in\nit. Just as I came in I heard a remark dropped about giving women a business education. Well, that is a matter that I have had occasion to look at in a very practical way.\nI think that is one of the great needs of our society at the present time. I believe that\nas a general thing women know very little about business. I do not know that they are\naltogether to blame.\nThere are a great many families, probably some in Chicago, where\n\n"}
{"page": 826, "printed_page": null, "text": "806\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nthe wife knows nothing of her husband's resources or the future of her family, so far as\nbusiness is concerned.\nOne of the rich men of the East, who was a partner in one of the largest banking\nhouses in America, died a few years ago, leaving millions of dollars to his three daughters. These three young women thus became the richest unmarried girls in America.\nThis man was a banker, and he trained those girls in business. He did not choose to\nleave the money to a trust company. He left three men, one of them his brother, a\npartner, another a dear friend, to assist them. He had trained these daughters in\nfinance, he had trained them in business, and to-day one of them, whom I know intimately, has as clear a head about the management of her millions as any man who is\nstruggling along with a business of fifty thousand dollars. Her wealth does not grow\nless. I merely mention this to show that there is a good deal in business education, and I\nhave always thought it an indictment almost of the elementary public school that arithmetic, which forms so large a portion of the course of instruction, is of so unpractical\na character that it is possible for a girl or a boy to spend eight or nine years in the elementary school, and leave it with perhaps a very accurate knowledge of all kinds of\nfractions, and know very little indeed about the real affairs of life, so far as they relate\nto business.\nAnd so the matter of professional education becomes of importance ; and I take\nit, sir, that this is the chief purpose of this Congress — the discussion of professional\neducation. Now, I cannot say too much on that. It is one of the great needs of this\ncountry. With our enormous wealth and unrivaled resources, and our opportunities for\nbusiness, and for each man rising in the business world, unequaled anywhere else, or\nin any period of the world's history, yet less provision has been made for professional\neducation than any other. In France and in Germany it is a matter of government\nduty. The government thinks it just as much its duty to provide professional colleges\nin business as it does in technology, in art, and in science, and so you will find in Paris\ngreat magnificent schools in one of the finest social centers, and with the tricolor of\nthe republic over the great gables; that is the great college for training merchants of\nthe highest order, just as the state trains lawyers, and physicians, and soldiers, and\nsailors, and scientists, and scholars. The course of study there is most elaborate. They\nthink there, as we all think, that the business man should have a broad, general character. Idon't know of any who need it more than the business man does. There is no\nreason at all why a business man should not be an educated gentleman.\nI take it that a general, broad education is more important to a business man than to\na lawyer, because the lawyer's is a very specialized profession; the business man has the\nbroadest outlook and covers a larger field than any man in the activities of the world.\nGuibert the great historian said, \" The merchant is the friend of man,\" and that is true.\nThere is no man who does more for the progress and the elevation of humanity than the\ngreat industrialist. The ultimate end of all education, of all human education, primary,\nsecondary, and higher, is to put man in true relation to his entire environment, the\nenvironment of nature, the great world and universe all around him, to his social environment, to all the duties and obligations thac relate men to each other, and I would say,\nalso, to his economic and commercial environment.\nOne-half of the millions spent on taxes in this country is wasted, because of the\nmanner in which education is administered. In high schools here and there they have\na business course, but it is not a professional education. It serves a good purpose, and\nthe more girls you can get to take it, the better, but it is not professional. This country\ndoes nothing for professional education in business, and so it has been left to private\nenterprises, and we owe a great debt of gratitude to the enterprising men who have\ndevoted their lives to that work, and I do not think with altogether an interested\nmotive.\nTo-day I believe we are suffering from the want of an adequate knowledge of\n\n"}
{"page": 827, "printed_page": null, "text": "A BUSINESS\n\nMAN'S\n\nEDUCATION.\n\n807\n\nthe science of business in this country. There is not any legislature in the world where\nyou will find such an absolute ignorance of finance as in|the American Congress. I do not\nlook with any faith to the approaching session of Congress, because they do not know\nhow to settle the great questions that are of the most serious importance to the people\nat this moment. When we go back to the Revolution and try to name the one great\nman, and name next to him the great statesman of that epoch, with one mind all turn\nto Alexander Hamilton, who laid the financial basis of this nation. So when we go to\nEuropean countries, we find that the great statesmen are the men who are best fitted\nto deal with financial and business problems. The greatest statesman of the Englishspeaking world, perhaps the greatest it has ever had, is William E. Gladstone, and he\nwon his spurs, as did all the prime ministers of England, by dealing with financial questions, and so it is in all the other countries of Europe. And it would be a most important\nand valuable result to our society, if these professional business colleges could educate\nmen who go into our business affairs, who control the wealth which is ultimately the\npower of the nation.\nThe bar has not all the great men now, and I don't think the pulpit has. The medical\nprofession is beginning to attract a great many able men. It is not true of the professions now as it was half a century ago, because a large amount of the intellect and the\nreal power of the country has gone into business. I have had personal relations with a\ngreat banker, and I don't know of any man who earned his money as hard as he did. I\ndon't know any man who needs more intellectual power and resource, and who works\nharder and who has graver responsibilities, than the man who takes care of our money;\nand so I think we should gain enormously if we could make it a rule that the door to\nbusiness, as well as to the old and the new professions, should be through the professional business school. I hope I shall not be considered importunate if I express the\nhope that these professional schools would widen their training. As private enterprises,\nof course, they are dependent upon public support, but as I learn from my friend, and as\nI hear from others engaged in the business, there is an organized desire on their part\nthat the curriculum in the business college shall be widened. How can any man hope\nto be a successful business man who does not understand the great economic laws of the\nworld ? I do believe that a great many miscarry in business simply because of total\nignorance of the fundamental principles of economics, that it does not require a very\nlarge amount of serious study to master. I hope the time will come when the alphabet\nand the economics wiil be taught in the elementary school ; but for business it seems to\nme that this ought to be included in the curriculum. And then there is the noble science\nof Commercial Geography — really a broad science, full of meat and full of learning, and\none that would not only widen the whole outlook of the business man, but would give\nhim a practical knowledge that would be of great value to him, if you choose, in an\ninteresting sense. And then there are the great ethical considerations that ought to\nenter into business education. Ethical training is an absolute training for every human\nbeing, but at the same time it ought to enter into the professional training.\nIt has been a very great satisfaction to me to find that your work has received recognition bythe National Educational Association, and that you now, like the other departments of education, have yours, and in that way your work has been dignified, because\nof its recognition, and it deserves it.\n\n"}
{"page": 828, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 829, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\nOF\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nJOURNALISM.\n\nSECEETAET'S\nFIRST\n\nEEPOET.\n\nSESSION.— Wednesday, July 26, 1893.\n\nIn the absence of Hon. Henry Barnard, chairman of this department, Hon. Henry\nSabin, of Des Moines, Iowa, was called to the chair.\nPrincipal C. C. Rounds, of the State Normal School, Plymouth, N. H., delivered an\naddress on \" Present Ideals in Educational Journalism.\"\nA paper by Sefior Ramon Monterola, editor of the Boletin Bibliografico y Escolar,\nMexico, was read by Mr. Will S. Monroe, of Leland Stanford Jr. University.\nMr. Amos M. Kellogg, editor of the School Journal and Teachers' Institute, New\nYork City, followed with a paper on \" The Purpose and Reward of Educational Journals.\" A free discussion ensued, in which many members of the department participated.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.—\n\nFriday, July 28, 1893.\n\nThe second meeting was made especially interesting by the presence of Hon. Henry\nBarnard, the oldest educational editor living, now in his eighty-third year. He spoke\nwith the vigor and energy of a young man. He recommended that immediate steps\nbe taken to provide for keeping in this country the entire educational exhibit at Jackson Park.\nA committee was appointed, consisting of himself, Dr. MacAlister, of Drexel Institute, and C. W. Bardeen, of Syracuse, to devise a plan for this and report at the general\nmeeting in the evening.\nM. Compayre, the distinguished French author, read a history of educational journalism inFrance in the French language. Dr. MacAlister paid a graceful tribute to the\ngreat work France is doing in education. Principal Rounds said that no student was\nallowed to graduate from the New Hampshire State Normal School without enough\nknowledge of French to read French pedagogical literature in the original.\nPapers were presented giving the history of school journals in different parts of\nAmerica, and in Germany, Austria, Italy, Mexico, and India.\n\n"}
{"page": 830, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATIONAL\nPRESENT\nABSTKACT\n\nIDEALS\n\nOF THE\n\nADDRESS\nNORMAL\n\nJOURNALISM.\n\nIN EDUCATIONAL\n\nJOURNALISM.\n\nBY C. C. BOUNDS, PRINCIPAL\nSCHOOL, PLYMOUTH, N. H.\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSTATE\n\nThe forms assumed by the educational journals of the United States are\nso manifold that it is difficult to discover 'Clearly in them any one ideal\ntoward the realization of which they are tending. There is less difficulty in\ndiscerning the slowly forming ideal of American education, and one may\nsurely foresee the character of the journal which in the future is to voice\nthe aspirations of this education. The leading characteristics of this ideal,\nthe realization of which is, with more or less definiteness, the aim of the\nbest educational journalism of the present, it is the purpose of this paper\nto present.\nThe educational journal must be a journal of civilization. Along the\nmain lines of culture represented in school work, it must keep its readers\nwell informed. Without claiming to be a journal of literature, of scieuce\nor of art, it must speak with authority as to what is best in literature, as to\nwhat are the most important discoveries and advances in science, as to\nwhat is truest and most uplifting in art.\nBut it must be especially & professional journal in the broadest sense.\nIt must have a belief and a purpose, not merely reflect the changing phases\nof educational thought. It must be a journal of the philosophy of education, and of methods as founded' upon this philosophy ; a journal of independent and of broadly philosophical discussion of movements in all lines\nof culture.\nThe interests of education demand that the sympathy of all cultivated\npeople be enlisted in its behalf ; that appeal be made not to teachers alone,\nbut also to that larger class outside the profession who are interested\nin the progress and the methods of culture along many lines. Hence the\neducational journal of the future will deal more and more with the points\nof contact of the work of the school with the work of the world and with\nall human interests.\nThe civilized world is rapidly becoming one in purpose and in aspiration. Scientific journals, and the journals of all the other professions,\nrepresent this spirit by reporting the advances made in other lands and\nembodied in other speech than ours. In the school-house of city and\ncountry alike, we are educating citizens of the world.\nThe American\n\n"}
{"page": 831, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATIONAL\n\nJOURNALISM\n\nIN NEW\n\nENGLAND.\n\n811\n\njournal of education must be cosmopolitan. It must represent critically,\nfairly, discriminatingly, the best educational thought of those nations\nwhich are moving together in the progress of the race.\nThe educational journal must be comprehensive. The time may come\nwhen all teachers at the beginning of their work will possess such a Avide\nrange of general and professional culture that the journal devoted to their\nspecial grade and work will suffice for them ; but that time is not yet.\nThe American teacher needs a wider intellectual horizon, and the special\njournal, if this be his only one, may do as much harm as good. The journal of devices, the journal of primary teaching alone, will make a teacher\nwho knows only devices ; one whose thought is limited to the child that\nnow is, and does not reach forward to the youth that is to be.\nThe ideal educational journal must be edited. A free parliament is\nwell, but it must be kept in its place. The editorial force must\" decide as\nto what is needed, and call for it. This journal will have no place for\ngossip, but will gather discriminatingly from home and foreign fields\nthe news which from day to day makes the current history of educational\nprogress.\nNothing has been named which is not within the recognized scope of\nthe journalism of to-day ; nothing less will place the educational journal\nin line with other professional journalism of authority. A larger support\nwill come from appeal to wider sympathies and interests, from making the\neducational journal a necessity to all cultivated people. Such a journal\nwill hold up the hands of teachers and guide their work in truer lines.\nToward the realization of such an ideal, American educational journals\nof the better class, in many ways, with more or less comprehensiveness of\nscope, with more or less clearness of vision, are now tending. May the\nprogress be hastened !\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nJOURNALISM\n\nIN NEW\n\nBY\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nW.\n\nA.\n\nMOWRT,\n\nENGLAND.\n\nSCHOOLS, SALEM, MASS.\n\nIt has been by many supposed that the first educational periodical in\nthe country was the American Journal of Education, published in Boston in 1826. This, however, is a mistake. On February 7, 1818, was\npublished in New York the first number of the first volume of a periodical for teachers, entitled The Academician. Albert and John \"W. Picket\nwere the editors and publishers till it was discontinued on January 29,\n1820.\nThe work contained a series of articles, critical and discriminating, upon\nthe entire subject of grammar, English and general ; another series on\nthe teaching of mathematics ; articles on the Lancasterian system of edu-\n\n"}
{"page": 832, "printed_page": null, "text": "812\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\ncation ; an importaut series of articles on Pestalozzi's method of teaching\nreligious and moral principles to children ; a comparison between Pestalozzi, Bell, atid Lancaster, and their methods ; accounts of various institutions of learning, such as Fellenburgh's School, the Virginia University,\nthe Hartford Deaf and Dumb Institution, the New York Institution for\nDeaf and Dumb, William College, Columbia College, Union College, University of North Carolina, Fayetteville Academy, and other institutions.\nThe quotations from Pestalozzi are extended and valuable. The department of philology is written from a high point, philosophically and philologically. The whole work from beginning to end is of high character,\nand would be of great service to any reader of the present day.\nI have mentioned this Academician and given the above brief account\nof it for the purpose of correcting the too common error into which many\nhave fallen, by supposing that the American Journal of .Education was\nthe first publication of this kind in the country.\nTHE \"AMERICAN\n\nJOURNAL OF EDUCATION \" AND\n\"THE\nCOMMON\nSCHOOL\nJOURNAL.\"\n\nMASSACHUSETTS\n\nThe publication of this monthly periodical was begun in January, 1826.\nDr. Henry Barnard is authority for the statement that the Journal was\nedited by William Russell, W. C. Woodbridge, and William A. Alcott.\nMr. Eussell retired from the editorship in January, 1829. The Journal\nthen became bi-monthly. Two months later its name was changed to\nAmerican Annals of Education and Instruction, a Journal for Literary\nInstitutions. During this time its principal editor was William C. Woodbridge. Soon after his retirement, at the close of the volume of 1837,\nDr. Alcott, who had assisted him, also withdrew, and M. G. Hubbard\nbecame the editor. A fatal mistake was made by the new editor. He\nturned the magazine away from its former broad design, and made it the\nadvocate of high schools, academies, and colleges.\nHorace Mann, who had meanwhile become secretary of the Massachusetts\nState Board of Education, looked with regret upon the change in the\nmagazine, and in November, 1838, issued the first number of the Common\nSchool Journal. He continued to edit this periodical for ten years. The\nlast number published under his care was that of December 18, 1848. He\nwas succeeded by William B. Fowle, an earnest advocate of reform in\neducational matters at that day, who remained its editor until it was discontinued with the volume for 1852.\nThese two periodicals, The American Journal of Education, later called\nthe American Annals of Education and Instruction, covering the period\nfrom 1826 to 1838, and the Common School Journal from 1838 to 1852,\nexercised a great influence upon the educational thought of America.\nTheir subscription lists were never large, but they were read by the\nleading educators in all parts of the country.\n\n"}
{"page": 833, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATIONAL\n\n\"THE\n\nJOURNALISM\n\nIN NEW\n\nENGLAND.\n\nMASSACHUSETTS\n\nTEACHER.\"\n\n813\n\nThe Massachusetts Teachers' Association at its second annual meeting, in\nNovember, 1846, decided to establish a teachers' journal. This led to the\npublication of The Massachusetts Teacher. Its first number appeared in\nJanuary, 1848. The first editorial board consisted of Samuel W. Bates,\nof Boston ; George B. Emerson, of Boston ; Oliver Carlton, of Salem ;\nCharles Northeud, of Salem ; Ariel Parish, of Springfield ; C. S. Pannell,\nof Charlestown ; John D. Philbrick, of Boston ; Thomas Sherwin, of\nBoston ; P. H. Sweetser, of Charlestown ; Gideon F. Thayer, of Boston ;\nBenjamin F. Tweed, of Charlestown ; and William H. Wells, of Andover.\nOf these distinguished educators only Mr. Northend and Mr. Tweed are\nbelieved to be now living. The Teacher continued to be published\nunder the auspices of the Teachers' Associations for twenty-seven years.\nA board of twelve editors was appointed annually by the Association, each\nperson editing one number. During most of these years, in addition to\nthe twelve editors there was also a resident editor.\n\n\"JOURNAL\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nRHODE\n\nISLAND\n\nINSTITUTE\n\nOF\n\nINSTRUCTION.\n\nIn 1845, the friends of education in Bhode Island, teachers, lawyers,\nclergymen, and business men, organized what has practically ever since\nbeen a State Teachers' Association. The name adopted, patterning after\nthe name of the parent society, the American Institute of Instruction\n(organized 1830), whose constitution, in large measure, it adopted, was\nthe Ehode Island Institute of Instruction. This Institute at once undertook through Dr. Henry Barnard the establishment of a periodical devoted\nto the interests of education, the first number of which appeared November\n15, 1845. Its name was The Journal of the Rhode Island Institute of\nInstruction. The editorial department was under the care of the Hon.\nHenry Barnard, Commissioner of Public Schools. The first volume of\nthis journal was completed in June, 1846, and consisted of fourteen\nnumbers, embodied in 255 pages, to which were added thirteen numbers\nof extras, comprising 215 pages, and educational tracts of 141 pages,\nmaking in all 611 pages — a pretty formidable volume for the low price of\nfifty cents. Volumes two and three were still larger. The publication was\nthen interrupted by Mr. Barnard's withdrawal from Rhode Island, having\nbeen appointed superintendent of the public schools of Connecticut.\nThe services of Mr. Barnard as school commissioner of Rhode Island\nfrom 1843 to 1849 was of the most vigorous character and of the greatest\nvalue. He was earnest, devoted, efficient, and a radical reformer. This\nJournal, like the Common School Journal to Horace Mann, was \"his\nright arm\" for both defensive and offensive efforts.\n\n"}
{"page": 834, "printed_page": null, "text": "814\n\nRHODE\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nISLAND\n\n\"EDUCATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nMAGAZINE.\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nAND\n\n\"SCHOOLMASTER.\n\nMr. Barnard was succeeded by Hon. Elisha R. Potter as school commis ioner ofthe State, who published, in 1852, a periodical with the above\ntitle. It was supported principally by the private contributions of gentlemen interested in advancing the cause to which it was devoted, and it was\nsent gratuitously to the chairmen and clerks of school committees and to\nthe clerk of every school district.\nAt a meeting of the Rhode Island Institute, held in Providence, January 27, 1855, a vote was given in favor of the establishment of an\neducational journal. In response the Rhode Island Schoolmaster was\nissued. Its first number appeared in March, 1845. Mr. Allyn edited the\nmagazine, assuming the entire financial risk of its publication, until he left\nthe State in September, 1857. Mr. William A. Mowry then purchased it\nfrom him, and edited and published it until January, 1860. At this time\nit had become a vigorous and successful periodical, with a respectable list\nof subscribers, and was upon a paying basis. Mr. Mowry now turned it\nover to the Rhode Island Institute. A board of twelve editors was\nappointed, as follows : Henry R. Pierce, of Woonsocket ; N. W. DeMunn,\nof Providence ; Thomas Davis, of Pawtucket ; A. J. Foster, of Westerly ;\nAmos Perry, A. W. Godding, William A. Mowry, John J. Ladd, of\nProvidence ; Isaac F. Cady, of Warren ; N. B. Cooke, of Bristol ; Francis\nB. Snow, Albert J. Manchester, of Providence. The following writers\nbecame special contributors to its pages : Hon. J. B. Chapin, Commissioner of Public Schools ; Rev. Daniel Leach, Superintendent of Schools,\nProvidence ; Rev. Micah J. Talbert, of East Greenwich ; Albert A. Gamwell, of Providence ; Profs. Samuel S. Greene and Robinson P. Dunn, of\nBrown University ; and Rev. Robert Allyn, of Ohio.\nIn January, 1862, a new departure was made by appointing a long list\nof contributing editors, and assigning to each editor a particular subject.\nThese subjects included the following : Political education, literature,\nnatural science, didactics, questions for examination, grammar and rhetoric, reading and writing, moral culture, geology and botany, school discipline, physical education and physiology, history, languages, geography,\nmathematics.\nThe same arrangement was continued for several years.\nThe number for March, 1869, gave notice that \" The present number\nof the Rhode Island Schoolmaster is the last — at least for the present.\"\nThe difficulty seemed to be that no proper arrangement could be made for\nediting it. In October of that year its publication was revived by Hon.\nThomas W. Bicknell, who had been appointed commissioner of public\nschools for the State. Mr. Bicknell assumed the entire control financially,\nand for the next two years it was edited by T. B. Stockwell and T. W.\nBicknell.\nThe volumes for 1872, 1873 and 1874 were under the exclusive control\n\n"}
{"page": 835, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATIONAL\n\nJOURNALISM\n\nIN NEW\n\nENGLAND.\n\n815\n\nof Mr. Bicknell. It still continued to be the organ of the Rhode Island\nInstitute of Instruction, and this body annually appointed a board of\ncontributing editors as heretofore. The December number for 1874 completed twenty years of its publication. At that time it was merged with\nthe other teachers' journals of New England in the New England Journal\nof Education, which will be considered later.\nThe Massachusetts Teacher and the Rhode Island Schoolmaster stand\nout conspicuously among the journals of the New England States. They\ndid not furnish the strong, meat which had characterized the American\nJournal of Education or the Common School Journal, but they had\nappealed to the teachers of the common schools, had created among them\na laudable ambition for improvement, had suggested better methods of\ninstruction, better ideals of education, and established a higher type of\nschool management and discipline. They did yeoman's service in their\nrespective States in the cause of public education. They now give way\nto a better plan in the union of forces upon one journal, and that to be\nissued weekly and to cover the ground for all New England.\n\"THE\n\nCONNECTICUT\n\nCOMMON\n\nSCHOOL\n\nJOURNAL.\"\n\nHon. Henry Barnard was Secretary of the Board of School Commissioners in Connecticut from 1838 to 1842. On entering upon the duties\nof his office, he at once saw the necessity of having a medium of communication upon school matters between him and the people. He, therefore,\nat once established a monthly periodical, styled The Connecticut Common\nSchool Journal, which he published, edited and owned, during these four\nyears. It was chiefly intended to contain the school laws of the State and\nall such information concerning educational matters as the school officers\nand teachers should need.\nWhen Mr. Barnard removed to Rhode Island to become the school commissioner for that State, this periodical ceased. On his return to Connecticut as superintendent of the schools of the State in 1850, he reestablished the Journal and conducted it as before until 1854. At that time it\nwas turned over to the Connecticut State Teachers' Association, which\nappointed an editorial committee in 1853.\nThe first board of editors under this new arrangement consisted of\nHon. Henry Barnard, Hartford ; Prof. John Brocklesby, Trinity College,\nHartford ; T. W. T. Curtiss, Principal of the High School, Hartford ;\nDavid N. Camp, State Normal School, New Britain ; Rev. E. B. Huntington, ofthe High School, Waterbury ; Prof. John Johnston, Wesleyan\nUniversity, Middletown ; F. B. Perkins, Hartford ; E. A. Lawrence, of\nthe High School, Stamford ; Prof. T. A. Thacher, Yale College, New\nHaven ; and John D. Philbrick, Principal Normal School, New Britain.\nThis board of editors was changed more or less from year to year. John\nD. Philbrick was the first resident editor of this monthly publication.\n\n"}
{"page": 836, "printed_page": null, "text": "816\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nAfter several years Charles Northend became the editor, and later David\nN. Camp. The Journal was fairly well sustained by the teachers of the\nState, though never a source of profit to the Association. Frequent\ndeficiencies in the funds for its publication were made up by contributions\nfrom leading teachers of the State. It proved to be an important aid\nto the State Department of Education as well as to the local school officers\nand public-school teachers. For several of the later years of its publication a small appropriation was made by the State, in return for which the\nJournal was sent to the school visitors of every town. This Journal, with\nothers, was merged in the JVew England Journal of Education, January 1,\n1875.\nbarnakd's \"American\n\njournal of education.\"\n\nDr. Barnard's experience with the Connecticut Common School Journal,\nbetween 1838 and 1842, convinced him that a monthly or quarterly magazine devoted exclusively to the history, statistics and discussion of systems,\ninstitutions and methods of education in different countries, but with\nspecial reference to the condition and needs of our American system of\neducation, was highly desirable. During many years he collected a large\namount of material, some of which he published in separate pamphlets.\nHe endeavored at one time to enlist the aid of the American Institute of\nInstruction, but it had no money to devote to such a purpose. He made\nvarious efforts to secure the co-operation of the Smithsonian Institution but\nwithout success. He presented the subject to the American Association\nfor the Advancement of Science, but that organization felt it necessary to\nconfine its work to the more restrictive department of scientific investigation. Finally he determined to undertake the publication upon his own\nresponsibility, of such a magazine which should prove a complete library\nof education.\nAt about this time he discovered that Rev. Absalom Peters, D.D., had\nin mind the project of publishing a periodical to be called the American\nCollege Review and Educational Magazine. Dr. Barnard joined forces\nwith Dr. Peters, and they together as co-editors began the publication of\nThe American Journal of Education and College Review. The first\nnumber was published in August, 1855. This number contained principally papers read at the meeting of the American Association for the\nAdvancement of Education, which had been held in the city of Washington the previous December. The second number did not appear until January, 1856.\nAfter the publication of these two numbers it became evident that the\ntwo editors had such widely divergent views as to what a periodical of this\nhigh character should he, that it was clearly desirable that they should\ndevide their work. Dr. Peters, therefore, withdrew from the publication,\nand Dr. Barnard assumed entire charge of the work and continued it on\n\n"}
{"page": 837, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATIONAL\n\nJOURNALISM\n\nIN NEW\n\nENGLAND.\n\n817\n\nits original plan. The third number, therefore, was published in March,\n1856, under the title of The American Journal of Education.\nThe new journal was fairly launched. The fourth number was issued\nin May, and the first volume was completed by a variety of supplementary papers, making in all a volume of 776 pages.\nThe second volume contained three numbers, regularly published in\nAugust, September and December, 1856 ; and the third volume two numbers, the first in March, 1857, the next number in June of that year. The\nfourth volume was a great improvement upon its predecessors in breadth\nand scope of its contents. The work was now thoroughly established, and\nreceived from every quarter the highest encomiums for its wide scope,\nand philosophical character. Its numbers were so large, with such a\nvariety and quantity of material, that they could not be published with\nabsolute regularity of time. The arrangement was not always the best.\nIn the main it has been a quarterly. The work has extended to between\nthirty and forty volumes, each containing from six hundred to eight\nhundred octavo pages of important matter embracing all the departments of educational work.\nDr. Barnard's services as editor of this famous quarterly have given him\na world-wide reputation as one of the most distinguished educators of\nthis century. The journal as a whole is a great encyclopaedia of knowledge,\nof facts, of principles, of philosophy, upon all departments of education ;\nand its strength and solidity have won, both for it and its editor, the\nhighest testimonial from the best educators of many lands. It is without\na peer in the breadth of its discussion of systems, institutions, public\nschools, private schools, technical and special schools, and the history,\nbiography and philosophy of educational matters. It has been throughout its whole history edited by Dr. Barnard and published in Hartford,\nConnecticut, but it is thoroughly national in its character and perhaps as\nhighly appreciated in Europe as in this country.\n\"THE\n\nMAINE\n\nTEACHER.\"\n\nBetween the years 1849 and 1858 there were several attempts in the\nState of Maine to establish a periodical for the schools. The first of which\nI have any knowledge was in the former year, and was entitled The\nScholar's Leaf. Later was another effort called The Common School\nAdvocate. The first of these was principally for the pupils in the schools,\nthe second was designed rather for the teachers. The life of each was\nbrief, and needs, perhaps, no further consideration here.\nIn 1858 appeared the first number of The Maine Teacher, a monthly\nperiodical. It was established by Mark H. Dunnell, the State Superintendent ofSchools. Two years later, when Mr. E. P. Weston became the\nState School Superintendent, it was continued under his care, but was\nsuspended in 1864. It was revived the next year under the name of The\n52\n\n"}
{"page": 838, "printed_page": null, "text": "818\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nMaine Journal, by Mr. George M. Gage of the Western Normal School.\nFrom this time it was conducted with much vigor, and among its contributors were Key. Jacob Abbott of Farmington ; Hon. E. P. Weston, State\nSuperintendent of Schools ; Dr. A. P. Stone of Portland, and many of\nthe leading teachers of the State. For three years it was published by a\nMr. Swift.\nIn 1868 Mr. Brown Thurston became its publisher, and it was issued\nIrom Portland. In January, 18G9, its name was changed to The Maine\nJournal of Education. Mr. Thurston remained as publisher and proprietor, and Dr. A. P. Stone became its principal editor, assisted by twelve\nmonthly editors, comprising the several principals of the normal schools\nof that State, some of the county supervisors, and several of the more\nprominent teachers.\nIn 1873 and 1874 its editor was Mr. Albro E. Chase, of the Portland\nHigh School. At the beginning of the volume for 1875 it was absorbed\nby the New England Journal of Education, published in Boston. This\nMaine journal differed in its character and make-up materially from year\nto year. Neither its ability nor its success was uniform. It could succeed\nin doing much good to the State educationally, but it never could succeed\nfinancially, farther than pay the necessary bills for its publication.\n\"THE\n\nNEW\n\nHAMPSHIRE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nJOURNAL/'\n\nThe movement in New Hampshire for a State educational journal began\nin January, 1857. The pioneer in this work for that State was Eev.\nWilliam L. Gage, who had just returned from an extended residence in\nGermany, and his whole soul was aroused in the interest of educational\naffairs in this country. He established The New Hampshire School\nJournal, and at first was its sole editor, publisher, and proprietor. Like\nthe other State journals of its lime, it was in the form of a monthly\npamphlet of thirty-two pages, and was published at one dollar a year.\nIn 1858 Mr. Gage turned over the subscription list and good-will of the\npaper to the New Hampshire Teachers' Association, and Mr. Henry E.\nSawyer, then of Concord, became its editor, by appointment of the Association, with an associate board of twelve assistants. Mr. Sawyer edited the.\nJournal with ability for about three years, when he was succeeded by\nMr. Jonathan Tenney. The subscription list, however, was never large\nenough to make the investment a paying business, and its publication\nceased in 1863.\n\"THE\n\nVERMONT\n\nSCHOOL\n\nJOURNAL.\"\n\nThe first effort in Vermont for a school periodical was made in May,\n1847, when Messrs. Bishop and Tracey, of Windsor, began the publication of The School Journal and Vermont Agriculturist.\nThis was a\n\n"}
{"page": 839, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATIONAL\n\nJOURNALISM\n\nIN NEW\n\nENGLAND.\n\n819\n\npamphlet of sixteen pages, one-half of its space being devoted to the\npublic schools, and the other half to agriculture. It was published for\nthree years, but not proving profitable to the publishers was then discontinued. After this came The Teacher's Voice, which was published by\nMr. J. K. Pangborn for about a year and a half.\nThe Vermont School Journal was established by the Vermont Teachers'\nAssociation in April, 1859. Its first editors were A. E. Leavenworth and\nG. S. Spaulding. The editors assumed the financial responsibility of its\npublication, which they continued through 1859 and 18G0. Mr. Hiram\nOrcutt then succeeded Mr. Spaulding. For two years it was published\nby Mr. Orcutt and Mr. Leavenworth. At the expiration of that period\nMr. Orcutt took the entire charge of the Journal, assuming the responsibility of its publication, and editing it with vigor and success for three\nyears. When Mr. Orcutt removed to New Hampshire its publication\nceased.\n\"THE\n\nNEW\n\nENGLAND\n\nJOUKNAL\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION.\"\n\nThe Journal of Education is to-day one of the very few educational\njournals in this country published weekly. Practically it shares its\nhonors only with the Neiv York School Journal. The latter was first\nestablished, and has that flavor which comes from age and experience.\nThe Journal of Education was at first called The New England Journal\nof Education, and its first number appeared in January 2, 1875. It was\nthe result of a long-continued effort on the part of several of the leading\neducational men in New England to unite the different State journals in\none periodical for New England. The writer of this article believes himself to have been the first one to propose this plan, and for a long period\nprior to its accomplishment he had persistently advocated the scheme and\ncalled public attention to its desirability.\nThe project took definite shape at the famous forty-fifth annual meeting of the American Institute of Instruction, which was held at North\nAdams in July, 1874. In the midst of the discussions as to what plans\nto adopt to infuse new life and a vigor of business management in the\nassociation, the scheme of uniting the New England educational journals\nwas the most vital. It was urged by such men as Dr. George B. Emerson,\nDr. Merrick Lyon, Rev. C. Hammond, Hon. B. G. Northrop, Hon.\nThomas Bicknell, the writer of this article, and others ; and the institute\nvoted unanimously to recommend an earnest effort to unite the several\nState journals in one strong and able paper. It was recommended also\nthat the American Institute of Instruction, the teachers' associations of\nthe several New England States, and the managers of the several school\njournals of New England, be invited to co-operate in securing the union\nof these educational agencies in establishing such a journal as would meet\nthe wants and demands of the educators in and out of New England.\nIt\n\n"}
{"page": 840, "printed_page": null, "text": "820\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nwas voted also that an advisory council of twelve be appointed to make all\narrangements for the organization of the enterprise. This council was to\nbe composed of two members from each New England State, one to be\nelected by the American Institute from each State, and the others by the\nState association, one each. This committee decided that the advisory\ncouncil should appoint an editor and a publisher, and that each State\nteachers' association should be asked to elect a State editor.\nAt a meeting of the directors of the American Institute, held in\nBoston in November, the committee made its report. Hon. T. W. Bicknell\nwas elected editor of the new journal, and Charles C. Chatfield, publisher\nof The College Courant, was chosen as publisher. It was recommended\nthat the paper should be published weekly.\nAfter the organization was completed and all arrangements made, the new\nJournal entered upon its career at the beginning of 1875. It met with\nfavor everywhere. Mr. Bicknell continued as editor and chief manager\nuntil the beginning of the year 1886.\nThe writer of this paper connected himself with this Journal in the\nsummer of 1884 and was its managing editor until January, 1886. Personal\nreasons then induced him to withdraw from the Journal and the company\nwhich published it. A few weeks later, Mr. Bicknell sold out his interest\nin the concern to Rev. A. E. Winship, who has been its chief editor till\nthe present time. The Journal is now in its nineteenth year; is as vigorous\nas ever ; has a wide circulation, and is doing, as it has done, good service\nin the cause of popular education.\n\"THE\n\nAMERICAN\n\nTEACHER. \"\n\nThe Primary Teacher was a monthly paper published in Boston from\n1878 to September, 1883. It was edited principally by Mr. William E.\nSheldon, and was one of the most practical and valuable primary papers\nyet published in this country. ' In 1881 began the publication of The\nPublic School, also monthly, of the same size and shape as the Primary\nTeacher. These two papers, in September, 1883, were united under the\nname of The American Teacher. The editors were Mr. Bicknell, Mr.\nSheldon, and W. N. Hailman. It still continues to be published, and\nMr. Sheldon still remains as its principal editor. It has now completed\nten annual volumes, and has a large subscription list from all parts of the\ncountry.\n\" EDUCATION.\"\n\nIn September, 1880, began the career of a magazine of high grade which\nwas at first published bi-monthly. It was called Education, an international magazine devoted to the science, art, philosophy, and literature of\neducation. It was edited by Mr. Bicknell until January, 1886. when the\nwriter of this paper became its editor, publisher and proprietor.\nHe con-\n\n"}
{"page": 841, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATIONAL\n\nJOURNALISM\n\nIN NEW\n\nENGLAND.\n\n821\n\ntin ued its publication until January, 1891, when Rev. Frank H. Kasson\nbecame its editor and publisher. Mr. Kasson, together with Rev. Frank\nH. Palmer, whom he has associated with himself both editorially and in its\nbusiness management, continues its publication at the present time.\nThis magazine, from the beginning struck out anewpathamong theeducational publications of America. For thirteen years it has discussed, in a vigorous and philosophical manner, the great problems of American education.\nThe contributors to this magazine embrace names of many of the most\nprominent educational men and women of this country, and it has published\nmany articles from the pens of prominent English educators. Its subscription list, while never very large, has included many representative\nnames from all parts of this country, from Great Britain, France, India,\nChina and Japan. The thirteen bound volumes of this magazine embrace\nmore than eight thousand pages of educational material, covering a great\nvariety of subjects, and forming altogether a creditable addition to our\nAmerican pedagogical literature.\n\" COMMON\n\nSCHOOL\n\nEDUCATION.\"\n\nThe writer of this article began in January, 1887, the publication, in\nBoston, of a magazine for common-school teachers, which was entitled\nCommon School Education, devoted to the art of instruction. Its publication was continued until June, 1891, when it was merged with The\nTeacher's World, published in New York, which from that time took the\nname Common School Education and Hie Teacher's World.\n\"THE\n\nPOPULAR\n\nEDUCATOR.\"\n\nAbout the year 1884, several gentlemen in Boston started a new educational monthly with the above title. It did not give the name of its editor,\nbut it was generally understood that one of the Boston grammar masters\nhad something to do with its pages. From the outset the paper assumed\na positive and aggressive character, taking a decided position upon leading\nquestions, and furnishing to its readers a great variety and a large quantity\nof material. It has, for the past ten years, dealt largely with schoolroom\ndevices and methods of instruction. Latterly it has devoted more attention to the principles which underlie good teaching. Its subscription list\nrapidly increased, and for years it has claimed the largest list of subscribers,\nperhaps of any educational paper in the country.\n\"primary education.\"\nIn January, 1893, began in Boston the publication of a new monthly\npaper with the above title. Its name indicates its purpose and scope. It\nis edited by Mrs. Eva D. Kellogg, who has had large experience as a\nteacher in Boston, in normal schools at the West, in the work of city\nsnperintendency, and as assistant editor on the Neiv York School Journal.\n\n"}
{"page": 842, "printed_page": null, "text": "822\n\nDR.\nBY\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nBARNARD'S\nWILL\n\nS. MONROE,\n\nCONGRESS\n\nAMERICAN\nLELAND\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nJOURNAL\n\nSTANFORD\n\nOF\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nEDUCATION.\nCALIFORNIA.\n\nAt the meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of\nEducation, held at the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, December\n26, 1854, Dr. Barnard submitted a \" plan of central agency for the\nadvancement of education in the United States,\" one of the features of\nwhich was the publication of a journal of education, to be issued monthly\nor quarterly, embracing accounts of systems, institutions, and methods of\neducation, as well as current educational thought. The plan was approved,\nand a standing committee was appointed to carry it into execution as fast\nas the funds of the association would permit. But the absence of funds\nand of pledges of pecuniary co-operation prevented the committee from\ncarrying the plan into execution ; so that Dr. Barnard on his own responsibility decided to undertake its publication.\nThe first number of the Journal appeared in August, 1855. The second\nnumber appeared the following January, the third in March, and the\nfourth in May.\nVolume I. was completed May, 1856.\nDr. Barnard's acquaintance with schoolmen and institutions in Europe\nduring his travels of 1835-6, and his visit to London in 1854 to attend the\neducational exhibit and congress at St. Martyn's Hall, were supplemented\nby five subsequent European trips, correspondence, and by exchange of\nletters and educational documents, thus enabling him to accumulate a\nvast library of the choicest and most instructive parts of the educational\nliterature of all times and peoples. Important articles and monographs\nfrom these various sources he had translated at his own expense ; and\nthe first ten volumes of the Journal contain no less than forty-five articles from Von Raumer's \" Geschichte der Padagogik,\" all of vol. iii. of\nSavigny's \"Geschichte des Romisches Rechts im Mittelalter,\" portions\nof Bonghi's \"Publica Instruzione,\" and numerous other articles from\nstandard foreign works published in Germany, France, Switzerland, Italy,\nand Great Britain.\nUpon the completion of the ten volumes promised, realizing the importance and scope of the work before him, he decided to continue the publication of the Journal; and March, 1862, he wrote in the preface to\nVolume XI. :\n\" With a moderate encouragement from the thoughtful and active friends\nof educational improvement, we shall continue our quarterly issues until\nthey have at least reached six (more) volumes.\"\nVolume XVI. was completed in 1866, and two volumes of the Journal\nwere published at irregular intervals during Dr. Barnard's connection with\n\n"}
{"page": 843, "printed_page": null, "text": "DR. BARNARD'S\n\nAMERICAN\n\nJOURNAL\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\n823\n\nSt. John's College and the Bureau of Education. In the prefatory note\nto Volume XXI., he wrote :\n\" With this number (for January, 1871) we resume the regular publication of The American Journal of Education, which has been somewhat\ninterrupted, although not positively suspended, during our connection\nwith the department and office of Education. We hope to receive sufficient\nencouragement to enable us to continue our articles, original and selected,\non the existing conditions and movements of education, until we have\nsomething like a comprehensive survey of the past history and present\nconditions.\"\nWith little to encourage him in his great undertaking, save the consciousness of the need of such a publication, Dr. Barnard continued to\nedit The American Journal of Education until the completion of the work\nas it stands to-day in thirty-one large octave volumes. In a letter to the\nlate Kobert Herbert Quick, written January 24, 1878, he says :\nuThe publication of the Journal has proved pecuniarily disastrous.\nThe subscriptions, paid in from year to year, have never met the expenses\nof publication. My small income has been reduced by the deprivation of\noffice and the pressure of the times. No publisher can be induced to\nundertake the responsibility of the Journal; and to carry on the work to\na point where the encyclopaedic scope of the undertaking could be seen\nand appreciated has involved my little property in mortgages, and myself\nin obligations which I am now making a desperate effort to meet. If I\nam successful in disposing of enough sets of volumes of the Journal to\nmeet the obligations which mature before the first day of May, I shall\ncontinue the publication to the close of Volume XXVIII. If I am not\nsuccessful, the plates (25,000 pages with more than 1,000 illustrations of\nschool structures) which have cost over $40,000, will go into the melting\npot for type metal, and the volumes on hand will be sold to buyers who\nmay apply within a given time, and, at the expiration of that time, will be\nconverted into pulp by the paper makers, and the avails thus realized will\nbe applied, as far as they go, to meet my obligations ; and thus will end\nwith me an enterprise which has absorbed my best energies for the last\ntwenty years/'\nMr. Quick wrote in reply to the New England superintendents :\n\"■ I would as soon hear that there was talk of pulling down one of our\ncathedrals and selling the stones for building material.\"\nThe American Journal of Education is not a school journal or review,\nin the accepted use of those words, but, as Mr. Quick has aptly remarked,\na vast encyclopaedia of educational literature. In the domain of historical\npedagogy, it gives accounts of the development of human culture, both\ntheoretical and practical, under varying conditions of race, climate, religion\nand government ; the attempts at systematic training of children in the\nfamily and schools, by parents and teachers, among the nations of the\n\n"}
{"page": 844, "printed_page": null, "text": "824\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nEast through the writings of Confucius in China, the Vedas and Buddha\nin India, Zoroaster in Persia, the Ptolemies in Egypt, and Moses, Solomon,\nand the rabbis in Palestine ; among the Greeks, through the institutions\nof Pythagoras and Solon, and the teaching of Socrates and Aristotle ;\namong the Romans, through the didactics of Cato, Seneca and Quintilian ;\namong the modern nations of Europe, through the schools peculiar to the\nearly Christians — those of Chrysostom and Basil, the catechetical school\nat Alexandria, the monastic and cloister schools of Saint Jerome and\nTertullian, the court schools of Charlemagne and the educational labors of\nAlcuin, the modifications wrought through the influences of Arabian\nlearning with the establishment of Mohammedanism in the seventh\ncentury, the domination of the religious conceptions of Abelard and\nscholasticism, the rise and growth of universities and the awakening of\nthe scientific spirit, the revival of letters and the study of the classics, the\nlong protracted struggle between humanism and realism, and the gradual\nexpansion and realization of universal education. These are some of the\nlines of historical thought, more or less fully developed, that one finds in\nstudying the historical development of the human intellect in these thirtyone volumes of Dr. Barnard's journal.\nSystems of education in the Old World and in the New, normal schools\nand other institutions devoted to the professional training of teachers, the\norganization and curricula of colleges and technical schools, institutions\nfor criminals and defective classes, physical education, school architecture,\nand other departments of theoretical and practical pedagogy find full and\nclear expression in the twenty-seven thousand pages of choice literature\nprinted in The American Journal of Edu cation.\nOscar Browning says in the Encyclopaedia Britaunica :\n\"The great work of Henry Barnard, The American Journal of Education, has valuable papers on almost every part of our subject (education) ;\nit is by far the most valuable work in our language on the history of\neducation.\"\nPresident D. C. Gilman, in an article devoted to the educational\ndevelopment of our country, published in The North American Review\nfor January, 1876, says :\n\"It is the best and only general authority in respect to the progress of\nAmerican education during the past century. The comprehensiveness\nof this work, and its persistent publication under many adverse circumstances, entitle the editor to the grateful recognition of all investigators\nof our system of instruction.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 845, "printed_page": null, "text": "DISCUSSION.\n\nTHE\n\nPURPOSE\n\nAND\n\nREWARD\n\n825\n\nOF EDUCATIONAL\n\nJOURNALS.*\nBY\n\nAMOS\n\nM.\n\nKELLOGG,\n\nEDITOR\n\nOF\n\n\" THE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nJOURNAL,\"\n\nNEW\n\nYORK.\n\nThe educational journalist aims to diffuse a right idea of education.\nWhen Horace Mann undertook that seemingly impossible task of placing\nthe teacher and the school in just position before Massachusetts, he felt\nthe necessity of an educational journal ; and the rich results that followed\nhis labors came from his eloquent pleading aided by his equally eloquent\nwriting.\nThe same course was followed in New York ; to aid in the effort to lift\nthe schools out of the degradation in which they existed, Edmund Dwight\nspent much of his private fortune in publishing Tlie District School\nJournal. The great upheaval there was due to David P. Page and that\npaper. In every attempt to realize a higher ideal of education, the educational journal has played an important if not the leading part.\nWhile the publishers of educational journals may never obtain the credit\nthey deserve for having attempted, like Moses, to lift a pillar of light above\nthe advancing hosts in our school-room, there is avast debt due, and in a\nmoderate measure it is recognized. Their recompense must lie greatly in\nthis recognition, for certainly no one would perform the work demanded\nwith the hope of obtaining a pecuniary reward equal to the outlay.\nWorks of real beneficence are rarely profitable. There is an abundance of\nteachers who do not make any money ; they aim solely at usefulness.\nThe educational journalist is of this class of men.\n\nDISCUSSION.\nHenry Sabin: Every journal has its own ideal. The time will come when the educational journal will be as much of a power in shaping educational thought as the normal\nschool.\nW. A. Bell: The ideal paper should be a leader, it should be suggestive. The\njournals should aim to set before its readers something a little higher than they have.\nBut there is a business side that has to be considered; you must modify your ideal to\nsecure a larger number of readers. Yet even when the standard is lowered, the aim\nshould be to give the reader a touch of what is better than he now has. To secure the\nbest results the paper must have specialists in charge of the departments, so that the\nbest thought can be secured, and at the same time there may be some continuity and\nconnection in the articles presented.\nJames Canpield: The educational press has already done much to elevate the\nteaching profession. Even those journals which do nothing but criticise accomplish\nsome good.\nGeo. P. Brown: The editor must provide material for the careful advanced thinker\nand also for the mass of its readers. He must do missionary work to uplift the average\nreader.\n* The paper of which this is an abstract was published in full in vol. xlvii. No. 9 (Sept. 9, 1893), of\nThe SchoolJournal, New York ; E. L. Kellogg & Co., Publishers.\n\n"}
{"page": 846, "printed_page": null, "text": "826\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nE. O. Vaile: This ideal journal is a myth. Neither editors nor teachers ought to\npursue their occupations as missionaries.\nC. W. Bardeen: An oration is not good unless it can command an audience. It is\njust so with journalism. Educational journals must secure a public, that is the first\nessential. Fifteen years ago very few teachers read school journals. Now one paper\nthat I know has fifty thousand subscribers. Reasons why they take them now are that\nthe teacher is allowed a percentage for taking educational journals. This gets subscribers, but they have not yet reached the point where they can discriminate between\npapers.\nStill it is an advance that they take papers even on this consideration.\nWilliam S. Monroe: The ideal journal ought to treat more of the history of education. Itought to give the ideals of great thinkers in the educational world.\nMiss Andrea Hofer: There ought to be a journal that would reach the mother\nteachers from a less technical standpoint.\nGeo. P. Brown: Every school journal in this commercial age must be a business\nsuccess, but while making it a business success, we must try to work out an ideal.\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nJOURNALS\n\nIN NEW\n\nYORK*\n\nIn educational journalism New York makes three claims : (1) to the\nearliest educational journal published in English ; (2) to the most\nthorough trial of the educational journal as an official publication, having\nhad for a time two such journals contemporaneously, one representing the\nDepartment of Public Instruction, and the other the State Teachers'\nAssociation ; (3) to a series of educational journals of such continuance\nand character that they depict her educational history more minutely than\nthat of any other State recorded.\n\"the academician/' 1818-1819.\nOn February 7, 1818, appeared the first number of The Academician,\na semi-weekly octavo (6 x 9|) of sixteen pages, at $3 per year. The editors\nwere Albert Picket, f president of the Incorporated Society of Teachers,\nand John W. Picket, corresponding secretary of the same.\n\"THE\n\nCOMMON\n\nSCHOOL\n\nASSISTANT,''\n\n1836-1840.\n\nIn January, 1836, there was issued at Albany the first number of a\nquarto (8£ x 10£) journal of eight pages, published, at fifty cents a year,\nby J. Orville Taylor.\nMr. Taylor was widely known as an educational leader. He was born\nin Charlton, May 14, 1807 ; fitted at the academy at Cherry Valley, and\ngraduated from Union College in 1830, after which he studied law in New\nHaven.\n♦These statements relating to educational journals in New York are taken from a paper read before\nthe Department of Educational Journalism, of the International Congress of Education, by C. W. Bardeen,\neditor of the School Bulletin. The entire paper, valuable for its full information, is published in a\npamphlet of forty-five pages, entitled: The History of Educational Journalism in the State of New\nYork. By C. W. Bardeen. Syracuse, N. Y.\nt Barnard, xv. 544.\n\n"}
{"page": 847, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATIONAL\n\n\"THE\n\nDISTRICT\n\nSCHOOL\n\nJOURNALS\n\nJOURNAL\n\nOF\n\n1840-1852.\n\nIN NEW\n\nYORK.\n\nTHE\n\nOF\n\nSTATE\n\nNEW\n\n827\n\nYORK,\n\nTJie District School Journal was started March 25, 1840, at Geneva, by\nFrancis Dwight, as an eight-page quarto (9 x 11-J). The issue of The\nDistrict School Journal for July 1, 1841, contained the announcement of\nSuperintendent John 0. Spencer that this was the periodical selected by\nhim, and would be regarded as the official organ of communication with\nthe officers and inhabitants of the several districts. The superintendent\ntook great pleasure in again commending this publication to the favorable\nconsideration and liberal support of the friends of education generally,\nremarking that the favorable successful prosecution of the work must\ndepend chiefly upon the individual subscription, as the amount authorized\nto be subscribed by the State barely defrayed the expenses.\nUnder the impulse of Superintendent Spencer's subscription for twelve\nthousand copies, it was now removed to Albany, enlarged into a monthly\nquarto (9 x 13y) of eight pages, and published at fifty cents a year.\nThe editor and founder of the Journal, Francis Dwight, universally\nrespected and lamented, died December 15, 1845. Mr. Randall became\nsole editor, and announced in the February number that as the superintendent had ordered the subscriptions to districts continued he should\nrely for compensation wholly upon the subscription list outside the State\nappropriation, which was reduced in February from $2,800 to $2,400.\nWith Volume XII. , TJie District School Journal united with Tlie New\nYork Journal of Education under the title of The District School Journal\nof Education of the State of New York; and W. F. Phelps and Joseph\nMcKeen were joined with Mr. Randall as associate editors. But though\nSuperintendent Morgan, in his annual report, recommended the periodical\nas an indispensable auxiliary to the department in the transmission and\ncommunication of educational information, and in the dissemination of\neducational news generally, and even urged an increase in the appropriation, the Legislature refused to heed him, and the Journal ceased with\nthe number for April, 1852.\n\"THE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBULLETIN,\"\n\n1874.\n\nIt was New York's last attempt at an official publication. The School\nBulletin, which purchased The E-lucational Journal, and has since been\nknown as The School Bulletin and New York State Educational Journal,\nhas been from the first owned and controlled by its present editor, and\nhas never asked or been offered official recognition. The first number of\nThe School Bulletin was published in Syracuse in September, 1874. It\nconsisted of eight pages, 9£ x 14 inches. After its union with The Educational Journal it appeared in April, 1875, with sixteen pages, but has not\nsince been changed in form or size or management or ownership.\n\n"}
{"page": 848, "printed_page": null, "text": "828\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGHESS\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nJOURNALISM\n\nBY\n\nSAMUEL\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nIN OHIO.\n\nFINDLEY.\n\n[The complete paper of which this is an abstract was published in The\nOhio Educational Monthly.]\nThe first educational periodical in the State of which I find any mention\nwas called The Academic Pioneer. Its first number appeared in July,\n1831.\nIt expired after two or three issues, for want of patronage.\nIn the decade following, there appeared half a dozen or more similar\njournals, only one of which lived beyond the year of its birth. The\nCommon School Advocate, started at Cincinnati in 1837, was kept alive\nfor four years. The Ohio Common School Director, started the same\nyear under authority of the General Assembly, expired at the end of its\nfirst year.\nThe Pestalozzian appeared and died at Akron in 1838.\nOther ephemerides of that period were The Schoolmaster and Academic\nJournal, Oxford, 1834 ; The Universal Educator, Cincinnati, 1837 ; The\nWestern Academician, Cincinnati, 1837; and The Educational Disseminator, Cincinnati, 1838.\nIn 1846 three vigorous journals were started in the State, The Ohio\nSchool Journal; The School Friend; and The Free School Clarion. The\nlatter was discontinued in 1849 or 1850, the two others in 1851.\nThe Western School Journal, begun in 1847, was discontinued in 1849.\nThe Ohio Teacher was started in 1850, and departed in silence, with none\nto record the date of its departure. The American Educationist and\nWestern School Journal was started in 1852, and lived one year.\nThe Association continued the publication of the Journal for eight\nyears. The first four volumes were edited by Dr. Lord ; the fifth by Eev.\nAnson Smyth ; the sixth by John D. Caldwell ; and the seventh and eight\nby Wm. T. Coggeshall. After this the Journal was transferred to private\nparties. Eev. Anson Smyth, then State Commissioner of Common Schools,\nbecame the editor, and the name was changed to its present title. The\nOhio Educational Monthly.\nIn May, 1861, Dr. E. E. White and Hon. Anson Smyth became joint\neditors and proprietors, and in 1863 Dr. White became sole editor and\nproprietor.\nIn September, 1875, the magazine was sold to Dr. W. D. Henkle, who\ntransferred it from Columbus to Salem, Ohio. He continued its publication until his death in 1881. In February, 1882, it was sold to the writer,\nthen superintendent of the city schools of Akron, Ohio. The further\nstory of the dear old Journal in these last years, I leave to be told by those\nwho come after.\nEducational Notes and Queries, started by Dr. Henkle, about the\n\n"}
{"page": 849, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATIONAL\n\nJOURNALISM\n\nIN INDIANA.\n\n829\n\ntime he took hold of the Monthly, was discontinued at the death of its\nfounder.\nThe National Normal, started in 18G8, under the editorial management of E. H. Holbrook (of Lebanon), was merged with the Monthly\nin 1874, revived again 1883 under the name of The Normal Exponent, and\ncontinued until 1893.\nThe Guernsey Teacher was started at Cambridge in 1880, by Dr. John\nMcBurney. Its name was subsequently changed to The Eastern Ohio\nTeacher, and still later to The Ohio Teacher, under which name it is still\npublished under its original founder. Its avowed object has been to help\nthe younger and less experienced teacher, and especially those engaged in\nthe country schools.\nThe Public School Journal was started at Cincinnati in 1876, as a\ngrangers' and teachers' paper. In 1880 it became purely educational, and\nassumed the name under which it is still published, The Public School\nJournal.\nIt is now owned and edited by one of its founders, F. E. Wilson.\nThe School Visitor, devoted to practical mathematics, examination\nwork, notes, queries and answers, now in its fourteenth year, is edited\nand published by John S. Royer, at Versailles, Ohio.\nThe Journal of Pedagogy, a monthly journal, was started at Athens,\nOhio, in 1887, edited by Dr. J. P. Gordy. It is now issued quarterly\nfrom Dunkirk, N. Y.\nThe Progressive School, an educational weekly, was started at Alliance, Ohio, in January, 1891, by B. F. Yanney, then a professor in Mount\nUnion College. It is now published by the School Publishing Company,\nof Alliance, and edited by B. F. Yanney, being issued forty times in the\nyear. In February, 1893, The Western Reserve School Journal, a monthly\npaper published for a short time at Geneva, Ohio, by J. P. Treat, was\nmerged with The Progressive School.\nThere has been no attempt to enumerate in this brief sketch the multitude of school and college papers, past and present, devoted to local educational interests ; and it is not improbable that some worthy publications,\nwhich should have had a place, have been overlooked through ignorance\nor inadvertence. I have omitted none such intentionally, and I have set\nnothing down in malice.\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nBY\n\nGEORGE\n\nJOURNALISM\nF. BASS,\n\nIN INDIANA.\n\nINDIANAPOLIS,\n\nIND.\n\nNearly fifty years ago (in 1846), an Indianapolis man by the name of\nWest, started a little paper which he called TJie Common School Advocate.\nThis was the first attempt, so far as we have been able to learn, to publish\nan educational paper in Indiana.\nOnly one number was published.\n\n"}
{"page": 850, "printed_page": null, "text": "830\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nIn 1852 an Ohio man came to Indianapolis and started The Educationist. Only three numbers of this were published.\nThere was another journal in these early years that had a longer life\nthan either of these. The only account of the paper that we saw is in\nVol. IV. of The Indiana School Journal.\nIn 1854, at the first meeting of the Indiana State Teachers' Association,\nthe desirability and practicability of starting and sustaining an educational\njournal was discussed. At the second meeting it was decided to publish\nan educational journal, similar in size and typographical execution to The\nOhm Journal of Education. The paper was named The Indiana School\nJournal, and George B. Stone, then superintendent of the Indianapolis\nschools, was appointed resident editor. He was assisted by nine editors,\nwho did the editorial work for the honor there was in it. This was the\nbeginning of The Indiana School Journal, that is still in existence, but\nnot owned and published by the State Association for the good of the\ncause. It has now the largest circulation of any educational publication\nin the State, and there are only two older educational publications in the\nUnited States — Tlie Ohio Educational Monthly, and The Pennsylvania\nSchool Journal.\nIn looking through the volumes of this paper we find, in the earlier volumes especially, that the information side is made most emphatic. Even\nin the professional articles this is true. There is not so much on the\nphilosophy of teaching as we find in the best journals of to-day. There\nwas almost no attempt to view a subject as related to the child. The point\nwas to give child information and have him \"git a plenty while he was\ngittin',\" as the \"Hoosier schoolmaster\" puts it.\nAfter two years and a half Mr. Stone resigned, and Mr. Henkle took\nhis place as editor of the Journal.\nThis was about the middle of 1858.\nIn August, 1859, Mr. Henkle left the State, and Mr. Phelps took his\nplace. In December, 1859, the Association transferred the management\nof the Jouraal to Mr. Phelps, allowing him to make all he could out of it.\nThe Association remained a kind of guardian for it, but did not agree to\nfoot bills. It, however, agreed to give the same spiritual support as\nbefore.\nIn 18G2 Mr. Phelps transferred the Journal to Mr. George W. Hoss.\nThe circulation had dropped to only one hundred and fifty paying subscribers on account of Mr. Phelps' illness. Mr. Hoss put a great deal of vigor\ninto the work, and in 1869 took in W. A. Bell, its present editor and publisher, as an equal partner. The circulation at this time was about eleven\nhundred. In July of lb71, Mr. Hoss, having been elected President of the\nState Normal School of Kansas, sold his interest to Mr. Bell.. It has\nincreased in circulation and influence from that time to the present. Its\ncirculation has not fallen below six thousand in the last ten years, and has\nat times reached eight thousand.\n\n"}
{"page": 851, "printed_page": null, "text": "SCHOOL\n\nJOURNALISM\n\nIN MICHIGAN.\n\n831\n\nMr. Bell is now the sole owner and publisher of this paper. He employs several department editors. In 1875 A. C. Shortridge and Geo. P.\nBrown became associate editors of the Journal, but they remained in connection with it only a short time. From the first issue of this paper it has\nbeen a power in the educational work of the State. It has always been\nprogressive and sometimes aggressive. It has always seconded every effort\nto attain higher ideals, and often has led. While some of us, at times,\nhave thought that it was not quite vigorous enough, we shall all agree\nthat it has faced the right way and is moving.\nMany other educational papers with good motives have sprung up in\nthis State from time to time, but most of them have suspended or been\nswallowed up by the Journal or some foreign paper.\nAmong them are the following :\nThe Indiana Teacher, published at Indianapolis, made its first issue in\nJanuary of 1869. It was united with The Indiana School Journal in\nJuly, 1869, when Mr. Bell became half owner. This paper was published\nby Messrs. Bell, Brown, and Shortridge.\nIn January, 1873, Mr. A. C. Shortridge and Mr. Geo. P. Brown issued\nthe first number of a monthly paper called The Educationist. It was\ncontinued till December, 1874, when it was united with the Journal, and\nits editors became associate editors of the Journal.\nThe Northern Indiana Teacher was a paper issued from South Bend\nin 1874.\nIt was ably edited by Mr. H. A. Ford.\nThe Education Weekly was conducted by Mr. J. Olcott for a year\nor two, when some Eastern paper bought it. The field was not rich\nenough to sustain a weekly paper. This was a bright little paper and had\na fair subscription list.\nThere are at'present several papers published, but most of them, if not\nall, are published in the interest of private normal schools, or by the\ncounty superintendents in the interest of their own counties. One of the\nlargest of these is a semi-professional paper called The Student, and\npublished at Valparaiso.\nSCHOOL\nBY\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nJOURNALISM\n\nIN\n\nHENRY\n\nDETROIT, MICHIGAN\".\n\nA. FORD,\n\nMICHIGAN.\n\nIn school journalism, as in some other features of a right school system,\nMichigan came early to the front. In March, 1838, when Michigan had\nbeen a State hardly more than a year, the Hon. John D. Pierce, who is\nreputed to have been the first State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nin this country, so designated, started in Detroit The Journal of Education. How remote this is in the history of American schools may be\njudged from the occupation of the first number almost exclusively by Dr.\n\n"}
{"page": 852, "printed_page": null, "text": "832\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nStowe's Keport on Elementary Public Instruction in France. It preceded\nby eight months the beginnings of Horace Mann's renowned Common School\nJournal. In November, 1838, Mr. F. W. Shearman, afterward also Superintendent of Public Instruction, became associate editor, and the\nremaining numbers were issued from Marshall, long the home of \"Father\nPierce.\" The magazine ceased to exist at the end of its second annual\nvolume.\nFor thirteen years, from 1840, the State had no school organ. At the\nfall meeting of the State Teachers' Association at Kalamazoo, in 1853, a\npaper was read by Professor J. M. Gregory, afterward State Superintendent, which resulted in the issue at Detroit, the following January, of The\nMichigan Journal of Education. With Dr. Gregory were associated as\neditors the Eev. Dr. E. 0. Haven, then a professor and afterward president of the State University, and Alexander Winchell, the distinguished\ngeologist of that institution. The editorial management suffered kaleidoscopic changes ; during one year each number, by systematic arrangement,\nhaving a different (perhaps sometimes indifferent) editor. Dr. Gregory\nremained in general charge of it until 1860, when it fell into the hands of\nDuane Doty, subsequently superintendent of schools in Detroit, and it\nwas suspended in September of that year.\nIn January, 1866, The Michigan Teacher, another monthly, was begun\nat Niles, by W. H. Payne, now Chancellor of the University of Tennessee,\nand a well-known author and translator, with C. L. Whitney and John\nGoodison, who both became professors at the State Normal School. With\nthem were afterward associated Professor H. L. Wayland, then of Kalamazoo College, and now editor of The National Baptist, Philadelphia, and\nH. A. Ford, of Niles, who became sole proprietor and editor at the close\nof 1870, and maintained the magazine until the close of 1876, when it\nmerged into the new Educational Weekly, of Chicago. The Teacher was\ncarefully edited, and won many commendations from public and private\nsources.\nDuring part of its life some of the county superintendents of schools\nissued small but vigorous and useful organs of their work ; and another\nmagazine, beginning in 1872, and entitled The School, was conducted, to\ngood purpose, by professors of the State Normal Institution.\nThe Michigan School Moderator is now the representative of the State\nDepartment, and generally of the educational interests of the Commonwealth. Itwas founded at Grand Eapids in 1880, by N. H. Walbridge,\nwith whom in 1884 was joined Henry E. Pattengill, at present State\nSuperintendent of Public Instruction, who became sole owner and editor\nthe next year, and in September removed the paper (a semi-monthly\nquarto) to the State capital, where it has since been published. Under\nMr. PattengilPs popular and energetic management its circulation has been\npushed to nearly five thousand.\n\n"}
{"page": 853, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATIONAL\n\nJOURNALS\n\nIN ILLINOIS.\n\n833\n\nThe School Commissioner, at Saginaw, is a monthly magazine issued\nlargely for the class of county educational officers thus entitled.\nA small magazine, The Investigator, is also printed at Grand Rapids,\nin the kindergarten interest.\nSeveral of the commercial and other colleges of the State have their\nperiodical organs, and during the last academic year a daily paper of this\nkind has been published at the University. Taken for all in all, printer's\nink has been well used for the uplift of education in the Wolverine State\nfor more than fifty-five years.\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nBY\n\nJOHN\n\nW. COOK,\n\nJOURNALS\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nNORMAL\n\nIN ILLINOIS.\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nNORMAL,\n\nILL.\n\nInformation respecting the beginnings of school journalism in Illinois\nis not easily attainable. From a sketch by Dr. Samuel Willard, published\nin the Report of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1883-84,\nI learn that The Common School Advocate was started at Jacksonville,\nunder the editorship of Rev. Theron Baldwin, in 1837. This journal was\nshort-lived. In 1841 E. R. Riley, of Springfield, issued The Illinois Common School Advocate, but this effort, like that of its predecessor, was in\nadvance of its time. Only five or six numbers were issued. From this\ntime until 1865 there was no publication that was distinctively educational.\n\" THE\n\nPRAIRIE\n\nFARMER.\"\n\nFrom an admirable article in the Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1885-86, prepared by that accurate and reliable gentleman,\nMr. W. L. Pillsbury, I quote the following : \" Mr. Wright was not a\nfarmer, and had never lived on a farm, and yet he made The Prairie\nFarmer at least as good an agricultural paper as was published in this\ncountry; and without being a teacher even, he made The Prairie Farmer\nalso a most excellent school journal, all the more effective because it\nreached the patrons of the schools more than the teachers. From the start,\nin 1841, until the publication of The Illinois Teacher was begun in 1855,\nthis paper occupied the field of school journalism in Illinois. The school\nhistory of this period must be largely written from its pages.\"\nIt is my impression from what I have been able to learn of the work\ndone by Mr. John S. Wright in TJie Prairie Farmer, that no educational\njournal has done or could do what he accomplished. There was no freeschool system in existence within the borders of this immense domain. It\nwas iu a peculiar sense a time when the people had to be reached at their\nfiresides. The State was poor. The rash experiment of trying to coax\nprosperity within our borders by a vast and unwise system of public im53\n\n"}
{"page": 854, "printed_page": null, "text": "834\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nprovements had demonstrated its own folly. Anything looking toward an\nenterprise that called for public taxation was destined to meet the warm\nopposition of the people. But Mr. Wright's paper was read and re-read in\nthe farmhouses that were scattered oyer the prairies, along the watercourses, and in the native groves of the State. In every issue he pressed\nupon the people the crying need of a system of popular education maintained at public expense, that should give to every child the rudiments of\nan education. He issued calls for educational conventions and urged the\npeople to attend them. When they were convened he was a leading spirit\nin urging the scheme that seemed nearest to his heart. When the conventions had completed their work he reported their- proceedings, and\npersistently labored to create a public sentiment favorable to the establishment of a great free school system. Any account of the movement\nthat ended in the act of 1855, which should fail to recognize Mr. Wright\nand his Prairie Farmer as potent factors in that great consummation\nwould be very imperfect.\nThis journal is clearly entitled to the honor of being the earliest of the\neducational periodicals of the State that have been of any value in influencing legislation and determining public sentiment. I have alluded to\nit as an educational journal. To this name it is justly entitled, although\nits editor would have been the last person to make any claims for so questionable distinction.\na\n\"THE\n\nILLINOIS\n\nTEACHER.\"\n\nIn 1854 the newly-organized State Teachers' Association held its first\nmeeting at Peoria. The question of an organ came up, and the decision\nto publish a monthly started The Illinois Teacher on a career that was\ndestined to continue for more than eighteen years. Daniel Wilkins, now\na resident of Chicago, and W. H. H. Amy, afterwards memorable in the\nSouthwest, were the local and. managing editors. The main editorial\nwork, however, was to be done by twelve gentlemen who were to mount\nthe tripod in succession for the first twelve months.\nThe monthly editor scheme proved a dismal failure, and the enterprise\nseemed destined to perish before it had cut its milk teeth. At this juncture\nCharles E. Hovey, who had come West to seek his fortune, came to the\nfront and assumed the whole burden. He was tireless, full of resources,\nand possessed pluck to the backbone. He threw himself into the fight for\na normal school, the desirability of which had been discussed for years by\nthe friends of popular education.\nThe normal school idea was kept prominently before his readers ; the\neducational public was not permitted to forget that the normal school was\na necessity. The passage of the act establishing the institution in 1857\nwas due in large part to the influence of The Illinois Teacher. Hovey's\nprominence is attested, by the fact that he became the first principal of\n\n"}
