prc0cntc^ to Zbc Xibran? of tbc XHntvereit^ of Toronto The Buffalo Public Library Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from Microsoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/addressesproce1892natiuoft ip< JS'atioxal Bduoatioi^l") AssociATio:!«r o f -t-U JOUR^^AL OF PROCEEDmGS A¥D ADDRESSES SESSION OF THE YEAR 1892 HELD AT Sabatoga Springs, New York ■if I «, 4 4 NEW YORK 1893 L\\ ""•> L 13 mi Press of J. J. Little 4 Co. Astor Place, New York ^ BUFFALO ^ PUBLIC LIBRARY • * amttom^*!*, cut « CONTENTS PAGE Constitution and Act of Incorporation, 1 Calendar of Meetings, 5 Officers for 1891-92, 6 Officers for 1893-94, 8 Life Directors, . 10 Life Members, 11 Financial Reports, 15 Official Minutes, 19 Addresses, Papers and Discussions, General Association, .... 37 Reports of Committees, 243 Addresses, Papers and Discussions : Kindergarten, >k> 251 Elementary, 305 Secondary, 333 Higher, 375 Normal, 407 Industrial Education and Manual Training, 435 Art, 475 Music, 507 Rouhd Table Conferences, 543 Superintendence, . -. ■ 559 Council, . . 745 List of Annual Members 807 CONSTITUTION OP THE National Educational Association. PREAMBLE. To elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession of teaching, and to promote the cause of popular education in the United States, we, whose names are subjoined, agree to adopt the following CONSTITUTION. ARTICLE I— NAME. This Association shall be styled the National Educational Association. ARTICLE II.— DEPARTMENTS. Section 1. It shall consist of ten departments: The first, of School Superintendence; the second, of Normal Schools; the third, of Elementary Schools; the fourth, of Higher Instruction; the fifth, of Industrial Education; the sixth, of Art Education; the seventh, of Kindergarten Instruction; the eighth, of Music Education ; the ninth, of Secondary Education ; the tenth, of Business Education ; and a National Council of Education. Sec. 2. Other departments may be organized in the manner prescribed in this Constitution. ARTICLE III.— MEMBERSHIP. Section 1. Any person in any way connected with the work of education, or any educational association, shall be eligible to membership. Such person or associa- tion may become a member of this Association by paying two dollars and signing this Constitution, and may continue a member by the payment of an annual fee of two dollars. On n3glect to pay such fee, the membership will cease. Sec. 2. Each department may prescribe its own conditions of membership, pro- vided that no person be admitted to such membership who is not a member of the general Association. Sec. 3. Any person eligible to membership may become a life-member by paying at once twenty dollars. ARTICLE IV.— OFFICERS. Section 1. The officers of this Association shall be a President, twelve Vice-Pres- idents, a Secretary, a Treasurer, one Director for each State, District or Territory represented in the Association, and the presiding officers of the several departments THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. and a Board of Trustees to be constituted as hereinafter provided. Any friend of education may become a life-director by tiie donation of one hundred dollars to the Association at one time, either by himself or on his behalf ; and any educational association may secure a perpetual directorship by a like donation of one hundred dollars, the director to be appointed annually or for life. Whenever a life-member desires to become a life- director, he shall be credited with the amount he has paid for his life-membership. Sec. 2. The President, Vice-Presidents, Secretary, Treasurer, Directors, Life- Directors, President of the Council, and presiding officers of their respective de- partments shall constitute the Board of Directors, and, as such, shall have power to appoint such committees from their own number as they shall deem expedient. Sec. 3. The elective officers of the Association shall be chosen by ballot, unless otherwise ordered, on the second day of each annual session, a majority' of the votes cast being necessary for a choice. They shall continue in office until the close of the annual session subsequent to their election, and until their successors are chosen, except as hereinafter provided. Sec. 4. Each