{"page": 855, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATIONAL\n\nJOURNALS\n\nIN ILLINOIS.\n\n835\n\nthe school, remained for four years and until it had passed the dangerpoint, and then went off to win the stars of a major-general in the Union\narmy. He acted as editor for two years. By his untiring energy he succeeded in raising the subscription list to fifteen hundred the first year, and\nto something more than two thousand the second. But he had the building of the new normal school on his hands, and was obliged to give up his\neditorial work.\nDr. Bateman succeeded him in 1858.\nWhen the State Association met in December, 1858, there was a disposition on the part of several of the leading members to free the organization\nfrom all responsibility for the further support of the paper. The contest\nwas a memorable one. A report of the discussion covers several pages of\nthe printed proceedings. The measure at last carried. A few responsible\nmen, among whom were Hovey, Hewitt, Bateman, and a dozen more of their\nsort, met and chose Charles A. Dupee editor, and Hewett mathematical\neditor, pledged twenty-five dollars each to meet current expenses, and\nstarted the Teacher on another year. It made its monthly visits to its\nsubscribers and came up smiling at the' end of the year. Its vitality was\nmarvellous. When disaster seemed impending, its friends rallied about\nit and kept it on the move.\nIn 1860, Dr. Willard, who was then employed as a teacher in the\nnormal school, assumed editorial control. He continued through 1861.\nAlexander M. Gow followed him in '62 and '63. S. A. Briggs, who had\nbeen Gow's assistant, served during '64 ; Richard Edwards, in '65 and\n'66 ; Wm. M. Baker, in '67, '68, and '69. In 1870, S. H. White, who\nhad been serving as assistant for five years, accepted the editorship, and\ncontinued for two years. E. W. Coy was his assistant. In accordance\nwith the most approved system of civil service, Coy succeeded to the editor's chair in '72. At the close of the year the Teacher was sold to Gove\nand Hewett, and was merged in The Illinois Schoolmaster.\nOne of the leading functions of this pioneer school journal was the\ntraining of the editors. Counting the twelve monthly editors who served\nthe first year, there were twenty-two in the aggregate. There were in\naddition to this list several assistants that have not been enumerated.\nAmong these were James H. Blodgett ; Professors Stetson and Pillsbury,\nof the normal school ; and Professor Standish, of Galesburg.\n\" THE\n\nSCHOOLMASTEE.\"\n\nSome time in the year 1866, E. D. Harris, of Normal, Illinois, started a\nsmall paper with an educational bias, which he called The Normal Index.\nSome two years later, Mr. John Hull, then superintendent of schools in\nthe county of McLean, purchased the paper, changed its name to The\nSchoolmaster, enlarged and otherwise improved it, and pushed it into\npublic notice.\nProfessor Albert Stetson, of the State Normal School, was\n\n"}
{"page": 856, "printed_page": null, "text": "836\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nassociated with Mr. Hull iu the editorial management. In May, 3870,\nMr. I. S. Baker, principal of the Skinner School, Chicago, joined forces\nwith Professor Stetson in the control of the paper, and its influence began\nto grow in a very tangible way. In July of the same year, it was thought\nexpedient to remove the place of publication from Bloomiugton to Chicago,\nand its name was changed to The Chicago Schoolmaster. In May, 1871, Mr.\nHull sold The Schoolmaster to Mr. Aaron Gove, of Normal, who was soon\njoined by Professor Edwin C. Hewett of the State Normal School. Mr. Gove\ntook general charge of the paper. In February, 1873, these gentlemen\npurchased The Illinois Teacher, consolidated it with TJie Chicago Schoolmaster, and changed the name to The Illinois Schoolmaster. In 1874, Mr.\nGove sold his interest in the paper to Mr. John W. Cook; Professor\nHewett continuing to retain an interest, although not actively engaged in\nits management. In January, 1876, The Illinois Schoolmaster and several\nother magazines in the Northwest were purchased by S. R. Winchell and\nCompany and united in The Educational Weekly. The career of this\npaper was comparatively brief. The West seemed hardly ready for so\nradical a change in educational journalism. In the more populous East a\nweekly had made a place for itself, and it had already found generous\npatronage in the Northwest.\nWhile 'Hie Schoolmaster had no hobby it printed a good deal of valuable\nmatter. Its contributors were among the leaders of educational thought\nin the State. Dr. J. A. Sewall, of the State Normal School, was a frequent\ncontributor back in the early seventies. Dr. E. C. Hewett, Dr. H. H.\nBelfield, E. C. Smith, familiarly known as \" Smith of Dixon/' Alfred\nKirk, 0. Blackman, and the gifted and lamented Jeremiah Mahoney did\nfar more than any others during the editorial management of Mr. I. S.\nBaker. The versatile Jonathan Piper came across the line from Iowa\nabout that time and introduced himself to the Illinois pedagogues by some\nspicy extracts from his notebook of observations. Aaron Gove occupied\nthe humble position of editor for the Illinois Normal Department, all\nunconscious of the dignities that were soon to devolve upon him as editor\nin chief.\nIn May, 1871, Baker retired from the editorial management. While he\nwas by no means a brilliant editor, he was helpful and thoroughly in\nearnest. Unlike his predecessor, he was engaged in public school work.\nIn the management of a large city school he was constantly in the presence\nof the problems that confronted his readers. He treated them from the\npractical rather than the theoretical standpoint. When Mr. Gove took\ncharge he found a respectable subscription list, a fair reputation, and\nalmost a free field.\nIn 1871, Mr. Gove began the publication of a series of language\nlessons. They seem to have been a new departure in the matter of\nlanguage teaching, and attracted no little attention.\nThey were in a way\n\n"}
{"page": 857, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATIONAL\n\nJOURNALS\n\nIN ILLINOIS.\n\n837\n\nthe forerunners of that large crop of Introductions to Grammars that soon\ncrowded the markets. Their author was W. B. Powell, at that time superintendent of schools in one of the smaller cities of Illinois. Jeremiah Mahoney\ncontinued to contribute his brilliant and original articles. Among the\noccasional contributors were Dr. J. M. Gregory, 0. S. Westcott. George\nHowland, \"Father\" Root, of \"Egypt,\" E. A. Gastman, J. H. Blodgett,\nJ. L. Pickard, Hon. Newton Bateman, Professor S. A. Forbes, President\nRichard Edwards, Henry L. Boltwood, and Dr. Samuel Willard. Mary Allen\nWest made her bow as a writer of short educational stories. Her name\nwas destined to become a household word in the Northwest, on account of\nher devotion to the temperance cause. She died in far-away Japan, and\nlies in the quiet cemetery at Galesburg, where her loving pupils laid her\nwith grateful benedictions.\nIn 1874, Mr. Gove was called to the superintendency of the Denver\nschools, and was succeeded in the editorial management of the paper by\nthe present writer. There was little change in its policy or general\ncharacter. As I look over the numbers that were prepared in the midst\nof the pressing duties of a very busy life, I am impressed with the fact\nthat we were only playing at school journalism. Little was lost when\nThe Illinois Schoolmaster was merged in The Educational Weekly. And\nthe cause of popular education did not go to the wall when that ambitious\neffort ended in financial disaster. Civilization seems destined to survive\nthe decay of some of its most conspicuous pillars.\nExcellent financial support was given to The Schoolmaster during the\ntime that it became the duty of Dr. Hewett and myself to look the printer\nin the face. I am sure we received ample compensation for all the work\nthat we put upon it. And the book publishers — those generous gentlemen that made their benefactions under the pleasing guise of business —\nand made educational journalism possible, I wonder if they ever got back\ncents where they put in dollars.\n\"THE\n\nILLINOIS\n\nSCHOOL\n\nJOURNAL.\"\n\nLate in the seventies — exactly when, the writer is unable to learn — a\ncertain gentleman of Napoleonic qualities conceived the notion that it\nwas quite possible to cover the whole field of American school journalism\nby a very simple and economical arrangement. If we are a Nation with a\nbig \" N,\" why should not the same matter answer for one State as well as\nfor another ? Full of this idea, this ingenious gentleman cast about him\nfor the necessary talent to furnish the local coloring. He was very\nfortunate in his choice for Illinois. There was a young man of good\nparts who was working on a small salary as principal of a grammar school\nin one of our State nopmal schools. He was promptly engaged as local\neditor.\nBefore many moons he became disgusted with the management of the\n\n"}
{"page": 858, "printed_page": null, "text": "838\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nnew venture, which had received the modest title of The New Gleaner.\nHe bought out the Illinois edition, and a new school paper, The Illinois\nSchool Journal, was launched on the perilous sea of journalism. The first\nnumber appeared in May, 1881.\nThe first number was highly promising. It was nearly double the size\nof The Schoolmaster, was filled with practical material all ready to be\nserved, it had discarded a considerable part of the news notion, and showed\na page of wide-awake editorial matter that looked like business. The new\neditors were Dr. Edmund J. James, and Charles De Garmo. The later\nprominence of the gentlemen warrants the statement that here was a\nstrong combination. The Journal, to use a phrase that some of my\nhearers may not understand, had \" the pole \" at the start. There was much\nof the dash and wit of the \" Jerry Mahoney \" articles. Evidently these\neditors were not afraid.\nThe admirable training of Dr. James in the pedagogical courses of\nGerman universities gave a dignity and character to whatever he chose\nto write upon educational subjects, that at once began to attract attention.\nIt was a new era in school journalism. The old contributors began to\nreappear. There was a happy combination of philosophy and helpful\nsimplicity. Dr. James was profound, and Mr. De Garmo was ingenious\nand inventive in the line of schoolroom devices.\nDuring the winter Congress was discussing the question of national\naid to education. The Journal engaged in this discussion with great\nspirit and ability, and formulated one of the plans that received the respectful attention of that eminent body. Members of the General Assembly of Illinois seemed not altogether unwilling to be informed of their\nduties in the line of popular education, by a school journal that insisted\nupon being heard. A somewhat careful examination of the numbers\nissued by these gentlemen convinces me that we did not fully appreciate\nthem.\nIn 1883 Dr. De Garmo left for Germany, to enter upon his university\ncourse, and the present writer again found himself engaged in school\njournalism. Dr. De Garmo had just arranged with William Hawley Smith\nfor the production of a serial story with an educational motive. Two or\nthree numbers had appeared before I succeeded to the editorial management. Isoon discovered that the plan met with the favor of the educational public. \" The Evolution of Dodd \" was no less a business than a\nliterary success. The circulation of the paper increased with great\nrapidity, and the call for the back numbers containing the story betrayed\nthe reason. It became very apparent that the teacher is not averse to a\nhighly practical system of pedagogics, if it has the concrete setting which\nMr. Smith has so happily illustrated in his charming little book. There\nis a highly valuable suggestion in the success of ' ' The Evolution of Dodd.\"\nThe school journal that can work it out will not lack for readers.\n\n"}
{"page": 859, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATIONAL\n\nJOURNALS\n\nIN ILLINOIS.\n\n839\n\nAfter a year of oppressive labor I was joined by Mr. R. R. Reeder in the\nmanagement of the Journal. Little is to be said of our success. Financially itwas unequivocal. Educationally I regard it as a failure. It was\nthe work of hours that should have been devoted to rest.\nIn November, 1886, the magazine was purchased by Mr. George P.\nBrown, and the name was soon changed to The Public School Journal.\nFew school journals are better known.\nIt is unique, in that a singleness\n-of purpose has characterized it from the first number — the grounding of\nall teaching in a rational philosophy of education.\n\"THE\n\nCHICAGO\n\nTEACHER.\"\n\nThis journal was only an episode in the history of educational journalism. It merits this characterization because of its brief career. Allusion\nhas been made to the brilliant and lamented Jeremiah Mahoney. In company with Ira S. Baker he started the Teacher in 1873. It was destined\nto have a short history. The reputation of Mr. Mahoney and the business\ntact of Mr. Baker soon put it upon an excellent financial footing. Editorially itwas original, somewhat meteoric, but extremely captivating in its\ngeneral character.\n\"OUR\n\nCOUNTRY\n\nAND\n\nVILLAGE\n\nSCHOOLS.\"\n\nIn the early eighties it began to be whispered about the State that one\nJohn Trainer, county superintendent of schools in Macon County, had\nachieved a remarkable success in the management of the schools under his\ncharge. Mr. Trainer was a man of remarkable ingenuity, and possessed\nthe extremely happy faculty of interesting the public in his work. He is\nentitled to whatever of honor attaches to the introduction of what is\nknown in Illinois as \" the graded course for country schools.\" To exploit\nMr. Trainer's \"find,\" and to gather in certain pecuniary advantages that\nwere conceived to attach thereto, Charles I. Powner started Our Country\nand Village Schools. The idea was practical and attractive. The paper\nsprang into a prominence beyond its merit, and promised abundant success. But Mr. Powner's business methods soon wrecked the enterprise,\nand it joined the melancholy shades of defunct school journals, respectable at least in numbers.\nThe purpose of this paper is to deal with the past, or with such papers\nnow current as had their beginnings in a somewhat remote past.\nIntelligence, of Chicago, now in its thirteenth volume, Mr. E. 0. Vaile,\neditor, in a certain way was an offshoot of The Educational Weekly, with\nwhich the accomplished editor of the Intelligence had a brief connection.\n\n"}
{"page": 860, "printed_page": null, "text": "840\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nED UCA TIONA L JOUR NA LISM\nBY\n\nHENRY\n\nSABIN,\n\nSTATE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nIOWA.\n\nOF\n\nIN 10 WA .\nPUBLIC\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nOF\n\nIn January, 1853, The District School Journal of Education was issued\nat Dubuque under the care of A. P. Wood, S. K. Gilbert acting as editor.\nAt the end of the first year the name was changed to The Ioioa Journal\nof Education.\nFrom 1854 to 1857 there was no educational journal in the State.\nIn the latter part of the year 1857 J. L. Enos commenced the publication of The Educational Voice at Cedar Kapids. Mr. Enos was one of the\nstrongest educational men Iowa has ever produced. The journal was conducted with great vigor. Its articles were varied, and touched upon all\nthe wants of the community. The Voice boasted at one time a thousand\npaying subscribers. It is uncertain what became of it. Iowa has had no\njournal since its day of greater, and but few of equal, merit.\nIn May, 1859, Kev. S. S. Howe, principal of the academy at Mt. Pleasant, commenced the publication of The Literary Advertiser and Public\nSchool Advocate.\nIt was discontinued in 1860.\nThe same year (1859) Mills Brothers, of Des Moines, commenced the\npublication of The Iowa School Journal under the editorial care of A. J.\nStevens.\nIn October, 1859, The Iowa Instructor was issued under the control of\nthe State Teachers' Association at Tipton, C. C. Nestlerode being the\nresponsible editor. The Instructor runs through three volumes. The\nablest men in the State contributed to its columns, among them Fellows,\nThomas H. Benton, Jr., Prof. N. E. Leonard, Ingalls, Nestlerode, F. M.\nWitter, J. D. Hornby, Kissell, Miss P. W. Sudlow, and many others who\nare well known in the educational history of the State.\nIt is to the influence of the educational journals published prior to 1865\nthat Iowa owes much of whatever prestige she enjoys now in the educational ranks of the nation.\nIn 1862 the Instructor and the School Journal were combined and published byMills & Co., at Des Moines, under the name of The Instructor\nand School Journal.\nThe first number of The Iowa School Journal appeared at Des Moines,\nJuly, 1859. From July, 1860, to January, 1861, the Journal was in a\nstate of suspended animation. Vol. II. begins with the latter date under\nthe editorship of Thomas H. Benton, Jr., an able writer, under whose supervision the Journal at once became influential in the State. In 1864-67\nwe find the names of various teachers on the editorial page, evidently a\ncommittee chosen by the State Association.\nIt is impossible to follow the\n\n"}
{"page": 861, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATIONAL\n\nJOURNALISM\n\nIN IOWA.\n\n841\n\nJournal through each year. The keen vigorous utterances of Kissel, the\nterse epigrammatic sentences of Jonathan Piper, the wise logical reasoning of D. Franklin Wells, grace its pages and make them profitable reading\nto the student of the educational history of Iowa.\nIn August, 1871, The Manual was commenced at Keokuk under the\nsupervision of 0. M. Greene, of Keokuk, and 0. E. Burchard, of Fredonia, N. Y. It did not continue long. In January, 1872, it was combined with The Ioiua School Journal, and continued until 1875.\nIn January, 1873, W. E. Crosby, of Davenport, commenced the publication of The Common School, and in 1875 he bought the Journal. The\nlast number which we are able to find is April, 1877. We think, however, itwas issued some time after that. With it disappeared the last\nvestige of The Iowa School Journal.\nIn 1877 a resolution passed at a meeting of Normal Institute instructors\nresulted in the establishment of The Normal Monthly. The first number\nwas issued in August of that year at Dubuque, with Principal W. J.\nShoup as editor and proprietor. It was designed to be an Iowa journal\ndevoted almost entirely to State interests. The Normal Monthly was ably\nconducted and was very popular in the State. Mr. Shoup was absolutely\nfearless as an editor, and did not hesitate to express his opinions on the\neducational vagaries of that day. He edited his own journal in every sense\nof the word. Ill-health forced him to retire, and in April, 1884, he sold\nthe Monthly.\nOf the other journals at present published in Iowa, little need be said.\nThe Central School Journal, published at Keokuk, is now in its fifteenth\nvolume. The first number was issued in December, 1877, with J. W.\nHowley editor-in-chief. Miss Lydia G. Howell was editor from 1883 to\n1886, at which time Professor George Edward Marshall, of the Keokuk\nhigh school, became editor, and remained so till 1889. The Journal is now\nowned by Superintendent 0. W. Weyer and Principal Charles H. Wolf, of\nthe Keokuk schools. The Central School Journal has always been characterized as a progressive journal, fully up with the demands of the times.\nThe Iowa Teacher is published at Charles City. This paper furnishes\nthe larger part of the printed matter for many country papers, leaving\nthem a page or two for home matters.\nIn 1886 The Iowa School Journal was established at Des Moines. It is\nnow known as Iowa Schools. Tlie Northwestern Journal of Education\nflourished for a time as a weekly journal. Although it had the best\neditorial ability in the person of one of the ablest female writers of Iowa,\nit did not pay expenses, and came to an untimely end.\nSo much for the past of educational journalism in Iowa. It is impossible to forecast the future. With four journals, each clamorous for support, with the great influx of journals from outside the State, it does not\nseem possible to put any journal on a paying basis.\n\n"}
{"page": 862, "printed_page": null, "text": "842\n\nINTEH NATIONAL\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nBY\n\nH.\n\nA.\n\nGASS,\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nPAPERS\n\nOF MISSOURI.\n\nJEFFERSON\n\nCITY,\n\nMO.\n\nThe first educational paper published west of the Mississippi River was\nThe Missouri Journal of Education. It was established by the Missouri\nState Teachers' Association, and was the official organ of that body. By.\nact of the association, Mr. E. K. Woodward, of St: Louis, was made the\npublisher, and Hon. Ira Divoll, superintendent of the St. Louis public\nschools, local editor, and W. S. Baker, traveling agent. The first and\nonly number was published in July, 1857.\nIn May, 1858, Mr. Thomas J. Henderson began the publication of The\nMissouri Educator. This was continued until July, 18G0, as the official\norgan of the State Teachers' Association, and was the second effort of that\nbody to establish a school paper for the State. Henderson was its editor,\nJ. L. Tracy, Arrow Rock ; W. L. Luckey, Fayette ; J. W. Sutherland,\nBoonville ; Dr. S. S. Laws, Fulton ; Richard Edwards, St. Louis ; James\nLove, Liberty ; W. H. Lewis, Independence, were the associate editors.\nThe paper was of a high order. The editorials and contributed articles\nwere strong. Advanced ground was taken on the subject of normal\nschools, teachers' institutes, and other questions of importance to the\neducational public.\nTJie Missouri Teacher was founded by Prof. J. U. Barnard, at Kirksville, Mo. The first number was issued in January, 1880. The publication of this paper was continued by Prof. Barnard for nearly three years,\nwhen he sold it to other parties who changed its general character and\nafter a few months suspended its publication. The Missouri Teacher\nwas a good paper, and did its full share towards helping the educational\ngrowth of the State.\nThe Missouri School Journal was founded by Professors W. T. Carrington and J. L. Holloway, at Jefferson City, Mo. The initial number\nwas published October 1, 1883. In December, 1887, Howard A. Gass,\nthe present owner, purchased it, and January 1, 1888, changed it from\na semi-monthly to a monthly. In January, 1891, it was changed to magazine form which it still retains. The Journal has grown steadily from its\ninception until it is now recognized as the leading educational paper of the\nState.\nThe American Journal of Education was established in February, 1868,\nand is now in its twenty-fifth year. It is edited by its founder, Major\nJ. B. Merwin. It was largely instrumental in raising the wages in Missouri more than nineteen dollars per month. Its advocacy of a liberal\npolicy toward the schools has made the paper and its genial editor\nthousands of friends in all parts of the country.\n\n"}
{"page": 863, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATIONAL\n\nJOURNALISM\n\nIN UTAH, COLORADO,\n\nKANSAS.\n\n843\n\nSchool and Home was established March 20, 1884, by Mr. William L.\nThomas, who still owns and edits it. It is published semi-monthly at St.\nLouis, Mo.\nThe Missouri Teacher is a new educational monthly established by\nProfessors Smith and Scotten at Sedalia, Mo. The first number was published September 15, 1892. Only ten numbers of Vol. I. have as yet been\nsent out.\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nBY\n\nJOHN\n\nMACDONALD,\n\nJOURNALISM IN UTAH,\nKANSAS.\nEDITOR\nOF \"THE\nWESTERN\nTOPEKA,\nKAN.\n\nCOLORADO\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nJOURNAL,\"\n\nIn Utah, educational journalism is still in its infancy. The InterMountain Practical Educator is the only representative educational paper\nin the Territory. The Educator first made its appearance in April, 1891.\nIts editors and publishers were J. W. Newbern, G. W. McKay, and J. C.\nWolfe, teachers in the Salt Lake City schools. In May, Messrs. McKay\nand Wolfe retired, and Mr. Newbern took entire charge of the paper. In\nJanuary, 1892, W. A. Corey bought a half interest in the Educator, and\na few months later, bought the other half. The word \"Practical \" in the\ntitle was dropped, and the name is now Inter-Mountain Educator. Mr.\nCorey is still editor and publisher. The Educator is the organ of the\nTerritorial Commissioner, and of the county superintendents of Utah.\nIt is growing in favor aud in circulation, has done and is doing much\ngood in advocating needed changes in school laws and school work, and\nin faithfully representing and defending the interests of all the teachers\nin that vast tract of country known as the \"Basin Region.\"\nCOLORADO.\n\nThe first educational periodical in Colorado, TJie Colorado School\nJournal, made its appearance in April, 1885. It was established by Superintendent Aaron Gove, of Denver, and Mr. J. D. Dillenback. Mr. Gove\nhas continued to edit the Journal since 1885, and Mr. Dillenback continued to be the publisher until 1890. At that time J. S. Temple bought\nMr. Dillenback^ interest in the paper, and became the publisher.\nThe Colorado School Journal is and has been the organ of the State\nSuperintendent of Public Instruction, also of the State Teachers' Association. The aim of the Journal has been to discuss new theories and practices in education, to help especially the young teachers, and to aid in\ncementing the bond between the common schools and the higher educa-\n\n"}
{"page": 864, "printed_page": null, "text": "844\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\ntional institutions. It also gives full reports of all State educational meetings, gives some space to educational news, and publishes all the opinions\nof the State Superintendent on questions of school law.\nKANSAS.\n\nThe first educational paper published in Kansas was the child of the\nKansas State Teachers' Association, and was called The Kansas Educational Journal. The Association was organized in September, 1863, and\nit was resolved to establish, as soon as possible, an organ to represent the\nteachers of the State. The Association assumed sole control of the young\nperiodical, elected its editors, and made annual and sometimes desperate\nefforts to meet the deficit, which appeared with distressing regularity.\nSuperintendent H. D. McCarty was the first editor of the journal, and\nremained in charge until 186?.\nIn 1867 L. B. Kellogg and H. B. Norton were elected editors, and continued in control until 1870, when Superintendent Banfield of Topeka\nand Professor Dilworth of Emporia were elected. The panic of 1873\ncame ; then the plagues of Egypt, the grasshoppers, the chinch-bugs, and\nthe drought, descended upon the State, and the Journal apparently gave\nup the ghost — at least it disappeared. The Kansas Educational Journal\nduring the ten years of its existence did a vast deal of good in keeping constantly before the people the need of certain amendments to the\nschool law, and in introducing better methods of teaching into the\nschools.\nDuring the years between 1873 and 1879, educational journalism was\nwell-nigh dead in Kansas, or at least in a state of torpor. Various efforts\nwere made to revive the old Journal, but without success. In 1877, it\nappeared in Emporia as The Hatchet, editor Buel T. Davis. In 1879 The\nHatchet merged into The Educationalist. The circulation of these papers\nwas extremely limited, but they served to keep educational journalism\nalive. In 1880, Dr. Geo. W. Hoss bought Tlie Educationalist, changed its\nname to Educationist, made Topeka his headquarters, and continued to\npublish and to edit the paper until January, 1885. The Educationist was\na worthy successor to The Kansas Educational Journal, but its circulation\nwas still far from satisfactory, and the editor, we suspect, had to live mainly\non faith, hope, and oxygen.\nIn January, 1885, H. C. Speer, then retiring from the State Superintendency, bought The Educationist of Dr. Hoss, changed the form of it to\na quarto, and the name to Western School Journal, which name it still\nretains.\nMr. Speer greatly increased the circulation, and, for the first time, began\nto make the paper pay. In May, 1887, Mr. Speer sold the Journal to\nK. W. Turner, late United States Consul to Cadiz, Spain. Under Mr.\nTurner's management the Journal continued to grow in circulation and\n\n"}
{"page": 865, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATIONAL\n\nJOURNALISM\n\nIN FRANCE.\n\n845\n\nin influence. In December, 1888, The Western School Journal was purchased bythe writer of this paper, and he has during the last four or five\nyears been trying with such strength and grace and faith as he may have\nto make the paper a representative educational journal in every true and\ngood sense. To what extent he has succeeded, it is not for him to say,\nand it would be obviously improper for him to discuss the subject in this\npaper. He can, however, properly say thus much : That the Journal has\nlargely increased in circulation during the last few years, and that it is\nmore enthusiastically supported by the teachers of Kansas than any other\nState educational paper in the Union, with one possible exception.\nEducational journalism in Kansas has come to its present position\nthrough great tribulation. In its troublous infancy, it was afflicted with\nall sorts of adversities, educational whooping-cough, strangling croup, and\nall the other ailments which beset the path of childhood. But in spite\nof all the child grew and waxed strong, and is now mature and robust\nenough to make its way in the world without artificial propping. For the\neducational journal in Kansas is not now, as in the olden time, a mere\nadjunct to a college professorship or city superintendeucy. It is to-day,\nthanks to the teachers who so generously support it, upon a paying\nfoundation.\nEDUCATIONAL\nABSTRACT\n\nOF A PAPER\nPEDAGOGIC\n\nJOURNALISM\n\nBY GABRIEL\nDELEGATION\n\nCOMPAYRE,\nTO\n\nTHE\n\nIN FRANCE.\nPRESIDENT\nWORLD'S\n\nOF THE FRENCH\n\nFAIR.\n\nFor the sake of clearness we have classified the educational journals of\nFrance as follows :\n(1) Those devoted to the interests of all the schools of the country ;\n(2) Those published particularly for the teachers and pupils of superior\nand secondary schools ;\n(3) Those pertaining to elementary instruction ;\n(4) Journals for specialists; and\n(5) The public documents of educational associations, faculties, etc.\nFIRST GROUP.\n\nUntil 1892 there existed two publications devoted to the interests of\nthe French public schools — the Bulletin Administratif die Ministere de\nV Instruction Publique and the Recueil des Lois et Actes de V Instruction\nPublique. The latter, founded in 1847, has been discontinued. The\nofficial bulletin of the Minister of Public Instruction appears weekly.\nThat which gives it a pedagogic character are the ministerial instructions\nintended for the guidance of teachers in their capacity as educators and\nprofessors.\n\n"}
{"page": 866, "printed_page": null, "text": "846\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nSECOND\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nGROUP.\n\nAmong the journals addressing themselves particularly to the professors\nof superior and secondary schools are the following :\nLa Revue Internationale de V Enseignement, published by the Society\nof Superior Instruction. It was founded in 1881, and appears monthly.\nEdited in a very liberal spirit and above all confessional prejudices. This\nreview is designed to make known the works of French and foreign\nmasters who are interested in the future of the higher studies. It affords\nan opportunity to follow the pedagogical movement in various countries,\nand to make very interesting and instructive comparisons. Thus the\nInternational Review plays the part of a sort of permanent congress where\nquestions of highest import for the advancement of education and instruction are discussed.\nLa Revue Universitaire has a more practical character than the preceding journals. It aims to be of assistance to teachers of secondary\nschools, and to be of equal service to the pupils. Teachers as well as\npupils find in it interesting and varied articles on education, literature,\nhistory, the fine arts, hygiene, etc. Its programme embraces all the\nsubjects taught in the lycees and colleges. Besides these general studies\nthis review has a department devoted to the preparation for examinations,\nand gives a very complete bibliography. It was founded in 1892 and\nappears monthly.\nL' Enseignement Secondaire des Jeunes Filles, conducted by Camille\nSee, is specially devoted to questions relating to female education. A\nhappy innovation of recent date is the publication of the best compositions\nof pupils, with notes and criticisms of teachers. This is an excellent\nmeans of keeping up emulation between the various establishments. The\njournal was founded in 1882 and appears monthly.\nBefore passing to the journals and reviews devoted to the interests of\nelementary schools, we may mention the Revue des Cours et Conferences,\nwhich reproduces public lessons given at the Sorbonne and the College of\nFrance.\nIt was founded in 1892 and appears weekly.\nTHIRD\n\nGROUP.\n\nThe journals for the use of the teachers of elementary schools form the\nmost numerous group. We mention first a publication which, although\nbelonging to this group, contains articles of a higher quality than those of\nthe school journals proper. This is the Revue Pedagogique, whose frame\nembraces all that pertains to the science of education. Founded in 1878,\nit has become, since July, 1882, the organ of the Pedagogic Museum. It\nappears monthly, and is sent free to members of the administrative\npersonnel of elementary instruction, to normal-school principals, and to a\ncertain number\nof teachers who are known to the administration as\n\n"}
{"page": 867, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATIONAL\n\nJOURNALISM\n\nIN FRANCE.\n\n847\n\nearnest students of pedagogic works. The committee which conducts the\nreview aims to encourage pedagogic study and independent research, and\ngives space to free and dignified discussions.\nOutside of articles on all points touching the interests of education and\ninstruction and studies in the history of pedagogy, the Revue publishes\neach month a review of the press and of books, a record of elementary\ninstruction in France, and notes of foreign countries. Besides, there are\nliterary and scientific reviews. Among the regular contributors are the\nmost authoritative representatives of French pedagogy : Messrs. Greard,\nBuisson, Compayre, Marrion, Pecaut, Steeg, etc.\nWith the Manuel General de V Instruction Primaire we arrive at\nthe journals which, without neglecting questions relating to methods and\nwhat might be called the theory of education, aim to furnish teachers\nwith practical directions and to facilitate their daily tasks. The Manuel\nwas founded in 1832 and appears semi-monthly. It lost the official character which it bore at first in 1840. It enjoys a great and well-deserved\ninfluence. It was one of the first journals to demand free and obligatory\ninstruction, and has supported all efforts relating to the reorganization of\nelementary education in France.\nThe publishers of the Manuel issue since October, 1892, a journal of\na peculiar nature. This is the Correspondance General de V Instruction\nPrimaire, a bulletin serving as a free mediator between school authorities,\nthe families, and members of public and private elementary schools. It is\nsent out twice a month. Its main object is to introduce reforms in the\neconomy, mechanism, or spirit of national instruction.\nNext to the Manuel General and L'Ami de VEnfance, of which we shall\npresently speak, the oldest school journal is the Journal des Instituteurs.\nFounded in 1878, it appears every Sunday. Devoted exclusively to the\npreparation of classes, it is the first periodical to publish a course of studies\nin which teachers may find tasks and lessons for every day in the year on\nall the studies in the programme.\nIn 1879 a new periodical was published, destined to make a rapid\nsuccess. We refer to L' Instruction Primaire, a journal of practical\neducation for school teachers and principals of kindergartens. Its\ncharacter is about the same as that of the Manuel General. It comprises two distinct departments, the semi-monthly journal and a supplement. The former is particularly designed for the teacher in the classroom it\n; furnishes materials for lessons for every day, and facilitates the\npreparation of pupils for the examinations. The supplement addresses\nitself particularly to the masters and mistresses, and aims mainly at an\nextension of their literary and scientific knowledge, and to aid them in the\npreparation for the attainment of the various diplomas that they may\ndesire to possess.\nThe monthly Ulnstituteur was started in 1886 to react against the\n\n"}
{"page": 868, "printed_page": null, "text": "848\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nutilitarian tendency of the pedagogic press. It aims to elevate the teacher.\nAccordingly it seeks less to furnish the teachers with ready-made lesson\nplans than to give them directions as to how to choose the material and\nhow to prepare it. The thought of making moral training more prominent\nthan the ordinary studies inspires the pedagogic articles that take the first\nplace in this journal. Le Progres tie V Enseignement Primaire, a monthly\njournal founded in 1886, like L'Instituteur aims to encourage individual\neffort and original work. Every number contains a pedagogic discussion,\na plan of monthly studies, a review of 'school journals, and directions for\nthe teaching of manual training. Besides, the Progres publishes each\nmonth the biography and portrait of an ancient or modern educationalist.\nL' Education Nationale, started in 1887 under the inspiration of Paul\nBert, has aimed particularly during the first years of its publication to\ncontribute in the largest possible measure to the moral and civic instruction of teachers and pupils. A liberal and openly republican spirit animates all its articles. Since the 1st of January, 1893, it has undergone\na change, and is now almost exclusively devoted to the preparation for\nthe various examinations.\nIt is issued every Sunday.\nA certain number of other periodicals do not distinguish themselves by\nany clearly defined purpose. Their programme, like that of the Manuel\nGeneral or L' Instruction Primaire, is to guide teachers in the preparation\nof classroom work, to aid them to complete their professional training,\nand to defend their interests. Among those which occupy a quite honorable\nplace in pedagogic journalism are Le Journal de V Enseignement Primaire,\nfounded in 1879 ; La Revue de V Enseignement Primaire et de V Enseignement Superieur, founded in 1891 ; L'Instituteur Pratique; L'Echo de\nl'Enseignement Primaire, founded in 1892 ; and the Volume. The care\nwith which the latter journal is edited deserves special mention.\nThe journals enumerated above are devoted mainly to public elementary\neducation, and are edited and read for the greater part by public-school\nworkers. The free schools have also their organs ; among them are\nUEcole Francaise, founded in 1889, and L' Education Chretienne, founded\nin 1892. These publications are devoted to the defense of the Catholic\ninterests.\nThe educational press numbers few journals systematically opposed to\nthe administration. We can mention but two whose polemiqne does not\nkeep within the limits of courteous discussion. These are the Reforme\nUniversitaire and France Enseignante.\nThere are three publications specially devoted to maternal schools\n(ecoles maternelles) — the Ami de VEnfance, the Moniteur du Jeune\nAge, and the Ecole Maternelle et Enfantine. The first mentioned is\nthe oldest of the three. It was founded in 1839 by Mr. Cochin to\nsupport the teaching in the salles d'asile, which were then being established in France.\nThe Ami de VEnfance has been conducted for some\n\n"}
{"page": 869, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATIONAL\n\nJOURNALISM\n\nIN FRANCE.\n\n849\n\ntime by Madame Pape-Carpantier, whose whole life was devoted to the\neducation of little children, and to whom we are indebted for ingenious\ndevices and many excellent books. The present directress of the journal,\nMadame Kergomard, continues the work of Madame Pape-Carpantier\nwith equal devotion and like success. Le Moniteur du Jeune Age\naddresses itself to all who are interested in the education of young\nchildren, to mothers as well as to teachers. This is also the plan of the\nItcole Maternelle et Enfantine. The two last-named journals are in\nexistence for upward of ten years, and are worthy rivals of the Ami de\nVEnfance.\nFOUETH\n\nGROUP.\n\nWe do not comprise in this group the journals of scientific societies,\nwhich, as they address tbemselves to a very limited public, cannot be considered asforming a part of the school press. But there exist for the use\nof professors and pupils of the secondary and elementary schools certain\nspecial publications which we must mention here.\nInstruction in geography, which in recent years has received a lively\nimpulse, is encouraged and strengthened by the Revue de Geographie\n(published since 1877) and the Annates de Geographie (since 1892). We\nmight mention also JJAnnee Cartographiqtie, published since 1891.\nTeachers of modern languages derive much help from the Revue de\nV Enseignement des Langues Vivantes, founded in 1884. The pupils of\nthe lycees and colleges have for their use the Deutsche Zeitung fur die\nfranzosische Jugend, or the Journat Allemand-Deutsches Btatt fur\nFranzosen, published by a coterie of professors ; the English Journal or\nthe Journal Anglais : A Magazine for French People, a journal similar\nto the German one.\nPhysical culture, long neglected and to-day occupying quite an honorable place, has also organs, of which we mention the following : La Gymnastique Francaise, the Moniteur des Exercises Physiques, the Education\nPhysique, and the Moniteur de la Ligue Girondine de VEducution\nPhysique, etc.\nLastly, let us call attention, without attempting to give even an incomplete list of them, the journals which have for their object either the\ndiffusion of the \" modal \" method of teaching music, or the advocacy of a\nsimplified and more rational orthography, or the dissemination among\nteachers and pupils of a knowledge of shorthand.\nFIFTH\n\nGROUP.\n\nThe bulletins of various faculties are of recent origin.\nThey have the\nadvantage of making known the courses and special lines of work of\nthe professors ; of aiding the students in their preparations for examinations, and of encouraging individual efforts.\n54\n\n"}
{"page": 870, "printed_page": null, "text": "850\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nWhile the bulletins of faculties address themselves almost exclusively\nto the members of the teaching corps, the publications of educational\nsocieties inform the larger public concerning the progress of enterprises,\nand at the same time solicit aid. Outside of the greater associations which\naim to support the efforts of the public powers in the work of popular\neducation, there are among teachers a certain number of mutual aid\nsocieties which have also their bulletins. These bulletins do not merely\nrecord the deliberations and decisions of the society, but have also a\npedagogic department where everybody reports the result of his observations, recommends this or that method, and, in short, seeks to make his\ncolleagues profit by his experience and studies. The most important of\nthese societies is the Union of Public School Teachers of the Department\nof the Seine, founded in 1888.\nIts bulletin appears monthly.\nThe syndicate of teachers formed after the plan of the syndicate of\nworkingmen publishes two journals with socialistic tendencies — the Echo\nNouvelle and Les Congres et les Associations d' Educateurs et d'Instituteurs.\nAnother journal which, without being the particular organ of an association, isdestined to unite the different associations of teachers and to give\nthem more vitality by publishing their works, is the Union Pedagogique,\npublished monthly since 1891. It plays a very useful part, and has begun\nto occupy an important place in school journalism. Thanks to this\njournal, the good ideas and interesting efforts of provincial teachers are\ndrawn out of the somewhat narrow circle where the special bulletins of\ndepartmental teachers' societies abound. These modest journals are nevertheles asign of a praiseworthy pedagogic activity, and it would not be just\nto make eulogistic mention of a few of the small leaflets that are gallantly\nfighting against routinism. It remains now to say a word of a bulletin\nof a special nature. I refer to the Bulletin Scolaire de V Union Francaise\npour le Sauvetage de VEnfance. This society, founded in 1887, has for\nits object the defense of the guardianship of ill-treated children and of\nthose exposed to moral dangers. In 1890, the Minister of Public Instruction authorized the schools to join this league for the rescuing of children.\nThe Bulletin Scolaire, which appears about ten times a year, publishes\nthe list of schools which have collected membership fees or gifts in favor\nof the French Union, and all information touching the work that will be\nof interest to pupils in the schools.\nLet us add, finally, that there exists in every departement (county)\nan official bulletin of elementary instruction. These departmental bulletins are gratuitously sent to teachers and are the property of the school.\nThey instruct the teaching personnel regarding their appointments, dates\nof examinations, pedagogic conferences, etc. ; they reproduce the greater\npart of the ministerial circulars which appear in the Bulletin Administratif of the Minister of Public Instruction.\n\n"}
{"page": 871, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATIONAL\n\nJOURNALISM\n\nIN FRANCE.\n\n851\n\nIf we go back to the origin of the French educational press, we find that\nit has made remarkable progress in the last twenty years. The first\njournal of education dates from 1789 ; this is the Journal de Famille ou\nLivre des Enfants of Seguin. From 1789-1870 have appeared about\nsixty school journals and bulletins of societies devoted to popular instruction. Among the journals properly so-called, only a few have survived —\nthe Manuel General, the Ami de I'Enfance, and the Journal des Instituteurs. All the other educational periodicals have sprung up since 1870.\nBut we have mentioned only the journals and reviews actually appearing,\nand that without pretending to give an exact and complete list. Looking\nbackward, we can estimate the number of school journals at one hundred,\nof which more than one-half are devoted specially to questions touching\nelementary instruction.\n\n"}
{"page": 872, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 873, "printed_page": null, "text": "APPENDIX.\nThe following papers were prepared for and submitted to the International Congress\nof Education, at Chicago, July 25-28, 1893, through Hon. William T. Harris, Commissioner of Education of the United States, and General Chairman in charge of the\nCongresses.\nNone of these papers were read at sessions of the Congress, but, containing as they do\nmuch important recent information in relation to the condition of education in foreign\ncountries, they are here appended to the proceedings.\nThe series of papers on the Education of Women in Great Britain and her colonics,\nwere prepared under the auspices of Mrs. Millicent Garrett Pawcett, and offered to the\nInternational Congress of Education at the request of Dr. Harris.\nList of the Papers.\n\"University Education for Women in England,\" \"A Few Words of Retrospect and\nForecast,\" \" University Association of Women Teachers,\" \"Elementary Education in\nEngland,\" \"National Education in Scotland,\" \" Women Students in the Scottish Universities,\" \"Convent Education in Ireland,\" \"Women's Education in New Zealand,\"\n\"Educational Work for Women in Australia, chiefly in New South Wales,\" \"Recent\nDevelopments of Education for the Women and Girls of India,\" \"English Orphanage\nand Training School in Bosnia, 1869-92,\" \" Elementary and Secondary Education in\nCape Colony, Africa,\" \" Public Instruction in Italy,\" \" Needlework in the Public Schools\nof Stockholm, Sweden.\"\n\nUNIVERSITY\nBY\n\nMRS.\n\nEDUCATION\nHENRY\n\nFAWCETT\n\nFOR\n[MILLICENT\n\nWOMEN\nGARRETT\n\nIN\n\nENGLAND.\n\nFAWCETTJ.\n\nThe story has often been told how the exclusion of the women delegates, chosen by\ntwo of the American societies, from the great anti-slavery convention held in London\nin 1840, led to the first formal and organized claim of women to the rights of citizenship. The seed had lain long in the ground, giving signs of life indeed, but none of\nrapid germination. It will be readily understood that a considerable degree of heat\nwas engendered by the controversy whether it was in accordance with social decorum\nand the ordinances of Almighty God that Mrs. Mott and Mrs. Stanton, having been\nchosen as delegates, should sit and speak and vote as delegates, or should be fenced off\nbehind a bar and curtain as mere spectators. This heat was just what was needed to\nstart that process of growth which has never ceased since that day either in England or\nin the United States. The supporters of exclusion carried the day ; the majority of the\nmen who had met to take counsel together how they could best oppose negro slavery\nwere not prepared to concede the most elementary civil liberty to women. But as Mrs.\nMott and Mrs. Stanton left the hall, they then and there resolved to call a women's\nrights convention on their return to their own country. Among the Englishwomen who\nwere the spectators and auditors of the discussion which led to the exclusion of the\n\n"}
{"page": 874, "printed_page": null, "text": "854\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nAmerican ladies from the conference were Mrs. Pry, Mrs. Jameson, Lady Byron, and\nMrs. Howitt. The seed germinated in their minds too, and the conviction grew that if\nliberty was good and a thing worth striving for, it would be good for women. The\nmovement for political enfranchisement, equal laws, opportunities of employment and\nof education for women, received a most important impulse in England from the slight\nput upon the American ladies by the anti-slavery convention.\nI propose to endeavor to trace in outline the development in England of one of these\nmain branches of the women's movement — the claim to share in higher education.\nThe defective state of women's education in the first half of the century, and still more\nin earlier times, it is difficult now to realize. Defoe had called attention to it in one of\nhis essays on Projects. Mary Wollstonecraft had protested against it and against the\nmass of false theory and evil practice which supported it. Sydney Smith had assailed\nit with the keen shafts of ridicule. But very little had practically been done to place\nthe education of women on a rational basis. The first definite piece of work in this\ndirection was begun in 1846, and owed its initiative to the Rev. Frederick Denison\nMaurice, who was then one of the professors of King's College, London. The idea\noccurred to him that as it was part of his duty to teach young men at King's College, it\nwould be right and suitable to provide classes for their sisters. The practical outcome\nof this idea was the foundation of Queen's College. The Dowager Lady Stanley of\nAlderley seconded Mr. Maurice's efforts. He was also aided by Dr. Trench, afterward\nArchbishop of Dublin,* and by the Rev. C. G. Nicolay, then both professors of King's\nCollege. Classes for young women were opened in 1846 ; in 1848 a house in Harley\nStreet was taken, and in 1853 a Royal charter was obtained. The educational importance of the foundation of Queen's College is difficult to exaggerate. It opened a new\nlife to those who profited by its instruction. Among its earliest pupils were Miss Buss,\nnow of the North London Collegiate School for Girls, and Miss Dorothea Beale, now of\nthe Ladies' College, Cheltenham. These two ladies have devoted their whole life to\nraise the standard of girls' education. They founded schools of their own which afterward served as models for the schools of the Girls' Public Day School Company, and\nhave had a most important influence on the development of education all over the\nUnited Kingdom.\nQueen's College, being in a sense a sister establishment to King's College, was from its\nfoundation a Church of England institution, whereas Bedford College, founded mainly\nby Mrs. Rcid, in 1849, was entirely undenominational. As Queen's College is able to\nboast of Miss Buss and Miss Beale as among its earliest students, so Bedford College lays\nclaim to the distinction of having provided part of the intellectual equipment of George\nEliot, and of Barbara Leigh Smith, afterward Mme. Bodichon, one of the founders of\nGirton College. After the foundation of Queen's and Bedford there was a long period\nof quiescence, when, if progress was made at all, it was so slow as to remind one of what\nMr. Russell Lowell once said of the movement of public opinion in England. He said\nit was like the movement of glacial drift ; you could not see it move, but when you\nlooked again, after an interval, you found it had moved. Possibly the slow rate of progress in the development of higher education for women after the foundation of Queen's\nand Bedford Colleges may be accounted for by the preoccupation of the national mind\nwith the Crimean war and the Indian Mutiny of 1854-6 and 1857-8. Times of national\ncrisis, \"the glory and grief of battle, won or lost,\" may solder a race together, but\nthe years thus occupied are not usually the years when social movements make rapid\nprogress. Such times, however, are great tests of character, national and personal.\nIn the presence of real danger, conventions and insincerities are at a discount ; any\none, man or woman, who can do a stroke of work for the country is urged to do it.\n* Archbishop Trench afterward became one of the chief promoters of Alexandra College, Dublin.\n\n"}
{"page": 875, "printed_page": null, "text": "UNIVERSITY\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nWOMEN\n\nIN ENGLAND.\n\n855\n\nThe national necessities of England during the Crimean war gave Florence Nightingale the opportunity of doing the work which her capacities, character, and training\nhad fitted her to do, and indirectly gave an impetus to another movement which has resulted in England in the opening of the medical profession and of university education\nto women. The train of ideas is not difficult to follow. If women can be of essential\nservice to the sick as trained nurses, why should they not also be of essential service to\nthem as doctors ? To obtain medical education, women had to knock at the door of\nthe universities, and while they asked for medical education they also asked for instruction in other branches of knowledge.\nIn April, 1862, Miss Elizabeth Garrett (now Mrs. Garrett Anderson, M.D.), then\nworking with the aim of obtaining a medical qualification, memorialized the University\nof London to open their degrees to women. Her application was refused on legal\ngrounds, but on the last day of the same month her father reopened the subject by\nagain addressing the senate of the university, begging for a reconsideration of his\ndaughter's application, and suggesting that a clause should be added to the charter of\nthe university expressly providing for the admission of women to its examinations and\ndegrees.\nOn May 7, 1862, Mr. Grote, the historian, vice-chancellor of the university, moved\na resolution favorable to the request of Mr. Garrett's memorial. This was seconded by\nthe Right Hon. Robert Lowe, M.P. (afterward Lord Sherbrooke) ; but after a protracted discussion the voting was equal, ten on each side, and the proposal was negatived by the casting vote of the chancellor. On this occasion the petitioners were able\nto appeal to the original charter of London University, where it was stated in the broadest possible terms that the university was founded with the object of holding forth \"to\nall classes and denominations, . . . without any distinction whatsoever, an encouragement for pursuing a regular and liberal course of education.\" It appeared, however,\nthat when this was written, in 1836, the great discovery of the nineteenth century, that\nwomen are human beings, had not been made. Women were told that though the\nuniversity was for \" all classes and denominations without any distinction whatsoever,\"\nit was not for them.\nThough defeated, the applicants felt by no means discouraged.\nIn the autumn of 1862 a committee was formed to obtain for women admission to university examinations. The honorary secretary of this committee was Miss Emily Davies,\nand the honorary treasurer was Lady Goldsmid. To Miss Davies more than to any other\nsingle person this branch of the women's education movement owed its inspiration and\ndirection. The committee began its work in what they wisely believed to be the line of\nleast resistance. Very few people at that time were prepared to open the honors and\ntripos examinations of Oxford and Cambridge to women, but girls' schools were familiar\nand not terrifying objects even to the most timid. The first work undertaken by the\ncommittee was the effort to open to girls the university local examinations which had\nbeen established for boys in 1858. About the same time (1864) Miss Davies and Miss\nBostock were instrumental in preparing, independently of the committee, a memorial to\nthe recently appointed Schools Inquiry Commission, praying them to include girls'\nschools and the application of endowments to girls' education within the scope of their\ninquiry. The success of this application was one of the most important turning points\nin the struggle for the reform of girls' education. It gave the reformers a mass of evidence authenticated by the royal commission. It brought to light the almost entire\nexclusion of girls from the benefits of educational endowments, and had a very important bearing on the work that was subsequently done by the Endowed Schools Commissioners inrestoring to girls some of the educational endowments of which they had\nin previous generations been deprived. It is true tlmt some schoolmistresses, when the\nSchools Inquiry Commission was appointed, deeply resented its investigations. One\nreplied that the questions asked were too inquisitorial for any woman of spirit to answer,\n\n"}
{"page": 876, "printed_page": null, "text": "856\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION.\n\nand that every girl of spirit would leave the room on the appearance of the assistant\ncommissioner in it. Another replied to a letter asking permission to visit the school:\n\" I am sincerely sorry to find that ministers have nothing better to do than to pry into\nthe menage of private families, as I consider my establishment, which has been in existence thirty years and always held the highest position.\"\nThe commission reported in 1868. It is unnecessary to dwell in detail on the character of the report as regards girls' schools. It is sufficient to say that with but few\nexceptions, such as the Quakers' School at York, the North London Collegiate School,\nand the Ladies' College, Cheltenham, hardly any girls' schools were reported upon as\nsupplying their pupils with a liberal education. One of the chief causes of the defects\nin girls' schools was the want of suitable preparation for the profession of teaching on\nthe part of governesses. \" My poverty and not my will consents \" might have been the\nmotto of all but a very small proportion of the women who embarked upon this honorable and difficult profession. Another reason for the low standard of education in girls'\nschools was the indifference of parents and the public generally to anything in girls'\neducation beyond what was showy and attractive. As a consequence of this want of\ninterest in good education, nearly the whole of the educational endowments of the country\nhad been appropriated for boys. The report of the commission afforded a solid foundation of fact on which the reformers of girls' education have industriously built. Public\nattention was thoroughly aroused, and plans for improving the education of girls sprang\nup in a variety of directions. Very much was done to repair the injustice done to girls\nin the matter of endowments by the labors of the Endowed School Commissions, now\nmerged in the Charity Commission.\nMeanwhile Miss Davies' committee, formed in 1862, took up, as I have just said, as\nits first piece of work, the opening of the local examinations of the University of Cambridge to girls. These examinations are for young people of the school age; the juniors\nmust be under fourteen and the seniors under sixteen ; the examinations are held simultaneously indifferent local centers all over the country and in the colonies. When first\nestablished they were for boys only ; in December, 1863, an experimental examination for\ngirls was held in London, at which, with the consent of the Local Examinations Syndicate\nat Cambridge, all the regulations enforced in the case of boys were strictly observed.\nThe next year a memorial signed by more than one thousand teachers of girls and many\nother influential persons .was addressed to the vice-chancellor of the university, on the\nsubject of opening the local examinations to girls. The reply was favorable, but the\nmatter had to be referred to a vote of the senate. On March 12, 1865, Miss Davies\nreceived a telegram from Mr. Markby, secretary of the Cambridge Local Examinations\nSyndicate: \" Send up all you can to-morrow — voting at 12. Opposition organized.\" On\nMarch 13th he wrote as follows : \" Fifty-five to fifty-one, so we are successful ; it was a\nclose contest. I got votes enough to turn the scale just before going into the Senate\nHouse.\" Cambridge was thus first in the field as regards English universities to open\nany of its examinations to girls ; Oxford very shortly afterward opened her local examinations also. The chief point to be remarked is that, owing chiefly to the strong views\nentertained on the subject by Miss Davies, exactly the same examination papers were\nused for boys and girls and exactly the same regulations were observed for both, except\nat first, in the case of Cambridge, the names of the girls examined were not given. Miss\nDavies has always been a very stanch opponent of any special university examinations\nfor women, or of any variation, in the case of women, of what the university requires\nfrom the men who offer themselves for the tripos examinations. Difference on this subject is the chief difference between those who have guided the fortunes of Girton and\nNewnham respectively.\nThe labors of Miss Davies' committee having been successful in opening the local\nexaminations to girls, she immediately afterward began to project the idea of a college\n\n"}
{"page": 877, "printed_page": null, "text": "UNIVERSITY\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nWOMEN\n\nIN ENGLAND\n\n857\n\nfor women students beyond the school age, where they could be prepared for university\nexaminations of a more advanced character. The first list of subscriptions to this proposed \"college for women\" is dated 1869, and amounts to nearly £3,000. The\nexecutive committee met in London, and the college when first opened, in 1869, was\nsituated at Hitchin, in Hertfordshire, about half-way between London and Cambridge.\nIn 1872 the college was transferred to handsome buildings specially erected for it at\nOirton, about two miles from Cambridge.\nHaving traced the development of one branch of the women's education movement as\nfar as the opening of Girton College, I must now ask my auditors to allow me to trace\nthe development of another branch of the same movement which culminated in the\nfoundation of Newnham College. I like to think of these two colleges as sister stems\nof a beech-tree, deriving their nourishment from the same root, but having an independent growth, and differing from each other in some externals. The development of\neach presents some interesting examples of the interdependence or solidarite of the\nseveral parts of the women's movement.\nThe same energy that produced Girton also gave the first impulse to the opening of\nthe medical profession to women in England, and also to the opening to women of university examinations of identically the same character as those provided for men.\nThe energy that produced Newnham produced also what is now known as University\nExtension, which in its turn led to the formation all over England of university colleges in our principal centers of population, where men and women, not able to proceed\nto either of our ancient universities, can obtain advanced instruction.\nThe promoters of Girton set before themselves, with unalterable determination, the\naim of making the tests applied to university education for women exactly the same as\nthose for men. The promoters of Newnham approached the subject of the reform of\nwomen's education in a rather different spirit. They found it defective, and sought to\nremedy its defects without desiring to follow exactly on the lines of men's education\nwhere they thought these were capable of improvement. Both, in my judgment, have\nbeen most useful ; they have been complementary to each other. Girton has maintained\nfor women the highest intellectual standard ; Newnham showed a greater power of\nadaptability to the then conditions of the educational problem, and had in view excellence of examination as an educational test, rather than identity of examination of\nwomen with men all through the university course. Miss Anne J. Clough was to Newnham all, and I may say more than all, that Miss Davies was to Girton. She was not only\nthe founder of the college and the originator of the movement from which the college\nsprung — Miss Davies was that to Girton — but she was for the first twenty-one years of\nits existence its principal. She more than any other one person was, as a woman, the\nrepresentative in the university of university education for women ; and she was the\nembodiment of wisdom, kindness, gentleness, and tact, that won her not only the enthusiastic loyalty of her students and personal friends, but the cordial respect and consideration of the university authorities. Her death last year was referred to in a university\nsermon preached by the Bishop of Peterboro', and in the annual address given by the\nvice-chancellor, as one of the chief losses which the cause of education had recently\nsustained. Her combination of sweetness, humor, and determination made her an unique\npersonality, to which much of her singular power of influencing other minds was due.\nIn 1866 Miss Clough was resident in Liverpool, and with the cooperation of Mrs.\nJosephine Butler formed the Liverpool Ladies' Educational Society. This society\ninstituted courses of lectures for ladies, requiring steady work from those who attended\nthem. After rather more than two years' successful work the society enlarged its aims.\nUniversity lecturers were engaged, and other towns were invited to join in the scheme,\nso that the lecturer might go from town to town, spreading the means of higher education\nfor women in each.\nThe inaugural meeting of this society, which took the name of\n\n"}
{"page": 878, "printed_page": null, "text": "858\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOE EDUCATION.\n\nthe North of England Council for the Higher Education of Women, was called by Miss\nClough at Mrs. Butler's house in 1869. Manchester, Leeds, and Sheffield joined, and\nthe Ladies' Educational Council was formed, with Mrs. Butler as its president and\nMiss Clough as its secretary. This was the beginning of university extension, and ultimately of the university colleges in many of our chief cities, and led indirectly to the\nfoundation of Newnham College.\nAmong the Cambridge men who were in hearty sympathy with the efforts to spread\neducation among women were Mr. Henry Sidgwick and Mr. James Stuart, both of\nTrinity College. Mr. (now Professor) Sidgwick, with the help of Miss Clough, undertook the direction of the movement for the higher education of women in the university. Mr. Stuart (now member for Shoreditch) directed, or rather created, the movement\nfor university extension. Time does not allow me to follow the history of this movement in any detail. It has had an important bearing on the higher education of women.\nIts principle is now well known. \" If Mahomet cannot go to the mountain, the mountain must go to Mahomet.\" To women in their homes, to clerks at their desks, to artisans at their work, Mr. Stuart and his coadjutors said : \" If you cannot go to the university, the university shall come to you.\" In consequence of his efforts, university extension\nhas spread all over the English-speaking world ; your own Chautauqua is its child.\nIn England many of the towns that took the lead in welcoming the university extension scheme were not long content with the visits of itinerant lecturers. The Firth\nCollege, Sheffield;* University College, Nottingham; the Yorkshire College, Leeds; and\nthe university colleges of Liverpool, Bristol, and Newcastle, sprang up in response to\nthe demand for higher education that had grown up out of the university extension\nmovement. The university colleges of Wales, and the Mason College, Birmingham, are\nprobably related to the same movement; and to these colleges, all over the country, we\ncertainly owe the establishment of the Victoria University. It must be noted that the\norigin of the whole movement was in that meeting called by Miss Clough in Mrs.\nButler's house in 1869. Hence, as of so many other good things, we may truly say of\nit, \"Cherchcz la femme;\" and the consequence is that university extension has been\nabsolutely open and equal to women all along. They are admitted on equal terms to\nall the classes either at extension centers or at university colleges (except when these\nlatter include medical schools) ; and when Victoria University was founded by Royal\ncharter, in 1880, f all its degrees were as open to women as to men. The slow and\ngrudging recognition of the claims of women to higher education which is a blot on the\nhistory of Owen's College, Manchester, is largely due to its being an older foundation,\nopened in 1851, before it had been discovered that the education of women was an\nimportant factor in national development.\nOne other word must be added about the university colleges. They and University\nCollege, London, and the university extension classes everywhere, are the only important\nthings we in England have to show in the way of mixed education. If we may still\nspeak of this as an experiment, the experiment has been thoroughly successful ; men\nand women sit together in the same classrooms, learn the same subjects, are tested by\nthe same examinations, and the world has gone on much the same as it did before, only\nbetter, by giving men and women more points of sympathy and a larger number of\ncommon interests.\n* I have not ascertained the number of women students attending classes at all the various university\ncolleges, but I take the one at Nottingham as a fair example of the rest, and I find on inquiry from\nProfessor Syme, the principal, that, in the year just closed, 200 women attended day classes and 760\nattended evening classes.\nt The first examinations of Victoria University were held in 18S1, when only men entered ; two women\npresented themselves for examination in 1883 ; in 1892 the number had increased to thirty. There are\nnow forty -four women graduates of this university.\n\n"}
{"page": 879, "printed_page": null, "text": "UNIVERSITY\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nWOMEN\n\nIN ENGLAND.\n\n859\n\nGoing back now to the beginning of Newnham College, the lectures established by\nthe North of England Council for the Higher Education of Women led to a demand for\na university examination of a higher grade than the senior local, and in 1868 the\nexamination for women over eighteen, afterward called the higher local, was established\nby the University of Cambridge.* Miss Davies and the Girton committee opposed this\nas antagonistic to their main principle — identity of educational tests for men and\nwomen. Miss Clough, Mr. Sidgwick, and the other pro?noters of Newnham supported\nit as meeting a present need. Lectures for women in Cambridge, much on the same\n.plan as those organized in Liverpool and other northern towns by Miss Clough and\nMrs. Butler, were projected in 1869, and actually begun in 1870. Mr. Henry Sidgwick\nwas the originating mind of the whole scheme.\nI hope I may be pardoned a feeling of satisfaction in recalling the fact that the first\nmeeting in Cambridge to discuss this plan was held at my house in December, 1869, and\nthat the first document in the books containing the history of Newnham is the notice\nconvening this meeting. The necessity of seeking the line of least resistance is\napparent throughout this little document. The economy of having lectures for women\ndelivered in Cambridge by lecturers already engaged in lecturing on the same subject\nin their respective colleges is pointed out. There was, perhaps, another kind of economy\nin this method of stating our case. The circular also mentions that though the immediate object of the lectures would be to afford means of higher education to women\nresiding in Cambridge, yet if women from a distance, not having friends in Cambridge,\n\"should come here for the purpose of attending the lectures,\" it would be necessary to\nprovide \" some lodging or hall\" for them. The word \" hall\" was the only vestige of\nintrepidity in the circular. But 1 ask those who would point the finger of scorn at us\nto remember that if we had said we wished to establish a college for women in Cambridge we might as well have said that we wished to establish a college for women in\nSaturn. It was an absolute necessity to proceed with great caution. We made a good\ndeal of use of the fact that the university had established an examination for women\nover eighteen, and that the lectures for women in Cambridge were designed with a\nview of providing the education which that examination has been instituted to test.\nWe asked no recognition from the university further than what had already been\ngiven.\nThe whole machinery of the lectures was voluntary; several of the most distinguished\nprofessors had for many years past allowed the presence of ladies at their lectures. And\nmany of these, besides some of the leading college lecturers, gave their support to \"the\nlectures for women.\" Our first list of friends contains the names of Professors Adams,\nCayley, and Maurice, besides those of Messrs. W. C. Clark, Clifford, Jebb, Marshall,\nSkeat, and Todhunter ; and the first series of lectures was delivered by men many of\nwhom had even then gained a world-wide reputation in their respective subjects. How\nmuch the whole movement owes to those men who befriended us at the very beginning\nof our efforts, I hope none of us will ever forget. In the Michaelmas term, 1870, Mr.\nJohn Stuart Mill and his stepdaughter, Miss Taylor, gave us a scholarship of £40 for\ntwo years. The same year Mr. A. J. Balfour gave us £20 toward a fund for a similar\npurpose. The numbers attending the lectures made satisfactory progress, and the contingency, which had been foreseen from the beginning, became a reality. Women from\na distance, not having friends in Cambridge, desired to reside in the town for the\npurpose of attending the lectures ; and in 1871 Miss Clough was invited by the committee to come to Cambridge and open a house for these women students, of whom\nat first there were five only. This was the beginning of what is now Newnham\nCollege.\n* This examination was open to men in 1873, but very few men avail themselves of it.\n\n"}
{"page": 880, "printed_page": null, "text": "860\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nThe plan pursued by Newnham and Girton in regard to the examinations of the university differed in one not unimportant respect. Newnham used the higher local examination established by the university for women over eighteen as the first test of\neducational progress, proceeding afterward, by the permission of the examiners, to\nenter them for the tripos examinations of the university. The opinion of the authorities of Newnham was that the hig*her local was a decidedly better educational test than\nthe university examination for men known as the \"Littie Go,\" and that it was also\nmore suited to the needs of women. Girton, as I before explained, would have nothing\nto do with any special examination for women ; every Girton student, therefore, had to\npass the \" Little Go \" before applying to the examiners for leave to be examined in any\nof the tripos examinations.\nThere were and are other minor differences between Girton and Newnham. Girton\nis founded on the principles of the Church of England ; Newnham is completely\nunsectarian. Girton allows its students to study for the ordinary degree examinationsNewnham\n;\nstudents only prepare for the tripos examinations. If for any\nreason it is considered unsuitable to submit a student to the test of a tripos, she is\nat Newnham encouraged to take various groups of the higher local. The ordinary\nor \"poll\" examination is not recommended. Girton is two miles out of Cambridge,\nand is governed by an executive committee, which meets in London and is composed\nalmost entirely of London people. Newnham is in Cambridge, and is managed\nby a council, which meets at the college and consists almost wholly of Cambridge\npeople.\nIn 1878, as the result of long struggle for medical education, all the degrees of\nLondon University were thrown open to women. This undoubtedly had a stimulating\neffect upon the friends of women's education in the University of Cambridge. The\nsystem represented by London University would be unduly favored if London gave\nperfect equality to its women students while Cambridge merely suffered them to exist\nwithout giving them any claim to have their knowledge tested by university standards.\nFrom the time of their foundation to the year 1881, Newnham and Girton students\ncould only enter for university examinations other than the higher local, by grace\nand favor of the examiners. There was no official recognition by the university of the\nwomen students.\nIn 1880 a movement was initiated by Professor and Mrs. Steadman Aldis, of Newcastle, and supported by Miss Davies and the Girton committee, to put an end to this state\nof things, and memorials were sent by. them to the senate of the university, praying\nthat degrees might be opened to women who fulfilled the conditions of residence and of\nexamination which the university demanded of its male students. The memorial promoted by Professor Sidgwick did not go as far as this. It was signed exclusively by\nmembers of the university, and prayed that the arrangement by which the students of\nGirton and Newnham had been for the last ten years informally admitted to university\nexaminations should be placed on a formal and stable footing by receiving the sanction\nof the university. This proposal was carried by grace of the senate by an overwhelming majority, on the 24th of February, 1881. From that time women had an assured\nposition in the university ; their claim to education was formally sanctioned. The\nsuccess of the whole movement has from one point of view been very remarkable. The\nhigh place gained by women students in the various tripos examinations is so well\nknown as to require no emphasis. There have been women senior in every tripos except\nthose in theology and Semitic languages. But from another point of view there has\nbeen no progress. Women may take the highest honors that the university examinations afford to either men or women, but they are not members of the university,\nthey have no degree. The humblest poll man who has scraped through just sufficiently\nwell to put B.A. after his uauie has a position superior to theirs.\nNo university prize\n\n"}