department shall be administered by a President, Vice-President, Secretary, and such other officers as it shall deem necessary to conduct its affairs ; but no person shall be elected to any office of any department, or of the Association, who is not, at the time of the election, a member of the Association. Sec. 5. The President shall preside at all meetings of the Association and of the Board of Directors, and shall perform the duties usually devolving upon a presiding officer. In his absence, the first Vice-President in order who is present shall preside ; and in the absence of all Vice-Presidents, a pro tempore chairman shall be appointed on nomination, the Secretary putting the question. Sec. 6. The Secretary shall keep a full and accurate report of the proceedings of the general meetings of the Association and all meetings of the Board of Directors, and shall conduct such correspondence as the Directors may assign, and shall have his records present at all meetings of the Association and of the Board of Directors. The Secretary of each department shall, in addition to performing the duties usually pertaining to his office, keep a list of the members of his department. Sec. 7. The Treasurer shall receive and under the direction of the Board of Trus- tees hold in safe keeping all moneys paid to the Association ; shall expend the same only upon the order of said Board ; shall keep an exact account of his receipts and expenditures, with vouchers for the latter, which accounts, ending the first day of July each year, he shall render to the Board of Trustees, and, when approved by said Board, he shall report the same to the Board of Directors. The Treasurer shall give such bond for the faithful discharge of his duties as may be required by the Board of Trustees ; and he shall continue in office until the first meeting of the Board of Directors held prior to the annual meeting of the Association next suc- ceeding that for which he is elected. Sec 8. The Board of Directors shall have power to fill all vacancies in their own body; shall have in charge the general interests of the Association, excepting those herein intrusted to the Board of Trustees ; shall make all necessary arrangements for its meetings, and shall do all in its power to make it a useful and honorable mstitution. Upon the written application of twenty members of the Association for permission to establish a new department, they may grant such permission. Such new department shall in all respects be entitled to the same rights and privileges as the others. The formation of such department shall in effect be a sufficient amend- ment to this Constitution for the insertion of its name in Article 1I„ and the Secre- tary shall make the necessary alterations. Sec. 9. The Board of Trustees shall consist of fojir members, elected by the CONSTITUTION. Board of Directors for a term of four years, and the President of the Association, who shall be a member ex officio during: his term of office. At the election of the Trustees in 1886, one Trustee shall be elected for one year, one for two years, one for three years, and one for four years, and annually thereafter, at the first meeting of the Board of Directors held prior to the annual meeting of the Association, one Trustee shall be elected for the term of four years. All vacancies occurring in said Boa,rd of Trustees, whether by resignation or otherwise, shall be filled by the Board of Directors for the unexpired term ; and the absence of a Trustee from two con- secutive annual meetings of the Board shall forfeit his membership therein. The Board of Trustees thus elected and constituted shall be the executive financial officers of this Association, as a body corporate, as conferred by the certific^-te of incorpo- ration under the provisions of the Act of General Incorporation, Class Third, of the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia, dated the twenty-fourth day of Feb- ruary, 1886, at Washington, D. C, and recorded in Liber Xo. 4, '* Acts of Incorpora- tion for the District of Columbia." Sec. 10. It shall be the duty of the Board of Trustees to provide for safe keeping and investment of all funds which the Association may receive from life-director- ships, or from donations ; and the