{"page": 881, "printed_page": null, "text": "UNIVERSITY\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nWOMEN\n\nIN ENGLAND.\n\n861\n\nis open to them for competition,* and, a fortiori, none of the educational posts in the university, which are of course reserved for members of the university. The libraries,\nmuseums, and laboratories of the university are used by them on sufferance ; they\nhave been desired not to occupy a seat in the university library, because there are\nnot more seats than enough for \" members of the university.\"'\nThe intellectual distinction of many women students, and the scholarly work done\nby several of them after they have passed the tripos examinations, seem to have\nproduced no effect in securing for them any approach to equality with members of\nthe university. A series of memorials organized by Miss Davies, and very influentially signed, were presented to the vice-chancellor and senate in 1887, asking that\nwomen might be admitted to degrees. These memorials were not supported by Professor Sidgwick, who thought the time had not then come for raising the question\nof degrees. The council of the university declined to appoint a syndicate to consider the question of opening degrees to women, and since that time no further effort\nhas been made in this direction.\nI have given the history of the higher education of women in the University of Cambridge at some length, because that has been the center of the movement so far as\nEngland is concerned, and also because I am personally acquainted with its details,\nwhereas I only know the history of Somerville and Lady Margaret and St. Hugh's, at\nOxford; of Holloway and Westfield Colleges, and of the Welsh university colleges\nat second hand. The Association for the Education of Women in Oxford provides the\nteaching for the Oxford women's colleges. The regulations of the University of\nOxford in regard to women do not confine the examinations of the university to\nwomen who reside within its precincts. Students may be prepared for these examinations in their own homes, or at colleges such as Holloway or the Welsh university colleges. This is the main distinction between Oxford and Cambridge, so far as their\nconnection with women's education is concerned.\nThe vote of the University of Oxford opening its examinations to women was passed\nin 1884. Somerville was opened in 1879, Lady Margaret in 1879, and its younger\nsister, St. Hugh's, in 1886. Westfield is a college for women in London conducted on\nChurch of England principles. It was founded in 1882 and prepares students for the\ndegrees of London University. The Royal Holloway College, the palatial buildings\nand endowment of which are due to the munificence of the late Thomas Holloway, was\nopened by her Majesty in the year of her jubilee, 1887. It prepares students for the\nOxford examinations and also for the London degrees. Illustrations of the buildings\nand grounds of all these colleges, as well as of those of Newnham and Girton, will be\nfound in the Women's Building among the exhibits of the subcommittee on education in\nGreat Britain. The Welsh university colleges at Bangor, Aberystwith, and Cardiff all\nhave halls for women students, and women are admitted on equal terms to all their\neducational advantages. They prepare their students for the examinations of the\nuniversities of Oxford and London, and in general for any university examinations\nwhere residence is not required.\nI refrain from a long parade of figures illustrative of the growth of the university\neducation of women in England, but I may mention that in the old seats of learning\nmore than a hundred women are studying in the women's colleges at Oxford, and close\nupon three hundred at Cambridge. The first year the London University was open to\nwomen (1878), sixty-six women passed its examinations; the number had risen in 1893\nto five hundred and sixty-eight. When one reflects that the whole of this movement has\ngrown up within the scope of one lifetime, almost within one generation, I think we\n* Mrs. Philippe has recently founded a prize, in memory of her brother, Arnold Gernstenberg, on the\nexpress condition that it should be open to the students of Girton and Newnham, as well as to \" members\nof the university.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 882, "printed_page": null, "text": "862\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nmay fairly congratulate ourselves on the progress that has been made. The movement\nof glacial drift, though slow, is overwhelmingly powerful, and so continuous as almost\nto baffle imagination. We no longer resent Mr. Lowell's comparison, but are content\nthat the renaissance of the nineteenth ceutury, the awakening of women to a perception\nof the wonders of the old learning and the new science, should go on \" without haste\nand without rest.\"\n\nA\n\nFEW\n\nWORDS\n\nBY\n\nDOROTHEA\n\nBEALE,\n\nOF\n\nRETROSPECT\n\nLADIES*\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nAND\n\nFORECAST.\n\nCHELTENHAM,\n\nENGLAND.\n\nWhen Mrs. Fawcett and I came to compare notes we found that our papers covered\nmuch of the same ground. Mine had been written during the brief intervals of school\nwork; hers was far more complete. I therefore willingly suppressed mine; but I may\nadd as a sort of postscript to hers a few words of retrospect and forecast, for I have one\nadvantage over her — I have lived longer; I was born in the dark ages and have witnessed\nthe renaissance.\nI need not touch on the facts which are fresh in your memory. Once we cut our way\nslowly through the tangled thickets of popular opinion. \"Thou shalt not \" was the\nbeginning of most of the commands addressed to women then ; and some turned sadly\nback, and those of u3 who pressed on, spite of many prophecies of evil, did so often in\nfear and trembling.\nThere are those now who look back upon the vision of the ideal housewife and sigh\nfor the \" good old times.\" The scientist has been welcomed by Cinderella. He has set\nher free from much household drudgery, and her energies, available now for higher\nwork, have surely enriched the commonwealth.\nCan we, now that we have reached a vantage ground, look back and say: \" All is well \"I\nAre women better or worse for the wider opening of the gates of knowledge to women,\nfor university teaching, for examinations and degrees ? Is it better for them, is it better\nfor the commonwealth, that the \"old order should give place to new,\" and that the\nrestrictive law, \" Thou shalt not,\" should be exchanged for the life-giving word, \" Thou\nshalt\"? The answer must surely depend on our faith in women. Knowledge and\npower exist only in a living person ; they are good or evil according to the way in which\nhe uses his knowledge and his strength. Those who have no faith in woman will desire\nfor her the life of restriction ; those who believe that she too has risen to a higher life\nthrough Christ, will believe that she too is to tread upon serpents and scorpions, to\ncarry on a holy war, to be a Una or a Britomart.\nAnd what so far has been the result of the new movements ? What has been the effect\nof the higher education ? Has the light of truth quickened not only the mental but\nthe moral life, and been a blessing not to the individual only but to the commonwealth?\nLook first at the commonwealth. I need not ask now whether it was well that Florence Nightingale, spite of the outcries of many Mrs. Grundys, went to nurse the soldiers\nin the East. That pure and gracious figure has been a vision of beauty, for she has\npassed out of the sight of the world to live the hidden life of charity. Truly she is still\na prophetess, who was able to make the dead arise, and we see an army of earnest workers filling the place of Mrs. Gamp in hospital, workhouse, and infirmary.\nMany have learned through her the beauty of the Master's words : \" I am among you\nas one that serveth.\"\nAnd surely, too, the world is better because Mrs. Fawcett's sister led the van in the\ngreat struggle, which seemed so hopeless until the first victory in Edinburgh became\nlike the flight from Mecca, the beginning of victory. J remember when it was considered indelicate for a woman to study the human body.\nStrange that it did not seem to\n\n"}
{"page": 883, "printed_page": null, "text": "A\n\nFEW\n\nWORDS\n\nOF\n\nRETROSPECT\n\nAND\n\nFORECAST.\n\n863\n\nEnglish women, as to our Oriental sisters, that it was equally indelicate to be doctored by\na man ; that if in no other, in this at least, as Mrs. Jameson earnestly pleaded, there\nshould be a communion of labor. And now the highest sanction has been afforded to\nthose who in India and elsewhere are giving to their suffering sisters the help which only\nthose who have gone through the scientific study of medicine can render.\nAnd for the women doctors themselves, I appeal fearlessly to those who have known\nthem. Are they not. with few exceptions, women full of tenderness and womanly feeling, neither womanish nor mannish, but womanly and manly, too ? And surely it is a\ngood vision our poet-prophet saw in coming time, \"when the man should be more of\nwoman, she of man.\"\nSurely it is well that woman, pondering these things, should learn to feel that if the\nspiritual principle is that which forms the body, yet the degraded body brutalizes the\nsoul ; that they should join in the holy war against intemperance in its many forms ;\nthat they, too, should descend \"into the cruel habitations,\" \"to deliver the spirits in\nprison that have been disobedient to God's laws ; that they, too, should go down and\nraise their sisters.\"\nIs it well that women, armed like Britomart, should watch for souls in the police-court,\nthe prison, the workhouse ; that they should show to the men who have learned to\ndespise women that there is in the lowest a spark of good which the heat of divine pity\ncan fan into a flame ? Such noble women have moved many a knight to put on \" the\nbloody cross in dear remembrance of his dying Lord,\" and go forth to war against the\ngreat dragon.\n\" This may be well,\" some may say, and yet ask further : \" Is it well that the gates of\nknowledge should be thrown open, that the tree of knowledge of good and evil should\nbe allowed to grow in the garden of Zenana ? Is it well that girls should pass down the\nlanes where the hedges are made bright by the lovely berries of the deadly nightshade?\"\nThe choice does not rest with us ; evil and good grow together in this world of ours ;\nthe danger surely is aggravated by ignorance. Let the eye and the taste be taught to\ndiscern good and evil, and the soul disciplined to obedience ; this alone is our safety.\nI appeal freely to the experience of those who have been able to contrast the system of\nliberal bodily and mental diet, of free and vigorous exercise, with that of restraint and\nseclusion. Our girls are far healthier in body and mind, more happy, more useful, more\ntruly womanly, than those whose whole nature was less fully developed. Besides, a\nwoman with wider intellectual interests can be a more true and helpful companion, a\nbeing \"breathing thoughtful breath.\" That alone is a true marriage which is a union\nof souls. It is not well that the husband should live in a different region of thought and\nfeeling and religion from his wife ; that mother and son, brother and sister, should\ninhabit different worlds. There are actors who learn only their own speeches and trouble themselves about nothing until they take up their own cue. Need I say these are\nfailures ? But those who have entered, like the Meiningen actors, into the whole play\n— they alone could give their own part with effect.\nAnd so in life ; each will have his or her own province of work, but each will do her\nown better the more she is in sympathy with others. Women will be able to do their\nwork as women better from understanding better the work of men ; and men, as they\nlearn to respect women, will be more desirous to bs respected by them.\nThis reflex influence on men is not the least of the good which comes from women\nhaving a higher education, and it would, I am persuaded, have no degrading influence\nupon political life.\nI would fain dwell on the blessings to the community of the increased moral influence\nof women, as they have rebelled against that profane teaching of our great poet, which\nso marred the nobility of his character and lowered the standard of right both for men\nand women : \"He for God only, she for God in him.\"\n\nIt has been truly said that\n\n"}
{"page": 884, "printed_page": null, "text": "864\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nslavery degrades the slave owner even more than the slave ; and all history teaches us\nthat those who treat women as property rather than spiritual, responsible beings, are\ndegraded; and we do believe this advance has had a vast spiritual influence, for which\nwe thank God.\nThe chief leaders of this great movement \" have surely deserved well of the republic.\"\nMiss Buss, Miss Shirreff, Mrs. Grey, and Miss Emily Davies survive to look on a\nchanged world. All has been done quietly, patiently, gradually. The old idea of a\n\" lady\" is gone. To render service is felt to be the highest privilege. And it is mainly\nthis desire that has made women contend for education and training. This passion for\nserving, as Ruskin has taught, stimulates every faculty, glorifies and gives insight into\nnature, and hallows all art. This, as our great musicians have shown, ennobles the\nemotional nature and exalts its expression. As soon as women came to feel the value of\na higher education for themselves they longed to lift up those who had not their advantages ;a great army of unmarried have become working bees in the social hive.\nWomen have taken their share in great social organizations. They have sat on schoolboards ; they have been elected guardians of the poor, aldermen, and county councilors. Women have been appointed assistant calculators in the Royal Observatory,\nclerks on labor commission, to say nothing of other civil service appointments. Many\nwomen have become speakers and writers on social topics, missioners on temperance,\nsanitary science, dress, cooking, home arts and industries, plain and art needlework,\nSloyd, etc.\nSome took up lecturing as a profession, and are employed by the Palestine and\nEgyptian Exploration Societies. Miss Harrison lectures at the British Museum on\nGreek art. Others have taken up physical culture, regarding it as a matter of national\nimportance.\nIt was an imposing gathering of about two thousand women at the Conference of\nWomen Workers at Bristol last autumn, all of whom are engaged in some philanthropic work, able to write and speak clearly, to organize and to direct.\nThere are about sixty different orders of Sisters or Deaconesses, engaged in a vast\nvariety of religious, philanthropic, educational, and charitable work ; in the Salvation\nArmy, as in the Society of Friends, women hold equal rank with men.\nVast organizations of many thousands have been formed and managed by women, to\nhelp those who are working for their bread; notably, the Girls' Friendly Society, the\nMabis, the Christian Young Women's Association, the Young Women's Help Society,\nthe Girls' Club Union, and the College for Working Women. The Oxford and Cambridge colleges, and the Cheltenham Ladies' College have tried to do work in these lines,\nand have established settlements of their own in the poor parts of London. Noble\nwomen have been leaders in the great crusade against the most terrible evils which\nafflict humanity. The old prejudice, that for a woman to earn money was to lose caste,\nis almost a thing of the past ; those who are admitted to the highest circles of society\nhave accepted headships of women's colleges.\nHead- mistresses rank with head-masters. Lady physicians and other professional\nwomen now take the place to which they are entitled.\nI believe too that the vast social work that has been carried on by women has averted,\nfor a time at least, social convulsions as terrible as those of a century ago. This cannot,\nof course, be proved, and\n\"The world which credits what is done\nIs blind to all that might have been.\"\n\nThe positive good all know when they see the fierce spirits tamed and the desperate\nrescued from the sloughs of despondency by the power of holy and beautiful lives,\nproving that good is stronger than evil.\n\"Amor vincit omnia,\"\n\n"}
{"page": 885, "printed_page": null, "text": "UNIVERSITY\n\nUNIVERSITY\nBY\n\nCONSTANCE\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nASSOCIATION\nELDER,\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOF WOMEN\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS.\n\nWOMEN\n\nTEACHERS.\n\nHONORARY\n\nSECRETARY\n\nOF\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS,\n\nENGLAND.\n\nWOMEN\n\n865\n\nTHE\n\nThe movement toward obtaining university education for women\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nhad stood the test\n\nof fourteen years' actual working when the Universi'y Association of Women Teachers\ncame into existence. The period covered was one of hard labor on the part of its promoters, to gradual but assured success. In 1869 the first of the two sister colleges\n(Girton) was opened at Hitchin, a village in Cambridgeshire, and, slightly later, the\nsecond, called at first Merton Hall (practically the beginning of Newnham), was opened\nin Cambridge itself. Ten years later the two Oxford halls, Soraerville and Lady\n.Margaret, were opened simultaneously.\nThe year 1881 was made memorable to those interested in the higher education of\nwomen by the passing of the graces by the Senate of Cambridge University. Hitherto the\nexaminations for women had been quite informal and were unauthorized by the university, and it was only by the courtesy of individual examiners that the papers were\ncorrected. This being the case, it was even possible that the examiners might refuse to\nexamine, and so the work of three years might fail of its rightful recognition. Such\na state of things could not continue. Friends of the new movement began to agitate by\nmeans of memorials on the subject, and finally the scheme already followed informally\nwas adopted by the Senate. The result of this concession is that women and men now\nstand on the same footing as regards examinations, and though women are not eligible\nfor degrees, they receive a university certificate showing the examination they have\npassed, and the class they have taken. By the statutes of convocation passed in 1886\nand 1888, similar privileges to those enjoyed by Cambridge women students were conferred\non Oxford women. The number of women students at both universities had in the\nmeanwhile largely increased, and outside the universities the system of secondary\neducation in endowed and proprietary schools had created a demand for teachers of\nscholarship and cultivation. Private coaching had also become daily more sought\nafter.\nIn 1872 the Girls' Public Day School Company had been formed by a number of persons interested in the subject of girls' education. The object of this movement was to\nsecure more adequate provision for secondary education of girls, and to raise the\nstandard of teaching in girls' schools generally. The company now has thirty-four schools\nand seven thousand pupils. Eleven years later the Church Schools Company was\nfounded ; it now has twenty-five schools and two thousand pupils. Private enterprise had also done much towards establishing a better and more thorough system of\neducation for girls. Miss Buss had been at work for several years, and her private\nschool had proved itself to be so great a success that it served as a pioneer and model\nfor the whole scheme of high schools. MissBeale had also done much in working up\nthe well-known college for girls at Cheltenham. Previous to these Professor Maurice\nhad opened classes for girls at King's College, and, in conjunction with Charles Kingsley\nand others, founded Queen's College, which received a royal charter in 1848; and shortly\nafterwards Bedford College was opened. These two institutions gave perhaps the\ngreatest impetus to the education of girls in England.\nThere were then two movements on foot :\n(1) That towards the higher education of women.\n(2) That towards the improvement of the secondary education of girls.\nAnd it is interesting to notice that the convergence of these two movements was the\nmeans of showing the need of combination among duly qualified women,\n55\n\n"}
{"page": 886, "printed_page": null, "text": "8G6\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nEvery year there was a large increase in the number of young women seeking educational work of a higher kind than had hitherto been offered or asked for. The\ndeficiency of means of bringing them into contact with parents and head-mistresses\nwas great, and entailed on the principals of the women's colleges much correspondence.\nThe difficulty also on the part of the principals of keeping a full record of the movements of every student, after she left college, was even greater, so that the practical\nnecessity arose of some kind of center where employers and those seeking work could\nbe put into communication with each other. The University Association of Women\nTeachers was the practical outcome of all this. The primary object of the members\nthus banded together was to constitute a registry for teachers, worked by themselves.\nIt was felt not only that the ordinary registers, carried on commercially for profit,\ncharged the teachers too large a commission, but that its registry office could exert an\ninfluence that would improve the conditions under which its members took engagements, and that the strength gained by having a registry of their own would be a\nprotection to teachers and would add dignity to their position professionally. But\nfurther, the functions of the Association were to associate, for their common interests\nand for the advancement of education, duly qualified university women engaged in the\nprofession of teaching.\nIt provides : (a) Lecturers, (b) Teachers in public and private schools and families,\n(c) Examiners in schools.\nTo explain the word duly qualified women.\nThe Association is divided into Ordinary Members, classes A and B, the higher and\nthe lower. Class A contains the names of those who have passed examinations of the\nhighest grade, and whose scholarship alone entitles them to be placed under that head.\nThe merits of the various university examinations were carefully considered and compared, and they were arranged accordingly. Thus, we place under the first head those\nwho possess one of the following qualifications :\nA certificate of having attained the standard of (a) the Cambridge tripos.\nA certificate of having attained the standard of (b) the Oxford public examination in\nhonors ; (c) the honor certificate of the Oxford examination for women ; (d) the London\ndegree ; (e) the degree of the Victoria University (Manchester, Leeds, Liverpool) ; (/)\nthe honors degree of the Royal University of Ireland.\nIn the second class (Class B) are placed the names of those who have taken the lower\ngrade examinations : (a) the Cambridge ordinary degree ; (5) the higher local honor\ncertificate; (c) the intermediate or. preliminary scientific M. B. examination of the\nUniversity of London ; (d) the pass certificate of the Oxford examination for women.\nAnd these must possess the further qualification of having resided three consecutive\nterms at Girton or Newnham College, Cambridge ; Somerville Hall, Lady Margaret\nHall, St. Hugh's Hall, Oxford ; the Royal Ilolloway College ; Westfield or College Hall,\nLondon.\nThe \"residential qualification\" is a very important one, and by those who have\nenjoyed the privilege of residing in college it is considered to be a distinct disadvantage\nto any student, whether in Class A or B, to be without it. The close contact with\nwomen of various types and experiences, the toleration which this engenders, the\ndiversity and similarity of interests and pursuits, all are invaluable helps to the development of character. There are virtues which seem almost created in some women through\nthe opportunity now afforded them of a three years' seclusion in a university town, and\nan absorption in academic interests, which are making them into better, brighter, and\nmore capable citizens, by widening their sympathies and bracing their intellects ;\nand which are slowly but surely enlarging the sphere of women's work and women's\nopportunities.\nBesides the advantage to the individual of having resided, there is also the advantage\n\n"}
{"page": 887, "printed_page": null, "text": "University association of Women teachers.\n\n867\n\nto the Association of having a guarantee as to the course of study she has pursued and\nthe character she has borne — all the more desirable when there is not the guarantee\nafforded by the certificate of having passed one of the best examinations.\nIt is interesting to note that the University of Edinburgh is beginning to adopt, in\nthis respect, the custom of the ancient English foundations, and is encouraging its\nstudents to go into residence and to enjoy the stimulating social influence of college as\nwell as university life.\nAssociateship. — Though, with a view to maintaining its character as a body of\nuniversity women, the Association insists on the foregoing qualifications for ordinary\nmembers, yet the right is reserved to the committee, under very special circumstances,\nof admitting as Associates some efficient women teachers who, through residence abroad\nor some other cause, may have pursued some other course of study than that generally\nrecognized by the committee.\nPresidentship. — The Association is more than fortunate in having had as its president, from its commencement up to the time of her death, the late honored principal of\nNewnham College, Miss Clough. It was she who, after initiating, with others, the\nscheme for the opening of the senior local examination to girls, and, later, that of the\nNorth of England Council for Promoting the Higher Education of Women, after working on to the opening of the higher local examinations, and doing perhaps more than any\nother woman has done to give the impetus needed to woman's education, suggested the\nformation of the University Association of Women Teachers. Prom the beginning she\nshowed her active sympathy with and appreciation of the work done by it in the most\nhelpful of all ways — by giving her personal service and presiding at almost all its\ngeneral meetings ; by passing on notices of work received by her, and by recommending\nemployers to apply to the registry branch for whatever kind of teaching they required.\nShe was keenly alive to the various plans for furthering the interests of its members,\nand she looked also beyond the personal interests to that of education itself, to discover,\nwith the better material at hand, the uses to which it could be put, not only for the\nbenefit of the Association, but for that of the cause generally. She attached the greatest\nimportance to the effect of university life and training on women teachers, and felt\nstrongly the fact that as they had received the best education, they were the best fitted,\nas a whole, to have the charge of the secondary education of girls in their hands. She\nlooked always to the wider operations of the work done by the Association, and held that\nsome kind of supervision by women educated at the universities might do much to\n■remedy the inefficiency of girls' schools.\nThe hope of gaining Miss Clough's approbation in any plan for the advancement of\nthe aims and objects of the Association, and the confidence placed in the wise advice she\ngave, inspired its promoters with courage and confidence, and went far to insure its\nsuccess.\nSince February, 1892, the Association has been without a president. It was felt that\nit would be difficult to put any one in Miss Clough's place, and that the Association\nmight well mark its sense of this by keeping the position vacant for a time.\nThe Committee. — The affairs of the Association are administered by a committee of\ntwelve, who willingly devote their time and thought to carrying on the work. This\ncommittee is as nearly as possible representative of the colleges which supply the membership, and it is also chosen as nearly as possible to represent, in due proportion, the\nelements in the teaching profession of which the Association is made up. Further, it is\nthe duty of the committee, besides administering the affairs of the Association, to keep\nabreast of educational movements, and of legislative proposals affecting teachers (registration bills, secondary education bills,. etc.); to examine and discover the best educational methods (those which obtain maximum efficiency with minimum expenditure of\npower), and, by giving proofs of the power and capacity of its members, to secure free-\n\n"}
{"page": 888, "printed_page": null, "text": "86&\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION.\n\ndoin of method for them in their work, and in every way to cherish the interests of\nmembers.\nThe committee endeavors also to keep up a high standard with regard to salaries for\nits members, so that they are maintained in health and freedom from anxiety, and work\nunder the most favorable conditions.\nThe professional elements in the Association, which make up the total of four hundred\nand fifty-three members, are : twenty-five honorary members ; twenty-one lecturers in\nthe various colleges ; fourteen head-mistresses in public schools ; two hundred and fiftyfour assistant mistresses in public schools ; six head-mistresses in private schools ;\ntwenty-eight assistant mistresses in private schools ; seventy-seven coaches ; five university extension lecturers, or about to become such ; six non-resident governesses ;\nseventeen resident governesses — total, four hundred and fifty-three.\nAbout twenty-five of the above have been through a regular course of training to\nbecome teachers. Besides, therefore, being a bona fide association of women teachers,\nit is claimed that it is also a representative body, and, as such, it is felt that members\nhave grave responsibilities toward each other in making common cause where educational interests are concerned.\nBy bona fide we mean \" professional \" in the full and strict sense of the word. When\nthe representative of the Association was giving evidence before the select committee in\nthe House of Commons on the teachers' registration bills, the chairman, Sir Richard\nTemple, particularly asked whether the Association was composed of bona fide teachers,\nor merely of persons interested in education. It is satisfactory that the witness was\nable to declare it to be the former, as this gave far more weight to its opinion than\nwould otherwise have been the case.\nLectures were given under the auspices of the U. A. W. T. in the first year of its\nexistence.\nThe advisability of organizing a further scheme, on the lines of the university extension lectures, for offering to public and private schools: (a ) Courses of lectures; (b)\nCourses of lessons, in special subjects, given after school hours by especially appointed,\nqualified lecturers, is under consideration.\nTEACHERS\n\nIN\n\nPUBLIC\n\nAND\n\nPRIVATE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nFAMILIES.\n\nThe object of the Association was not to make money but to provide work for its members, and the registry branch was to facilitate their obtaining the kind of educational\nwork they were best qualified to do, and to enable parents and head-mistresses to communicate with teachers with a view to forming engagements. It is often forgotten,\neven by those who have belonged to the Association for a long time, that it is purely an\neducational body, and does not undertake to provide journalistic work, clerkships, or\nposts as librarians, and it is not easy to disabuse the public mind of the idea that it does\nnot deal with the sale and transfer of schools and other purely commercial transactions.\nIt was thought that the Association will have amply justified its existence, if, keeping\nstrictly within the limits defined by its title, \" University Association of Women\nTeachers,\" it develops to its utmost all that it legitimately can do as such.\nSince the formation of the U. A. W. T., the Teachers' Guild and the Association of\nAssistant Mistresses have come into being, having more or less similar objects in view,\nbut there is no other society which works on quite the same lines as it.\nExaminers in Schools. — Though the U. A. W. T. was instituted, as said above,\nprimarily to increase and impart knowledge by supplying teachers of every kind, it\nundertook, secondarily, the function of testing knowledge acquired, in order to promote,\nas far as in its power, sound learning and good education, and an examination branch\nwas constituted for private schools, not examined by the Oxford and Cambridge board.\n\n"}
{"page": 889, "printed_page": null, "text": "UNIVERSITY\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOF\n\nWOMEN\n\nTEACHERS.\n\n869\n\nA well-considered standard was devised, and a certain amount of useful work has been\ndone. It was, however, resolved, in order to keep up a high standard, to ask high fees,\nand this has probably acted as a deterrent, and limited the number of applications\nreceived for examiners. Test papers for private pupils are also set and corrected by\naccredited members, and from the number of this kind of applications it is to be\ninferred that private teachers are becoming more anxious to gauge in this way the\namount of learning they have been able to impart to their pupils.\nBeyond the various facilities offered by the Association to its members for obtaining\nwork and discussing subjects of more or less general interest, the need was felt, especially by members abroad, or by those whom distance prevents attending the meetings,\nof a channel through which members could express their views, detail their experiences,\nand make suggestions; the result was the establishment of a \"Journal,\" the scope of which\nwas to include notes and articles on all matters relating to women's education and the\nteaching profession, also on work and movements of other kinds in which university\nwomen are taking part, or by which they are in any way affected. The correspondence\nand discussions on debatable points are perhaps the most valuable feature of the journal.\nThe area of the Association is wide, comprising, as it does, Europe, Asia, Africa, America,\nand Australasia ; this naturally gives diversity of interests and width of experience.\nA Home Teaching Scheme was suggested by the late president, in consequence of the\nstrong feeling in England, surviving in a considerable class of parents, against the publicschool system for girls. The training and stimulus of having teachers who have made\nthe subject their special object of study was felt to be so valuable that the Association\nundertakes to recommend, to parents, teachers in various subjects, from whom a selection\nis made. They again divide between them the instruction of boys and girls in the\nsame families. It is hoped by this means to secure accuracy and clearness in every\nbranch of knowledge, and a more organized and developed system of private teaching.\nBesides the annual meetings for the usual purposes of presenting the report of the\nwork done during the year, other meetings are held and papers read on points of special\ninterest to members. Thus, at the time the two bills for the registration of teachers\nwere before Parliament, that subject was taken for discussion, and points given to the\nwitness delegated by the Association to give evidence in the House on the bill, and\nexamination has lately been made of the clauses in the Secondary Education bill. Mrs.\nFawcett has spoken on the utility of association, and Miss C. E. Collet has laid before\nmembers the salary question, from the trades union point of view, when it was considered, on the whole, that the great difference in the rate of efficiency made it impossible\nto do more than fix a minimum, and that it would be unsatisfactory to take that step.\nand go no further.\nPart of the most valuable work done by the Association, representing, as it does, not\none particular body, but all kinds of women teachers, is in the direction of widening\nthe interests of its members and helping them to avoid the old danger of teachers\nbecoming absorbed in the narrow world of their individual work ; of affording, by means\nof the above discussions and similar ones, opportunities of mutual education, not only\nfor their own benefit but for the benefit of those whom they teach and of education\ngenerally.\nOne word on the function of the Association as mediating between schools and the\nuniversity. Beyond the hope of helping to bring order and consistency into the general\nscheme of girls' education there was the further one that the U.A. W.T. form the muchneeded link between girls' schools and the university. In England the universities are\nthe most ancient part of the educational system, while girls' high schools are comparatively but a growth of yesterday. In England also, except in the lowest grade of schools,\nit has always been to the universities and not to the state that educationalists have looked\nfor a standard and for guidance in the education of boys and youths; and those interested\n\n"}
{"page": 890, "printed_page": null, "text": "810\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOP EDUCATION.\n\nin girls' and women's education believe that the only hope of enabling them to reach and\nmaintain a standard now markedly inferior to that of their brothers, is in keeping girls'\nschools within the influence of university life and thought.\n\nELEMENTARY\nBY\n\nEDUCATION\n\nROSAMOND\n\nIN ENGLAND.\n\nDAVENPORT-HILL.*\n\nIn the first chapter of the Report of the Eoyal Commission on Education, 1888. are\nthe following words : \" The history of public elementary education in England is no\nexception to the law which seems to characterize the growth of many of our national\ninstitutions, in that it originated in the convictions and efforts of individuals or private\nbodies, and only when it appeared to have outgrown the means or the powers of the\noriginal promoters, did the state step in to gather up their work, and to place it on\nthe basis of a national institution.\" f\nIn the early part of this century popular education was in a deplorable condition. \\\n\" In England good schools were few and far between, the schooihouses were often\nsqualid, with miserable furniture, few books, and scarcely any other school appliances.\nThe attendance of the children was irregular, their attainments were wretched. The\nteachers were often ignorant adventurers, who had adopted the profession when they\nhad proved their utter incompetency for any other calling, while those who possessed\nany knowledge were ignorant of good methods of imparting it. Riot and disorder were\nkept under only by the most savage discipline.\"\nTwo educational associations— the British and Foreign Society, and the National\nSociety, were founded, the first in 1808, and the second in 1811, which gave a great\nimpetus to education.\nIn 1816 a committee of the House of Commons, presided over by Henry Brougham,\nreported that \" they had found reason to conclude that a very large number of poor\nchildren were wholly without the means of instruction.\" § And though, in another\nreport of the same committee, it was for the first time publicly stated that the education of the people was a matter in which the state had a vital concern, || the government did not until 1839 really step in to systematize it.\nIn 1839 a committee of the Privy Council, entitled the Committee of Council on\nEducation, was called into existence \"to superintend the application of any sums voted\nby Parliament for the purpose of promoting public education.\" ^[ Inspectors of schools\nwere appointed, whose duty it was to assist, not to control, the schools. In the same\nyear the grant was increased to thirty thousand pounds, and from that time it has\nalmost continuously grown year by year, until, in 1891, it had reached the enormous\namount of four million one hundred thousand pounds, including grants to colleges and\ncost of administration, nor does it show any signs of approaching its maximum.\nIn 1839 the first college for the training of teachers was founded by voluntary effort.\n* In presenting my paper on Elementary Education in England, I ought to mention that my experience\nhas almost entirely been gathered under the London School Board, of which body I have been a member\nfor the last thirteen years. I have had very little to do with any other schools since the passing of the\nEducation Act in 1870. But as all schools inspected by the Education Department are carried on under\nthe same rules, there is a certain similarity between board schools and non-board, i.e., voluntary schools.\nt Report of Royal Commissioners on Elementary Education, 1888.\nt The New Code, 1876. Gibbsand Edwards.\n§ Report of Royal Commissioners on Elementary Education, 1888.\nII Ibid.\n1 Ibid.\n\n"}
{"page": 891, "printed_page": null, "text": "ELEMENTARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN ENGLAND.\n\n871\n\nOthers soon followed, and between 1839 and 1846 several were established. It is curious\nthat, while it was considered necessary to train teachers for primary schools in the art\nof teaching, more than half a century ago, such training is not even now believed to be\nessential for those teachers who give instruction in secondary and higher grade schools,\nwho too often are compelled to acquire their power of imparting knowledge by trying\nexperiments on their unfortunate pupils.\nThe pupil-teacher system was also introduced as a cheap method of obtaining competent instructors. These young persons of both sexes, who must have attained the age\nof thirteen years, already possessing some education, were apprenticed for five years to\nthe head teacher of their school, and spent their time in acquiring more knowledge,\nbut chiefly in teaching, under the supervision of their head master or mistress. Many\nof them afterwards finished their training in the colleges, which, though founded by\nvoluntary effort, were largely assisted by state aid.*\nThese measures systematized and assisted voluntary effort, thus largely increasing\nand improving popular education ; but as the state aid was only given in furtherance\nof local effort, it left untouched those parts of the country in which the people either\ncould not or would not help themselves. The need for further extension and improvement was shown by the report of the educational conference, held to consider \"the\nquestion of the imperfect attendance of children at school, and their early removal\ntherefrom,\" under the presidency of the Prince Consort, in 1857. This report states\nthat of the two millions of children at school, forty -two per cent remained at school for\nless than a year, while only four per cent, remained for more than five years and less\nthan six.f The facts brought to light by the conference led to the appointment of\na royal commission in 1858, called, from its president, \" The Duke of Newcastle's\nCommission,\" to inquire into the state of popular education.\nThe report of the Royal Commission presented in 1861 showed that \" One in eight of\nthe population was at some time in some school or other ; that somewhat more than\nthree-fifths of the two and a half millions of children of school age were not in public\nschools of any sort ; and that of pupils in inspected schools not more than one-fourth\nwere receiving a good education, the instruction given being too much adapted to the\nelder scholars to the neglect of the younger ones.\" %\nThe condition of popular education brought to light in this report led to a great\nchange in the administration of the government grants. The Revised Code which came\ninto force in 1862, demanded only three Rs — Reading, 'Riting, and 'Rithmetic. Class\nsubjects, such as geography and grammar, and specific subjects, such as French,\nmechanics, etc., were included in later codes.\nUntil 1862 it had been the custom of Her Majesty's Inspectors to examine schools in\nclasses. But from that date, under the Revised Code, every scholar underwent an individual examination in successive standards of knowledge, and the grant largely depended\non the scholar's success in passing these examinations; while, to encourage managers to\ninduce the children to come more regularly to school, a grant was given on average\nattendance. Individual examination insured a more thorough drilling in the three Rs,\nthree subjects in which the scholars earned grants on individual passes, but on the other\nhand, it led to the children being crammed rather than educated.\n\" The children have\n* In 1881 the school board for London withdrew their pupil-teachers from the instruction of the head\nteacher, and placed them in schools specially established for their instruction. The pupil-teachers from\nthat year have divided their time between the schools to which they are apprenticed, learning practically\nthe art of teaching, and the pupil-teachers' schools, increasing their stock of knowledge. The period of\napprenticeship has been lately shortened from five to four years. A considerable portion of the pupilteachers still finish their education in training colleges.\nt Report of Educational Conference, 1857.\nX Report of Royal Commissioners, 1888.\n\n"}
{"page": 892, "printed_page": null, "text": "872\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nbeen well prepared,\" is a phrase not infrequently met with in Her Majesty's Inspectors'\nreports on schools, i. e., for examination, but not for the battle of life. It is a common\nsaying that children, after having left school for a year or two, forget the facts with\nwhich they have been crammed, and could not again pass the examination by which\nthey formerly earned grants for their school. This Code was very unpopular with school\nauthorities, but nevertheless remained in full force until 1890, when more liberty in\nclassification was allowed. Teachers in London have availed themselves of this permission to a considerable extent, but whether this be the case in the provinces I am unable\nto say.\nBut these measures I have rapidly described did not carry education to the places\nwhich most needed it, where the destitution of the people, both moral and physical,\nprecluded the hope that they could share in any effort towards the education of\ntheir children. Ragged schools had indeed done good service in giving to the poorest\nand most neglected some amount of instruction, but the standard to which they could\nattain very rarely entitled their managers to any grant from the Educational Department ;they were obliged to rely entirely on voluntary contributions, and the work was\nfar too gigantic for philanthropy unaided by the State to accomplish.*\nMoreover it became plain that England lagged behind some other countries in the\nmatter of education, and she might in consequence lose her supremacy in manufactures.\nThe passing of the Representation of the People's Act in 1867, extended the Parliamentary franchise to a less educated and very large class of the community. Education\nwas essentia] to enable this class to exercise their newly attained power with safety to the\ncountry. All these circumstances combined, led to the passing of the Educational Act of\n1870, introduced and carried through the House of Commons by W. E. Forster, with\nwhose name it will ever remain associated. The ideal of the Act is \" A school place for\nevery child, and every child in its school place. \"\nThe Act created school boards, bodies of men and women elected in different parts of\nthe country by the local ratepayers. Attendance at school, between the ages of five and\nfourteen, could be made compulsory, and, when so made, boards were given the power of\nsummoning parents who infringed the law, before a magistrate authorized to impose a\nfine for this offense. The enforcement of compulsion was at first left to the- discretion of\neach school board, but by further amending acts, attendance at school has been made\ncompulsory. The boards are responsible for the attendance of pupils, not only at schools\nunder their own management, but at every elementary school in their respective districts, whether entirely supported by voluntary contributions and free to scholars, or\npartly supported by fees, or whether beyond these two sources of income, supplemented\nby government grants. Such schools are known as voluntary schools, in contradistinction to those belonging to the boards.\nAt the time of the passing of the Education Act there were 8,381 voluntary schools in\nEngland and Wales receiving grants ; 6,382 carried on by members of the Church of\nEngland, 1,549 belonging to the various bodies of nonconformists, and 450 to the\nRoman Catholics. Up to the end of 1891, twenty-one years after the creation of school\nboards, there were 14,816 voluntary, and only 4,779 board schools, a proof that in England\nand Wales the creation of the latter has not, as it was feared would happen, destroyed in\nthe present day the zeal and activity which our ancestors displayed in their efforts to\nspread education throughout the land.\nCompulsory attendance at school was a new feature in English law, and could only be\ngradually introduced. It is now more or less strictly enforced all over the country, and\nhas received on the whole the cheerful acquiescence of the people.\nThe school boards\n* As far as I know, the ragged school in St James's Back, Bristol, founded in 1846 chiefly by the\nefforts of Mary Carpenter, was the only one in England which was able to earn a grant.\n\n"}
{"page": 893, "printed_page": null, "text": "'ELEMENTARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN ENGLAND.\n\n873\n\ndraw up their own by-laws, subsequently sanctioned by the Educational Department,\nfixing the standard both of half-time attendance, and exemption from school, which vary\nin different parts of the country.\nAfter the passing of the Act of 1870, the Educational Department retained its former\npowers over voluntary schools, and was by the Act endowed with the same in regard to\nboard schools ; and in addition it exercises considerable control over school boards.\nThe Education Act left managers entirely free to give or not to give religious instruction\nin their schools. Under school boards such teaching must be wholly undenominational.\nVoluntary managers, as a matter of course, give instruction according to their own\nviews. In all schools, both board and voluntary, \" the conscience clause \" which permits parents to withdraw their children from religious instruction must be strictly\nobeyed, but I believe they rarely avail themselves of this permission.\nSchool boards are empowered to establish evening classes. The scholars must, if\nunder fourteen years of age, have passed the prescribed standard of exemption in the\nday school. Beyond that age they can of course attend without having passed any\nstandard at all, but should they be more than twenty-one, of whom there is a considerable number attending these classes, they do not earn any grant from the government.\nI believe evening classes are in active operation all over the country. The curriculum\nis much the same as in the day school, except that all the scholars who have passed the\nfourth standard need not be again examined in the three Rs, but may devote their time\nto class and specific subjects, such as geography, history, French, drawing, mechanics,\nmanual training, cookery, etc.\nOur schools are generally divided into three departments, infants (both sexes), boys\nand girls, but there are many in which boys and girls receive their instruction together.\nThese are called mixed schools. There are a few attached to some schools to which\nchildren of both sexes are drafted when they quit the infants' department, and remain\ntogether until having passed, in some schools the second, in others the third standard,\nthey go to the senior boys' and girls' departments. These are called junior mixed.\nThere are also some schools called higher grade, in which the upper standards are\ndivided into smaller classes than in the ordinary schools where the pupils study a\ngreater variety of \" specific \" subjects.\nIn 1891 the Free Education Act passed, permitting managers of schools, both board\nand voluntary, to abolish fees altogether, and offering in their stead a grant of ten\nshillings per head on average attendance. This act came into force on September 1st,\n1891, and up to the present date no reports have yet been issued by the Department on\nthe extent to which it has been adopted.\nImprovement in the curriculum of elementary education has made great strides during the last few years. The almost exclusively intellectual training boys used to\nreceive after quitting the infant department created in them a dislike to hard labor;\nthe comparatively well-to-do desired to become clerks, when it would have been better\nfor them to become high-class artisans, while those who from family circumstances had\nbeen obliged to leave school at an early age could become little else than errand-boys.\nIt was therefore essential to encourage a taste for skilled hand labor.* With this end\nit was determined that the hand and the eye should be trained. The Education Department consequently introduced subjects into their codes which supply such training.\nThe lads who have been first taught to be skillful in the cutting out of paper, and the\nmaking of articles in cardboard, enter the manual training class, where they learn the\nuse of tools by making different articles in wood. This scheme, beginning with paperwork and leading to wood-work, was formulated and introduced into the schools of the\nboard by our senior inspector, Mr. George Ricks.\n* Girls fared in this respect better than hoys, they had always their needlework ; and cooking has been\na subject of instruction in many schools for several years.\n\n"}
{"page": 894, "printed_page": null, "text": "874\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION'.\n\nIn all departments physical exercises, based on scientific principles, are an essential\npart of our school training, for as education is defined to be the harmonious development of all the faculties, bodily and mental, with which the child is endowed, the body\ndemands equal training with the mind in due order, and in just proportion.\nBefore sending a lad to the truant school, which is a special boarding-school, it must\nbe ascertained whether or not the parents have done their duty in the matter. The\nparents must not only have sent him to school, but must, as far as lies in their power,\nhave secured his attendance there. If the child be absent several times during the week,\nit is assumed that they have failed, and the father is summoned by the school board\nbefore the magistrate, who, after hearing both sides, either dismisses the case or inflicts\na fine on the parents according to his discretion. If the fine be not paid, the law\ndirects that such portion of his goods shall be sold as will cover the amount of the fine,\nor that he be sent to prison for a term of days in default. Should the child continue to\noffend, the parent is again summoned, and the course, already described, repeated.\nBut if these proceedings fail in obtaining regular attendance, a fresh summons is\nissued, and the boy is ordered by the magistrate to attend a certain school chosen by\nthe parents, and a month's grace is given him in which to obey the order. If he now\nfail, the magistrate commits him to a truant school, where his day is divided between\nstudying and working with his hands, time being allowed for exercise and rest, but very\nlittle for recreation. He may be detained until he reach the age of fourteen, when the\njurisdiction of the school board ceases. But, in fact, the boy only remains until, by his\norderly behavior, he gives promise of attending the day-school regularly, should he be\nallowed to return home ; the period of detention usually lasting from nine to twelve\nweeks. He is then licensed out, and if he attend school regularly for nine months he\nis unconditionally discharged. During the probationary period he is carefully watched.\nShould he again play truant his license is revoked, and he is brought back to the truant\nschool for a second period of detention.\nWhen these institutions were first founded, about the year 1877, the boys belonged\nto a better class than they do now. The truants who recall Shakespere's lad, '* with\nshining morning face creeping unwillingly to school,\" will always exist, but they are\neasy to deal with compared with the lowest grade, to which the operation of the law has\nnow penetrated. These unfortunate lads become truants through the utter neglect,\ncruelty, or corrupt influence of their parents.\n\nBY\n\nFLOEA\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nC.\n\nMEMBER\n\nSTEVENSON\",\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nIN SCOTLAND.\nEDINBURGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBOARD.\n\n\" Whereas, it is desirable to amend and extend the provisions of the law of Scotland\non the subject of education in such manner that the means of procuring efficient education for their children may be furnished and made available to the whole people of\nScotland, be it enacted.\"\nThese words, taken from the Preamble of the Education Act, which became law in\n1872, indicate the wide scope of the statute which regulates public education in Scotland. Unlike the English Act passed in 1870, which deals with elementary education\nalone, the Scottish Act makes provision for a graded system of education comprising\ninfant, elementary, and higher class schools.\nBased on the parish school system, the Act preserves many of the old traditions of\nnational education in Scotland. Under the Act the ultimate control of the national\nsystem of education rests with a governmental department, called the Scottish Educa-\n\n"}
{"page": 895, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN SCOTLAND.\n\n875\n\ntion Department of the Privy Council, who are responsible for the administration of the\nmoneys voted annually by Parliament for public education. The parliamentary grant\nis distributed according to the regulations laid down in a code, which determines the\nrates and the conditions of the grant.\nThe local control of public education rests with the popularly elected school boards in\nevery parish and burgh. The school boards are elected triennially, and consist of from\nfive to fifteen members, according to the population of the school district which they\nrepresent. The electorate consists of all owners and occupiers of lands and heritages of\nthe annual value of four pounds and upwards. No property or residential qualification\nis required for candidates for election, and men and women are equally eligible. On\nmany of the Scottish school boards women have been elected and have rendered valuable service in the cause of education.\nThe duties of school boards are to provide the public school accommodation necessary\nfor the locality, to manage all rate-aided schools, and higher class schools falling under\ntheir jurisdiction in terms of the Act, to levy the school rate, and generally to administer\nthe provision of the Act according to the regulations of the education code.\nUnder the Act of 1872, for the first time in Scotland, education was made compulsory,\nand one of the most important duties of school boards is to enforce the compulsory provisions ofthe Act. Every parent is bound to provide ' ' elementary education in reading,\nwriting, and arithmetic\" for the children, and failing to do so may be prosecuted, and\nis liable to the penalty of a 6ne not exceeding twenty shillings (£1), or to imprisonment\nnot exceeding fourteen days. The effect of compulsion has been very largely to increase\nthe enrolment and attendance at all state-aided schools in the country.\nIn accordance with the traditions of education in Scotland, religious instruction\nincluding the teaching of the Bible and the Westminster Shorter Catechism has always\nbeen given in the parish schools. This tradition was respected by the Act of 1872, and\nthe question as to whether or not religious instruction, \"according to use and wont,\"\nwas to be given in the public schools (under the restrictions of a conscience clause) was\nleft to be decided by the school boards. The first school board election practically settled\nthe question, and for twenty years a majority of members have been returned who have\ncontinued this system of religious instruction in the schools under their management.\nOutside, however, of the school board system the Act made provision, in those parts of\nthe country where there is a sufficiently numerous population belonging to the Roman\nCatholic and Episcopal Churches, for the continuance and establishment of schools under\nthe management of these churches. The denominational schools are state-aided, receiving Parliamentary grants on the same conditions as the public schools, but receiving no\nsupport from the local school rate. Since the passing of the Act the number of Roman\nCatholic and Episcopal schools has largely increased, while the number of schools belonging to other denominations has become very small, the religious instruction given\nin the board schools being identical with the teaching of the various branches of the\nPresbyterian Church.\nAnother tradition of Scottish schools continued in the public education of this time is\nthe system of mixed schools, boys and girls being taught together in the same classrooms. The regulations of the department require that in schools of the large towns,\nboys and girls must be kept separate in the passages and staircases, and in the playgrounds. In the small country schools the old natural arrangement continues as in the\nold days.\nThe primary conditions of grant are, the attendance and proficiency of the scholars, the\nqualifications of the teachers, and the state of the school buildings. Further grants\nare made in respect of various class subjects, and specific subjects, and a special grant\nis given to schools having a separate infant department under a specially qualified\ninfants' mistress.\n\nThe school age for children in Scotland, during which compulsory\n\n"}
{"page": 896, "printed_page": null, "text": "876\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION.\n\nattendance at school may be enforced, is from five to fourteen. Two of these years are\nspent in the infant school. No part of the educational system in Scotland has made\nsuch advances during the last twenty years as this. In Edinburgh, especially, the\ninfant schools have reached a very high state of efficiency.\nIn addition to reading, writing, and arithmetic (proficiency in which according to a\nfixed standard is required for exemption from school attendance), the subjects of instruction in the juvenile school are :— English geography, history, needlework (for girls),\nand elementary science. They are known as \"class subjects,\" but not more than\nthree of them can be taken for examination. In the Gaelic-speaking districts Gaelic\nmay be taken as a class subject. The teaching of drawing is compulsory in all schools\nfor boys, and may be taken by girls.\nThe higher subjects of instruction are known as specific. It is here that the ordinary elementary school work extends into secondary education. The subjects are :—\nMathematics, Latin, Greek, French, German, principles of agriculture (for boys), and\ndomestic economy including practical cookery and laundry work (for girls).\nIn the larger towns, especially in Edinburgh, attention is now paid to the physical\ntraining of the children in the board schools. In all of the schools under the Edinburgh Board gymnastic instruction is given by specially qualified teachers, and some of\nthe newer schools are provided with large swimming baths, where swimming is taught\nto both boys and girls.\nAnother subject which has recently been added to the school curriculum is manual\ninstruction in carpentry, and clay modelling.\nThe advantages of this extended education are now practically free to all Scottish\nchildren. Recent legislation has put at the disposal of the Government certain moneys\nwhich have been devoted to the relief from school fees. Free education was practically\ngiven to Scotland under a Local Taxation Act in 1890, which made education free up to\nthe standard of exemption, but further legislation has provided for free education for\nall children up to the age of fourteen, in all state-aided schools. At present a proposal\nis under the consideration of Parliament for devoting additional moneys to the promotion and better organization of secondary education throughout the country.\nUnder a recent Act the educational endowments of the country have been revised\nand adapted to the necessities and conditions of the present time. In Aberdeenshire\nand the northern counties, under the Dick Bequest, stimulus and encouragement have\nbeen given to secondary education in the public schools, by grants to schoolmasters\nwho successfully prepare scholars for higher examinations.\nIn Glasgow the funds of the Hutcheson Trust are also devoted to the encouragement\nof secondary education. In Edinburgh, under George Hariot's Trust, which is the\nwealthiest endowment in the country, an annual income of from thirty to forty thousand\npounds is spent in promoting technical and secondary education and in providing\nuniversity-bursaries for men and women. The provisions of the scheme for the administration ofthe trust that affect the public schools are the application of an annual sum\nof two thousand pounds to be given in school bursaries to pupils (boys and girls) attending the state-aided schools. The bursaries which are of the value of five pounds, ten\npounds, and fifteen pounds, yearly, and tenable for two years, are awarded on the results\nof examination, and in addition to these, five bursaries of thirty pounds yearly value\nare offered annually to boys, to be tenable at the Royal High School in Edinburgh for\nfive years. The Merchant Company of Edinburgh have devoted their large educational\nendowments to the establishment and maintenance of secondary schools for boys and\nfor girls. These are fee-paying schools, but there are many bursaries open for competition tothe pupils in attendance at the schools.\nIn addition to the provision made for education in public day schools, a great deal\nhas been done in recent years to develop the system of evening schools.\nThey are also\n\n"}
{"page": 897, "printed_page": null, "text": "WOMEN\n\nSTUDENTS\n\nIN THE\n\nSCOTTISH\n\nUNIVERSITIES.\n\n877\n\nstate aided, and are supported out of the local school rate. They are intended as continuation schools for boys and girls whose circumstances necessitated their leaving the\nday school after passing the exemption standard, and also for providing for young men\nand young women secondary and technical instruction.\nThe following account of the schools carried on by the Ladies' Highland Association\nis given by Miss Rainy, the Honorary Secretary, who was for some years a distinguished\nmember of the Edinburgh School Board.\n\" In some parts of Scotland education is attended with peculiar difficulties. The\ncounties of Ross, Inverness, and Argyle include about one hundred inhabited islands,\nsome of which contain only a few families ; and others whose population is greater, as\nwell as the west coast of the mainland from Cape Wrath to the Mull of Cantyre, are so\nintersected by arms of the sea, pathless morasses and dangerous torrents, that attendance at school is often perilous if not impossible. Add to this the poverty of the people,\nand the fact that English is to them a foreign tongue — their vernacular being Gaelic —\nand you have a combination of circumstances singularly adverse to the enforcement of\nred tape arrangements.\nThe number of separate schools required for a population so scattered entails heavy\nexpenditure for buildings, and the difficulty of enforcing regular attendance, or of\nbringing Gaelic-speaking children up to the required standards in English, makes the\nearning of the Parliamentary grant a great difficulty. The local school rate has in some\nplaces been as high as six and seven shillings in the pound of rental, and although\nexceptional grants have been given by the department, it has been found necessary to\nsupplement the public school system by private enterprise.\nThe Ladies' Highland Association, founded in 1850, has planted schools in the most outlandish and destitute spots, employing as teachers Gaelic-speaking young men who are\nallowed to come to college two winters out of three, leaving substitutes in their place ;\nand who are willing on this account to endure hardships which more permanent teachers\nwould shrink from.\nIt has not been possible within the limits allowed for this paper to do more than give\na very general outline of the Scottish national system of education. All that has been\nattempted is to give an idea of the educational legislation regulating the system of\neducation, and the means by which the provisions of the Education Act are carried\nout.\n\nWOMEN\nBY\n\nSTUDENTS\n\nMISS LOUISA STEVENSON,\nASSOCIATION\nFOR THE\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSCOTTISH\n\nUNIVERSITIES.\n\nHONORARY\nSECRETARY\nOF THE EDINBURGH\nUNIVERSITY\nEDUCATION\nOF WOMEN.\n\nOn the 22d of February, 1892, the Royal Commissioners, acting under the Universities (Scotland) Act of 1889, issued an ordinance under their seal which deeply affected\nthe educational interests of Scottish women. This commission, consisting of sixteen\nmembers, with the Hon. Lord Kinnear, one of the senators of the College of Justice,\nas chairman, was appointed for the purpose of making laws for the better government\nof the four Scottish universities of Edinburgh, Glasgow, Aberdeen, and St. Andrews.\nEssentially democratic as they in other respects have ever been, not one of these\nuniversities possessed the legal right, when the commission was appointed, to give\ndegrees in arts or science, or teaching qualifying for such degrees, to any woman,\nhowever gifted. Under the act this disability was removed. The legislature gave\nspecial powers to the commissioners to enable each university \" to admit women to\ngraduation in one or more faculties, and to provide for their instruction.\"\nThese\n\n"}
{"page": 898, "printed_page": null, "text": "878\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\npowers, it will be noted, were enabling and not compulsory. It was made competent\nto each university court, after consultation with the senators, \" to make provision within\nthe university for the instruction of women in any of the subjects taught within the\nuniversity, either by admitting them to the ordinary classes, or by instituting separate\nclasses for their instruction.\" The conditions for graduation within any faculty to\nwhich women were admitted were made practically the same for women as for men.\nIt was made the duty of any court exercising the powers conferred by the ordinance\nto make regulations for the use by women of such libraries and museums as were open\nto all matriculated students. An important clause was also inserted by which it was\nmade competent to any university court to admit women to graduation in arts without\nfurther examination who were registered in the books of the university as having\nregularly attended classes conducted by the professors of the university or by their\nassistants in the seven subjects hitherto required for the ordinary degree of Master\nof Arts — Latin, Greek, mathematics, natural philosophy, logic and metaphysics,\nmoral philosophy, and English literature — and as having, after examination by the\nuniversity examiner for the said degree, in all these subjects obtained the pass certificate in arts of the university. This certificate was instituted in 1874, at the instance\nof the Edinburgh Association for the University Education of Women, who as far back\nas 1869 made arrangements with individual professors and lecturers to cooperate with\nthem in opening classes for women outside of the university in rooms provided by and\non the responsibility of the association. This certificate formed a valuable link with\nthe university, and was granted to any student of the association who passed, in any\nthree or more science and arts subjects, examinations up to the standard for the M.A.\ndegree. The work done was of good old-fashioned university gold, and the commissioners authorized the authorities to stamp it in the case of all students who had passed\nin the seven M.A. subjects.\nThere was great rejoicing amongst the friends and promoters of the university\neducation of women when, on June 28th, the ordinance, after lying for three months on\nthe table of the House of Commons, received the Queen's assent and became law.\nMuch eager interest was at the same time felt as to what action the various universities\nwould take, now that their legal disabilities were removed.\nTo the credit of Scotland, each of the four universities resolved to avail itself without\ndelay of its newly acquired powers. Edinburgh, St. Andrews, and Aberdeen have opened\ntheir science and arts classes to women students who attend the professors' lectures\nalong with the men, and the conjoint teaching given in University College, Dundee,\nqualifies for the M.A. degree of St. Andrews. Glasgow has incorporated Queen\nMargaret College as an integral part of its university system, and appointed professors\nand lecturers to give separate courses of instruction to its women students. The classes\ntaught are university classes, and the women students are students of the university.\nThe two systems of conjoint and separate teaching have thus been inaugurated. Time\nwill show which is productive of the best results.\nIt may not be uninteresting to record that at the first meeting of the executive\ncommittee of the Edinburgh Association for the University Education of Women, held\nat the close of the winter session, the following resolution was unanimously passed :\n\"This committee record their entire satisfaction with the working of the conjoint\nsystem of teaching in the faculties of arts and science during the session 1892-93 ; and\ntheir continued belief, after this experience, that under no other system could women\nstudents receive in Edinburgh University instruction equal to that provided for men.\"\nThis opinion, which was afterward unanimously confirmed by the council of the association, isof special value as coming from a body of men and women — professional and\nlay — who for a quarter of a century have taken practical interest in the question of the\nuniversity education of women.\nWomen students are to be congratulated on the new\n\n"}
{"page": 899, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONVENT\n\nEDUCATION.\n\n879\n\nregulations regarding the subjects qualifying for the M.A. degree, which took place\ncontemporaneously with their admission to the universities.\nIn the old days seven subjects were inexorably fixed for that degree ; under the new\nsystem the subjects qualifying for graduation have been raised to twenty-seven,\nalthough certain of the original seven are still compulsory in following any one of the\nthree paths leading up to the M.A. degree. History or a modern language, for\nexample, may be taken instead of English literature ; and a selection may be made\nbetween natural philosophy and mathematics, and between logic and moral philosophy ;\nbut candidates for graduation must attend seven full courses of lectures and pass examinations on the subjects studied. They must also pass a preliminary examination in (1)\nEnglish, (2) Latin or Greek, (3) Mathematics, (4) one of Latin or Greek, if not already\ntaken, French, German, Italian, dynamics. Students not intending to graduate are\nnot required to pass this preliminary examination.\nMuch excellent work was done by the Scottish women students in this the first year\nof their admission to the universities. In Edinburgh honors were gained by them in almost\nevery subject studied, and they took or shared first and second prizes in natural philosophy, Greek, English literature, logic and mental philosophy, moral philosophy, education and music. At St. Andrews women gained the first and the second places respectively\nin Roman history and in English literature. As time goes on, it is hoped that an everincreasing number will matriculate in all the universities.\nIt is pleasant to end this paper by recording that on the 13th of April, 1893, the\nsenators and the university court of Edinburgh, acting under the powers already\nmentioned, admitted to graduation eight fully qualified women students, who, wearing\nfull academic dress, were \"capped \"by Principal Sir William Muir, K.C.S.I., vicechancellor of the university, for the degree of Master of Arts, amidst the enthusiastic\napplause of professors, students, and an enormous gathering of the general public.\nThe event was a historic one, and the Scottish universities are now free from the\nreproach of having no women amongst their graduates. One of the eight, Miss Lilias\nMaitland, passed extra examinations and graduated with first-class philosophical\nhonors. The thanks of all Scottish women are due to the Royal Commissioners and to\nthe members of the university court who made such rights and privileges possible.\n\nBY F. M.\n\nCONVENT\n\nEDUCATION.\n\nL., PRINCIPAL\n\nOF\n\nA TRAINING-COLLEGE.\n\nI have been asked by the Sub-committee on Women's Work to contribute a paper\non convent schools, or the educational work carried on by the Catholic Church in the\nUnited Kingdom ; and I propose briefly to review that work in two classes of schools :\n(a) Primary or public elementary (in Ireland, national) schools ; (b) secondary, including\nday-schools and upper-class boarding-schools.\nThe communities occupying themselves with education in the British Isles may be\nclassed as follows :\n(1) Those teaching the poor only, as Sisters of Charity and of Mercy, the Presentation\nNuns, the Sisters of St. Paul, etc.\n(2) Those teaching the upper classes chiefly, as the Ladies of the Sacred Heart, the\nBenedictines and Augustinians, the Assumption Nuns, etc.\n(3) Those devoting themselves to the instruction of all classes, as the Ursulines, Dominicans, Franciscans, the Sisters of Notre Dame, the Faithful Companions, the Loretto\nNuns, the Sisters of the Holy Child, and many others.\n\n"}
{"page": 900, "printed_page": null, "text": "880\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nPrimary Schools. — In no department has the work done by nuns been so extensive or\nso successful as in the primary schools for the laboring classes. The vast majority of\nthe Catholic public elementary schools in Great Britain, and most of the Roman\nCatholic national schools in Ireland, are taught by \"Sisters.\" The number of communities thus occupied in England and Scotland is three hundred and sixty-six; in\nIreland the number is considerably greater. In some of the large towns each convent\ntakes charge of a whole group of schools. Thus in Liverpool, one order, the Sisters of\nNotre Dame, send their Sisters to twenty different schools.\nThe work done in the public elementary schools of Great Britain is very carefully\ntested by periodical inspection and examination on the part of the state, and though\n\"payment on results\" is no longer the absolute rule, the grants of the Education\nDepartment are not issued without full evidence of intelligent and successful teaching.\nThe infants' schools have special attention paid to them, and kindergarten methods are\nuniversally adopted. In the girls' and mixed schools, the children learn, in addition to\nthe \" three Rs,\" grammar, geography, history, and elementary physical science. Drawing is compulsory for boys, while the girls have lessons in cookery and domestic economy.\nIn Great Britain, since 1891, most of the public elementary schools have been free.\nIn what are called \" higher grade schools,\" in which the teaching is earned further and\nthe curriculum is somewhat wider, a fee of ninepence per week may be charged without forfeiting the government grant. The programme of studies is fixed by the state\nand is purely secular ; but in all Roman Catholic schools a special time is set apart for\nreligious instruction, and the nuns go in largely for that personal interest in and intercourse with their pupils which leave so indelible an impression on their after lives. In\nsome large towns the Sisters take charge of continuation and evening classes, where\nthey have a precious opportunity of coming in contact with the girls who, at fourteen or\nfifteen years of age, have ceased to attend the day-school, and are now in greater need\nthan ever of the influence which guarded their childhood.\nIt should be noted that in all the educational institutions subsidized by the state the\nteachers are required to be certificated. For this purpose the nuns willingly present\nthemselves at the public examinations — three in number — which they are obliged to\npass in order to gain the diploma of the Education Department.\nA striking feature in the English and Scottish schools, especially those under nuns, is\ntheir staff of young apprenticed pupil-teachers going through a double course of study\nand of practice (for education is an art as well as a science), living in some cases in the\nconvent under the eye of their mistresses, or else attending the central classes where the\npupil-teachers of a whole district assemble in the evening for their lessons. The complement of the pupil-teacher system is the normal college, with its two or three years'\ncourse of training. Three of these colleges are superintended and taught by religious\ncommunities, viz. : Liverpool, under the Sisters of Notre Dame, founded in 1856 ; Wandsworth, near London, under the Ladies of the Sacred Heart; and Baggot Street, Dublin,\nunder the Sisters of Mercy. A fourth training-college is about to commence under\nnuns in Glasgow.\nThe success of the Catholic training-colleges has been very marked, and the Sisters\nconducting them have held their own with some of the best institutions in the country.\nHer Majesty's inspector, the Rev. Mr. Warburton, a Canon of the Church of England,\nwho visited the Catholic training-colleges for several years officially, said : \" I cannot\nexpress too strongly my admiration of the work done here. If a foreigner visiting\nEngland were to desire to see one of our institutions, I should direct him to one of\nthe Roman Catholic training-colleges.\" The pupil-teachers trained in the preparatory\nclasses held at Liverpool have invariably taken high places at the entrance examination,\nand twice one of their number has headed the scholarship list, after competing with\nsome thousands of pupil-teachers from the schools of England and Wales.\n\n"}
{"page": 901, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONVENT\n\nEDUCATION.\n\n881\n\nRoman Catliolic Secondary Schools. — These maybe divided into day-schools, high and\nmiddle, and boarding-schools. They are nearly all in the hands of nuns, who in some instances seek the assistance of lay governesses. A new departure was made some year< ago\nin the upper-class day schools, and in some of the convent boarding-schools, by entering\nthe pupils for examinations conducted by public examining bodies. Candidates were\nprepared and sent in for the university local (English) examinations, and for the intermediate and university (Irish) examinations. Pupils of the Ursulines, the Dominicans,\nthe Sisters of Notre Dame, and the Faithful Companions have distinguished themselves\nat the \" locals \" of the Universities of Oxford, Cambridge, and Edinburgh ; while from\nthree of the Notre Dame convents pupils have passed the examination for the L.L.A.\ndiploma at the University of St. Andrews. In Ireland the convent schools have won\neven greater laurels at the public intermediate examinations.\nThe first place in all Ireland was taken by a pupil of the Loretto nuns ; the same\nplace was reached twice by pupils of the Ursulines. Both these communities sent in a\nnumber of candidates to the matriculation examinations of the Dublin University, and\nseveral of them reached the honors division.\nOn the other hand, it must be owned that some excellent schools hold aloof from\npublic examinations, for reasons which one can respect even if one cannot agree\nwith them. Public opinion will probably be brought to bear on this point, when the\nCommission on Secondary Education has presented its report to the British government,\nand when the proposed bill is passed by the legislature. If the time comes when all\nteachers will have to be registered, and to produce credentials for their fitness for the\noffice, it will be necessary for Catholics to have some institution corresponding to the\ncolleges for women that have arisen at Oxford and Cambridge. If we cannot have\na Girton or a Newnham, we may perhaps aspire to an institution for the higher education of women and for training governesses, such as the Cambridge College for Teachers,\nwhich is doing such good work under Miss Hughes. The Loretto Sisters, who are\neminently fitted for the task, have long contemplated founding something corresponding\nto the Alexandra College for Women in Dublin.\nThe apathy of parents is a great obstacle to educational progress in upper-class\nCatholic schools. In general they do not appreciate higher education for girls, and\nwith very few exceptions they cry down every effort made to raise the standard of their\ndaughters' studies. Fathers object to pay the fees of examinations, and even the cost\nof books. Mothers have an instinctive dread of over- pressure, and beg that their\nchildren may be spared all continuous mental exertion, under the belief that it is\ninjurious to health. This is very discouraging to those who would like to give to\nCatholic girls the same advantages enjoyed by others.\nIn our convent schools there is sometimes another drawback, viz. : the lack of the\nM skilled workman \" element amongst their teachers. Our sisterhoods have brought to\nthe task refinement, gentleness, patience, and all the devotedness which is born of a\nreligious life and a religious atmosphere. They succeed admirably in infusing a high\nmoral and religious tone and a spirit of piety and unselfishness into their pupils ; and\nif the girls who leave our convent schools could find something to work for when they\nreturn to their homes, some object for their lives a little higher than dress, visiting, and\namusements, we might have a loftier standard of intellectual and social life than at\npresent exists amongst us. To render lives useful and \" worth living,\" there should be\nsome preparation in school for carrying out pursuits and avocations for which tastes\nshould have been previously created and openings should be subsequently made.\nWithout speaking of occupations which may become lucrative, there might be ways of\nfostering a love for the poor and a sympathy with little children, or with girls of a\nlower social scale, which would result in useful personal intercourse, and encouragement given to Sunday-schools, recreative or instructive evening classes, guild meetings,\n56\n\n"}
{"page": 902, "printed_page": null, "text": "882\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\netc. ;a love for home and home duties, by practical acquaintance with sick-nursing,\ncookery, and plain needlework ; a love of study and self-improvement, which would\nenable girls to fit themselves to become teachers either in private life or in schools ; a\nlove of art which would lead to many a happy hour spent in painting or decoration for\nthe church or the poor. The ideal of education for aspiring maidenhood seems to the\nwriter to be a first-rate day or high-school, combined with a religious and intellectual\natmosphere at home. In no other institution can girls enjoy the advantages of careful\nreligious and domestic training united to opportunities for widening their sphere of\nknowledge and of thought, by attending lectures, visiting museums and art galleries,\nhearing something of what is happening around them, and keeping in touch with their\nsisters in a lower walk of life, taking up their share in that portion of woman's work\nwhich they are best fitted for.\nDay-schools of some kind, whether high -schools or upper-grade schools, will probably\nbe the schools of the future, and it is in these that the teaching staff should be strengthened, that the tests from outside should be courted, and the curriculum arranged on\na broad and sound basis. Superficial teaching and a smattering of accomplishments\nshould be conscientiously and systematically avoided ; coaching up a few clever pupils\nto win a name for the school should be considered beneath the dignity of the work and\nof the worker ; individual tastes and pursuits should be encouraged in the higher forms,\nand the child should merge into the —\n\"Perfect woman, nobly planned,\nTo warn, to comfort, and command ;\nAnd yet a spirit still, and bright\nWith something of an angel light.\"\n\nThe complement of the day-school course for the more intellectual maidens would be\na term of residence in a hall or college (under the superintendence of some highly educated religious women) in Edinburgh or Dublin, or in the environs of London, where\nthey could either specialize and attain excellence in some distinct line of art, literature,\nor science, or go through a course of professional training as teachers, and take out a\ndiploma such as the L.L.A. of St. Andrew's, or a degree at one of the other universities.\nEducation carried out in a Catholic spirit has to keep in view the final destiny of the\nimmortal being, without losing sight of the immediate sphere of action in which that\ndestiny has to be wrought out. Hence the curriculum for higher education, while\nembracing all that can elevate and enrich as well as discipline the mind — theology,\nphilosophy, mathematics, literature, science, and art — should also follow the lines of\nwoman's work and woman's influence. The true greatness of woman lies in her position relative to the whole human race, and the power given her of molding it for good\nor evil. It is not by unsphering herself that the perfection of her being and her mission\ncan be attained. All that it befits her to know as wife, mother, and teacher, can reasonably be made the subject of higher education; and it is to be hoped that the communities\nof religious sisters, who inherit the learning and the piety of the great monastic institutions of mediaeval times, will rise to the full height of their modern mission, and bring\nup generations of muliercs fortes, religious and intellectual, heroic and self-sacrificing\nwomen.\nPerhaps I may conclude by quoting the words of Professor Knight, of the University\nof St. Andrews, who in an admirable and exhaustive lecture, lately given at a trainingcollege, on the history of the higher education of women, speaks thus of the work done\nby convents in ancient times:\n\"In the great Benedictine schools girls were taught in the same classes with boys,\nand they kept pace with them in their studies. They learned the classical languages, at\nthe same time that they imbibed piety and devotion.\nIt was in the convent schools of\n\n"}
{"page": 903, "printed_page": null, "text": "WOMEN'S\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN NEW\n\nZEALAND.\n\n883\n\nthe so-called dark ages that teaching was given both to the upper and middle classes ;\nand it is a fact not as fully recognized as it ought to be, that women were less well educated after the monasteries had been destroyed. Fragmentary and unsystematic as some\nof their teaching undoubtedly was, they did an admirable work ; and but for the enthusiasm of those mediaeval spirits, and the seed they sowed, we should not now be reaping\nour rich modern harvests.\"\n\nWOMEN'S\n\nEDUCATION\nBY\n\nMRS.\n\nIN NEW\n\nSTEADMAN\n\nZEALAND.\n\nALDIS.\n\nThe Education Act of New Zealand provides that every person, \"male or female,\"\notherwise eligible, \"shall be qualified to be a member of the board.\" \" There is really,\"\nsays the Inspector-General of Schools, \"very little to say about the education of women\nin this country, because, in this respect, men and women are treated alike.\"\nPrimary schools throughout the colony provide for the education of all children up to a\ncertain standard, and the whole of New Zealand is divided into twelve education districts,\neach ruled by a board. From the money intrusted to them by the government, most of\nthese boards annually offer scholarships to the most deserving pupils of the primary\nschools. The winner of such a scholarship is entitled to free tuition at one of the\nsecondary schools established in the principal towns of the district, and usually to\nan annual payment of twenty or thirty pounds. In the chief centers of population,\nChristchurch, Dunedin, and Auckland, are university colleges, to which the poorest can\nfind access by means of scholarships. It thus frequently happens that a clever child of\npoor parents gains a district scholarship after free attendance for a few years at a\nprimary school, and so passes without expense to a secondary school, where in due time\nan university junior scholarship is won, and presently the highest honors which the\nuniversity can give. All these advantages are open to \"all children of school age,\" to\ngirls as well as to boys, the Education Act making this quite plain by speaking of \"his\nor her scholarship,\" to be held as long as \"he or she\" shall continue \"his or her\"\neducation. In the college lecture-rooms, the college and university scholarships, and\nthe degrees, no distinction of sex is recognized ; and it may be remarked in passing that\nthere has been no sign of the many grievous consequences sometimes predicted from\nsuch a state of things.\nWith regard to the state schools, the following information has been kindly furnished\nby the Inspector- General : In the primary schools boys and girls are generally taught\nin the same classes. In large town schools, where the number of pupils is large enough\nto admit of separate instruction for girls, without waste of teaching power, there are\nseparate classes for the sexes. There are a few separate schools for the sexes. The\nsyllabus of instruction and examination in primary schools makes only one distinction\nbetween boys and girls, and that is with respect to needlework, which only girls learn ;\nand it is ordered that \"the inspector shall judge all other work done by the girls more\nleniently than that done by the boys, to such a degree as would be implied in reducing\nby ten per cent, the minimum marks required for any examination pass.\"\nThe governing bodies of all the high schools or grammar schools that owe their origin\nto state endowments provide education for girls as well as boys. In some places there\nare separate schools ; in others girls and boys are taught together, and at the Auckland\nCollege and Grammar School, and elsewhere, the teaching is given to the boys and girls\napart, but under one head-master. In the examination for primary school-teachers'\ncertificates of the lowest class (E), the difference between men and women is that women\n\n"}
{"page": 904, "printed_page": null, "text": "884\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nmust take up needlework, aud that for the paper in \" Elementary Science\" they have\nthe option of substituting a paper in \" Domestic Economy,\" and for them the minimum\nfor a pass in arithmetic is somewhat reduced.\nNearly twenty years ago Miss Kate Edger, daughter of the late Rev. S. Edger, of\nAuckland, applied for an university scholarship in mathematics, thus testing the question whether a girl could hold such a scholarship. The authorities thereupon examined\nthe question carefully, and. finding nothing to prevent, the successful candidate attended the Auckland College and Grammar School, that being then the only institution\naffiliated to the university within her reach. There she worked with the senior boys,\nwho were preparing for degree, and after a course of three years was, again without\nany objection, admitted to the degree of B.A. Thus, while the old universities of England and Scotland were grudgingly doling out what could hardly any longer be withheld,\nthe University of little New Zealand, spurning these traditions of selfishness, did itself\nthe never-to-be-forgotten honor of being the first in the British dominions to bestow a\ndegree upon a woman; and it may be added that this pioneer woman, now Mrs. Evans,\nM. A., is at present Examiner in English for the Matriculation and Medical Preliminary,\nand for the junior scholarships examinations of the university. A younger sister of\nthis lady followed the same course, and last year Miss Lilian Edger, M.A., was elected\nby the Auckland graduates to a seat upon the Council of the Auckland University\nCollege.\nUp to this date the senate of the university has been composed of men only, but, as\nfar as appears, the position is quite open to any woman who may be appointed or\nelected to fill it. In fact, throughout New Zealand it is generally accepted as axiomatic, that to state endowments of education women and men have equal rights. If,\ntherefore, in the university colleges, the men students outnumber the women, the reason\nis, simply, that fewer of the latter have cared to go in at the doors, which stand wide\nfor those who choose to enter.\nWhen the Durham University College of Physical Science was opened at Newcastleon-Tyne, some ladies of the place addressed to the council a memorial asking that\nwomen might share in the advantages of the new institution. Without hesitation the\nrequest was granted, and it was a disappointment when, as year after year passed away,\nall the names upon the roll of students were those of men. When at last one or two\nwomen did appear, they shyly chose to place themselves quite at the back of the class ;\nand in each lecture-room, in accordance with their evident wish, the back bench was\ncourteously left for them by the other .students.\nOn our arrival in New Zealand, between nine and ten years ago, we were edified by\nthe contrast prevailing here. It was only the second session of the Auckland College,\nbut the women students, of whom there were more than one or two, had already\nestablished the claim of custom to the front benches ; so that once when, by the wish\nof the professor, a very deaf young man had taken a vacant front place, a young\nwoman, unaware of what had passed, casting a scathing glance at the intruder, was\noverheard to ask her neighbor : \" What's that boy doing there ?\"\nOf all the different branches of education there is none from which women have been\nexcluded with such obstinate determination as from the study of medicine ; and, for\nsome reason unexplained, unless it be fees, there is none which has evoked in its\ndefense such an amount of ungentlemanly behavior. As, therefore, two ladies have\nlately joined the medical school at Dunedin, it seems likely that there at least might be\nfound a comfortable supply of material for this paper, that there could hardly fail to\nbe a tale to tell of opposition and of successful struggle. But Professor Sale, answering a letter of inquiry, says that there' is nothing to tell ; that it is merely an accident\nthat women have only last year begun attending medical classes, for all classes of\nevery kind have from the first been open to women, and that this unrestricted admis-\n\n"}
{"page": 905, "printed_page": null, "text": "WOMEN'S\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN NEW\n\nZEALAND.\n\n885\n\nsion was largely due to the efforts of the first Chancellor of the University of Otago,\nMajor Richardson, afterwards Sir John Larkins Cheese Richardson.\nDr. Scott, Professor of Anatomy and Physiology at Dunedin, has just been in Auckland. A young lady told him she wished to join his classes. He told her she would\nfind it pleasanter to have a companion. She took his advice, the two girls entered, and\neverything went on as usual, quietly and well, without either difficulty or disturbance.\nIt is gratifying to be able to add that medical studies at Dunedin are not tainted by the\ndisgraceful horrors of vivisection. The district of Otago was in great measure settled\nby Scotchmen, but the experience of these two ladies has certainly differed widely from\nthat of the first lady medical students at Edinburgh. That was some years ago, but\neven in the recent new departure there, the admission of women to the same lecturerooms as men, there seems to have been reason for the trepidation said to have been felt\nby those best acquainted with the character of the Scottish student ; and the behavior\nof the latter at the opening lectures to the mixed classes shows that there is need of the\n\" elevating and humanizing influence \" which it is hoped will proceed from the presence of women. \"Why,\" exclaimed a New Zealand undergraduate girl, \" we never\nhear of such things ; such doings as those are never even thought of here.\" This is\nquite true, and perhaps, in saying so, we do feel some pride in our country, though,\nwith regard to the treatment of women, if we look outside this one subject of education, we cannot give thanks that we are not as others.\nIn the public schools under the control of the department, many women find employment; and here comes in the one flaw. From pupil-teachers upward, women teachers\nare almost invariably less highly paid than men, for whom also the prizes of the profession, the best posts, such as they are, are reserved. In one of the suburbs of Auckland,\nfor example, a small school had been successfully worked up by a lady placed at its head.\nThen the very increase of numbers under her management was made the reason for an\nagitation for her removal, on the theoretical ground that a woman could not maintain\ndiscipline among so many, and this lady had actually to leave, that a man might be put\nin the place to which she had given value. So we must not boast too much, even though\nthe civil service is open to women, and though, as far as education of themselves is\nconcerned, they are so fairly treated here.\nIt would be gratifying to be able to say that the advantages freely offered are freely\nused. But truth compels the admission that in the university colleges the number of\nwomen students is small compared with that of the men, and that the number of highly\neducated women to be met with in New Zealand cannot be described as large, though,\nindeed, this latter statement may be made also concerning the men. Professor Parker\nof Dunedin has thus put the case :\n\"In discussing the state of learning in Scotland, Dr. Johnson once said, with that\nmixture of insight and brutality which so often characterized his utterances, ' It is with\ntheir learning as it is with provisions in a besieged town ; every one has a mouthful, and\nno one a bellyful.' That is precisely our case. We turn out every year a fair number\nof B.A.'s, and a few M.A.'s, but no scholars, mathematicians, or philosophers ; a few\nB. Sc.'s, but no men of science. The list of our graduates includes many excellent and\nsuccessful lawyers, doctors, clergymen, and schoolmasters ; but how many are there\namong them who are recognized authorities on any subject whatever ? In science I know\nof only one. ...\nI consider that the first reason why our students do so little\nfor the advancement of learning is that so few of them do it for its own sake. Making\nall due allowance for individual exceptions, there is very little enthusiasm among the\nyoung people of Otago, either for nature or for books ; and it is to those who seek her\ndiligently for her own sake, and not because she pays in an examination, that Wisdom\nsays, ' Come eat of my bread, and drink of the wine which I have mingled.' \"\nIt may be, further, that the want of enthusiasm is partly due to another cause, viz.,\n\n"}
{"page": 906, "printed_page": null, "text": "886\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nthat what is lightly gained is apt to be lightly prized. Under New Zealand socialism\nthe primary schools are free, except a small payment for books, etc. — regarded by many\nas an inexcusable hardship — while the secondary school and university fees are absurdly\nlow. However this may be, teachers of experience agree that the boys in the grammar\nschools do not work as hard as boys in the old country, and that the best of them leave\nschool with a far smaller stock of knowledge than that possessed by boys in England\nand Scotland under similar circumstances. Naturally it is the same with their sisters,\nthough, in Auckland at least, the latter have the excuse that, in what is called society,\na girl who takes to study may have to bear a good deal of old-fashioned ridicule from\npersons holding the view expressed by a certain Scotchman in his prayer at a wedding,\n\" Lord, we thank thee, who hast given us wumman to make us comfortable.\"\nIn Auckland we have not a perfect, but a delightful, climate, for which we have a way\nof showing our gratitude by blaming it for our own shortcomings or overgoings, as the\ncase may be. To this cause is sometimes attributed the want of enthusiasm, of grip,\nof the faculty of steady grind, among our students, which gives rise to the fear that\nthese men and women of the future will miss from their lives the power which comes,\nand can come, only from \"the stress and strain of glorious endeavor.\"\nIn fairness to the university students it should be mentioned that among them are\nboth women and men who are earning a living as teachers, and at the same time\nreading for a degree, and of them it certainly cannot be said that they do not work\nhard under very considerable difficulties. Also, owing to the high wages of domestic\nservants, girls in this country have usually a greater share of household work than\nwould be the case in the old country.\nBut it is matter of regret that those who are comparatively free to make study their\nprincipal object pay so little attention to the precept which bids us \"get knowledge,\nget understanding,\" and this the more, as far as women are concerned, if, as seems\nnot unlikely, we are soon to have the suffrage. Already New Zealand women interest\nthemselves warmly in public matters in which the sound judgment arising from careful\nmental training is most necessary, and have organized themselves for the attainment\nof various objects. By their energy and determination they may actually be said to\nhave defeated the Woman's Suffrage Bill last year, since the publican interest was\naroused against the giving of a vote to those who, it was feared, would use it for the\npassing of a law for the prohibition of \"all sale of intoxicating liquors.\"\nLooking at the various possibilities opened to women during the last twenty-five\nyears, it can but be hoped that they, who in the past have suffered so much from false\nways of looking at things, will use their greater knowledge, their growing power, ever\nfor truth and righteousness ; that of them, in the brightening future, it may be said,\naccording to the right reading: \"The Lord giveth the word ; the women that publish\nthe tidings are a great host.\"\nIn this glad heralding may the women of New Zealand join with all others — an\nuniversal sisterhood :\n\" For mankind are one in spirit, and an instinct bears along,\nRound the earth's electric circle, the swift flash of right or wrong.\nNew occasions teach new duties : Time makes ancient good uncouth ;\nThey must upward still, and onward, who would keep abreast of Truth.\"\n\nAs this paper comes from Maori-land, it may be permitted to close in Maori fashion :\nGreetings ! Greetings to you every one ! Greetings from the little islands to the great\ncontinent !\n\n"}
{"page": 907, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATIONAL\n\nWORK\n\nFOR\n\nWOMEN\n\nIN AUSTRALIA.\n\nS8?\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nWORK FOR\nWOMEN IN AUSTRALIA,\nCHIEFLY NEW SOUTH\nWALES.\nBY LOUISA\n\nMACDONALD,\nPRINCIPAL OF THE\nUNIVERSITY\nOF SYDNEY.\n\nWOMEN'S\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nBy the side of the government or public-school system of education in Australia,\nstand the schools of every grade and kind started by private enterprise. At the top\nis the university, representing higher education.\nTo classify in detail the schools according to the education given in them is difficult.\nThere is too little coherence of plan. The state of things is rather a chaos of theories\ngathered from the Old World and put experimentally into practice in the New. But out\nof the chaos time and circumstances are developing one or two clear ideas. One of\nthese is the idea of government-aided education ; the other is seen everywhere at this\npresent time, especially in the democracy of America — the custom of educating the\nsexes together.\nThese two ideas of state aid, and of mixed education, have an influence in shaping\nwomen's education in Australia ; but the conditions of life in the country affect that\neducation, especially of the girls of the upper classes, most strongly and directly.\nIn the homesteads in the country, and in small country towns, the girls help in the\nhousework, and are exceedingly useful. Good household servants are difficult to get,\nand the wages, even for indifferent workers, very high. The Australian girl is skilled\nin all domestic occupations — cooking, sewing, fruit-preserving, jam-making, and the\nlike. But these things, and the necessity of knowing them, interfere with any education after the so-called school years are over. The hot Australian summers leave only\na small amount of energy to be devoted to any purpose, and if that has to be used up\nin the kitchen, or at the sewing-machine, there is none to be given to hard study. I\nshould think, too, that the shadow of the almost inevitable domestic vocation for\nwomen was cast before, and hung even over, the education of the girls, making it appear\ndimly to many as a work of supererogation.\nIn these country homes a governess teaches the girls — after a fashion — till they are\nabout fourteen or sixteen, when they go to a boarding-school in Sydney or elsewhere to\nbe \"finished.\" It is much the same system as that which prevailed in England till\nwithin the last twenty years ; but here it has more drawbacks. The laxity of home discipline, the lack of any social pressure from without, leave everything to be done by\nthe schoolmistress in the one or two years which are all that are allowed to her. The\nfierce competition which exists — for schools and mistresses are many and pupils few —\nmakes the question even more complicated. Not only must parents be pleased by\ntheir daughters' progress, but the daughters, who have here some independence in their\nown affairs, must be pleased too, even the most unruly, and the results are not always\nsatisfactory. One result is somewhat noteworthy : the almost complete neglect of arithmetic and mathematics in schools for girls. It is really with difficulty that a girl at\na private school can learn mathematics enough to qualify for matriculation at the\nuniversity.\nStill in many ways, in spite of difficulties, the teaching in these private schools is\nexcellent. Latin in many of them has a recognized place among the subjects taught,\nand in some elementary algebra and geometry as well. In part this is due to the system of local examinations instituted by the university. The great events of the school\nyear are the senior and junior local examinations, and much esprit de corps is shown\nconcerning the success and failure of candidates from different schools. The lists are\n\n"}
{"page": 908, "printed_page": null, "text": "888\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION.\n\npublished in the early summer, October and November, and for some days before they\nappeared I was puzzled by the intense eagerness of my students, newly emerged from\nthe schoolgirl stage, to see the morning papers. The winners of the Fairfax prizes\n{i.e., the best candidates of either sex), the schools they came from, the other honors\ngained, were discussed and commented upon over and over again.\nMany of the girls who distinguish themselves at these university local examinations\ncome from convent schools, conducted by the Sisters of the Sacred Heart, of the Good\nSamaritan, and the Loretto nuns ; and these convent schools for girls, as well as the\nschools for boys taught by different religious orders, are an increasingly important\nfactor in the secondary education in New South Wales. A proportion of the conventbred girls go on to the university, and two of them were among the first non-resident\nstudents at the Women's College. From those I know I should judge favorably, not\nsimply of the instruction, but of the general tone of education given by the Sisters.\nBesides the private schools, there are one or two high -schools for secondary educacation under government control. So backed up, the teaching is more authoritative,\nand, consequently, in harder and less attractive subjects, more thorough. From all this\nit can be imagined that the higher education, as we use the term in England, is not\nwidespread, however far advanced it may be in individual cases. It is not yet the custom for men to attend the university courses except for professional training as lawyers, doctors, or teachers.\nThe same holds good of women to a certain extent.\nOwing perhaps to the growth of wealth and the increasing proportion of women to\nmen in town population, there are a few women, attracted to study by the love of it, who\ngo to the university ; but their numbers as yet are small. There is no established\nwealthy and leisured class, as in England, amongst whom learning and the love of\nlearning might be cherished. Those who have money, either made or inherited, who\ndesire culture and art, go to the Old World to seek it, or break up their time by perpetual voyages home, and their sons and daughters go to English schools and colleges\nto be educated.\nThis is desirable in many ways, but it were to be wished that education, wherever conducted, should include the inculcation of patriotism as a primary duty ; not patriotism\nin the sense of brag, but the patriotism which would make the new countries of the\nsouth resolve to emulate the toil and the glory of the islanders from whom they\nsprang.\nThe question of state subsidies to education is too large to be treated of here, even as\nregards its effect on women's education, and the advantage or disadvantage of the same\ndepends on the view taken of the duties of the state. About the advantage of the other\nleading idea, that of mixed education, which time is developing in Australia, there seems\nto me small room for doubt. It is practiced in all the colonies, I believe, in primary schools\n(though in towns, as the children grow older, the sexes are divided), and in the universities. The separation of the sexes still holds good in secondary education. To the\nyears of separate work are due, I should say, whatever drawbacks of flirtation and undue\nexcitement there may be in the university life. But a few months at the university generally does away with these, and it is pleasant to see the terms of frank equality on which\nyoung men and women meet each other at university lectures, on the tennis courts, in\nthe quadrangle, or at college and university sports and games.\nBoth Sydney and Melbourne Universities have a system of sectarian residential colleges in\n; Sydney, founded and endowed partly by government, partly by private subscription. At the Sydney University there are three — Anglican, Roman, and Presbyterian, and lately a new departure has been made in the foundation and incorporation\nby Act of Parliament of a non-sectarian residential college for women. The movement\nto found the Women's College began with the professors of the university, some of whom\nlargely aided by subscriptions as well as personal effort, and, till the proper college build-\n\n"}
{"page": 909, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATIONAL\n\nWORK\n\nFOR\n\nWOMEN\n\nIN AUSTRALIA.\n\n889\n\ning should be erected, temporary premises were opened last March just after the beginning of the university session. Unlike the first women's colleges in England, it began\nrather with the desire to create a demand than with any demand on the part of\nstudents or their parents. But that has been the way with the university itself, and there\nwas and is still in some quarters no less opposition to university education and scorn of\nits advantages than there is now to our Women's College.\nThere were in residence in 1892 four students, and four others were admitted in the\ncourse of the year, to attend tutorial classes as non-resident students. For the first week\nof the year the first student was alone in her glory, and as she passed to the lecturerooms the first-year students, still rather at the schoolboy and larrikin age, used to\nsalute her with jeering remarks, such as \" There goes the Women's College ! \" But the\njeers changed to friendship later, and the first students of the college were among the\nmost popular of their own or any other year.\nUniversity lectures in Sydney are compulsory, to obtain a degree, and this adds to the\ndifficulty of carrying out the residential principle. The students are necessarily absent\nfrom college so many hours a day, and during that time practically responsible to no one.\nMelbourne approaches more nearly to Oxford and Cambridge custom. There the colleges have usurped somewhat the university functions, and attendance at college lectures\nis accepted as equivalent to attendance at those of the university.\nSome six or seven years ago the Warden of Trinity College, Melbourne, founded a\nhostel for women students attending the Trinity College lectures. Some of the most\nbrilliant women students of the Melbourne University have at one time resided in the\nhostel; among others, Miss Staurell, who won high honors at Cambridge last year. But\nthe prosperity of it has fluctuated, and it has no standing of its own, owing in great\nmeasure, I imagine, to the somewhat anomalous position it holds of a women's annex to\na male college. Of course it remains to be seen whether the Sydney plan will be more\nsuccessful.\nThe residential colleges in Sydney are built in the university park, and have grounds\nvarying in extent from two and a half to sixteen acres. The four colleges — the fourth,\nthe Women's College, is now in process of building — the laboratories, the Medical\nSchool, and the beautiful Prince Alfred Hospital, lie grouped irregularly round the\ncentral university building, which stands — a long line — on a ridge of hill, and have a\nvery imposing effect. The arrangements for residence for men and women alike are the\nsame as that at Newnham. One fairly large room serves for study and bedroom, and\nlibraries, reading, and sitting rooms are common to all the students.\nIndividual women students in Australia have greatly distinguished themselves at the\nuniversities : Miss Jane Russell, M.A., (now tutor to the women students at the Sydney\nUniversity) here in classics, Miss Whyte at Melbourne in medicine, and others at Adelaide and in New Zealand. All the four Australasian universities, Sydney, Melbourne,\nAdelaide, and New Zealand, are open to women * as to men in all subjects. In medicine,\nwhere there is a medical school, the men and women work side by side. In law, there\nhave been as yet — to my knowledge — no women students, but there is nothing in university regulations to hinder their gaining a law degree.\nApart from the regular system of instruction at schools and the university, there is\nin Sydney a very flourishing scheme for university extension lecturing. Courses of\nlectures have been delivered in Sydney, the suburbs, and the larger provincial towns, on\nhistory, literature, and philosophy. As has been proved in England, they have an\ninfluence on the intellectual life of men and women, chiefly, perhaps, of women, and\nthey pave the way for appreciation of more thorough and systematic teaching.\nLast\n* Sydney was opened to women in 1884, Melbourne in 18S1, Adelaide in 1880, New Zealand certainly\nsince its reconstruction in 1874— whether before that date or not I do not know.\n\n"}
{"page": 910, "printed_page": null, "text": "§90\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nsession, for the first time, a course of university extension lectures was given by a woman\nlecturer, and at the same time, on the motion of one of the professors, a woman was\nappointed assistant examiner at the local examinations. This last appointment had\nalready a precedent in New Zealand. There is, 1 think, no doubt that a fair field in\nintellectual things lies opened to women here if they care to take advantage of it.\nNo one who is accustomed to the strong current of intellectual life in Great Britain,\nor even those in America, wide though it is, who are in touch with a large population,\ncan appreciate either the intellectual difficulties or the triumphs over them of the few\nhundred thousands who dwell on the borders of our island continent. Few books are\npublished here. Of English books of note, as solid literature, but one or two copies are\nimported except on order. The university and public libraries, good as they are, are\nstill necessarily lacking in much even of general interest. Specialist literature is often\nentirely unrepresented. Nothing, perhaps, will illustrate better the state of general intellectual thought and its upward progress than an interview I had with a leading bookseller\nin Sydney some months ago. I had asked for four books, all fairly well known, none of\nwhich did he know by name, much less have in stock. The fifth, Frazer's \"Golden\nBough,\" to my surprise he actually had — one of two copies in the colony, he assured me.\nI complained, perhaps more gently than had the fifth book too been unattainable, of\nmy ill success and his small store. \" Well,\" said he, \" we're a great deal better than we\nused to be. Nine years ago, when I set up in business, most of our trade was done in\nyoung ladies' journals and the like ; now we hardly sell any.\"\nLet no one smile. Only one hundred and five years since the sparse inhabitants of\nNew South Wales were savages, and the conditions of life to-day in the cities of the white\nman, except the capitals, are crude. Yet in Australasia there are four universities, and\nTasmania is about to found a fifth. Those who are destitute of education are few in\nnumber — only four per cent, of the population— and learning is absolutely free to men\nand women alike. Only, as in all new countries, leisure is wanting ; and this will come\nwith time.\n\nRECENT\n\nDEVELOPMENTS\nWOMEN AND\nBY E.\n\nOF EDUCATION\nGIRLS OF INDIA.\nA.\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nMANNING.\n\nIn attempting to describe the recent progress of education among the women and\ngirls of India, I have to call your attention to a remarkable but silent conflict which is\ntaking place in that country. On the one side we perceive an attacking force from the\nWest, favored by political circumstances ; namely, an educational system which recognizes the claims of women to intellectual and general development. On the other side,\na compact social framework, based upon the solid rock of custom, supported by the\ntraditions of centuries, and strictly controlled by an authorized religious caste. The\nstruggle did not begin actively until fifty or sixty years ago, and there are parts of\nIndia which it has as yet scarcely disturbed. Moreover, one is frequently in doubt\nwhether the apparent triumphs of either combatant are real or only superficial. But a\ndeep interest attaches to the contest, and in this short paper I wish to indicate a few of\nits main features, and of its results. I shall refer, first, to the rise and characteristics\nof the English educational system in India ; secondly, to the Indian social system in\nregard to women ; and, thirdly, to the collision between the two.\nLet me remind you, preliminarily, that the population of India, including native states,\nnumbers about two hundred and eighty-seven millions, and that it consists of three\nchief races : Hindus, who arrived in successive waves from the North in the distant past,\n\n"}
{"page": 911, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nWOMEN\n\nAND\n\nGIRLS\n\nOF INDIA.\n\n891\n\nand who form, roughly speaking, four-fifths of those millions ; Mohammedans, one-fifth,\nmilitary invaders, whose large empire was already falling to pieces when British rule\nbegan : and Parsis, exiles from Persia eleven hundred years ago, who, numerically insignificant, being only ninety thousand, have won a prominent position by their enterprise\nand their charitable munificence.\nI. The English educational system in India.\nIt must not be supposed that India had no schools in early times. Sanskrit seminaries were scattered here and there in the recesses of the forests, where pundits explained\nthe Vedas to bands of select disciples ; and the Mohammedans used to teach the Koran,\nchiefly by rote, in schools attached to mosques and in colleges. There were, besides, in\nthousands of the agricultural villages, small schools of a very primitive type, called in\nBengal Patshalas, and in Madras Pyal, or veranda schools. The pupils used to shout\nout the alphabet, each independently, and the parents were apt to estimate the efficiency\nof the master by the amount of noise that they heard in passing by, just as now they are\nsaid sometimes to judge of the children's progress in writing by the proportion of ink\nbespattered over their simple garments. But the teaching was remarkably adapted to\nthe object in view, which was mainly to give facility in village accounts, and these\nschools have served as a foundation for the government system of primary education.\nNor was the Indian girl of the well-to-do classes without some sort of education in her\nown home. She teas — I may say, she is— instructed especially with great care in household\nduties. Every Hindu lady must know how to attend to the ceremonial rites for worship,\nand to cook, to wash (and perhaps dye) her sarees, and to direct servants. She probably\nlearns, too, to recite religious poems — those legends which illustrate her duties as a wife ;\nand she is taught enough arithmetic to enable her to bargain and to keep accounts.\nAmong the Mohammedans the girls become very clever also in embroidery, and they\nsometimes acquire the classical and beautiful Persian language.\nIn the orthodox families reading and writing were very rare accomplishments ; for it\nwas thought, and still is thought in some parts, that if a girl is allowed such instruction she will early become a widow. But the Indian girl is capable, quick, and docile,\nand, within the narrow limits of her training, she soon evinces skill and practice. The\nmoral teaching that she receives cannot usually be said to be satisfactory. Too often\nchildren are alternately coaxed and threatened, and obedience is secured by means of\nsuperstitious dread. Evil spirits are supposed to lurk everywhere about, ready to seize\nthe self-willed child, whose natural joyousness is thus frequently crushed by haunting\nterrors. The mothers are so young and so inexperienced that they can hardly be\nexpected to be wise in the treatment and guidance of their children.\nEducation, then, was by no means unfamiliar in India; and now, how did the English\nsystem take its rise ? The East India Company, which dates as a governing body from\n1757, having been at first connected only with trade, did not occupy itself with educational matters until some way into the present century. A practical necessity had by\nthat time arisen, to meet which Western training was introduced into India. For\nadministrative purposes the Government required native aid. The study of English was\ntherefore encouraged, and the Hindus and Parsis (the Mohammedans at first holding\naloof) began speedily to equip themselves with that language as a means of livelihood.\nBoys' schools and colleges sprang up, especially in the presidency towns, under three\ndistinct agencies — missions, associations of Indian gentlemen, and the Company's\nGovernment. In similar order, but on a comparatively very small scale, these same\nagencies commenced doing something also for the instruction of girls.\nThe first school for girls at Bombay was founded by an American mission in 1824,\nand before long the various missionary societies started many in all the presidencies for\ntheir converts and for outsiders. These schools helped, by their gentle discipline and\nby the kindly personality of the teachers, to disarm prejudice ; but there arose gradu-\n\n"}
{"page": 912, "printed_page": null, "text": "892\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nally a strong fear among the orthodox Hindus of possible prose] ytism, so that the\npupils of the missionaries fell off for a time, or came chiefly from the lower castes. And\nnow certain classes of the Indians began to bestir themselves. At Bombay some enthusiastic Parsis devoted their limited leisure to teaching in four girls' schools founded by\ntheir community, and at Calcutta several educated Hindus, who had given up caste,\nbecame active in the same cause. Meanwhile the richer people generally were not only\napathetic, but distinctly averse to education for girls on Western methods, and those\nwho stood up for it had to endure various kinds of serious persecution.\nA decided impulse next came through the Government ; for, in 1854, an education\ndespatch of great import was issued by the Court of Directors of the East India Company, and later confirmed by the India Office, when the Company had ceased to exist. As\na result of that despatch, the present educational machinery came into being over thirty\nyears ago. Three universities were founded, to which the existing colleges were affiliated, and which since some years have been opened to women ; a Director of Public\nInstruction was appointed in each province ; grants in aid were multiplied for girls' as\nwell as for boys' schools ; and additional state funds were appropriated in support of\neducation, that for girls being specially favored.\nNow followed the visits to India of Miss Mary Carpenter, the first taking place in\n1866, and these exercised considerable influence upon the progress of Indian women.\nShe succeeded in stimulating many educated men to allow to their wives, sisters, and\ndaughters some of the advantages which they themselves enjoyed ; and also she persistently emphasized the pressing importance of increasing the supply of women teachers.\nThrough Miss Carpenter's efforts a few normal schools were established by Government, three of which, after many vicissitudes, are still in active working— that at\nMadras being one of the most useful educational institutions in India. The strong\nopinion expressed by Miss Carpenter as to the need of duly trained teachers for the girls'\nschools received also a thorough corroboration from the witnesses examined before the\neducation commission of 1882, presided over by Sir W. VV. Hunter.\nI am inclined to wonder whether it might not have been better in some ways if these\neducational arrangements had been delayed thirty or forty years. For the period\nwhich introduced Western training into India was characterized in England by two dogmas, one positive and the other negative, both of which are now widely disputed.\nThere was then a prevailing idea that education should be mainly literary, and that if\nevery one could read and write, the prisons would be nearly empty ; while the negative\nbelief was, teachers did not require to be specially prepared for their work — that it was\nthe one profession in which training is superfluous. It appears to me that the educational system of India was pervaded and greatly vitiated by these two views, and in\nIndia, owing to certain conditions, they have proved even more hurtful than in the\nWest. If at the first it had been recognized that true education consists in the development, not of one or two, but of all the faculties, moral and physical, as well as intellectual ;and if, instead of energizing to multiply, by hundreds, poor little so-called\nschools, under the lifeless teaching of aged pundits, the first effort had been to provide\nwell-trained teachers, and the second to start schools— less work, I think, would have\nhad to be undone, and there would have been a better chance of overcoming, by the\npresentment of a really sound and practical system, the very strong objections of the\npeople to English education. Perhaps, however, it was one of those cases in which only\nthrough attempts, however imperfect, the desired end could be attained.\nAnyhow, much improvement has latterly become noticeable. All the three agencies\nabove indicated — Government, the people themselves, and missions— are now not merely\nestablishing girls' schools, but trying to encourage better methods of instruction ;\nelementary science, hygiene, domestic economy, and drawing, etc., are here and there\nintroduced ; the work of the zenana teachers is of better quality than formerly ; a plan\n\n"}
{"page": 913, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nWOMEN\n\nAND\n\nGIRLS\n\nOF INDIA.\n\n893\n\nof home teaching for families in which missionary influence is disapproved has been\ninstituted by the National Indian Association, a society founded by Miss Carpenter ;\nsome beginning has been made towards understanding and applying the principles of\nthe kindergarten ; normal training is more insisted upon ; and opportunities for the\nhigher education of women are increasing. I may mention also the very important\naction of the Madras Government in placing, a few years ago, all the girls' schools of\nthe presidency under women inspectors instead of men ; which has had the most satisfactory results.\nAn organization has thus been planted in India, testifying, in spite of defects, with an\nemphatic voice to the truth that women and girls should be educated as surely as men\nand boys.\nII. Let us look, secondly, at the Indian social system, that stationary force which\npresents an antagonistic front to Western education, especially as regards women. I\nshall allude to two customs, one chiefly distinctive of Hindu, the other of Mohammedan,\nlife in India — child marriage, and seclusion.\nFirst, then, the custom of child marriage. Xow, this is no mere transitory fashion or\nhabit. It rests upon the religious philosophy which governs every moment of the life of\nHindus, and upon the theory of that philosophy respecting women. Until a Hindu girl\nis married she cannot be said to have any spiritual existence at all. Only by means of\nher husband does she become a spiritual being. It is therefore the clear duty of her\nparents to marry her suitably and early. And, in fact, one reason why the birth of a\ngirl is so unwelcome in a Hindu family is that the difficulty and the expense connected\nwith her marriage at once loom into view. No music or rejoicings announce her birth,\nas in the case of a boy. She is received into the world under the silence of disappointment. In former times her life was held so cheap that infanticide was fearfully\ncommon. It was thought better to destroy the child than to run the risk of not being\nable to marry her within the limit of her caste. The anxiety of the parents on that\nscore begins in her earliest years. The match-makers, that is, usually the barbers or\nthe barbers' wives, are set to work to enquire for eligible boys with a favorable horoscope. When one is selected, there follow endless discussions as to money and\npresents, so that, as they say, a lakh of words, namely one thousand, are expended in\nthe transaction.\nAt last all being arranged, the chief marriage ceremony has to be performed. The\nlittle girl may be only a chattering infant, or more likely eight or ten years old, but\nthis first ceremony, which we should call betrothal, must take place while she is still\nalmost a child. In one way it is much more than a betrothal, for if the \" wedded boy \"\n(as I have heard him called) dies she is looked on as a widow for all her days. Of\ncourse she enjoys the importance of the occasion, and she likes being laden with ornaments and apparelled in red (the color which has to prevail at Hindu weddings from\nthe invitation cards onward), and she likes the receiving of presents, and the feasting,\nand the fun. Besides, her thoughts have been directed to her marriage from the time\nthat she could understand anything. But her childhood is now at an end, and she\nmust behave very demurely.\nA while after, when she is about twelve, the second, a less grand ceremony, takes\nplace, and from that time she joins her husband to live ever after, except for rare visits\nhome, at the house of her father-in-law. We will just follow her there. She enters a\nlarge joint family, similar to the one she has left, consisting of the parents, the sons\nwith their wives and children, and an indefinite number of more or less distant relatives,\nmany of them widows. She comes as the youngest bride, and has to be entirely submissive toher mother-in-law, and to her sister-in-law, who probably apportion to her\nthe work they most dislike. She is under the strictest rules of behavior. She must not\neat till her husband has finished ; she may not even call him by his name ; if she wants\n\n"}
{"page": 914, "printed_page": null, "text": "894\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nto indicate him it has to be by a gesture, or by an indefinite pronoun. It is her duty\nalmost to worship him as a god. If she does not behave rightly towards him she will\nbe reborn as some objectionable animal.\nA teacher once told me that, wishing to test the knowledge of her pupils, she pointed\nto some bats, or flying foxes, suspended from the bough of a tree, asking what they\nwere. The answer was : \" Those are the souls of women who have eaten their breakfast before their husbands.\" The wife also has to be very careful about covering her\nface and keeping silence in the presence of her elder brother-in-law, or of strangers.\nShould she have a son her position improves very much ; but if she becomes a widow\nshe is shunned as unlucky, and accused of having been the cause, through sins in a\nformer life, of her husband's death. She has then to practice rigid austerities for the\ngood of his soul, and as affording her the only hope of one day rejoining him. I need\nnot wait to point out how opposed this custom of early marriage is to the intellectual,\nmoral, and physical development of the Indian woman. It hurries responsibilities on\nto the girl before she is fitted to bear them, and interferes with the quiet interval which\neducation may reasonably claim. Among the Mohammedans marriages are usually\nlater than among the Hindus.\nSecond, and now as to the seclusion of women, which we English call the Zenana or\nPurdah system. I have said that this is distinctive especially of Mohammedan life,\nbut it is also adopted by the Hindus in many parts of India. The point is disputed\nwhich race introduced it, for Mohammedan women in other Mussulman countries are\npermitted, if veiled, to walk and drive out more freely, which seems to indicate that\nthe restrictions were first learned, or first adopted, in India. On the other hand Hindu\nwomen had far more liberty in ancient times, and they cannot be said to be now much\nsecluded in Western and Southern India, where the sway of the Mohammedan was less\npowerful. Anyhow, in all Mohammedan families of any position, and in numbers of\nHindu families of Bengal and the Northwest, the women folk not only have to confine\nthemselves to the inner apartments (perhaps a second inner court, or a portion of the\nhouse quite shut off), but they are forbidden to go out and about, even in company with\ntheir relations, except it may be for a pilgrimage, or on a visit to their former home.\nIf they must drive anywhere, the curtains of the carriage are closely drawn lest by\nany chance a stranger should see them.\nThe arrangements when a Mohammedan lady has to make a railway journey are\nmost complicated. I have observed how the enveloped palki, in which she is borne to\nthe station, is set down on the platform, and how then her servants hold up curtains,\nand make an avenue for her to pass along into the carriage, where already every blind\nhas been pulled down. The Purdah (or screen) seems to indicate distrust, but to be thus\nsecluded is so much a mark of social rank that the women themselves would on no\naccount give it up. And although for years, or for their whole lives, they are restricted\nto the inner apartments with only the variety of the courtyard or the roof, their life is\nby no means dull.\nIn a Hindu home there is much household occupation, and plenty of companionship\nand opportunities for gossip. The Mohammedan ladies depend rather more on servants,\nand often get very lazy, unless they are fond of needlework, or have literary tastes.\nBut in all cases the life is varied by frequent feast days, when the house is furbished up,\nand friends come and go, and religious leaders are entertained. Indian women, however, are contented, because they know of nothing different. Besides, they believe\nimplicitly in fate ; whatever is \" written on the forehead,\" as the Hindus say, must come\nto pass, and be borne with submission ; and the Koran teaches the Mohammedans to\nbe fatalists. But consider how narrow must be the ideas of these ladies ; how shallow\ntheir knowledge of the outside world ; how limited their experience ; how undeveloped\ntheir powers.\nYet it is quite a mistake to think that Indian women have little weight\n\n"}
{"page": 915, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATION\n\nFOB\n\nTHE\n\nWOMEN\n\nAND\n\nGIRLS\n\nOF INDIA.\n\n895\n\nin domestic concerns. On the contrary, their influence is most potent. Especially the\nchief lady, the wife of the head of the family, has great authority. She controls the\nwhole internal organization ; she manages the stores, and very cleverly ; she decides\nabout the marriages to be arranged ; she is consulted by her husband, even as to his\nown affairs. Indeed, it is because of the power wielded by the women that their rooted\nprejudices and their extreme conservatism are so much to be lamented.\nMany other customs might be named antagonistic of Western education, but these\ntwo, child-marriage and seclusion, present the greatest barriers of all.\nIII. I now pass to the third division of my paper — the collision between the English\neducational system and the Indian social system. The two have met in India, face to\nface, and let us note a few of the results of the conflict.\nThe joint-family is strong within itself, and admirably complete. Every part bears a\nfixed relation to the whole ; each social rule is framed with regard to the general ideal ;\nadaptation to surrounding conditions has been carefully worked out and secured ; while\nas to discipline, a supremacy, which all acknowledge, is, as we have seen, vested in the\nfamily head, and his wife. Now, what reply does this joint-family make to the theory\nthat girls should have a sound general education ? Its answer is : \" Our girls have no\nneed of such education as you offer. They are not to become clerks or Munshis — so\nleave them alone.\" Thus, indirectly, the fact that at the rise of English education for\nmen, it was encouraged and accepted as a means of livelihood, tends to prevent its\nextension to women. But the joint-family says further : \" It was the custom of our\nforefathers to give no education to their female relations, and why should we be guilty\nof disrespect to them, by deviating from the path which their superior wisdom thought\nit most expedient to tread?\"\nOne may oppose to this that in the very early times education was considered honorable in women, and that only comparatively lately have they, as the saying is, been\n\" drowned in the ocean of ignorance.\" But arguing is of little use, for the one\nunanswerable answer, continually reiterated, is, \"Such is our custom.\" This phrase,\nhowever, no doubt covers a real fear on the part of the men that domestic life will be\nmore disturbed if the women are permitted to have education. It is objected, They will\nnot be so submissive to their husbands; they will neglect their children; they will\nbecome affected, conceited, discontented. It cannot be denied that to a certain extent\neducation will alter the present social ideas, and this the men shrewdly perceive. But\nthey do not see that it is a wrong towards the women to condemn them to ignorance,\nand that if women, as well as men, may but receive a sound education, family life will\nreach a better standard. All the antagonistic reasoning put forward tends to prove\nthat it is not education in itself that is disliked, but its inevitable effect upon the existing social system.\nWe will look more closely at what is taking place in India; first, as to schools, and\nsecondly, as to higher education for women — and I think it will be evident that in some\ndegree the social fortress is already giving way.\n(1) Schools. Let us glance at that pleasing sight, a Hindu girls' school. The pupils,\nwith their rich brown complexion, and fine black eyes, are dressed in the graceful saree,\nof various tints, deep red, purple, green or orange. Their dark hair is tightly drawn\nback and arranged in a plait, either coiled behind one ear, or hanging down behind,\nand decorated with golden ornaments or flowers; they wear numerous chains, bangles\nand anklets, and, of course, no shoes. The younger ones — gentle, round-faced little\nchildren— now often have colored skirts and jackets. The teacher, probably a man, with\nlong coat and turban, and perhaps a cashmere shawl thrown across his shoulders, stands\nat his desk, the girls sitting, in modern schools, on benches, while the smaller ones are\nmore comfortably placed on the floor. The school is perhaps located in veranda rooms,\nsurrounding an ordinary courtyard, so that you catch sight of the classes on the dif-\n\n"}
{"page": 916, "printed_page": null, "text": "896\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nferenfc stories all at onee. Or, it may be in an old deserted palace, or more frequently,\nin a dark close room, which would be hardly thought good enough for a boys'\nschool.\nThe girls are delighted to bring their needlework or their writing for a visitor's inspection, and several of them timidly hand you a book, that you may hear them read.\nFor, under a capable teacher, they begin to take pleasure in learning. But the climate\nis not favorable to exertion, so if the teaching is dry and monotonous, they are quite\nwilling to sit in listless inaction. Mrs. Brander, one of the Madras inspectresses, has\nsaid, that on going into a school, she can tell from the countenances of the scholars\nwhether the teacher expects them to use their brains on not. It may really be called\nunfortunate, that Indian children have such good memories; they can repeat with the\ngreatest ease passages that they have heard or read, without having any idea as to the\nmeaning. And as from old times it has been the habit of Indian schoolmasters to be\nsatisfied if their pupils could learn by rote, there is great difficulty in persuading them\nto aim at anything higher.\nNow, there are numbers of such schools, and so far education is advancing. But see\nwhat happens, when the girls are just waking up to the pleasure of receiving instruction.\nIt is the social system that now \"scores.\" An auspicious month for marriages has\narrived, and straightway all the most forward scholars are swept into the seclusion of a\nzenana. In some parts they may return to school for a year or two between the first\nand second marriages, but in the stricter districts it is not so — and besides those that are\nat once to become brides, numbers of their young companions absent themselves, to\nattend the wedding festivities. And some perhaps are removed from school though they\nare only eight or nine years old, because it will be a saving of expenses to celebrate two\nmarriages at once. The disappointment of able teachers is great when the only promising children are thus spirited away. I have heard of some town where there was once\neven a double clearance, for an unlucky conjunction of planets had been predicted for\nthe following year, and consequently all the girls whose marriages had been planned\nfor that unfavorable twelvemonth were obliged in their own interest to be married\nearlier.\nUnder such circumstances one is apt to doubt whether it is worth while to continue\nthe struggle; for these girls, as has been in many cases ascertained, forget very soon\nwhat they had learned at school. But just as the sieve remains damp even though the\nliquid poured into it has quite disappeared, so the young scholars probably retain some\nlittle good from their short school course. They benefit at least somewhat by the habits\nof regularity, punctuality, attention and effort required of them, and it is of value that\nthey should have the change of spending a few hours daily away from the large mixed\nhome group. And one strong reason for encouraging these schools is, that when the\ntime comes, the pupils, as they really like attending, will be probably more ready to\nsend their own children. So in spite of the early withdrawals, the cause of education is\non the whole the gainer.\nI have now to mention an unexpected way in which even the orthodox ladies are\nbecoming influenced to favor school training for girls. It has come to pass, with the\nrapid spread of education for men in India, that college students and university graduates have begun to prefer educated wives to such as are ignorant and illiterate. The\nconsequence is, that when a girl's parents meet the relations of the bridegroom to discuss\nmoney arrangements, her school training makes a point which lessens the expense on\ntheir side. I have heard of an old woman, who brought her grand-daughter up to the\nteacher, saying, ''You must move this girl quickly into a higher standard, for it is\ntime to marry her ;\" implying, \"the more advanced she is, the smaller need her dowry\nbe.\" Such calculations have for some years prevailed in regard to the young men. A\nmatriculated student has a greater value in marriage — a value that can be stated in\n\n"}
{"page": 917, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATION\n\nFOB\n\nTHE\n\nWOMEN\n\nAND\n\nGIRLS\n\nOF INDIA.\n\n897\n\nrupees — than one who cannot get beyond school, and of course a B. A. is reckoned at a\nhigher amount still.\nThe future of an Indian student depends so much upon his place in the examinations,\nthat these computations are not surprising ; but that girls, on whom the money-making\ndoes not depend, should now be appreciated by the same scale, is a matter of promise.\nIt is an interesting fact, too, that girls who have attended school begin to consider it\nimportant that the husbands chosen for them should be educated. Even some years ago\na little girl of eight, finding at the marriage ceremony that the boy she was to marry\nwas in a lower standard at school than herself, and that he was unable to answer certain\nquestions in arithmetic or geography which she put to him, turned reproachfully to her\nparents, exclaiming, \" You have married me to a stupid man !\" while he on his side\nurged that she should at once be withdrawn from school lest she should get further\nbeyond him. Although the pecuniary motive is noi the highest, yet it is encouraging\nthat the family authorities are in a measure yielding to the new requirements of the\ntimes.\nI may refer also to the influence of scholarships for girls as delaying the age for marriage. Many of the girls who attend school are very poor, and if they are able to win\none of the numerous scholarships offered on the condition of working for a higher standard, the parents are sometimes induced to let them continue at school beyond the\nusual age, so as to take advantage of it. The amount may be only three or four rupees\nmonthly (£2 or £3 a year), yet this sum, and the honor attaching to it, are highly valued.\nIt is considered one of the best ways of encouraging education to found such scholarships, and thus indirectly to lessen the evils of the marriage system.\nPrizes, too, are greatly appreciated, only their apportioning ought to be made to\ndepend, more than is the case, upon merit. I remember seeing a tiny girl in her mother's\narms at a prize-giving, and I asked how she had earned the toy in her hand. The\nmother replied that it was given her because she had come to look on. But these ceremonies do good by arousing interest in the schools, and when one sees the children's\ndelight at receiving the presents (even if they may not be called prizes), one cannot but\nbelieve that it would be a pity to abolish the system. And a prize distribution in India\nis certainly a very attractive occasion — when the school-room is decorated with tropical\nfoliage and ferns, and the children appear in their gayest attire. Scholarships and\nprizes thus tend to weaken the prejudice against education for girls.\nWith regard to fees, the people are beginning to understand them rather better than\nat first. It was frequently the custom forty or fifty years ago for school managers to\npay the children for attending, and even to send carriages to collect them, but there is\nno necessity for this now, at least in the enlightened districts. But fees are still a trial\nand a puzzle to many. Regular charges are not in harmony with the people's habits.\nIn old times the schoolmaster did receive remuneration, but it was most often in the\nform of a present. The parents would give him at intervals a piece of cloth, or a few\nmangoes, or some tiles wherewith to strengthen his roof against the monsoon, and\nespecially when a pupil had conquered the alphabet or had entered upon a new book, or\nif a marriage was to take place. Besides, a feeling which one cannot but respect is prevalent in India, that learning is too precious a thing to be bought or sold. However,\nthe necessity of paying for it is being gradually acknowledged. The government fund\nfor educational purposes is not large, so it is important that the people should help to\nbear the burden, which they will do if they really care for their children's education.\nOn the whole, progress in fee-paying is generally observable.\nNow let us take a general view of the position. What is the proportion of girls attending school in India ? Probably, in the whole of the country, not more than two per\ncent. This is even rather too high an estimate ; but take 1,000 girls of the school-going\nage, and 57\n20 will be found at school, and the remaining 980 will belong to families that\n\n"}
{"page": 918, "printed_page": null, "text": "898\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nabide by the old customs. This is the discouraging side, but there is another view which\ngives much promise ; namely, the number of girl school-goers increases steadily every\nyear. I will instance two presidencies. In Bombay, twenty-one years ago, in 1872, about\n11,000 girls were at school, while last year the number had grown to more than 67,000 ;\nand in Madras, the advance is greater still— from 9,500 in 1872, to just over 98,000 in\n1892. And it has to be noted, too, that, independently of schools, education is spreading\nconsiderably, for the educated men often instruct privately the girls of their families in\nthe vernacular, or even in English.\nNor is it only in British India that the prejudice against education for girls is somewhat disappearing, for in several native states there is a remarkable increase in girls'\nschools. The enlightened rulers of Mysore and Baroda, and several other Maharajas,\nare devoting much attention to this movement. By the latest statistics of Baroda, a\ngreater proportion of girls attend school there than in the Bombay Presidency ; and at\nMysore there is a large school of high-caste girls, with normal classes, which has existed\nfor some years, and from which, as a center, schools are extending over the province.\nThese princes, too, and some rajas, occasionally secure English governesses for their\nchildren. The ruler of a native state can, in certain ways, do more than the British\nGovernment to incline the minds of the people towards education. Being of their own\nrace, he can understand and meet their objections more fully, so that his lead is followed\nin a less suspicious spirit, and with a firmer tread. It is, therefore, very satisfactory that\nin several of the Kajputana and Kathiawar states, as well as in Travancore and those\nstates already mentioned, the rulers are practically showing favor to the school training\nof girls.\n(2) I will now refer briefly to the progress of higher education for women. There are\ncertain small communities in India which have never belonged to caste, or have broken\nwith it, which do not practice either child-marriage or seclusion, and among these there\nhas arisen a genuine desire for Western education. I mean the Parsis, some classes of\nChristians, and the Brahmos. The conflict that I have dwelt on concerns these comparatively little ; their efforts at culture are not followed by excommunication and persecution, and thus they have been able more freely to develop their faculties. Several\nIndian women of the communities that I have named have, in the last ten or fifteen years,\ndistinguished themselves in various lines of intellectual and practical work. The first\nperhaps known in the West was Toru Dutt, of Calcutta, who, though she died so young,\nshowed much poetic power, clothing in graceful verse some of her country's legends,\nand even translating from the French with accuracy and sympathetic comprehension.\nI have already stated that the Indian universities are now open to women. Women\nstudents have not been slow to take advantage of the facilities thus given them. Indeed\nit was because one Indian young lady, Miss Chandra Mukhi Bose, a Christian, desired\nto present herself for the Calcutta matriculation, and to proceed to the B.A. examination, that it was decided to admit women to the degrees of that university ; in 1883\nthe B.A. degree was conferred upon her, and upon an equally studious fellow-student\nbelonging to the Brahmo community. Miss C. M. Bose is now an M.A., and she has\nbeen for some years superintendent of the Bethune School and College, while the other\nlady, Miss Kadam-bini Bose, now Mrs. Ganguli, B.A., is a medical practitioner. She\nmay probably visit the United States. Since then several others in Bengal have followed the example of these two pioneers, and have taken the Calcutta B.A. examination. Meanwhile four or five lady students have graduated at the Bombay University, the first of these having been Miss Cornelia Sorabji, who has since passed a very\nadvanced examination in law at Oxford. At Madras no woman has as yet taken a\ndegree, but last year some girls, from an excellent mission school, were the first to\nmatriculate in that university.\nIndian women of these more advanced communities have also begun to do excellent\n\n"}
{"page": 919, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nWOMEN\n\nAND\n\nGIRLS\n\nOF INDIA.\n\n899\n\nprofessional and philanthropic work. A good many have entered upon the career of\nmedicine, either in missions or under Lady Dufferin's Association. Several Parsi\nladies are already practicing, and others preparing for this profession. It is of inestimable benefit to the zenana women to be able to apply in illness to doctors of their own\nsex, and there is reason to believe that the number of medical women students will surely\nincrease. In literature several Indian ladies are exerting themselves with success. One,\nin Bengal, has published a small volume of poems ; another, a Parsi, writes folk-lore\nstories in excellent English ; a member of the well-known Tagore family edits a vernacular magazine ; a Madras lady has written a pleasing tale about life among native\n-Christians in the funjab ; some striking essays and dialogues regarding social reforms\nhave been brought out by a Hindu lady of liberal sympathies, belonging to the Punjab.\nAnother extremely important line taken up is that of teaching. Only when the men\nteachers in Indian schools can be superseded by women, will the parents permit their\ndaughters to remain at school after the age of ten or twelve. It is therefore most satisfactory that more students are presenting themselves at the training colleges. It will\nbe long before the necessary change can be effected everywhere, but it is already a settled\naim of the Madras Education Department to provide women teachers in all the girls'\nschools of that presidency.\nFrom among the communities that have no caste hindrances (and from among the\nEurasians), more and more, it is hoped, will take the profession of teaching. Even\nsome orthodox Hindu women — wives of schoolmasters, for instance — and widows have\ncome forward to be trained, with a view to their undertaking the charge of schools, and\nactually here and there a Mohammedan woman has ventured on the same course. I\nmay add that Miss Govindavajulu, a Christian, has dono several years of excellent educational work as an assistant inspectress to Mrs. Brander.\nThen again, there is occupation of a philanthropic kind, and here a prominent place\nbelongs to a Hindu lady, learned in Sanskrit, whose name is familiar in America —\nPundita Ramabai. She wrote a very touching book about the miseries of Hindu\nwidows, which had a large circulation in the United States, and which called out the\nsympathies of many American friends, with the result that her earnest desire to found\na school and home for child-widows has been carried into execution. The institution,\nunder the name of the Sharada Sadan (a Home of Learning), is established at Poona,\nand there many widows have, after times of neglect and suffering, found a happy\nrefuge with the kind-hearted and enthusiastic Ramabai. Another widows' home, which\nis also doing great good, has been started near Calcutta, by Mr. and Mrs. Sasipada\nBanerjee ; and in the Madras Presidency a young Rani, who has lost her husband, has\ncollected a number of destitute widows for daily needlework and maintenance. I could\nmention many other instances of benevolent activity on behalf of such as in some way\nor other need help.\nNaturally all that goes by the name of higher education in India is not satisfactory.\nThere is, in many cases, a tendency to imitate a superficial aspect of English training\nand to neglect home duties, and to fail in respectfulness toward elders ; but one may\nhope that this is a passing and transitory phase, and that such a shallow view as to\nwhat true education is, and should lead to, will not long be tolerated.\nThe great struggle is thus going on with varying, though, on the whole, hopeful\nresults. There is little doubt but that higher education for 'women in India will continue to extend, because the influence of caste and its associate customs is year by year\ndeclining. The question as to what will happen in the case of the Hindu caste people\nand Mohammedans who form the large majority of the millions of India, is less easy to\ndecide. For there are many motives which lead to girls being allowed to attend schools,\nsuch as, the desire to please the Sirkar, that is, the Government, or to satisfy the missionaries, or to gain favor of some individual.\nAt present there is not much evidence\n\n"}
{"page": 920, "printed_page": null, "text": "900\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nthat the people have any genuine wish that education should make way in their families. We have seen how extremely powerful is the sway of custom in regard to\nchild-marriage and the seclusion of women. At the same time that sway appears to be\nvery, very slowly lessening. It is on the younger generation — on the educated men —\nthat the responsibility as to progress in this direction chiefly rests. As yet their influence on the joint-family is slight, but the time will come when their opinions and\nwishes will have more weight. Many of this class have visited England, and have\nbeen struck with the difference between the position of women there and their own\ncountry. They have realized that a wife should be her husband's companion and friend,\nand that mothers should be wise as well as fond, and it even begins to occur to them\nthat fairness and justice toward the women themselves demand for them facilities of\ndevelopment. Some of these men, however, can speak fluently about education on\nplatforms, while after all they are only what are called \" lip-ref ormers, \" and when the\ntime of trial comes they succumb to the old influences, which doubtless it is very hard\nfor them to break through. Others again have not the indispensable patience, and try\nto force reforms on their friends and neighbors, instead of using persuasion, or simply\nsetting an example.\n. .\nThe responsibility is shared also by English people, by those at home, and those in\nIndia. English women who live in that country, especially, can do much to cause education and enlightenment to advance. By making the acquaintance of Indian ladies,\nwhen it is agreeable that they should do so; by helping to improve methods of instruction by\n; encouraging teachers ; by sympathizing with what is admirable in the existing\nsocial system ; by learning the vernaculars ; by translating books ; by working rather\nwith the people than for the people, in hundreds of ways that feelings of friendliness\nwill suggest, they can help to weaken the hold of injurious customs, to render education\nattractive, and to introduce more light and health into Indian homes. ''The Present,\nif it shall have the Future accomplished, shall itself commence.\"\n\nENGLISH\n\nORPHANAGE\n\nAND\n\nBOSNIA,\nBY\n\nMISS\n\nTRAINING\n\nSCHOOL\n\nIN\n\n1869-1892.\nA.\n\nT. IKBT.\n\nMy paper is offered to our American brothers and sisters in order to give them some\naccount of an English effort made to promote the education of girls and to raise the\nstatus of women in Bosnia and the Herzegovina. These two provinces, in southeastern\nEurope, were until recently under Turkish rule, but are now, according to the provisions of the Treaty of Berlin, occupied and administered by Austria-Hungary. A\nChristian Serb population, belonging to the Eastern, commonly called the Greek\nChurch, contributed the majority of the inhabitants. These had remained doubly\nenslaved and ignorant under the double yoke of Turkish Pashas and Phonoiote Greek\nbishops from Constantinople ; while the Latin rayahs belonging to the same race, but\ndivided from their brethren by difference of creed, were somewhat better off under the\nbishops of the Church of Rome.\nWhen I first traveled in Bosnia in 1862, there was but one Christian girls' school in\nthe two provinces. In some places we found the Mohammedan female children collected\ntogether, and taught to repeat prayers and to do embroidery, but there was only that one\nschool for Christian girls, taught by a native Bosnian woman, Halgia Staka, of the\nGreek Church, the daughter of a Christian merchant of Herzegovinian origin.\n\n"}