income of such invested funds shall be used exclusively in paying the cost of publishing the annual volume of Proceedings of the Association, excepting when donors shall specify otherwise. It shall also be the duty of the Board to issue orders on the Treasurer for the payment of all bills approved by the Board of Directors, or by the President and Secretary of the Associa- tion acting under the authority of the Board of Directors ; and, when practicable, the Trustees shall invest all surplus funds exceeding one hundred dollars, that may remain in the hands of the Treasurer after paying the expenses of the Association for the previous year. ARTICLE v.— MEETINGS. Section 1. The Annual Meeting of the Association shall be held at such time and place as shall be determined by the Board of Directors. Sec. 2. Special meetings may be called by the President at the request of five Directors. Sec. 3. Any department of the Association may hold a special meeting at such time and place as by its own regulations it shall appoint. Sec. 4. The Board of Directors shall hold their regular meetings at the place, and not less than two hours before the assembling of the Association. Sec. 5. Special meetings may be held at such other times and places as the Board or the President shall determine. Sec. 6, Each new Board shall organize at the session of its election. At its first meeting a Committee on Publication shall be appointed, which shall consist of the President and the Secretary of the Association for the previous year, and one memr ber from each department. ARTICLE VI.— BY-LAWS. By-laws, not inconsistent with this Constitution, may be adopted by a two-thirds vote of the Association. ARTICLE VII.— AMENDMENTS. This Constitution may be altered or amended at a regular meeting by the unani- mous vote of the members present, or by a two-thirds vote of the members present, provided that the alteration or amendment has been substantially proposed in writ- ing at a previous meeting. * THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. BY-LAWS. 1. At each regular meeting of the Association there shall be appointed a Com- mittee on Nominations, one on Honorary Members, and one on Resolutions. 2. The President and Secretary shall certify to the Board of Trustees all bills approved by the Board of Directors. 3. Each paying member of the Association shall be entitled to a copy of its Proceedings. 4. No paper, lecture, or address shall be read before the Association or any of its departments in the absence of its author, nor shall any such paper, lecture, or address be published in the volume of Proceedings without the consent of the Asso- ciation, upon approval of the Executive Committee. 5. It shall be the duty of the President, Secretary, and Treasurer of the Association, to appoint annually some competent person to examine the securities of the permanent fund held by the Board of Trustees, and his certificate showing the condition of the said fund shall be attached to the report of the Board of Trustees. 6. Classification of Membership. (See page 33.) ACT OF INCORPORATION. At a meeting of the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association, held at Saratoga Springs, New York, July 14, 1885, the fol- lowing resolution was passed : Resolved, That a committee of three be appointed to secure articles of incorporation for the National Educational Association, under United States or State laws, as speedily as may be. N. A. Calkins, of New York, Thomas W. Bicknell, of Massachusetts, and Eli T. Tappan, of Ohio, were appointed such couimittee. Under the authority of the resolution quoted above, and with the approval of the committee, and by competent legal advice, the chairman obtained a CERTIFICATE OF INCORPORATION. We, the undersigned, Norman A. Calkins, John Eaton, and Zalmon Richards, cit- izens of the United States, and two of them citizens of the District of Columbia, do hereby associate ourselves together, pursuant to the provisions of the Act of General Incorporation, Class Third, of the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia, under the name of the National Educational Association, for the full period of twenty years, the purpose and objects of which are to elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession of teaching, and to promote the cause of popular education in the United States. ... To secure the full benefit of said act, we do here execute this our Certificate of Incorporation as said act provides. In witness whereof, we severally set our hands and seals, this 24th day of February 1886, at Washington, D. C. Norman A. Calkins, [l. s.] ' John Eaton. [l. s.] Zalmon Richards. [l. s,] Duly acknowledged before xMichael P. Callan, notary public in and for the District of Columbia, and recorded in Liber No. 4. Acts of Incorporation for the District of Columbia. CALENDAR OF MEETINGS. NATIONAL TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. 1857.— PHILADELPHIA, PA. (Organized.) Ja.mes L. Enos, Cliairmun. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. 1858.— CINCINNATI, OHIO. Z. R[CHARDs, President. J. W. BuLKLEY, Secretary. A. J. RiCKOFF, Treasurer. 1859.— WASHINGTON, D. C. A. J. RicKOFF, President. J. W. BuLKLEY, Secretary. C. S. Pennell, Treasurer. I860.— BUFFALO, N. Y. J. W. BuLKLEY, President. Z. Richards, Secretary. O. C. Wight, Treasurer. 1861, 1862.— No session. 1863.— CHICAGO, ILL. John D. Philbrick, President. James Ckuikshank, Secretary, O. C. Wight, Treasurer. 18G4.-OGDENSBURG, N. Y. W. H. Wells, President. David N. Camp, Secretary. Z. Richards, Treasurer. 1865.-HARRISBURG, PA. S S. Greene, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. Z. Richards, Treasurer. 1866, -INDIANAPOLIS, IND. J. P, WicKERsHAM, President. S, H. White, Secretary. S. P. Bates, Treasurer. 1867.— No session. 1868.— NASHVILLE, TENN. J. M. Gregory, President. L. Van Bokkelen, Secretary. James Cruikshank, Treasurer. 1869.— TRENTON, N. J. L. Van Bokkelen, President. W. E. Crosby, Secretary. A. L. Barber, Treasurer. 1870.— CLEVELAND, OHIO. Daniel B. Hagar, President. A. P. Marble, Secretary. W. E. Crosby, Treasurer. NAME changed TO NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. 1871.— ST. LOUIS, MO. J. L. Pickard, President. W. E. Crosby, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. 1872.— BOSTON, MASS. E. E. White, President. S. H. White, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. 1873.— ELMIRA, N. Y. B. G. Northrop, President. S. H. White, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. 1874.— DETROIT, MICH. S. H. White, President. A. P. Marble, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. 1875.-MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. W. T. Harris, President. W. R. Abbott, Secretary. A. P. Marble, Treasurer. 1876.— BALTIMORE, MD. W. F. Phelps, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. A. P. Marble, Treasurer. 1877.— LOUISVILLE, KY. M. A. Newell, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. J. Ormond Wilson, Treasurer. 1878.— No session. 1879, -PHILADELPHIA, PA. John Hancock, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. J. Okmond Wilson, Treasurer. 1880. -CHAUTAUQUA, N. Y. J. Ormond Wilson, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. E^ T. Tappan, Treasurer. | 1892.-SARAT0GA E. H, Cook, President. R. W. Stevenson. 1881. -ATLANTA, GA. James H. Smart, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. E. T. Tappan, Treasurer. 1882.— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. G. J. Orr, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. H. S. Tarbell, Treasurer. I ias.3. -SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. E. T. Tappan, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. N. A. Calkins, Treasurer. 18S4.— MADISON, WIS. Thomas W. Bicknell, President. H. S. Tarbell, Secretary. N. A, Calkins, Treasurer. 188.5. -SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. P. Louis Soldan, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. N. A. Calkins, Treasurer. 1886.— TOPEKA, KAS. N. A. Calkins, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. 1887.— CHICAGO, ILL. W. E. Sheldon, President. J. H. Canfield, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. 1888.— SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. Aaron Gove, President. J. H. Canfield, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. 1889.— NASHVILLE, TENN. Albert P. Marble, President. J. H. Canfield, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. 1890.