{"page": 921, "printed_page": null, "text": "ENGLISH\n\nORPHANAGE\n\nAND\n\nTRAINING\n\nSCHOOL\n\nIN BOSNIA.\n\n901\n\nIn the course of travels in the South Slavonic Provinces * we saw that, while Free\nServia and Montenegro had their own schools; while the Bulgarians, not then free, were\nmaking every sacrifice for the education of their children, American missionaries f\nbeing also at work there ; we found that for Bosnia and the Herzegovina there were no\nAmerican missionaries, and only the one little native girls' school, which I have just\nmentioned. Therefore we resolved to put our travels to account, if possible, for the good\nof these people.\nOn our return home to England, was formed, in 1865, the \"Association for the Promotion of Education among the Slavonic Children of Bosnia and the Herzegovina,\"\nunder the sanction of the Archbishops of Canterbury and York, and Lord Shaftesbury.\nDr. Norman MacLeod, in his large-hearted charity, was one of the chief promoters, and\nin the committee subsequently formed.\nThe funds raised in England and Scotland for the children of the Slav Christians of\nTurkey, were at first entrusted to the Protestant German Deaconesses' Institution of\nKaiserswerth, which made, con amore, the arduous and difficult beginning in 1869, but\nretired in 1871, since which time I have carried on the work.\nEvery enslaved nation is characterized by deceit and suspicion. The poor Bosnian\nrayahs have so long been accustomed to cruelty and injustice that it is not easy to\nawaken their trust in any disinterested human sympathy. Clinging desperately to their\nchurch as the ark of their nation, it was but natural that in this new school, opened by\nProtestant Deaconesses from Germany, with foreign customs and the observances of another church, they should see an attempt to Germanize and Protestantize their children,\nand should refuse to send them.\nThe actual beginning among the poor native rayahs, for whom the school had been\nfounded, was small and very gradual. From the Turkish Government, indeed, we had\nno opposition Whatever. The Osmanli officials were well accustomed to the sight of\nEnglish and American missionaries in the East, and I think they looked on our little\ngirls' school as a harmless craze, quite below their notice. But it took long to show\nthe Serbs of Bosnia that our aim was neither to proselytize nor to denationalize their\nchildren.\nOne good result of our effort was, that then first the Serb community of Serajevo bestirred themselves to establish their own schools, aided by the protection of the Russian\nConsul, and with money from Russia. Also for the Roman Catholic community were\nbrought Soeurs of St. Vincent de Paul from Esseg, in Slavonia, originally from a\nMother House in the Tyrol. When the school of these nuns was opened I sent to them,\nmuch to their astonishment, the only two Roman Catholic children who were in our\nhouse. I shall never forget the horror of the good nuns when, accompanied by Halgia\nStaka, I first paid them a visit. The sight of two such heretics, a native schismatic and\nthe very Protestant whose influence they had come to counteract, was too much for\nthem ; they fell to crossing themselves in pious fear. We were afterward on friendly\nterms, and exchanged various good offices.\nThe language was one of the difficulties in the beginning of our school. After a time\nI was able to secure the services of a native Bosnian schoolmaster, who came daily to\nteach our eight or ten orphans. On one occasion the house was stormed by some Bosnian women, who insisted on taking all the children away, a panic having been raised\nthat the girls were to be carried off the next morning to a foreign country. I let them\ngo with the women, who brought them back after a few days, but I refused to take two\nor three of them. Before long more children were brought than it seemed prudent to\ntake in.\n* See Travels in the Slavonic Provinces of Turkey-in-Europe, by O. Muir Mackenzie and A. P. Irby,\nwith Preface by the Right Hon. W. E. Gladstone,\nt The Robert College (American) proved a mighty factor in the preparation for Bulgarian freedom.\n\n"}
{"page": 922, "printed_page": null, "text": "902\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOP EDUCATION\n\nThe education given, and the aim and spirit of the teaching, were such as were indicated in the first statement of the Association, issued in 1^68 : \" In the school which\nit is proposed to found, reading, writing, arithmetic, history, geography, plain work,\ncooking, and care of health, would be among the branches of instruction; but the principal aim would be to give the girls a sound, useful education, based upon the doctrine\nof Christ, and so not only to effect a gradual elevation of their intellectual and social\ncondition, but also to prepare them to be the future teachers of their countrywomen.\"\nThus the little school continued until the Bosnian revolution of 1875-78. Civil war\nin the land rendered the position of Serajevo so uncertain that we removed the elder\ngirls to Prague, in Bohemia, there to attend the Higher Girls' School, living under the\ncare of our own English matron and teacher, who remained in Prague. Miss Johnson,\nwho was at that time my kind helper and coadjutor, returned with me to England, to\nstart a special fund for the suffering fugitives, which was initiated by a donation of\n;£50 from Florence Nightingale, whose loving interest in the work has been unfailing.\nDuring those three years, and the two following, in the excitement of public feeling\nroused by the Bulgarian massacres, was collected for the \"Bosnian and Herzegovinian\nFugitive and Orphan Relief Fund,\" the sum of ,£40,912 3s. 4d., which, together with\nMiss Johnson, I administered on the frontiers, distributing corn and clothing, establishing schools for the children of the fugitives, and feeding and clothing many starving\nparents, as well as their children. Some 200.000 fugitives (I quote from the official\naccount) fled across the Bosnian frontier into the neighboring provinces of Croatia,\nSlavonia, and Dalmatia.\nAfter the establishment of peace, and the occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by\nAustria, the wretched fugitives who remained alive — scarcely one half of the entire number— returned to their own land, mostly to find their huts burned down and destroyed,\nand their fields unfilled. In the little schools on the frontiers, our aim had been that\nevery boy and girl should learn to read and write, and to know a little arithmetic. Now\nthat the schools were closed, and the children were going back, each one who could read\nwell enough was given a Bible or Testament, and a little book. We returned to our\nschoolhouse in Serajevo. Thither we gathered many orphan children of the fugitives,\nboth girls and boys, placing most of the latter in a neighboring Turkish house, which\nwe had purchased for the purpose ; and some few with Halgia Staka. The boys could\nbe sooner sent out into the world to earn their own living, or passed on into the\ngymnasium and the training school for men teachers now established by the Austrian\nGovernment.\nOut of the fifty-two or more boys whom we sheltered at Serajevo, several are now\nschoolmasters, many are in trades, and others earning their bread in various ways.\nThe Austrian Administration is introducing in Bosnia a similar school system to that\nwhich obtains in the Austrian Provinces. Girls and boys who are candidates for places\nas schoolmasters and schoolmistresses in the Government \". Properatidija,\" or training\nschool for teachers at Serajevo, by passing the first examination are entitled to become\nwhat are called '• assistant teachers.\" This does not mean that they are under teachers\nin the school which they are given, but it means that they must send in and prepare a\nvery full plan and report of the lessons for every day in the school year.\nThe second examination, which is mainly a repetition of the first, after one or two\nyears of teaching in a school, gives them the rank of \" sorsene \" or complete teachers,\nhigher pay, the right to a retiring pension, and it exempts them from the laborious\npreparation of the school scheme.\nIt is not within the scope of my paper, to criticise or comment upon the Government\nexamioation. I have to recognize the fact that the girls in our house who have the\ncapacity to become teachers, must be brought in with the requirements of the examiners\nif they are to get a Government school.\nThe examination is exceedingly hard, and\n\n"}
{"page": 923, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATION\n\nIN CAPE\n\nCOLONY,\n\nAFRICA.\n\n903\n\nincludes a great variety of subjects ; geography, history, arithmetic, algebra, geometry,\nlogic, literature, German, physics, botany, zoology, chemistry, pedagogy, music, and\nsinking, and for girls, also needlework and domestic economy. It is evident that some\nof the subjects must be taught by the teachers or professors from the gymnasium or\nfrom the \" Proper andija,\" and I find the expense of these lessons is so great that it\nis doubtful whether I shall continue them.\nI have here given a slight sketch of our work from its beginning until now. I have\ndescribed our first attempt to train native schoolmistresses for the poor Bosnian rayahs\nin the Turkish times ; then I have spoken of our schools for the children of the Bosnian\nfugitives on the frontiers during the insurrection and the civil war ; and now of the still\ncontinued \"Orphan and Training School \" in Serajevo, under the very different conditions of the present Austrian occupation and administration. The Home, the orphanage, is as greatly needed as ever, and the true idea of a training school in its moral as\nwell as intellectual bearing reaches beyond the mere equipment for school examinations.\nWhen the examination is over, and the Home quitted, some friendly moral aid is as\nsorely needed, as it is difficult to render, for the girl teacher sent forth to sink or swim\nin the miry waters which overflood every rank of society in Eastern Europe. The\nyoung schoolmasters and schoolmistresses have a wide influence for good or for evil,\nby their teaching and by their example. They stand in the midst of temptations, for\nthe most part wholly without uplifting aids around them, and without any adequate\nmoral control.\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nAND\n\nSECONDARY EDUCATION\nCOLONY, AFRICA.\n\nBY MISS MAY\n\nIN CAPE\n\nBENGOUGH.\n\nThe first attempt of Government to provide for education in Cape Town, Africa, dates\nfrom about 1840, when, in accordance with a suggestion of Sir John Herschel, a certain\nnumber of public schools were established in some of the principal towns. These\nHerschel schools provided an entirely free education for what were then known as the\n\" burghers' children,\" and were altogether Government institutions; no local bodies had\neither voice in the management or share in the expenses. Their failure seems to have\nbeen due in part to questions of expense, in part to a suspicion of political motives concealed behind the scheme, in part to the want of interest among those whom it was\nintended to benefit, resulting from their being debarred from all active participation in\nthe scheme.\nFail, at any rate, they did, within some fifteen years of their foundation.\nBut even before the failure had become manifest, the aided system, which at present\nobtains favor throughout the colony, had come into existence. Grants were asked for\nand made, in the first instance, in support of the mission schools connected with the\nvarious religious denominations, and by degrees the whole of the public education of the\ncolony came to be worked on the same lines. The schools assisted by a grant from Government, greater or less according to their class, are, speaking roughly :\n(1) Undenominational public schools of three grades, the third grade consisting of\nschools established in villages only. (2) Mission schools. (3) Farm schools. (4) District boarding-schools.\nThe development of the railway system during the last five or six years has necessitated the establishment of a special class of railway schools. These, I believe, are\nexclusively Government institutions. With this exception, schools of all the above\nclasses are established originally by local enterprise, as the need may arise ; they are\n\n"}
{"page": 924, "printed_page": null, "text": "004\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\ngoverned by a local board of management, elected from among the individuals who are\npersonally or philanthropically interested in starting the school ; and this board is\nresponsible for any deficit. There is not, anywhere in South Africa, anything of the\nnature of a school-rate, and it would seem to be the general opinion that neither for this\nnor for school boards, in the English sense, is the country yet ripe.\nNeither, as yet, is there any kind of compulsion in the matter of attendance, but it is\nbecoming a question of serious consideration whether some law should not be enacted to\nthat effect. Under present conditions there are difficulties in the way of the general\napplication of any such law, but every year makes it more imperative that, for the larger\ntowns at least, some attempt should be made to remedy the growing evil of irregular\nattendance, or, in too many cases, of no attendance at all.\nWith regard next to the class of education provided. It were vain to pretend that\nSouth Africa is anywhere in the van of educational progress. It were equally unjust to\naccuse her of being hopelessly in the rear; an average place in the main body may perhaps be assigned to her, and considering the multitudinous difficulties which beset the\nmatter in this country, such a place is more creditable than might appear at first sight.\nDifficulties of race, of language, of a sparse and scattered population ; and of all the\nStates which compose South Africa there is none in which all these difficulties combined\nare more felt than in the Cape Colony. In the Orange Free State, for instance, the\ndifficulty of providing for a widely scattered population may be even more felt than in\nthe older colony : on the other hand, the Free State Government does not profess to\nmake provision for the educational requirements of any but the white population, which\nreduces at once the responsibility and the expense. Natal has practically no \" colored \"\npopulation — no population of mixed race — to provide for; whereas in the Cape Colony\nout of 70,000 (circa) children of school age some 16,000 are returned as of \" mixed race,\"\nwhile Malay, Hottentot, Fingo, and Kaffir scholars bring the non-European total up to\n30,000. Under all these circumstances it is not perhaps surprising that the general\nstandard of elementary education is not high, that the methods are often antiquated,\nand that in many cases the teacher is guided by no light much newer than that\nof nature.\nWhen the appointment is not made a family job (as in the case where it was given to\nthe grandmother of the clan), it is not infrequently the last resource of the broken-down\nadventurer — \"gentleman once,\" or not, as the chance may be — who is willing to\nestimate his services at no higher a rate than they deserve. But in all such cases\nGovernment has no remedy at present ; it has no voice in the appointment, the only\nprivilege reserved for it is to pay. But it is to the daughters, not to the sons of the soil,\nthat the country must look for its future educators. The Colonial youth has but most\nrarely any taste for the scholastic profession. Even if he has been at the pains to\nqualify himself as a teacher, in nine cases out of ten he will not hold out above a year\nor two ; he prefers some means of gaining a livelihood more free, more speculatively\nremunerative perhaps, less monotonous certainly, than that of a schoolmaster. The\nNormal College at Cape Town is doing excellent work in training youths for an educational career ; but the testimony of the principal is in substance that given above : they\nscarcely ever persevere in it.\nIt must be admitted that even in the villages and towns there is little to be found\nthat can justly be called scientifically conducted education. In most of the first-class\npublic schools a modified form of kindergarten teaching exists, but public opinion is by\nno means educated up to the idea. Parents and guardians are apt to feel themselves\ndefrauded by any system which does not carry its credentials in the visible form of a\nspelling-book.\nIn the higher standards all the educational authorities of the colony are beginning\nto recognize and deplore that the teaching hitherto has been much less education than\n\n"}
{"page": 925, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATION\n\nIN CAPE\n\nCOLONY,\n\nAFRICA.\n\n905\n\n\" cram.\" The system is too little elastic ; and the standards might be more judiciously\ngraded, intelligent children being often kept needlessly long at merely mechanical work.\nStandard III. is the first that makes any provision for the teaching of geography ; while\nthe work in this subject expected from Standard IV. is out of all proportion to the humble\nrequirement of Standard III. Also, far too little attention is given to English composition, nothing being done in this line before Standard V. Yet few subjects could be\nmore practically useful in a country where the difficulty of preserving the language\neven tolerably pure is almost insuperable ; where children considerably above the lowest\nranks of society speak English as a literal translation of Cape-Dutch idiom ; where such\nphrases as \" He threw me with a stone ! \" \"I have left my book by the house ! \" or\n\" The cat make the mouse dead ! \" are scarcely noticed as incorrect ; while the entire\nabsence of inflections in this patois (it would be a libel on Dutch to call it a language)\nadds difficulty to the composition of the most ordinary letter in English. All the above\nremarks apply with equal force to the grammatical writing of Dutch itself. The only\nadvantage a Cape-Dutch-speaking child starts with, if taught in the beloved \" Taal,\" is\na larger vocabulary than it may perhaps possess in English ; so far as it is grammatical,\nthe Cape-born scholars must acquire Dutch like any foreign tongue.\nThis battle of the languages — Dutch or English as the medium of instruction — is\nbeing fought rather vigorously just at present; fought with a vigor on the part of the\nsupporters of Dutch which looks a little like the energy of despair. No doubt there is\nreason in contending that a child whose school-life is of the most limited length should\nbe taught for the brief time in which it is under instruction, in the language which, so\nfar as actual vocabulary goes, is most familiar to it. This is reasonable, and no one\nwishes to prevent it. No one wishes to suppress Dutch after the high-handed fashion\nin which the Dutch themselves suppressed the French language in the case of the\nHuguenot refugees in South Africa. Every provision is made for the examinations and\ninspection of schools in which Dutch is the recognized medium of instruction. To go\nfurther, to make the Dutch obligatory, would be as unjust to the upgrowing population\nas it would be to forbid the language altogether. For the rest the problem may safely\nbe left to work itself out in the natural course of events.\nOf other elementary subjects : Arithmetic, so far as regards speed and accuracy in\nthe manipulation of figures, is a fairly strong subject ; but here again the teaching\nis mechanical. Elaborate sums can be worked quickly and correctly, so long as the\npupil is told by what rules to work them. But set before him some quite simple problem\nand leave him to find out the rule applicable to the case, and the result will be too often\nsurprising. If this is the case in government-aided inspected schools, I would gladly\ndraw a veil over much that goes on under the name of teaching arithmetic in private\nschools ; over the valuable time spent in copying neatly into an exercise book sums\nfully worked out — not by the pupil — upon the blackboard. Yet such an exercise book\nfull of sums, though it does not even imply a knowledge of the multiplication table, is\ntoo often a source of pride and joy to parents.\nWith the last few years vocal music has been added to the curriculum in elementary\nschools ; but as a science it is still very much in its infancy, and as an art — with some\nhonorable exceptions — there is too much tendency to consider volume rather than quality\nof sound as the thing to be aimed at. However, there are signs of improvement in this\nbranch.\nThe very important subject of needlework, too, is only just beginning to receive the\nattention which it deserves, and very much remains to be done in this department.\nThe show of plain needlework from the Public and Missions Schools of the Colony, at\nthe late Kimberley Exhibition, taken as a whole, was decidedly disappointing.\nSecondary Education. — This is so wide a subject that it is difficult to say exactly\nwhere it stops ; at what point secondary education passes into something higher.\nThe\n\n"}
{"page": 926, "printed_page": null, "text": "906\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION.\n\nCape of Good Hope University, established by Royal Charter in 1873, is entirely an\nexamining body; it does not profess to teach. It confers degrees, but the examinations\non which these depend are prepared for by the student in private study. Perhaps\nthe two annual school examinations held by the University — the elementary and the\nhigher — may be taken as representing the standard of secondary education in the\nColony.\nThe elementary examination requires the candidates to satisfy the examiners of their\nproficiency in : —\n(a) The English Language, including writing passages from dictation, parsing,\netymology, analysis, English composition.\nThe school higher examination is equally without restriction of age, but is considerably higher in its requirements, both as regards the difficulty of the papers and the\nrange of subjects, including a choice of classical and modern languages in Group I.,\nand of mathematics and physical science in Group II. The proportion of candidates\nentered respectively for the elementary and higher examinations in 1891 sufficiently\nindicates the difference in the standard required. In the elementary 1,014 were examined, in the higher 370. Of the elementary candidates, 641 failed, the greater number\nin history and English ; of the higher, 91. An inspection of the number of candidates\npresented in the higher for the choice subjects in Group II. shows science to be very\nmuch at a discount among our Colonial youth. Against 293 examined in geometry, only\n57 were examined in physical geography ; below this came animal physiology with 19\ncandidates ; the remaining subjects — botany, mechanics, light and heat — found not\neven half so much favor as this, while chemistry could not boast of a single candidate.\nIn view of the complaint made by the examiners on another occasion, that the chemistry\ncandidates seemed to have no experimental knowledge of their subject, perhaps this\nindifference is scarcely to be wondered at. Chemistry acquired chiefly from a textbook cannot be a very exhilarating branch of study.\nBeyond these two examinations, most of the better class of schools prepare pupils for\nthe Matriculation Examination, to pass which does imply that the candidate has a satisfactory amount of education, and something even of culture. In 1891, out of 228 candidates, 142 passed.\nAll the above examinations (and, I believe, all the others connected with the Cape\nUniversity) are open to both sexes ; and it is satisfactory to relate that the girls and\nwomen of the Colony fully hold their own in the contest. In fact, the education of\nwomen in the Colony is perhaps better provided for, on the whole, than that of men.\nSuch educational establishments as have been started by foreign enterprise (exclusive of\nmissionary institutions for natives) are almost all for girls. For these the Colony is\nchiefly indebted to America, the principal centers being at Wellington and Stellenbosch.\nI much regret that coinciding holidays have always prevented me from seeing any of\nthese schools in working order ; yet perhaps any detailed account of their working would\nbe out of place in a paper of this kind, seeing it would, after all, be an account of an\nimported system which owes nothing, either in idea or method, to Colonial influence.\nThe work done is far from being limited to bare intellectual training. It was pleasant\nand encouraging to hear the other day. from a visitor to one of these schools at Stellenbosch, that, seeing the dormitory walls curiously studded with nails, and asking the\nreason, the principal replied that they were for pictures and ornaments which the pupils\nwere encouraged to procure and arrange for themselves. These articles were, at the\ntime, put away for purposes of holiday cleaning ; but it was the principal's idea that as\nimportant as anything in the education of the Colonial girls, was the cultivation of a\ntaste for pleasant prettiness, to know how to arrange and decorate a room, how to adorn\nlife : things which the monotony and isolation, the materialness, the rough-and-ready\n\n"}
{"page": 927, "printed_page": null, "text": "PUBLIC\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nIN ITALY.\n\n907\n\nmanners within, the featureless barrenness without, of an up-country farm, can certainly\nnever teach, yet which they are so much needed to relieve and to refine.\nIn conclusion I would repeat, that if this brief account of the condition of education\nin South Africa conveys no very high idea of our stage of progress, it must be remembered that we are but a young people, scarcely indeed, as yet, one homogeneous people\nat all. There is much to be done, but we are at least conscious that it needs doing.\nMore favored countries may better wish us good-speed for the future, than deride us for\nthe slowness of our progress in the past.\n\nPUBLIC\nBY\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nIN ITALY.\n\nDR.\n\nROME.\n\nEGISTO\n\nROSSI,\n\nPubltc instruction in Italy is regulated by law of November, 1859. This law has been\nmodified, however, by royal decrees and by later laws. The educational system comprises\nthree grades : elementary, secondary (including classical and technical schools), and\nsuperior. There are also infant schools which aim to give the rudiments of an education to children between three and six years of age, the later being the earliest age at\nwhich children are admitted to the primary grades.\nPrivate individuals of known moral character and capability are permitted to open\ninfant schools and those of elementary and secondary grade, providing the locality in\nwhich the school is to be opened is satisfactory, from a hygienic point of view, to the\nauthorities.\nInfant Schools. — The compulsory education laws do not apply to the infant schools.\nThese schools are founded by the communes, by corporations, associations, and private\nindividuals. Many of them are autonomous in character, possessing their own revenues,\nwhich accrue from perpetual funds and donations. Other schools are supported entirely\nby the individuals or corporations founding them.\nAlmost all these schools receive subsidies from the commune, provinces, and the\nState, in addition to the funds received from the sources mentioned above. The children receive gratuitous instruction in the majority of infant schools ; in a few, a small\nfee is charged, the means of the family being taken into consideration in making such\ncharge.\nIn 1889 the communes gave $317,532 to the infant schools ; the State, $8,085.\nElementary Schools. — The elementary schools are in charge of the communes and are\nunder the supervision of their administrative officers. In conformity with the law they\nare gratuitous and are maintained by subsidies from provincial and communal funds.\nIn accordance with special laws the State aids in such support by subsidies for construction and repairs and for teachers' salaries. The State is authorized to favor communes,\nwhich are too impoverished to construct school buildings, by giving subsidies for such\nbuildings, and by giving aid, either by loan or gift, if there is any special reason for so\ndoing. If any loans have been made, the State undertakes to reimburse the institution\nloaning said fund by adding thereto a normal interest.\nThe elementary schools are frequented by children from six to twelve years of age.\nThese schools are divided into two grades ; the lower grade, which extends through\nthree years, is subdivided into three classes ; the highest grade into two classes, equivalent to a two years' course. The course of study includes writing, elementary arithmetic and the metric system, history of Italy, elements of geography, natural history\nand physics, civic education, and gymnastics.\nAll the communes are required to establish lower-grade elementary schools ; communes\nof four thousand inhabitants and over are required to establish those of the higher\ngrade.\nIn these larger communes there must also be institutions of a secondary grade.\n\n"}
{"page": 928, "printed_page": null, "text": "908\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nBy law of July, 1877, which carried out the provisions of the law of 1859, parents\nwere obliged to send their children between six and nine years of age to the elementary\ngrades unless they could show cause for instruction at home or in private schools.\nThis compulsory education act could be carried on beyond the ninth year if the pupil,\nwhen called up for examination at close of the course, did not indicate knowledge of the\nstudies in the lower grade elementary schools.\nBy degree of February 16, 1888, pupils of both public and private schools, and those\nwho obtain home instruction, must receive a certificate of having passed such final\nexamination before they can be placed on the registration list for the holding of political or administrative office. Parents and guardians who fail to conform to the above\nregulations are subject to censure from the syndic, and in case of further non-compliance they are subject to a fine of not less than $2.50.\nBy law of July 15, 1877, which went into force in October, 1877, each commune is\nrequired to have a certain number of teachers, trained for duty in these lower-grade\nelementary schools.\nThis number is to be proportionate to the population.\nNormal Schools. — The normal schools serve as preparatory schools for teachers of the\nelementary grades. The State provides the funds for the teaching force and for scientific apparatus. The remaining expenditures and those for the \" ConmttV (establishments where pupils are boarded and lodged) are paid by the provinces and communes in\nwhich the normals are located.\nThere are still other schools of this character for the training of teachers which are\nmaintained exclusively by provinces and communes, by corporations or individuals,\nwhile some receive State subsidies.\nThe normal schools are of higher and lower grades for men and women. The lowergrade normal schools have only the power to confer a diploma as teacher for the three\nlower classes of the lower-grade elementary schools. The higher-grade normals, on the\ncontrary, confer the diploma required to teach in the elementary schools of both higher\nand lower grade. In the normal schools for women a certificate or diploma is also\nconferred which permits its holder to become a teacher iri, or directress of, an infant\nschool. Instruction in the normal schools is gratuitous: the course is of two years in\nthe lower-grade normals, of three years in the higher-grade normals, and is preceded\nby a preparatory course of three years.\nAn examination for admission is required of those who wish to enter the normal\nschools. Each normal has a practice school attached, in which the pupil can obtain\npractice in teaching. The normals for women have also an infant school attached,\nwhich school is divided into three sections.\nPersons desiring to obtain a teacher's position in the elementary schools are appointed\nby the communes (which pay them), after competing for such position in the competitive examination before the Provincial School Council ; this council, after examining as\nto their qualifications, presents the list of persons eligible to such positions, and the\nCommunal Council has, as its duty, to select and appoint the teachers.\nTo determine the minimum legal stipend for teachers, the elementary schools are\ndivided into two categories, urban and rural, and each of these categories into three\nclasses in accordance with the wealth and population of the commune. The minimum\nlegal stipendia according to the law of April 11, 1886, are as follows :\n\n(Higher\n\n,Men\n\nFirst\nClass\n\nSecond\nClass.\n\nThird\nClass.\n\n$254\n\n$213\n\n$198\n\n,'3\ni46\n\n!8\n139\n\n164\n\n152\n\nCitySch00ls (l,ower\nlwo -)Womeu\nl^n::::::::::::::::::::::::: 8152\n(Higher »Men\n\nlr3\n\nRaialSch00l8ZT\njKeu:\n(Lower\nj VVomen ::::::::::::::::::::::• 3\n123\nSn§\n\nII\n10§\n\n"}
{"page": 929, "printed_page": null, "text": "PUBLIC\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nIN ITALY.\n\n909\n\nThese stipends are augmented one-tenth for every six years of service in the same\ncommune until the salary has been increased four times.\nThere are other institutes auxiliary to, or complementary to, those for elementary\ninstruction. Among the first mentioned are two \"convitti\" (establishments where\npupils are boarded and lodged, and which have elementary schools attached) for the\norphans of elementary teachers, and the institutions for the blind and deaf mutes;\namong the second are comprised the \"convitti,\" the educational institutions for girls,\nand the two higher-grade normals for girls.\nSecondary Classical and Technical Instruction. — The aim of secondary classical\ninstruction is to train young men in the studies requisite for acquiring the literary and\nphilosophical knowledge which entitles them to enter upon special studies leading to the\nacademic grades of a university. These branches of instruction are imparted in the\n\" ginnasie\" (lower-grade classical schools) in a five years' term, and in the \"liceo\"\n(higher-grade classical schools) in a three years' term. In order to be admitted to\nClass I. of a \" ginnasio \" the student is required to pass an entrance examination in the\nbranches of the higher elementary grade, and in order to be admitted to the first year\nof a \" liceo \" it is necessary to possess a gymnasial license (hcenza ginnasiale) ; while\nthe license of a liceo (licenza liceale) is required for admittance to a university course.\nThe \" ginnasi\" are supposed to be supported by the communes, and in some provinces the State maintains them in accordance with special laws. The \"licei\" are supported bythe State as far as the expenditures for teachers and scientific material are\nconcerned ; the expenditures for the buildings and furniture are borne by the communes.\nThe State, either by law or by special agreements with the communes or other corporations, cooperates in maintaining the \"giznasi\" and non-governmental \"licei.\" The\ncommunes, other corporate bodies, and private individuals support similar institutions.\nThe State, moreover, maintains the \" convitti\" annexed to the governmental \"ginnasi\" and \" licei;\" and by law, or special agreement, the State also subsidizes other\n\" convitti\" whose maintenance would naturally belong to a province, commune, or to a\ncorporate body or association.\nThe aim of technical professional instruction is to impart to young men, who are\nambitious to enter upon a specified career in the public service, i. e., in industrial, commercial, and skilled agricultural pursuits, such general and special knowledge as is\nrequisite for the carrying on of these pursuits. This knowledge is acquired and taught\nin technical schools (scuole teeniche), technical institutes (instituti tecnici), and in the\ninstitutes for the mercantile marine. The course of instruction in technical schools\nlasts three years, at the end of which a diploma {licenza tecnica) is given to the successful candidates ; this diploma is required for admission to a technical institute or to an\ninstitute for the mercantile marine service. In the technical institute the instruction\nis divided, according to the profession to be pursued, into five sections, namely, physicomathematics, land surveying, agriculture, commerce and trade, and industrial pursuits.\nThe courses last four years, and are divided into two biennial periods : one common\nto all sections, and one special course for each section. In the institute for the mercantile marine service the instruction is divided into six sections, viz.: as captains for the\ncoast service, naval constructors of the second class, and machinists of the second class,\na two years' course ; captains for long-distance courses, and naval constructors of the\nfirst class, a three years' course ; and machinists of the first class, a four years' course.\nThe diploma of the physico-mathematical section entitles, as does the \"licenza\nliceale\" to admission in the faculty for physical, mathematical, and natural sciences, of\na university.\nThe maintenance of the technical schools is imposed upon the communes where they\nare established. The State pays half of the teachers' expenses, however. In some\ncases, in accordance with special laws, the technical schools are entirely in charge of the\n\n"}
{"page": 930, "printed_page": null, "text": "910\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION.\n\nState.\nThe State also subsidizes technical schools which are in the main supported by\nthe communes, provinces, and corporate bodies or associations.\nThe expenditures for the technical institutes and for those of the mercantile marine\nare borne in part by the State, which pays half of the expenses for the teachers and\nother employes. The expenditures for buildings and non-scientific material are furnished bythe communes where the institutes are situated. The expenditures for classical and technical schools, and for the \" convitti\" for boys' boarding schools annexed\nto a secondary school, were accredited as follows to the State, communes, and provinces\nduring the years 1888-89 and 1890-91 :\n1888-89.\n\"\n1890-91.\n\nProvinces\nCommunes\nState\n\n$447,128\n1,396,698\n2,389,207\n\nTechnical, industrial, and professional instruction is imparted in institutes and special schools, such as practical schools of agriculture, agrarian schools, industrial schools,\nschools of art and trade, and professional schools.\nThe expenditures of this class of schools are paid in part by the State, which, through\nsubsidies given to the ministry of agriculture, industry, and commerce, in accordance\nwith special laws to that effect, cooperates with the provinces, communes, and corporations. In order to be admitted to these schools it is necessary to have successfully finished the elementary course or to have passed an examination for admission.\nDuring the school years 1888-89 and 1890-91 the expenditures for this class of\nschools were distributed as follows :\n1888-89.\n\"\n1890-91.\n\nProvinces\nCommunes\nStates\n\n$125,677\n326,498\n439,655\n\nSuperior Instruction. — The highest grade of education is furnished in the universities, the superior institutes, and in superior special schools. The • ' Istituti Superiori \" include the schools for engineers, veterinary schools, the literary and scientific\nacademy, the higher normal school for instruction in literature, and the superior institute for the perfecting of higher studies in Florence with its university faculties. The\nuniversities comprise four faculties : law, philosophy and letters, physical, mathematical, and natural sciences, and medicine and surgery. In some universities the schools\nof pharmacy and veterinary schools are annexed to the faculty of medicine and surgery.\nNot all universities have four faculties. The degree of doctor (laurea) is conferred in\neach faculty at the close of the course. In the higher institutes there are faculties, or\nsections of faculties, where doctors' degrees are conferred at the close of the course. In\nthe special schools diplomas are given for subjects taught there.\nThe superior special schools are : The superior commercial school, whose purpose it is\nto prepare young men for the management of banking and commercial institutions, or\nfor the career of consular agent in foreign countries, or for the position of instructor in\nthe science of economics in technical institutes; the superior agricultural schools, which\nprepare teachers of agricultural sciences and promote agricultural interests by means of\nexperimental researches; the superior naval school, for the training of naval and hydrographic engineers and naval constructors; the institute of forestry, for training persons\nas forestry inspectors; and the industrial museum, for training mechanical engineers\n(ingegnerc industriale), and for training in the studies of chemistry and special branches\nof mechanics and physics.\nThe expenditures for universities and superior institutes are in charge of the State,\nand are included in the budget of the Ministry of Public Instruction. The revenue and\nproperty of these institutions aid in their maintenance, and the fund is added to that\nadministered by the State,\n\n"}
{"page": 931, "printed_page": null, "text": "NEEDLEWORK\n\nIN THE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nOF STOCKHOLM.\n\n911\n\nSome provinces coo'perate, by means of special contracts {consorzi universitari), with\nthe State in the payment of expenditures for the increase of scientific apparatus, for\nthe annexed schools, for the laboratories and collections of the universities which are\nlocated in the respective provinces or communes. Some provinces and communes also\naid in maintaining the superior institutes.\nThere are seventeen governmental universities, and four called \" free \" because they\nare maintained by the provinces and communes where they are situated ; the superior\ninstitutes are governmental, and are eleven in number. The superior special schools\nare also eleven in number, and are maintained by the State, the fund being included in\nthe budget of the Ministry of Agriculture, Industry, and Commerce, in conjunction\nwith the provinces and communes where they are situated.\nThe two superior institutes for the education of women are dependent on the Ministry\nof Public Instruction, to the accounts of which the expenditures are charged.\nThe expenditures borne by the State for universities and other institutes and special\nschools amounted to $2,077,959 for the school year 1890-91, which sum was included\nin the budget of the Ministry of Public Instruction, and $112,905 in the budget of the\nMinistry of Agriculture, Industry, and Commerce.\nThe amounts contributed by the provinces and communes to the funds of universities,\nsuperior institutes, and superior special schools, are added to the provincial and communal budgets. This fund is separate from the amounts furnished by the associations or\ncorporate bodies for the general increase and progress of studies. To this latter amount\nthe provinces furnished $457,811, and the communes $829,190 for the year 1888-89.\nBut the State revenues for this year indicate that the provinces and communes will\nonly cooperate to the extent of $152,536 in the maintenance of universities and other\nsuperior institutes administered by the State.\nThe superior special schools, as has been mentioned before, are founded and maintained conjointly by the State, the provinces, and the communes, and are managed by\nlocal commissions, which include in their membership representatives from the corporate bodies which aid in the maintenance of said institutions.\n\nNEEDLEWORK\nBY MRS. HULDA\n\nLUNDIN,\n\nIN THE PUBLIC\nSTOCKHOLM.\nSUPERINTENDENT\nSWEDEN.\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nOF NEEDLEWORK,\n\nOF\nSTOCKHOLM,\n\nEducational methods of the present day demand that instruction in general shall\nbe given according to a carefully considered plan, which shall be at the same time\nsimple, logical and progressive. It is not sufficient to give out lessons to be committed\nto memory ; these must also be thoroughly explained and illustrated by the teacher.\nSuitable mediums of instruction must be sought and class-teaching maintained in order\nto insure thoroughness and inspire interest.\nIt is a matter of great satisfaction that these principles have been adopted in all\ninstruction from books ; but if one examines the method heretofore employed in manual\ntraining — training whose educational value can hardly be overrated —the strange fact is\ndiscovered, that, as a rule, not one trace of the intelligent principles governing instruction\nin other subjects, is to be found here. Therefore, while instruction in all other branches\nhas developed, that in manual training has remained in its old elementary condition.\nManual training has been regarded as an outside branch, not subject to the same laws\nas other educational branches, whereas it ought to stand side by side with them,\nbecause it has the same educational aim to fulfil.\n\n"}
{"page": 932, "printed_page": null, "text": "912\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nThe aim of the instruction in Girls' Sloyd (this term embraces in Sweden all kinds of\nhandiwork) is :\nI. To exercise hand and eye ;\nII. To quicken the power of thought •,\nIII. To strengthen love of order ;\nIV. To develop independence ;\nV. To inspire respect for carefully and intelligently executed work ; and at the\nsame time\nVI. To prepare girls for the execution of their domestic duties.\nThe instruction has two objects in view : (a) It shall be an educational medium ; (b)\nIt shall fit the girls to practice life.\nBut if the desired aim is to be reached, the fundamental principles of pedagogics must\nbe applied to manual training.\nFormerly satisfaction was felt with purely mechanical skill in manual training, when\nthe only thought was to procure even beautiful stitches in sewing, while the practical\nskill required in measure-taking, cutting out, and planning a piece of work was wholly\nneglected.\nThe introduction of the sewing machine has developed entirely new conditions. We\nmust now teach our pupils something the machine cannot perform, namely : to take\nmeasures, to draw patterns, to cut out, to put together and to arrange garments ; also\nto train them to skill in darning, mending, and marking, at the same time that we teach\nthem to take correct stitches. This desired result is not easily attained, but experience\nhas proven that it is best reached by :\n(1) Practical demonstration on the subject ;\n(2) Progressive order with regard to the exercises, and\n(3) Class instruction.\n(1) Practical demonstration in sewing is accomplished by means of a sewing frame\n(plansch), and in knitting by means of large wooden needles and colored balls of yarn.\nAt the same time blackboard drawings are constantly being made. \" With a piece of\nchalk and a blackboard a teacher can work wonders, \" I once heard a clever teacher say.\nEven if this was somewhat overstated — as I readily admit — it is nevertheless true that\na teacher who understands the value of these media, can by their help reach remarkably\ngood results.\nFrench schools furnish fine proof of this.\nAs no one is born a master, and as we cannot afford to cast away material at hand,\nit is necessary, until skill is obtained, to make use of preparatory exercises ; but much\njudgment must be exercised in their use.\nI consider it to be a great mistake to keep pupils engaged, term after term, with preparatory exercises, which they may not put into practice till long after, and by the time\nthey are needed have perhaps forgotten. As soon as an exercise is well learned it should\nbe applied to something useful, either in the school or at home. In this way the pupil's\ninterest is awakened and strengthened. The child will, in such a case, see a residt of\nits work such as it can understand. And, moreover, the parents' sympathy with the\ninstruction is won.\n(2) Progressive order with regard to the exercises. The exercises are planned and\ncarried out in the most strictly progressive order, so as to enable the pupils to execute\nwell the work required of them. Nothing is more discouraging to see than a badly executed piece of work. \"One cannot expect more of a child,\" is given as a kind of excuse. This may sometimes be true, but one can expect that a teacher will not give a\nchild exercises beyond its capabilities, and before which it must fail. To fail continually has an injurious effect on a child's character.\nNo ; let us take simple exercises, let us execute them well, have our aim well in view,\nand not be discouraged even if the result looks plain and simple.\nIn other words, in\n\n"}
{"page": 933, "printed_page": null, "text": "NEEDLEWORK\n\nIN THE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nOF STOCKHOLM.\n\n913\n\nmanual training, as in other subjects, there should be a systematic plan which is simple,\nlogical, and progressive.\n(3) Class instruction. When instruction became obligatory in our schools, and it was\nnecessaiy to have from thirty to forty pupils, and sometimes more, in one class, class\ninstruction became an absolute necessity, and it was soon found that development of the\nindividual was better secured through its means than when each pupil received instruction by herself. Strange enough, one subject — manual training — remained unreformed,\nto the great injury of the subject ; for, by appealing to the whole class at once, a teacher\ncan secure the attention of her pupils and awaken a lively interest in the work. Her\nteaching can then be deep and interesting. The teacher finds time to talk about form,\nsize, and reason for doing this or that. Yes, the pupils even find time to think out why\nthings shall be so and not so, and discover the best way to carry out an exercise. In\nthis way the instruction becomes both developing and educating, and the pupils lay a\nfirm foundation on which to build further in the future.\nBut class teaching is only an effect, and should not be an aim. One must not have\nthe mistaken idea that the teacher is to guide every step. Par from it. It is only the\nnew in every exercise which should be explained to the whole class. After the pupils\nhave learned through explanation and illustration what they must do, and how they\nshall do it, they should work independently of each other. Meanwhile the teacher\nshould go around the class and notice whether all the pupils are performing correctly\nthe required exercises. She should at the same time observe the position of hand and\nbody, also whether the pupils hold their work at a proper distance from their eyes, so\nthat they may not gain skill at the expense of their eyesight.\nThe teacher of manual work should not only instruct, but also educate the pupils as\nwell. Therefore the choosing of teachers is not an insignificant matter. Besides manual dexterity, teachers ought to be possessed of pedagogical skill. Therefore, for the\ntraining of teachers in manual training either special normal schools should be established, or— what without doubt is better — existing normal schools should place manual\ntraining in their curriculum on an equal footing with other branches of education. That\nis now done in Sweden, and in several other countries in Europe.\nNot only girls, but the younger boys, should be instructed in girls' sloyd. The boys\nshould be taught this because it introduces variety and interest, trains the hand and\neye, and renders them able, in case of necessity, to darn their stockings and mend their\ngarments.\nFrom the foregoing we deduce the following :\n(1) Practical demonstration in sewing is accomplished by means of a sewing frame,\nand in knitting by means of large wooden needles and colored balls of yarn. At the\nsame time blackboard drawings are constantly being made.\n(2) The exercises are planned and carried out in the most strictly progressive order, so\nas to enable the pupils to execute well the work required of them.\n(3) The instruction in sloyd should— like that in other branches — be given to the\nwhole class at the same time, otherwise the time which the teacher could devote to each\npupil separately would be insufficient to secure the desired results.\nIn order to illustrate the progress from the simple to the more complex in the teaching\nof sloyd, we give the following class divisions of the subjects which are in use at the\npresent time in the public schools of Stockholm.\nSchool age : seven to fourteen.\nGirls and Boys.\nClass I.\n(1) Plain knitting with two needles ; a pair of garters.\n(2) Plain knitting: a pair of warm wristlets.\n58\n\n"}
{"page": 934, "printed_page": null, "text": "914\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nClass II.\n(3) Plain knitting ; a towel— practice in the different kinds of stitches ; running,\nstitching, hemming and overcasting ; a lamp mat.\n(4) The application of the already named stitches ; one small and one large needlework\nbag.\nClass III.\n(5) A needlework case.\n(6) An apron.\n\nSimple darning on canvas ; a mat for a candlestick.\nGirls.\nClass IV.\n\n(7) Plain and purl knitting ; slate eraser and a pair of mittens.\n(8) A plain chemise.\nClass V.\n(9) Knitting ; a pair of stockings.\n(10) Drawing the pattern, cutting out and making a chemise.\nClass VI\n(11) Patching on colored material.\nPlain stocking-darning\nButtonholes.\nButtons\nmade of thread.\nSewing on tapes, hooks and eyes.\n(12) Drawing the pattern, cutting out and making a shirt or a pair of drawers.\nClass\n\nVII.\n\n(13) Fine darning and marking.\nDrawing the pattern for a dress.\nCutting out\narticles such as are required in standards II.-IV.\n(14) Drawing the pattern, cutting out and making a dress.\nThe time given to needlework :\nClass 1\n2 hours a week.\n•' II., III. and IV\n\" V.andVI\n\" VII\n\n4\n5\n6\n\n\"\n\"\n\"\n\n\"\n\"\n•«\n\n\"\n\"\n\"\n\n"}
{"page": 935, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION.\n\n"}
{"page": 936, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 937, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONSTITUTION\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION.\n\nPEEAMBLE.\nTo elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession of\nteaching, and to promote the cause of popular education in the United\nStates, we, whose names are subjoined, agree to adopt the following\nCONSTITUTION.\nARTICLE\n\nI.— NAME.\n\nThis Association shall be styled the National Educational Association.\nARTICLE\n\nII.— DEPARTMENTS.\n\nSection 1. It shall consist of ten departments: The first, of School Superintendence ;the second, of Normal Schools ; the third, of Elementary Schools ; the\nfourth, of Higher Instruction ; the fifth, of Industrial Education ; the sixth, of Art\nEducation ; the seventh, of Kindergarten Instruction ; the eighth, of Music Education ;the ninth, of Secondary Education ; the tenth, of Business Education ; and a\nNational Council of Education.\nSec. 2. Other departments may be organized in the manner prescribed in this\nConstitution.\nARTICLE\n\nIII.— MEMBERSHIP.\n\nSection 1. Any person in any way connected with the work of education, or any\neducational association, shall be eligible to membership. Such person or association\nmay become a member of this Association by paying two dollars and signing this Constitution, and may continue a member by the payment of an annual fee of two dollars.\nOn neglect to pay such fee, the membership will cease.\nSec. 2. Each department may prescribe its own conditions of membership, provided\nthat no person be admitted to such membership who is not a member of the general\nAssociation.\nSec 3. Any person eligible to membership may become a life-member by paying at\nonce twenty dollars.\nARTICLE\n\nIV.— OFFICERS.\n\nSection 1. The officers of this Association shall be a President, twelve Vice-Presidents, a Secretary, a Treasurer, one Director for each State, District or Territory\n\n"}
{"page": 938, "printed_page": null, "text": "918\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION.\n\nrepresented in the Association, and the presiding officers of the several departments and\na Board of Trustees to be constituted as hereinafter provided. Any friend of education\nmay become a life-director by the donation of one hundred dollars to the Association at\none time, either by himself or on his behalf ; and any educational association may\nsecure a perpetual directorship by a like donation of one hundred dollars, the director\nto be appointed annually or for life. Whenever a life-member desires to become a lifedirector, he shall be credited with the amount he has paid for his life-membership.\nSec. 2. The President, Vice-Presidents, Secretary, Treasurer, Trustees, Directors,\nLife-Directors, President of the Council, and presiding officers of their respective\ndepartments shall constitute the Board of Directors, and, as such, shall have power\nto appoint such committees from their own number as they shall deem expedient.\nSec. 3. The elective officers of the Association shall be chosen by ballot, unless\notherwise ordered, on the second day of each annual session, a majority of the votes cast\nbeing necessary for a choice. They shall continue in office until the close of the annual\nsession subsequent to their election, and until their successors are chosen, except as\nhereinafter provided.\nSec. 4. Each department shall be administered by a President, Vice-President,\nSecretary, and such other officers as it shall deem necessary to conduct its affairs ; but\nno person shall be elected to any office of any department, or of the Association, who w\nnot, at the time of the election, a member of the Association.\nSec. 5. The President shall preside at all meetings of the Association and of the\nBoard of Directors, and shall perform the duties usually devolving upon a presiding\nofficer. In his absence, the first Vice-President in order who is present shall preside ;\nand in the absence of all Vice-Presidents, a pro tempore chairman shall be appointed on\nnomination, the Secretary putting the question.\nSec. 6. The Secretary shall keep a full and accurate report of the proceedings of the\ngeneral meetings of the Association and all meetings of the Board of Directors, and shall\nconduct such correspondence as the Directors may assign, and shall have his records\npresent at all meetings of the Association and of the Board of Directors. The Secretary\nof each department shall, in addition to performing the duties usually pertaining to his\noffice, keep a list of the members of his department.\nSec. 7. The Treasurer shall receive and under the direction of the Board of Trustees\nhold in safe keeping all moneys paid to the Association ; shall expend the same only\nupon the order of said Board ; shall keep an exact account of his receipts and expenditures, with vouchers for the latter, which accounts, ending the first day of July each\nyear, he shall render to the Board of Trustees, and, when approved by said Board, he\nshall report the same to the Board of Directors. The Treasurer shall give such bond\nfor the faithful discharge of his duties as may be required by the Board of Trustees ;\nand he shall continue in office until the first meeting of the Board of Directors held\nprior to the annual meeting of the Association next succeeding that for which he is\nelected.\nSec. 8. The Board of Directors shall have power to fill all vacancies in their own\nbody ; shall have in charge the general interests of the Association, excepting those\nherein intrusted to the Board of Trustees ; shall make all necessary arrangements for\nits meetings, and shall do all in its power to make it a useful and honorable institution.\nUpon the written application of twenty members of the Association for permission to\nestablish a new department, they may grant such permission. Such new department\nshall in all respects be entitled to the same rights and privileges as the others. The\nformation of such department shall in effect be a sufficient amendment to this Constitution for the insertion of its name in Article II., and the Secretary shall make the\nnecessary alterations.\nSec. 9. The Board of Trustees shall consist of four members, elected by the Board\n\n"}
{"page": 939, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONSTITUTION.\n\n§1&\n\nof Directors for a term of four years, and the President of the Association, who shall be\na member ex officio during his term of office. At the election of the Trustees in 1886,\none Trustee shall be elected for one year, one for two years, one for three years, and\none for four years, and annually thereafter, at the first meeting of the Board of Directors\nheld prior to the annual meeting of the Association, one Trustee shall be elected for\nthe term of four years. All vacancies occurring in said Board of Trustees, whether by\nresignation or otherwise, shall be filled by the Board of Directors for the unexpired\nterm ; and the absence of a Trustee from two consecutive annual meetings of the Board\nshall forfeit his membership therein. The Board of Trustees thus elected and constituted shall be the executive financial officers of this Association, as a body corporate, as\nconferred by the certificate of incorporation under the provisions of the Act of General\nIncorporation, Class Third, of the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia, dated\nthe twenty-fourth day of February, 1886, at Washington, D. C, and recorded in Liber\nNo. 4, \"Acts of Incorporation for the District of Columbia.\"\nSec. 10. It shall be the duty of the Board of Trustees to provide for safe keeping\nand investment of all funds which the Association may receive from life-directorships,\nor from donations ; and the income of such invested funds shall be used exclusively in\npaying the cost of publishing the annual volume of Proceedings of the Association,\nexcepting when donors shall specify otherwise. It shall also be the duty of the Board\nto issue orders on the Treasurer for the payment of all bills approved by the Board of\nDirectors, or by the President and Secretary of the Association acting under the authority\nof the Board of Directors ; and, when practicable, the Trustees shall invest all surplus\nfunds exceeding one hundred dollars, that may remain in the hands of the Treasurer\nafter paying the expenses of the Association for the previous year.\nARTICLE\n\nV.— MEETINGS.\n\nSection 1. The Annual Meeting of the Association shall be held at such time and\nplace as shall be determined by the Board of Directors.\nSec. 2. Special meetings may be called by the President at the request of five\nDirectors.\nSec. 3. Any department of the Association may hold a special meeting at such time\nand place as by its own regulations it shall appoint.\nSec. 4. The Board of Directors shall hold their regular meetings at the place, and\nnot less than two hours before the assembling, of the Association.\nSec. 5. Special meetings may be held at such other times and places as the Board\nor the President shall determine.\nSec. 6. Each new Board shall organize at the session of its election. At its first\nmeeting a Committee on Publication shall be appointed, which shall consist of the\nPresident and the Secretary of the Association for the previous year, and one member\nfrom each department.\nARTICLE\n\nVI.— BY-LAWS.\n\nBy-laws not inconsistent with this Constitution, may be adopted by a two-thirds vote\nof the Association.\nARTICLE\n\nVII.— AMENDMENTS.\n\nThis Constitution may be altered or amended at a regular meeting by the unanimous\nvote of the members present, or by a two-thirds vote of the members present, provided\nthat the alteration or amendment lias been substantially proposed in writing at a previous meeting.\n\n"}
{"page": 940, "printed_page": null, "text": "920\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION.\n\nBY-LAWS.\n1. At each regular meeting of the Association there shall be appointed a Committee\non Nominations, one on Honorary Members, and one on Resolutions.\n2. The President and Secretary shall certify to the Board of Trustees all bills\napproved by the Board of Directors.\n3. Each paying member of the Association shall be entitled to a copy of its\nProceedings.\n4. No paper, lecture, or address shall be read before the Association or any of its\ndepartments in the absence of its author, nor shall any such paper, lecture, or address\nbe published in the volume of Proceedings without the consent of the Association, upon\napproval of the Executive Committee.\n5. It shall be the duty of the President, Secretary and Treasurer of the Association, to\nappoint annually some competent person to examine the securities of the permanent fund\nheld by the Board of Trustees, and his certificate showing the condition of the said\nfund shall be attached to the report of the Board of Trustees.\n\nADOPTED\n\nBY THE\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS.\n\nThe establishment of a special fund from surplus receipts, after the\nexpenses of the Association have been paid, to be known as the \" Emergency Fund/' was recommended by the Board of Trustees, submitted\nto the Board of Directors, at Saratoga Springs, N. Y., July 12, 1892, and\nthe following resolutions were adopted :\nResolved, That there be established, as soon as the current expenses of the Association will warrant, an Emergency Fund not to exceed $4,000. Said fund shall be subject to expenditure by the Board of Trustees in accordance with votes of the Board of\nDirectors at any regularly called meeting. The said fund may be used for the purpose\nof meeting deficiencies of income of the Association, and for such additional investigations and publications as may be determined by said Board of Directors ; and it is\nfurther\nResolved, That the Board of Trustees be hereby authorized to transfer from the surplus funds of 1891-92, to the Emergency Fund, a sum not exceeding $2,500 ; and that\nadditional transfers may be made to said fund from the surplus receipts ; and it is\nfurther\nResolved, That the Trustees be and hereby are authorized to appropriate from the\nEmergency Fund sums duly authorized, not to exceed $2,500, the same to be expended\nby the Board of Trustees as recommended by the Board of Directors ; the said expenditures to be made upon duly approved vouchers, satisfactory to the Board of Trustees.\n\nThe following by-laws pertaining to membership were also submitted to\nthe Board of Directors and approved :\nFirst, The membership of this Association shall consist of two classes, to be styled\nrespectively active and associate members, of whom active members alone shall be entitled to participate in the business of the Association and to hold office.\n\n"}
{"page": 941, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONSTITUTION.\n\n921\n\nSecond, The active membership of the Association shall consist only of those who\nare connected with the work of education or with some educational association. Other\nmembers shall constitute the associate membership of the Association.\nThird, The Directors shall communicate to the Secretary of the Association the names\nof persons worthy of active membership, and the Secretary shall forward to such persons the statement of the conditions and advantages of such membership, with a\nrequest that they become members, and, on receipt of the annual fees, they shall be\nenrolled among the active members.\nFourth, At the first session of each regular meeting of the Association the President\nshall appoint a Committee on Active Membership, to whom shall be referred all questions of active membership during such meeting, and persons recommended by this\ncommittee may become members by a majority vote of members present and voting at\nany meeting of the Association.\nFifth, During the month of January of each year the Secretary of the Association\nshall send to each active member a request for payment of the annual fees, and any\nmember who shall neglect for one year the payment of the annual fee shall by reason\nof such neglect forfeit his membership.\n\n"}
{"page": 942, "printed_page": null, "text": "CALENDAR\nNATIONAL\n\nTEACHERS'\n\n1857.— PHILADELPHIA, PA.\n(Organized.)\nJames L. Enos, Chairman.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\n1858.— CINCINNATI, OHIO.\nZ. Richards, President.\nJ. W. Bulkley, Secretary.\nA. J. Rickopf, Treasurer.\n1859.-WASHINGTON, D. C.\nA. J. Rickoff, President.\nJ. W. Bulkley, Secretary.\nC. S. Pennell, Treasurer.\nI860.— BUFFALO, N. Y.\nJ. W. Bulkley, President.\nZ. Richards, Secretary.\nO. C. Wight, Treasurer.\n1861 , 1862.— No session.\n1863.-CHICAGO, ILL.\nJohn D. Philbrick, President.\nJames Cruikshank, Secretary.\nO. C Wight, Treasurer.\n1864.— OGDENSBURG, N. Y.\nW. H. Wells, President.\nDavid N. Camp, Secretary.\nZ. Richards, Treasurer.\n\n1871.-ST. LOUIS, MO.\nJ. L. Pickard, President.\nW. E. Crosby, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n1872.— BOSTON, MASS.\nE. E. White, President.\nS. H. White, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n1873.— ELMIRA, N. Y.\nB. G. Northrop, President.\nS. H. White, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n1874.— DETROIT, MICH.\nS. H. White, President.\nA. P. Marble, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n1875.— MINNEAPOLIS, MINN.\nW. T. Harris, President.\nW. R. Abbott, Secretary.\nA. P. Marble, Treasurer.\n1876.— BALTIMORE, MD.\nW. F. Phelps, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\nA. P. Marble, Treasurer.\n1877.— LOUISVILLE, KY.\nM. A. Newell, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\nJ. Ormond Wilson, Treasurer.\n1878.— No session.\n1879.-PHILADELPHIA, PA.\nJohn Hancock, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\nJ. Ormond Wilson, Treasurer.\n1880.-CHAUTAUQUA, N. Y.\nJ. Ormond Wilson, President.\nW. D. Henkle. Secretary.\nE. T. Tappan, Treasurer.\n1881.— ATLANTA, GA.\nJames H. Smart, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\nE. T. Tappan, Treasurer.\n1882.-SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y.\nG. J. Orr, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nH. S. Tarbell, Treasurer.\n\nASSOCIATION.\n\n1865.-HARRISBURG, PA.\nS. S. Greene, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nZ. Richards, Treasurer.\n1866.-INDIANAPOLIS, IND.\nJ. P. Wickersham, President.\nS. H. White, Secretary.\nS. P. Bates, Treasurer.\n1867.— No session.\n1868.- NASHVILLE, TENN.\nJ. M. Gregory, President.\nL. Van Bokkelen, Secretary.\nJames Cruikshank, Treasurer.\n1869.— TRENTON, N. J.\nL. Van Bokkelen, President.\nW. E. Crosby, Secretary.\nA. L. Barber, Treasurer.\n1870.-CLEVELAND, OHIO.\nDaniel B. Hagar, President.\nA. P. Marble, Secretary.\nW. E. Crosby, Treasurer.\n\nNAME\n\nNATIONAL\n\nOF MEETINGS.\n\nCHANGED\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nTO\n\nASSOCIATION.\n\n1883. -SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y.\nE. T. Tappan, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nN. A. Calkins, Treasurer.\n1884.-MADISON, WIS.\nThomas W. Bicknell, President.\nH. S. Tarbell, Secretary.\nN. A. Calkins, Treasurer.\n1885.— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y.\nF. Louis Soldan, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nN. A. Calkins, Treasurer.\n1886.-TOPEKA, KAS.\nN. A. Calkins, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n1887.-CHICAGO, ILL.\nW. E. Sheldon, President.\nJ. H. Canfield, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n1888.— SAN FRANCISCO, CAL.\nAaron Gove, President.\nJ. H. Canfield, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n1889.— NASHVILLE, TENN.\nAlbert P. Marble, President.\nJ. H. Canfield, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n1890. -ST. PAUL, MINN.\nJames H. Canfield, President.\nW. R. Garrett, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n1891.— TORONTO, ONTARIO.\nW. R. Garrett, President.\nE. H. Cook, Secretary.\nJ. M. Greenwood, Treasurer.\n1892.-SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y.\nE. H. Cook, President.\nR. W. Stevenson, Secretary.\nJ. M. Greenwood, Treasurer.\n1893.-CHICAGO, ILL.\n(International Congress of Education.)\nAlbert G. Lane, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nJ. M. Greenwood, Treasurer.\n\n"}
{"page": 943, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL\nOF THE UNITED\n\nOFFICERS\nALBERT G. LANE..\nIRWIN SHEPARD..\nJ. M. GREENWOOD\n\n1893-94.\n\nASSOCIATION.\n\nChicago, Illinois\nWinona, Minnesota\nKansas City, Missouri\n\nE. H. Cook, New York.\nW. H. Bartholomew, Kentucky.\nL. E. Wolfe, Missouri.\nG. J. Ramsey, Louisiana.\nN. A. Calkins\nZalmon Richards\nZalmon Richards\nE. C. Hewett\nN. A. Calkins\nH. S.Tarbell\nA. G. Lane\n\nSTATES.\n\nFOR\n\nGENERAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nVice Presidents.\nM. C. Fernald, Maine.\nE. E. White, Ohio.\nJ. W. Dickinson. Massachusetts.\nT. A. Futrall, Arkansas.\n\nPresident.\nSecretary.\nTreasurer.\nF. A. Fitzpatrick, Nebraska.\nC. P. Rogers, Iowa.\nEdward Searing, Minnesota.\nN. C. Schaeffer, Pennsylvania.\n41 1885.\n\nBoard of Trustees.\nChairman\n124 East Eightieth Street, New York.\n\" D.\n1894.\nSecretary\n13Q1 Corcoran Street, Washington,\nC.\nTerm expires July, 1896.\nWashington, D. C\n\"\n1893.\nNormal, Illinois\nNew York Ciiy\n\"\nProvidence, Rhode Island\n\"\nChicago, Illinois\nEx-officio\n\n\"The Board of Trustees shall be the executive financial officers of this Association as a body corporate.\"— Art. IV., Sees. 9 and 10 of the Constitution.\nA. G. Lane\nIuwin Shepard\nJ. M. Greenwood\nE. H. Cook\nN. A. Calkins\n\nExecutive Committee for 1893-4.\nChicago, Illinois\nWinona, Minnesota\nKansas City, Missouri\nFlushing, New York\nNew York City\nBoard\n\nPresident.\nSecreta7~y.\nTreasurer.\nFirst Vice-President.\nChairman Board of Trustees.\n\nof Directors.\n\nDirectors ex-officio. See Art. IV., Sec. 2, of the Constitution.\nBartholomew, W. H., Louisville, Kentucky.\nMilne, J. N., Oneonta, New York.\nBeardshear, W. M., Ames, Iowa.\nRamsey, G. J., Clinton, Louisiana.\nBlow, Susan E., St. Louis, Missouri.\nRichards, Zalmon, Washington, D. C.\nCalkins, N. A., New York City, New York.\nRickoff, Rebecca D., New York City.\nDickinson, J. W., Newtonville, Massachusetts.\nRogers, C. P., Marshalltown, Iowa.\nFernald, M. C, Orono, Maine.\nSearing, Edward, Mankato, Minnesota.\nFutrall, T. A., Marianna, Arkansas.\nSchaeffer, N. C, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania.\nGlover, N. L., Akron, Ohio.\nShepard, Irwin, Winona, Minnesota.\nGreenwood, J. M., Kansas City, Missouri.\nTarbell, H. S., Providence, Rhode Island.\nHewett, E. C, Normal, Illinois.\nTrant, Amelia E., Buffalo, New York.\nK i milk. D. L., Minneapolis, Minnesota.\nWhite, E. E., Cincinnati, Ohio.\nLane, A. G., Chicago, Illinois.\nWolfe, L. E., Jefferson City, Missouri.\nLow, Seth, New York City.\n\nLife Directors.\nBrown, LeRoy D., Box 138, Santa Monica, Los\nAngeles Co., Cal.\nDougherty, Newton C, 906 E. Bluff St., Peoria,\n111.\nDay, L. W., 422 Superior St., Cleveland, O.\nFairchild, George T., State Agricultural College,\nManhattan, Kan.\nGreenwood, J. M., 1312 Oak St.. Kansas City, Mo.\nGove, Aaron, 2045 Grant Ave., Denver, Col.\nHunt, Mary H., 55 Central Ave., Hyde Park, Mass.\n\nHall, Caleb G., New Berlin, N. Y.\nJewett, A. V., Abilene, Kan.\nMarshall, T. Marcellus, Carlisle, Pa.\nParker, Chas. I., 9136 Exchange Ave., South\nChicago, 111.\nPike, J., Jerseyville, 111.\nRickoff, Andrew J., 444 Central Park West, N. Y.\nStratton, C. C., Portland University, University\nPark, Ore.\nTaylor, A. R., 1127 Congress St., Emporia, Kan.\n\n"}
{"page": 944, "printed_page": null, "text": "924\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION.\n\nDirectors by Election.\nNorth Atlantic Division.\nGorham.\nMaine\nJ. Corthell\nNew Hampshire. .C. C. Rounds\nPlymouth.\nSt.\nAlbans.\nVermont\nG. P. Beard\nMassachusetts\nW. E. Sheldon . . Boston.\nProvidence.\nRhode Island\nT. B. Stockwell.\nConnecticut\nDavid N. Camp. . New Britain.\nNew York\nC. W. Baudeen. .\nSyracuse.\nNew Jersey\nN. M. Butler . . . Paterson.\nPennsylvania\nD. J. Waller, Jr. Harrisburg.\nSouth Atlantic Division.\nDelaware\nMaryland\nJohn E.McCahn. .Baltimore.\nDist. of Columbia. Wm. T. Harris\nWashington.\nVirginia\nWest Virginia\nW. H. Anderson. .Wheeling.\nNorth Carolina ...Robert Bingham. Asheville.\nSouth Carolina . . . W. B. Lanier\nBranson.\nFlorida\nFrederic Pasco. .Jacksonville.\nSouth Central Division.\nKentucky\nTennessee\nAlabama\nMississippi\nLouisiana\n\nHenry Rhoades . . Frankfort.\nFrank Goodman. Nashville.\nSolomon Palmer. East Lake.\nDabney LirscoMB.Stockville.\nA. A.Trenby\n\nTexas\nArkansas\nOhio\nIndiana\nIllinois\nMichigan\nWisconsin\nIowa\nMinnesota\nMissouri\nNorth Dakota\nSouth Dakota\nNebraska\nKansas\nMontana\nWyoming\nColorado\nNew Mexico\nArizona\nUtah\nNevada\nIdaho\nWashington\nOregon\nCalifornia\n\nH. C. Prichett. . .Huntsville.\nJunius Jordan. . .Pine Bluff.\nNorth Central Division.\nJ. A.Shawiian .. Columbus.\nJesse H. Brown. .Indianapolis.\nW. L. Steele\nGalesbnrg.\nE. A. Strong\nYpsilanti.\nAlbert Hardy.. La Crosse.\nO. J. Laylander. Cedar Falls.\nR. E. Deneeld\nDuluth.\nT. J. Buchanan . .Kansas City.\n\nJ. N. Wilkinson. .Emporia.\nWestern Division.\nR. G. Young\nHelena.\nWm. Marquerat. Laramie.\nR. H. Beugs\nDenver.\nJ. F. Millspaugh.\n\nSalt Lake City.\n\nF. J. Barnard\nE. B. McElroy\nEarl Barnes\n\nSeattle.\nSalem.\nMenlo Park.\n\n"}
{"page": 945, "printed_page": null, "text": "OFFICERS\n\nOF THE\n\nASSOCIATION.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nCOUNCIL\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nE. W. COY\nP. A. FITZPATRICK\nCH AS. De GARMO\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary and Treasurer\n\nDEPARTMENT\nMiss SUSAN E. BLOW\nMiss CONSTANCE MACKENZIE\nMiss ANNA STOVALL\n\n925\n\nCincinnati, Ohio.\nOmaha, Nebraska.\nSwarthmore, Pennsylvania.\n\nOFFICERS.\n\nKindergarten.\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nSt. Louis, Missouri.\nPhiladelphia, Pennsylvania.\nSan Francisco, California.\n\nElementary.\nMrs. REBECCA\nAARON GOVE\nF. TREUDLEY\n\nD. RICKOFF\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nNew York City.\nDenver, Colorado.\nYoungstown, Ohio.\n\nSecondary.\nJ. S. CROMBIE *\nAMELIA E. TKANT\nW. H. BARTHOLOMEW\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nSETH LOW\nRt. Rev. JOHN J. KEANE\nWM. DEWITT HYDE.\nW. G. BALLANTINE\nJ. H. CANFIELD\nWM. PRESTON JOHNSTON\nMELVIL DEWEY\n\nPresident\nVice-President\n\nJ. M. MILNE\nJ. W. COOK\nJ. N. WILKINSON\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nD. L. KIEHLE\nWARREN EASTON\nF. TREUDLEY\n\nSuperintendence.\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nBrooklyn, New York.\nBuffalo, New York.\nLouisville, Kentucky.\n\nHigher.\n\nSecretary\n\nNew York City.\nWashington, D. C.\nBrunswick, Maine.\nOberlin, Ohio.\nLincoln, Nebraska.\nNew Orleans, Louisiana.\nAlbany, New York.\n\nNormal.\n\nManual\nW. M. BEARDSHEAR\nA. C. GORDON\nW. B. FRIEDBERG\n\nOneonta, New York.\nNormal, Illinois.\nEmporia, Kansas.\nMinneapolis, Minnesota.\nNew Orleans, Louisiana.\nYoungstown, Ohio.\n\nTraining and Industrial Education.\nPresident\nAmes, Iowa.\nVice-President\nMinnesota.\nSecretary\nNew York City.\nArt.\n\nMiss CHRISTINE SULLIVAN\nE. C. COLBY\nMiss ELIZABETH H. PE RR Y\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nCincinnati, Ohio.\nRochester, New York.\nBridge water, Massachusetts.\n\nN. L. GLOVER\nBENJAMIN JEPSON\nGEORGE C. YOUNG\n\nMusic.\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nAkron, Ohio.\nNew Haven, Connecticut.\nWichita, Kansas.\n\nBusiness Education.\nR. E. GALLAGHER\nF. GOODWIN\nW. E. McCORD\n\nPresident\nFirst Vice-President\nSecretary and Treasurer\n* Deceased.\n\nHamilton, Ontario.\nNashville, Tennessee.\nPeoria, Illinois.\n\n"}
{"page": 946, "printed_page": null, "text": "MEMBERSHIP\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION.\n\nThe dates in the margin indicate the year when the several memberships began, The addresses given in this list are the latest known residence of each Life Director and Life Member.\nPERPETUAL\n\nDIRECTOESHIP.\n\n1879. Philadelphia\nTeachers'\nInstitute,\n1889. Board of Education of Nashville,\nSargent Street, below 9th, PhilaTenn.\ndelphia, Pa.\n1890. Illinois State Teachers' Association,\nSpringfield, 111.\n\nLIFE\n\nDIRECTORS.\n\nCALIFORNIA.\nBrown, LeRoy D., Box 138, Santa\nMonica, Los Angeles Co.\nCOLORADO.\n1888. Gove, Aaron, 2045 Grant Ave., Denver.\nILLINOIS.\n1887. Dougherty, Newton C, 906 E. Bluff\nSt., Peoria.\n1887. Parker, Chas. I., 9136 Exchange\nAve., South Chicago.\n1891. Pike, J., Jersey ville.\nKANSAS.\n1886. Fairchild, Geo. T., State Agricultural College, Manhattan.\n1886. Jewett, A. V.. Abilene. Dickinson Co.\n1886. Taylor, A. R., 1127 Congress St.,\nEmporia.\n\nMISSOURI.\n1886. Greenwood,\nJ. M.,\nKansas City.\nNEW\n\n1312\n\nOak\n\nSt.,\n\nYORK.\n\n1885. Hall, Caleb G., New Berlin.\n1881. Rickoff, Andrew\nJ., 444 Central\nPark West, New York.\nOHIO.\n1888. Day, L. W.,\nCleveland.\n\n422\n\nSuperior\n\nSt.,\n\nOREGON.\n1888. Stratton, C. C, Portland University,\nUniversity Park.\n\nMASSACHUSETTS.\n\nPENNSYLVANIA.\n\n1887. Hunt, Mary H., 55 Central Ave.,\nHyde Park, Norfolk Co.\n\n1877. Marshall, T. Marcellus, Carlisle.\n\n"}
{"page": 947, "printed_page": null, "text": "927\nLIFE MEMBERS.\n\nLIFE\n\nMEMBERS.\n\nCALIFORNIA.\n1889. Hobe, Augusta W., 1633 Hyde St.,\nSan Francisco.\n1879. Iloose, James H., 255 S. Euclid\nAve., Pasadena.\n1877. De Jarnette, Anna Kalfus, care of J.\nL. Kalfus, San Jose.\n1882. Morris, Harriette N., State Normal\nSchool, Chico.\nCOLORADO.\n1884. Hayward, Emily A., Denver.\n\n1884. Raab, Ilenry, State House, Spring,\nfield.\nINDIANA.\n1876. Bell, W. A., 66£ North Penn St.,\nIndianapolis.\n1880. Irwin, John S., 241 West Main St.,\nFort Wayne.\n1866. McKae, N. S., Marion.\n1877. Smart, James H., Perdue University,\nLa Fayette.\n1876. Stevens, M. 0., Littleton St., W.\nSide, La Fayette.\nIOWA.\n\nCONNECTICUT.\n1884. Barnard, nenry, 28 Main St., Hartford.\n1884. Northrop, Birdsey G., Clinton.\nDISTRICT\n\nOF\n\nCOLUMBIA.\n\n1884. Bell, Alex. Graham, Washington.\n1876. Harris, Win. T., Bureau of Education, Washington.\n1880. Hitz, John, 917 RSt., N. W., Washington.\n1889. Keane,\nRt. Rev. John, Catholic\nUniversity , Washington.\n1864. Richards,\nZalmon,\n1301 Corcoran\nSt., Washington.\n1880. Wilson, J. Ormond, 1439 Massachusetts Ave., Washington.\nGEORGIA.\n1890. Baker, W. H., 150 Drayton\nSt.,\nSavannah.\n1881. Mallon, Mrs. Frances C. , The Leland,\nHouston St , Atlanta.\n1870. Manley,\nR. M., Dalton, Whitfield\nCo.\nILLINOIS.\n1870. Allen, Ira W., 612 Maple St., Englewood, Chicago.\n1880. Brown, Geo. P., Bloomington, McLean Co.\n1884. Cheney, Augustus J., Oak Park.\nChicago.\n1864. Eberhardt, John F., 161 La Salle St.,\nChicago.\n1876. Forbes, Alexander, 24 Aldine Square,\nChicago.\n1884. Hewett, Edwin C, 200 Ash St., Normal, McLean Co.\n1891. Hull, John, Normal University, Carbondale.\n\n1880. Gilchrist,\nJ. C, Laurens, Pocahontas\nCo.\n1886. Pickard, Josiah L., 419 N. Clinton\nSt., Iowa City.\n1884. Taylor,\nSioux Henry\nCity. J., 1635 Douglas St.,\n1884. Willis, Wm.\nIowa City.\n\nA., 612 Market St.,\n\nKANSAS.\n1886. Campbell, A. G., Lock Box 37, Council Grove.\n1886. Clark, Frank H., Minneapolis, Ottawa Co.\n1886. Coover, N. Wilson, Ellsworth Co.\n1886. Fairchild, Edward S.. Ellsworth,\nEllsworth Co.\n1886. Jay, Walter M., St. John's School,\nSalina.\n1886. Klock, J. E., Leavenworth.\n1886. Larimer, Henry G., 216 Clay St.,\nTopeka.\n1886. Limerick,\nWinfield. A. H., 902 E. 9th St.,\n1886.\n1886.\n1886.\n1886.\n1886.\n\nMacDonald, John, Topeka.\nMcVicar, Peter, Topeka.\nMeade, Richard C, Atchison.\nRoop, C. Y., 386 S. 7th St., Salina.\nRose, Geo. E., Rosedale, Wyandotte\nCo.\n1886. Sawhill, Thos. A., 309 N. 7th St.,\nConcordia, Cloud Co.\n1886. Schuyler, Aaron, 1316 S. Santa Fe\nSt., Salina.\n1886. Stanley, Edmund, 900 Kentucky St.,\n1 AY W1*PHCG\n\n1886. Tillotson, D. C, 621 Fillmore St.,\nTopeka.\n1886. Williams, Philo J, Massachusetts\nSt., Lawrence.\n1886. President Board of Education, Abilene, Dickinson Co.\n\n"}