— ST. PAUL, MINN. James H. Canfield, President. W. R. Garrett, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. 1891.— TORONTO, ONTARIO. W. R. Garrett, President. E. H. Cook, Secretary. J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer. SPRINGS, N. Y. Secretary. J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer. National Educational Association OF THE UNITED STATES. OFFICERS FOR 1891-92. GENERAL ASSOCIATION. E.H.COOK Flushing. New York Pre^dent. K. W. STEVENSON Wichita, Kansa-s Secretary. J. M. GREENWOOD Kansas City, Missouri Treasurer. W. R. Garrett, Tennessee. C. H. Clemmer, North Dakota. T. A. FuTRALL, Arkansas. E. O. Ijyte, Pennsylvania. Vice-Presidents. G. L. Osborne, Missouri. Miss Nebraska Cropsey, Indiana. E B. MrELROY, Ore<,'oii. W. H. Bartholomew, Kentucky. Board of Trtistees. J. R. Preston, Mississippi. Wm. M. Beardshkar, Iowa. Irwin Shepard. Minnesota. A. P. Marble, Massachusetts. N. A. Calkins Chairman 124 East Eightieth street. New York. Zalmon Richards Secretary 1301 Corcoran street, Washington, D. C. E. C. Hewett Normal, Illinois. Term expires July, 1895. N. A. Calkins New York City " " •' 1894. H. S. Tarbell Providence, Rhode Island " " " 1893. Zalmon Richards Washington, District of Columbia " " " 1892. E. H. Cook Flushing, New York Ex officio. " The Board of Trustees shall be the executive financial officers of this Association, as a body cor porate."— ^r/. /F., Sees. 9 and 10, of the Constitution. Board of Directors.* Adams, E. H., Ashville, North Carolina. Anderson, W. H., Wheeling, West Virginia. Atkinson, W. R., Columbia, South Carolina. Baker, James H., Boulder, Colorado. Bardeen, C. W., Syracuse, New York. Bartholomew, W. H., Louisville, Kentucky. Beardshear, Wm. M., Ames, Iowa. Bi-oss, J. M., Topeka, Kansas. Brackett, S. II.. St. Johnsbiiry, Vermont. Bradley, John E., Minneapolis, Minnesota. Brown, Leroy D., Santa Monica. California. Butler, N. M., Paterson, New Jersey. Churchill, J. O., Cheyenne, Wyoming, Clemmer, C. H., Grand Forks, North Dakota. Collins, Frank E., Denver, Colorado. Cook, E. H., Flushing, New York. Cox, E. B., Xenia, Ohio. Cropsey, Miss Nebraska, Indianapolis, Indiana. Cross, W. O., Louisville, Kentucky. Curtis, Virgil G., New Haven, Connecticut. Day, L. W., Cleveland, Ohio. DeGarmo, Charles, Swarthmore, Pennsylvania. Dougherty, N. C. Peoria, Illinois. Pairchild, Geo. T., Manhattan, Kansas. Fkrnald, M. C, Orono, Maine. Futrall, T. a., Marianna, Arkansas. Garnett, James M., University of Virginia, Va. Garrett, W. R., Nashville, Tennessee. Gates, Merrill E., Amherst, Massachusetts. Gault, F. B., Moscow, Idaho. GiLLAN, S. Y., Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Gi.ovER, N. L., Akron, Ohio. Goodman, Frank, NashviUe, Tennessee. Gove, Aaron, Denver. Colorado. Greenwood, J. M., Kansas City, Missonri. Hadley, Hiram, Las Cruces, New Mexico, Hall, Caleb G., New Berlin, New York. Hamilton, Robert W., Muskogee, Ind. Territory'. Harris, W. T., Washington, District of Columbia. Harris, T. G., Dallas, Texas. HicjHEs, Mrs. Jas. L., Toronto, Canada. Hunt, Mary H., Hj'de Park, Massachusetts. Jewett, a. v., Abilene, Kansas. Jones, H. S., Lincoln, Nebraska. Kern, F, L., Lake City, Florida. Knapp, W. E., Denver, Colorado. Kruse, Edwin, Wilmington, Delaware. Leipzioer, H. M., 148 Grand street, N. Y. City. Lyte, E. O., Millersville, Pennsylvania. Marble, A. P., Worcester, Massachusetts. Marshall, T. Marcellus, Charaita, New Mexico. McElroy, E. B., Salem, Oregon. McFadden, Miss Mary E., Portland, Oregon. McLouTH, Lewis, Brookings, South Dakota. Miller, Tom B., Helena, IVfontana. MiLLspAUGH, J. F.. Salt Lake City, Utah. Nicholson, Miss Mary E., Indianapolis, Indiana. Norton, R. C, Cape Girardeau, Missouri. Ogden, John. Bisniark, North Dakota. Osborne, G. L., Warrensburg, Missouri. Parker, Charles I., South Chicago, Illinois. Plummer, Frank E., Des Moines, Iowa. Powers, James K., Florence, Alabama. Preston, J. R., Jackson, Mississippi. Prince, J. T., Newtonville. Massachusetts. Ramsey, G. J., Clinton, Louisiana. RicHARDS, Zalmon, Washington, District Columbia Richmond, Miss Sarah E., Baltimore, Maryland. RiCKOFP, Andrew J., New York City, N. Y. Rogers, C. P., Marshalltown, Iowa. Rounds, C, C, Plymouth, New Hampshire. Sabin, Heury, Des Moines, Iowa. Schaefper, N. C. Kutztown, Pennsylvania, Shepard, Irwin, Winona, Minnesota. Shinn, Josiah H., Little Rock, Arkansas. Sill, J. M. B., Ypsilanti, Michigan. Smith, Euler B., La Grange, Georgia. Smith, Miss Nora, San Francisco, California. Stanford, Leland, San Francisco, California. Stevenson, R. W., Columbus, Ohio, Stockwell, Thomas B., Providence, R. I. Stratton, C. C, Portland, Oregon. Taylor, A. R,, Emporia, Kansas. Tutwiler, Miss Julia, Livingston, Alabama. Walker, Peleo R , Rockford. Illinois. Woopter, T. J., West Point, Mississippi. OFFICERS OF THE ASSOCIATION. NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION. JAMES H. BAKER President E. W. COY Vice-Presideni. N. C. SCHAEFFER Secretai-y Pres. University of Colorado. Prin. Hughes High School, Cincinnati, O, Prin. Keystone State Normal School. DEPARTMENT OFFICERS. Kindergarten. Mrs. ADA MAREAN HUGHES . . . Pr-etident Toronto, Ont. Miss NORA SMITH Vice-President San Francisco, Cal. Miss ANNA E. FREDERICKSON. . Secretary La Porte, Ind. Elementary. Miss JULIA TUTWILER President F. B. GAULT Vice-President. Miss LUCIA STICKNE Y Secretary Livingston, Ala. Tacoma, Wash. Cincinnati, Ohio. Secondary. FRANK E. PLUMMER President Des Moines, Iowa. J. A. HORNBERGER . Vice-President Norfolk, Neb. W. T. WHITE Coi^esponding Sec Knoxville, Tenn. S. A. MERRITT Recording Sec Helena, Mont. Higher. MERRILL E. GATES President H ENRY WADE ROGERS Vice-President . J. M. COULTER Secretary Pres. Amherst College. Pres. Northwestern University. Pres. Indiana University. NormaL CHARLES DeGARMO President LARKIN DUNTON Vice-President. MARGARET E. CONKLIN Secretary Pres. Swarthraore College, Pa. Headmaster Boston Normal School. State Normal School, Milwaukee, Wis. Superintendence. EDWARD BROOKS President Supt. of Schools, Philadelphia, Pa. JOHN E. BRADLEY Vice-President Late Supt. of Schools, Minneapolis, Minn. J. H. PHILLIPS Secretary Supt. of Schools, Birmingham, Ala. Industrial Education and Manual Training. HENRY M. LEIPZIGER, Ph.D. . . . President Asst. Supt. of Schools, N. Y. W. R. BEARDSHEAR Vice-President Pres. Iowa Agricultural College. E. R. BOOTH Secretary Prin. Technical School, Cincinnati, O. Art. FRANK H. COLLINS President Denver, Col. LUELLA E. FAY Vice-President Springfield, Mass. HENRY W. POOR Secretary Boston, Mass. Music. N. L. GLOVER President Akron, Ohio. FRANK A. FITZPATRICK Vice-President Omaha, Neb. CLARENCE C. BIRCHARD Secretary Chicago, 111. National Educational Association OF THE UNITED STATES. OFFICERS FOR 189^-94. GENERAL ASSOCIATION. A. G. LANE Chicago, Illinois R. W. STEVENSON Columbus, Ohio J. M. GREENWOOD Kansas City, Missouri . President. . Secretary. Treasurer. Vice-Presidents. E. H. Cook, New York. W. H. Bartholomew, Kentucky, L. E. Wolfe, Missouri. M. C. Pernald, Maiue. G. J. Ramsey, Louisiana. F. A. Pitzpatrick, Nebraska. E. E. White, Ohio. Edward Searing, Minnesota. J. W. Dickinson, Massachusetts. C P. Rogers, Iowa. T. A. PuTUALL, Arkansas. N. C. Schabffer, Pennsylvania. Board of Trustees. N. A. Calkins Chairman 124 East Eightieth street, New York. Z ALMON Richards Secretary 1301 Corcoran street, Washington, D. C. Zalmon Richards Washington, District of Columbia Term expires July, 1896. E. C. Hewett Normal, Illinois " '' " 1895. N. A. Calkins New York City " " " 1894. H. S. Tarbell Providence, Rhode Island " " " 1893. A. G. Lane Chicago, Illinois Ex officio. "The Board of Trustees shall be the executive financial officers of this Association, as a body cor- porate."—^r<, /r., Sees. 9 and 10, of the Constitution. Board of Directors. Anderson, W. H., Wheeling, West Virginia. Bardeen, C. W., Syracuse, New York. Barnard, F. J., Seattle, Washington. Barnes, Earl, Menlo Park, California. Bartholomew, W. H., Louisville, Kentucky. Beard, G. P., St. Albans, Vermont. Beardshear, W. M., Ames, Iowa. Beggs, R. H., Denver, Colorado. Bingham, Rorert, Asheville, North Carolina. Blow, Miss Susan E., St. Louis, Missouri. Boyd, D. R., Norman, Oklahoma. Brown, Jesse H., Indianapolis, Indiana. Bkown, LeRoy D., Santa Monica. California. Brooks, Edward, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Buchanan, John T., Kansas City, Missouri. Butler, N. M., Paterson, New Jersey. Calkins, N. A., New York City. Camp, David N., New