{"page": 948, "printed_page": null, "text": "928\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nKANSAS— Continued.\n\nNEBRASKA.\n\n1886. Dodge City Schools, care E. D.Webb, 1876. Beals, Samuel De Witt, 2118 DavenDodge City, Ford Co.\nport St., Omaha.\n1886. Board of Education, City of Ottawa, 1880. Bibb-Sudborough, Mrs. Grace, 549\nFranklin Co.\nS. 26th Ave., Omaha.\n1886. Sedgwick City Schools, Sedgwick, 1884. Curry, Robert, cor. D and 4th Sts. ,\nHarvey Co.\nPalmyra.\n1886. Cowley\nCounty\nTeachers'\nAssocia1884.\nJames,\nHenry M., 2219 Capitol Ave..\ntion, Winfield.\nOmaha.\n1886. Riley\nCounty Teachers' Association, 1886. Miller,\nJ. H., Room 5, Ledwith Block,\nManhattan.\nLincoln.\n\nKENTUCKY.\n\nNEW\n\nHAMPSHIRE.\n\n1877. Bartholomew, W. fl., 426 East Gray 1876. Rounds, Charles <?., Plymouth.\nSt., Louisville.\n1877. Monsarrat, Mrs. L. L., 1250 First\n_TE,„r T1„DOI],^\nNEW JERSEY.\nSt., Louisville.\n1876. Thompson, Langdon S., 30 Park St.,\nMARYLAND.\njersey City.\n1876. Richmond, Sarah E. S., 1402 Penna.\nAve., Baltimore.\nNEW\nYORK.\n\nMASSACHUSETTS.\n\n1871\" An£SX&nJ*hn J\"' ^ ^^\n\nSt\"\n\nN. A., 124 E. 80th St., New\n1884. Bascom, John, Park St., Williams- 1879- Calkins,\nYorktown\n188°- Coe, Jjmily M., 50 W. 22d St., New\nJames, 206 So. Oxford\nSt., 18G4- Cruikshank\nB.', 12 Summer\nDaniel le\n°t-> Brooklyn.\n1864. Hagar,\nm\nSa\nNew York.\n1870. Jones, Daniel W., 4 Hawthorn St., |883/ ga7> Mrs. Albert\nE., 80 WilJosephine\n1883- Hodgdon.\nRoxbury, Boston.\nBro°klyn.\no10\"^^-.\n1880. Marble, Albert P., 492 Main St., 1QQK\nNormal College,\n1885. Hunter, Thomas,\nWorcester\n1882. Bicknel'l,\n\nThos.\n\nW., 175 Harvard\n\n1886. Mowry,\nWm. A., 97 Federal St., 1Q„. v New } °rk- XT\n„ .\ngal'm\n' 1879. Kraus, John, New York.\n444 CenHeliecca\nMrs West,\n«n,.tni1\ntral Park\nNew IX,\nYork.\nWm. E., 3 Somerset St., 188°- Bickofl,\n1865. Sheldon,'\n1882. Stern, S. M., 29 E. 44th St., New\n1884. Van Aken, Mrs. Georgiana, 63 Park\n1866. Mayhew, Ira, 119 Griswold St., DeSt., New York.\ntroit.\n\nNORTH CAROLINA.\nMINNESOTA.\n1864. Pennell, Calvin S., 2245 St. Anthony 1884. Bingham, Robert, Asheville.\nPark.\n1870. Phelps, Wm. F.. 105 Germania Life\nnmr»\nutiiu.\n.\nul\nPa\ng, St,\nBuildin\n1890. Ind.\nSchool Dist. No 3, care Wm. 1884 Bennett, C. W., 218 W. Ash St.,\nJ. Pringle, Northneld, Rice Co.\nPiqua.\n1880. Bennett, Hampton, Franklin, WarMISSISSIPPI.\nren Co.\n\n188d' WvfchksbEurgmUnd W\"' P' °- BOX858' 1870- CoTwmfam^'Marysville, Union\nTifTccrkrTTJT\n1883. Coy, E. W., Hughes High School,\nMlbbUUKl.\nCincinnati.\n1886. Evans, Chas. H., 915 Locust St., St. 1866. Curran, Ulysses T., 622 Columbus\nLouis.\nAve., Sandusky.\n1877. Soldan, F. Louis, 1616 Hickory St., 1880. Davidson, Chas. C, 59 W. Ely St.,\nSt. Louis.\nAlliance.\n\n"}
{"page": 949, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIb'E MEMBERS.\nOHIO — Continued.\n1880. Dutton, Bettie A., 94 State St.,\nCleveland.\n1865. Hartshorn, O. N.. Alliance.\n1870. Holden, L E., Cleveland.\n1879. McMillan, Reuben, Canfield, Mahoning Co.\n1880. McMillan, Mrs. S., Canfield, Mahoning Co.\n1880. Miller, Lewis, Oak Place, Akron.\n1880. Peaslee, John B., McGregor Park,\nCincinnati.\n1882. Robert, James A., 230 N. Summit\nAve., Daytou.\n1870. White, Emerson E., 287 E. Broad\nSt., Columbus.\n1880. Widner,\nEsther, 201 S. Perry St.,\nDayton.\n1870. Williams, Mrs. Delia Lathrop, 62 S.\nLiberty St. , Delaware.\nPENNSYLVANIA.\n1870. Arey, Oliver, 303 Springfield Ave.,\nPhiladelphia.\n1879. Avery, Rachel\nFoster, Somerton,\nPhiladelphia.\n1876. Brooks. Edward, 240 S. 39th St.,\nPhiladelphia.\n1879. Gratz,\nSimon,\n1309 Locust\nSt.,\nPhiladelphia.\n1865. Ingram, Samuel D., 113 Market St.,\nHarrisburg.\n1891. Lyte. E. Oram, State Normal School,\nMillersville.\n1891. Schofield, Martha,\n1717 Vine St.,\nPhiladelphia.\n1879. Shippen,\nEdward, 532 Walnut St.,\nPhiladelphia.\n1880. Singer, Edgar A., 4662 Penn St.,\nPhiladelphia.\n1884. Stewart, Sarah A., 1520 Chestnut\nSt., Philadelphia.\nTENNESSEE.\n1887. Conway, Clara, Memphis.\nWISCONSIN.\n1884. Albel, Geo. S., State Normal School,\nOshkosh.\n1884. Aylward,\nJohn\nArthur,\nPioneer\nBlock, Madison.\n1884. Beck, Geo., 125 Elm St., Platteville.\n1884. Carpenter,\nJ. H., 315 Wisconsin\nAve., Madison.\n1884. Chandler, W. H., Sun Prairie, Dane\nCo.\n1884. Charlton,\nEdwin\nA., Broadhead,\nGreen Co.\n59\n\n929\n\n1884. Clark, L. H., State Normal School,\nRiver Falls.\n1884. Eden, Philip, Richland Center.\n1884.\nEmery,\nJ. Q., River Falls, Pierce\nCo.\n1881. Flavin, John T., Watertown, Jefferson Co.\n1884. Harvey, Lorenzo Dow, 225 23d St.,\nMilwaukee.\n1884. Hutton,\nA. J. Platteville, Grant\nCo.\n1884.\nBox 201, Platteville,\nNye,\nChas.Co.H\nGrant\n1884.\nParker, Warren D., 212 Gilman St.\nMadison.\n1884. Parkinson, John B, ., 803 State St.\nMadison.\n1884. Shaw,\nSamuel,\nCrandon, Forest\nCo.\n1884. Stack, Joshua, Martin Flats,\nconsin St.. Milwaukee.\nWis1884. Stewart, I. N, Appleton, Outagamie\nCo.\n1884. Stearns,\nJ. W., 512 Wisconsin Ave.,\nMadison.\n1884. Spencer, Robert C, Business College,\nMilwaukee.\n1884. State Normal\nSchool, Platteville,\nGrant Co.\n1884. Thayer, J. B., Madison.\n1884. Twining, N. C, Monroe.\n1881. Whitford, William C, Milton, Rock\nCo.\n1884. Board Regents State N. Schools,\nWis.\nState Historical\nSociety,\nMadison.\n1884.\nCounty\nSupts.'\nAssociation,\nWis.\nState Historical Society, Madison.\n18«4. Board of Education, Beloit.\n1884. Board of Education, Jamesville.\n1884. Board of Education, A. N. Hardy,\nClerk, La Crosse.\n1884. Board of Education, Watertown.\n1.84. Supt. Public Schools (Board of Education), Milwaukee.\n1884. Board of Education (R. H. Halsey,\nSupt. Schools), Oshkosh.\n1884. Alumni Assoc, City Normal School,\nMilwaukee.\n1884. County Teachers' Association, Milwaukee.\n1884. Intermediate\nand Upper\nSection,\nTeachers' Corps, Milwaukee.\n1884. Principals' Association, Milwaukee.\nSection, Teachers' Corps,\n1884. Primary\nMilwaukee.\n1884.\nAthena?um Lit. Soc, State Normal\nSchool, Platteville.\n1884.\nPhiladelphian Society, State Normal\nSchool, Platteville.\n1884. Public School Teachers, Janesville.\n1884.\nWisconsin Principals' Association.\n1884. Wisconsin Teachers' Association.\n\n"}
{"page": 950, "printed_page": null, "text": "930\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nADDRESSES\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nUNKNOWN.\n\nLetters sent to the last known address of the following were returned\nby postmasters, marked \"Not called for,\" \"Left for parts unknown,\"\n\" Unknown,\" \" Name not in Directory,\" etc. :\nBrown, Mrs. A. J.\nCrosby, W. E.\nDe Wolf, David P.\nEnglish, R. F.\nFranklin, M. B.\nHarvey, G. I.\n\nHeywood. C. W.\nO'Connor, Joseph.\nPartridge, Lelia E.\nPaxon, Joseph.\nSetzefaud, A.\nSchmitz, J. Adolph.\n\nNAMES\n\nOP LIFE MEMBERS\n\nAllyn, Robert, Illinois.\nCorey, Lucien B., New York.\nDanforth, Edward, New York.\nGraham, Robert, Wisconsin.\nHancock, John, Ohio.\nHarvey, Thomas W., Ohio.\nHobbs, B. C, Indiana.\nIlowland, H. C, Wisconsin.\nNewell, M. A., Maryland.\n\nSpring,\nWilcox, E.\nM. A.\nC.\nWoodward, G. A.\nVidelia, Dornia G.\nYoung, Chas. S.\n\nDECEASED.\n\nRusk, Hon. Jeremiah M., Wisconsin.\nStanford,\nfornia. Leland (Life Director), CaliStevenson, R. W., Ohio.\nStone, E. M., Rhode Island.\nStone, Mrs. M. A., Connecticut.\nTourgee. Eben, Massachusetts.\nWickersham, James P., Pennsylvania.\n\n"}
{"page": 951, "printed_page": null, "text": "ANNUAL\n\nMEMBERSHIP\n\nFOR THE YEAR ENDING JULY 1, 1894.\nAFRICA.\n\n-Africa, 1.\n\nFraser, D. D., Cape Town.\nALABAMA.\n\nTowle, Amos, Mobile.\nTutwiler, Julia L., Livingston.\nVan Wie, C. B., Florence.\n-Alabama, 7.\n\nCutler, Susan R., Talladega.\nDoll, C. D., Montgomery.\nPhillips, J. H., Birmingham.\nTalbot, Henry, Montgomery.\nARGENTINE\n\nREPUBLIC\n\nGraham, Mary 0., Buenos Ayres.\n\nHoward, Jennie E., San Nicolas.\n— Argentine Republic, 2.\nARKANSAS.\n\nAnderson, Chas. A., Haynes.\nBlake, A. L., Waldo.\nBrown, G. P. A., Marianna.\nCook, Geo. B., Hot Springs.\nCook, Minnie R., Helena.\nCrawford, W. A., Boonesborough.\nDroke, G. W., Fayetteville.\nFutrall, T. A., Marianna.\nIsh, Jefferson G., Little Rock.\nKerr, C. V., Fayetteville.\nKuykendall, J. W., Paragould.\nLee, W. H., Washington.\nLeiper, W. D., Malvern.\n\nMeBride, Ruth, Pine Bluff.\nMcNeill, J., Fayetteville.\nMillar, Alex. C, Conway.\nMurry, T., Morrillton.\nOden, John W., Little Rock.\nParham, R. H., Little Rock.\nReynolds, T. H, Rover.\nReynolds, W. D., Ramsey.\nRogers, D. T., Jonesboro.\nThompson, R. S., Paragould.\nToon, W. B., Morrillton.\nYoung, W. T., Wynne.\n— Arkansas, 25.\nAUSTRIA.\n\nBondy, Mrs. Ottilia, Vienna.\nBurgerstein, Leo, Vienna.\n\nGugler, Josef, Vienna.\n\n— Austria, 3.\n\nCALIFORNIA.\nAdams, Mary P., San Jose.\nBarnes, Earl, Palo Alto.\nBarth, Robert, San Francisco.\nBayne, Frank F., Berkeley.\nBoyd, Nicholas E., Berkeley.\nBrown, Elmer E., Berkeley.\nBrown, Mrs. Elmer E., Berkeley.\nDickson, Sadie, Escondido.\nEckert, D. A., Azusa.\nEnnis, C. L., Los Angeles.\nEvans, Llewellyn, Pasadena.\nFarnham, Geo. S., Riverside.\nFoshay, Jas. A., Los Angeles.\nFoy, Mary E., Los Angeles.\nGarin, Paul A., Oakland.\nGreggs, Edw. H., Palo Alto.\nKellogg, Martin, Berkeley.\nbe Beuf, Helen J., Orange.\nMartin, Mrs. F. M., Santa Rosa.\n\nMatthews, Winfield S., University.\nMavhew, Mrs. Nora D., Los Angeles.\nMills, Mrs. C. T., Mills College, Alameda.\nMills, J. S., Los Angeles.\nMolyneaux, Frank A., Pomona.\nMonroe, Will S. . Palo Alto.\nPayne, Frank H., Berkeley.\nPhelps, N. S., San Francisco.\nPierce, Ed. T., Los Angeles.\nPorter, Mrs. Anna S., San Diego.\nReid, W. T., Belmont.\nRice, Mrs. Juliet Powell, Los Angeles.\nRich, Ednah A., Santa Barbara.\nSanford, Fernanda, Palo Alto.\nSchallenberger, Margaret E., Palo Alto.\nWilson. Esther M., Chico.\nWood, Thomas D., Palo Alto.\nYowell, T. A., Los Angeles.\n— California, 37.\n\n"}
{"page": 952, "printed_page": null, "text": "932\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION.\n\nCOLORADO.\nMacDonald, Myra M., Denver.\nAllen, Leon M., Colorado Springs.\nMack, Miss M. F., Denver.\nAllen, Mrs. Florence, Denver.\nMcArthur, Jessie, Georgetown.\nBaker, Jas. H., Boulder.\nMcChesney, Tude, Harman.\nBaker, T. O., Durango.\nMcCleeny, J. S., Pueblo.\nBallard, Charlotte, Watkins.\nMcClure, Z. B., Denver.\nBarron, Alida J., Denver.\nMcCoy, Maggie, Leadville.\nBeggs, Robert 1L, Denver.\nMcDowell, Wm. F., University Park.\nBoyd, David, Greeley.\nMcNair, Agnes, Denver.\nBradley, C. A., Denver.\nMiller, Miss A. W., Denver West.\nCasey, W. V., Boulder.\nMitchell, Alice, Denver.\nCobb, Ruby E., Denver.\nMoore, DoraM., Denver.\nCondit, P. M., Colorado Springs.\nMorgenstern, Carolina 0., Denver.\nCopeland, A. B., Greeley.\nCourtney, A. C, Denver.\nMurphy, Mrs. E. H., Denver.\nMurray, J. F., Denver.\nCoy, N. B., Denver.\nOsenback, C. M., Denver.\nDavis, Fannie 0., Denver.\nParker, C. V., Ft. Collins.\nDewey, Helen A., Colorado Springs.\nPike, Lillian L. , Farnham.\nEddingfield, W. T., Aspen.\nPrice, Minnie, Denver.\nElder, Andrew W. , Denver.\nFairfield, Alice T., Leadville.\nRemington, W. W., Boulder.\nRobin, Susanna, Denver.\nFarris, Miss F. 0., Denver.\nFletcher, Mary L., Georgetown.\nRoyce, Eudora, Highlands.\nFlower, Miss E., Denver.\nSabin, Mary S., Denver.\nSalisbury, CeliaA., Denver.\nFortner, Miss S. E., Denver.\nSchleicher, Alice, Denver.\nGass, B. R., Denver.\nSchmitt, Jacob, Denver.\nGilkison, H. A., Denver.\nSearch, W. P., Pueblo.\nGoodrich, Miss II. E., Denver.\nGreenlee, Lewis C, Denver.\nSeavey, May, Denver.\nShepard, A. D., Denver.\nGriggs, Herbert, Denver.\nSmedley, Wm., Denver.\nGrossmeyer, Clara, Denver.\nSmiley, W. R., Denver.\nGuss, Roland W., Greeley.\nSmith, Minna E., Denver.\nHale, Horace M., Denver.\nHarris, Harriet A., Leadville.\nSnyder, Z. H., Greeley.\nStephens, Eugene C, Trinidad.\nHayward, Emily A., Denver.\nStephenson, Mrs. D. E., Alma.\nPlenderson, Luella, Denver.\nTelford, Eva G., Rico.\nHoldredge, Adelaide, Leadville.\nThomas, W. C, Greeley.\nHooper, Lydia, Idaho Springs.\nThompson, Jennie M., Denver.\nHoughan, Frona R., Denver.\nThompson, Lucy, Denver.\nJackson, J. P., Colorado Springs.\nJones, Nora J. (Ft. Lupton), Ramah.\nUnderhill, Mildi-ed, Denver.\nWallace, Maggie M., Denver.\nKerr, Annie, Denver.\nWarnecke, Marie, Denver.\nKingsley, C. M., Boulder.\nWesthaver, Evelina, Edgewater.\nKnapp, W. E., Denver.\nWhiteman, W. J., Denver.\nKrani, Mrs. C. V., Denver.\nLawson, Mrs. C. B., Denver.\nWilson, Josephine, Denver.\nWoody, C. A., Salida.\nLees, Mary, Denver.\nLiddell, Miss M. E., Denver.\nYoung, J. S., Denver.\n— Colorado, 95.\nLong, Geo. B., Denver.\nCONNECTICUT.\nBartlett, Ella E., Southford.\nBrocklesby, John H., Hartford.\nBuchner, Edward F., New Haven.\nCarlisle, Ella E., Norwich.\nCurtis, Virgil G., New Haven.\nDeane, Chas. W., Bridgeport.\nPinney, M. A., New Haven.\nDe la Sorre, Carlos, Havana.\n\nRaymond, B. P., Middletown.\nScott, Walter, Suffield.\nSkinner, Stella, New Haven.\nSmith, Geo. W., Hartford.\nSmith, Minna E., Hartford.\nWillard, S. P., Colchester.\n— Connecticut, IS.\nCUBA.\nHorta, Constantino, Havana.\nDENMARK.\n\nFredrickson, Kristina, Kolding.\n\n— Cuba, 2.\n-Denmark, 1.\n\n"}
{"page": 953, "printed_page": null, "text": "ANNUAL\n\nMEMBERSHIP.\n\n933\n\nENGLAND.\nBrain well, Amy, Cambridge.\nOsborne, Aimee K., London, S. W.\nBrook, M. S., Westminster.\nOsterberg, Bergman, London.\nCowham, Jos. EL, Westminster.\nPritchard, Mrs. Emily C, Kingsland.\nHanson, James, Bradford.\nRooper, T. G., High Harrogate.\nHughes, Elizabeth P., Barry, South Wales. Thomas, Mary V., London, W.\nHughes, H. Millieent, Barry, South Wales. Vinta, Edith, Bayswater.\nLegard, A. G., High Harrogate.\nWilson, Edith C, Manchester.\nLoueh, Mary, Cheltenham.\nZimmin, Alice, Tunbridge Wells.\nMoore, Annie Osborne, London, S. W.\n— England, 17.\nFINLAND.\n\n— Finland, 1.\n\nBlomgvist, Elizabeth, Svenska Fruntim, Helsingfors.\nFLORIDA.\nGaines, Nannie B., Leesburg.\nVeenfliet, Mrs. M. L., De Land.\nPayne, D. A., Jacksonville.\nWeston, Mrs. Olive E., Jacksonville.\n— Florida, 5.\nSheats, W. N., State Supt. Public Instruction, Tallahassee.\nFRANCE.\nBeamme, D., Nancy.\n\nChevrillon, Andre, Lille.\n\n— France, 2.\n\nGEORGIA.\nAlford, William B., Atlanta.\nAllen, Willette, Atlanta.\nGiles, Harriet E., Atlanta.\nJohnson, Wm. D., Athens.\n\nSmith, Willard N., Savannah\nSnyder, Jessie M., Columbus.\nWright, Elizabeth M., Tate. — Georgia, 7.\nGERMANY.\n\nAbel, Dr., 24 Park Str., Weisbaden. Lauer, Karl, Freiburg.\nForster, Auguste, Kassel.\nRieunier, Alexis, Herault.\nGuentsche, Richard, Buelowstrasse, Berlin. Schlee, Ernest, Altona.\nImelmann, J., Berlin.\nHAWAIIAN ISLANDS.\nAlexander, W. D., Honolulu.\n\nKricsy, Bela, Kecskemit.\n\n■ Germany, 7.\n\nWells, W. I. , Hanamaulu Kauai.\n— Hawaiian Islands, 2.\nHUNGARY.\nMandello, Tulius, Sasutca.\n\n— Hungary, 2.\n\nILLINOIS.\nAdams, Carrie G., Chicago.\nAdams, Nettie R. , Chicago.\nAddy, Mary S., Chicago.\nAldrich, Jessie, Chicago.\nAiling, Harriet T., Moreland.\nAiling, Jas. C, Chicago.\n*Allyn, Robert, Carbondale.\nAmes, A. F., Riverside.\nAndrews, Minnie J., Chicago.\nArmitage, B. F., Mattoon.\nArmstrong, James E., Englewood.\nArnold, David S., Englewood.\nBackman, Kate, Chicago.\nBaertschy, Elizabeth, Ravenswood.\nBangs, J. E., Fairbury.\nBanker, Emma J., Chicago.\n\nBannon, Geo. C, Chicago.\nBarbour, O. F., Rockford.\nBard well, Conrad M., Canton.\nBarlow, Cornelia, Highland Park.\nBeane, E. M., Chandlerville.\nBeardsley, Alice, Chicago.\nBeaumont, Harriet A., Arlington Heights.\nBedwell, Almeda, Chicago.\nBennett, Jno. I., Chicago.\nBevans, Homer, Englewood.\nBilharz, Jane A., Waukegan.\nBlanchard, Chas. A., Wheaton.\nBlock, Louis J., Chicago.\nBlount, Geo., Morris.\nBogan, Wm. J., Chicago.\nBoltwood, H. L., Evanston.\n* Deceased.\n\n"}
{"page": 954, "printed_page": null, "text": "934\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION.\n\nILLINOIS— Continued.\nBonfield, Mary, Chicago.\nBrayton, Laura T., Chicago.\nBright, O. T., Bnglewood.\nBroderick, Mary, Chicago.\nBrooks, Sarah A., Chicago.\nBrown, Geo. P., Bloomington.\nBrown, Geo. W., Jacksonville.\nBrown, Hugh, Chicago.\nBunion, Lilian, Chicago.\nBurke, Isabel, Chicago.\nButts, Augusta E., Chicago.\nByrne, Sarah, Englewood.\nCaldwell, Anna M., Chicago.\nCaldwell, Mavolta, Chicago.\nCanney, Alice B., Chicago.\nCannon, Theresa A., Chicago.\nCarman, Geo. N., Morgan Park.\nCarpenter, Nellie M., Chicago.\nCase, Sophia M., Chicago.\nCastle, L. M., Springfield.\nChadband, Fanny G., Rogers Park.\nChadwick, Mary, Chicago.\nChamberlain, Wm., Chicago.\nChamberlaine, Patrick, Chicago.\nCharles, Thomas, Chicago.\nChurch, Emma M., Chicago.\nClancy, A. W., Chicago.\nClark, J. Scott, Evanston.\nClayberg, G. M., Oak Park.\nCoddington, Arch 0., Chicago.\nColton, Buel P., Normal.\nColwell, Lewis W. , Avondale.\nCompton, Helen D., Chicago.\nConner, Bessie M., Chicago.\nCook, Emily, Chicago.\nCook, Ida M., Chicago.\nCook, Chas. A., Irving Park.\nCook, J. W., Normal.\nCoone, Henrietta M., Chicago.\nCovey, C. O, Farmer City.\nCrouse, Mrs. J. N., Chicago.\nCrow, Martha F., Chicago.\nCullen, Mary Agnes, Chicago.\nCutler, Robert E., Chicago.\nCutler, Susan R., Chicago.\nDalton, Catherine, Dalton.\nDana, Susie L., Chicago.\nDanforth, Helen, Chicago.\nDarling, D. II., Joliet.\nDavidson, Cecilia D., Chicago.\nDavidson, Martha E., Chicago.\nDavis, Anna I., Joliet.\nDavis, George W., Buena Park.\nDavis, Mary A., Chicago.\nDe Clark, Geo. W., Fern wood.\nDelafontaine, Mark, Chicago.\nDelano, E. C, Chicago.\nDeer, II. P., Elgin.\nDewey, Electa E., Chicago.\nDewey, Helen A., Aurora.\nDewey, Jas. R., Chicago.\nDillman, Louis M., Chicago.\nDimock, Clara, Chicago.\n\nDodge, Wm. C, Chicago.\nDonnelly, Margaret, Woodstock.\nDougall, Jean, Chicago.\nDougherty, N. C, Peoria.\nDuncan, Thomas C, Chicago.\nDu Plessie, C. 0., Chicago.\nDurham, S., Chicago.\n• Dwight, Hattie L., Rockford.\nEaton, Ira T., Chicago.\nEaton, Sarah J., Chicago.\nEcelston, Mrs. S. C, Chicago.\nEddy, Clara E., Chicago.\nEllis, John C, Chicago.\nEmery, Constance, Quincy.\nEnglish, Gertrude E., Chicago.\nEnright, Mary, Chicago.\nErickson, Jennie, Jefferson Park.\nEtten, Frances, Chicago.\nFalck, Constance, Chicago.\nFalley, A. L., Ravenswood.\nFarnsworth, J. B., Mayfair.\nFarson, Mary E., Chicago.\nFelt, Ida, Chicago.\nFerson, E. B., Chicago.\nFinch, C. W., Chicago.\nFinney, Mabel, Highland Park.\nFischer, Eveline. Chicago.\nFisk, Franklin P., Chicago.\nFisk, H. P., Evanston.\nFisk, Libbie E., Chicago.\nFitzer, Levi R., Belvidere.\nFoote, Mary C, Rockford.\nForbes, Alexander, Chicago.\nForbes, Annie, Chicago.\nFord, Chas. II., Chicago.\nFord, Emma A., Aurora.\nForesman, II. A., Chicago.\nForkin, Mary A., South Chicago.\nFox, Mary A., Chicago.\nFrancis, Jane, Chicago.\nFrazier, Mrs. Lizzie H., Morgan Park\nFreeman, J. II., Aurora.\nFreer, Francis A., Galesburg.\nFrench, Emily L., Chicago.\nFuchs, Elsa, Chicago.\nGall, Katherine A., Chicago.\nGasan, Emma, Chicago.\nGee, Etta Q., Chicago.\nGettenny, Mrs. Mary E., Galesburg.\nGiffin, Wm. M. (Auburn Park), Chicago.\nGilbert, Mary E., Chicago.\nGilbert, Newell D., Austin.\nGill, Marcella, Chicago.\nGimbel, Amanda, Chicago.\nGlenn, Annie J., Chicago.\nGoodhue, L. P., Chicago.\nGreenleaf, Mrs. Emma M., Chicago.\nGrimshaw, Elizabeth C, Cheltenham.\nGroves, Chas. W., Harwood.\nGuenther, Kate 0.. Blue Island.\nHaas, Mrs. E. S., Chicago.\nHack, Patty A., Ravenswood.\nHall, A. S., Morgan Park.\n\n"}
{"page": 955, "printed_page": null, "text": "ANNUAL\n\nMEMBERSHIP.\n\nILLINOIS— Continued.\nHall, Frank H., Waukegan.\nHall, Wm. Gardner, Chicago.\nHalle, Rebecca, Chicago.\nHaramill, W. J., Rockford.\nHannan, James, Chicago.\nHanson, Martha E., Caledonia.\nHarding, Frank F., Chicago.\nHardinge, Agnes M., Chicago.\nHarford, Emma, Dover.\nIlarley, Walter S., Chicago.\nHarnett, Nellie E., Chicago.\nHarrison, Elizabeth, Chicago.\nHarrison, S. A., Chicago.\nHarrower, Walter J., Barrington.\nHartney, Elizabeth L., Chicago.\nHatch, Celia P., Hinsdale.\nHatch, Henry D., Chicago.\nHatch, W. H., Oak Park.\nHatfield, Ida I., Chicago.\nHays, Dudley G., Englewood.\nHeffron, Ida, Washington Heights.\nHeinroth, Luella, Chicago.\nHendricks, Helen Q., Chicago.\nHenninger, J. W., Charleston.\nHenroten, Ellen M., Chicago.\nHeuermann, Minna S., Chicago.\nHey ward, Frank S., Chicago.\nHicks, David F., Chicago.\nHigby, Cora, Chicago.\nHill, Louis D., Evanston.\nHoerner, Effie, Chicago.\nHolbrook, Florence, Chicago.\nHorine, Lizzie, Chicago.\nHullinger, Jno. D., Chicago.\nHurst, Mary H., Chicago.\nJackman, WilberS.. Englewood.\nJarapolis, Amelia, Chicago.\nJenkins, William, Mendota.\nJohann, Carl, Eureka.\nJohnson, Ellen M., Chicago.\nJohnson, Harriett P., Chicago.\nJohnson, Jennie 0., Chicago.\nJohnson, Mabel, La Grange.\nJones, Mary E., Chicago.\nJosephi, Kate, Chicago.\nJudd, S. Alice, Mayfair.\nKappes, J. Henry, Chicago.\nKaufman, Mrs. M. D., Chicago.\nKeegan, Maggie E., Chicago.\nKellogg, II. Amelia, Chicago.\nKellogg, Kate Starr, Longwood.\nKersey, Ruth Morris, Chicago.\nKirk, Alfred, Chicago.\nKirkhofer, II. J., Napierville.\nKirkley, Sarah A., Chicago.\nKletzing, Josiah F., Ravenswood.\nKohler, Charlotte, Chicago.\nKolb, Elizabeth, Chicago.\nKoupal, Kittie L., Avondale.\nKurtz, J. H., Chicago.\nLakin, B. B., Streator.\nLambert, Vashti A., Palatine.\nLaMonte, Margaret R., Chicago.\n\nLane, Abby E., Chicago.\nLane, Albert G., Chicago.\nLeach, C. H., Rogers Park.\nLennon, Anthony, La Grange.\nLewis, Cora E., Wheaton.\nLinn, Henrietta A., Chicago.\nLittle, H. P., Momence.\nLittle, Luella V., Chicago.\nLocke, Josephine C, Chicago.\nLouden, Mary C, Chicago.\nLukens, Herman T., Chicago.\nLundegreen, Francis, Chicago.\nLynch, Delia, Chicago.\nLyons, Marguerite, Chicago.\nMartin, Anna B., Arlington Heights.\nMartin, Daniel R., Pullman.\nMarvin, M. W., Waukegan.\nMattice, Ella A., Aurora.\nMaxwell, Fred B., Chicago.\nMay, John W., Chicago.\nMay, Mary C, Chicago.\nMcBennett, Mary E., Chicago.\nMcCabe, Nellie G., Chicago.\nMcCarthy, John, Chicago.\nMcCartney, Margaret, Chicago.\nMcConville, Alice, Chicago.\nMcCord, William E., Peoria.\nMcCowen, Mary T., Englewood.\nMcDade, James E., Kensington.\nMcDonald, A. E., Chicago.\nMcDonald, Katherine, Chicago.\nMcDonald, Margaret E., Chicago.\nMcEachron, Julia P., Chicago.\nMcFarlin, Clara H., Chicago.\nMcGarty, Catherine, Chicago.\nMcGaughey, Mrs. J. A., Chicago.\nMcGee, Lucy Castina, Chicago.\nMcGinnis, J. W., Englewood.\nMcKenzie, Mrs. Mattie, Chicago.\nMcLauchlin, A. L., Chicago.\nMcNarney, Mary A., Chicago.\nMelody, Genevieve, Chicago.\nMerriman, A. N., Chicago.\nMiller, F. L., Harvey.\nMiller, Lily, Simons.\nMilner, Sarah A., Grand Crossing.\nMinogue, Elizabeth, Chicago.\nMisch, Pauline, Chicago.\nMitchell, Walter R., Chicago.\nMorgan, Royal T., Wheaton.\nMuffly, Sadie, Paw Paw.\nMurphey, Katherine T., Chicago.\nNash, Georgina, Chicago.\nNichols, F. R., Chicago.\nNichols, Fred. W., S. Evanston.\nNorton, James II., Ravenswood.\nO'Bailey, Charlotte, Chicago.\nOberlander, Sara E., Oak Park.\nO'Brien, Joanna A., Chicago.\nO'Connor, Mary I., Moreland.\nOhr, Florence, Chicago.\nOliver, Fanny E., Galena.\nOlson, Mrs. M. D., Chicago.\n\n935\n\n"}
{"page": 956, "printed_page": null, "text": "936\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION.\n\nILLINOIS— Continued.\nOlson, Minnie C, Chicago.\nOrmsby, F. B., Englewood.\nOsinga, G. A., Chicago.\nOwens, Amy, Chicago.\nPage, Mrs. M. P., Chicago.\nPanker, Emma J., Chicago.\nParker, C. M., Taylorville.\nPatter, Clark R., Blue Island.\nPayne, Win, C, Hinsdale.\nPayne, Win, M., Chicago.\nPeterson, Julia, Chicago.\nPhelps, Mary A., Chicago.\nPierce, John M., Oak Park.\nPiper, Jonathan, Chicago.\nPlapp, Fred. W., Irving Park.\nPlumb, G. H. R., Glencoe.\nPratt, Frances M., Chicago.\nPrice, James Russell, Western Springs.\nPutnam, Alice H., Chicago.\nQuantrell, L. J., Des Plaines.\nRand, Grace, Lombard.\nRaven, Louise, Cheltenham.\nReed, Josephine, Chicago.\nReibold, Leonard E., Chicago.\nRice, Emily J., Chicago.\nRice, Mary B. S., Chicago.\nRice, Rebecca S., Chicago.\nRieder, Frank W., Chicago.\nRiennier, Alexis, Chicago.\nRinker, A. S., Chicago.\nRobbins, Geo., Chicago.\nRoberts, Nettie R., Rock Island.\nRobinson, Adelia E., Crete.\nRobinson, A. R., Chicago.\nRocheleau, W. F ., Carbondale.\nRockwood, George II., Chicago.\nRooney, Thomas C, Chicago.\nRoot, Frederic W., Chicago.\nRoynon, Carrie G., Chicago.\nRyan, Elesha A., Chicago.\nSabin, A. R., Chicago.\nSabin, Stewart B., Chicago.\nSales, de, M., Chicago.\nSanford, Frank E., La Grange.\nSargent, Sabra L., Highland Park.\nSchaefer, Adelina S. A., Chicago.\nSchmohl, Miss F. J., Chicago.\nSchobinger, John J., Chicago.\nSchuyver, Jennie L., Chicago.\nScott, Mrs. A. B., Chicago.\nScudder, C. O., S. Evanston.\nSeely, Levi, Lake Forest.\nSellars, Amanda, Mattoon.\nSellars, Dovie Frances, Mattoon.\nSengewald, Josie, Geneseo.\nSergeant, Mary L., Chicago.\nShaw, Ada M., Chicago.\nSilke, LucyS., Chicago.\nSinclair, James G., Chicago.\nSlocum, J., Chicago.\nSmedley, Fred. W., Peru.\nSmith, Fannie R., Chicago.\nSmith, R. M., Chicago.\n\nSmither, Harriett R., Chicago.\nSmyth, Mary II., Chicago.\nSnow, Katherine L., Chicago.\nSnyder, Lydia E., N. Evanston.\nSolial, Arthur II., Chicago.\nSollitt, Alice E., Chicago.\nSpooner, Mary L., Chicago.\nSpottswood, Mary C. , Rockford.\nStandish, John Van N., Galesburg.\nStarbuck, Ada C, Chicago.\nStarkey, Mrs. A. W., Quincy.\nStearns, E. F., Chicago.\nStedman, Maria M., Chicago.\nSteele, Eunice A., River Forest.\nSteele, Maud I., Chicago.\nStegenga, P. M., Thornton.\nStehman, John II., Avondale.\nStephenson, Lillie S., Chicago.\nStevenson, Albert L., Chicago.\nStewart, Emma G., Chicago.\nStieglitz, Julius, Chicago.\nStimpeson, Lora A., Chicago.\nStiver, P. 0., Freeport.\nStoekman, Henrietta C, Bloomington.\nStodder, Ida M., Chicago.\nStokes, H. N., Chicago.\nStowell, Corydon G., Chicago.\nStowell, Harriett A., Chicago.\nStrasburg, James M., Chicago.\nStrong, Mrs. Emma, Chicago.\nStube, John H, Simons.\nStutesman, Ida E., Chicago.\nSuder, Henry, Chicago.\nSullivan, Ella C, Chicago.\nSurridge, M. A., Ri*venswood.\nSweet, Joseph F., Chicago.\nTaylor, Chas. S., Chicago.\nTear, John II., Chicago.\nTemple, Alice, Chicago.\nThompson, Ada, Chicago.\nThurston, Henry W., Englewood.\nTodd, Emma J., Aurora.\nToppelius, Meri, Lake View.\nTracy, F. N., Kankakee.\nTrainor, Louise M., Chicago.\nTucker, Helen L., Chicago.\nTustin, Annie M., Chicago.\nTustin, Eliz. R., Chicago.\nUnderbill, Volney, Chicago.\nVail, Jennie M . , La Grange.\nVaile, II. S., Oak Park.\nVan Pelt, S., Onarga.\nVaughn, Mary E., Chicago.\nVernon, Josephine H., Chicago.\nVinton, Geo. A., Chicago.\nVoorhees, G. L., Austin.\nVosburg, Louise M., Pullman.\nWadhams, John A., Irving Park.\nWaldt, Lizzie E., Chicago.\nWalker, P. R., Rockford.\nWalker, Clara, Chicago.\nWalker, Sylvia E., Chicago.\nWallace, Sarah II., Austin.\n\n"}
{"page": 957, "printed_page": null, "text": "937\nANNUAL\n\nMEMBERSHIP.\n\nILLINOIS— Concluded.\nWilkinson, Cecelia E., Chicago.\nWilkinson, Geo. E., Alton.\nWillard, Samuel, Chicago.\nWilmarth, Mrs. H. M., Chicago.\nWilson, Martha, Chicago.\nWilson Grace, D., Chicago.\nWinchell, Ann E., Norwood Park.\nWinchell, Harriet N., Norwood Park.\nWinston, Eugenia. Chicago.\nWood, Alice C, Chicago.\nWood, Andrew J., Chicago.\nWood, Kate L., Chicago.\nWood, Silas S., Chicago.\nWright, Ebenezer, Englewood.\nWylie, John, Walnut.\nYoung, Mrs. Ella F., Chicago.\n— Illinois,\nZimmer, Thomas H., Wilmette.\n\nWallis, Sidonia, Austin.\nWaterman, Richard, Austin.\nWatson, Fred. J., Austin.\nWatson, Mina M.. Irving Park.\nWatt, Wra. E., Chicago.\nWeber, E. R., Harvey.\nWelch, Martha T., Chicago.\nWeldon, Adeline, Chicago.\nWelton, Wm., Lansing.\nWentworth, Mrs. A. M., Englewood.\nWescott, Oliver S., Chicago.\nWeston, Olive E., Chicago.\nWheeler, Marshall G., Chicago.\nWhitcomb, Mrs. Hattie W., Gano.\nWhite, Emma G., Lanark.\nWhitmore, Eva Blaine, Chicago.\nWhyte, C. Ada, Chicago.\nWiggins, Mary S., Chicago.\n\nINDIANA.\nAllison, John J., Crown Point.\nBelman, W. C, Hammond.\nBirk, S. J., Elko.\nBlack, J. C, Michigan City.\nBrown, Jesse H., Indianapolis.\nBryan, William L., Bloomington.\nCooper, John, Brightwood.\nCropsey, N., Indianapolis.\nEddy, Henry T., Terre Haute.\nFaught, John, Oaktown.\nFellows, Geo. E., Bloomington.\nFerris, Annette E., Thornton.\nGraves, Elma, Richmond.\nGriggs, Edward H., Bloomington.\nHailman, Eudora L., La Porte.\nHailman, W. W., La Porte.\nHawkins, Robt. I)., Lafayette.\nHitchcock, Clara M., Michigan City.\nHodgin, Cyrus W., Richmond.\nHosmer, Nettie, La Porte.\nINDIAN\nBacane, A. C, Indian Univ., Bacane.\n\nHumke, Albert E., Vincennes.\nIrwin, Jno. S., Fort Wayne.\nJackson, L. Marie, Indianapolis.\nJones, Louis H., Indianapolis.\nLewis, Eleanor II., Fort Wayne.\nMalsbury, A. E., Thornton.\nMartin, Alexander, Greencastle.\nMiller, Mary E., Washington.\nMustard, Mrs. Mary V., Indianapolis.\nNicholson, Mary E., Indianapolis.\nRemy, Edward A., Tipton.\nSmith, E. R., Indianapolis.\nSuter, Anna, Aurora.\nSwahlen, Wm. T., Greencastle.\nSwain, Joseph, Bloomington.\nTuner, Harriet E., Indianapolis.\nVail, D. Albert, Terre Haute.\nWarren, J. F., Rensselaer.\nWoody, H. G., Kokomo.\n— Indiana, Jfi.\nWilkinson, Cecilia C, Westville.\nTERRITORY.\nRiddell, Mrs. J. W., —Muskegon.\nIndian Territory,\nIOWA.\n\nBeardshear, W. M., Ames.\nBredel, Clara H., Independence.\nCook, Wm. W., Hull.\nCramer, Wm. T., Iowa City.\nFrawley, Mary E., Marengo.\nGates, Geo. A., Grinned.\nGoldsmith, Mary R., Fayette.\nJohnson, J. A., Munterville.\nKing, Wm. F., Mount Vernon.\nKleinsorge, J. A., Des Moines.\nKratz, H. E., Sioux City.\nLaylander, O. J., Cedar Falls.\nLibrary Normal School, Cedar Falls.\nMarshall, James, Cedar Rapids.\nMatthews, Elizabeth K., Des Moines.\nMehan, J. M., Des Moines.\n\nMills, J. S., Toledo.\nNolte, Anna M., Davenport.\nNormal School Library, Cedar Falls.\nPatrick, G. T. W., Iowa City.\nPickard, Josiah L., Iowa City.\nRamsey, Geo. J., Clinton.\nRich, A. W., Le Mars.\nRobbins, Henry E., Lyons.\nRogers, C. P., Marshalltown.\nSabin, Henry, Des Moines.\nSeerley, H. H., Cedar Falls.\nSengewald, Josie, Madrid.\nSmith, O. E., Des Moines.\nTittle, Flora, Stewart.\nTyler, Emma, Marion.\nVogenitz, E. W. G., North wood.\n\n"}
{"page": 958, "printed_page": null, "text": "938\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION.\n\nIOWA — Concluded.\nWilliams, David, Milton.\nYoung, J. B., Davenport.\n\nWarner, A. B., Harlan.\nWarr, Vina L., Des Moines.\nWicks, Wm. J., Panama.\n\nIRELAND.\n\n— Iowa,\n\n-Ireland, 1.\n\nMalloy, Wm. Robert, Dublin.\nITALY.\nStrobel, Pellegrino, Parma.\n\nMonti, D'Eudo, Legano, Milan.\n\nJAPAN.\n•\nKuroda, Sadaharn, Hongo.\n\nEudo, H., Tosho Kwaishia.\nGaines, Nannie B., Hiroshima.\n\n—Italy, 2.\n\n— Japan, 3.\n\nKANSAS.\nPeterson, Carl F., Lindsborg.\nReed, Robert S., Cedar Point.\nRichardson, Wm., Wichita.\nSharp, S. Z., McPherson.\nSmith, 0. L., Phillipsburg.\nSnow, Francis H., Lawrence.\nTaylor, Mrs. A. R., Emporia.\nWilkinson, J. W., Emporia.\n— Kansas,\nWood, Mary A., Topeka.\nYowell, T. A., Wichita.\n\nAhlborn, Ida A., Baldwin.\nBates, Mrs. Alice L., Concordia.\nClark, H. C, Kingman.\nCottell, Louisa, Topeka.\nDavidson, Wm. M., Topeka.\nDunkin, Frank, Wichita.\nHalsey, Amelia L., Wichita.\nLongnecker, Oscar, Paola.\nMacDonald, John, Topeka.\nMcNeal, Florence, Norcatur.\n\nKENTUCKY.\nObenchain, W. A., Bowling Green.\nPoynter, W. T., Shelby ville.\nRhoads, McIIenry, Frankfort.\nRyland, Wm. S., Russellville.\n— Kentucky,\nTaylor, S. B., Louisville.\nWarfield, W. C, Covington.\n\nBallard, Mrs. Mary A., Lexington.\nBartholomew, W. H., Louisville.\nBi'ooks, H. Evelyn, Madisonville.\nFord, Cannie W., Covington.\nHill, Patty S., Louisville.\nMark, E. II., Louisville.\nMerker, Margaret, Louisville.\n\nLOUISIANA.\nAyres, Brown, New Orleans.\nBaer, Clara G., New Orleans.\nBrown, Marion, New Orleans.\n\nMcGingin, Carrie, New Orleans.\nRamsey, Geo. J., Clinton.\nSoule, George, New Orleans.\n\nKing, FrankNewE., Orleans\nNew Orleans.\nLibrarian\nEducational Asso- ' Wright, Sophia B., New Orleans.\nciation, New Orleans.\n— Louisiana, 9.\nMAINE.\nAdams, Chas. Everett, Bangor.\nFernald, M. C, Orono.\nHayes, Benj. Francis, Lewiston.\n\nTaylor.-Sarah M., Portland.\nWhittier, Frank N., Brunswick. — Maine, 5.\nMARYLAND.\n\nGilman, Daniel G., Baltimore.\nGoucher, John F., Baltimore.\nMcCahan, Jno. E., Baltimore.\nPrettyman, E. B., Baltimore.\n\nSadler, Warren H., Baltimore.\nSchaffer, Edward M., Baltimore.\nWise, Henry A., Baltimore.\nWorthington, John D., Belair.\n— Maryland, 8.\nMASSACHUSETTS.\n\nAbercrombie, D. W., Worcester.\nAdams, Chas. F., Worcester.\nAldrich, George I., Newton ville.\nBaker, 0. M., Springfield.\nBaldwin, Wm. A., Andover.\n\nBarker, Edmund P., Ayer.\nBarrell, James S., Cam bridge port.\nBryant, Oliver F., Boston.\nBurnham, Wm. H., Worcester.\nButtrick, Mrs. S. M., Hanover.\n\n"}
{"page": 959, "printed_page": null, "text": "939\nANNUAL\n\nMEMBERSHIP.\n\nMASSACHUSETTS— Concluded.\nLanza, Gaetano, Boston.\nChase, Florence A., Boston.\nLarsson, Gustaf, Boston.\nChrisman, Oscar, Worcester.\nLewis, Mrs. H. L., Hancock.\nConnell, Win., Fall River.\nCooper, Frank I., Bridge water.\nLynch, John E., Worcester.\nMason, Lizzie A., Orange.\nCross, Anson K., Boston.\nMelcher, S. A., Whitinsville.\nCurtis, Elmer L., llingham.\nCutler, Henry F., Mount Herraon.\nMerrill, Moses, Boston.\nMoore, Geo. Dunning, Worcester.\nDay, B. C, Easthampton.\nDeane. C. S., Adams ville.\nMorss, Charles H., Milton.\nDixon, Edward, West Brookfield.\nMowry, Wm. A., Salem.\nDranga, Wilhelmina, Boston.\nNichols, Alice, Boston.\nDrew, Frank M., Worcester.\nParmenter, Chas. W., Cambridgeport.\nPease, Alvin F., Northampton.\nEdgerly, Joseph G., Fitchburg.\nEdmand, E. J., Baldwinsville.\nPierce, MaryE., Dorchester.\nEdson, A. W., Worcester.\nPitman, J. A., Oakdale.\nEnebuske, C. J., Boston.\nPosse, Baron Nils, Boston.\nPotter, J. R, Walpole.\nFearing, Clarence W., South Weymouth.\nFitz, Dr. G. W., Cambridge.\nRamsay, Chas. C, Fall River.\nFoster, Ellen B., Lowell.\nRichards, Robert II., Back Bay, Boston.\nGay, Geo. E., Maiden.\nRiley, Lizzie A., Chelsea.\nHall, I. Freeman, Arlington.\nRyder, Josiah Peterson, Watertown.\nRunkle, John D., Brookline.\nHallett, Samuel W., Hyannis.\nSafford, A. L., Beverly.\nHarnus, Paul H., Cambridge.\nHartwell, Edward M., Boston.\nSargent, D. A., Cambridge.\nSmith, Minnie, Fall River.\nHaskell, Claire E., Cambridge.\nHolt, H. E., Lexington.\nSnyder, W. H., Worcester.\nStevens, C. E., West Springfield.\nHoomans, Amy Morris, Boston.\nHome, Irving W., Braintree.\nTapley, Wm. W., Springfield.\nHiding, Ray G., New Bedford.\nThompson, John G., Leominster.\nHunt, Chas. L., Clinton.\nWalton, Geo. A., West Newton.\nWarner, Annette, Pittsfield.\nHunt, Mrs. Mary II., Hyde Park.\nIvreson, J. E., Boston.\nWinship, A. E., Boston.\nWheeler, U. G., Mittineague.\nKilbon, Geo. B., Springfield.\nWhitcomb, A. K., Lowell.\nKing, Isabel, Newton.\nKing, Rachel, Newton.\nWoodward, Herbert M., Cambridge.\n— Massachusetts, SO.\nMICHIGAN.\nAdams, Helen Case, Lansing.\nAngell, James B., Ann Arbor.\nBeane, Ellen M., Detroit.\nBlackwood, Jeanette, Detroit.\nBurdon, Lilian, Grand Rapids.\nBurnham, Stella M., Detroit.\nCannell, Maud E., Ypsilanti.\nChesney, Maggie, Bay City.\nCoffin, Miss M. E., Detroit.\nCuddeback, Elnora, Grand Rapids.\nCupples, James W., Lapeer.\nEllis, Wm. A., Detroit.\nFitch, Ferris S. , Pontiac.\nGarrigues, Ellen E., Ann Arbor.\nGoddard, Edwin C, E. Saginaw.\nGorton, Lewis G., Agricultural College.\n\nGraham, Hugh A., Ontonagon.\nHall, C. B., Detroit.\nHaviland, Hattie V., W. Bay City.\nHeffron, M. Cordelia, Detroit.\nHetley, James H., Carson City.\nHinsdale, B. A., Ann Arbor.\nKimberlin, Nettie, Detroit.\nMackenzie, David, Muskegon.\nMauck, S. W., Houghton.\nNykerk, J. B., Holland.\nO'Brien, Mary E., Detroit.\nScott, Harriet M., Detroit.\nStrong, C. A., Ypsilanti.\nWhitney, Emory, Detroit.\nWhitney, M. A., Ypsilanti. — Michigan, 31.\n\nMINNESOTA.\nBrooks, Jabez, Minneapolis.\nBrooks, Sarah C, St. Paul.\nCarhart, Joseph, St. Cloud.\nClum, Kitt, St. Paul.\nCorcoran, Anna T., St. Paul.\nDarrah, Estelle M., St. Paul.\nEngel, Peter, Collegeville.\n\nFrench, Fanny G., Winona.\nGalbreath, Louis H., Winona.\nGilbert, C. B., St. Paul.\nGuptill, Fannie S., Minneapolis.\nHolmes, W. J., Winona.\nJaeger, Mrs. Ruth, Minneapolis.\nKiehle, D. L., St. Paul.\n\n"}
{"page": 960, "printed_page": null, "text": "940\n\nNATIONAL\n\nLindtwed, C. B., Northfield.\nMiller, M. F., Northfield.\nNash, Alice 0., Minneapolis.\nNolte, AnnaM., Duluth.\nPlace, Mrs. C. L., St. Paul.\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION.\n\nMINNESOTA— Concluded.\nSchat.tschneider, J. J., Bethany.\nState Normal School, Winona.\nStauff, Mrs. C. J., Wabasha.\nStrong, James W., Northfield.\n— Minnesota,\nTwichell, Hattie, Minneapolis.\nMISSISSIPPI.\n\nBarnard, J. U., Lafayette.\nHarris, Laura, Columbus.\nLipscomb, Dabney, Agricultural College\n\nLipscomb, Mrs. Dabney, Agricultural Col.\nLipscomb, Laura, Columbus.\n— Missi\nssippi, 6.\nWhite, Jas. W., Agricultural\nCollege.\n\nMISSOURI.\nMuench, Hugo, St. Louis.\nMurphy, Geo. T., St. Louis.\nOsborn, Geo. L., Warrensburg.\nPage, Inman E., Jefferson City.\nPrewitt, Mary T., Kirksville.\nRidgway, J. T., Kansas City.\nRiley, Matilda E., St. Louis.\nRobinson, Temple B., Paris.\nSlade, James B., E. St. Louis.\nSoldan, F. Louis, St. Louis.\nSparrow, E. M., Moberly.\nTeuteberg, L. W., St. Louis.\nThorn, Mrs. J. ft, Kansas City.\nToensfeldt, J., St. Louis.\nWood, O. M., St. Louis.\nWoodward, C. M., St. Louis.— Missouri, 32.\n\nAnthony, E. L., Jefferson City.\nArnold, Denham, St. Louis.\nBarnard, J. W., Cape Girardeau.\nBlack, Wm. Henry, Marshall.\nCaldwell, A. J., St. Louis.\nEaton, James R., Liberty.\nFruchet, Amelia C, St. Louis.\nGreenwood, J. M., Kansas City.\nJackson, Josephine, Hannibal.\nJenness, A. L., Chillicothe.\nJesse, R. H., Columbia.\nLudlum, Mrs. Mary H., St. Louis.\nMartin, W. H., Lamar.\nMcCulloch, Mary C, St. Louis.\nMerwin, J. B., St. Louis.\nMilligan, Sarah J., Webster Grove.\n\nMONTANA.\nCharles, C. M., Miles City.\nPaxson, E. E., Butte.\n\nYoung, Robert G., Helena.\n\n— Montana, 3.\n\nNEBRASKA.\nMoore. Hettie S., Omaha.\nBaldwin, Clara E., Lincoln.\nBeals, S. D., Omaha.\nMorgan, ElisaC, Peru.\nCanfield, James H., Lincoln.\nMoulux, J. B., Hastings.\nCanfield, Mrs. James H., Lincoln.\nMunroe, Alex. A., S. Omaha.\nNevins, Fannie, Omaha.\nChatburn, Geo. R., Wymore.\nConklin, Clara, Lincoln.\nNorton, A. W., Peru.\nFee, W. E. , Long Pine.\nPoppleton, Elizabeth E., Omaha.\nReese, I). E., Oakland.\nFitzpatrick, Frank L., Omaha.\nFowler, W. K., Jr., Blair.\nShields, Orietta Belle, Omaha.\nHarris, Ebenezer D., Lincoln.\nWilson, Isaac E., Superior.\nLudborough, Mrs. Gracie B., Omaha.\nWolfe, Harry K., Lincoln. — Nebraska, 23.\nMcGee, Miss L. ft, Omaha.\nNETHERLANDS.\n-Netherlands, 1.\nBrinkgreve, Heer J. D., Dordrecht, Teekenleevar.\nNEW\nCopp, Isaac, Hillsborough.\nDodge, Vienna, Webster.\nPiper, James ft, Stratham.\nNEW\nAnderson, Lizzie, Camden.\nBriggs, Frank 0., Trenton.\nBunting, Ida, Camden.\n\nHAMPSHIRE.\nRounds, C. ft, Plymouth.\nRounds, Mrs. Kate S., Plymouth.\nRounds, Katharine E., Plymouth.\n— New Hampshire, 6.\nJERSEY.\nBurrough, Clara S., Camden.\nCassady, Lizzie A., Camden.\nCotner, Mary ft, Camden.\n\n"}
{"page": 961, "printed_page": null, "text": "ANNUAL\nNEW\nDavis, Charles M., Bayonne.\nDix, J. Augustus, Elizabeth.\nDraper, Horatio, Camden.\nParrell, Anna, Camden.\nFithian, Laura H., Camden.\nFry, Geo. E., Camden.\nHall, Sallie E., Camden.\nHarris, H. E., Bayonne.\nHill, Mrs T. R., West Creek.\nHughes, Florence, Camden.\nHull, Lawrence C, Lawrenceville.\nKent, Wm., Passaic.\nLuther, Agnes Vinton, Newark.\nMackenzie, J. C, Lawrenceville.\nMarvin, Mrs. Susan C, Jersey City.\n\nMEMBERSHIP.\n\n941\n\nJERSEY- Concluded.\nMaxson, H. M., Plainfield.\nMaybury, Belle, Camden.\nMcCully, Clara E., Camden.\nMesslei-, Frances, Camden.\nMiddleton, Chas. K., Camden.\nMusgrave, Alex., Hoboken.\nOrmond, Alexander T., Princeton.\nSalisbury, Rhyland, E. Hammonton.\nSandy, W. C, Newark.\nSmith, W. W., Englewood.\nSpaulding, Randall, Montclair.\nThompson, Helen J., Trenton.\nWillcox, Chas. H., Lawrenceville.\nWright, Wm. R., Nutley. — New Jersey, 35.\nNEW\n\nMEXICO.\n\nNEW\n\nMorrow, Alcinda L., Albuquerque.\nRamsay, Geo. S., Albuquerque.\nWinslow, Martha M., Albuquerque.\n— New Mexico, 6.\nYORK.\n\nAllensworth, Allen, Fort Bayard.\nHadley, Hiram, San Cruces.\nHodgin, Chas. E., Albuquerque.\n\nAmes, Daniel T., New York.\nBalch, Col. Geo. T., New York.\n*Bardeen, Beatrice, Syracuse.\nBardeen, Bertha F., Syracuse.\nBardeen, Charles R., Syracuse.\nBardeen, C. W., Syracuse.\nBardeen, Ethel, Syracuse.\nBardeen, Norma P., Syracuse.\nBartlett, Ella E., Troy.\nBeardsley, Elias J., Elmira.\nBenedict, W. H., Elmira.\nBenjamin, Geo. H., Albany.\nBennett, Chas. A., New York.\nBigelow, J. D., Moravia.\nBinion, Samuel A., New York.\nBlack, James C, New York.\nBoelte, Mrs. Marie Kraus, New York.\nBromwell, Amy, New York.\nButler, Nicholas Murray, New York.\nChandler, John W., Jordan.\nCheney, Francis J., Cortland.\nCoe, Emily M., New York.\nCole, Charles W., Albany.\nCoon, Henry Clarke, Alfred Centre.\nComings, Fannie S., Brooklyn.\nCrandall, Chas. L., Ithaca.\nCrawford, Frances M., Cohoes.\nCronnell, Julia W., Albany.\nCrowley, Mary E., Fillmore.\nDavidson, Martha E., Dobbs Ferry.\nDowning, A. S., Palmyra.\nDunning, Sara L., Brooklyn.\nDyke, A. W., Phoenix.\nEaton, Chas. W., Brooklyn^\nElgas, Matthew J., New York.\nFlemming, Mary A., Buffalo.\nFrench, H. P., Albany.\nFriedburg, Wm. B., New York.\nGoodnough, Walter S., Brooklyn.\n\nGreene, J. A., New York.\nGriffith, Geo., Utica.\nHall, Mary F., Spencer.\nHambleton, Mrs. R. A., Buffalo.\nHarms, Meta, Brooklyn.\nHaven, Caroline T., New York.\nHawkins, Emily J., Buffalo.\nHilton, Bertha E., Amsterdam.\n* Hoffman, Paul, New York.\nHueston, Jesse, E. Flushing.\nJones, E. N., Plattsburg.\nKellogg, Amos M., New York.\nKelsey, David M., Saratoga Springs.\nKinsley, M. H., Massena.\nLovell, Thomas B., Suspension Bridge.\nMac Vicar, M., Brooklyn.\nMc Andrew, Wm. Andrew, Brooklyn.\nMcKee, Wm. II., New York.\nMaguire, Edward, Lockport.\nMarsh, Clinton S., N. Towanda.\nMerrill, Jennie B., 112 E. 81st St., New\nYork.\nMilne, James M., Oneonta.\nMilne, Wm. J., Albany.\nMorand, Emma, Troy.\nMorand, Linda, Troy.\nMontfort, R. V. R., Newburg.\nNorton, Lena Margaret, Rochester.\nOrr, Susan M., Brooklyn.\nPackard, Silas S., New York.\nPacker, E. E., Albany.\nPalmer, Francis B., Fredonia.\nPardo, C, New York.\nPersons, MettaL., Gloversville.\nPower, Gussie, Hudson.\nPurdy, Henry S., Brewster.\nRayson, Amy, New York.\nReid, Jessie, New York.\nRice, Gratia L., Buffalo.\n* Deceased.\n\n"}
{"page": 962, "printed_page": null, "text": "942\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nNEW\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nYORK— Concluded.\n\nRichards, C. R., Brooklyn.\nRock, Anna J., Niagara Falls.\nRogers, Josephine E., New York.\nRogers, R. R., Jamestown.\nRounds, Miss C, Brooklyn.\nShaw, Edward R., Yonkers.\nSheldon, E. A., Oswego.\nShiller, Branca, College Point.\nShinier, Edgar D., Jamaica.\nSmith, J. Gardner, New York.\nSmith, Margaret K., Oswego.\n\nSperganza, C. L., New York.\nStearns, Way land E., Mohawk.\nStowell, T. B., Potsdam.\nThiry, John Henry, Long Island City.\nThurber, Chas. Herbert, Hamilton.\nTrant, Amelia Earle, Buffalo.\nVan Tuyle, Chas. H., Hamilton.\nVan Wagener, Mary L., New York.\nWentz, Etta Lansing, Albany.\nWinne, James, Poughkeepsie.\nWylie, Mary J. B., Buffalo.— New York. 99.\nNEW\n\nZEALAND.\n-New Zealand, 1.\n\nDickinson, James C, Auckland.\nNORTH\nColten, Mrs. Sallie T., Falkland.\n\nCAROLINA.\nSmedes, Bennett, Raleigh.\n— North Carolina, 2.\nOHIO.\n\nAkels, John, Cincinnati.\nArmstrong, Miss M. L., Cincinnati.\nBaughman, L. E., Dresden.\nBennett, C. W., Piqua.\nBolenbaugh, Geo. B., New Richmond.\nBooth, E. R., Cincinnati.\nChaney, N. H., Washington.\nCompton, Elias, Wooster.\nCorns, Harry, Columbus.\nCorson, Oscar T., Columbus.\nDay, W. E., Dayton.\nDayton, Mrs. Fanny, Cincinnati.\nDickey, Elizabeth S., Cincinnati.\nDutton, Bettie A., Cleveland.\nEvans, Mary, Painesville.\nEvans, Carrie J., Cherry Fork.\nFelton, Elias R., Cleveland.\nFillmore, Nettie, Cincinnati.\nFindlay, Samuel, Akron.\nGarst, Henry, Westerville.\nGillman, J. W., Navarre.\nGlover, Nathan L., Akron.\nGoodwin, F. P., Cincinnati.\nHandley, C. H., Shelby.\nHarper, Geo. W., Cincinnati.\nHaupert, Chas., Wooster.\nHinckley, Mrs. Emma R., Cleveland.\nHirst, Cosmelia, Yellow Spring.\nJones, Arthur 0., Cincinnati.\nJones, Benj. T., Bellaire.\nJones, John W., Circleville.\nKimmell, M. A., Poland.\nKohnky, Frances, Cincinnati.\nKuersteine, Albert F., Cincinnati.\nLaird, Mrs. Ada E., Cleveland.\nLathrop, Mrs. C. N., Cincinnati.\nLaw, Mary E., Toledo.\nLaws, Annie, Cincinnati.\nLee, Charlotte J., Youngstown.\nLeiter, Mrs. Frances W., Mansfield.\nLewis, M. H.. Circleville.\nLong, C. C, Cincinnati.\n\nLoomis, H. T., Cleveland.\nMcCauley, J. C, Defiance.\nMagurk, Mary E., Cincinnati.\nMarshall, L. R., Newark.\nMertz, H. N., Steubenville.\nMohler, Jerome B., Gallipolis.\nNohr, Robert, Cincinnati.\nO'Donnell, C. J., Cincinnati.\nOsgood, Anna M., Columbus.\nParker, Henry M., Elyria.\nParmenter, C. W., Akron.\nPatrick, Ellen M., Cincinnati.\nPeirce, Wm. Foster, Gambier.\nPeters, J. A., Tiffin.\nPinney, Mrs. Weltha, Columbus.\nRaschig, H. II., Avondale.\nRood, W. V., Akron.\nSanor, S. D., Youngstown.\nScott, James W., London ville.\nScott, W. H., Columbus.\nSharp, J. W., Mansfield.\nShawan, J. A., Columbus.\nSmith, Olive E., Massillon.\nSmith, Olive L., Albany.\nSmock, E. E., Cumberland.\nSpeidel, August, Tiffin.\nSproull, W. 0., Cincinnati.\nStay, J. D., Cleveland.\nStevenson, Mary II., Cincinnati.\nStewart, N. Coe, Cleveland.\nStickney, Lucia, Cincinnati.\nSullivan, Christian, Walnut Hills, Cincinnati.\nSullivan, Margaret, Columbus.\nSutherland, Margai-et W., Columbus.\nThomas, R. S., Warren.\nTurrill, Isaac H., Cincinnati.\nVandegrift, Wm. C, Toledo.\nVenable, Wm. Henry, Cincinnati.\nVogel, Wm. H., Cincinnati.\nWaite, Geo. S., Toledo.\nWestentoi-f, Mrs. Katherine, Cincinnati.\n\n"}
{"page": 963, "printed_page": null, "text": "943\n\nANNUAL\n\nWhite, Emerson E., Columbus.\nWilson, Lucy L., Oberlin.\n\nMEMBERSHIP.\n\nOHIO — Concluded.\nWorden, Mrs. E. D., Cincinnati.\nYoumans, P. M., Cincinnati.\n—Ohio, 86.\nONTARIO.\nManintyre, Mary Ethel, Toronto.\nMillar, John, Toronto.\nNewcomb, Mrs. L. T., Hamilton.\nSinclair, Samuel B., Hamilton.\nWylie, Mary J. B., Brantford.— Ontario, 11.\n\nGallagher, R. E., Hamilton.\nHughes, Mrs. Ada M., Toronto.\nKirklan, Thomas, Toronto.\nLaidlaw, Jean R., Woodstock.\nLawson, Caroline, Toronto.\nLondon, James, Toronto.\n\nOREGON.\nHawthorne, Benj. J., Eugene.\nMcElroy, E. B., Salem.\nYoung, Frederick G., Portland.— Oregon, 6.\n\nAllen, G. W., Portland.\nBloss, John M. Corvallis.\nCarson, Luella Clay, Eugene.\n\nPENNSYLVANIA.\nMackenzie, Constance, Philadelphia.\nMackey, Supt. E., Butler.\nMyers, J. A., McVeytown.\nMiller, L. W., Philadelphia.\nMorrison, A. J., Philadelphia.\nMumford, Mary E., Philadelphia.\nNoetling, William, Selinsgrove.\nPalmer, Lelia B., Titusville.\nRondinella, L. F., Philadelphia.\nRoth, Henry Rupp, Bradford.\nSamuel, Wm. H., Philadelphia.\nSchaefer, N. C, Lancaster.\nSeips, Theodore L., Allentown.\nShaffner, Ruth, Carlisle.\nSmith, Andrew Thomas, Westchester.\nSpayd, H. H., Minersville.\nSpeakman, Warren C, West Chester.\nSpencer, Pauline W., Philadelphia.\nSpiegle, Grace E., Philadelphia.\nStearns, Chas. H., Indiana.\nStewart, Sarah A., Philadelphia.\nTadd, J. Liberty, Philadelphia.\nTownsend, Geo. W., Philadelphia.\nWalton, Jos. S., Ercildoun.\nWilliams, Anna W., Philadelphia.\nWright, Elizabeth M., Pittsburg.\nWright, Mary, Philadelphia.\nYoung, E valine, Philadelphia.\n— Pennsylvania, 57.\n\nAlbro, S. H., Mansfield.\nAndrews, S., Pittsburg.\nBenthien, Elizabeth M., Millbrook.\nBoger, Cyrus, Lebanon.\nBrooks, Edwards, Philadelphia.\nBroumbough, M. G., Huntingdon.\nBuehrle, R. K., Lancaster.\nCargo, R. M., Pittsburg.\nCaroland, Mary R., Philadelphia.\nChrist, D. H., Minersville.\nCrouter, A. L. E., Philadelphia.\nDeatrick, W. W., Kutztown.\nDewey, James A., Wananne.\nEccleston, Mrs. S. C, Philadelphia.\nEhinger, Clyde E.. West Chester.\nFleisher, Daniel, Troy.\nGotwals, Jos. K., Norristown.\nHallowell, Anna, Philadelphia.\nHigginbotham, May, Philadelphia.\nHeins, Mary, Eshbach.\nHoffecker, R. F., Norristown.\nHuber, Vincent, Beatty.\nKieffer, John B., Lancaster.\nLa vers, E. C, New Brighton.\nLamberton, Mary J., Philadelphia.\nLeister, H. F., Phoenixville.\nLodge, Susan C, West Chester.\nLyte, E. Oram, Millersville.\nMacAllister, James, Philadelphia.\n\nPRUSSIA.\nFett, W. A., Konigsberg.\nQUEBEC.\n\nHarper, J. M., Quebec.\n\nRHODE\nBliss, Geo. N., East Providence.\nChurche, Geo. E., Providence.\nDelabarre, Edmund B., Providence.\nDraper, Frank O., Lincoln.\nFisher, GilmanC, Pawtucket.\nFoster, Wm. E., Providence.\nGrant, Wm. Webster, Providence.\n\n— Prussia, 1.\n\n— Quebec, 1.\n\nISLAND.\nGay, P. A., Pawtucket.\nGuilbert, Jean F., Providence.\nHammett, Elizabeth, Newport.\nHarris, Miss E. G., Woonsocket.\nJohnson, Ernest H., E. Providence.\nKingsley, W. G., Providence.\nPutnam, Helen C., Providence.\n\n"}
{"page": 964, "printed_page": null, "text": "944\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nRHODE\nRich, Joseph W. V., Providence.\nSnow, Leonis F., Providence.\nStockwell, Thos. B., Providence.\n\nASSOCIATION.\n\nISLAND— Concluded.\nWightman, J. L., Pawtucket.\nWilson, W. E., Providence.\n— Rhode Island, 19.\nRUSSIA.\nKovalevsky, Eugraphe, St. Petersburg.\nMeller, Monsieur Paul, Tiflis.\nNebolsine, Gregoire, St. Petersburg.\nSigel, Theodore, Warran.\nTamaincheff, Madame, Tiflis.\n— Russia, 12.\nTanchul, Professor Ivan, Moscow.\n\nDeboglaff, Monsieur, Tiflis.\nDewid, J. W.. Zlota 26, Warsaw.\nFortunatoff, Professor, Moscow.\nJanovsky, Monsieur C, Tiflis.\nKaidanoff, Mile., Tiflis.\nKlauss, Madame, Tiflis.\n\nSCOTLAND.\nHowden, Janet, Edinburgh. — Scotland, 3.\n\nClapperton, Margaret A., Edinburgh.\nGalloway, Janet A., Glasgow.\nSOUTH\n\nAMERICA.\n\nHoward, Jennie E., San Nicolas, ArgenRuano, Albert G., Montevideo, Uruguay,\ntine Republic.\n— South America, 2.\nSOUTH CAROLINA.\nNance, Mrs. M. E., Columbia.\nPatrick, John B., Anderson.\n— South Carolina, 5.\n\nBogeman, Louise, Ninety-Six.\nDavis, Ellery W., Columbia.\nJones, Anna S., Bennettsville.\nSOUTH\nBeadle, Wm. H. H. (2), Madison.\nBredel, Clara H., Aberdeen.\n\nDAKOTA.\nCross, A. G., Mitchell.\nPeabody, Helen S., Sioux— South\nFalls. Dakota, 5.\n\nSPAIN.\nCampos, Manuel Torres, Grenada.\nRibera, Emilio, Valencia.\n\nRodrigner, Juan, Valencia.\n\n— Spain, 3.\n\nSWEDEN.\nLagerstedt, N. G. W., Stockholm.\nLundin, Hulda, Stockholm.\n\nOsterberg, Edwin, Stockholm. — Sweden, fy.\nTorngren, L. M., Stockholm.\nTENNESSEE.\n\nBoardman, Samuel W., Marysville.\nBrachvogle, Leska, Nashville.\nBraden, J., Nashville.\nGarrett, W. R., Nashville.\n\nGoodman, Frank, Nashville.\nNance, Bethenia, Nashville.\nToon, W. B., Franklin.\nWhite, W. T., Knoxville.\n— Tennessee, 8.\nTEXAS.\n\nAtwood, T. J., Houston.\nBledsoe, Thomas A., Abilene.\nDaniels, Miss M. I., Galveston.\nDickinson, Mrs. C. T., Dallas.\nHarn, A. H., Pearsall.\nHarper, Mrs. M. A., Waco.\nHarris, Laui*a, Waco.\nHogg, Alex., Fort Worth.\nJones, M. H., Fort Worth.\n\nMcNeely, J. W., Wharton.\nParsons, H. S., Italy.\nRandol, N. C, Fort Worth.\nScratchley, M. C. E., Concepcion.\nScull, Clara E., Galveston.\nSutton, N. S., Houston.\nVaughn, Mary, Fort Worth.\nWedemeyer, Chas. H., Belton. — Texas, 17.\nUTAH.\n\nAber, Wm. M., Salt Lake City.\nMalone, W. R., Salt Lake City.\nMartin, A. S., Salt Lake City.\nMillspaugh, J. F., Salt Lake City.\n\nHallock, Edwin S., Salt Lake City.\nRook, Mrs. Susie B., Salt Lake City.\n—Utah, 7.\nYoung, Geo. C, Salt Lake City.\n\n"}
{"page": 965, "printed_page": null, "text": "945\nANNUAL\n\nMEMBERSHIP.\n\nVERMONT.\nWheeler, H. O., Burlington.\n\nPutney, Chas. E., St. Johnsbury.\n\nVermont, 2.\n\nVIRGINIA.\nHarrison, Corinne, Norfolk.\n\nAnderson, Chas. E., Adwolf.\n\nVirginia, 2.\nWASHINGTON.\nBarnard, Prank II., Seattle.\nOarothers, Geo. R., Tacoma.\n\nKeyes, Margaretta H., Olympia.\n— Washington, 3.\nWASHINGTON,\n\nD. C.\n\nBlodgett, James H., Washington.\nSchaeffer, Edward M., Washington.\nCabell, Mrs. Wm. D., Washington. Schmidt, Anna, Washington.\nEaton, John, Washington.\nSpencer, Mrs. Sara A., Washington.\nPollock, Mrs. Louise, Washington.\n— Washington, D. C, 7.\nWEST INDIES.\nGillies, William, Kingston.\n\nHicks, George, Shooters Hill.\nWest Indies, 2.\nWEST\n\nAnderson, W. II., Wheeling.\nBarnes, J. Walter, Fairmount.\nCampbell, James Edwin, Farm.\nDandridge, Mrs. E. M., Quinnimont\nEvans, Chas. W., Fairmount.\n\nVIRGINIA.\n\nMaulsby, Lawrence S., Fairmount.\nPayne, C. H., Montgomery.\nPrillerman, Byrd, Charleston.\nShields, D. W., New Martinsville.\n— West Virginia, 9.\nWISCONSIN.\n\nAmidon, L. E., West Bend.\nAnderson, W. H., Wheeling.\nBerkey, Nellie, Menomonee.\nBruce, Wm. G., Milwaukee.\nDevlin, Sarah, Woodworth.\nDresden, B. M„ West Bend.\nFelt, Emily M. B;, Platte ville.\nForbes, Annie, Waukesha.\nGoldsmith, Mary R., Milwaukee.\nHolmes, Manfried J., Winona.\nHoyt, Judson E., Menomonee.\nHull, John, River Falls.\nHutton, A. J., Platteville.\nJackson. B. B., Bayfield.\nJones, Ellen C. L., Hillside.\nKruteson, Anna M., La Crosse.\n\nMcGregor, D., Platteville.\nNeedham, Oliver, Midway.\nNichols, Alice, La Crosse.\nNicholson, Dexter P., Appleton.\nSabin, Ellen C, Fox Lake.\nSalisbury, Albert, Whitewater.\nSeelye, Osman C, Racine.\nSeverance, Sara L., Superior E. End.\nShields, Mrs. Una M., West Superior.\nShutts, G. O, Whitewater.\nSperdel, August, Milwaukee.\nSylvester, C. PL, Madison.\nTodd, Samuel Brown, Madison.\nVandewalker, Nina C, Whitewater.\nWells, O. E., Madison.\nWoodward, Herbert M., Milwaukee.\n— Wisconsin, 32.\nWYOMING.\n— Wyoming, 1.\n\nMerz, Henry, Laramie.\nRESIDENCE\nInternational Money Order, Hungary.\nRosechig, H. H.\n60\n\nUNKNOWN.\nWorden, Mrs. E. Davidson.\n— Residence Unknown, 3.\n\n"}
{"page": 966, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 967, "printed_page": null, "text": "II^DEX.\n\nAbbe, Cleveland, 526.\nAbbott, D. Q., 246.\nAbbott, Jacob, 818.\nAbbott, Lyman, 14.Abercrombie, D. W., 177, 180, 199.\nAberdeen, Scotland, 245, 385.\nAbility in teaching, 8.\nAbingdon, Va., 325.\nAbnormal manifestations, 143.\nAborn, Frank, 591.\nAbrahamson, Augusto, 590.\nAbridging the time given to languages, 197.\nA-B's, teaching them, 36.\nAbsence from school, 85.\nAbstract relations, 155.\nAbt, 9.\nAcademic\ncharacter of normal schools, 384, 432.\ndegrees in pedagogy, 384, 440.\nAcademic Pioneer, The, 828.\nAcademician, The, 811, 826.\nAcademies, supervision of, 6.\nAcademy\nor ordinary high-school, 29.\nuniversal, 56.\ncourse in, 108.\na one-horse, 191 , 193.\na well-equipped, 193.\nAccompaniment of vocal music, 9.\nAccomplishments of technological schools,\n525, 534.\nAccuracy in the use of English, 127.\nAchievement in founding a university, 168.\nAchievements\nof Turnerbund, 11.\nof leaders, 18.\nin Ontario, 41.\nAckermann, Ed., 385.\nAcquaintance, elementary, 48, 130.\nAcropolis in Jackson Park, 23.\nAction, concerted, to protect colleges, 160.\nActs of Congress, 32.\nAdams, Charles Francis, 130.\nAdams, Helen C, 324.\nAdams, Herb. B., 91.\nAdams, H. C, 92.\nAdams, John, 385.\nAdams, Thomas G., 617.\nAdaptation of methods of instruction, 244,\n301.\nAddison, 170.\nAdditional papers submitted to Kindergarten Department, 360.\n\nAddresses made by\nAngell, James B., 32, 34, 65, 88, 164.\nBonney, Charles G., 17, 25, 65.\nBuisson, B., 16, 39.\nEaton, John, 247.\nFallows, Samuel, 20.\nGilman, D. C, 94, 167.\nHall, G. Stanley, 713.\nHarper, W. R., 167.\nHarris, W. T., 65.\nHartwell, E. M., 10, 618.\nHenrotin, Mrs. Charles, 22.\nHughes, Ada M., 326.\nHuling, R. Greene, 181.\nKovalevsky, E., 16, 55.\nLane, A. G., 30.\nMacAlister, James, 805.\nMackenzie, J. C, 182.\nMcCosh, James, 682.\nPackard, S. S., 788.\nPeabody, Selim II., 23.\nRoot, F. W., 510.\nRoss, G., 16, 39.\nRounds, C. C, 810.\nRunkle, J. D., 10.\nSheldon, E. A., 383.\nWaetzoldt, Stephen, 16.\nWalker, Francis A., 525.\nWilmarth, Mrs. II. M., 23.\nWolkonskv, Prince, 16, 37.\nAdelaide, Australia, 89, 243, 278.\nAdjustment,\nnew, required, 197.\nof kindergarten to primary school, 7.\nAdler, Felix, 591.\nAdler, Herr, 245.\nAdmiration excited, 88.\nAdmission\nto normal schools, 8.\nto high-schools, 86.\npresent state of, 118.\nAdornments of civilization, 163.\nAdrian College, 92.\nAdrian, Mich., 92.\nAdvance in civilization, 162.\nAdvancement\nmade in education, 35.\nof our civilization, 161.\nof society, 145.\nAdvancing\nAdvantages, civilization, 40.\npractical, of business training, 10.\nboasted, 27.\nabandoned, 106.\netymological, of Greek, 137.\n\n"}
{"page": 968, "printed_page": null, "text": "948\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nAdvantages\nin power of appointment, 191.\nof commercial college training, 791.\nAdvertising, art of, 185.\nAdvisory counsel a corporate body, 23.\nAdvocates\nof modern culture, 127.\nof the old education, 155.\nof the sciences, 198.\nAesthetic\nquestion in teaching drawing, 8.\nbasis of instruction, 10.\nsense, 29.\naim of drawing, 455.\nAesthetics found in novels, 175.\nAfrica, 12, 244.\nAge\nof combination and supervision, 192.\nschool-going, 68.\nAgencies\ncooperating toward\nChristian civilization, 162.\nof house and school, 164.\n\" Agregation,\" a degree in France, 173.\nAgitation in the life of nations, 31.\nAgreement, general, 23.\nAgricultural botany, 244, 304.\nAgriculture\nstudied in schools, 6.\nas a calling, 18.\nin rural schools, 244, 304.\nAim\na purpose of school, 321.\naesthetic, of drawing, 455.\nprincipal, of the study of the classics,\n130.\nAims\nof Turnerbund, 11.\nof education, 45.\nAims and work of the Institute of Gymnastics, 615, 662.\nAix, France, 245.\nAix-la-Chapelle (Aachen), Germany, 89.\nAkron, O., 92, 325, 507, 512.\nAlabama, 13, 90, 179, 323, 385, 526.\nAlbany, N. Y., 14, 325, 386.\nAlbee, G. S., 386.\nAlbion College, 92.\nAlbion, Mich., 92.\nAlbuquerque,\nd'Azevedo,\n90.\nAlcott,\nAlice J.J. C,\n325.\nAlcott, Wm. A., 812.\nAlden, Mrs. C. M. N., 325.\nAlgebra\nin elementry schools, 6.\nor geometry, which first? 178, 221.\nAlington, H. G., 245.\nAllegheny City, Pa., 325.\nAllegheny College, 617.\nAllegheny, Pa., 93.\nAllen, Anne E., 323.\nAllen, Edw. P., 91.\nAllen, Ira W., 179.\nAllen, Jerome, 384, 434.\nAllen, Prof., 525, 551.\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nAllen University, 93.\nAllen, W. E., 180.\nAllen, Miss Willette, 323.\nAllentown, Pa., 93, 681.\nAlliance, 0., 92, 617.\nAlliance of university with the people, 18.\nAllievo, Giuseppe, 87, 90, 109.\nAllyn, Rob., 814.\nAlma College, 681.\nAlma, Mich., 324, 681.\nAlt, Solomon A., 681.\nAltona, Germany, 68, 179.\nAltoona, Pa., 325.\nAlvellino, Italy, 399.\nAlvord, H. E., 526.\nAmaron, C. E., 91.\nAmbrosius, Dr., 590.\nAmerica,\ncompulsory education in, 53.\nkindergarten in, 322.\nAmerican Annals of Education and Instruction, 812.\nAmerican Association for the Study of\nChildren, 714.\nAmerican Educationist, TJie, 828.\nAmerican Journal of Education, H. Barnard's, 812, 822.\nAmerican\nJournal\nof Education\n(St.\nLouis), 842.\nAmerican Philological Association, 160.\nAmerican Teacher, The, 820.\nAmerican\nscholars, 96.\nuniversities, 96.\nexperiments, 105; public, 125.\nstudents, 142, 145.\nspirit, 136.\nthe, of the future, 163.\neducation, 167.\nhomes, 186.\ncitizens, 192.\nAmericanism\ntriumphant, 125.\nHellenism in, 125.\nAmes, Chas. H., 591.\nAmes, la., 526.\nAmes, James B., 87, 112.\nAmherst College, 91, 617.\nAmherst, Mass., 91, 527, 617, 716.\nAmi de VEnfance, 848.\nAmount of time given to language, 177,\n196.\nAmplification of an argument, 126.\nAmsden, 67.\nAmsterdam, Netherlands, 456.\nAnalogous\nto physicians' duties, 72.\nAnalysis\nof art works, 8.\nof sculpture, 8.\nAnalyze\nbelow the surface, 73.\nworks of great masters, 455, 473.\nAncient languages for kindergartners, 7.\nAncient world, the, 153.\nAnderson, Lizzie, 325.\n\n"}
{"page": 969, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX.\nAnderson, Mrs. Eliz., 89.\nAnderson, Newton M., 591.\nAnderson, S. C, 178, 224.\nAnderson, W. H., 70.\nAndover, Mass., 177, 180, 196.\nAndrews, A. S., 90.\nAndrews, Benj., 93.\nAndrews, Chas. M., 92.\nAndrews, N. L., 92.\nAnecdote in circulation among German\nstudents, 157.\nAngelier, M., 175.\nAngell, James B., 5, 16, 65, 87, 91, 160.\nAnglo-American literature, 129.\nAnglo-Saxon\nraces, 40.\nmind, 170.\nAnnales de Oeographie, 849.\nAnnandale, N. Y., 92.\nAnnapolis, Md., 91.\nAnnapolis and West Point, 186.\nAnn Arbor, Mich., 11, 92, 260, 324, 509,\n681.\nAnnex\nto congress, 23.\nof Harvard, 101.\nAnnville, Pa., 92.\nAntagonistic to kindergarten work, 322.\nAntecedent liberal education, 87, 112.\nAnthony, Brother, 92.\nAntioch College, 92.\nAntiquity, respect for, 20.\nAnvers, Belgium, 590.\nAnxiety to establish republicanism, 40.\nApostolic injunction, 107.\nApparatus\nfor physical education, 10.\nexercises without, 615, 626.\nAppendix, a symposium on higher education of women, 853.\nApplause justified, 37.\nAppleton, Wis., 679, 681.\nAppliances of teaching, 7.\nApplication\nof science and art of teaching, 73.\nof principles of physical training, 714,\n739\nApplied mathematics, 9, 525, 526, 560, 583.\nAppointment\nof teachers, 7, 78, 81, 191.\nand tenure of office of superintendents,\n67, 77.\nAppreciation\nof honor and dignity, 36.\nkeener, 322.\nApprentices before master-workmen, 77.\nAppropriate parts of all instruction, 18.\nAppropriation of useful knowledge, 198.\nAptitude,\nnatural, for Greek, 124.\nfor science, 155.\nArboriculture in rural schools, 244, 304.\nArce, Nunez de, 13.\nArcher, H. P., 70.\nArchibald, Lilian D., 323.\n\n949\n\nArchitectural drawing, 9.\nArchitecture, to be master of, 18.\nArctic Explorations, paper by Gen. A. W.\nGreely, 6.\nArena, educational, 22.\nArgentine Republic, 12, 89, 244, 323, 384.\nArgument,\nbasis of, in Cleveland, 78.\nagainst supervision, 193.\nAristotle,\nhis doctrine, 11.\nas an educator, 161.\nstudies in, 171.\nAristotle's works\non ethics, psychology, etc., 119.\nhis metaphysics, 151, 700.\nArithmetic,\nwritten,\na\nconventional\nstudy, 7.\nArizona, 90, 385, 526.\nArkansas, 90, 179, 246, 385, 509.\nArmour Institute, Chicago, 455.\nArmstrong, A. C, 680.\nArmstrong, G. F. S., 90.\nArmy, noble, of men and women, 36.\nArnold, Denham, 180.\nAmy, W. H. H., 834.\nArras, Prance, 385.\nArresting development, 28.\nArt\nstudies, 6, 472, 473, 476.\nexamination of teachers in, 7.\ninstruction, 8.\ngreat types, 8.\nmechanic arts, 10.\nof writing, 10.\ninstinct, 455, 466; its development, 466.\nschools, 455.\nof correct expression, 152.\nof advertising, 185.\nArticles, useful, 10.\nArticulation of the various parts, 199.\nArtificial aids, 132.\nArt Institute, 31, 67, 87.\nArt Institute, Chicago, 456, 497.\nArtistic merit, 507, 513.\nArtistic taste\nin drawing, 8.\nin music, 487.\nArtists, their devices, 8.\nArts\ninclude Latin and Greek, 128.\na shorter course in the, 589, 597.\nArt study, does it concern\nthe public\nschools ? 487.\nAscham, 170.\nAscoli-Piceno, Italy, 590.\nAshenhurst, Thomas R., 526.\nAsheville, N. C, 180, 325.\nAshland, Ala., 179.\nAshland, Va„ 70, 93, 681.\nAsia,\nAspect,people of, 30.\nmoral, of games, 146.\nof the question, another, 192.\nhigher, of business education, 796.\n\n"}
{"page": 970, "printed_page": null, "text": "950\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nAspects,\nhigher, of business education, 10.\nphysiological, of exercises, 10\nphysical, emotional,\nintellectual, and\nvolitional, 29.\nof the curriculum in elementary schools,\n243, 262.\nof the question, twofold, 112.\nof exercises without\napparatus,\n615,\n626.\nAspen, Colo., 323.\nAssimilating what others have discovered,\n38.\nAssociations, political, 49.\nAssociation tracks in reading and writing,\n715, 756.\nAssume English forms of habit and prejudices, 172.\nAstronomy,\nto be a master of, 18.\nof Aristotle, 119.\nAsylum for imbecile children, 715.\nAthens, Ga., 526.\nAthens, Greece, 22.\nAthens, 0., 92.\nAtherton, Geo. W., 527.\nAthletics\nof undergraduates, 6.\nathletic movement in France, 11.\nin life of undergraduates, 145.\nAthletic sports, regulation of, 615, 636.\nAtkinson, Edw., 14.\nAtlanta, Ga., 13, 91, 179, 323, 509.\nAtmosphere of our globe, 46.\nAtomic theory, 155.\nAtrophy of independence, 50.\nAttendance, compulsory, 7, 68.\nAttitude, critical, 74.\nAttorney, unlicensed, 185.\nAuburn, Ala., 526.\nAuckland, New Zealand, 89, 244, 315.\nAugusta, Ga., 323.\nAugustana College, 91.\nAustin, Tex., 246, 325, 386, 681.\nAustralia, 12, 89, 243.\nAustralia, educational work for women in,\n887.\nAustralasia, 244, 456, 590.\nAustria, 12, 68, 89, 178, 323, 366, 383, 508,\n590, 616.\nAuthorities\nimplored\nto put a stop to\ngranting degrees, 160.\nAuthority,\nmunicipal, 6, 177, 183.\nstate, 6.\ndivine, 46.\nin a subject, 158.\nstate and municipal, 187.\nAuxiliary of World's Congress. 17, 25.\nAvellaneda, L. J., 384.\nAvellino, Italy, 385.\nAwakening, a general, 118.\nAylesworth, Barton O., 680.\nAyr, N. B., Scotland, 245.\nAyres, Brown, 526.\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nB\nB.A. and B.S., degrees of, 140.\nBabcock, M., 246.\n\" Baccalaureat moderne,\" 169.\nBachelor\nof arts 61, 118, 122-135.\nof philosophy, 121, 123.\nof science, 124, 131.\nBacon, 170, 185.\nBad spellers, constitutionally, 713, 762.\nBaehring, Pfarrer, 323.\nBaer, Clara G., 616.\nBaeumker, Clemens, 89.\nBagdad, the caliphs of, 186.\nBailey, Henry T., 455, 458.\nBailey, J. E., 509.\nBailev, J. M., 715.\nBailliart, Z., 245.\nBaird, A. S., 385.\nBaker College, 509.\nBaker, Elizabeth, 325.\nBaker, I. S., 836.\nBaker, James II., 87, 90, 118.\nBaker, Janie R., 325.\nBaker, Prof., 526.\nBaker, T. O., 246.\nBaker, Wm. M., 835.\nBaker, W. S., 842.\nBalch, C. H., 591.\nBalch, Geo.T., 246.\nBaldwin, Clara E., 325.\nBaldwin, E. T., 509.\nBaldwin, Mrs. S., 324.\nBaldwin, Theron, 833.\nBallantine, Wm. G., 92.\nBallarat, Victoria, 244.\nBallard, Addison, 716.\nBalliet, T. M., 69, 591, 715, 756.\nBallin, Hans, 11.\nBallintine, Harriet I., 617.\nBaltimore, Md., 13, 68, 09, 91, 324, 325,\n457, 591, 616, 716.\nBamapede, Giacomo Oddo, 383, 399.\nBancroft, C. F. P., 177, 180, 196, 207.\nBancroft, Hub. H., 13.\nBangor, Me., 324.\nBangor, Wales, 89.\nBanker, his view of business colleges, 10.\nBarbadona, Rafael, 12.\nBarbari's system\nof reward and punishments, 20.\nBarcelona, Spain, 90.\nBardeen, C. W., 5, 825.\nBargiel, Waldemar, 508.\nBarker, R. J., 527.\nBarnaby, H. J., 245.\nBarnard College, 92.\nBarnard, F. J., 70.\nBarnard, Henry, 5, 40, 53, 64, 812, 813,\n815, 816, 817, 818.\nBarnard, J. U., 842.\nBarnardo, T. J., 13.\nBarnes, Earl, 322, 355, 446, 713, 765, 715..\nBarnes, Mrs. M. Sheldon, 90.\n\n"}
{"page": 971, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX.\nBarnett, P. A., 385.\nBarra, Dr. F. de la, 12.\nBarre, Vt., 325.\nBarrett, A. T., 70.\nBarriers, artificial, 64.\nBarron, J. L., 507, 513, 522.\nBartholomew, W. H., 177, 178, 192, 224;\n241.\nBarzellotti, Giac, 90.\nBasal concept, the soul, 679, 693.\nBasis,\naesthetic, of instruction, 10.\nfor life, a kindergarten, 321, 346.\nfor pyschology: child study, 713, 717.\nof pedagogy : child study, 713, 718.\nBast, K., 215.\nBatavia, N. Y., 325.\nBateman, N., 69, 837.\nBates College, 681.\nBates, Sam. W., 813.\nBath, England, 245.\nBathgate, W., 245.\nBattersea (London), England, 385.\nBattle Creek College, 681.\nBattle Creek, Mich., 681.\nBaudrillard, M., 590.\nBauer, A., 89.\nBaylor University, 93.\nBayonne, N. J., 69.\nBeach, Fletcher, 715.\nBeadle, W. H. H., 386.\nBeal, A. M., 91.\nBeale, Miss Dorothea, 13.\nBean, C. W., 70.\nBeardshear, W. M., 526.\nBearings, general, of the question of Greek,\n137.\nBeatty, Laura M., 324.\nBeaunis, Prof., 715.\nBeaver, Pa., 180.\nBechtold, Gregory, 680.\nBeckner, Wra, 13.\nBedford, England, 179.\nBeebe, Katherine, 323.\nBeer, Wm., 246.\nBeethoven, 9.\nBelfast, Ireland, 90.\nBelfield, H. H., 589, 591, 605, 836.\nBelfort, France, 245.\nBelgium, 12, 60, 89, 244, 384, 456, 590.\nBelgrade, Servia, 90.\nBeliever, firm, in the old, 20.\nBeljance, Prof., 175.\nBell, A. Graham, 13, 301.\nBell Buckle, Tenn., 180.\nBell, W. A., 825, 830.\nBellevue, Neb., 92.\nBelmont, Cal., 177, 179.\nBeloit College, 93, 178, 234, 716.\nBeloit, Wis., 93, 716.\nBenedict, Martin G., 386.\nBenefactors of the public, 165.\nBenefits of reciprocal relations, 803.\nBen 129.\nJonson's little Latin and less Greek,\n\n951\n\nBennet, Chas. A., 590, 614.\nBenton, Thos. H., 840.\nBeowulf, 170.\nBerea College, 91.\nBerea, Ky., 91.\nBerea O. 91.\nBerkeley^'Cal.,\n90, 590,\nBerkshire, England,\n179.616.\nBerlin, Germany, 11, 12, 68, 179, 245, 322,\n323, 346. 369, 385, 456, 508, 590, 616,\n674.\nBermuda, 244.\nBernard, Claude, 54.\nBerne, Switzerland, 179.\nBerra, Dr. F. A., 13.\nBerthelot, M., 12.\nBerthelt, A., 12, 68.\nBerthuin, M., 590.\nBesancon, France, 245, 385.\nBessonov, M. P., 90.\nBest, Blanche, 617.\nBest schools in the world, West Point and\nAnnapolis, 186.\nBethel College, 91, 716.\nBetis, Victor, 179.\nBetz, Carl, 617.\nBeust, Friedrich, 323.\nBible, 6.\nBiekmore, A. S., 527.\nBicknell, T. W., 246, 814, 815, 820.\nBiddeford, Me., 246.\nBiddle University, 92, 681.\nBiedermann, Prof. , 590.\nBier, W., 616.\nBierman, E. B., 92.\nBilling, Dr. H. von, 508.\nBinet, Alf., 715.\nBingham, Robert, 180.\nBiological\nand psychological fields, 137.\nsciences, 127.\ninstruction, 155.\nBiology, a school of, 107.\nBird, Miss T. H., 385.\nBirmingham, Eng., 68/179, 385.\nBirmingham, Pa., 180.\nBismarck, N. Dak., 69.\nBixby, Sophia S. , 325.\nBlack, Dr., 679, 686, 699.\nBlackboard, 73.\nBlackman, O., 836.\nBlackman, Prof., 505, 512, 513.\nBlacksburg. Va., 527.\nBlair, Hon. H. W., 14.\nBlairstown, N. J., 180.\nBlaisdell, James J., 716.\nBlake, K. S., 386.\nBlaker, Mrs. E. A., 324.\nBlakiston, J. R., 68.\nBlanchard,\nChas. A., 88, 91, 145, 155,\n160.\nBland, Wm. T., 681.\nBlanton, J. P., 716.\nBlanton, L. H., 91.\nBLisius, Wm., 89.\n\n"}
{"page": 972, "printed_page": null, "text": "952\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nBlessing,\nnot a, to the public, 165.\nthe greatest, to Chicago, 168.\nBliss, Mary E., 325.\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nBotany in a medical course, 117.\nBotella, Federico de, 13.\nBotta, Vincenzio, 14.\nBoulder, Col., 90, 680.\nBounties held in trust, 199.\nBourbonnais Grove, 111., 680.\nBourne, Alfred, 323.\nBoutelle, Carrie M., 325.\nBouton, Eng., 68.\nBowdoin College, 91.\nBowen, Courthope, 321, 323.\nBower, Lucia M., 323.\nBowling-Green, Ky., 91.\nBox the educational compass, 105.\nBoyd, Dr. Henry, 13.\nBoys\nBoyesen,\nHj. Hjorth, 92.\n\nBlock, L. James\n'J., 715.H., 835, 837.\nBlodgett,\nBlodgett, Sunt., 67.\nBlomqvist, Miss Elizabeth, 178.\nBloomington, 111., 91, 244, 324, 680.\nBloomington, Ind., 616, 715.\nBloomsburg. Ind., 386.\nBlow, Miss Susan E., 322.\nBlunders young teachers make, 191.\nBluntschli, F., 13.\nBoard\nof control, 188.\nof wardens, 188.\nof health, 187.\nof trustees, 192.\na, from Oxford and Cambridge, 191.\nBoard of education, 77.\nof Philadelphia, 67.\nBoardman, Annie C, 325.\nBoardman, S. W., 93, 679, 680, 699, 703,\n705, 711.\nBochum, Germany, 245.\nBody\n\nand girls receive manual training, 10.\nwith brains, 167.\nshould have same instruction, 590, 606.\nBrachvogel, Mrs. Liska, 507, 512.\nBrackett, C. F., 134.\nBraden, J., 93.\nBradford, Eng., 245, 526.\nBradley, Miss Amy M., 246.\nBrainerd,\nEzra, 93.\nBranch,\n\nof thought, 117.\nof doctrine, 155.\nBoettcher, Hon., 245.\nBogdanov, M. Anatole, 90.\nBologna, Italy, 118.\nBologna University (Italy), 118.\nBoltwood, H. L., 177, 191, 205, 209, 241,\n246, 837.\nBonafede, G. O., 385.\nBondy, Helen, 456, 505.\nBondy, Ottilie, 323, 366.\nBonghi's \"Tex.,\nPublica\nBonham,\n180. Instruzione,\" 822.\nBonis, G. de, 456.\nBonn, Germ., 12, 89, 616.\nBonnell, W. B., 89.\nBonney, Chas. G., Pres. World's Congress\nAuxiliary, 4, 17, 32, 65.\nBook\nof nature, of humanity, and divinity, 48.\nof science, philosophy, and religion, 48.\nBookmakers per se, 41.\nBooks of his own time, 175.\nBoos-Jegher, Ed., 525, 553, 613.\nBorn preachers, 115.\nBosanquet, Bern., 680.\nBoston College, 91.\nBoston, Mass., 10, 14, 67, 69, 91, 177, 180,\n194, 205, 246, 322, 324, 344, 386, 455,\n456. 457, 487, 509, 519, 525, 526, 567,\n569. 589, 591, 599, 615, 617, 618, 681,\n713.\nBoston Post, 376.\nBoston Saturday Evening Press, 376.\nBoston University, 91, 681.\nBotany\nas a study, 6, 177, 196.\nmake room for, 196.\n\nspecial, of science and art, 27.\nof learning needing aid, 182.\nBranches of study\nin normal schools, 8.\nin business colleges, 10.\nessential, 243.\nBranconi, P. L., 245.\nBrandenberg, Dr., 12,\nBratten, Mrs. F. D. M., 325.\nBraun, Henry, 617.\nBraunschweig, Germany, 89, 245, 385.\nBrazil, 89, 244.\nBreal, Michel, 12.\nBreslau, Germany, 12, 68, 89.\nBridgeport, Conn., 88.\nBridgman, George H., 92.\nBriggs, Frank O., 246.\nBriggs, S. A., 835.\nBright children, 84.\nBright, 0. T., 67, 246.\nBrightman, Mrs. L. P., 679, 680.\nBrink, J. Ten, 90.\nBrinkgreve, J. D., 456.\nBristol, Conn., 323.\nBristol, Eng., 188, 245, 526.\nBritton, Edw. E., 180.\nBrocklesby, John, 815.\nBrodfiihrer, M., 245.\nBronte, Charlotte, 175.\nBrookings, S. D., 527.\nBrookline, Mass., 69.\nBrooklyn, N. Y., 92, 246, 325, 383, 386,\n430, 456, 457, 507, 509, 513, 681, 713,\n762.\nBrooks, Angeline, 325.\nBrooks, Edw.. 69, 384, 451, 713, 772.\nBrooks, Miss H. E., 321, 386.\nBrooks, W. M., 91.\n\n"}
{"page": 973, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX.\nBroomell, J. H., 385.\nBroughty Ferrv, N. B. (Scot.), 245.\nBrown, C. G., 385.\nBrown, Fannie P., 323, 504.\nBrown, Florence A., 324.\nBrown, George P., 244, 300, 680, 703, 825,\n826, 831, 839.\nBrown University, 93, 716.\nBrown. Wm, Letioy, 526.\nBrowne, W. J., 245.\nBrowning is Greek in culture, 128.\nBrowning, Oscar, 321, 385, 824.\nBrownings, The, 170.\nBruce, 0. H., 246.\nBruch, Max, 508.\nBruges, Belgium, 244.\nBruni, Oreste, 385.\nBrunn, Austria, 178, 323.\nBrunner, Hon. D. B., 14.\nBrunswick, Me., 91, 616.\nBrussels, Belgium, 12, 26, 89, 456, 590.\nBruton, Eng.,245.\nBryan, Anna E., 324.\nBryan, W. L., 715.\nBryant, Mrs. S., 90.\nBryce, Prof. James, 13, 94.\nBryne, P., 385.\nBrvn Mawr College, 92, 93, 101, 617.\nBryn Mawr, Pa., 92, 617.\nBuchanon, J. L., 70.\nBuckingham, Miss., 679.\nBucksport, Me., 179.\nBuda, 111., 324.\nBudapest, Hungary, 13, 179.\nBuddensieg, Rud., 12.\nBuehrle, Supt., 67, 69.\nBuenos Avres, 12, 89, 244, 384.\nBuffalo, N. Y., 246, 322, 325.\nBuilding, separate, for a manual training\nschool,\nBuisson, B., 4, 12, 39, 53, 178, 217, 243,\n262.\nBuisson, M. F.,415.\nBulletin Administratif, 850.\nBulletin Administratif du Ministhre de\nV Instruction Publique, 845.\nBulletin Scolaire de V Union\nFrancaise\npour le Sauvetage de V Enfance, 850.\nBiilow, Wm., 245.\nBumstead, II or., 91.\nBunker Hill Monument, 81.\nBurbridge, F. W., 385.\nBurchard, 0. R., 841. .\nBureau of Education in each State, 22.\nBurgauer, David, 323.\nBurgerstein, Leo, 616.\nBurgess, Edw., 69.\nBuriet, M. J. de, 12.\nBurke, 170.\nBurleson, R. C, 93.\nBurlington, Vt., 180, 716.\nBurney, A. M., 180.\nBurnham, W. II., 108, 713, 718.\nBurns, Robert, 115.\nBurns, Robert, the plowman, 129.\n\n953\n\nBurr, J. D., 681.\nBurroughs, Geo. S., 91.\nBurrus, John II., 527.\nBurt, Miss Mary E., 246.\nBurton-on-Trent, Eng., 245.\nBusiness, and other departments of education, 803.\nBusiness colleges (see Business Education).\nBusiness Education,\ntheses on, 10.\nevolution of business college, 10, 788.\nadvantages of, 10, 791.\n10. 10.\nfimitations,\ngraded courses,\ncounting-room work, 10.\nart of writing, 10.\nhigher aspects, 10, 796.\nits value, 10, 805.\nfor the world's charities, 10.\ndemands of communities, 10.\nshorthand, 10, 798.\na merchant's view of, 10.\na banker's view of, 10.\nequipment of teachers, 10.\nBusiness man, his needs, 18.\nBusiness woman\nas daughter, wife, mother, and friend, 10.\nthe world's need of, 800.\nBuss, Miss Frances, 179.\nButler, II. E., 681.\nButler, Mr., 715.\nButler, Nich. Murray, 5.\nButler, Win. Allen, 188.\nByers, Miss Margaret, 90.\nByron, 171.\nCabjolsky, G. 245.\nCable, Geo. W., 14.\nCabrera, Raimundo, 89.\nCady, C. B., 508, 520.\nCady, Isaac F., 814.\nCagliari, Italy, 90.\n\"Cain, a Mystery,'' by Byron> 173.\nCairo, Egypt, 245.\nCalais, Me. 69.\nCalculus, forgotten, 139.\nCalder, Rob., 245.\nCaldwell, Wm., 681.\nCalifornia, 13, 67, 68, 90, 178, 179, 246,\n323, 385, 590, 616, 680.\nCalifornia College, 90.\nCalifornia, Pa., 386.\nCalkin, John B., 384.\nCalkins, Mary W., 716.\nCalkins, N. A., 4, 5, 57.\nCalling, education for, 18.\nCamberwell, Eng., 245.Cambridge and Oxford, 37.\nCambridge, Eng., 90, 99, 217, 245, 383, 385,\n407.\nCambridge. Mass., 10, 91, 177, 180, 181,\n527, 615, 681.\nCambridge University, Eng., 90.\nCambridgeport, Mass., 246.\n\n"}
{"page": 974, "printed_page": null, "text": "954\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nCamerino, Italy, 179.\nCameron, H. C, 87, 108.\nCamp, D. N., 68, 815.\nCamp, L. I., 590.\nCampbell, A. H., 386.\nCampbell, F. J., 385.\nCampbell, Gabriel, 716.\nCampbell, J. E., 527.\nCampos, M. Torres, 90.\nCanada,\nphysical education in, 11.\nlist of vice-presidents, 12, 68, 89, 178,\n244, 323, 384, 456, 508, 680.\nCandidate for degree of Doctor of Pedagogy, 384, 436, 438, 444.\nCandler, W. A., 91.\nCanfield, James H., 87, 92, 108, 825.\nCannell, Mand C, 324.\nCanon law, 118.\nCanterbury, Eng., 245.\nCanton, N. Y., 92, 681.\nCantoni, Carlo, 90.\nCap and gown, woman stretches out hand\nfor, 22.\nCapacity and efficiency of German gymnasia, 186,\nCapacity of pupils, 195.\nCape Colony, education in, 903.\nCape Girardeau, Mo., 386.\nCapen, B. T., 180\nCapen, E. H., 91.\nCape Town, Cape Colony, 244.\nCapital University, 0., 681.\nCapper, Th., 68.\nCarbo, Alejandro, 384.\nCarbondale, 111., 385.\nCardiff, Wales, 90.\nCarey, Hon. J. M., 14.\nCarhart, Jos., 386.\nCarlin, Regina M., 508, 509, 523.\nCarlisle, Eng., 245.\nCarlisle, J. M., 386.\nCarlson, J. S., 681.\nCarlstadt, N. J., 325.\nCarlton, Charles, 180.\nCarlton College, 90.\nCarlton, Oliver, 813.\nCarlyle, 170.\nCarman, G. N., 177, 179, 190, 193.\nCarmarthen, Wales, 385.\nCarmuth, Dr., 385.\nCarnot, A., 12.\nCarothers, George R., 591.\nCarr, Mary E., 617.\nCarrera, Quintino, 13.\nCarrington, W. T., 842.\nCarriot, Eugene, 68.\nCarter, Hannah J., 456, 495.\nCarthage College, 91.\nCarthage, 111., 91.\nCartright, A., 245.\nCams, Paul, 715.\nCary, C. P., 246.\nCase of Henri Frederic Amiel, 169.\nCassel, Germany, 245.\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nCatholic University, 88, 99, 161, 679, 700.\nCause135.\nof Greek is the cause of pure science,\nCautions observed in kindergarten work, 7.\nCavanagh, P. V., 92.\nCaverno, Charles, 680.\nCedar Falls, la., 386.\nCedar Rapids, la., 91.\nCeltic element, 170.\nCempen's France, 245, 456, 508.\nCenlencer, Ad., 89.\nCensors in examination, 61.\nCensorship in education, 199.\nCentral Missouri College, 92.\nCentral School Journal, The, 841.\nCentral Tennessee College, 93.\nCentral University of Iowa, 91, 681.\nCentral University of Kentucky, 681.\nCentral Wesleyan University, 681.\nCentralized power, 77.\nCentre College, Kentucky, 681.\nCentres of population, 166.\nCenturies\n124. give weight to degree of B. A.,\nCertificate of aptitude, 417.\nCertificates of teachers, 7, 42.\nCesnola, L. P. di, 457.\nChadband, Fanny, 324.\nChair of law, first, 147.\nChairman\nGeneral Committee, 20.\nof Committee of National Educational\nAssociation, 25.\nChairs, pedagogical, in universities, 414,\n422.\nChamber of Commerce of New York, 188.\nChamberlain, Mary P., 324.\nChamberlin, T. C, 88, 91, 141.\nChamney, R. M., 385.\nChampaign, 111., 324.\nChamp de Mars, buildings of, 23.\nChampon, M., 244.\nChandler, Mary, 325.\nChanges\nof text-books in Ontario, 42.\nin kindergarten plays and games, 321,\n328.\nhave taken place, 122.\nmerely prophetic, 199.\nChaos, educational, 139.\nChapel Hill, N. C, 92, 681.\nChapin, J. B., 814.\nChaplin, W. S., 92.\nChapman, S. I., 681.\nCharacter,\nqualities of, 43.\nacademic, of normal schools, 384, 432.\nthe greatest thing, 168.\nCharacteristic condition of childhood, 322.\nCharacteristics\nof compositions, 9.\nof song writers, 9.\nof movements aiding civilization, 26\nof race, 272.\nof German schools, 186.\n\n"}
{"page": 975, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX.\nCharities, the world's, business training\nfor, 10.\nCharles Lamb, quoted, 138.\nCharles, Laura P., 324.\nCharleston, S. C, 70, 93, 180.\nCharlotte, N. C, 92, 681.\nCharlottesville, Va., 93, 457, 527, 617, 716.\nCharm for certain minds, 162.\nCharter given by George II., 147.\nChase, AlbroE., 818.\nChase, A. P., 179.\nChattanooga, Tenn., 70.\nChaucer, 170.\nChavez, Amado, 69.\nCheck, hold in, 41.\nCheltenham, England, 179, 385.\nChemistry\nin secondary schools, 6, 177.\npractice in, 9.\nmake room for, 196.\nin rural schools, 244.\nin a medical course, 117.\nChemnitz, Saxony, Germany, 11, 616, 670.\nCheney, Francis J., 67, 383, 386, 418.\nCheney, Mrs. E. D., 14.\nCheney, Wash., 386.\nChester, England, 245.\nChester, Rebecca C 324.\nChevreul, M., 54.\nChevrillon, A., 53, 88, 168.\nCheyenne. Wyo., 70.\nChicago, 111., 1, 13, 16, 21, 26, 67, 69, 81,\n91, 108, 147, 168, 177, 178, 179, 190,\n191, 192, 208, 224, 246, 321, 322, 324,\n327, 346, 455, 456, 491, 497, 507, 509,\n512, 513, 519, 589, 591, 604, 616, 681,\n713, 715, 798.\nChicago Schoolmaster, The, 836.\nChicago Teacher, The, 839.\nChico, Cal., 385.\nChildhood\nepochs of, 28.\nsymbolic stage, 28.\ncharacteristic condition of, 322.\nfirst two years in, 715, 793.\nChildren\ntheir imaginations, 11.\ntheir will, 11.\ntheir theology, 11, 713, 765.\ncultivation of self-consciousness, 11.\nmotor ability in, 11.\nbetween 6 and 14 years, 243.\nteaching history to them, 284.\nof 5 to 10 and 10 to 15 years, 507, 513.\nmusic for children, 507, 513.\ntheir language, 737.\nChilds, Chas. W., 385.\nChild study,\noriginal investigation, 8.\nin experimental psychology, 11, 713, 717.\nbasis for psychological teaching, 11.\nbasis for pedagogy, 11, 713, 718.\nits aspects, 29.\nin normal schools, 384, 447.\nfor candidate of P.D., 446.\n\n955\n\nChild study, a plea for, 777,\nChili, 12, 68, 591.\nChilling enthusiasm, 28.\nChina, 89.\nChinese classics, 135.\nChoice between Latin and modern languages, 178, 234, 235.\nChords, vocal, and their strain, 9.\nChristian\nmen, 145.\ncivilization, 162.\nreligion, philosophy of, 164.\nChristiania, Norway, 13, 590.\nChristianity,\ndefects not charged to, 152.\nbrought not a less noble notion of the\ncitizen, 161.\nChristinger, Jac, 179.\nChucarro, D. U., 68.\nChurch, LillieE., 509.\nChurchill, J. A., 70.\nCianelli, P., 92.\nCicero's orations, 131.\nCincinnati, O., 69, 81, 177, 180, 190, 322,\nCircle,\n325, 457, 681.\nthe golden, of education, 20.\nof knowledge, 106.\nCircumstances of individual lives, 191.\nCities of 10,000 inhabitants, 79.\nCitizen,\nduties of, 244.\na higher notion than man, 161.\nCitizenship\nas a study, 6, 7.\nstress laid on, 28.\nduties of, 43, 273.\ntraining for, 278.\nrisen in dignity, 161.\nlarge view of, 167.\nCivic\nand ethical instruction, 28.\nlife, 143.\nCivil\nconditions, 45.\nlaw, 51.\nCivilization,\nmodern, 26.\nendures, 37.\nsecondary, 134.\nwider, 134.\nhas expanded, 161.\ndepends\non colleges and universities,\n164.\nClaflin University, 93.\nClaims, high, for course of studies, 27.\nClarion, la., 324.\nClarion, Pa., 386.\nClark, Mrs. A. E. H., 325.\nClark, Daisy, 325.\nClark, Eliza S., 617.\nClark, John S., 457.\nClark, Minnie, 325.\nClark University,\n91, 681, 713, 717,\n718.\n\n"}
{"page": 976, "printed_page": null, "text": "956\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nClarke, J. E., 457.\nClarke, Marv L., 324.\nClarke. Marv S., 324.\nClarksville, Tenn., 93.\nClassic music, 9.\nClassical\neducation, 22.\nlanguages, 27.\nmusic, 507, 519.\nClassicists do not deprive the scientists.\n197.\nClassics\nand science, 121.\nmodern, 127.\nClassification\nof normal schools, 8.\nencyclopedic, 111.\nClass teachers, their functions in music,\n508, 520.\nClausen -Kaas, A. v., 245.\nClaverack, N. Y., 180.\nClay modeling of art works, 8.\nClergymen, 6.\nCleveland, 0., 77, 81, 92, 246, 325, 527,\n591.\nClinton, Miss., 92.\nClinton, N.'Y., 92.\nClute, Oscar, 527.\nCluysenaer, M., 456.\nCoburg, Germanv, 245.\nCochran, D. II., 92.\nCockburn, C. J., 245.\nCoddington, W. P., 681.\nCoe College, 91.\nCoe, Geo. A., 715.\nCo-education essential, 101.\nCoesfeld, Germany, 68.\nCoexistence, human, 49.\nCoggeshall, W. T„ 828.\nCogswell, Francis, 383, 408.\nCohn, Ad., 92.\nCohn, Dr. Herm.,12.\nColbourne, Mrs. R. E., 590.\nColburn, Harriet, 616.\nColby University, 91.\nColchester, Conn., 246.\nCole, Alan S., 456.\n(bier, Geo. P., 716.\nColeridge is Greek in sympathy, 128.\nColgate University, 92, 180, 716.\nCollapse of teacher, 74.\nCollar, Emily, 323.\nCollar, Wm. C, 180.\nCollateral works, 126.\nCollection of treasures of industry, 34.\nCollege Courant, The, 820.\nCollege de France, 54.\nCollege for Training of Teachers in New\nYork, 590.\nCollege of Charleston, 93.\nCollege of Emporia, 681.\nCollege of New Jersey, 92, 617, 681.\nCollege of Physicians and Surgeons and\nColumbia College, 148.\nCollege of the City of New York, 716.\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nCollege Park, Md., 179, 526.\npublications, 103.\ntraining, 116.\ngraduates,\ncourse, the 112.\nold, 27.\nfetich, Greek, discovery of, 131.\nteams, 143.\nauthorities, 146.\ncurriculum, 149.\nColleges,Review and Educ. Magazine, 816.\ncondition of admission, 6.\nprofessional preparation of teachers, 8.\ndisprized, 102.\ntheir relation to advancement of civilization, 161.\nathletic sports in, 615, 636.\nCollegeville, Minn., 681.\nCollegeville, Pa., 681.\nCollegiate preparatory work, 184.\nColmar, Germany, 385.\nCologne, Germany, 12, 178.\nColorado, 68, 246, 323, 385, 680.\nColorado School Journal, 843.\nColorado Springs, Col., 90.\nColson, C. G., 245.\nColumbia College, 88, 92, 99, 125, 146,\n147, 525, 560, 681.\nColumbia College and the College of Physicians and Surgeons, 148.\nColumbia, Mo., 92, 716.\nColumbia, S. C, 14, 70, 93, 180, 246, 368,\n681.\nColumbian Exposition, 55, 168.\nColumbian University, Washington, D.C.,\n179.\nColumbus, Miss., 591.\nColumbus, O.. 67, 69, 78, 81, 244, 295,\n325, 509, 527, 617, 681, 716.\nColvill, J. C, 245.\nComan, Katherine, 91.\nCommand, a student's, of French, 174.\nCommerce,\nbranches relating to, 6.\nand arts foster science, 198.\nCommercial\ninterests of business schools, 10.\nlaw, 51.\nCommission\nof six members in each State, 189.\nthe French, 211.\nthe, of 1584, 185.\nCommissioner of education W. T. Harris,\n4, 5, 25, 26, 37, 41, 65, 83, 87, 106,\n168, 176, 181, 192, 207, 249, 251, 525,\n526.\nCommittee\nof National Education Association, 5.\non programmes, 27.\nof organization, 25.\non legal education, 50.\nof arrangement, 65.\nof resolutions, 88.\nof one hundred, 97,\n\n"}
{"page": 977, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX.\nCommittee\nfor the protection of the degree of\nPh. D., 160.\nof students, 144.\nCommitteeman subject to local pressure.\n80.\nCommittee reports on organization, 714.\nCommon consciousness of unity, 35.\nCommonplace in philosophy, 151.\nCommon School, The, 841.\nCommon School Advocate, The, 828, 829,\n833.\nCommon School Assistant, The, 826.\nCommon School Journal, 812, 832.\nCommon school children, needs and necessities of, 21.\nCommon school education, 821.\nCommon schools, 6.\nCommon statute, 50.\nCommunities, their demands in business\neducation, 10.\nComparative study, 29.\nCompass, box the educational, 105.\nCompayre,\nG., 12, 16, 39, 41, 53, 118,\n178, 713.\nCompetition,\nkeen, 63.\nungracious, 107.\nComposers,\nclassical, 9.\nlibrary of pieces, 9.\nCompromise possible, 196.\nCompton, Elias, 681.\nCompton, H. W., 591.\nCompulsory\nphysical education, 11.\ninstruction, 55.\nattendance, 81, best law in Mass., 81.\nfeatures of the law, 189.\nComte, Auguste, 49.\nConcentration of universities, 95.\nConcept\nof liberal education, 151.\nbasal, of psychology, 693.\nConception\nin rational psychology, 11.\nof right, 48.\nGreek and Roman, of the state, 161.\nerroneous, 165.\nConcord, Mass., 98.\nCondillac in his \" Langue de Calculs,\" 169.\nCondit, Miss Anna, 56.\nCondition,\npresent, of schools in Uruguay, 58.\nof American universities, 96.\ncharacteristic, of childhood, 7, 322.\nmental and physical, 322.\nConditions\nof degree Ph. D., 88, 156.\nspecial, 244, 301.\nCondon, Catherine M., 323.\nCone, O., 92.\nConfidence\nshown by the public, 39.\nin giving lessons, 72.\n\n957\n\nConflagration of Chicago, 30.\nConflict\nbetween capital and labor, 31.\nirrepressible, 31.\nConfucius\nand his educational ideas, 244, 308.\nand his pedagogic principles, 309.\nCongratulations of a foreigner, 38.\nCongress\nof the United States, 55, 100.\nnational, maintained, 184.\nConn, Thomas W., 180.\nConnecticut, 68, 91, 179, 246, 323, 508, 590,\n680.\nConquest of forces, 31.\nConrad, Dr. Johann, 12.\nConscious of needing help, 72.\nConsciousness,\npsychology founded on, 11.\nthe study of, 679.\nConsecutiveness\nof methods, 50.\nof teaching, 51.\nConsent of the American people, 78.\nConservatory\nof Music in Vienna, 509.\nof Music in Berlin, 508.\nConsiderations formulated by holders of\nthe opposite view, 122.\nConstituents, the chief, 154.\nConstitution\nof mind, 18.\nfederal, 49.\nadopted, 714.\nConstitutionally bad spellers, 713, 762.\nConstruction of a programme, 76.\nConte, J. Le, 90.\nContention, honorable, 52.\nContinent, Anglo-Saxons in this, 40.\nContinental\nContinuity, Europe, 50.\nimportance of, 127.\nof development, 170.\nContradistinction of mind from biological\nphenomenon, 29.\nControl\nof societies, 144.\nfrom lowest to highest grade in education, 181.\ngovernmental, 186.\nConvent education, 879.\nConvention, the French, of 1793, 186.\nConventional\nand symbolic studies, 7.\nmethods, 28.\nConventionalities of life, 321.\nConventions of the N. E. A., 31.\nConvictions, intellectual, 163.\nCook, C. C, 715.\nCook County, 111., 67.\nCook County Normal School, 323, 383, 408.\nCook, E., 509.\nCook, E. H., 5.\nCook, Fayette L., 386.\nCook, John W., 383, 385, 836.\n\n"}
{"page": 978, "printed_page": null, "text": "958\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nCooke, N. B., 814.\nCooley, Thomas M., 133.\nCooper, A. J., 179.\nCooper, 0. H., 70.\nCooper, Sarah B., 321, 336, 590.\nCooperation\nin all departments of civilized life, 18.\nvoluntary, 190.\nCoordination of studies, 152.\nCopy art works, 8.\nCorbett, D., 385.\nCorbin, Joseph C, 385.\nCorbin, LydiaA.,324.\nCorey, W. A., 843.\nCork, Ireland, 90.\nCornell College, 91.\nCornell University, 95, 99, 120, 129, 384,\n440, 455, 525, 534, 565, 679, 680, 681,\n703.\nCorps of teachers, 71.\nCorrespondance\nGeneral de V Instruction\nPrimaire, 847.\nCorrupt school committee, 80.\nCorson, O. T., 69.\nCorstorphine, Scotland, 245.\nCorthell, W. J., 386.\nCortland, N. Y., 67, 383, 386, 418.\nCoruscation of congresses, 23.\nCosmic development, 46.\nCossa, Alph., 90.\nCost, average, of text-books, 43.\nCosta, Mrs. Amelia Fern, da, 244.\nCosta Rica, 12.\nCoubertin, Pierre de, 11, 89.\nCougny, M. , 456.\nCoulter, J. M., 91.\nCouncill, W. II., 526.\nCounterpoint, higher science of, 9.\nCounting-room work, 10.\nCounty model schools, 412.\nCourage to try to carry a point, 79.\nCourse of study\nin elementary schools, 6, 243.\nin secondary schools, 6, 177, 184, 193,\n221, 234.\nin normal schools, 8, 383, 428.\nin language,\nnumbers,\ngeography,\nhistory, 28.\ngeometry or algebra, which first ? 178.\ndesigned for life, 177.\nessentials in, 243, 251.\nof graded systems, 191.\ncarried out with minuteness, 191.\noutlined, 199.\nbest preparation for life, 193.\nwhat is meant by course of study, 193.\neverything that is taught in school, 193.\nin music, 507, 513.\na shorter, in arts, 589, 597.\nCourses in English, 122.\nCourtesies, intercollegiate, 145.\nCourtesy, 7.\nCoward, A., 70.\nCowhan, J. H.. 383, 385, 401.\nCoy, E. W., 177, 190, 835.\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nCoy, N. B., 68.\nCraik, II., 68.\nCramming, cruelty of, 18.\nCrane, T. P., 127.\nCravath, E. M., 93.\nCrawford, R. D., 591.\nCrawfordsville, Ind., 91.\nCrefeld, Germany, 179.\nCriminal idleness, 372.\nCriminals, their physical training, 11, 615,\n646.\nCripple our universities and colleges, 167.\nCristoforis, M. de, 246.\nCriterion, fair, of the system, 146.\nCritic\nof practice work in normal school, 8.\nshall he be present ? 8.\nof school work, 61.\nCriticism\nof newspapers, 191.\nof supervisor, 74.\nunfriendly to Greek, 137.\nCroly, D., 385.\nCrosby, Mary, 324.\nCry W. E., 841.\nCrosby,\nCross, Anson K., 456, 504.\nCrouse, Mrs. J. N., 322, 324.\nCrowe, Martha F., 91.\nCrowell, John F., 92.\nCrozier, Miss, 680, 705.\nof there being no standard of education,\n22.\nof anger, 45.\nCuba, 12, 89, 178.\nCuddeback, Elnora, 324.\nCultivation\nof artistic and aesthetic taste, 8.\nof the human body, 10.\nof self-consciousness, 11.\nCulture\nof music teachers, 9.\nof heart and hand, 18.\nprolonged,127.19.\nmodern,\nstudies are aided. 198.\nCumberland University, 93, 681.\nCunningham, D. J., 90.\nCurricula without Greek, 125.\nCurriculum\nof elementary schools, 81.\nof secondary schools, 8, 196.\nof normal schools, 8.\nof the old, 19.\nof public schools, 262.\nCurry, Dr. J. L. M., 13.\nCurtis, Fanniebelle, 323.\nCurtis, V. G., 69.\nCurtis, W. W., 180.\nCurtiss, T. W. T., 815.\ndishing, Jos. M., 457.\nCushing, W. L., 180.\nCustodians\nof our schools, 186.\n\nof Greek, 141.\n\n"}
{"page": 979, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX.\nCutler, R. E., 177, 192, 208.\nCutts, U. W., 69.\nD\nDale, Dr., 68.\nDana as a geologist, 135.\nDana-Hicks, Mary, 456, 487, 504, 505, 591.\nDana, James D., 127.\nDanby, T. W., 245.\nDanger\nof confining the course of study, 9.\nour besetting, 129.\nalong certain lines, 192.\nof supervision, 191.\nof confining music to mechanical exercises, 507, 513.\nDaniel Deronda, a scene in, 138.\nDan vers, Mass. , 324.\nDanville, Ky., 681.\nDareuth, Great Britain, 715.\nDartmouth College, 716.\nDarwin, appeal to him, 137.\nDaugherty, Eliza, 324.\nDaugherty, Mannie, 324.\nDaughter as business woman, 10.\nDavidson, Dr., 161.\nDavidson, Wm. M., 69.\nDavis, A. J., 386.\nDavis, B. C, 509.\nDavis, Buel T., 844.\nDavis, C. M., 69.\nDavis, N. J., 180.\nDavis, Noah K., 716.\nDavis, Mrs. S. W., 324.\nDavis, Thos., 814.\nDawn of the New Learning, 113.\nDawson, Col. N. H. R., 13.\nDay, L. W., 246.\nDayton, 0., 793.\nDeaf-mute school, 59.\nDeaf-mutes, their physical training, 11,\n616, 674.\nDeane, Chas. W., 386.\nDeatrich, Prof., 589.\nDebatable ground, only methods, 23.\nDecalogue not novel, 123.\nDecatur, 111., 69.\nDecker, W. F., 591.\nDeclaration of Independence, 81.\nDe Coate, Mr., 508, 522.\nDeer Lodge, Mont., 92.\nDeficiencies, natural, 20.\nDefinition of education, 21.\nDeGarmo, Chas., 838.\nDegraded quarters of large cities, 145.\nDegree\nof strain in vocal organs, 9.\nof B.A., 118, 124, 125.\nof Doctor of Philosophy, 6, 61, 125, 155,\n156.\nof Doctor of Pedagogy, 384, 434, 436,\n438, 440, 444, 446.\ncarried with it associations, 124.\nof A.B., 122-135.\nall have one neck, 136,\n\n959\n\nDegree\nof B.S. and B.A., 140.\nof variation, 141.\nof addenda, 142.\ndebased, 156.\n\" in absentia,\" 158.\n\" honoris causa,\" 158.\ngranted without residence, 160.\nif merited, is a credit, 160.\nof licentiate, 171.\nDelabarre, Edm. B., 716.\nDelaunay, M., 178.\nDelano, 67.\nDelaware, 69, 91, 179, 323, 509.\nDelaware College, 91.\nDelaware, O., 716.\nDelegation, French, president of, 53.\nDeliberation and fairness needed, 159.\nDelon, Chas., 323.\nDemands,\nnew, with world's industries, 10.\nof communities in business education, 10.\nfor science, 197.\nnew, upon elementary schools, 589, 594.\nnew, made by industries, 589, 594.\nDement, Isaac S., 798.\nDeming, Isabelle C, 324.\nDemocracy, foundation of, 40.\nDemocratic theory of government, 115.\nDemonstration not needed, 152.\nDe Munn, N. M., 814.\nDenison University, 92.\nDenny, Collins, 681.\nDenver, Colo., 68, 90, 323, 507, 514.\nDepartmental or special teachers, 7.\nDepartment of\nLiberal Arts, 16, 23.\nEducation, 41, 803.\nDepartments of the International\nCon(1) General Congress, 4, 15.\ngres : Supervision, 67.\n(2) School\n(3) Higher Education, 87.\n(4) Secondary Education, 177.\n(5) Elementary Education, 243.\n(6) Kindergarten Instruction, 321.\n(7) Professional\nTraining of Teachers,\n383.\n(8) Art Instruction, 455.\n(9) Instruction in Music, 507.\n(10) Technological Instruction, 525.\n(11) Industrial and Manual Instruction,\n589.\n(12) Physical Education, 615.\n(13) Rational Psychology, 679.\n(14) Experimental Psychology, 713.\n(15) Business Education, 787.\n(16) Educational Journalism, 809.\nDe Pauw University, 91, 715.\nDerivation of English words, 126.\nDescartes, 185.\nDestiny\nMoines, la., 177, 179, 192, 324, 680.\nof the nation, 43.\nman's eternal, 161.\n\n"}
{"page": 980, "printed_page": null, "text": "9G0\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nDestiny of the world, 162.\nDestruction to public instruction, 37.\nDetail, no man remembers anything in,\n139.\nDetails of the Congress, 30.\nDetroit College, 92.\nDetroit, Mich., 09, 92, 246, 324, 386, 509,\n803.\nDeutsche\nZeitung fur die franzosische\nJugend, 849.\nDeutsche Zeitung fur Franzosen, 849.\nDevelop\nthe whole being, 54.\nnew minds, 106.\nDevelopment,\nphysical, 9.\nof motor ability, 11.\nof latent genius, 18.\nharmonious, 22.\nof the race and the child, 322.\nhistorical, of normal schools, 383, 415.\nof art instinct, 466.\nspiritual, 128.\nDevelopments, recent, in educat'^™. 890.\nDeventer, Netherlands, 246.\nDevices, successful, of artists, 8.\nDevitt, Edw. I., 91.\nDewey, Melvil, 87, 108, 117.\nDibble, Virgil C, 180.\nDickens, 175.\nDickenson, James C, 244.\nDickey, J. E., 680.\nDickinson, Charles, 323.\nDickinson, J. W., 69.\nDickinson, N. Y., 509.\nDictionaries, their use, 126.\nDifferences,\nessential, between primary school and\nkindergarten, 7.\nbetween\nmanual\ntraining in primary\nand grammar schools, 10.\nDifferentiation\nof studies, 109.\ninevitable, 196.\nDifficulties due to indifference, 190.\nDifficulty, how to adjust it, 117.\nDiggle, J. R., 68.\nDignity of degree maintained, 160.\nDilemma in which we are placed, 190.\nDillard, James H., 179.\nDillenback, J. D., 843.\nDimscha, Professor L., 4, 13, 16, 48.\nDinwoodie, Mrs. J. S., 507, 512.\nDiploma,\nwhat perfection in teaching required, 8.\nof high-schools necessary, 79.\nDirector-General of the World's Fair, 25.\nDiscipline\nto secure moral habits, 6.\nfor the discharge of duties, 18.\nintellectual, 34.\nscientific, 109.\nof youth, 151.!\nDiscover new truths, 106.\nDiscovery of trouble, 72.\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nDiscovery and use of truth, 152.\nDiscredit to the institution that confers\ndegrees \" in between\nabsentia,\"the 160.\nDiscriminations\nuniversal and\nparticular, 18.\nDiscussions, 77, 82, 108, 117, 135, 145,\n154, 159, 190, 205, 217, 221, 234, 241,\n257, 272, 300, 342, 405, 432, 442, 462,\n466, 472, 495, 504, 512, 514, 519, 521,\n549, 565, 582, 586, 597, 604, 660, 686,\n692, 699, 703, 705, 711, 729, 750, 760,\n771.\nDiscussions\nand papers of the Congress,\n168.\nDisinterestedness, noble lessons of, 135.\nDisparagement of the Old Education, 198.\nDisparaging other nations, 162.\nDisplay of industry, skill, and taste, 26.\nDissertation\ninvolving original work, 156,\n157.\nDistinction between collegiate and university methods, 6.\nDistrict of Columbia, 13, 78, 91, 179, 246,\n323, 385, 457, 526, 591, 616, 715.\nDistrict School Journal of Education, 840.\nDistrict School Journal of the State of\nNew York, 827.\nDivine\nauthority, 46.\npersuasiveness, 46.\nDivinity entering, 27.\nDivision of labor in university, 109.\nDivoll, Ira, 842.\nDix, J. Aug., 69.\nDoan, R. W., 244.\nDobbs Ferry, N. Y., 180.\nDobson, W. L., 89.\nDoctor of Pedagogy,\nrequirements, 8, 384, 434.\ndegree of, 29, 384, 436, 438, 444.\nDoctor of Philosophy, 156, 159.\nDoctor of Science and Doctor of Letters,\n157.\nDoctrine,\nAristotle's, of a first principle, 11.\nof evolution, 155.\nDodge, Mrs. E. I., 323.\nDodge, Miss Grace H., 591.\nDodge, W. C, 679.\nDogmatic teaching of science, 155.\nDogmatism, something larger than, 113.\nDoherty, J. L., 385.\nDoherty, Robert, 180.\nDomain, moral and intellectual, 38.\nDominant seventh in education, 713, 720.\nDonovan, Eliza M., 325.\nD'Ooge, M. L., 128.\nDoolittle, Lucy A., 324.\nDoors, open the, of the universities, 167.\nDorpat, Russia, 90.\nDorr, Dalton, 457.\nDortrecht, Netherlands, 456.\nDoty, Duane, 832.\nDougherty, N. C, 67.\nDowden, E., 90.\n\n"}
{"page": 981, "printed_page": null, "text": "961\n\nINDEX.\nDowling, M. P., 94.\nDozier, Cynthia P., 324\nDrain, Or., 386.\nDrake, 0. II., 179.\nDrake University, 680.\nDramatic element of kindergarten songs,\n321, 331.\nDraper, A. S., 67.\nDrawing\nas a study, 6, 455.\nfreehand, 7, 456.\nmethods of, 8, 455.\nfrom the flat, 8, 455, 456.\nfrom models, 8, 456.\nlight and shade, 8.\ntechnique of, 8.\nof art works, 8, 455.\ncultivating taste, 8.\nreal objects as models, 8.\narchitectural, 9, 27.\nmechanical, 9, 27.\nwith what should it begin, 455, 491.\nits aesthetic aim, 455.\nself-correcting system of, 456.\nessential in course of study, 243, 251.\nDrawings, elegant, 73.\nDreaming and poetic invention, 714, 730.\nDreher, J. D., 93.\nDresden, Germany, 12, 68, 245, 616.\nDrexel Institute, Philadelphia, 456, 495,\n589, 805.\nDrocco, F., 179.\nDrumcondra, Ireland, 385.\nDublin, Ireland, 13, 68, 90, 245, 385.\nDubuque, la., 246.\nDue West, S. C, 93.\nDugard, Mile. M., 53, 177, 178, 211.\nDuisburg, Germany, 245.\nDuluth, Minn., 324, 507, 512.\nDuncan. George M., 680.\nDundee, Scotland, 90, 179, 526.\nDunkirk, N. Y., 325.\nDunlap, Mrs. C, 325.\nDunlap, Nellie, 323.\nDunlop, Douglas, 245.\nDunn, Robinson P., 814.\nDunnell, Mark H., 817.\nDunning, Mrs. F. B., 325.\nDunton, Larkin, 386.\nDunton, L. M., 93.\nDuomo of Florence, 23.\nDupee, Charles A., 835.\nDurability of our public schools, 167.\nDurango, Colo., 246, 323.\nDurham, N. C, 92.\nDurkee, Frank W., 617.\nDtlsseldorf, Germany, 68, 178, 179.\nDuties\nanalogous to physicians', 72.\nof citizenship, 243, 244, 273, 278.\nof men in society, lo6.\nand rights, social, 192.\nof a chairman, 182.\nDutton, S. T., 69.\nDwelshauvers-Dery, M. V., 89.\n61\n\nDwight, Francis, 827.\nDwight, President Timothv, 88, 91, 160.\nDyer, Henry, 526.\n\" Dying Swan, The,\" by Tennyson, 173.\nDysinger, Holmes, 91.\nE\nEastburn, Geo., 180.\nEast Dereham, England, 245.\nEastern Ohio Teacher, 829.\nEasthampton, 180.\nEast Lake, Ala., 90.\nEastman, Julia A., 180.\nEaston, Pa., 716.\nEaston, W., 69.\nEast Saginaw, Mich., 324.\nEast St. Louis, 111., 69.\nEaton, Edw. D., 93.\nEaton, Jas. F., 93.\nEaton, Gen. John, 4, 5, 40, 243, 244, 247,\n301.\nEbel, Laura, 324.\nEcclesiasticism, defects charged to, 152.\nEccleston, Sallie C, 323.\nEcho Nouvelle, 850.\nEckels, E. M. D., 385.\n£cole Maternelle et Enfantine, 848.\nEcole normale in Paris, 54.\nEconomic questions, 166.\nEconomical life, 45.\nEconomy and waste, mental, 713, 725.\nEcuador, 12, 89, 244.\nEddy, II. T., 87, 118. 525, 550, 583.\nEdgar, Miss Lilian, 89.\nEdgerly, J. G., 69.\nEdinboro, Pa., 386.\nEdinburgh reviewers, 170.\nEdinburgh, Scotland, 68, 90, 179, 245, 385.\nEdon, Georges, 178.\nEducation,\nindustrial, 10.\nself-activity in, 11.\nrational psychology in, 11.\ncomplete and generous, 21.\nclassical, 22.\nfor white and black, 35.\nadvancement made in, 35.\nstudied historically, 35.\npsychologically, 35.\nexperimentally, 35.\nlegal, 48.\njuridical, 50.\nmoral, of Confucius, 310.\nintellectual, of Confucius, 311.\nphysical, of Confucius, 311.\nof girls, 312.\nreal nature of, 369.\nmedical, 117.\nsupervised, 185.\nwithout supervision, 185.\nin its own locality, 190.\ntheo-centric, 680.\nself-activity in, 680, 703.\ndominant seventh in, 713, 720.\n\n"}
{"page": 982, "printed_page": null, "text": "962\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nEducation,\nin Cape Colony, 903.\nnational, in Scotland, 874.\nin women\nconvents,'\nof\nin 879.\nNew Zealand, 883.\nEducation (monthly magazine), 820.\nEducation Physique, 849.\nEducation Weekly, The, 831, 832, 836.\nEducational\nvalue (see Value).\npublications, 11.\nexhibit, 16.\nmethods and ends, 43.\njournals, 71.\nsystem of Sweden, 244.\nideas of Confucius, 308.\nprinciples of Froebel, 360.\npractice, 150.\nwork for women, 887.\nEducational Disseminator, The, 828.\nEducational journalism, 810.\nin New England, 811.\nin New York, 826.\nin Ohio, 828.\nin Indiana, 829.\nin Michigan, 831.\nin Illinois, 833.\nin Iowa, 840.\nin Missouri, 842.\nin Colorado and Kansas, 843.\nin France, 845.\nEducational Notes and Queries, 828.\nEducational Voice, 840.\nEducationalist, The, 844.\nEducationist, The, 830, 831, 844.\nEducators, eminent, 42.\nEdwards, Richard, 69, 835. 837, 842.\nEfficiency of the schools promoted, 42.\nEgypt, 245.\nEhler, Geo. W., 616.\nEichhorst, Herm., 90.\nEisenach, Germany, 323, 385.\nEitner, Dr., 178.\nElberfeld, Germany, 179.\nElder, E. C.,325.\nEldon, James, 386.\nEldridge, E. R., 385.\nElectrical science, 133.\nElegance in the use of English, 127.\nElement,\ndramatic, of kindergarten songs, 321,\n331.\nutilitarian, 135.\nElementary\nbranches, 268.\ncourse, essentials in, 266.\ninstruction, 6.\ntheses on elementary instruction, 6.\n, 27.\ngra\nSro\nng,mmeits Aesthetic aim, 455.\nrawi\nElementary education,\nsubjects of preliminary programme, 6.\ndepartment of, 243, 247.\nin England, 870.\nin Cape Colony, 903.\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nElementary schools,\ntheses on, 7.\npreparation of teachers, 8.\nwhat branches in, 27.\ncourse of study, 243.\naspects of curriculum, 243.\nspecial work in, 243, 273.\nElements,\nnational, 40.\nadditional, 72.\nparticular, 156.\nEligible list, approval of, 79.\nEliminating the bad, 72.\nEliot, Charles W., 91, 189, 195.\nEliot, George, 170.\nElizabeth, N. J., 69.\nElizabethan-Stuart period, 128.\nElkader, 111., 324.\nEllensburg, Wash., 246.\nElliott, C. H. B., 245.\nEllis, John M.. 716.\nElmira College, 509, 681.\nElmira, N. Y., 11, 509, 681.\nElston, A. M., 90.\nEly, Richard T., 93.\nEmblem of solidity, 48.\nEmblematic or symbolic studies, 7.\nEmergency, how to meet the, 18.\nEmerson, Alf., 466, 473.\nEmerson, C. W., 617.\nEmerson, George B., 813, 819.\nEmerson, Ralph Waldo, 95, 170.\nEmery, J. Q.,386.\nEmigrant vessels, 188.\nEminent educators, 42.\nEmory College, 91, 680.\nEmphasis laid on discipline of mind, 168.\nEmporia, Kan., 386, 681.\nEncyclopaedia Britannica, 45, 824.\nEncyclopaedia\nof natural information, 44.\nof right, 50.\nof education, 57.\nstudies, 109.\nEnd of education, 44.\nEnde, Prof., 456.\nEndowment,\nmental, 20.\nof universities in Chicago, 30.\nof a university, 148.\nEnds, educational, 43, 44.\nEnebuske, Claes J., 617.\nEnergies,\na nation's, 163.\nunexampled, 184.\nEnergy to cultivate graduate work, 35.\nEnge, \"Switzerland, 246.\nEngel, Peter, 681.\nEngineer,\nprocess of training an, 526,\n569.\nEngineering,\nits educational value, 9.\nas an art, 18.\nas a calling, 18.\nvalue of, 525, 526, 558, 583.\n\n"}
{"page": 983, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX.\nEngland,\nan educational question in, 27.\n{>opular education in, 28.\nist of vice-presidents, 12, 68, 89, 179,\n244, 385, 450, 509, 526, 590, 616, 680.\nhigher education, 94.\nsecondary education, 117, 191, 217.\nhigh-schools for girls, 178, 225.\nprofessional training, 217.\nFroebel's principles in, 360.\nmethods of training teachers, 383, 401.\n■ self-correcting system of drawing, 500.\nuniversity education for women, 853.\nelementarv education in, 870.\nEnglewood,\nEnglewood, *I11.,\nN. J.,179,\n178,246,\n180,323.\n235.\nEnglish\nas a study, 7, 43.\nthe language of the world, 64.\nliterature, 7, 168; uninterrupted, 170.\nfacility, accuracy, and elegance of, 127.\nprocess of thought, 170.\nblood, 170.\npoint of view, 173.\nexperience in providing for parks, etc.,\n615, 641.\norphanage in Bosnia. 900.\nEnglish, Gertrude C, 456.\nEnloe, Hon. B. A., 14.\nEnos, J. L., 840.\nEnthusiasm\nof the young child, 28.\nof those who know Greek, 132.\nof a body of teachers, 193.\nEntrance of woman into the educational\narena. 22.\nEnunciation, musical, 9.\nEpithalamion, by Spenser, 173.\nEpochs of childhood, 28.\nEquality, international, 38.\nEquilaz, Cesar de, 385.\nEquilibrium, unstable, 166.\nEquipment of business-college teachers, 10.\nEquivalent of the German triennium, 157.\nEra, Gra;co-Roman, 161.\nEradicate natural differences, 20.\nEras in the history of our country, 166.\nEnlmann, Carl, 90.\nErichsen, John Eric, 89.\nErie, Pa., 591.\nErlham College, 91.\nErrors\nin music, corrections of, 9.\nserious, 19.\nin teaching, 72.\nErskine College, 93.\nEspinosa, R., 244.\nEsprit de corps, 71.\nEssay, French, by every candidate, 172.\nEssence of civilization, 163.\nEssential branches\nof the\nelementary\ncourse, 6.\nEssentials\nin a course of study, 243, 251.\nwhat should be added to, 266.\n\n963\n\nEsslingen, Germany, 385.\nEstimate of man, 163.\nEthical\nand civic instruction, 28.\nelement, 47.\nquestions, 166.\nEthics\nof industrial instruction, 10.\nin man and education, 47.\ncan we teach it ? 47.\nEtiquette, social, 7.\nEton and Winchester, 37.\nEton College, England, 179.\nEton, Eng., 179.\nEucken, Rud., 89,\nEudo, Hidesaburo, 244, 308.\nEurope, Or., 681..\nEugene,\nGreat Powers of, 30.\ncontinental, 50.\nEuropean\nand American ways, 48.\nsystem, 109. 139.\ncivilization.\nthe semi-barbarous, 152.\nEvans, John, 509.\nEvans, Lawton B., 323.\nEvanston, 111., 13, 91, 177, 191, 205, 241,\n246, 323, 616, 715.\nEvening session, July 25, 16.\nEversole, W. S., 180.\nEvil, most destructive, 76.\nEvolution\nof the business college, 10, 788.\ncosmic, 46.\nof liberal education, 88, 150.\nof the school of pedagogy, 425.\nmeans something, 154.\nmoral, of the child, 713.\n\"Evolution of Dodd, The,\" &38.\nEwers, Viola M., 324.\nEwing, Prof., 526.\nExact measurement, value of, 525, 558.\nExactness\nof expression, 135.\nof thinking, 135.\nExamination\nof kindergartner in secondary studies, 7.\nof teachers, 7, 29.\nin Sweden, 61.\nwritten, 74.\nprescribed, 185.\nof 5,000 children, 715, 750.\nExcellence, artistic, 163.\nException taken to one remark, 192.\nExcesses of a few, 144.\nExcusing pupils from music, 508, 522.\nExecutive Committee of the National Educational Association, 32.\nExecutive heads of institutions, 158.\nExercises,\nmechanical, in music, 9.\nfacilities for out-door exercise, 11.\nwithout apparatus, 615, 626.\nphysical, for school, 615,631.\n\n"}
{"page": 984, "printed_page": null, "text": "964\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nExhibit, educational, 16.\nExhibition of religious life, 20.\nExigencies\nof instruction, 51.\nof our occupation, 198.\nExner, Sigm., 89.\nExpansion of our leading institutions, 104.\nExpense, incredible, 184.\nExperience\nin teaching, 8.\nin providing out-door facilities for exercise, 11.\nwith incompetent teachers, 81.\npersonal, 126.\nin providing parks and gardens, 615, 641,\nExperimental psychology,\ninvestigation in, 8, 383.\nin education, 11, 444.\nExpert in technical business, 115.\nExponents of theories, 105.\nExposition, our beautiful, 39.\nExpression\nin singing, 9.\nmusical, 9.\nartistic, 162.\nof fullest faith, 167.\nof thought, subtle and precise, 197.\nExtempore translation, 174.\nExtent\nof observation work, 7.\nof religion in school, 296.\nof symbolism, justifiable, 322, 355, 356.\nExternal vesture, 163.\nEye and ear-mindedness, 715.\nEyes, strain of, 7.\nF\nFacility in the use of English, 127.\nFactor, greatest, in New Education, 22.\nFaculties\nof the mind, 18.\nof the universities, 109.\nin France, 169.\nFads and fopperies exorcised, 129.\nFair, educational exhibits at the, 24.\nFair, Katharine G., 325.\nFairbairn, R. B., 92.\nFairbury, Neb., 246.\nFaith, fullest, 167.\nFallows, Rt. Rev. Samuel, 4, 20.\nFall River, Mass., 177, 190.\nFamiliarize pupils with types of art, 487.\nFamily nurture, 28.\nFarley, John M., 92.\nFarm*,\nVa.,he527.\nFarmer,W.what\nneeds, 18.\nFarr, Geo. Henry, 89.\nFarrand, S. A., 180.\nFascination, free from, 162.\nFatigati, Alf. Serrano, 616.\nFatigue, muscular and nervous, 11.\nFaunthorpe, J. P., 385.\nFaust, an occasional look at, 175\nFay, L. E., 457.\nFayette, la., 509.\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nFayette, Mo., 92.\nFayetteville, Ark., 526.\nFayette ville, N. C, 386.\nFeasibility of a musical library, 507, 513.\nFeature, the distinguishing, 118.\nFeatures of the svstem in Ontario, 42, 43.\nFederal Constitution of the U. S., 49.\nFederation of the United States of Europe,\nFeeling,\n39.\nright, must be aroused, 321.\nof teachers of science, 156.\nFeelings, deep-seated, 65.\nFees a temptation to admit incompetence,\n117.\nFell, Thos., 91.\nFelmeri, Lajos, 90.\nFennessy, D., 91.\nFenollosa, E. F., 472.\nFernald, M. C, 526.\nFernandez, Vict. R. Ventura y, 12.\nFerry, Jules, 415.\nFett, W. A., 245.\nFetter, Geo. W., 386.\nFetterolf, A. H., 591.\nFicklen, John R., 91.\nField, L. M., 245.\nFielding, 170.\nFigueira, Jose H., 68.\nFinancial interests of business schools, 10.\nFindlay College, 92.\nFindlay, 0., 92.\nFinishing school, 177.\nFinkler, Dr. Dittmar, 4, 12.\nFinland, Russia, 12, 178, 526.\nFinley, J. EL, 91.\nFirst principle in eleventh book of Aristotle, 679, 700.\nFirst two years of childhood, 715, 773.\nFisher, A. B., 245.\nFisher, D. W., 88, 91, 160.\nFisher, Edw., 509.\nFisher, Laura, 324.\nFisk, Amy B., 325.\nFisk, Franklin W., 91.\nFisk University, 93.\nFiske, David, 87, 108.\nFiske, L. R., 92.\nFitch, J. G., 13.\nFitch, State Superintendent, 67, 78.\nFitchburg, Mass., 69.\nFite, Stanislaus, 715.\nFitness, professional, 80.\nFitting schools\nfor industrial pursuits, 10.\nprivate,\ntheir main185.object, 194.\nFitz, G. W., 10, 615.\nFitzhugh, James S., 325.\nFitzpatriek, N. A., 67, 69, 71.\nFixing ideas, 73.\nFlack, A. H., 180.\nFlagg, Rufus C, 93.\nFlamand, Ch., 245.\nFlat, drawing from the, 455, 456.\n\n"}
{"page": 985, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX.\nFlatbush, N. Y., 325.\nFlaubert, a novel of, 176.\nFlensburg, Germany, 245.\nFletcher, Dr. R., 527.\nFlexibility in grading, 84.\nFlinn, J. W., 681.\nFlint, Mich., 246.\nFlorence, Ala., 385.\nFlorida, 67, 69, 78, 323, 385, 509.\nFlowers in the windows, 73Folly, incredible, 18.\nFoose, L. 0., 69.\nForbes, F. A., 837.\nFord, H. A., 831, 832.\nForecast and retrospect, 862.\nForces\nof nature, 31.\nregulating, 184.\nForefathers, their expectations, 53.\nForeign\nrepresentatives, 31.\ntongues, 154.\nlanguages, nine years' work, 194.\neleven years' work, 195.\nForm of government, republican, 166.\nForms of education, relation to physical\ntraining, 11.\nForms, tasteful and graceful, 10.\nForrest, John, 89.\nForster, Miss Aug., 245.\nFort Wayne. Ind., 69, 179, 324.\nFortier, Alc6e, 91.\nFoster, A. J., 814.\nFoster, Miss Alia W., 91.\nFoster, Ellen Burroughs, 324.\nFoster, Ida L., 324\nFoster, Dr., 679, 700, 703.\nFostoria, O., 180.\nFoundation\nof Democracy, 40.\nof law, 51.\nFountain sion,of37. youth, the teacher's profesFowle, William C, 812.\nFowler, Laura T., 385.\nFowre Hymnes, by Spenser, 173.\nFox, Arthur, 245.\nFort Collins, Colo., 323.\nFox, Luther A., 681.\nFox, Viola R., 325.\nFox, W. F., 70.\nFraissenet, M., 245.\nFrance,\nathletic movement, 11.\nhistory of educational journalism, 12.\nnames of vice-presidents, 12, 68, 89, 178,\n244, 323, 385, 508, 526, 590, 715.\nan educational question in, 27.\npopular education in, 28.\naccustomed to look in, 40.\nhigher education, 94, 95.\nsecondary education for girls, 177, 211,\n217.\naspects of curriculum\nin elementary\nschools, 243, 262.\n\n965\n\nFrance,\nschool savings-banks in, 244, 287.\nour friends from, 183.\nFrance Enseignante, 848.\nFrankfurt, Germany, 178.\nFranklin and Marshall College, 93.\nFranklin College, 91.\nFranklin, Mrs. C. Ladd, 91.\nFranklin, Ind., 91.\nFranklin, Neb., 180.\nFraser, D. D., 244.\nFraternities of students, 144.\nFraternity, means of, 39.\nFrazer, Robert, 591.\nFredericton, New Brunswick, 12.\nFredonia, N. Y., 384, 386, 428.\n\"Freedom spoke and Athens arose,\" 154.\nFree-hand drawing, 7.\nFreeport, 111., 324.\nFree School Clarion, 828.\nFree system of public education, 165.\nFreiberg, Germany, 89.\nFrench\nschools, 10, 43.\nrepublic, 53.\nuniversities, English literature in, 168\nessay, 244.\nand German at Harvard, 122.\nGerman and English, 154.\nthe chief constituents, 154.\nart of writing, 169.\nstudent of literature, 169.\neye, its structure, 170.\nand German minds, 169.\nschools and specialization, 589, 597.\nsystem of manual training, 589, 597.\nFrench, F. C, 716.\nFrench, Mr., 155.\nFrench Protestant College, 91.\nFrench, W. M. R. , 455, 456, 497, 504.\nFrenchmen have respect for German genius, 169.\nFreshman year, 122.\nFricke, Albert, 245, 385.\nFriend as business woman, 10.\nFriends, rich, challenged, 167.\nFriends\n57. of Popular Education, Society of,\nFroebel Association, 323.\nFroebel's plays and games, 7.\nsubstitutions for them, 7.\nphilosophy, 7.\nFroebelian method, 57.\nFrost, W. G., 91.\nFruit, John P., 716.\nFulcomer, Daniel, 384, 422.\nFuller, nomer T., 527.\nFuller, Susan E., 456, 457, 505.\nFullerton, George Stuart, 716.\nFunctions\nof class teachers, 9, 508, 520.\nof special music teachers, 9, 508, 520.\nof state, 23.\nof life, 49.\nof a university, 96, 97.\n\n"}
{"page": 986, "printed_page": null, "text": "966\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nFundamental principles of art, 10.\nFurman University, 681.\nFutrall, T. A., 179.\nG\nGage, Geo. M., 818.\nGage, N. P., 246.\nGage, Wm. L., 818.\nGailor, Thos. F, 93.\nGaines, Absalom G., 681.\nGaines, H. N„ 69.\nGalesburg, 111., 69, 91, 323.\nGallagher, John, 386.\nGallagher, R. E., 796.\nGallagher, Wm., 180.\nGallatin, Tenn., 180.\nGallaudet, Dr. E. M., 13.\nGallee, J. H., 90.\nGallowav, Miss Janet A., 90.\nGalopin,\"\n89. 70.\nGalveston,Dr.,\nTex.,\nGalvin, 713.\nGalway, Ireland, 68.\nGambier, O., 92, 180.\nGamwell, Alb. A., 814.\nGand, Belgium, 89.\nGap between the people, 166.\nGarcia, Julio A., 12.\nGardiner, H. N., 716.\nGarfield, 95.\nGarin, Paul, 590.\nGarland, L. C, 93.\nGarlinville, 111., 69.\nGarman, Charles E., 716.\nGarmo, Charles de, 93.\nGarofalo, Raff., 90.\nGarrett, W. R., 70.\nGarst, Henry, 681.\nGass, Howard A., 842.\nGastman, E. A., 69, 837.\nGate between training-school and teacher's\nposition, 79.\nGates, Geo. A., 91.\nGates, M. E., 91.\nGates, Pres., 88, 159.\nGatherings, large and select, 167.\nGaufres, M. J., 178.\nGauthiot, M., 178.\nGee Long, Victoria, 89.\nGeneral history, 7.\nGeneral sessions, 4, 16.\nsecond, 34.\nGeneralizing too promptly, 52.\nGeneration,\neach, of secondary\nschoolmasters, 183.\nGeneric facts, 44.\nGeneric mathematical discipline, 152.\nGenerosity for public education, 35.\nGeneva, Switzerland, 179.\nGenius\nthat fashioned the treasures of industry,\n34.\nof Dr. Harris, 35 ; loci, 106.\nartistic, 162.\nGeniuses, great, of Germany, 169.\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nGenoa,\nItaly, 323.\nGeography,\nmethods of teaching, 6.\nGeology\nessential in a course of study, 243, 251.\nas a study, 6.\nto be a master of, 18.\nGeometrical\nforms, 36.\nGeometry\nas a study, 6.\nor algebra, which first? 178, 221.\nGeorgetown, D. C, 323.\nGeorgetown University, 91.\nGeorgia, 13, 69, 91, 179, 246, 323, 509, 526,\n680.\nGerhard\nGerman, t, L., 385.\nhonor of being a, 38.\neducation. 43, 118.\nessay, 244, 308.\nand French at Harvard, 122.\ngymnasium,\n136. 169.\nin French lycees,\nhabits of thought, 169.\nhabits of speech, 169.\nsentence like a railroad-tunnel, 169.\nas a scientific instrument, 1 70.\nis required from French candidates, 170.\nstandard authors, 174.\nnovelists and essayists, 175.\nGermantown,\nPa., 180.\nGermany,\nGreek gymnastics in, 11.\nEopular and youthful sports in, 11.\nistory of educational journalism, 12.\nlist of vice-presidents, 12. 68, 89, 178,\n244, 323, 385, 456, 508, 590, 616.\nan educational question in, 27.\npopular education in, 28.\nteachers trained in, 60.\nfollow her example, 77.\nhigher education, 94, 95, 137.\narboriculture in, 306.\nkindergarten in, 322.\nphysical training in, 144.\nour friends from, 183.\nGerms from other lands, 99.\nGettysburg, Pa., 93, 617.\nGiants, intellectual, 139.\nGibbon, 170.\nGibbons, Cardinal, 13.\nGifts,\nGiessen,\nGermany, 89, 179.\nnew, to the educational world, 17.\nnatural, 18.\nGifts and occupations in kindergarten, 7.\nGilbert, C. B., 67, 81.\nGilbert, S. R., 840.\nGilke, A. H., 526.\nGill, Alb., 245.\nGill, Chas. G., 246.\nGillett, Miss, 713.\nGilman, Arthur, 180.\nGilman, D. C, 5, 87, 88, 117, 160, 525, 824.\nGilmore, J. H., 681.\n\n"}
{"page": 987, "printed_page": null, "text": "967\nINDEX.\nGirard College, Philadelphia, Pa., 591.\nGirls\nin France, 177.\nin England, 178.\nand boys in manual training, 10.\nGladstone's warning, 163.\nGlamor of martial glory, 162.\nGlasgow, Scotland, 245, 385, 526, 590.\nGlass, E. C, 70.\nGlass, R. C., 681.\nGlazier, Richard, 456.\nGleason, Mrs. Rose, 507, 513.\nGleeson, E. J., 681.\nGlobe, our, its atmosphere, 46.\nGlover, N. L., 507, 512, 514, 519, 522.\nGobin, M., 385.\nGod,\nthanks to, 34.\nthe Creator, 36.\nhis blessing, 37.\nfaith in, 99.\nGodart, A., 178.\nGodding, A. W., 814.\nGodfrey, 111., 179.\nGoethe and Schiller permeated with Greek,\n128\nGoetz, Ferd., 616.\nGoetze, Woldemar, 590.\nGolden circle of education, 20.\nGoldsmith, Mrs. A. O., 325.\nGondolfo, E., 90.\nGonpilliere, Haton de la, 526.\nGoode, G. Brown, 13.\nGoodell, H. II., 527.\nGoodenough, W. S., 455, 504, 591.\nGoodison, John, 832.\nGoodman, Jennie, 324.\nGordon, I., 245.\nGordy, J. P., 829.\nGorham, Me., 386.\nGorlitz, Germany, 178.\nGoshorn, A. T., 457.\nGothenburg, Sweden, 90, 590.\nGottingen, Germany, 178.\nGoucher, John F., 91.\nGould, R. E., 246.\nGove, Aaron, 836, 843.\nGovernment\nof, for, and by the people, 31.\nmake it our servant, 189.\nshall it undertake all education ? 192.\nGow, Alex. M., 835.\nGower, 174.\nGradation of normal and training-schools,\n383, 410.\nGraded courses in business schools, 10.\nGraded system of schools, 191.\nGrades\nof primary schools, 10.\nof grammar schools, 10.\nin all, instruction same for boys and\ngirls, 590, 606.\nGrading and classification, 83.\nGraduate might not become un-American,\n199.\n\nGrady, Richard, 591.\nGraham, James D., 68.\nGraham, Mary, 716.\nGraham, Mary 0., 384.\nGrammar,\nrhetoric and logic, 152.\nand lexicon, demand a laboratory, 197.\nGrammar schools, 60.\nindustrial training in, 10.\nGranada, Spain, 90.\nGrandeau, Prof., 307.\nGrand Rapids, Mich., 324, 383, 422.\nGrant, Rev. A., 13.\nGrant, G. M., 12.\nGrant, Mr., 589.\nGranville, O., 92.\nGraves, John J., 245.\nGraves, S., 179.\nGraz, Austria, 68, 323, 384.\nGreat Britain,\nlist of vice-presidents, 13, 68, 89, 179,\n244, 323, 385, 456, 508, 526, 590, 616,\n680, 715.\nGreat masters analyzed, 455, 473.\nGreatest good to the State, 81.\nGreek\nas a study, 6, 54, 126, 127, 128.\ngymnastics,\nits educational11. value, 27, 125.\nhonor of being a, 38.\nfor degree of B.A., 88, 118, 125.\nindispensable, 124.\narchitecture, 123.\noriginals for purity and taste, 123.\nphilosophy, 119.\nessential feature of culture, 126.\nand Roman world, 127.\na luxury, 128.\nits ineffaceable stamp, 128.\nmethods and principles, 128.\npostulate, 129.\nreading it at .sight, 130.\nis a sieve, 135.\nbest presentation of arguments, 135.\nspirit, 153. 153.\nantiquity,\nGreek-letter fraternities, 145.\nGreek question will never be solved, 137.\nGreeley, Colo., 385.\nGreely, Gen. A. W., 6.\nGreen, James M., 386.\nGreen, N., 93.\nGreen Bay, Wis., 93.\nGreencastle, Ind., 91, 715.\nGreene, Charles II., 507, 512, 513.\nGreene, C. M., 841.\nGreene, J. M., 384, 433.\nGreene, J. P., 92.\nGreene, Samuel S., 814.\nGreensboro, Ala., 90.\nGreensboro, N. C, 325.\nGreenville, S. C, 681.\nGreenwood, Superintendent J. M., 5, 67.\nGreeting, informal, to Miss Susan E. Blow,\n322.\n\n"}
{"page": 988, "printed_page": null, "text": "968\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCON GUESS\n\nGreeves, Dr., 385.\nGregory, B. C, 69.\nGregory, J. M., 832, 837.\nGreifswald, Germany, 178.\nGreiner,W. Philip,\nGrier,\nM., 93.616.\"\nGriffin, Edward H., 716.\nGriffith, George. 69.\nGrigg, Mr., 507, 514, 522.\nGrigg, Sarah E., 325.\nGriggs, Edw. H., 715.\nGrinnell, la., 91, 324, 681.\nGrinnell, Mrs. K. V., 713.\nGroneman, F. G. , 246.\nGroningen, Netherlands, 246.\nGroot, Dr. D. de, 68.\nGroton, Mass., 180.\nGroups\nof related subjects, 118.\nof faculties in Prance, 168.\nGrowth,\n, its periods, 9.\nof the mind, 29.\nof Chicago, 30.\nof a people, 31.\nof modern scholarship, 120.\nof the study of modern languages, 121.\nof public education, 165.\nGuadeloupe, 244\nGuatemala, 13.\nGuernsey. Teacher, The, 829.\nGugler, Jos., 384.\nGuide of thought and life, 151.\nGuilhot, S., 508.\nGulf, impassable, 181.\nGulick, Luther, 615, 617.\nGumbinnen, Germany, 245.\nGundert, Ernst, 385.\nGuptill, Fannie S., 383, 386, 391, 591.\nGurney, Mary, 178, 224.\nGustavus Adolphus College, 681.\nGutzmann, A., 11, 616, 674\nGuzman, C. E., 13.\nGwathmey, J. T., 617.\nGyles, May, 324.\nGymnasia, capacity and efficiency of, 186.\nGymnasium,\nsecondary school, 11.\nJoachimsthal, 87, 137.\nor German college, 118.\nGymnastics and gymnasium,\nphysical education, 10.\ntraining, 146.\nfor educational purposes, 55.\nRoyal Institute in Stockholm, 615, 622.\nin Saxony, 616, 670.\nGymnastique (La) Erangaise, 849.\nH\nHaas, Mrs. E. S., 324.\nHaase, 68.\nHackensack, N. J., 246.\nHackettstown. N. J., 180.\nHackspiel, J. K., 178.\nHadley, Hiram, 527.\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nHagar, D. B., 386.\nHagen, Germany, 178.\nHailmann, Mrs. Eudora L., 5, 321, 356.\nHailmann, W. N., 13, 178, 221, 224, 321,\n322, 820.\nHairband, Hattie V., 324.\nHale, Albert, 180.\nHale, Edward, 179.\nHale, Edward Everett, 375.\nHale, Miss Sarah J., 385.\nHale,160.\nW. G., 88, 118, 132, 142, 154, 155,\nHaley, Sam., 245.\nHalifax, Nova Scotia, 12, 89, 456.\nHall, G. Stanley, 5, 11, 384, 433, 713, 715.\nHall, Jos., 179.\nHall, J. M., 246.\nHall, Lucile E., 617.\nHall, Winfield S., 617.\nHall of Columbus, 15, 16.\nHall of Washington, 243.\nHalle, Germany, 12, 89, 179.\nHallucinations\nof a dream, 24.\nHaller,\nH. F.,'53.\nHalsey, Amelia L., 324.\nHalsey, W. McD., 180.\nHam, Chas. H. , 591.\nHamburg, Germanv, 245, 323.\nHamilton College, 92.\nHamilton, N. Y., 92, 180, 716.\nHamilton, Ont., 321, 796.\nHamilton, 0., 69.\nHamilton, R. I., 246.\nHamilton, Thos., 90.\nHamline, Minn., 92.\nHamline University, 92.\nHammerstein, Lillie, 324.\nHammond, C, 819.\nHammond, J. D., 92.\nHampden-Sidney College, 93.\nHampden-Sidney, Va., 93.\nHampstead, N. W., 616.\nHanan, Germany, 68.\nHand work, educative value, 322.\nHandel, 9.\nHandy, Rev. J. A., 13.\nHanks, Bertha F., 324.\nHanover College, 91.\nHanover, Germany, 89, 178.\nHanover, Ind., 91.\nHanover, N. H„ 527, 716.\nHanslick, Edw., 509.\nHanson, James, 245.\nHanson, J. H., 179.\nIlarborough, England, 245.\nHardgrave, W. M., 681.\nHardie, Thos., 246.\nHarlan, D. W., 69.\nHarmony\nHarlem Branch of Y. M. C. A., 617.\nof legal institutions, 50.\ndefect in, 55.\nbetween science and profession, 111.\nin music, 507, 512.\nHarper, Dr. J. M., 4, 383, 384, 407, 432.\n\n"}
{"page": 989, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX.\n\n969\n\nHelmesberger, Jos., 508.\nHarper, Mrs. M. A., 615.\nHelsingfors, Finland, 12, 178, 526.\nHarper, W. R., 88, 91, 160.\nHemenway, Mrs. M., 14.\nHarris, E. D., 835.\nHarris, Dr. W. T., 4, 5. 25, 26, 37. 41, 65, Henderson, George W., 681.\nHenderson. Thomas J., 842.\n83, 87, 106, 168, 176, 181, 192, 207,\nHendrix College, 90.\n249, 251, 508, 522, 525, 526, 679, 680,\nHenkle, W. D., 828.\n705.\nHarrisburg, Pa., 69.\nHenriques, Mrs. L. M., 509.\nHenrotin, Mrs. Chas., 4, 22, 525, 551.\nHarrison, Caskie, 180.\nHarrison, Miss EL, 322.\nHeresy,- every sort of, 166.\nHermann, J., 616.\nHarrison, H. E. B., 245.\nHermite, M., 89.\nHarrison, J. A., 93.\nHarrison, T. F., 57.\nHerrera, Felix Martin y, 12.\nHerrmann, G., 89.\nHarrogate, England, 245.\nHertel, Franz, 323.\nHarrow, England, 179.\nHarrow School, 179.\nHervey, Alph. B., 92, 713, 737, 739.\nHart, Alexis C, 180.\nHesperian College, 90.\nHewett, E. C, 836.\nHart, Blanche, 325.\nHart, Caroline C, 325.\nHewit, Aug. F., 700.\nHart, J. M., 129.\nHeyse, 68.\nHibben, J. G., 681.\nHartford, Conn., 69, 179, 323, 713, 720.\nHicks, G. W., 243, 246, 272.\nHartmann, Miss Angelika, 322, 323.\nHartwell, Edw. M., 5, 10, 615, 618, 714, Hicks, Mary Dana, 456, 487, 504, 505, 591.\n739\nHiffing's educational works, 63.\nHartwig, Th., 178.\n' High Harrogate, England, 245.\nHigher\nacademic degrees of pedagogy, 440.\nHarvard University, 10. 91, 96, 99, 112,\n122, 125, 185, 199, 615, 681.\nHigher Education, 6.\nsubjects of preliminary programme, 6.\nHarvey, George, 456.\nHarvey, L.D., 386.\nthe question .of, 27.\ndepartment congress of, 87, 94.\nHarvey, It., 245.\nwork different from normal school, 384,\nHarvey, Mrs. T. W., 324.\n430.\nHaskell, Miss H. N., 179.\nHas! am, J. B., 245.\ngiven to certain elect men, 165.\nwhat it is trying to do, 166.\nHasting, College of Law, 52.\nHatchet, The, 844.\nviolently disrupted, 197.\nHavana, Cuba, 89, 178.\nHigher institutions of learning, 18.\nHigh-schools,\nHaven, Carolyn T., 325.\nHaven, E. 0., 832.\nsupervision of, 6.\nmanual training in, 10.\nHaverford College, 93, 617.\nHaverford, Pa., 93.\nmechanic art high-schools, 10.\nnone for girls in Sweden, 61.\nHavre, Prance, 53, 244, 287, 3X4.\nHawaii, 246.\nfor girls in England-, 178, 225.\nHawley, Mary W., 325.\ncan they prepare for universities ? 155.\nHawthorne, 170.\nHightstown, N. J., 180.\nHill, David J., 716.\nHawthorne, Benjamin J., 681.\nHill, H. A., 526.\nHaydn, 9.\nHill, Judson S., 386.\nHayes College, Me., 680.\nHill, Junius W., 509.\nHayes, Benjamin P., 679, 680, 681, 686.\n1 Iillman, Walter, 92.\nHay ford, E. L., 616.\nHillsdale College, 92.\nHayter, E. 11., 245.\nHillsdale, Mich., 92.\nIlazzard, Mary M., 324.\nHeart,\nHillside, Wis., 325.\nculture of, 20.\nHine, C. D., 69.\nHine, M. C, 179.\nqualities of, 43.\nIlinewah, Arnold H., 322.\nHector, Thomas, 245.\nHinsdale, Dr. B. A., 4, 67, 243, 260.\nHeerwagen, Mrs. L., 509.\nHeerwart, Miss E., 323.\nHints dropped\nconcerning\ncollege and\nuniversity work, 165.\nHeidelberg, Germany, 179.\nHeidelberg University, Germany, 92, 157.\nHippauf,\nDr., 68.\nHiram College,\n92. .\nHeine, 175.\nHeld, B., 93.\nHiram, O., 92, 716.\nHis, W., 89.\nHele-Shaw, H. S., 526.\nHistorical\nHellenism\ninstitutions, 88.\nin Americanism, 125.\nis their credo, 138.\ndevelopment of normal schools, 383, 415.\n\n"}
{"page": 990, "printed_page": null, "text": "970\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nHistorical review of gymnastics in Saxony,\n616, 670.\nHistory\nin secondary schools, 7.\nof Sheffield Scientific School, 9.\nof Turner-bund, 11, 615, 657.\nof economics, 46.\nof treatises, 51.\nteaching it to children, 244, 284.\nof the country, essential, 243, 251.\nEnglish, forgotten, 139.\nof Western culture, 151.\nand reason, 163,\nHistory\nHistory of education,\ninvestigation in, 8.\neducational journalism, 12.\na study for acquiring degree of P.D.,\n434.\nin France and Germany, 186.\nof physical education in Denmark, 615,\n664.\nHitchcock, Edw., 617.\nHoar, Hon. Geo. P., 14.\nHobart, Tasmania, 89.\nHobbes, 170.\nHobson, E., 385.\nHodgins, J. G., 12.\nHofer, Amelia, 346, 513, 514, 522.\nHofer, Andrea, 826.\nHoffmann, Frank S., 681.\nHoffmann, Paul, 4, 589, 591, 614.\nHolbrook, R. H., 829.\nHolladay, Alex. Q., 527.\nHolland, F. M., 456, 504.\nHolland, G. W., 93.\nHolland, W. J., 93.\nHolloway, J. L., 842.\nHolly Springs, Miss., 92, 386.\nHolmes, Eugene D., 180.\nHoist, Prof, von, 94.\nHolt, H. E., 507, 508, 509, 519, 520, 522.\nHoly Ghost College, 93.\nHolyoake, C. G., 590.\nHolyoke College, 91.\nHolzmliller, G., 178.\nHomans, Miss Amy M., 617.\nHome, a, of art and culture, 168.\nHonolulu, Hawaii, 246.\nHonor\nof being a man, 38.\nof being an American, 38.\n\" Honorable History of Friar Bacon and\nFriar Bungay,\" by Greene, 173.\nHonorary vice-presidents, 12, 68, 89, 178,\n244, 323, 384, 456.\nHooper, F. W., 591.\nHoosier Schoolmaster, The, 830.\nHopkins, Mrs. L. P., 246, 322.\nHoppin, J. M., 456.\nHornby, J. D., 840.\nHornemann, F., 178.\nHornsby, Marie C. D., 325.\nHorobin, John Chas., 245.\nHospital Salpetriere, Paris, 715.\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nHoss, Geo. W., 830, 844.\nHostile local influence, 190.\nHotchkiss, Mary F., 322, 325.\nHoughton. Mich., 527.\nHouston, Tex., 67, 81.\nHovev, Chas. E., 834.\nHoward College, 90, 91.\nHoward, John, 507, 514, 519, 523.\nHoward University, 715.\nHowe, Edw. G., 178, 224.\nHowe, S. S., 840.\nHowell, Lvdia G., 841.\nHowland, Geo., 837.\nHowley, J. W., 841.\nHow to select and grade physical exercises,\n615. 631.\nHoyt, D. W., 180.\nHoyt, Mrs. J. M., 93.\nHoyt, J. W., 93.\nHubbard, W. C, 812.\nHubrecht, Dr. P. F., 18.\nHughes, Mrs. A. M., 5, 321, 323, 326.\nHughes, Miss E. P., 16, 60, 217, 383, 407,\n385.\nHughes, Hugh Price, 13.\nHughes, Inspector James L., 5, 11.\nHughes, Richard C, 681.\nHugo, Victor, 39, 55.\nHiding, Ray Greene, 5, 177, 241.\nHull, John. 383, 385, 408, 433.\nHull, W. N., 246.\nHuman\nbodv, its cultivation, 10, 615, 623\nills/46.\nlife, 45, 46.\nlearning, 125.\nHumanistic\nl subjects, 122.\ntraining, 124.\nHumanity,\neye, blind, 132.\nevery one belongs to it, 38.\nforget it, 38.\nideal of, 45.\nwould suffer without Latin, 53.\nHumboldt, 111., 324.\nHume, 170.\nHungary, 13, 90, 179, 385.\nHunsiker, M.. 590.\nHunt, Miss II. E.. 713, 720.\nHunter, Thos., 386.\nHuntington, E. B., 815.\nHuntington, Ind., 246.\nHuntington, Wm. E., 681.\nHuntsville, Ala., 456.\nHuntsville, Tex., 386.\nHiirlimann, I., 323.\nHutchinson, Kan., 324.\nHuttlingen, Switzerland, 179.\nHutton, David J., 456.\nHutton, F. R, 525, 558.\nHuxley, 46.\nHyde, W. De Witt, 91.\n\"Hydriotaphia,\" by Sir Thos. Browne, 173.\nHygiene of vocal organs, 9, 507, 514.\n\n"}
{"page": 991, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX.\n\" Hymne in Honour of Love and Beauty,\"\nby Spenser, 173.\nHymns, religious, 9.\nHynes, J. J., 245.\nHyslop, J. H., 681.\n\nI\nIdaho, 69.\nIdeal\nview of normal schools, 384, 422, 451.\nfrom the, to the practical, 427.\nstudy, 150.\nscheme, 154.\nGraeco-Roman, 163.\nIdeals,\npresent, in educational publications, 11,\n810.\nin journalism, 810.\nIdleness, prevention of criminal, 372.\nIgnatius, Chas. Emile, 12.\nIgnorance\na menace, 81.\nlamentable, 126.\nIllinois, 13, 32, 69. 88, 91, 179, 246, 323,\n385. 509, 591, 616, 680, 715.\nIllinois College, 715.\nIllinois Common School Advocate,\nThe,\n833.\nIllinois Normal Department, the, 836.\nIllinois School Journal, The, 837, 838.\nIllinois Schoolmaster, 836.\nIllinois State Normal University, 384.\nIllinois Teacher, The, 834, 836, 837.\nIlliterate man, 56.\nIllumination needed, 28.\nIllustrations of every occupation, 24.\n\"Imaginary Conversations,\"\nby Walter\nSavage Landor, 173.\nImagination of children, 11, 713.\nImelmann, Dr., 87, 88, 118, 137.\nImparting knowledge, 44.\nImperialism surrounded by martial glory,\n162.\nImpertinence\nto supervise\nmy private\nschool, 192.\nImportance of aesthetics, 455, 462.\nImportunities of degree seekers, 160.\nImprovement,\nsigns of, 6, 142.\nin the teaching of geography, 6.\nof teachers, 29.\nImre, Prof., 13.\nInability of private schools, 186.\nInch, J. R., 12.\nIncident in history of higher education,\n199.\nIncompatible mass of studies, 121.\nIncompetence, ignorant, 18.\nInconvenience caused by multiplication of\ndegrees, 123.\nIndia, 68.\neducation of women in, 890.\nIndian Territory, 324.\nIndiana, 13, 32, 69, 91, 246, 324, 385, 526,\n616, 680, 715.\n\n971\n\nIndiana School Journal, 830.\nIndiana University, 616, 715.\nIndianapolis, Ind., 69, 79, 179, 243, 257,\n324, 456.\nIndictment of human nature, 139.\nIndifference cause of difficulties, 190.\nIndividual\nteacher's help, 72.\ninstruction, 191.\nIndividualism, intelligent, 184.\nIndividuality, complete, 28.\nIndustrial\ninterests of business schools, 10.\nneeds of localities, 6, 243, 206.\ninstruction,\nproducts, 10.28.\nlife, 45.\nand manual instruction, 589.\npursuits, specialization for, 589, 597.\nIndustrial Art School, Philadelphia, Pa.,\n591.\nIndustrial instruction,\ntheses on, 10.\ndepartment congress of, 589.\nand manual training. 590, 606.\nIndustries,\npreparation for, 29.\nof the world make demands, 589, 594.\nInevitable result, 124.\nInfants' vocabularies, 713, 737.\nInfluence,\nundue, 74.\nof the city upon Columbia College, 147.\nof French writers in England, 170.\nmighty, exerted, 184.\nhostile, 190.\nreflex, 192.\nof the people of the community, 192.\nman exerts, 198.\nIngatestone, England, 245.\nIngraham, Dr. Lena V., 10.\nIngraham, Prof., 45.\nInjury\nInjurious\ntraining, 131.\nto vocal organs, 9.\nto public institutions, 37.\nserious, 124.\ndone to Greek, 125.\nInnocent III., 118.\nInspectors,\nunder control of, 41.\npopular with teachers, 191.\nnot technically called so, 191.\nInstinct of art, 466.\nInstitute of Gymnastics in Stockholm,\n615, 662.\nInstitute of Technology, Boston, 91, 99,\n589, 526, 569.\nInstitution,\na peculiar, 61.\n\"sui generis,\" 112.\nInstitutions of higher learning have preceded, 165.\nInstruct is to construct, 55.\nInstruction in vocal music, 8.\n\n"}
{"page": 992, "printed_page": null, "text": "972\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nInstruction,\ntechnological, 9, 27.\nindustrial, 10, 28.\nethical and civic, 28.\nin elementary branches, 28.\npublic, in Italy, 907.\nInstructor (The) and School Journal, 840.\nInstrument\nfor accompanying vocal music, 9.\nscientific, 170.\nIntegral elements, 162.\nIntegrity, harmonious and synthetic, 110.\nIntellect\ntraining of, 20.\nastute, of the Jesuits, 185.\nIntellectual evolution of the child, 713.\nIntelligence, 839.\nIntelligence diffused, 55.\nIntercommunication of studies, 7.\nIntercourse\nbetween nation^, 64.\nhuman, Greek as a means of, 137.\nInterest\nshown in religious education, 28.\nin educational things, 32, 34.\nin secondary education, 181.\njealous, 192.\nInterests,\nindustrial, financial, and commercial,\n793.\nof business schools, 10.\nof a town or community, 38.\nof the sciences, 177, 199.\nblind to their highest, 167.\nInterference, legislative, 189.\nInter- Mountain Educator, 843.\nInter-Mountain Practical Educator, 843.\nInternational\ncourtesies, 6.\npoint of view, 38.\nequality, 38.\nlaw, 51.\nreview, 846.\nInternational Educational\nCongress, organization of,25.\nIntervals, lucid, come to politicians, 189.\nInvention, poetic and dreaming, 714, 730.\nInvestigation,\noriginal, in child study, 8.\nin history of education, 8.\nexperimental psychology, 8.\nin literature and history of education,\n29.\noriginal, 384, 444, 446.\nand research, 168.\nInvestigator, The, 833.\nInvite disaster, 74.\nIowa, 13, 32, 69. 91, 179, 246, 324, 386,\n456, 509, 526. 680, 716.\nIowa City, la., 13, 91, 243, 251, 716.\nIowa College, 91, 88, 681.\nIoiva Instructor, 840.\nIowa Journal of Education, 840.\nIowa School Journal, 840, 841.\nIowa schools, 841.\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION.\n\nIowa Teacher, Tlie, 841.\nIreland, 13, 68, 179, 244, 385.\nIreland, Rev. John, 14. 90.\nIrrelevancies brought forward, 138.\nIrvington, Ind., 9i.\nIrwin, J. S., 69.\nIsdell, Ida M., 325.\nIsleworth, England, 245, 385.\nIsrael, 68.\nItaly,\nIssue, serious educational, 138.\nItalian, honor of being a, 38.\nhistory of educational journalism. 12.\nlist of vice-presidents, 12, 179, 246, 323,\n385, 456, 590.\nIthaca, N. Y., 383, 440, 525, 534, 681.\nIves, Prof. Halsey C, 5.\nIvo, Brother, 681.\nJackson, Alfred, 244.\nJackson, Miss., 69.\nJackson\n39. Park, educational exhibits in, 22,\nJacksonville, 111., 715.\nJacobson, Augustus, 591.\nJacoby, Ilerm., 89.\nJacou'let, M., 385.\nJaeger, 0., 178.\nJamaica, West Indies, 68, 243, 246, 272,\n385.\nJamaica Plain, Mass., 324.\nJames, Edm. J., 93, 838.\nJames, H. A., 179.\nJamestown, N. Y., 591.\nJanssens, Dr. Eug., 12.\nJapan, 13, 68, 90, 244, 246, 308, 526, 590.\nJapanese, honor of being a, 38.\nJar-z, Dr. K., 68.\nJastrow, Jos., 716.\nJauker, Karl, 384.\nJay Gould and his success, 139.\nJebb, 11. C, 90.\nJefferson City, Mo., 69, 527.\nJena, Germany, 12, 89.\nJenkins, William, 4.\nJepson, B., 509.\nJersey Citv, N. J., 509.\nJesse,\nJesuits,R. EL, 92.\ntheir movements for better schools, 185.\ntheir astute intellects, 185.\nJilinski, Alex., 179.\nJohn, John P. D., 91.\nJohns Hopkins, 99.\nJohns Hopkins University, 87, 88, 91, 94,\n120, 125, 525, 716.\nJohnson, A. A., 93.\nJohnson, Mrs. A. C, 385.\nJohnson, D. B., 246.\nJohnson, D. R., 386.\nJohnson, E., 244.\nJohnson, H. H., 508, 523.\nJohnson, Isaac, 179.\nJohnson, Vt., 386.\n\n"}
{"page": 993, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX.\nJohnston, James H., 386.\nJohnston, John, 815.\nJohnston, W. P., 91.\nJolly, William, 245.\nJones, Anna T., 325.\nJones, Edward N., 386.\nJones, Hiram K., 715.\nJones, Jane L., 325.\nJones, J. Viriana, 90.\nJones, L. H., 69, 243, 257.\nJones, R. C, 90.\nJones, Stephen A., 92.\nJordan, C. M., 591.\nJordan, D. Starr, 88, 135, 137, 155.\nJoseph, Frere, Superior-General, 12.\nJosseraud, M., 12.\nJost, M., 68.\nJournal Anglais, 849.\nJournal de Eamille ou Livre des Enfants,\n851.\nJournal (Le) de V Enseignement Primaire,\n848.\nJournal des Instituteurs, 847.\nJournal for Literary Institutions, 812.\nJournal of Education, The, 68, 819, 831.\nJournal of Pedagogy , The, 829.\nJournal of the Rhode Island Institute of\nInstruction, 813.\nJournalism,\neducational, 12, 810.\nin New England, 811.\nits purpose and reward, 825.\nin New York, 826.\nin Ohio, 828.\nin Indiana, 829.\nin Michigan, 831.\nin Illinois, 833.\nin Iowa, 840.\nin Missouri, 842.\nin Colorado and Kansas, 843.\nin Prance, 12, 845.\nJoynes, Edward S., 180.\nJudge, legist and lawyer, 49.\nJudson, H. Pratt, 91.\nJunge, Pr., 12.\nJunghenn, Th., 68.\nJungk, Miss A., 245.\nJurare in verba magistri, 61.\nK\nKaemmel, 0., 178.\nKalamazoo College, 92.\nKalamazoo, Mich., 92, 324.\nKalken, H. van, 590.\nKambli, L. W.,323.\nKanda, Naiba, 90.\nKansas, 13, 69, 324, 386, 591, 881.\nKansas City, Kan., 13, 617.\nKansas City, Mo., 67.\nKansas Educational Journal, 844.\nKant, quoted, 150.\nKappes, J. H., 508, 520, 521.\nKarlsruhe, Germanv, 12, 245.\nKasson, Frank H.,821.\nKattenbusch, Fred., 89.\n\n973\n\nKazan, Russia, 90.\nKean, Jennie E., 325.\nKeane, John J., 13, 16, 43, 161, 679, 700,\n703.\nKeats, 174.\ntried to become a Greek, 128.\nKeelhoff, Adrien, 590.\nKeenan, Hon. Sir Patrick J., 13.\nKeller, Helen, 244, 302.\nKelley, S. Rosella, 325.\nKellogg. Eva D., 821.\nKellogg, L. B., 844.\nKellogg, Martin, 87, 90, 104.\nKellv, Mrs. A. K. Holt, 323.\nKeltie, T. Scott, 13.\nKempin, Mrs. Emilie, 90.\nKendrick, A. A., 91.\nKennedy, D. A., 180.\nKentucky,\n13, 91, 324, 386, 526, 681,\n716.\nKentucky University, 91.\nKenyon College, 92.\nKenzo, Koyama, 526, 590.\nKern, John A., 681.\nKerr, D. R., 92.\nKerr, John, 68.\nKerr, John G., 590.\nKershaw, Win., 180.\nKessler, Dr., 68.\nKessler, J. L., 681.\nKetwich, H. D. van, 246.\nKeystone Normal School, 589.\nKharkof, Russia, 90.\nKiddle, H., 57.\nKiel, Germany, 12, 68.\nKilbon, Geo. B., 591.\nKilbourn, Geo. B., 589.\nKimball, Mrs. A. P., 324.\nKimball, J. E.,509.\nKimball, Lida M., 325.\nKindergarten\ninstruction, 7.\nadjustment to primary school, 7.\ncharacteristics of, 7.\nshould it teach reading and writing ? 7,\n321, 327.\nsongs and their dramatic element, 7,\n331.\norganic union with primary school, 7,\n321, 336.\nsymbolism, justifiable, 7, 322, 355, 356.\ntraining of teachers, 8, 41.\na sign of the time, 18.\nis here to stay, 22.\nwhat it attempts, 28.\nchanges in plays and games, 321, 328.\nsongs, 321, 328, 331.\nin Germany and America, 322.\nworkers abroad, 322.\nas a basis for life, 322, 346.\neducative value of hand work, 822.\nstory-telling in, 322, 351.\nin Austria, 366.\nteachers of two kinds, 412.\nKindergartner, preparation for, 344.\n\n"}
{"page": 994, "printed_page": null, "text": "974\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nKing, H. C, 681.\nKing, W. P., 91.\nKingsley, Rose, 178, 225.\nKingston, Jamaica, 246.\nKingston, Ont., 680.\nKinross, John, 89.\nKipling, Rudyai-d, 170.\nKirk, Alfred, 836.\nKirkland, Miss Cordelia, 177, 211.\nKirkland. Thos., 383, 384, 410.\nKirkwood, Win. R., 681.\nKjennerud, K.,590.\nKlausenburg, Hungary, 90.\nKlemm, L. R.. 249.\nKlockow, Miss Ida II., 245.\nKnowledge\nof mind, 18.\nnecessary, 66.\nprovinces of, 105.\ntrustworthy only when balanced, 116.\nhistorical and philological, 170.\nKnox College, 91.\nKnoxville, Tenn., 325, 681.\nKnudsen, Dr. D. F., 13.\nKoacsala, Johan, 179.\nKohlrausch, 89.\nKonigsberg, Germany, 89, 245, 385.\nKonstmann, F., 245.\nKopper, Eleonore, 323.\nKoran, thought based on the, 135.\nKovalevsky, Ergraff de, 13, 244, 304, 589,\n604.\nKrause, Miss Marie, 245.\nKreutzer, 9.\nKroeger, F., 245.\nKroger, Miss Margaret, 323.\nKrohn. Wm. O., 713, 715, 750.\nKiicken, Fr., 9.\nKuhlgast, A., 68.\nKutz, Mrs. Henrietta, 180.\nKynnersley, E. M. Sneyd, 245.\nLaboratories\nand libraries, suitable, 160.\ndo not exclude the lexicon, 197.\nLaboratory work in exact measurement, 9.\nLabra, Rafael M. de, 13.\nLa Crosse, Wis., 325.\nLadd, George T., 5.\nLadd, John J., 814.\nLadder to the stars, 36.\n\"Lady of Shalott\" and other poems, by\nTennyson, 174.\nLafayette College, 93. 716.\nLafayette, Ind., 324, 526.\nLage, Miss Bertha v. d., 245.\nLagerstedt, Dr. N. G. W., 4, 64, 244, 289.\nLa Grange College, 681.\nLa Grange, Mo., 681.\nLahaina, Hawaii, 246.\nLake Forest, 111., 91, 680.\nLake Forest University, 91, 680.\nLake Side, 0., 325.\nLambeth, Wm. A., 11, 617,\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nLambl, H. B., 89.\nVAmi de VEnfance, 847.\nLampertico, Fedele, 13.\nLancaster, Pa., 69, 93.\nLandreth, Olin II., 591.\nLane, Superintendent Albert G., 5, 16,\n68, 69, 81.\nLane, F. R, 179.\nLange, Miss Helene, 12.\nLangland, 170.\nLanglee, John R., 385.\nLanguage\nversus science, 27.\nof the world, English, 64.\nstudies, 177, 199.\nlimited, 199.\nessential in course of study, 243, 251.\nof children, 737.\nLanguages,\ntime devoted to, 6.\nessential study, 6.\ntime given to, 177, 196.\n169.\nforeign,\nat the expense of the classic,\nstudied, mastered, and used, 197.\nLangworthy, Agnes E., 324.\nU Annie Cartographique, 849.\nLansing, Mich,, 69, 324, 527.\nLanterns, magic, in schools, 244.\nLanza, G., 526, 569, 582, 586.\nLa Plata, Argentine, 384.\nLa Porte, Ind., 13, 178, 221, 321, 324, 356.\nLaramie, Wyo., 93.\nLa Rioja, Argentine, 384.\nLarsen, Joakim, 615, 664.\nLarsson, Gustaf, 589, 599.\nLasar, Sigismund, 509.\nLas Cruces, N. M., 527.\nLatchaw, J. R. H., 92.\nLatent genius stimulated, 20.\nLatin\nas a study, 6, 54.\nits educational value, 27.\nchoice of, 178, 234.\nor modern language, which first ? 178,\n234, 235.\ngrammar and literature, 120.\na little, and less Greek, 129.\nLatin a requisite of B. A., 129.\nreading it at sight, 130.\ntype of thinkers, 170.\npreferable, 195.\nLatin and English High-School in Boston,\n194.\nLaunder, Harriet J., 324.\nLaussedat, le Colonel, 526.\nLaval, Canada, 385.\nLaw,\nLavisse, Ernest, 171.\ncompulsory attendance, 7.\nas a calling, 18.\nobedience to, 28.\nRoman, 50.\nof general education in Uruguay, 59.\nstudents of, 87,\n\n"}
{"page": 995, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX.\nLaw, Mary E., 325.\nLaw schools in the U. S., 49.\nLawrence, E. A., 815.\nLawrence, Kan., 525, 553.\nLawrence, Mr., 507, 514, 520.\nLawrence University, 681.\nLawrence ville, N. J., 177.\nLaws of muscular and nervous fatigue, 11.\nLaws, Miss Annie, 322, 591.\nLaws, Prof., 679, 680, 686, 699.\nLaws, S. S., 842.\n\"Lawyer, judge, and legist, 49.\nLawyers' agency, 187.\nLeach, Daniel, 814.\nLeaders\nin thought, Dr. Harris, 40.\nof higher education, 95.\nupon public questions, 166.\nLeak, Mrs. M. E., 323.\nLeander, Chas. W., 509.\nLearning, the new, 113.\nLeavell, Rich. M., 681.\nLeavenworth, A. E., 819.\nLeavenworth, Kan., 324.\nLebanon, Tenn., 93, 681.\nLebanon Valley College, 92.\nLeBeuf, Helen Josslyn, 323.\nLeblanc, M., 307.\nIS Echo de I Enseignement Primaire, 848.\nLeciere, Leon, 89.\nL'Eeole Francaise, 848.\nIS Education Chritienne, 848.\nI? Education Nationale, 848.\nLee, B. F., 14.\nLee, Josephine P., 323.\nLee, S. D., 527.\nLeeds, England, 245, 591.\nLeeuwarden, Netherlands, 246.\nLefevre, Walter, 681.\nLegal\neducation in IT. S., 16, 48.\nscience not a collection of terms and\ncodes, 49.\nphilosophy, 49.\nenactment with regard to degrees, 158.\nLegard,\nG., 245.\nLe Garde,A. Miss,\n615, ' 660.\nLegislation,\nproper, secured, 190.\nenforcement of, 190.\nLegislators, slow, 115.\nLegist, judge, and lawyer, 49.\nLeguizamon, H., 384.\nLehigh University, 716.\nLeibold, Anton, 617.\nLeicester, England, 245.\nLeipzig, Germany, 89, 178, 323, 590.\nLeisure for disinterested culture, 138.\nLeiter, Mrs. P. W., 617.\nLeland Stanford, Jr., 99.\nLeland\nStanford Jr. University, 10, 67,\n90,\n765. 120, 322, 355, 446, 615,\" 713, 715,\nL' Filles,\nEnseignement\n846.\n\nSecondaira\n\ndes\n\nJeunes\n\n975\n\nLeonard, N. R., 840.\nLeonard, Tex., 325.\nLe Roy, J. J., 246.\nLerrurier, G., 53.\nLeslie, James R., 385.\nLessing's\nLaocoon and Dramaturgic, 128.\nLetters\nread, 126-135.\nby Cowper, 173.\nLevasseur, M. E., 89, 94, 455.\nLewis, Dr., 679, 699.\nLewis, Elenor H., 324.\nLewis, Mrs. M., 325.\nLewis, W. H., 842.\nLewiston, Me., 509, 681.\nLexington, Ky., 91, 324, 526.\nLexington, Va., 70, 93, 527, 617, 681.\nLibbey, C. E., 92.\nLiberal\neducation, 6, 150.\ntraining of teachers, 41.\nantecedent, 12.\nhow stimulated, 117.\nculture in many directions, 136.\nwhat constitutes a, 150.\nLiberal Arts Building, 4.\nLiberality, great, 165.\nLiberty, Mo., 92, 681.\nLibraries and museums, 97.\nLibrary of pieces of music, 9.\nLicenses of teachers, 7, 22, 119.\nLicentiate,\ncandidates for the, 119.\nin arts, 119.\nLick Observatory, 108.\nLieber, Francis, 94.\nLiege (Luttich), Belgium, 89.\nLierre, Belgium, 384.\nLife, its utilitarianism, 110.\nLight and shade in drawing, 8.\nLight at the beginning and end, 170.\nLightner, J. E., 508, 520, 523.\nLikenesses among men, 155.\nLille, France, 53, 168, 169.\nLilley, George, 527.\nLimitations\nof the art of painting, 8.\nof business college instruction, 10.\nof the special schools, 194.\nLincoln, Neb., 69, 92, 325.\nLindenau-Leipzig, Germany, 616.\nLinguistic and literary education, 141.\nLink between child and university, 22.\nL'Instituteur, 847.\nUlns&ituteur Pratique, 848.\nU Instruction Primaire, 847.\nLion, J. C, 616.\nLisbon, Portugal, 13.\nLisburn, Ireland, 245.\nLists of vice presidents, 12, 68, 89, 178,\n244, 323, 384, 456, 526, 590.\nLiszt, Franz v., 89.\nLiterarg Advertiser\nand Public School\nAdvocate, 840.\nLiterary degrees, 156.\n\n"}
{"page": 996, "printed_page": null, "text": "976\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nLiterature\nas a study, 7, 18.\nEnglish,\n\"168.\nof\nkindergarten,\n322.\nclassical and ancient, 121.\nGreek, 139.\nforeign, 168.\nGreek and French, 170.\nbroken by long gaps, 170.\nLittle Latin and less Greek, 129.\nLittle, Luella, 679.\nLittle Rock, Ark., 246, 509.\nLittlefield, George A., 386.\nLivelihood gained, 112.\nLivermore, Mrs. Mary, 14.\nLiverpool, England, 90, 245, 385, 520.\nLivingston, Ala., 385.\nLlaberia, Augustin Sarda y, 385.\nLloyd, Alf. H., 681.\nLloyd, Miss, 713, 772.\nLocal\ngroups of the board, 80.\npolitics, 81.\nopinion, 143.\nand national control, 190.\nLocalities, industrial needs of, 243, 266.\nLock Haven, Ind., 386.\nLocke, Josephine C., 456, 491, 591.\nLodi, Italy, 179.\nLoeper-Housselle, Mrs., 12.\nLogan, J. V., 681.\nLogan, Utah, 527.\nLogic leads to conclusions, 1<>3.\nLog-schools of the seventeenth century, 56.\nLoizillon, Miss M., 323.\nLomax, J., 245.\nLombard, Warren P., 11, 615.\nLondon, England, 11, 13, 26, 68, 89, 179,\n245, 323, 360, 385, 456. 509, 526, 590,\n715, 750.\nLondonderry, Ireland, 179,\nLong, D. A., 92.\nLong, E. H., 69.\nLong Island City, N. Y., 244, 286.\nLongfellow, 170.\nLoos, Charles L., 91.\nLop-sided, not one-sided, 48.\nLos Angeles, Cal., 323, 383, 433.\nLott, W. II., 509.\nLoudon, James, 89.\nLouisiana, 69, 91, 179, 246, 324, 526, 591,\n616, 681.\nLouisville, Ky., 177, 178, 193, 224, 241,\n324.\nLounsbury, T. R., 132.\nLourdelet, Ernest, 178.\nLove, fired with, 37.\nLove, James, 842.\nLove, Mrs., 507, 512, 513.\nLove, Sam. G., 591.\nLow, Seth, 88, 146, 160.\nLowell, 170.\nLowell, Mass., 95, 324.\nLower, B. Byron, 69.\nLowfield, Keighley, England, 13.\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nLowrie, Annie, 325.\nLoy, M., 681.\nLozano, D. M. Esperabe, 90.\nLucas, Charles, 526.\nLuckey, W. L., 842.\nLuminaries in this land, 40.\nLummis, Henry. 679, 681, 699.\nLund, Sweden, 61.\nLundin, Hulda, 590.\nLuquin, Elise, 590.\nLuscher, Alb., 179.\nLuxury, Greek is, 129.\nLuyssen, M. T., 244.\nLycees in France, 169.\nLymnn, Miss M. J., 323.\nLynchburg, Va., 70.\nLynn, Henry, 245.\nLyon, France, 245, 590.\nLyon, Merrick, 819.\nLyons, Rabbi, 713, 772.\nLyle, Duncan C, 591.\nLyschiske, Miss, 321.\nLyte, Principal E. O., 5.\nM\nMabie, Dr. Hamilton W.. 14.\nMacAlister, James, 5, 456, 504, 589. 805.\nMacaulay, 170.\nMacDonald, George, 245.\nMacGregor, J. G.. 89.\nMacintyre, Marv E., 323.\nMacKa'y,\nH.,Lillie,\n12. 89.\nMacKay, A.\nJ. B.\nMackenzie, Miss Constance, 321, 325, 331.\nMackenzie, Mrs. Eva, 323.\nMackenzie. James C, 5, 15, 177, 182, 183,\n207, 209, 217, 241.\nMackenzie, R. Tait, 11.\nMacKibben, Stuart, 69.\nMackintosh, A., 246.\nMacnamara, T J., 179.\nMacon, Ga., 246.\nMacVicar, Malcom, 384, 430.\nMadison, Neb., 325.\nMadison, S. D., 386.\nMadison, Wis., 93, 325, 716.\nMadison ville, Ky., 386.\nMadonna, with purity born in heaven, 36.\nMadrid, Spain, 13, 68, 179, 385, 616.\nMagic lanterns in school, 244, 314.\nMahonev, Jeremiah, 836.\nMaiden,\"\nJ. 91,\nII., 179,\n590. 246, 324, 386, 509, 526,\nMaine, 69,\n616. 681.\nMaine Journal of Education, The, 818.\nMaine Teacher, The, 817.\nMake room for phvsics, botany, and chemistry, 196.\nMallet, John W., 527.\nMallow, Ireland, 245.\nMalloy, W. R., 68.\nMan\nwho has read Goethe and Lessing, 137.\na logical animal, 138.\nof force, 144.\n\n"}
{"page": 997, "printed_page": null, "text": "977\nINDEX.\nMan\nmeans more than citizen, 1G1.\nmeans more than producer, 163.\nManagement, judicious, 193.\nManchester, Alb. J., 814.\nManchester, England, 90, 245, 456.\nManchester, N. II., 5U9.\nManchester, Pa., 78.\nManhattan College, 92.\nManhattan, Kan., 591.\nManhood,\nhigher type of, 144.\nlarge view of, 167.\nManitoba, Canada, 384.\nMankato, Minn., 715.\nMankind, happiness of, 66.\nMann, B. Pickman, 321.\nMann, Horace, 56, 183, 186, 812, 832.\nManner,\nunobtrusive, 74.\nof influence, 164.\nManners and morals taught through shorthand, 10.\nManning, Agnes M., 341.\nManning, Miss E. A., 323.\nMansfield, O., 508, 523, 617.\nManual\nof object lessons, 57.\nof methods, 57.\nManual, The, 841.\nManual training,\nsystems of, 10, 589, 604.\nSwedish or sloyd, 10, 589, 599.\nRussian, 10, 589, 604.\nfor boys and girls, 10.\nwhat grades of primary school, 10.\nin grammar schools, 10.\nwhat branches, 28.\nspecial schools for, 53.\na separate building for, 193.\nand instruction, 589.\nManual-training school in Chicago, 589,\n604.\nManuel GdnSral, 847.\nManuel Gineral de V Instruction Primaire,\n847.\nManufacture, branches relating to, 6.\nManufacturer, his needs, 18.\nManuscript,\nrejected, 157.\nMarae, C. G.,a student's,\n179.\nMarble, A. P., 243, 268, 591.\nMarcy, Governor, 188.\nMarianna, Ark., 179.\nMarietta College, 92.\nM arietta, Ga., 179.\nMarietta, 0., 92.\nMark Hopkins, 95, 107.\nMarket, text-books put on the, 42.\nMarquette College, 681.\nMarsh, T. P., 92.\nMarshall, G. E., 841.\nMarshall, James, 91.\nMarshall, J. W., 245.\nMarshall, Mr., 508. 519.\nMarshall, Mich., 69.\n62\n\nMartel, Felix, 090.\nMartin, Alex., 715.\nMartin, Eugene, 53, 383, 415, 589.\nMartin, Mrs. E. H., 67, 89.\nMartin, P. M., 386.\nMartin, George H., 246.\nMartin, John EL, 91.\nMarvin, P. O., 525, 553.\nMarwedel, Miss Emma, 322, 372, 590.\nMaryland, 13, 69, 91, 179, 246, 324, 457,\n526, 591, 616, 681, 716.\nMaryville College, Tenn., 93, 679, 680.\nMaryville, Tenn., 93.\nMassachusetts, 14, 55, 69. 91, 179, 246,\n324, 386, 457, 509, 527, 591, 616, 681,\n716.\nMassachusetts\nCommon School Journal,\nThe, 812.\nMassachusetts Teacher, The, 813.\nMasses, educate them, 43.\nMassey, John E., 70.\nMassinger, 174.\nMasson, L., 526.\nMasters\nas perfect as the Greek, 169.\ngreat, and their works, 8.\nMaterial of instruction, 151.\nMaterials for modeling, 8.\nMathematics,\ntime devoted to, 6.\napplied,\n9, 27, 525, 560 ; value of,\n560.\npure, 27.\ntwo years' studv, 195.\nMather,\n590.\nMathews, William,\"\nG. I).. 179.\nMatthews, Elizabeth K., 324.\nMatthews, James, 245.\nMatthews, W. S.. 680.\nMatthias, W., 178.\nMauck, Joseph W., 93.\nMaurelian, Brother, 13.\nMaximum\nof individual instruction, 191.\nof power, 193.\nMaxwell, Superintendent W. II., 5.\nMay, S. P., 456.\nMayfair, 111., 713.\nMayfield, W. D., 70.\nMayhew, Ira, 8<>3.\nMay hew, Nora D.. 323.\nMavnard, Mrs., 679, 086.\nMayo, A. D., 246.\nMayville, N. D., 386.\nMcAfee, Cleland B., 681.\nMcAfee, L. M., 92.\nMcAndrews, W. A.. 507, 513.\nMc Bride. J. M., 527.\nMcCabe John A., 384.\nMcCabe, Lorenzo D., 716.\nMcCabe, W. Gordon, 93.\nMcCarty, H. D., 844.\nMcCosh, Dr. James, 5, 11, 87, 679, 680,\n682, 692.\nMcCoy, Lulu, 456.\n\n"}
{"page": 998, "printed_page": null, "text": "978\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nMcCracken, H. M., 92.\nMeCulloch, J. F., 92.\nMcCulloch, Miss Mary C, 321, 324.\nMc( 'ul loch, K. S., 527.\nMcDermott, P. A., 93.\nMcDonogh, Md., 591.\nMcDowell, Miss, 713.\nMcDowell, W. F., 90.\nMcElrov, E. li., 69.\nMcPadon, 0. E., 509.\nMcGill University Gymnasium, Montreal,\nCanada. 015, 636.\nMcGregor. Duncan, 386.\nMcGrew, Mrs. C. II. , 323.\nMcGuire, T. II., 456.\nMcllvaine, Rich., 93.\nMcKay, Q. W., 843.\nMcKeen, Joseph, 827.\nMcKenzie, Tait. 615, 636.\nMcKnight, II. W., 93.\nMcLellan, Dr. James A., 12.\nMcLouth, Lewis, 527.\nMcMillan, Thos., 92.\nMcMurry, Chas. A., 384, 438.\nMcNair, Anna D., 617.\nMcNaughton, James M., 386.\nMcPherson, Margaret T., 323.\nMead, Mrs. E. S., 91.\nMead, Edw. D., 14.\nMcadville, Pa., 617.\nMeans,\neducational, 9.\nand ends, 43, 44.\nof developing slow pupils, 525, 567.\nMeasurement,\nexact, in laboratories, 9.\nscientific, 98.\nvalue of exact, 525, 558.\nMeath, Earl of, 11, 615, 641.\nMecca, the mosque at, 36.\nMechanical\nexercises, 9.\nschool, 321.\nMechanism, complex, 49.\nMedical\neducation, 117.\nfaculty in New York, 147.\nMedical schools, teach physical training,\n10.\nMedicine,\nas a study, 6.\nas a calling, 18.\nstudents of, 87.\nMedieval times. 153.\nMedium of communication with the public, 158.\nMeetings,\nresults of, 35.\nweekly, teachers', 71.\nprincipals',\nMelody,\nsoprano74. and part singing, 9.\nMelon, Paul. 526.\nMelrose. Mass., 14.\nMembers of committee to protect degree\nof Ph.D., 160.\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nMembers of the corporation and trustees,\n193.\nMembership\nin National Educational Association, 23.\nex-officio, 147.\nMemorial Art Palace, 31, 243, 525.\nMemory,\njoyous, 35.\nimproved, 44.\nMemphis, Tenn., 325.\nMen and women, sane, rational, and disciplined, 166.\nMen, competent, 158.\nMendelssohn, 9.\nM., and Niigeli, 507, 513.\nMendenhall, Dr. T. C, 13.\n\nMenendez, Rodolfo, 246.\n\nMental states, their observation and study,\n11.\nMental waste and economy, 713, 723.\nMeny,\nG. R., 179.\nMerchant,\nhis view of business colleges, 10.\nhis needs, 19.\nMercies, tender, of the select school, 186.\nMerida de Yucatan, Mexico, 240.\nMerit, artistic, 9.\n\"Merman,\nThe,173.and the Mermaid,\" by\nTennyson.\nMerrell, Edw. H., 716.\nMen-Mm, A. C., 125.\nMerrifield, W.. 92.\nMerrill, Moses, 177, 180, 205.\nMerrill, P. Freeman, 526.\nMerwin, J. B., 842.\nMessage, special and personal, 23.\nMessina, Italy, 90.\nMestica. Enrico, 179.\nMetal, instruction in, 10.\nMetaphysics,\neleventh book of Aristotle's,\n11.\nMethod,\nthe historical, 151.\nof the language teacher, 197.\nMethodism should not obstruct ChristianMethodistity, 38.University, 99.\nMethods,\ndebatable ground, 23.\nprogressive, 43.\nof teaching history, 284, 383, 399.\nof fittingsion,symbols\nto child's comprehen322.\nof training teachers, 383, 401.\nphilo^raphic, 456.\nMethods of instruction,\nsymbolic, 7.\nin teaching vocal music, 9.\ntheir adaptation, 244, 301.\nof Confucius, 313.\nMetzner. Heinrich, 617.\n•'Meum\" and \"tuum,\" 123, 132.\nMexico, 90. 246.\nMeyer-Markau, William, 245.\nMiami University, 92.\n\n"}
{"page": 999, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX.\nMichael Angelo, 36.\n\nMichalais, M., 321.\n\nMiclniud, Gustav, 12.\nMichigan, 32, 09, 92, 179, 246, 324, 386,\n509, 527, 681.\nMichigan College, 383.\nMichigan Journal of Education, 832.\nMichigan School Moderator, 832.\nMichigan Teacher, 832.\nMiddle High German, a practical study,\n138.\nMiddlebury College, 93.\nMiddletown, Conn., 91, 142, 680.\nMijares, Mrs. M. del Real y, 68.\nMilan, Italy, 246.\nMilitary school at Woolwich, 186.\nMill, John Stuart, 47.\nMillar, A. C, 90.\nMillar, John, 4, 68, 383, 405, 455, 466.\nMiller, C. C, 69.\nMiller, E. D., 386.\nMiller, L. W., 455, 457.\nMillions bestowed on universities, 167.\nMills Brothers, 840.\nMills, C. T., 90.\nMills, J. J., 91.\nMills, J. S., 669, 681, 686.\nMill, Stuart, 170.\nMilne, James M., 386.\nMilne, William J., 386.\nMilne-Edwards, M., 89.\nMilton College, 93.\nMilton, John, 21, 170, 171.\nMilton, what do with him ? 129.\nMilton, Wis., 93.\nMilwaukee,\nWis., 70, 325, 351, 386, 681.\nMind,\nknowledge of, 18.\ntransition of, 28.\ncontradistinction from biological phenomenon, 29.\nMinds and intellects of Frenchmen, 169.\nMinersville, Ga., 178, 223.\n.Mines, School of, in Columbia College, 525.\nMin fold, Germany, 323.\nMingis, Clara W., 323.\nMinimum\nof time, 50.\nin a secondary school, 195.\nMinisters' Employment Club, 187.\nMinisters of education,\nW. T. Harris, 25.\nof Russia, 37, 48, 304.\nof France, 39, 168.\nG. W. Ross, 40.\nof Argentine, 57.\nMinistry of public instruction\nof Russia, 37, 55.\nof France, 39.\nMinneapolis, Minn., 92, 180, 324, 383, 386,\n391, 509, 591.\nMinnesota, 14, 69, 92, 179, 246, 324, 386,\n509, 591, 681.\nMinuteness with which course of study is\nfollowed, 191.\n\n979\n\nMiranda, Julian O., 246.\nMissemer, II. C, 591.\nMississippi, 69, 92, 386, 527, 591, 681.\nMississippi College, 92.\nMissouri, 69, 92, 179, 324, 386, 509, 527,\n591, 616, 681, 716.\nMissouri Educator, 842.\nMissouri Journal of Education, 842.\nMissouri School Journal, 842.\nMissouri Teacher, 842.\nMissouri Teacher, Ttie, 843.\n31issouri Valley College, 679.\nMitchel, F. Mason, 591.\nMitchell, E. C, 91, 324.\nMitchell, S. T., 92.\nMobile, Ala., 67.\nModeling\nor training schools, 383, 387.\nin clay, 6, 8.\nin wax, 8.\nin other materials, 8.\nModels used in drawing, 8.\nModern educator, eminent, 21.\nModern languages,\nchoice of, 6.\nor Latin, which first ? 178, 234, 235.\nare but gruel by the side of Greek,\n134.\nModern science a new world, 17.\nModifications in the primary school, 7,\n321, 342.\nMohammedan schools, success of, 186.\nMohn, T. N., 92.\nMolkenboer, W. B. G., 457.\nMommsen's charge, 157.\nMonarchical institutions, 37.\nMoney spent for education, 118.\nMoniteur de la Ligue Girondine de V Education Physique, 849.\nMoniteur des Exercises Physiques, 849.\nMoniteur du Jeune Age, 848.\nMonod, M. G., 89.\nMonopoly intolerant, 188.\nMonroe, W. S., 67, 178, 217, 826.\nMonseur, Eugene, 89, 590.\nMont, Don Pedro, 12.\nMontague, A. P., 179.\nMontana, 92.\nMontauban, France, 245.\nMontefiore, Arthur, 590.\nMontevideo, Uruguav, 13, 57, 68. 179, 246.\nMontreal.\nMontpclier,Can.,\nVt., 178,\n325\" 385.\nMontz, Mr., 508, 522.\nMoore, Anna R. Osborne, 456, 500.\nMoore, Gordon B„ 681.\nMoore, Ilobart, 617.\nMoore. II. K., 385.\nMoore. Miss M. J., 323.\nMoore's Hill, Ind., 91.\nMoral and religious instruction, 6, 18.\nMoral evolution of the child, 718.\nMorale of the school, 193.\nMorality necessary, 66.\nMorals in elementary schools. 6.\n\n"}
{"page": 1000, "printed_page": null, "text": "980\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nMorals\ntaught through shorthand, 10.\npart of education, 18.\nessential in a course of study, 243, 251.\nKoran, J., 245.\nMorgan, Mary S., 325.\nMorgan, T. L., 14.\nMorgan Park, 111., 179.\nMorgaiitown, W. Va., 681.\nMorgenstern, Lina, 323.\nMorris, John T., 591.\nMorris, Jos. W., 93.\nMorris, Rich., 173.\nMorris, T. Buxton, 245.\nMorrison, A. J., 246.\nMorrison, Julia, 324.\nMorrison, Thos., 385.\nMorristown, Tenn., 386.\nMorse, J. H., 180.\nMorse, S. B., 90.\nMorton, H., 5.\nMoscow, Russia, 179.\nMosher, Geo. F., 92.\nMosher, Miss N., 324.\nMoss, II. W., 179.\nMoss, John F.,245.\nMosso, Dr. Angelo, 10, 615, 623.\nMota, Ignacio Fr. Silveira da, 13.\nMoten, Lucy E., 385.\nMother as business woman, 10.\nMothers of universities, 118.\nMotives\nof artists, 8.\nof education, 38.\nMotor ability in school children, 11.\nMount Holyoke College, 617, 716.\nMount Pleasant, Mich., 324.\nMount Pleasant, Pa., 191.\nMount St. Mary's, Md., 681.\nMount Union College, 92, 617.\nMount Vernon, la., 91.\nMountain in the distance, 38.\nMovements and mental states, 715, 750.\nMowry, Hannah D., 325.\nMowry, W. A., 243, 246, 273, 811, 814.\nMozart, 9.\n\" Much ado about nothing,\" by Shakespeare, 173.\nMuddle out of a very plain thing, 47.\nMuegge, August H.,617.\nMuench, Hugo, 11, 616. 657.\nMuhlenberg College, 93, 681.\nMuir, Sir Win., 90.\nMuldoon, P. J., 91.\nMttller, P., 507, 509, 513.\nMtiller, G. E., 178.\nMttller, Prof. Max. 13.\nMullin, Eldon, 384.\nMulock, Wm.,89.\nMultitude, to guide the, 166.\nMumford, Mrs., 67, 82.\nMuncie, Ind., 5U7, 512.\nMundella, Hon. A. J., 13.\nMunich. Germany, 323.\nMunicipal authority, 177, 183.\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nMufloz, Jose M., 590.\nMunston, J. W.,245.\nMurdock, Amelia, 324.\nMurfee, E. H., 526.\nMurphy, John T., 93.\nMurray, Charlotte L. M., 323.\nMurray, Dr. David, 14.\nMurray, Wm., 244.\nMusic,\nMuseum, pedagogical, 53, 59.\nvocal, 8, 508.\nlearned by rote, 9.\npart singing, 9.\nsoprano and melody, 9.\nadapted for children, 9, 507, 513.\nselection of songs, 9.\npatriotic airs, 9.\npopular songs, 9.\nreligious hymns, 9.\naccompaniment of songs, 9.\nclassic, 9, 517, 519.\nspecial teachers, 9.\ncorrection of errors, 9.\nexpression in, 9.\nenunciation, 9.\nposture of body, 9.\npitch, 9. and astronomy, 153.\ngeometry\nharmony in music, 507, 512.\nMusical notation,\nwhen to be learned, 9, 505, 512.\ntonic sol-fa, 9, 512, 522.\nmovable do, 9, 512, 522.\nfixed do, 9, 512, 522.\nMuskegon, Mich.. 324.\nMuskogee, Ind. Ter., 324.\nMyers,' Fla., 323.\nMyers, F. W. H.,245.\nMyers, Henry C, 617.\nMyrberg, O. F.,90.\nMythical\ninstitution, the old-fashioned\ncollege, 36. • N\nNaas, Sweden, 590.\nNftgeli, H. G., 9.\nNakabara, Kota, 246.\nNames of successful candidates published,\n159.\nNancy, France, 53, 715.\nNaosuke, Higaki, 246.\nNaples, Italy, 13, 90, 323.\nNash, Laura B., 324.\nNashville, Tenn., 70. 93, 325, 386, 507, 509,\n512, 591, 617, 081.\nNational\nEducational Association, 1, 16, 23, 26.\nelements, 40.\nGeographic Society, 6, 243.\ninheritance, 175.\nideas, 175.\ntendencies, 175.\npersonalities, 175.\neducation in Scotland, 874.\nNational Baptist, The, 832.\n\n"}