Britain, Connecticut. Carey, C. P., Fairbury, Nebraska. Cook, E. H., Flushing, New York. Corthell, W. J., Gorham, Maine. Coy, E. W., Cincinnati, Ohio. Crombie, J. S., Brooklyn, New York. Day, L. W., Cleveland, Ohio. Dickinson, J. W., Newtonville, Massachusetts. Dougherty, N. C, Peoria, Illinois. Pairchild, George T., Manhattan, Kansas. Fernald, M. C, Orono, Maine. Fitzpatrick, F. a., Omaha, Nebraska. FuTRALL, T. A., Marianna, Arkansas. Glover, N. L., Akron, Ohio. Goodman, Frank, Nashville, Tennessee. Gove, Aaron, Denver, Colorado. Greenwood, J. M., Kansas City, Missouri. GuNBY, A. A., Monroe, Louisiana. Hall, Caleb G., New Berlin, New York. Hardy, Albert, La Crosse, Wisconsin. Harris, W. T., Washington, District of Columbia. Hewett, E. C, Normal, Illinois. Hunt, Mary H., Hyde Park, Massachusetts. Jewett, a. v., Abilene, Kansas. Jordan, Junius, Pine Bluff, Arkansas. Lane, A. G., Chicago, Illinois. Lanier, W. B., Brunson, South Carolina. Laylander, O. J., Cedar Falls, Iowa. Lipscomb, Dabney, Starkville, Mississippi. Low, Seth, Columbia College, New York City. Marquardt, William, Laramie, Wyoming. Marshall, T. Marcellus, Chamita, New Mexico. McCahn, John E., Baltimore, Maryland. McElboy, E. B., Salem, Oregon. McNaughton, James, Mayville, North Dakota. Millspaugh, J. P., Salt Lake City, Utah. Milne, J. M., Oneonta, New York. Palmer, Solomon, East Lake, Alabama. Parker, Charles I., South Chicago, Illinois. Pasco, Frederic, Jacksonville. Florida. Pritchett, H. C, Huntsville, Texas. Ramsey, G. J., New Orleans. Louisiana. Raub, a. N., Newark, Delaware. Rhodes, McHenry, Frankfort, Kentucky. Richards, Zalmon, Washington, D. C. Rickofp, Andrew J., New York City. RicKOFP, Mrs. Rebecca D., New York City. Rogers, C. P., Marshalltown, Iowa. Rounds, C. C, Plymouth, New Hampshire. ScHAEFFER, N. C, Kutztown, Pa. Searing, Edward, Mankato, Minnesota. Shawan, J. A., Columbus, Ohio. Sheldon, William E., Boston, Massachusetts. Shepard, Irwin, Winona, Minnesota. Smith, Euler B., La Grange, Georgia. Stanford, Leland, San Francisco, California. Stay, J. D., Yankton, South Dakota. Steele, W. L., Galesburg, Illinois. Stevenson, R. W., Columbus, Ohio. Stockwell, T. B., Providence, Rhode Island. Stratton, C. C, Portland. Oregon. Strong, E. A., Ypsilanti, Michigan. Sullivan, Miss Christine, Cincinnati, Ohio. Tarbell, H. S., Providence, Rhode Island. Taylor, A. R., Emporia, Kansas. Waller, D. J., Jr., Harrisburg, Pa. White, E. E., Cincinnati, Ohio. Wilkinson, J. N.. Emporia, Kansas. Wolfe, L. E., Jefferson City, Missouri. Young, R. G., Helena, Montana. "The President, Vice-Presidents, Secretary, Treasurer, Directors, Life Directors, President of the Council, and presiding officers of their respective departments shall constitute the Board of Directors." —Art. IV., Sec. 2, of the Constitution. OFFICERS OF THE ASSOCIATION. NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION. E W. COY President Cincinnati, Ohio. F. A. FITZPATRICK Vice-President Omaha, Neb. CHAS. DeGARMO Secretary and Treasvrer Swarthmore, Pa. DEPARTMENT OFFICERS. Kindergarten. Miss SUSAN E. BLOW Prendent St. Louis, Missonri. Miss CONSTANCE MACKENZ IE Vice-President Philadelphia. Pennsylvania. Miss ANNA STOVALL Secretary San Francisco, California. Elementary. Mrs. REBECCA D. RICKOFF President New York City. AARON GOVE Vice-President Denver, Colorado. F. TRENDLEY Secretai-y Ohio. Secondary. J. S. CROMBIE President Brooklyn, New York. AMELIA E. TRENT Vice-President Buffalo, New York. W.H.BARTHOLOMEW Secretary Louisville, Kentucky. Higher. SETH LOW President New York City. RT. REV. JOHN J. KEANE Vice-President Washington, D. C. WM. DEWITT HYDE " " Brunswick, Maine. W. G. BALLANTINE " " Oberlin, Ohio. J. H. CANFIELD " " Lincoln, Nebraska. WM. PRESTON JOHNSTON " " New Orleans, Louisiana. MELVIL DEWEY Secretary Albany, New York. Normal. J. M. MILNE President Oneonta, New York. J.W.COOK Vice-President Normal, Illinois. J.N.WILKINSON Secretary Emporia, Kansas. Superintendence. EDWARD BROOKS President Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. JOHN E. BRADLEY Vice-President Minneapolis, Minnesota. J. H. PHILLIPS Secretary Birmingham, Alabama. Manual Training and Industrial Education. W. M. BEARDSHEAR President Ames, Iowa. A.C.GORDON Vice-President Minnesota. W. B. FRIEDBERG Secretary New York, N. Y. Art. Miss