{"page": 1001, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX.\nNational Normal, The, 829.\nNations\nof the earth, 31.\nof the world, 40.\ncivilized, 43.\nenlightened, 185.\nNatural science\nin secondary schools, 7.\nits educational value, 9, 27.\na course of study for, 380.\nNatui'e, real, of education, 369.\nNature studies, or artes reales, 153.\nNavy Department, 189.\nNebolsine, A. de, 590.\nNebraska, 14, 09, 92, 179, 246, 325.\nNebulous condition, 47.\nNecessities in normal schools, 383, 408.\nNeck, all degrees have one, to be cut off\nwith one stroke, 136.\nNeed,\na pedagogical experimental, 11.\nof schools, 81.\nNeedlework in Stockholm, 911.\nNeeds, industrial, of localities, 6, 243, 266.\nNeel, M., 245.\nNeenah, Wis., 70.\nNeglected children, 244, 315.\nNegro,\neducate him, 35.\nChristianize him. 35.\nNestlerode, C. C, 840.\nNestlerode, P. M., 840.\nNetherlands, 13, 68, 90. 179, 246, 385, 456.\nNeufahrwasser, Germany, 245.\nNevada, 92.\nNewark, Del., 91.\nNewark, N. J., 180, 325, 386.\nNewark, O., 508, 519.\nNewbern, J. W., 843.\nNewberry College, 93.\nNewberrv, S. C, 93.\nNewbold, William R., 681.\nNew Britain, Conn., 68, 323.\nNew Brunswick, Can., 384.\nNew Brunswick, N. Y., 14.\nNewcomb, George B., 716.\nNewcombe, Mrs. L. T., 321, 323.\nNew demands\nupon elementary schools, 589, 594.\nmade by industries, 589, 594.\nNew education,\nand the old, 18.\npar excellence, 21.\nversed in, 198.\nNew England,\nsons and daughters of, 30.\neducation of, 95.\nNew England Journal of Education, 815,\n818.\nNew Gleaner, The. 838.\nNew Hampshire, 14, 179, 191, 509, 527, 716.\nNew Hampshire School Journal, 818.\nNew Haven, Conn., 69, 91, 323, 509, 590,\n680.\nNew Haven, Sheffield Scientific School, 9.\n\n981\n\nNew Jersev, 69, 92, 179, 182, 246, 325,\n386, 509, 616, 681.\nNew learning and new ignorance, 114.\nNewman, Rev. J. P., 14.\nNew Mexico, 69, 527.\nNew Orleans, La., 69, 91, 179, 246, 324,\n526, 591, 616, 681, 791.\nNewport, R. I., 325.\nNew psychology in normal schools, 713.\nNew South Wales, 244.\nNewspaper criticism, 191.\nNewton, N. J., 325.\nNew Ulm, Minn., 246.\nNew York (City), 11, 14, 26, 88, 92, 145,\n146, 147, 178, 180, 223, 246, 284, 321,\n322, 325, 384, 434, 444, 457, 507, 509,\n514, 527, 590, 591, 614, 615, 616, 617,\n631, 681, 716.\nNew York (State), 14, 69, 92, 179, 246, 325,\n383, 386, 418, 457, 509, 527, 591,\n716.\nNew York Journal of Education, 827.\nNew York School Journal, 819.\nNew York State Normal College, 421.\nNew Zealand, 89, 244. 315.\nwomen's education in, 883.\nNiagara Falls, N. Y., 325.\nNiagara University, 92.\nNightingale, A. P., 69.\nNineteenth century, civilization of, 40.\nNissen, Hartvig, 617.\nNix, Rob. L., 246.\nNoble, P. A., 4.\nNoble, Harriet, 91.\nNokk, Dr., 12.\nNomination of teachers, 7, 67, 78.\nNon-existence of printed books, 119.\nNon-professional training-schools, 41.\nNormal, Ala., 526.\nNormal Exponent, The, 829.\nNormal Index, The, 835.\nNormal, 111., 300, 385.\nNormal Monthly, The, 841.\nNormal schools,\nvalue of practice, 8.\nfor teachers in secondary schools, 8.\nscholastic instruction, 8.\npsychological instruction, 8.\nstandards required, 8.\nand the Turner-bund, 11.\npsychology in, 11.\ncourse of study, 29, 383, 428.\ntraining-schools in, 383, 391.\nhow acquire methods, 383, 399.\nnecessities in, 383, 408.\ngradation of, 383, 410.\ndevelopment in Prance, 383, 415.\nin the State of New York, 383, 418.\nsociological view of, 383, 422.\ntheir work, 383, 430.\nthe ideal, 384, 451.\nto supplement the county model school,\n413.\nprofessional course in, 426.\nrequirements of admission, 426.\n\n"}
{"page": 1002, "printed_page": null, "text": "982\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nNormal schools\ncompared with other professional schools,\n424.\nas university departments, 424.\nas purely professional schools, 423.\nnew psychology in, 713.\nNorman conquest, 170.\nNorse, E. II., 507, 512, 519, 522.\nNorth\nAmerican\nTurner-bund, history,\naims, and achievements, 615, 657.\nNorth Carolina. 92, 179, 246, 325, 386, 527,\n681.\nNorth Dakota, 69, 92, 386, 681.\nNorth, the. change in. 35.\nNorth Woodbury, Conn., 323.\nNorthampton, England, 245.\nNorthampton, Mass., 14. 91, 180, 716.\nNorthend, Chas., 813.\nNorthern Indiana Teacher, 831.\nNorthfield, Minn., 92.\nNorthrop, B. G., 819.\nNorthrop, Cyrus, 92.\nNorthwest Territory, 66.\nNorthwestern Journal of Education, 841.\nNorthwestern University, 91, 715.\nlaw school, 52.\nNorton, H. B„ 844.\nNorton, Lena M., 386.\nNorton. Rich. C, 386.\nNorwalk, Conn., 179.\nNorway, 13, 590.\nNorwich, England, 245.\nNorwich, N. Y., 325.\nNoss, Theo. B., 386.\nNotation,\nmusical, 9, 508, 512, 522.\nwhen to be learned, 9.\ntonic sol-fa, 9.\nmovable and fixed do, 9.\nNote-book in the hands of supervisor, 74.\nNotions of civilization and education, 161.\nNotre Dame, Ind., 715.\nNovels, English, 175.\nNuesch. J., 246.\nNumbers, essential study, 6, 243, 251.\nNunez, Abelardo, 68.\nNursery, child in, 22.\nNurture, school and family, 28.\nNussbaum, Francis P., 681.\nNutrix infantia% 152.\n\n0\nOakelev, H. E., 385.\nOakland, Cal., 90,590.\nObedience to law, 28.\nObenchain, Win. A., 4, 91.\nOberg, Gulli J., 616.\nOberlin College, 92, 681. 716.\nOberlin, O., 92, 681, 716.\nObject, common, 71.\nObjects, real, used as drawing models, 8.\nObligatory courses, 111.\nObservance of truth, justice, and charitv.\n46.\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nObservation and study of mental states,\n11, 715, 750.\nObservation work in normal schools, 7.\nObstacles of a large city, 321.\nOccupation\nof life, 18.\nof the hand, 28.\nhis special, 155.\nOdium under which Greek suffers, 132.\nOesterberg, Bergmann, 615.\nOesterberg, Mine. Bergmann, 11, 616.\nOesterlen, Dr., 178.\nOffenses, class of, 77.\nOfficers of\nNational Educational Association, 5.\nthe American Association for the Study\nof Children, 715.\nOfficial pampering, 136.\nOgborn, Mrs. E. K., 324.\nOgden College, 91.\nOgden, John, 69.\nOhio Common School Director, 828.\nOhio Educational Monthly, 828.\nOhio River. 66.\nOhio School Journal, Tfie, 828.\nOhio (State), 14, 69, 92, 179, 246, 325, 457,\n509, 527, 590, 616, 681, 716.\nOhio State University, 716.\nOhio Teacher, The, 828, 829.\nOhio Weslevan Universitv, 716.\nOklahoma, 325, 527.\nOlcott, J., 831.\nOldeneel, W. J. G. Baron v., 246.\nOld-fashioned college, 36.\nOldfield, Anna, 324.\nOldrini, Alex. A., 13.\nOld world, 66.\nOleson, W, B., 246.\nOlsson, Olof, 91.\nOlten, Switzerland, 323.\nOlympia, Wash., 70.\nOmagh, Ireland, 245.\nOmaha, Neb., 67, 69, 180, 246, 325.\nOne-horse academy, 191.\nOne kind of child studv. 715.\nOneonta, N. Y., 386.\nOne-sided,\nbecoming,\nby a specialty,\n158.\nOntario, Canada, 40. 507, 513.\nOosterhout, Netherlands, 246.\nOperations of the mind, 18.\nOpinion, public, 79.\nOporto, Portugal, 90.\nOpposing forces,\nin the struggle of mankind, 31.\nOpposition develops into alliance, 197.\nOptimistic view of progress, 146.\nOral examination, 157.\nOrange, N. J., 69, 180.\nOrangeburg, S. C, 93.\nOrange City, la., 179.\nOrchard Lake, Mich., 180.\nOrcutt, Hiram. 819.\n\"Ordeal\nof Richard\nFeverel,\" by George\nMeredith,\n174.\n\n"}
{"page": 1003, "printed_page": null, "text": "983\nINDEX.\nOrder,\nrational, 18.\nprescribed for studies, 193.\nOrdinance of 1787, 32.\nOrdway, E. W., 91.\nOrdway, John M., 525, 554.\nOregon, 69, 92, 325, 386, 509, 681.\nOrganic\nunion\nof kindergarten\nand primary\nschool, 7, 321, 336.\nlife, 55.\nOrganism,\nancient university, 110.\nideal, 110.\nOrganization\nof schools, 29.\nto determine degrees, 158, 159.\nof institutions granting degrees, 159.\nsome animate, 183.\nOrganizers of an exhibition, 39.\nOrgans, vocal,\ntheir physiology, 9, 514.\ntheir hygiene, 9, 514.\nstrain they can bear, 9, 518.\nOriental Republic of Uruguay, 58.\nOrigin of law, 50.\nOriginal\nresearch, 27.\ninvestigation, 384, 444, 446.\nwork in dissertations, 156.\nOriginality in investigating, 50.\nOrmsby, 67.\nOrmund, G. T., 679, 680, 686, 703, 705.\nOrnaments of the schoolroom, 60.\nOrono, Me., 526.\nOrphanage, English, in Bosnia, 900.\nOsage Agency, Oklahoma, 325.\nOsborne, Geo. L., 386.\nO'Shea, Prof., 715.\nOshkosh, Wis., 386.\nOskaloosa, la., 324.\nOsterberg, Edwin, 4, 16, 177, 209.\nOstrowo, Germanv, 68.\nOswego, N. Y., 383, 387, 447.\nOswego State Normal School, 387.\nOttawa, Canada, 384, 456, 508.\nOtterbein University, 92, 681.\nOttilie, M.,\nMrs.456.Chas.,*325.\nOttin,\nOuimet, Gedeon, 12.\nOulton, William, 245.\nOur country and village schools, 839.\nOutcome, no such proportionate, 191.\nOutfit for citizenship, 165.\nOutline, a course of study, 199.\nOut-of-door exercises, 11.\nOverbeck, G. van, 179.\nOwatonna, Minn., 324.\nOwen Sound, Ont.. 244.\nOxford and Cambridge, 37.\nOxford, England, 13, 89, 99, 118, 680.\nOxford, Ga., 91, 680.\nOxford, Mass., 509.\nOxford, O., 92.\nOxford University, England, 118, 680.\n\nPackard, S. S., 788.\nPacker Institute, 713, 762.\nPadelford, A. J., 69.\nPaehlmann, Miss M., 245.\nPage, Anne L., 324.\nPage, David P., 825.\nPage, Inman E., 527.\nPage, James A., 246.\nPaid teachers in charge of practice school,\nPainting,\nPainstaking\nbody of men and women, 39.\n8.\nin schools, 6.\nlimitations of, 8.\nand sculpture, 456.\nPalmer, Francis B., 384, 386. 428.\nPalmer, Frank H., 821.\nPalmsjren, K. E., 590.\nPalo Alto, Cal., 10, 90, 616.\nPanghorn, J. K., 819.\nPannell, C.S., 813.\nPapers presented by :\nAbercrombie,\nD.*W., 199.\nAldis, Mrs. Stedman,\n883.\nAllen, Jerome, 434.\nAllievo, Giuseppe, 109.\nAngell, President James B., 32, 164.\nBailey, Henry T., 458.\nBalliet, Th. M., 756.\nBancroft, Charles F. P., 196.\nBardeen, C. W., 826.\nBarnes, Earl, 355, 446, 765.\nBass, George F., 829.\nBeale, Dorothea, 862.\nBengough, May, 903.\nBomafede, Giacomo 0., 399.\nBondy, Helen, 505.\nBondy, Ottilia, 366.\nBonney, Charles G., 17.\nBrooks, Edward, 451.\nBryan, W. L... 777,779.\nBuisson, B..39, 262.\nBurnham, W. II., 718.\nCarman, G. N., 193.\nCarter, Hannah J., 495.\nCheney, Francis J., 418.\nChevrillon, Andre U, 168.\nCompayre, 53, 845.\nCook, John W., 833.\nCooper, Sarah B., 336.\nCowhan, Joseph II., 401.\nDana-Ilicks, Mary, 487.\nDavenport-Hill, Rosamond, 870.\nDement, I. S., 798.\nDimscha, 48.\nDugard, 211.\nEaton, John, 247.\nEddy, Henry T., 583.\nElder, Constance, 865.\nEmerson, Alfred, 473.\nEudo, Bidesaburo, 308.\nFallows, Samuel. 20.\nFawcett, Mrs. II., 853.\n\n"}
{"page": 1004, "printed_page": null, "text": "984\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nPapers presented by :\nFindley, Sam., 828.\nFitz, George W., 626.\nFitzpatrick, Fr. A., 71.\nF. M. L., 879.\nFord, Henry A., 831.\nFrench, W. M. R., 497.\nFulcomer, Daniel, 422.\nGallagher, R. E., 796.\nGass, II. A., 842.\nGilman, Daniel C, 94.\nGreene, Charles II., 510.\nGulick, Lnther, 623.\nGuptill, Fannie S., 391.\nGurney, Mary, 225.\nGutzmann, A., 674.\nIlailmann, Eudora L., 356.\nHale, W. G., 118.\nHall, G. Stanley, 717.\nHarris, W. T., 26.\nHartwell, E. M., 618, 739.\nHenrotin, Mrs. Charles, 22.\nHewit, Aug. F., 700.\nIlofer, Amelia, 346.\nHopkins, Louisa P., 344.\nHoppin, J. M., 476.\nHotchkiss. Mary T., 351.\nHoward, John, 514.\nHughes. Miss E. P., 217.\nHughes, Mrs. Ada M., 326.\nHiding, Ray Greene, 181.\nHunt, E. Hattie, 720.\nButton, F. R., 560.\nIrby, Miss A. T., 900.\nJones, L. H., 257.\nKeane, John J., 43, 161.\nKellogg, A. M., 825.\nKellogg, Martin, 104.\nKingsley, Rose, 225.\nKirkland, Thomas, 410.\nKovalevskv, Ergraff, 55, 304, 604.\nLagerstedt, N. G. W., 289.\nLane, Albert G., 30.\nLanza, G., 509.\nLarsen, Joakim, 664.\nLarsson, Gustaf, 599.\nLightner, J. E., 520.\nLocke, Josephine, 491.\nLow, Seth, 146.\nLundin, Hulda, 911.\nMacAlister, James, 805.\nMacDonald, John, 843.\nMacDonald, Louisa, 887.\nMackenzie, Constance, 331.\nMackenzie, James C, 183.\nMcCosh, James, 682.\nMackenzie, Tait, 636.\nMcMurry, Charles A., 438.\nMacVicar, Malcom, 430.\nMann, B. Pickman, 342.\nManning, E. A., 890.\nMarble, A. P., 268.\nMartin, Eugene, 415, 597.\nMarwedel, Emma, 372.\nMayer, Alf. M., 558.\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nPapers presented by :\nMavhew, Ira, 803.\nMeath, Earl of, 641.\nMiller, L. W.,462.\nMonroe, Will. S., 822.\nMoore, Annie R. 0., 500.\nMosso, Angelo, 623.\nMowry, W. A., 811, 273.\nMuench, Hugo, 657.\nOrdway, John M., 554.\nOrmond, G. T., 693.\nOsterberg, Edw., 60.\nPackard, S. S., 788.\nPalmer, Francis B., 428.\nPatrick, G. T. W., 725.\nPeabody, MaryH., 284.\nPeabody, Selim II., 23.\nPlace, C. L., 399.\nPoesche, Herm., 369.\nPosse, Baron Nils, 664.\nPowell, W. B., 606.\nPutnam, Alice H., 327.\nRaymond, Paul, 142.\nRichards, R. H., 567.\nRoss, G. W., 40.\nRossi, Egisto, 907.\nRounds, C. C, 810.\nRoyce, Josiah, 687.\nRuano, A. Gomez, 56, 58.\nRunkle, J. D., 592.\nSabin, Henry, 840.\nSchrader, Henrietta, 346.\nSchurman, J. G., 703.\nSerruricr, Gust., 287, 314.\nShaw, Edw. R., 436.\nSheldon, E. A., 387.\nShimer, Edgar D., 444.\nShirreff, Emily A. E., 360.\nShinn, Millicent W., 773.\nSmall, James S., 315.\nSmith, J. Gardner, 631.\nSmith, Margaret K.. 447.\nSmith, W. Wilberforce, 235.\nSoule, Geo., 791.\nSpence, Catharine II., 278.\nSpencer, Sara A., 800.\nSproull, William 0., 156.\nStevenson, Flora C, 874.\nStevenson, Louisa, 877.\nStewart, Sarah A., 328.\nStimson, J. Ward, 466.\nSully, James, 730.\nTarbell, B. S., 78.\nThiry, J. B, 286.\nTitchener, E. B., 705.\nTorngren, L. M., 54, 622.\nTracy, F., 737.\nWalker, Francis A., 528.\nWalton, George A.. 408.\nWarner, Francis, 705.\nWest, Andrew F., 150.\nWey, Hamilton D., 646.\nWhite, E. E., 295.\nWilletts, Mary, 641.\nWilliams, Lillie A., 781.\n\n"}
{"page": 1005, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX.\nPapers presented by :\nWilliams, S. G., 440.\nWilmarth, H. M., 23.\nWilson, Woodrow, 112.\nWilt, A. D., 793.\nWolkonsky, Prince, 37.\nWood, T. D., 621.\nWoodward, C. M., 266. 594.\nWyckoff, Adelaide E., 792.\nYoung, Ella P., 83.\nZettler, Moritz, 670.\nZimmern, Miss, 225.\nParallel with practical life, 49.\nParallelism between race development and\nthat of the child, 322.\nParana, Argentine, 323, 384Parents unable to decide, 193\nParez, C. H., 245.\nParham, R. H., 246.\nParis, France, 12, 26, 53, 68, 89, 118, 169,\n178, 211, 323, 383, 415, 456, 508, 526,\n589, 590.\nParish, Ariel, 813.\nPark College (Mo.), 92, 681.\nParker, F. W., 67, 189, 383, 408.\nParker, Mrs. A. G., 509.\nParkersburg, W. Va., 509.\nParkland, Ky., 324.\nParks, C. Well man, 92.\nParks, gardens, and playgrounds for the\npoor, 615, 641.\nParkville, Mo., 92, 681.\nParma, Italy, 90.\n^\nParr, S. S., 69.\nParsons, David, 246.\nParsons, W. Wr., 386.\nPart singing, when to be learned, 9.\nPartial question obstruct the view, 38.\nParticipation, university, 67.\nParties may come and go, 37.\nPartisanship and politics, 189.\nPasadena, Cal., 90.\nPascal in his Provincial Letters, 169.\nPascall, Miss, 456, 505.\nPass Christian, Miss., 527.\nPasteur, 54.\nPatchogue, N. Y., 325.\nPaternalism, meddlesome, 184.\nPathetic helplessness, to provide against,\n18.\nPatrick. G. T. W., 713, 715, 716, 725.\nPatrick, J. B., 224.\nPatrick, J. H., 178.\nPatriotic airs in school, 9.\nPatriotism,\nsentiment of, 7.\nquestion of, 164.\nPatten, President, 88, 146.\nPattengill, H. R., 69, 832.\nPatterson, Calvin, 246.\nPatterson, James K.. 526.\nPatton, Francis L., 92, 160.\nPauer, I., 13.\nPaulson, Johajuies, 90.\nPauraux, A.. 508.\n\n985\n\nPavia, Italy, 90.\nPawel, Jaro, 11, 616.\nPawtucket, R. 1., 180.\nPavne, C. H., 88, 146.\nPayne, D. A., 14.\nPayne, F. H., 616.\nPayne, William fl., 386, 832.\nPeabody, Endicott, 180.\nPeabody, Miss Mary II., 244, 284.\nPeabody, Selim H., 4, 16.\nPeace and war, education that fits for, 21.\nPeaker, Fred., 245.\nPearson, C. W., 178, 234.\nPeck, John H., 527.\nPeck, Tracy, 125.\nPeckham, England, 245.\nPeckham, Geo. W., 70.\nPeculiarities of higher education in United\nStates, 48.\nPedagogical chairs in a universitv, 414,\n422.\nPedagogical museum, 53.\nPedagogues\nof Europe, 50.\neminent, 52.\nPedagogy,\nuniversity course, 29.\nin Uruguav, 57.\ndegree of Doctor of, 384, 434, 436, 438,\n440.\nschools of, 414.\nbasis of : child study, 713, 718.\nPella, la., 681.\nPennsylvania, 14, 69, 92, 179, 246, 325, 386,\n45*7, 509, 527, 591, 616, 681, 716.\nPennsylvania College, 93.\nPennsylvania School Journal, 830.\nPeoria, 111., 13, 67, 507, 512.\nPerception\nin rational psychology, 11.\nof dimensions, 38.\na trained, needed, 117.\nPerez, Fern. Ferrari, 90.\nPerfection,\nphysical,\nin teaching54.required, 8.\nfuller and higher, 162.\nPeriod,\ntransitional, the present, 141.\nof primary education, 164.\nPeriodicals, men in charge of, 134.\nPeriods\nof growth, 9.\nof character-forming, 81.\nPerkins, F. B., 815.\nPerpetua, Sister M., 180.\nPerpetuitv, hope of, 34.\nPerrin, Bi, 126.\nPerrv, Amos, 814.\nPerry, Jos. E., 180.\nPerry, Walter S., 457.\nPersonal\n198. happiness and self-realization,\nPersonality, charming, 73.\nI'istdlozziaii. The, 828.\n\n"}
{"page": 1006, "printed_page": null, "text": "986\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nPetermann, Francesca, 323.\nPeters, Absalom, BIG.\nPeters, John A., 92.\nPetersburg, Va., 93, 386.\nPetzel, Rud., 590.\nPfluger, Ed., 89.\nPforta, Germany, 179.\nPhelps, W. P., 827.\nPhenomena in the intellectual domain, 38.\nPhenomenon, biological, 29.\nPhiladelphia, Pa., 31, 47, 81, 93, 180, 246,\n321, 325, 328, 331, 384, 386, 451, 456,\n457, 495, 509, 591, 681, 713, 716, 805.\nPhilbrick, John U., 813, 815.\nPhilips, G. M., 386.\nPhillips, Wendell, 375.\nPhilographic method, 456.\nPhilology,\nto be a master of, 18.\nschool of, 107.\nPhilosophic sense, 153.\nPhilosophy,\nreality iii it, 11, 679, 682.\nmount up to it, 48.\ndegree of Doctor of, 156.\nof medicine, mathematics, and jurisprudence, 111.\nconcerning men, 163.\na wrong, 163.\nof the Christian religion, 164.\nthe true, of education, 197.\nPhysical development in singing, 9.\nPhysical education or training,\ntheses on, 10.\nin medical schools, 10.\nphysiological aspects, 10.\ncultivation of human body, 10.\nunsolved problems, 10.\nsupervision by physicians, 10.\nin public schools, 11.\nof deaf-mutes, 11.\nof criminals, 11.\nof Turner-bund, 11.\nphysiology of, 11.\nschool gymnastics, 11.\nSwedish gymnastics, 11.\nfatigue, muscular and nervous, 11.\nin the South, 11.\nin Canada, 11.\nstate legislation for, 11.\ncompulsory, 11.\nindispensable in ideal education, 16, 55.\ntraining in colleges, 144.\nin Denmark, 615, 664.\nPhysical education,\ndepartment congress, 615.\nunsolved problems in, 621.\nexercises for school, 615, 631.\nfor criminals, 615, 646.\nof deaf-mutes, 616, 674.\nprinciples of, 714, 739.\nPhysical exercises,\nhow to be selected, 11.\nfor developing the body, 55.\nin colleges, 144.\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nPhysical strength and moral control, 144.\nPhysicians\nto supervise physical training, 10.\nunlicensed, 185.\nphysicians' bureau, 187.\nPhysics,\nas a study, 6, 177, 196.\nmake room for, 196.\npreferable as scientific study, 195.\nPhysiography, 6.\nPhysiology\nPhysiological development, 7.\nof the vocal organs, 9, 507, 514.\nfor kindergartners, 7.\ndoes psychology need it ? 11.\nin a medical course, 117.\nneeded for psychology, 679, 687.\nPiano or violin in vocal music, 507, 519.\nPickard, J. L., 13, 243, 251, 837.\nPicket, Alb. and John W., 811.\nPicture of the state of things, 131.\nPictures on the walls, 73.\nPieces513.of music for a school library, 507.\nPierce, Edgar, 681.\nPierce, Edw. T., 384, 385, 433.\nPierce, John D., 831.\n\"Piers the Plowman,\" by William Langland, 173.\nPierson, Arthur C, 716.\nPillsbury, W. L., 833.\nPilot\nfailed to come, 188.\nservice, efficient, 189.\nPine Bluff, Ark., 385.\nPingree, Miss L. H., 246.\nPink 136.\ngowns for readers of the Anabasis,\nPinney, Mr. W. M., 325.\nPioneer\n199. service in educational movements,\nPiper, Jonathan, 836, 841.\nPitch in vocal music, 9.\nPitman, Isaac, 245.\nPittsburg, Pa.. 93, 509.\nPittsfield, Me., 179.\nPlace, Mrs. C. L., 399.\nPlace\nand value of kindergarten songs, 321.\nof education in social organism, 423.\nPlan\nof the campaign, 44.\nof educational gatherings, 182.\nPlane, a higher, 43.\nPlato, 21, 171.\nPlattsburg, N. Y., 386.\nPlattsville. Wis., 386.\nPlaygrounds\nfor the poor in cities, 615,\n641.\nPlays and games\nin kindergarten, 328.\nchanges in, 328.\nPlea for special child study, 777.\nPlummer, Frank, 177, 179, 192.\nPoe, Edgar, 170.\n\n"}
{"page": 1007, "printed_page": null, "text": "987\nINDEX.\nPoesche, Hermann, 369.\nPoetic invention, 714, 730.\nPoint of view\nof superintendents on educational journalism, 12.\nEuropean, 95.\nPoirier, J., 245.\nPoitiers, France, 12.\nPokorny, Ignaz, 178.\nPolicy,\ndiscounting liberal education, 27.\ngovernmental, 66.\nPolitical science, 107, 108.\nPolitics,\nlocal, 81 ; schools should be removed\nfrom, 81.\nPollock, Louise, 323.\nPollock, Mary R., 325.\nPollock, Susan P., 323.\nPoke, H., 385.\nPolyglot corollary, 154.\nPolytechnic Institute, 87, 92.\nPoole, R. B., 179.\nPoor\ngrowing poorer, 167.\nboys and girls, for, 107.\nprovided with parks, 615, 641.\nPoor teachers, how improve their work, 67.\nPope, 170.\nPope, John van S., 68.\nPope, S. I)., 12.\nPope-Goldsmith school of literature, 129.\nPopular education\nabroad, 28.\nstability of government rests upon, 31.\nPopular Educator, The, 821.\nPopular songs in a course in music, 9.\nPopulation of Chicago, 30.\nPort, C. D. du, 245.\nPort Chester, N. Y., 325.\nPorter, Annie S., 323.\nPorter, W. T., 617.\nPortland, Me., 386.\nPortland. Ore., 69, 325, 509.\nPortugal, 13, 90.\nPortugall, Adela V., 323.\nPosen, Germany, 245, 385.\nPosition,\na dangerous, 166.\nvindicated, 167.\nPosse, Baron Nils, 615, 616, 617.\nPossibilities, individual, 322.\nPosture, proper, of the bodv, 9.\nPotsdam, N. Y., 384, 386, 442.\nPotter, Elisha R., 814.\nPoughkeepsie, N. Y., 69, 92, 617.\nPouillot, I., 245.\nPoulot, Denis. 590.\nPovena, Filippo, 90.\nPowell, W. B., 67, 78, 590, 591, 606, 837.\nPower,\ndirective, 26.\nunexampled, 184.\nleft with the people, 193.\nPowers, administrative and juridical, 49.\n\nPowers, James K., 385.\nPowner, Chas I., 839.\nPoynter. W. T., 177, 178, 192, 205, 224, 241.\nPractical,\n•\nto, from ideal, 427.\nphysicians, lawyers, and preachers, 113.\nproblem, 154.\nPracticality in education, 22.\nPractice\nin chemistry, 9.\nin workshops, 9.\nof granting degrees in absentia, 160.\nin vogue in Prance, 189.\nPractice of teaching, how acquired, 7.\nPractice schools,\nwhat preparation for, 7.\nin normal schools, 8.\nPractice work in training-schools, 383, 387.\nPrague, Austria, 89, 178.\nPrairie Farmer, The, 833.\nPratt, F. B., 591.\nPratt Institute, in Brooklyn, N. Y., 590.\nPratt, I. W., 69.\nPrejudices shocked, 22.\nPremium, a degree given is a, 128.\nPreparation of kindergartners, 7.\n\nPreparation\nfor discussions, 26.\nfor kindergartners, 322, 344.\nPreparatory and college work, 131.\nPrepare\nfor college. 177.\nfor professional school, 177.\npupils for duties of citizenship, 273.\nPreparing\nyoung men and women, 193.\nfor the duties of life, 193.\nPrerequisite, a university degree, 112.\nPresbyterianism should not obstruct Christianity, 38.\nPrescription and tradition, 166.\nPresentation, best, of the affirmative side\nof the question of Greek, 135.\nPresident\nof general sessions, 16.\nof National Educational Association, 30.\nPress, educational, 12.\nPresser, Theo., 509.\nPressure of the scientific side of curriculum, 121.\nPrestige of the A.B., 128.\nPreston, J. R., 69.\nPrettyman, E. B., 69.\nPrevention\nof criminal idleness, 372.\nof stuttering. 714, 739.\nPreyer, Dr. William, 12.\nPrice of text-books, 42.\nPride, take, in their school, 192.\nPrimary education, 821.\nPrimary school,\nrelation with kindergarten, 7.\nmanual training in, 10.\nmodifications in, 321.\nunion with kindergarten, 321, 336, 342.\n\n"}
{"page": 1008, "printed_page": null, "text": "988\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nPrimary Teacher, Hie, 820.\nPrimitive truth in rational psychology, 11,\n29.\nPrinceton, N. J., 92, 617, 681.\nPrinceton University, 87, 88, 108, 112, 193,\n134, 135, 150, 679, 680, 682.\nPrincipal\nmust have knowledge of the work in\nclasses, 86.\nmeetings, 74.\nPrinciple, regulative, 184.\nPrinciples\nof Froebel in England. 360.\nlearned memoriter, 115.\ngeneral, of science, 156.\nsoundest, of school-work, 183.\nof physical training, 714, 739.\nPrins, M. A., 89.\nPritchett, H. C, 386.\nPrivate schools,\nsupervision of, 6, 177, 183.\nlicense to teach, 22.\nand endowed, 183.\nof secondary character, 183.\naccomplish more, 191.\nshall they exist ? 192.\nentirely private, 192.\nPrivilege to know enough, 18.\nProbation, period of, 41.\nProbationary service of teachers, 7.\nProblem,\nevery sort of, 166.\nconfused by circumstances, 196.\nProblems\ninvolved in physical education, 10, 621 ;\nin university education, 100.\nof the South, 35.\ntheir remedy, 35.\nof specialization, 87.\npractical, 154.\nof secondary education, 181.\nProcess\nof freeing the child, 321.\nof thinking different, 169.\neducational, of training engineers, 526,\n569.\nProcesses\nof mechanic arts, 10.\nmanual, 29.\nslow and gradual, 122.\nProducts, industrial, 10.\nProfane hands, to lay hold of, 37.\nProfession and a hobby, 139.\nProfessional\nfitness, 80.\ncourse in normal schools, 426.\nstudies only, 426.\ndegrees, 112.\neducation, 149.\nProfessional schools,\nfor teachers, 6.\nprepare students for, 6.\nand technological, 18.\ntheir relation to university, 146.\nstanding by themselves, 148.\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nProfessional training\nof teachers, 7, 28, 41, 383, 428.\nwhat degree of, 7.\nkind of, 7.\nfor secondary schools, 16, 217.\nProfessions, scientific, 9.\nProfessor of Pedagogy, 243.\nProfessors in college separated from secProficiency ondary teachers, 181.\nin certain branches, 8.\ncertain degrees of, 132.\nProfit43.of the study of methods and ends,\nProgramme,\npreliminary, 6.\nprepared with care, 35.\ndaily, 74.\nof the elementary school, 198.\nProgres\n848. (Le) de I'Enseignement Primaire,\nProgress,\nsigns of, 143.\nof our civilization, 168.\nProgressive methods, 43.\nProgressive school, the, 829.\nPromoting classes at long intervals, 85.\nPropaganda put forth, 199.\nProprietors of private schools, 184.\nProsperity\nof our institutions, 81.\nof our country, 165.\nProtection, rules for, 159.\nProtestant Episcopal Church, 99.\n\" Prothalamion.\" by Spenser, 173.\nProvidence, R. I., 10, 67, 70, 78, 81, 93,\n180, 325, 386, 615, 716.\nProvince of Ontario, 41.\nProvinces of knowledge, 105.\nProvision\nfor education, 32.\nsingularly worthy of note, 147.\nPsychological\nbeing, 47.\ntendencies, 47.\nmachine, 47.\naspect of exercises without apparatus,\n615, 626.\nPsychological instruction in normal schools,\nogy.)\nPsychology.\n(See also Rational Psychol8.\nstudy of, 7.\nits application, 7.\nof German gymnastics, 8.\nfounded on consciousness, 11, 679, 687.\nrational, 11, 679, 693.\nthe new psychology, 11, 713.\nconstitutionally bad spellers, 11.\ncultivation of self-consciousness, 11.\nPsychology,\npractical, 18.\nexperimental, 384, 444, 713.\nits impregnable principle, 111.\nof the will, 680, 705.\n\n"}
{"page": 1009, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX.\nPsychology, basis for, 713, 717.\nPublic\neducation in Sweden, 244, 289.\npolicy, a settled, 20.\nsentiment. 191.\nhigh-schools, 190.\nshould\nhave\nsupervision\nof private\nschools, 190.\ninstruction in Italy, 907.\nPublic opinion, enlightened, 20, 79.\nPublic policy, a settled, 20.\nPublic School, The, 820.\nPublic School Journal, The, 829.\nPublic schools,\ncompulsory physical education, 11.\nof Chicago, 21.\nlicense to teach, 22.\nconcerned in art study, 455.\nsubjected to supervision, 190.\nneedlework in, 911.\nPublication of text-books, 42.\nPublications,\neducational, 11.\nof college papers, 103.\nPullman, Wash., 527.\nPunishments and rewards, 20.\nPupils\nshould model in clay, 8.\nslow pupils, 9.\nPupils' capacities, 195.\nPurdue University, 526.\nPure mathematics, its educational value,\n10.\nPurinton, D. B , 92.\nPurpose\nof man served, 31.\nof aiding teachers, 72.\nof religion in school, 296.\nof technological schools, 525, 534.\nchief, of English professor, 172.\nand reward of educational journals, 825.\nPurser, A., 68.\nPursuit\nof special callings, -18.\ndefinite industrial, 589, 597.\nPutnam, Miss Alice EL, 321, 324, 327.\nPutnam, Dr. Helen C, 10.\nPutney, Chas. E., 177, 180, 193.\nQ\nQuadrivium of studies, 152.\nQuakers, our friends, the, 182.\nQualifications\nrequisite for teachers in music, 9.\nof teachers, 73.\nQuality, inferior, of instruction, 187.\nQuarles, James A., 681.\nQuavle, Mrs. O. M., 325.\nQuebec, Que., 12, 383, 407.\nQueen's College, Canada, 680.\nQuellenforscher, instinct of, 126.\nQuestion,\nthe Greek, 134.\nof personal experience only, 137.\nof morals, 144.\n\n989\n\nQuestion of supervision, 190.\nQuestions,\nfundamental, of higher education, 27.\nin elementary education, 28.\nfor discussion, 29.\nethical and economical, 166.\npolitical, 166.\nQuevedo, Man. Ruiz de, 13.\nQuick, Eob. H., 185, 823.\nQuincv, 111., 324.\nQuito, Ecuador, 12, 89, 244.\nQuota, secondary education contributes,\n27.\nQuotation of Horace Mann, 183.\nQvist, Ernst, 526.\nR\nRabanus, Maurus, defined arithmetic, 152Race\ncharacteristics, 6, 243, 272.\ncomposite, 22.\nRacine, 172.\nRacine, Wis., 70.\nRadinger, Joh. von, 12.\nRadley, Jos., 245.\nRaleigh, N. C, 527.\nRamsay, Charles C, 190.\nRand, Benjamin. 681.\nRand, Th. H., 89.\nRandolph-Macon College, 70, 93, 681.\nRange, wide, of possibilities, 198.\nRangoon, Burma, 68.\nRankin, J. E., 91.\nRanks\nof teachers, 35.\nof labor, 45.\nof capital, 45.\nfirst among the nations, 53.\n\" Rape of the Lock, The,\" by Pope, 173.\nRaphael, 36.\nRapiport, Miss Julie, 89.\nRaschdorff, J. C, 456.\nRational order of general knowledge, 18.\nRational psychology\nin education, 11, 679, 693.\nperception in, 11.\nconception in, 11.\nRaub, A. N., 91.\nRaumer's, von, \" Geschichte der\n\nPada-\n\nRawson, Louise B., 325.\ngogik,\" B.822.\nRaymond,\nP., 88, 91, 142.\nRayson,\nAmy, 178, 180, 223.\nReading,\nReaction in favor of English, 169.\na conventional study, 7.\nand writing in kindergarten, 321, 327.\nGreek and Latin at sight, 130.\nGerman and French at sight, 131.\nand writing, 715.\nassociation tracks, 715, 756.\nReal\nnature of education, 369.\nuniversities, 160.\n\n"}
{"page": 1010, "printed_page": null, "text": "990\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nReality, its place in philosophy, 11, 679,\n082.\nReason, clear-sighted, 162.\nReatschlous, 11. A., 385.\nRecitation ,\nexcellent, 73.\nrooms, 193.\nRector, Mrs. S. S., 324.\nRecueil des Lois et Actes de V Instruction\nPubliqiw, 845.\nRed gowns for those who have read certain\nclassics, 136.\nReduce\nforms,the 187.people's will to operative\nReductio ad absurdum, 141.\nReeder, R. R., 839.\nReeves, W. P.. 12.\n\"Reflections on the Revolution in France,\"\nby Burke, 173.\nReform,\nfirst steps of, 427.\nmust come piecemeal, 116.\nReformer, a, of education, 58.\nReforme Unirersitaire, 848.\nReforms carried on in Uruguay, 59.\nRegents of the University of the State of\nNew York, 87, 108.\nRegular teachers, 6.\nRegulating price of text-books, 42.\nRegulation of atldetic sports, 015, 630.\nRehmke, Dr., 178.\nReid, James, 92.\nReid, Maud A.. 324.\nReid, W. T., 177, 179.\nRein, Dr. William, 12, 89.\nRejection of a MS., 157.\nRelations\nto instructors, 6.\nof colleges and universities to progress\nof civilization, 6, 88, 161.\nbetween National Geographical Society\nand the public schools, 0.\nreciprocal, of business and other schools,\n10.\nof fatigue to physical education, 11.\nbetween educational methods and ends,\n16.\nof Dr. Harris to the National Educational Association, 25.\nof professional schools to the university,\n88, 146.\nbetween citizen and man, 162.\nabstract, 155.\nwith lower institutions, 199.\nmutual, 199.\nof business instruction to industrial interests, 793.\nreciprocal, and benefits, 803.\nRelationship,\nhuman, the highest, 161.\nwith God, 162.\nRelative time due to languages, 196.\nReligion,\nas a study, 6, 18.\nnecessary, 66.\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nReligion\nin school, 244, 295.\nand poetry of the West, 141.\nReligious\nbodies, 100.\nand moral instruction, 6, 18, 28.\nRemarks, closing,\nby President Angel), 10.\nby Dr. Harris, 10.\nRemedy\nby C. G. Bonney, 16.\nfor problems in the South, 35.\napplied or suggested by superintendents,\n72, 74.\napplied in Cleveland, 81.\nRemsen, Ira, 91.\nRemuneration, adequate, for kindergarten\nwork, 322.\nRenascence,\nantedating it, 119.\nGneco Roman, 128.\nRendall, G. II.. 90.\nReno, Nev., 92.\nRensselaer Polytechnic\nInstitute, Troy,\n92.\nReorganization,\nwork of, in France, 168.\nReport\n26. of Committee of Arrangements,\nRepresentation,\ntechnique of, 455.\nof universities and colleges, 168.\nRepresentatives\nof universities, 32.\nof 53.\nFrench minister of public instruction,\nof higher education, 159.\nRepresenting language and numbers, 28.\nReproduction of artists' devices, 8.\nRepublican\ninstitutions, 37, 39.\nform of government, 166.\nRequirements\nfor normal school diploma. 8.\nfor Doctor of Pedagogy, 8, 384, 438.\nfor entrance to normal schools, 426.\nRequisites of good teaching, 74.\nResearch,\noriginal, 27.\nscientific, 54.\nResolution\nof thanks, offered by Superintendent\nLane, 16.\nto appoint a committee for the protection\nof the degree Ph.D., 160.\nof thanks\nto kindergarten\nworkers\nabroad, 322.\nResolutions\npassed by department of higher education, 88.\nconcerning degrees, 160.\nconcerning the introduction of music,\n508.\nof thanks to the presiding officer, 680.\nResources, scientific, 100.\nResponse to remonstrances, 188.\n\n"}
{"page": 1011, "printed_page": null, "text": "991\nINDEX.\nResponsibility,\ndenied, 157.\nenlarged, 186.\nResult,\ninevitable, 124.\nthe improvement of all our education,\n196.\nResults,\nbrilliant, in the United Slates, 55.\nof human thought, 1(58.\nRetention of Greek, 132.\n-Retire at ten o'clock, 144.\nRetrospect and forecast, a few words on,\n802.\nReturns made by the college to the community, 199.\nReviews, stereotyped, 76.\nRevival\nof Greek gymnastics, 11.\nin the study of psychology, 29.\nhumanistic, 153.\nRevolution, French, 53.\nRevue\nde V Enseignement\ndes Langues\nVivantes, 849.\nRevue (La) de V Enseignement Primaire et\nde V Enseignement Siipirienr, 848.\nRevue de Geographie, 849.\nRevue des Coins et Conferences, 846.\nRevue Internationale de V Enseignement,\n846.\nRevue Pedagogique, 846.\nRevue Universitaire, 846.\nReward\nand punishments, 20.\nof educational journals, 825.\nRewards\nin money, 36.\nin gratitude, 37.\nRexford, E. J., 178.\nReynolds, J. H., 526.\nReynolds, P. B., 681.\nRhoades, C. B., 509.\nRhoads, James B., 93.\nRhode Island, 67, 70, 81, 93, 179, 325,\n380. 716.\nRhode Island Educational Magazine and\nSchoolmaster, 814.\nRhode Island Schoolmaster, 814.\nRibera, E„ 4, 179.\nRice. Mrs. J. P., 507, 512, 521.\nRice, Miss R. S., 179.\nRice, Rebecca, 715.\nRich growing richer. 167.\nRichards, Chas. R„ 590, 591.\nRichards, Mrs. Ellen H., 91.\nRichards, J. II., 91.\nRichards, M. II., 681.\nRichards, R. II., 525, 549.\nRichards, Zalmon,\n244, 300.\nRichardson, Benj. W., 245.\nRichmond, Alf., 245.\nRichmond College, 681.\nRichmond, England, 179.\nRichmond, Ind., 91.\nRichmond, Ky., 91, 681.\n\nRichmond, Mo., 324.\nRichmond, Va., 70, 324, 681.\nRichter, Th., 89.\nRickoiT, Dr. Andrew J., 5.\nRicks, George, 245.\nRiddell, Phoebe, 324.\nRiddle, J. II., 179.\nRigg, J. II., 385.\nRight\nof the child, 81.\nexercise of duties of citizens, 244.\nand duties\nof citizens, 161.\nRights\n•\nof Greek, 142.\nof person and property, 184.\nRigidity of the graded system, 86.\nRiley, Arthur D., 450.\nRiley, B. F., 90.\nRilev, E. R., 833.\nRinehart. E. E., 509.\nRing, political, 81.\nRink, C. II., 9.\nRio de Janeiro, 89, 244.\nRios, F. Giner de los, 179.\nRipon College, 93, 710.\nRipon,\n93, 716.\nRipper, Wis.1,\nW., 89.\nRival and opposing schools, 197.\nRivalry between nations, 38.\nRivard, E. L., 680.\nRiver Falls, Wis., 383, 386, 408.\nRiverside, Cal., 323.\nRiverside, 111., 324.\nRoanoke College, 93, 681.\nRoberts, Chas., 610.\nRoberts, Chas. G. D., 89.\nRoberts, R. D., 89.\nRoberts, T. L., 509.\nRoberts, W. C, 91.\nRoberts, W. Rhys, 89.\nRobertson, 170.\nRobin, Mile. L., 245, 456.\nRobin, M., 245.\nRobins, S. P., 385.\nRobinson, Alb. R„ 591.\nRobinson, Emily, 590.\nRobinson, Ezekiel G., 680.\nRobinson, W. E., 69.\nRochester, N. Y., 325. 386, 681, 716.\nRochester University, 716.\nRock, Anna J.. 325.\nRock, Arrow, 842.\nRockaway Beach, 188.\nRockefeller, 99.\nRockford. 111., 246.\nRock Island. 111., 91.\nRodgers Park, 111., 324.\nRodhe, Eva, 590.\nRodney, Miss., 527.\nRodriguez. M. V., 178.\nRoebuck, Mrs. S. E., 325.\nRogers, Antoinette, 3^5.\nRogers, Arthur C, 245.\nRogers, II. W.,91.\nRogers, J. Sumner, 180.\n\n"}
{"page": 1012, "printed_page": null, "text": "992\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nRogers, W. 0., 69.\nRolfe, W. J., 91.\nRoman law. worship of, 50.\nRomanes, G. J., 89.\nRombaut, Eugene. 590.\nRome, Italy, 13, 323, 456.\nRoom made for the sciences, 196, 197.\nRooper, T. G., 245.\nRoot, Father, 837.\nRoot, F. W., 5. 507, 519.\nRoot, George P., 508, 522.\nRoots of English words. 126.\nRoper, Mrs., 507, 513, 519.\nRosa, Amaliade, 323.\nRose\nPolytechnic\nInstitute, at Terre\nHaute, Ind., 520, 583.\nRoss, G. W., 12.\nRoss, Henry H., 180.\nRossi, Dr. Egisto, 13.\nRossini, 9.\nRostock, Germany, 89.\nRote, by, learning pieces of music, 9.\nRothwell, W. R., 681.\nRouleau, Th. G., 385,\nRounds, C. C, 810.\nRounds, Miss, 456.\nRoustan, Ilonore, 13.\nRoutine, monotonous, 84,\nRoutledge, C. F., 245.\nRoxboro, N. C, 180.\nRoxburv, Mass., 180, 591.\nRoy, Henry F., 509.\nRoval Central Institute of Gvmnastics,\nStockholm, 615, 662.\nRoyal\nhouses, 37.\nEducational Society of Japan, 244, 308.\nCentral Gymnastic Institute, 10.\nInstitute of Gvmnastics,\nStockholm,\n615, 622.\nRoyce, Josiah, 679, 687.\nRoyer, John S., 829.\nRuano, A. Gomez, 16, 246.\nRudiments of manual and art training, 18.\nRuffner, W. II.. 70.\nRugby, England, 245.\nRugg'les,\n509.\nRuiz,\nJoseJ. M.W.,Carbnell\ny, 89.\nRule, external, 47.\nRumford, SarahS., 323.\nRunkle, J. D., 5, 10, 589, 680.\nRural schools,\ntheses on, 6.\ntraining of teachers. 8.\nintroduce agriculture, 244, 304.\nRusil, France, 244.\nRussel, Mr., 670.\nRussell, E. H., 386, 713, 715.\nRussell, II. C, 89.\nRussell, William, 812.\nRussellville, Ky., 91, 716.\nRussia,\nlist of vice-presidents, 13, 90, 179, 590.\ndoing its duty, 40.\ndelegate from, 304.\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nRussia, our friends from, 183.\nRussian\nsystem of manual training, 10, 589, 599.\nschool-shop, 29.\nhonor of being a, 38.\nRust, Annie C, 324.\nRust, Lawrence, 180.\nRutgers College, 92.\nRydberg, Victor, 90.\nRylance, J. W., 245.\nR viand, W. S., 91.\nSabin, A. R.. 69. 509.\nSabin, H., 69. 825.\nSabine, Miss Ella, 69.\nSachse, Hugo. 89.\nSacramento, Cal., 323.\nSacrifice for public education, 56.\nSadataka, Koba. 246.\nSadler, M. EL, 90.\nSafeguard of the superintendent, 80.\nSaint Cloud, France, 385.\nSalamanca. Spain, 118.\nSalamanca University. Spain, 118.\nSalazar, Fr. Ignacio. 12.\nSalem, Mass., 243. 246, 273, 386, 811.\nSalem, Ore.. 69, 92.\nSalem, Va., 93. 681.\nSalisburv. Alb., 386.\nSalisbury, N. C , 386.\nSalmon/ Lucy M., 92.\nSalomon, Otto, 590.\nSaltburn by the Sea, England, 245.\nSalter, lie v. M. B., 14.\nSalt Lake City. Utah, 325.\nSalvation of art, 20.\nSamples of sloyd work, 589, 599.\nSamson, George W., 92.\nSamuelson, Sir Bernh., 13.\nSanborn, J. W., 527.\nSande, Mary F. van de, 323.\nSanders, D. J., 92.\nSanders, Mr., 700.\nSanders, Thorn. J.. 92.\nSan Diego, Cal., 323.\nSanford, Edm. C, 88, 91, 150. 681.\nSan Francisco, 13, 90, 177, 211, 246, 321,\n322, 336, 385.\nSan Jose, Cal., 323, 385.\nSan Jose, Costa Rica, 12.\nSanskrit, thought based on, 135.\nSanta Fe, N. M.. 69.\nSantiago. Chili, 12. 68, 590.\nSarcey, the areh-critic, 171.\nSargent, Prof. D. A., 5.\nSargent, Dr., 615.\nSarmiento, Hon. D. F., 57.\nSaunders, Rose, 324.\nSavigny's\n\"Geschichte\ndes\nRomischen\nRechts\nMittelalter,\"\n822.\nSaville,\nJohnimW.,\n591.\nSaving of time, monev, and force, 41.\nSavings-banks,\nschool-,\nSawyer, Henry E.,\n818. 244, 286, 287.\n\n"}
{"page": 1013, "printed_page": null, "text": "993\nINDEX.\nSchools\nfor neglected children, 244, 315.\nrural, 244.\nmagic lanterns in, 314.\nof pedagogy, 415, 425.\nunder same regulations, 192.\nnot under same conditions, 192.\nsubmitting to outside examination, 192.\nunder same management, 191.\nof Bagdad,\nDamascus, Cordova,\nSalamanca, and Toledo, 186.\nSchflppa, A., 68.\nSchornstein, R., 179.\nSchottmuller, Dr., 179.\nSchrader, Mrs. Henrietta, 322, 346.\nSchrader, William, 179.\nSchreiber, G. L., 455, 472.\nSchroeder. Rosa, 324.\nSchubert, 9.\nSchulze, A., 508.\nSchulze, G., 179.\nSchultze, Dr., 385.\nSchumann, 9.\nSchumann, Dr., 179.\nSchurman. J. G., 5, 680, 703.\nSchuster, TIattie, 324.\nSchwerin, Germany, 245.\nSch wicker, J. H., 179.\nScience\nas a study, 7, 20.\nof law, 49.\nto take the place of empiricism, 104.\npure and professional practice, 111.\none year's study in, 195.\ncourse of six years, 196.\nSciences, theoretical and applied, 155.\nScientific\neducation created, 35.\nprofessions, 9, 525, 554.\nresources, 100.\ndisciplines, 110.\nmethod, 197.\nScientific men will not admit being in\nfault, 139.\nScope of science and art, 18.\nScotland,\n\nSaxony, school gymnastics in, 11.\nScale of the sciences, 155.\nScene,\na unique, 65.\nin \"Daniel Deronda.\" 138.\nSchaeffer, Charles A., 91, 713.\nSchaeffer, E. M.. G15, 616.\nSchafer, E. A., 715.\nSchaffhausen, Switzerland, 246.\nSchauenburg, E., 179.\nScheer, Oscar, 617.\nScheme, proposed, a, 155.\nSchenectady, N. Y., 681.\nSchepel, Miss Annetta, 322.\nSchorer, II., 68.\nSchiller, 175.\nSchiller, Herm., 179.\nSchirnier, Dr., 246.\nSchlee, Dr., 179.\nSchmidt, Anna, 323.\nSchmidt, F. A., 616.\nSchoene, Dr., 456.\nScholarship\nof teachers, equivalent to graduate of\nhigh-schools, 79.\naffected by public games, 146.\ncannot be hoarded like gold and silver,\n165.\nScholastic\ninstruction in normal schools, 8.\ncircles, degrees in, 159.\nScholasticism,\nawakened\nphilosophical\nsense, 153.\nScholz, Ed., 12.\nSchool,\nsecular, 28.\npopulation, 43.\ngymnastics, 11.\nsavings-banks, 244, 286; same in France,\n244, 287.\nreligion in, 244, 295.\nrural, 304.\nmagic lanterns in, 314.\nnot a workshop, 198.\ncenter of intellectual life, 198.\nSchool age, 68.\nSchool and Home, 843.\nSchool Bulletin, The, 827.\nSchool Commissioner, The, 833.\nSchool district system, old-fashioned, 190.\nSchool Friend, The, 828.\nSchool of Arts, 147. '\nSchool shop, Russian, 29.\nSchool\nsupervision, discussed\nby Fitzpatrick, 71.\nSchool, The, 832.\nSchool Visitor, The, 829.\nSchoolmaster, The, 179, 835.\n\nlist of vice-presidents, 12, 68, 90, 179,\n244, 385, 526, 590.\nnational education in, 874.\nwomen students in universities, 877.\nScotland Neck, N. C, 180.\nScott, Harriet M., 386.\nScott, William II., 527.\nScougal, A. E , 68, 245.\nScovel, S. F., 92.\nScranton, Pa., 180.\nScretcovics, P., 90.\nScrutiny,\n138. arguments that will not bear,\n\nSchoolmaster\n{!' he) and Academic Journal,\n828.\nSchoolroom,\napplication of psychology in, 7.\nmusical exercises in, 9.\nSchools,\nFrench, 10.\n\nScudder, C. 0., 679.\nSculpture,\nstudied in schools, 8.\nand painting, 456.\nSczawinska, Comtesse W. v., 90.\nSeamann, Mrs. J. E., 324.\n\n"}
{"page": 1014, "printed_page": null, "text": "994\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nSeath, John. 178.\nSeattle, Wash., 70, 180.\nSeaver, E. P., 67.\nSecondary education,\nsubjects of preliminary programme, 6.\ndepartment of , 177, 181.\nof girls in France, 177, 211.\ntime given to languages, 11)6.\nlanguage be limited, 109.\nwork different from normal schools, 884,\n430.\ngone through a transition, 181.\nin Cape Colony, 1)03.\nSecondary schools,\ntheses on, 6.\ncourse of study, 6, 103, 234.\npreparation of teachers, 8.\ntime given to languages, 106.\nlanguage studies, 190.\nprofessional training for, 217.\nalgebra or geometry, which should come\nfirst ? 221.\nclassified, 104.\nSecondary teachers, separated by a gulf\nfrom college teachers, 181.\nSecond-grade teachers, 41.\nSecret societies, 146.\nSecretary's\n4, 15,\n87, 615,\n177, 243,\n321, 383,report,\n455, 507,\n525,67,580,\n679,\n713, 787, 800.\nSecular schools, 28.\nSecurity\nto superintendent's tenure of office, 77.\nof prosperity, 1G3.\nSee, Camille, 846.\nSeelye, L. Clark, 01.\nSeelye, O. C. 70.\nSeer'ley,\nII. H.,\n386.\nSeip, Theo.\nL., 03.\nSeldon, Anna B., 324.\nSelection of popular songs, 0.\nSelf-activity\nin education, 11, 680, 703.\npure, 20.\nSelf-correcting system of drawing, 456.\nSelf-exaltation, inordinate, 102.\nSelf-interest, immediate, 115.\nSelleck, Miss, 456, 505.\nSelma, Ala., 13.\nSelwyn, E. C, 170.\nSense, aesthetic, 29.\nSentiment, public, awakened, 160.\nSeparation\nof church and school, 28.\nnecessary, 120.\nSeries of works of great masters, 8.\nSerious injury, 124.\nSerrano, Emilia, 00.\nSerrurier, Gust., 244, 287, 314.\nServia, 00.\nSeventh, dominant, 713, 720.\nSeverance, Sara L., 325.\nSevres, France, 323.\nSewall, J. A., 836.\nSewall, J. B., 180.\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nSewall, Mrs. Mary Wright, 179.\nSewanee, Tenn.. 03, 716.\nSexes in separate institutions, 101.\nSeymour, T. D., 128.\n\nShafer, Helen A., 01.\nShakespeare, 170, 171.\n\nappreciated best from the Greek point\nof view, 120.\nShaler, N. S., 527.\nShaping international life, 40.\nShanghai, China, 89.\nSharp, Robert, 01.\nSharpless, Isaac, 03.\nSharpsburg, Pa., 508, 520.\nShattuck, Prof., 525.\nShaw, Edvv. K., 884, 430, 715.\nShaw, Mrs. Quincv A., 501.\nShawan, 67,\nJ. 60,\nA., 78.\n67,\" 68, 78.\nSheats,\nSheffield, England, 68, 245.\nSheffield Scientific School, 00. 525.\nShelby ville, Ky., 177, 17S, 102, 205, 224.\nSheldon, E. A., 5, 383, 820.\nShell, J. K., 617.\nShelley, 170.\nis out-and-out Greek, 128.\nShelton, Henry, 244.\nShenton, F. K. I., 500.\nShepard, Irwin, 4. 5, 16, 824, 886.\nShepherd, II. E., 03.\nSherman, Tex., 325.\nSherwin, Thos., 813.\nSherwood, Jamaica, 385.\nShields, Sallie P., 824.\nShimer, Edg. D., 246, 384, 444.\nShindji, Tsudji, 13.\nShinn, Miss Millicent, 715, 778.\nShipp, Scott, 527.\nShippensburg, Ind., 385.\nShirley, Lina G., 324.\nShirreff, Emily A. E., 321, 323, 300.\nShop work\nfor slow pupils, 9.\nand drawing, 525, 567.\nShorey, Paul, 88, 137, 138, 679, 602.\nShorthand\ninstruction, 10.\nteaching morals and manners through\nShortridge, A. C, 831.\nShortridge, Superintendent, 79.\nShoup, F. A., 716.\nShoup,it,W.10.J.,' 841.\nShreveport, La., 324.\nShrewsbury, England, 179, 245.\nSluiji, Isawa, 246.\nShtirtleff College, 91.\nSibley College, 525, 565.\nSibley, la., 324.\nSicke'l, J. F. C, 246.\nSidney, 170.\nSiemering, Dr. R., 456.\nSieve, a superb, is Greek, 135.\nSignificance\nof the new movement, 18,\n\n"}
{"page": 1015, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX.\nSignificance of the degree of Ph.D., 122,\n160.\nSigns\nof the times, 18.\nof improvement, 142.\nof progress, 143.\nSigwart, Christ, v., 89.\nSilcher, Fr., 9.\nSilence, respectful, 138.\nSiljestran, Per, 64.\nSilke. Lucy, 456, 504.\nSill, J. M.B.,886.\nSilow, Captain Carl, 11, 616.\nSilvado. J. B., 244.\nSilvester, It. W., 179.\nSilveyra, Luis, 89.\nSimmons, James, 681.\nSimpson, Geo., 244.\nSimpson, John W., 92.\nSims J. W., 616.\nSinclair, S. B., 323, 713, 772.\nSinclair, Wm., 245.\nSinging,\npart singing, 9.\nexcusing pupils from, 508, 522.\nSion, J., 385.\nSioux City, la., 681.\nSituation, present, of education in France,\n16.\nSkeat, Walter W., 173.\nSkeleton, damaged, of an ancient form,\n153.\nSkepticism, general, 115.\nSkill\nin teaching, 8, 63.\ntechnical, 29.\nin bodying forms of beauty, 162.\nSkipworth, J. L., 385.\nSladc, James P., 69.\nSlaton, W. F., 69.\nSlattery, James W., 90.\nSlocum, A. G., 92.\nSlocum, W. F., 90.\nSlow pupils, developing them. 525, 567.\nSloyd or Swedish system. 29, 589. 599.\nSloyd training-school, Boston, 589, 599.\nSmall, James S., 244, 315.\nSmart, James II., 526.\nSmith, Benj.. 715.\nSmith, C, 179.\nSmith College, 91, 716.\nSmith, E. C, 836.\nSmith, Goldwin, 12.\nSmith, Holmes, 455.\nSmith, James, 245.\nSmith, J. Gardner. 11. 615, 617, 631.\nSmith, Margaret K., 384, 447.\nSmith, Mrs. Marv EL, 90.\nSmith, Miss Nora, 321, 323.\nSmith, Olive, 325.\nSmith, Susie T., 324.\nSmith, Swire, 13.\nSmith, Walter, 680.\nSmith, Wm. II.. 838.\nSmith, W. Wilberforce, 93, 178, 180, 885.\n\n995\n\nSmitz, Dr., 68.\nSmyth, Anson, 828.\nSnow, Francis B., 814.\nSnvder, W. EL, 177, 207.\nSnyder, X. Y., 385.\nSocial conditions, efforts relating to, 31.\nSocial convulsions in the history of nations,\n31.\nSocial organism,\nplace of education in,\n423.\nSocial virtues, 244, 278.\nSocieties,\nsecret, 146.\nGreek letter, 146.\nSocieties of learning, 47.\nSociety for Ethical Culture, the New York,\n591.\nSociety of \" Friends of Popular Education,\" 57.\nSociological\nview of normal schools, 384,\n422.\nSocrates, 20, 44.\nSoldan, Louis, 713.\nSolicitude and dread, 167.\nSolidity, emblem of, 48.\nSolution\nof human ills, 46.\ntheoretical, 150.\nSomerville, J., 244.\nSomogyi,\nGeza, 385.\nSongs\nin kindergarten, 321, 331.\ntheir dramatic element, 7, 321, 331.\nvalue a place, 321, 331.\nSonneck, II.. 323.\nSonnenschein, W. Swan, 323.\nSoprano, part singing, 9.\nSorbonne, 54.\nSoul as the basal concept, 693.\nSoule, George, 5, 791.\nSource, inexhaustible, 56.\nSouth, the,\nphysical education in, 11.\nchange in, 35.\nSouth Australia, 12, 278.\nSouth Bethlehem, Pa., 716.\nSouth Braintree, Mass., 180.\nSouth Carolina, 14, 70, 93, 179, 246, 386.\n681.\nSouth Carolina College, 681.\nSouth Dakota, 93, 386, 527.\nSouth Iladley, Mfiss., 91, 617, 716.\nSouthern University, 526.\nSouza Lima, A. Jose de, 89.\nSpain. 13, 68, 179, 385, 616.\nSpalding, Rev. J. L., 13.\nSpanker, II. T., 681.\nSpano, C. Guido P., 12.\nSparkes, J. C. L., 526.\nSpaulding, G. S., 819.\nSpavd, II., 178, 223.\nSpearfish, S. D., 386.\nSpecial conditions of the child, 244, 301.\nSpecial normal struction,schools\nfor primary in422.\n\n"}
{"page": 1016, "printed_page": null, "text": "996\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nSpecial schools,\ntechnical, 10.\nand schools with special courses, 194.\ntheir limitations, 194.\nSpecial teachers\nof vocal music, 9.\ntheir functions, 9.\nSpecial work, 7, 243, 273.\nSpecialists, courses for, 155.\nSpecialization\nin industrial pursuits, 10.\nof activities, 27.\nexcessive, 87.\nin universities, 109.\ndemands of, 120.\nwith reference to pursuits, 589, 597.\nSpecific error, 72.\nSpecimens\nof the new education, 21.\nbotanical and geological, 73.\nof early English, 173.\nSpeer, EL C, 69, 844.\nSpellers, constitutionally bad, 11, 713,\n762.\nSpence, Miss C. H., 12, 243, 278.\nSpencer, Herbert, 63, 338.\nSpencer, John O., 827.\nSpencer, R. C, 5.\nSpencer, Sara A., 800.\nSpenser, 170.\nSperanza, C, 92.\nSpirit\nof the new age, 18.\ndisorderly, 76.\nthe Greek, 138, 153.\nof Milton's poem, 172.\nof hard work, 191.\nof the paper indorsed, 191.\nof the times, 197.\nSpiritual development, 128.\nSpitta, Dr., 508.\nSpokane Falls, Wash., 507, 509, 513.\nSpokane, Wash., 93.\nSpontaneity, excessive, 95.\nSports,\npopular and youthful, 11.\nathletic, regulation of, 615, 636.\nSprague, H. B.. 90.\nSpring, Edward A., 457.\nSpringfield, Mass., 69, 91, 457, 589, 591,\n615, 617, 715, 756.\nSpringfield, O., 325.\nSproull, W. O., 87, 92, 108, 156.\nSruka, Anton, 508.\nStability of this country, 31.\nStafford, England, 245.\nStagg, A. Alonzo, 616.\nStagnation, none allowed, 63.\nStahley, Geo. D., 617.\nStahr, John S., 93.\nStaley, Cady, 527.\nStamp, ineffaceable, of Greek, 128.\nStandards\nrequired in training teachers, 8.\nno standard of education, 22.\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nStandards\ndeplorable, 184.\neach State creates its own, 190.\nStanley, A. A., 509.\nStanley, Lyulph, 13.\nState College of Mississippi, 680.\nState control, schools not under, 18S.\nState legislation for physical education, 11.\nState normal school, Trenton, 713.\nState normal school, Worcester, Mass., 715.\nState of education in the United States,\n139.\nState Reformatory of New York, Elmira,\n617.\nState supervision of high-schools, 192.\nState universities, 94, 99.\nState university of Indiana, 715.\nState university of Iowa, 713, 715, 725.\nState university of Minnesota, 92.\nState university of Missouri, 92.\nState university of Ohio, 92.\nStatistics of stutterers, 746-749.\nStatute, common, 50.\nStawell, Victoria, 244.\nSt. Cloud, Minn., 69, 386.\nSteeg, Jules, 53.\nStehle, Bruno, 385.\nStengel, Carl v., 89.\nStenography\nin business colleges, 10, 798.\nand typewriting, 798\nSteps, first, to reform, 427.\nSterling, Caroline M., 323.\nSterling, Theo., 92.\nSterrett, J. R. S., SI.\nSt. Etienne, France, 245.\nStetson, Albert, 835.\nStevens Institute of Technology, at Hoboken, N. J., 526, 586.\nStevens, Leroy, 191.\nStevens, Mrs. M. I., 325.\nStewardship, account of, 30.\nStewart, J. L., 179.\nStewart, N. Coe, 5, 508, 522, 523.\nStewart, Miss Sarah A., 321, 325, 328.\nStewart, T. N., 245.\nSt. Francis' College. 681.\nSt. Gallen, Switzerland, 323.\nStillwater, Oklahoma, 527.\nStimson, J. W., 455, 457, 462, 466, 473.\nStimulation of liberal education, 151.\nSt. Johnsbury, Vt., 177, 180, 193.\nSt. John's University, 681.\nSt. Lawrence University, 681.\nSt. Louis, Mo., 69, 92, 180, 321, 324, 508,\n509, 522, 523, 589, 590, 591, 594, 597,\n605, 615, 617, 657, 716.\nSt. Marv's College, 91, 681.\nSt. Marys, Ky., 91.\nSt. Mary's, Md., 91.\nSt.\nCollege,\nSt. Meinrad's\nMeinrad, Ind.,\n680. 680.\nStockholm, Sweden, 11, 54, 90, 244, 590,\n615, 662, 911.\nStock of words, 127.\n\n"}
{"page": 1017, "printed_page": null, "text": "99?\nINDEX.\nStudy\nStockton, Cal., 246, 289.\nStockwell, Thos. B., 5, 07, 68, 69, 82, 814.\nStoeckmann, Henrietta, 324.\nSt. Olaf College, 92.\nStone, A. P., 818.\nStone, George B., 830.\nStone, J. N., 70.\nStoner, Stanley, 716.\nStories told in kindergarten, 7, 322, 351.\nStory, Wm. E., 178, 224.\nStott, W. T., 91.\nStowell, T. B., 384, 386. 442.\nSt. Paul, Minn., 14, 81, 193, 324, 383,\n399.\nSt. Peter, Minn., 681.\nSt. Petersburg, Russia, 13, 16, 48.\nStraight University, 681.\nStrain vocal chords will bear, 9.\nStrassburg, Germany, 12, 89.\nStraub, S. W., 508, 522.\nStreams that have fertilized the lower\nschools, 165.\nStrength of the teacher, 74.\nStress laid on citizenship, 28.\nStrobel, Pellegrini, 90.\nStrong, M. Evelyn, 324.\nStrong, Frank, 69.\nStrong, James W., 90.\nStrong, Mrs. N. M., 323.\nStronge. S. E., 245.\nStrongoli, La Principessa, 13.\nStruggle\nfor self-government, 31.\nfor life, 39, 46.\nStruggles\nof the educators in the West, 159.\nof art schools, 455.\nStrumpell, Dr. Ludw., 12.\nStryker, M. W., 92.\nSt. Stephen's College, 92.\nStuart, A. T., 246.\nStubbs, Wm. C, 591.\nStudent, The, 831.\nStudent organizations, 94, 144.\nStudents\nof law, medicine, and theology, 87, 112.\nAmerican, 142.\nmust find truth and facts, 155.\nsent over to England, 172.\nwomen, in Scotland, 877.\nStudies\nof elementary schools, 5-12.\nof secondary schools, 5-12.\nof vocal music, 9.\ntechnological, 9.\ncomparative, 29.\nclassic and modern, 27.\nuniversity, 87.\ndifferentiation of, 109.\nin prescribed order, 193.\nthat lie at the basis, 198.\nStudio\nof universal encyclopedia, 109.\nincompatible, 121.\nStudy of great masters, 455, 473.\n\nof modern languages, 121.\na, that is bad, 156.\n\" in absentia.\" 160.\nof the dative case, 176.\nof our language cannot be abridged, 197.\nof children's theology, 713, 765.\nof movements and mental states, 715,\n750.\nStudying art, 472.\nStuttering, prevention of, 713, 739.\nStuttgart, Germany, 12, 178, 119.\nSt. Viateur's College, 680.\nSt. Xavier College, 681.\nSubject of legislation, branding, 145.\nSubjects\npresented in preliminary programme, 6.\nthat have no dogma, 155.\ntaught in technological schools, 525.\nof higher education assigned to secondary schools, 196.\nof secondary education thrown into elementary schools, 196.\nSubsidy, liberal, by Congress, 55.\nSubstantial progress a sign of the time,\n18.\nSubstitute for supervision, 191.\nSuccess\nwon by Jay Gould, 139.\nten of the sixty -five were a, 191.\nSudborough, Grace B., 246.\nSudlow, Miss P. W., 840.\nSuicide, national, 81.\nSullivan, Miss, 244, 302.\nSullivan, M., 68.\nSully, James, 714, 730.\nSummey, Geo., 93.\nSumner, W. G., 91.\nSunderland, Mrs. E. R., 713.\nSuper, Chas. W., 92.\nSuperintendent,\nappointment,\n7. 7, 67.\ntenure of office,\nof schools, 47.\nmust have been a teacher, 78.\nSuperior, Wis., 325.\nSupervision\nof elementary schools, 7, 71.\nof secondary education, 6, 182.\nof physical training, 10.\nof schools, 29.\nof private schools, 177, 183.\nof parents, trustees, and the publicj\n185.\na questionable thing, 191.\nif had in England, 191.\nabsolutely necessary, 191.\nmade the schools efficient, 193.\nSupervisor\ngiving lessons, 72.\nwho understands the want, 193.\nSupport of higher education, 167.\nSurgeon flourishing his knife. 74.\nSurvey of the field of learning, 27.\nSurvival of the fittest, 46.\n\n"}
{"page": 1018, "printed_page": null, "text": "998\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nC0N0HE88\n\nSurvival\nof the best, 46.\nof the meanest, 46.\nSuspension Bridge, N. Y., 92.\nSutcliffe, Superintendent, 68, 88.\nSutherland, J. W., 842.\nSutto, Luigi, 590.\nSutton, W. J., 386.\nSutton, W. S., 67.\nSwain, Geo. F., 525, 554.\nSwan, Howard. 179.\nSwan, Rob.. 246.\nSwarthmore College, 93, 617.\nSwarthmore, Pa., 93, 617.\nSweden,\nlist of vice-presidents, 89, 590, 616.\ntraining of teachers, 16, 60.\npublic education in, 289.\nour friends from, 183.\nphysical education in, 16.\nLatin and Greek in, 209.\nSwedish gymnastics, school and military,\n11.\nSwedish system, or sloyd, 589, 599, 604.\nSweetser, P. H.,813.\nSweevelt, C. van, 590.\nSwet, Superintendent, 341.\nSwift, 170.\nSwitzerland, 13, 90, 179, 246, 323, 525,\n553.\nS. W. Presbvterian university, 93.\nSydney, Nevv South Wales, 89, 244, 590.\nSykes, R., 245.\nSymbolic stage of childhood, 28.\nSymbolism,\njustifiable, 322.\nin kindergarten, 7, 322, 355, 356.\nSymbols\n322. fitted to child's comprehension,\nSymes, J. B., 90.\nSympathy\nfor the work, 39.\nthe utmost, 193.\nSymptom, acute, of disease, 116.\nSynthesis will give culture, 154.\nSyracuse, N. Y., 67, 681.\nSyracuse University, 681.\nSystem,\nFroebel's system of drawing, 7.\nsystems of manual training, 10.\nbarbaric, of reward and punishments,\n18.\ngenerous, of public instruction, 37.\ndesigned to suit us, 43.\nof training teachers in Sweden, 62.\nof public education in Sweden, 289.\nEuropean, 109.\nelective, 122.\nSystematizing private and endowed schools,\n183.\nSystems,\neducational,\nof the past, outgrown,\n17.\nof musical notation. 508. 522.\nSwedish or Russian, 589, 599, 604.\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nTabor College, 91, 681.\nTabor, la., 91, 681.\nTacitus, 172.\nTacoma, Va., 591.\nTacoma, Wash., 325.\nTacubaya, Mexico. 90.\nTadashi, N., 68.\nTadd, J. L., 466, 591.\nTaine, in his \" Philosophy of Art,\" 169.\nTaint of politics, 186.\nTalbert, M. J.. 814.\nTalbot, Henry, 455, 462. 466.\nTalent dies with the discoverer, 183.\nTallahassee, Fla„ 69.\nTamatsu, Aoki, 246.\nTampa, Fla., 323.\nTaranaki, New Zealand, 244.\nTarbell, Superintendent, 67, 70, 78, 82.\nTarkio, Mo., 92.\nTasmania, 89.\nTaste, Cecilia, 323.\nTassis,\nartistic, 8.\naesthetic, 8.\nof modern English novel, 175.\nTax for public schools, 193.\nTavlor, A. R., 386.\nTaylor, C. E., 92.\nTaylor, James M., 92.\nTaylor, J. B., 180.\nTaylor, J. Orville, 826.\nTaylor, R. L., 180.\nTaylor, Sarah McC, 386.\nTaylor, Vincent A., 14.\nTeachers,\nexaminations, 7.\ncertificates, 7.\nlicenses, 7.\nprobationary service, 7,\nuniversity participation, 7, 67.\nnomination of, 7, 67.\nappointment of, 7.\nspecial teachers, 7.\nprofessional training, 7.\nqualifications of teachers of music, 9.\nculture of music teachers, 9.\ntheir functions, 9.\ntheir improvement, 29, 71.\ngood, how procured, 60.\nto be university men, 61.\ntheir transfer, 80.\nmethods of training. 383, 401.\nof Greek, 140.\nof secondary schools, 181.\nembedded in their own districts, 183.\nsecure princely teachers, 187.\nheld accountable for results, 191.\nget places haphazard, 192.\nTeachers' bureaus useful, 192.\nTeachers' institutes, 419.\nTeacher's Voice, The, 819.\nTeacher's World, The, 821.\nTeaching practice, value of, 8.\n\n"}
{"page": 1019, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX.\nTeaching practice,\n,\ncritic of, 8.\nlength of course, 8.\nTeaching history to children, 284.\nTechnical\ninstruction. 9.\nschools, 100, 111, 156.\nTechnical difficulties in art instruction, 8.\nTechnique of representation in drawing,\n8, 455.\nTechnological schools,\ntheses on, 9.\nstudies, 9.\ntheir accomplishments, 525, 534.\nTechnology, department congress, 27.\nTejima, S., 13.\nTelegrams, 125.\nTemmermann, M., 384.\nTempe, Arizona, 385.\nTemple, J. S., 843.\nTendencies, deteriorating, of public games,\n146.\nTendency\nof equality, 38.\nsubjective, 47.\ninternal, 47.\nof secondary education in France, 169.\nto take power awav from the people,\n192.\nTennessee, 14, 70, 93, 179, 325, 386. 509,\n591, 616, 681.\nTenney, Jonathan, 818.\nTennyson, 170.\na life-long reader of Greek, 128.\nTenure of office of superintendents, 7, 67.\nTerhune, John, 246.\nTerm of office, 82.\nTerre Haute, Ind., 69. 87, 386, 525, 526,\n550.\nTerritory, Northwest, 66.\nTests of a university, 98.\nTetlow, John, 180.\nTexas, 14, 70, 93, 179, 246, 325, 386.\n681.\nText-books\nused in Ontario, 41.\nhow prepared there, 41.\nregulating their price, 42.\nlearned by heart, 155.\nThacher, T. A., 815.\nThayer, G. F.,813.\nTheo-centric education, 680.\nTheocritus imitated, 128.\nTheological life of a child, 765.\nTheology\nin universities, 11.\nof children, 11, 713, 765.\nstudents of, 87.\nTheoretical\ntraining, 18.\nsolution, 150.\nTheories and their exponents, 105.\nTheory of the first principles, 700.\nThermes, A., 245.\nTheses of the programme, 6-12.\n\n999\n\nTheses\ndefended publicly, 157.\nthe work of scholars, 175.\nThing, a most inspiring, 167.\nThiry,J. H., 244, 286.\nThomas, Mrs. E. A., 509.\nThomas, Miss Marie, 323.\nThomas, M. Carev, 93.\nThomas, Win.\n681.\nWm. D.\",\nL., 843.\nThompson, D'Arcy W.. 90.\nThompson, Hugh S., 14.\nThompson, J. A.. 92.\nThompson, Marian, 324.\nThompson. Silv. P., 13.\nThompson, W. O., 92.\nThomson, 170.\nThorden, Dr., 90.\nThornton, Wm. M., 93.\nThought and feeling. 507, 513.\nThoughts of all nations, 22.\nThree R's, 45.\nThroop, Frances, 324.\nThurber, C. H., 180.\nThurston, Brown, 818.\nThurston, Rob. II., 525, 534, 551,565.\nThwing, Chas. F., 92.\nTidioute, Pa., 591.\nTierney, John J., 681.\nTiffin, O., 92.\nTifft, Mrs. L. L., 246.\nTillard, J., 245.\nTilsit, Germany, 245.\nTime\nof youth, 26.\ngiven to languages, 177, 196.\nin university wasted, 137.\nsurrendered, 197.\ngiven grudgingly, 197.\nTirsow, Alex., 90.\nTitchener, E. B., 680, 705.\nTitles, academic, 94.\nTobar, Carlos R., 89.\nTocqueville, De, 94.\nToensfeld, J., 11.\nTokyo, Japan, 13, 68, 90, 246, 455, 526, 590.\nToledo, la., 91.\nToledo, O., 325,591,681.\nToudern, Germany, 681.\nTongue\nanalogous to Greek, 135.\nour noble but difficult, 197.\nTopeka, Kan., 69, 324.\nTopic of representing language, 28.\nTopics, specific, 72.\nTorngren, Dr. L. M., 4, 11, 16, 90, 616, 662.\nToronto, Ont, 11, 12, 40, 68, 89, 178. 244,\n321, 323, 326, 383. 384, 410, 450, 508.\nTorrey, II. A. P., 716.\nTortori-ken, Japan, 246.\nTottenham (London), England, 385.\nTousev, Wm. G., 681.\nTowles, C. M., 681.\nTown, Amos, 67.\nTown system of schools, 190.\n\n"}
{"page": 1020, "printed_page": null, "text": "1000\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nTownsend, II. S., 246.\nTracks in reading and writing, 715, 750.\nTracy, F., 713, 737.\nTracy, J. L., 842.\nTrainer, John, 839.\nTrainer, Mrs. J.C., 324.\nTraining\nof kindergarteners, 7.\nprofessional, of teachers, 7.\nwhat degree of, 7.\nkind of, 7.\nengineers, 10.\nof teachers in high schools (Sweden), 16.\nfor duties of citizenship, 278.\nor model schools, 383, 387.\nof the hand, 18.\ninjurious. 131.\nfor scientific professions, 525, 554.\nphysical, for criminals, 615, 646.\nphysical, for deaf-mutes, 616, 674.\nof the human body, 615, 623.\nin commercial college, 791.\nTraining of the hand, a sign of the time,\n18.\nTraining-school, English, in Bosnia, 900.\nTransfer of teachers, 80.\nTransferring pupils, 86.\nTransient characteristics of mind, 29.\nTransition of the mind, 28.\nTransitory\nTranslation teacher's work, 37.\nof Greek, 126.\nextempore, 174.\nTrautwetter, Katharine, 325.\nTreat, J. P., 829.\nTreatise, scientific, 61.\nTrenton, N. J., 69, 246, 384, 386, 432, 713.\nTreudly, Superintendent, 713.\nTributary to kindergartner's training, 322.\nTriennium, three years' residence, 156.\nTrinity College, 92.\nTripod, natural, human and divine, 48.\nTrivium of studies, 152.\nTrocadero in Jackson Park, 24.\nTroy, Ala., 323, 385.\nTroy, N. Y., 92, 527.\nTrustees, members of the board of, 193.\nTruth,\nprimitive, 11.\nits discovery and use, 152.\nTruths, great, 322.\nTiibingen, Germany, 89.\nTucson, Arizona, 526.\nTufts College, Mass., 91, 617, 681.\nTufts, James II., 680.\nTufts, J. A.. 180.\nTulane University, 69, 91, 179, 525, 526,\n554, 616.\nTunbridge Wells, England, 225, 245.\nTunis, Tunisie, 12, 53.\nTupper-Maynard, Mrs., 713.\nTurin, Italy, 10, 12, 90, 245, 615, 623.\nTurnbull, W. P., 245.\nTurner, Isaac J., 617.\nTurner, II. M., 13.\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nTurner, R. W., 844.\nTurner-bund,\nNorth American, 11, 615, 657.\nand the normal schools, 11.\nits history, 657.\naims and achievements, 657.\nTuscumbia, Ala., 302.\nTutors in liigh-schools in Sweden, 62.\nTutwiler, Julia S., 385.\nTweed, B. P., 246, 813.\nTwist, fatal, of the thinking faculty, 169.\nTyler,\nType, Chas. M., 681.\nuniversities be of one, 104.\nof education, 139.\nTypes\nof great art works, 8.\nof manhood, 28.\nof womanhood, 28.\nof errors, 73.\nin biology, 153.\nTypewriting\nin -business colleges, 10.\nand stenography, 798.\nTypical facts, 44.\nTypical normal school work differing from\nsecondary and higher education, 8.\nTyrone, Pa., 325.\nU\nUeberschaer, Max, 245.\nUellner, Dr., 179.\nUhlig, G., 179.\nUnconscious of danger, 73.\nUndergraduate\nlife of American students, 6, 88, 142.\nexamination of, 119.\nUniform examinations, 41.\nUniformity\nsecured, 383.\nin Germany, 157.\nUnion of kindergarten and primary school,\n321, 336.\nUnion Tedagogique, 850.\nUnion University, 681.\nUnited Kingdom, mixed practice in, 183.\nUnited States,\nState legislation for physical education,\n11.\nlist of vice-presidents, 13, 68, 90, 179,\n246, 323, 385, 457, 509, 526, 590, 616,\n680, 715.\ncities of, 21.\nscientific education in, 35.\npublic instruction shall endure in, 37.\nforty-four republics in the, 39.\nschool savings-banks, 244, 280.\nacademic learning in, 129.\ninstitutions granting degrees, 159.\nUnity and peace of mankind, 20.\nUniversal education, 118.\nUniversal Educator, The, 828.\nUniverse, the whole, 176.\nUniversities, 6.\nAmerican, 95.\n\n'\n\n"}
{"page": 1021, "printed_page": null, "text": "1001\n\nINDEX.\nUniversities,\none type ? 6, 104, 108.\nEuropean, 51.\nparticipation, 7.\nprofessional preparation of teachers, 8.\nof the United States, 51.\ntheir condition, 96.\nrelation to advancement of civilization,\n161.\nScottish, 877.\n\nUniversity,\n\ndivision of labor in, 109.\ndifferent faculties, 109.\nspecialization in, 109.\nancient organism, 110.\natmosphere, 116.\ndegree a prerequisite, 112.\neducation of women, 853.\nassociation of women, 865.\neducation distinguished from collegiate,\n97.\nfellowship, 107.\nits relation to professional schools, 146.\nUniversity College, Oxford, 680.\nUniversity College, London, 715.\nUniversity departments formed by normal\nschools, 424.\nUniversity extension, the new movement,\n18.\nUniversity of Alabama, 52, 90.\nUniversity of Atlanta, 91.\nUniversity of California, 52, 87. 104.\nUniversity of Chicago, 87, 88, 91, 108, 118,\n127, 132, 137, 141, 168, 177, 193, 679,\n680.\nUniversity of Cincinnati, 87, 92, 108, 150.\nUniversity of Colorado, 87, 680.\nUniversity of Denver, 90.\nUniversity of France, 118, 119.\nUniversity of Illinois, 526.\nUniversity of Iowa, 91, 716.\nUniversity of Michigan, 11, 87, 92, 128,\n133, 164, 243, 260, 680.\nUniversity of Mississippi, 681.\nUniversity of Missouri, 679, 716.\nUniversity of Nebraska, 87, 108.\nUniversity of North Carolina, 92.\nUniversity of North Dakota, 92, 681.\nUniversity of Notre Dame, 715.\nUniversity of Omaha, 92.\nUniversity of Oregon, 681.\nUniversity of Pennsylvania, 93, 99, 681,\n716.\nUniversity of Rochester, 681.\nUniversity of South Dakota. 93.\nUniversity of Southern California, 680.\nUniversity of St. Lawrence, 92.\nUniversity of Texas, 681.\nUniversitv of the City of New York, 92,\n384, 715.\nUniversity of the Northwest. 681.\nUniversity of the South, 93, 716.\nUniversity of Turin, Italy. 87. 615. 62:].\nUniversity of Vermont, 716.\nUniversity of Vienna (Austria), 509.\n\nUniversity of Virginia, 617, 716.\nUniversity of Wisconsin, 93, 716.\nUniversity of Wooster, 92, 681.\nUniversity of Wyoming, 93.\nCniversitv P. O., Cal., 680.\nUniversity P. O., Miss., 681.\nUniversitv P. O., N. D., 681.\nUpper Alton, 111., 91.\nUppingham, England, 179.\nUpsala, Sweden, 61, 90.\nUpson, Dr. Anson J., 14.\nUrsinus College, 681.\nUruguay, 13, 16, 56. 6^, 179, 246.\nUruguayan Horace Mann, 57.\nUse\nof magic lanterns, 244, 314.\nof symbolism in kindergarten, 355.\nof truth, 152.\nof instruments in teaching singing, 507,\n519.\nUtah, 325, 527.\nUtica, N. Y., 69, 325.\nUtilitarianism of life, 110.\nUtility, doubtful, 191.\nUtrecht, Netherlands, 179, 385.\nUtterings, idealistic, 175.\nVacancies, temporarily filled, 8.\nVaile, E. O., 826, 839.\nValencia, E. C. de. 590.\nValencia, Spain, 179.\nValparaiso, Ind., 324.\nValue, educational,\nof observation work in normal schools,\nof hand work in kindergarten, 7.\nof technological studies, 9, 27.\nof 7.applied mathematics, 9.\nof engineering, 9, 525, 558.\nof pure mathematics, 10.\nof industrial education, 10.\nof business education, 10.\nof university extension, 18.\nof laboratory work, 27.\nof workshop practice, 27.\nof manual education, 64.\neconomic, 81.\nof elementary schools, 244.\nof social virtues, 278.\nof kindergarten songs, 321, 331.\nof handwork, 322.\nof 387\npractice work in training-schools, 383,\nof Greek, 125.\nof exact measurements, 525, 558.\nof 583.\napplied mathematics, 525, 5\"26, 560,\ncoordinate. 198.\nVanderbilt University, 93, 617, 681.\nVjindewalker, Nina, 325.\nVankirk. Mrs. M.S., 325.\nV.ui Meter, John P., 716.\nVan Scoy, W. T.. 3SC.\nVan Winkle, P. J., 386.\n\n"}
{"page": 1022, "printed_page": null, "text": "1002\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONQRESS\n\nVarela, Jos. Peter, progress of education\nin Uruguay, 16, 56.\nVaros, Hungary, 179.\nVassar College, 92.\nVaughan, Mrs. A. K., 324.\nVawter, C. E., 591.\nVedia, Juan M. de, 244.\nVehicle\nof the noblest literature, 132.\nVenable, R. A., 92.\nVenice,\nthe new, 24.\nVermilion, S. Dak., 93.\nVermont, 93, 179, 325, 386, 716.\nVermont Agriculturist, The, 818.\nVermont School Journal, The, 818.\nVernacular of the time, 24.\nVersailles, Prance, 245.\nVeteran educator, 53.\nVeugh, W. van der, 90.\nVicenza, Italy, 13.\nVice-presidents, list of, 12, 68, 89, 178,\n244, 323, 384. 456, 526.\nVictoria, British Columbia, 12.\nVictoria University (England), 95.\nVictories of science, 198.\nVienna, Austria, 11, 12, 89, 323, 366, 384.\n456, 505, 590, 616.\nVierzon, France, 590.\nView,\na merchant's, of business colleges, 10.\nthe opposite, 122.\noptimistic, 146.\nincorrect and injurious, 165.\nViews of life, 175.\nVillage or town corporation supervision,\n192.\nVillages, in, and in hamlets, 166.\nVinck, Emile, 89.\nViolin or piano in vocal music. 507, 519.\nVirginia, 14, 70, 93, 324, 325, 386, 457,\n527, 591, 616, 681, 716.\nVirtue, broad domain of, 20.\nVirtues, social, 244.\nVisitation by college professors, 189.\nVisiting teachers, by supervisor, 72.\nVisitors, the elementary schools have, 191.\nVisits,\nformal and informal, 191.\noccasional, 191.\nVocabularies, infants', 713, 737.\nVocal music,\ninstruction in, 8.\nlearned by rote, 9.\npart singing, 9.\nsoprano and melody, 9.\nselection of songs, 9.\nadapted for children, 9.\npatriotic airs, 9.\npopular songs, 9.\nreligious hymns, 9.\nits accorftpaniment, 9.\nclassic music, 9.\nspecial teachers, fl.\ncorrection of errors, 9.\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nVocal music,\nexpression in, 9.\nenunciation, 9.\nproper posture of body, 9.\nuse\nof 9.\ninstrument, 507, 519.\npitch,\ndepartment of, 507.\nVocal organs, their hygiene, 507, 514.\nVocation a natural expression, 111).\nVogel, Chr.,\n179. 34.\nVoices,\nfamiliar,\nVoiron, France, 590.\nVolkmann, D., 179.\nVoltaire, 172.\nVolume, The 848.\nW\nWaco, Tex., 14, 93, 325.\nWaddington, Rich., 245.\nWadsworth, Edith J., 325.\nWadsworth, M. E., 527.\nWaetzoldt, Dr. Stephan, 12.\nWagner, R., 68.\nWagner, Samuel, 457.\nWake Forest College, 92.\nWake Forest, N. C, 92.\nWales, 385.\nWalbridge, N. H., 832.\nWalker, Gen. Francis A., 5, 9, 91, 525,\n526, 528.\nWalker, P. R.. 246.\nWallace, Hamilton, 246.\nWallace, Wm., 680.\nWalla Walla, Wash., 93.\nWaller, Jr., D. J., 69.\nWaller, Frank, 457.\nWalters, John D., 591.\nWalton, G. A., 246, 408.\nWalton, Geo. W., 383.\n\" Wanderjahr,\" to see the world, 113.\nWants\nof the time, 39.\nof the community, 191.\nWard, A. W., 173.\nWard, Mrs. Humphrev, 175.\nWard, Phillip, 245.\nWard, T. M. D., 13.\nWardale, W., 245.\nWarfield, E. D., 93.\nWarner, Francis, 11, 715, 750.\nWarning of wisdom, 45.\nWarre, Edm., 179.\nWarren, W. P., 91.\nWarrensburg, Mo., 386.\nWarrenton, Mo., 681.\nWashington and Lee Universitv, 93, 617,\n681.\nWashington, D. C, 13, 14, 88, 100, 179,\n244, 246, 300, 321, 323, 342, 385, 456,\n457, 526, 590, 591, 606, 616, 679, 700,\n715. 800.\nWashington (State), 70, 93, 179, 246, 325,\n386, 509, 527.\nWashington University (St. Louis), 92,\n243, 266, 582, 589, 594, 605, 617, 716.\n\n"}
{"page": 1023, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX.\nWashington, Va.. 591.\nWaste, mental, 713, 725.\nWaterfonl, Ireland, 245.\nWaterman, R., 525, 551.\nWalertown, X. Y., 325.\nWaterville, Me.. 91, 179.\nWaterville, O., 681.\nWatson, II. G., 616.\nWatson, John, 680.\nWatt, W. E., 507, 512, 513, 519, 522.\nWax modeling. 8.\nWavland, Francis, 98.\nWayland, H. L., 14, 832.\nWeak teachers, 72.\nWeakness of childhood, 77.\nWebb, W. R. J. M., 180.\nWeber, Carl Maria von, 9.\nWeed, Charlotte H., 325.\nWeed, Miss Ella, 92.\nWegiminn, Ileinrich, 323.\nWeimar, Germany, 12.\nWeir, Edw. E., 681.\nWelch, Miss E., 90.\nWelch, J. P., 386.\nWelcome\nby Superintendent Lane, 16, 31.\nsympathetic and cordial, 56.\nWelfare, general of the U. S., 187.\nWelldon, J. E. C, 179.\nWellesley College, 91, 617.\nWellesley College school of music, 509.\nWellesley, Mass., 91, 180, 509, 617.\nWellington, New Zealand, 12, 456.\nWells,!). Franklin, 841.\nWells, Mrs. I). B.. 179.\nWells, Win. H., 813.\nWelsh, Mrs. S. L., 324.\nWertheimer, J., 526.\nWesleyan University, 88, 142, 680.\nWesleyan University (111.), 91.\nWest, A. P., 5, 88, 135, 150. 154, 155.\nWest, Mary A., 323, 837.\nWestChester. Fa., 386.\nWest Point and Annapolis, 186.\nWist, the change in, 35.\nWest Virginia, 70, 509, 527, 681.\nWest Virginia University, 681.\nWestcott, O. S., 837.\nWestern Academician, The, 828.\nWestern college, 91, 681, 699.\nWestern liberal education, 153.\nWestern Maryland College, 616.\nWestern, Mrs., 713.\nWesternport, Md., 246.\nWestern Reserve\nSchool Journal,\nThe,\n829.\nWestern Reserve University, 92.\nWestern School Journal, 'the, 28, 844.\nWestern States, 32.\nWestern University of Pennsylvania, 92,\n617.\nWesterville, 0., 92.\nWestminster, Eng., 385.\nWestminster, Md., 616.\nWest Newton, Mass., 246.\n\n1003\n\nWeston, E. P., 817, 818.\nWeston, Or., 386.\nWey, H. D., 11, 617.\nWeyer, 0. W., 841.\nWeyrauch, Dr., 12.\nWheatlev. Ella M.. 325.\nWheaton College, 88, 135, 145.\nWheaton, 111., 91.\nWheeling, W. Va.. 67.\nWheelock, Carrie M., 325.\nWheelock, Lucy, 324.\nWhig and Democratic party, 166.\nWhipple, Prof., 88, 135.\nWhitaker, Geo., 92.\nWhite\nCity, an annex to International\nCongress, 23.\nWhite, E. E., 69, 244, 295, 828.\nWhite, Emma W., 325.\nWhite, II. C, 526.\nWhite, Miss II. M., 90.\nWhite, John S., 180.\nWhite, Jos. E., 180.\nWhite, President, 95.\nWhite, S. II., 835.\nWhite Springs. Fla., 385.\nWhitehead, Katherine, 325.\nWhitewater, Wis., 325, 386.\nWhitford, Wm. C, 93.\nWhiting, Edith G., 324.\nWhitlock, Miss Lucy, 322.\nWhitman as a biologist, 135.\nWhitman, B. L., 91.\nWhitman, C. O., 127.\nWhitman College, 93.\nWhitman, Mrs. 0. A., 325.\nWhit more, Eva B., 324.\nWhitney, C. L., 832.\nWhitney, Geo. II., 180.\nWhitney, W. D., 91.\nWhittier, Frank N.. 616.\nWichita, Kan., 324, 509, 681.\nWichita University, 681.\nWickham, E. C, i79.\nWiener, Dr., 12.\nWife as business woman, 10.\nWiggin, Mrs. Kate D., 321, 322, 325.\nWilberforce College, 92.\nWilberforce, 0., 14, 92.\nWilborn, Miss T., 245.\nWilder. W. H., 91.\nWiley, Miss, 321.\nWilev, W. H., 69.\nWilhelm, J. S., 180.\nWilkins,\nDaniel, 834.\nWill,\nWilkinson, A., 456.\npsychology\nin children. of,\n11. 11.\nof the people, studied by lawyers, 187.\nWillamette University, 92.\nWillard, Miss Frances E., 13.\nWillard, Samuel, 246, 837, 833.\nWillard, S. P., 246.\nWillets, Edwin, 13.\nWillets, Miss Mary, 615, 641.\n\n"}
{"page": 1024, "printed_page": null, "text": "1004\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION.\n\nWilliam Jewell College, 92, 681.\nWilliams College, 617.\nWilliams, G. U., 386.\nWilliams, II. II., 681.\nWilliams. Miss h. A., 713, 715.\nWilliams. Mary, 324.\n\nWood,\nWood,\nWood,\nWood.\nWood,\nWood,\n\nWilliams,\nG'., 384,135.440.\nWilliams, S.\nTalcott,\nWilliamstown, Mass., 617.\nWilliinan. Claudia, 179.\nWillimantic, Conn., 323.\nWills, Miss C. E., 457.\nWilma.th. Mrs. II. M.. 4, 13, 23.\n\nWoodbridge.W. ('., 812.\nWoodbury, Prof., 525, 553.\nWoodland, Cal„ 90.\nWoodruff, Mamie It., 324.\nWoodson, Adda. 325.\nWoodward, C. M.. 243. 266, 526, 582, 586,\n589, 591, 594. 597, 605.\nWoodward. E. K., 842.\nWoodward, Win., 591.\nWood worth, II. B., 681.\nWooster, O.. 92, 681.\nWorcester, Elwood, 716.\nWorcester, Mass., 11, 91, 177, 178, 180,\n199, 207, 224, 243, 268, 383, 3t6, 527,\n591, 681. 713, 717, 718.\nWords of retrospect and forecast, 862.\nWordsworth, 170.\nWordsworth is Greek in sympathy, 128.\nWork\nof poor teachers, 7.\nin laboratory, 9.\nwhich is eternal, 34.\nin secondary and higher education, 384,\n430.\nWorkman, W. G., 508.\nWorkshops, practice in, 9.\n\nWilmington, Del., 69, 179, 323, 509, 615,\n641.\nWilmington, N. C, 246.\n\nWilson, Baroness lie, 90.\nWilson, Miss E. C, 90.\nWilson, E. II.. 179.\nWilson, F. E., 829.\nWilson, Mrs. L. P., 325.\nWilson, It. I., 386.\nWilson, S. R., 245.\nWilson, Woodrow, 87, 112.\nWilt. A. D., 793.\nWiltse. SaraE., 324.\nWinchell, Alex., 832.\nWine-hell, S. It., 836.\nWinchester and Eton, 37.\n\nWinchester, Ky., 13.\n\nWindermere, Eng., 245.\nWinn, J. B., 246.\nWinona, Minn., 324, 386.\nWinship, A. E., 68, 83, 713, 772, 820.\nWinston. Geo. F., 92.\nWisconsin, 32, 70, 93, 325. 386, 681 , 716.\nWisconsin State Normal School, 713.\nWise, Hon. Geo. I)., 14.\nWise, Henry A., 383, 406.\nWise, Superintendent, 68.\nWithdrawal from school, 85.\nWolf, Chas. 11., 841.\nWolfe, J. 0.. 843.\nWolfe, L. E. . 69.\nWolkonsky, Prince Serge, 4, 13.\nWolverhampton, England, 245.\nWoman\nteaching a primary class, 36.\n■equal to man, 101.\nWomanhood, type of, 28.\nWoman's College of Baltimore, 716.\nWoman's influence, 22.\nWomen,\nbusiness, the world's need of, 800.\neducational work for, 887.\nand girls in India, 890.\nin England, 853.\ntheir education in New Zealand, 883.\nWomen students in Scottish universities.\n877.\nWomen teachers, their univei\"sity association, 865.\nWonder,\nlook with, at our secondary\nschools, 181.\nWood, A. P., 840.\n\nDe Volson, 526, 586.\ninstinct ion in, 10.\nMiss Ida, 93.\nStellaS., 324.\nSir Truman. 16.\nT. 1)., 10, 615,616, 621.\n\nindustries make new demands, 589, 594.\nWorld's\nneed of business women, 800.\nWorld's International Congress of Education, 1.\nsecretary, 16.\nWorms. Germany, 68.\nWorrall, Cornelia\nJohn M*.,It.,\n681.325.\nWright,\nWright,\nWriting, John S„ 833.\nWright, Ramsey, 89.\na conventional study, 7.\nbeautiful, 73.\nessential in course of study, 243, 251.\nand reading in kindergarten, 321, 327.\nWundt, W., 680. 705.\nWundt, his psychology of the will, 11, 680,\n705.\nWiirzburg, Germany, 89.\nWyatt, II. P., 70.\nWyckoff, Miss A. E., 713, 762.\nWylie, Mary J. B.. 325.\nWyoming, 14, 70, 93.\nX\nXenophon, 21.\nXenophon's Hellenica, 131.\nYale College, 88, 91.\nYale Universitv. 88, 91, 99, 125, 126, 127,\n128, 132, 455, 476, 525, 680.\n\n"}
{"page": 1025, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX.\nYannev, B. F.. 829.\nYarde.'W.R., B.90.S., 245.\nYatabe,\nYellow Springs, 0., 92.\nTiling, Lorenz, 323.\nYork, England, 245.\nYorke, P. C, 90.\nYoung as an astronomer, 135.\nYmmg, C. A., 125.\nYoung, C. S., 68.\nYoung, Mrs. Ella F., 83, 246.\nYoung, Geo. C, 509.\nYoungstown, O., 325.\nYouth, epochs of, 28.\nYpsilanti, Mich., 324, 386.\n\n1005\n\nZeal\nfor the advancement of education, 183.\ndenominational, 186.\nZehnder, G., 323.\nZettler, Moritz, 11, 616, 670.\nZiegler, Dr. Theo., 12.\nZimmern, Miss. 177. 178, 191, 225.\nZniovaralja, Hungary, 385.\nZollars. Ely Y., 92.\nZoology in a medical course, 117.\nZorilfi, B., 12.\nZschoppau, Germany. 68.\nZflrich, Switzerland,'\nZwemer,\nJas. P., 179. 13, 90, 323.\n\n"}
{"page": 1026, "printed_page": null, "text": "VOLUMES\nOF PROCEEDINGS\nNATIONAL\nEDUCATIONAL\nASSOCIATION.\nPrior to 1870 there were three National Associations in the United States considering educational work, each independent of the others — \" The National Teachers' Association,'' organized in 1857; \" The American Normal Association,\" and \"The National\nSuperintendents' Association.\" At the joint annual meetings in August. 1870, these\nassociations united, forming \" The National Educational Association \" of the United\nStates, with departments for the consideration of distinct phases of educational work.\nThe joint publication of the proceedings of these associations began with the volume\nfor 1870. It is now hardly possible to find copies of the proceedings of either of these\nassociations prior to that date. They were generally issued in pamphlet form, and\nseldom contained all the papers read at the meetings. Beginning with 1870, each volume is bound in cloth. A copy of the \" History of the National Educational Association,\" 140 pp., 8vo, containing a classified list by subjects, of papers read, with name\nof writer, from 1870 to 1891 inclusive, will be sent by mail on receipt of 25 cents.\nThe volumes for 1870 and 1872 are now out of print. A limited number of copies\nremain for the years 1871, 1882, 1883. These are sold only with sets. All the other\nvolumes can be supplied singly or in sets. The volume for 1893 contains the proceedings of the International Congress of Education.\nN. B. — Orders for volumes should be accompanied with check or money order, with\ndirections for sending them.\nVolumes for Years.\n\nNumber Pages in\nVolume.\n\n1893\n1892\n1891\n1890\n1889\n1888\n1887\n1886\n\n1006\n848\n892\n929\n\n1884\n1885*\n\n1883*\n1882*\n1881\n1880\n1879\nNo meeting.\n1877\n1876\n1875\n1874\n1873\n1872*\n1871*\n1870*\n\n723\n794\n829\n605\n551\n531\n253\n315\n359\n379\n475\n307\n195\n471\n272\n287\n237\n260\n\n*28\n\nPrice inperSets.\nVolume\n\n6\n\n1.75\n1.75\n$2.00\n1.75\n1.75\n1.75\n1.75\n1.50\n2.00\n1.50\n2.00\n2.00\n1.25\n1.25\n1.25\n\ni!u\n1.25\n1.25\n1.25\n1.25\n\nPrice per Single Volume\nsent by Mail.\n\n2.00\n2.00\n2.00\n$2..\n50\n2.00\n2.00\n2.00\n1.75\n1.75\ni!50\n1.50\n1.50\ni!.50\n1.50\n1.50\n1.50\n1.50\n\n2^66\n\nJgF° Orders for the volumes of the National Educational Association may be sent to\nthe Custodian, Z. Richards, No. 1301 Corcoran Street, Washington, D. C, or to the\nTreasurer, or the Secretary, or the Chairman of the Board of Trustees of the National\nEducational Association, at their respective addresses.\n\n"}
{"page": 1027, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 1028, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 1029, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 1030, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 1031, "printed_page": null, "text": "\\V5L\n\nL\nNational Education Association\n13\nof the United States\nN3A13\nAddresses and pro1893\nceedings...\n\nPLEASE DO NOT\nCARDS\n\nOR SLIPS FROM\n\nREMOVE\nTHIS POCKET\n\nUNIVERSITY OF TORONTO\n\nLIBRARY\n\n"}
{"page": 1032, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}