CHRISTINE SULLIVAN President Cincinnati, Ohio. E. C. COLBY , Vice-President Rochester, New York. Miss ELIZABETH H. PERRY Secretary Bridgewater, Massachusetts. Music. N. L. GLOVER President Akron, Ohio. BENJAMIN JEPSON Vice-President New Haven, Connecticut. GEORGE C. YOUNG Secretary Wichita, Kansas. MEMBERSHIP National Educational Association, The dates in the margin indicate the year when the several memberships began. The addresses given in this list were received in reply to letters sent to the latest known residence of each Life Director and Life Mem- ber, in October, 1892, enclosing a postal card addressed for return, with the following request : ^^^ Please fill hlanhs on this postal card with your name, residence, etc. , a7id mail it at once. In cases where neither the letter nor the postal card has been returned, the residence is indicated as doubtful by (?). PEEPETUAL DIRECTORSHIP. 1879. Philadelphia Teachers' Institute, Sar- 1889. Board of Education of Nashville, gent Street, below 9th, Philadel- Tenn. phia, Pa. 1890. Illinois State Teachers' Association, Springfield, 111. LIEE DIRECTORS. CALIFORNIA. KANSAS. 1888. Brown, LeRoy D., Box 138, Santa 1886. Fairchild Geo T., State Agricultu- Monica, Los Angeles Co. ^al College, Manhattan. 1888. Stanford, Leland, San Francisco (?). 1886. Jewett, A. V Abilene, Dickinson Co. 1886. Taylor, A. R., 1127 Congress St., COLORADO. Emporia. 1888. Gove, Aaron, 2045 Grant Ave., Den- MASSACHUSETTS. ILLINOIS. ^^«^- ^Xae^^AM^'^^^^ ^^^" 1887. Dougherty, Newton C, 906 E. Bluff St., Peoria. MISSOURI. 1887. Parker, Chas. I., 9136 Exchange Ave., South Chicago. 1886. Greenwood. J. M., 1312 Oak St., 1891. Pike, J., Jersey ville. Kansas City. LIFE MEMBERS. 11 r NEW YORK. OREGON. ^ 1885. Hall, Caleb G., New Berlin. lygS. Stratton, C. C, Portland University, ff 1881. Rickoff, Andrew J. , 444 Central Park University Park ^ West, New York. Sh OHIO. WEST VIRGINIA. jL^ 1888. Day, L. W., 422 Superior St., 1877. Marshall, T. Marcellus, Glenville, TTT?T 1886. Williams, Philo J., Massachusetts mi&&uuki. St., Lawrence. 1886. Evans, Chas. H., 915 Locust St., St. 1886. President Board of Education, Abi- Louis. lene, Dickinson Co. 1877. Soldan, F. Louis, 1616 Hickory St., 1886. Dodge City Schools, care E. D. Webb, St. Louis. Dodge City, Ford Co. ^,^. 1886. Board of Education, City of Ottawa, NEBRASKA. .oo^ t. f ''^^^"'y.^.^- a u 1 G ^ • 1. 1876. Reals, Samuel De Witt, 2118 Da ven- 1886. Sedgwick City Schools, Sedgwick, ^^ g^ Omaha. .oo. r. ^^^J.^^\ m u , A • 1880. Bibb-Sudbirough, Mrs. Grace, 549 1886. Cowley County Teachers' Associa- g s^th Ave , Omaha. ioo« T.-^^°ri . i^ K .A • f 1884. Curry, Robert, cor. D and 4th Sts., 1886. Riley County Teachers Association, Palmvra M:anhattan (?). ;,gg4 ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^ 2219 Capitol Ave., Omaha. KENTUCKY. 1886. Miller, J. H., Room 5, Ledwith Block, Lincoln. 1877. Bartholomew, W. H., 426 East Gray ^^^,^ „ ^ ^^^otttt^-t. St., Louisville. NEW HAMPSHIRE. 1877. Monsarrat, Mrs. L. L., 1250 First 1376. Rounds, Charles C, Plymouth. St., Louisville. NEW JERSEY. MARYLAND. ^g^g^ Thompson, Langdon S., 30 Park St., 1876. Newell, M. A., The High School, ^^^^^ ^^^^' Havre de Grace. NEW YORK. 1876. Richmond, Sarah E. S., 1402 Penna. ^^^^ , . ^ , t 0.0 aj 1 i.- o^ Ave Baltimore ^^'l- Anderson, John J., 343 Adelphi St., '' ' Brooklyn. 1879. Calkins, N. A., 124 E. 80th St., New MASSACHUSETTS. York. 1880. Coe, Emily M., 50 W. 22d St., New 1884. Bascom, John, Park St., Williams- York. town. 1864. Cruikshank. James, 206 So. Oxford 1882. Bicknell, Thos., W., 175 Harvard St., Brooklyn. St., Dorchester. 1883. Day, Mrs. Albert, , New York. 1864. Hagar, Daniel B., 12 Summer St., 1882. Hodgdon, Josephine E., 80 Wil- Salem. loughby St., Brooklyn. 1870. Jones, Daniel W., 4 Hawthorn St., 1885. Hunter, Thomas, Normal College, Roxbury, Boston. New York 1880. Marble. Albert P., 492 Main St., 1879. Kraus, John, San Remo, Central Worcester. Park West, New York. 1886. Mowry, Wm. A., 97 Federal St., 1880. Rickoff, Mrs. Rebecca D., 444 Cen- «« „, Salem. ^_ „ ^ tral Park West, New York. 1865. Sheldon, Wm. E., 3 Somerset St., 1882. Stern, S. M., 29 E. 44th St., New Boston. York. 1884. Van Aken, Mrs. Georgiana, 63 Park MICHIGAN. St., New York. 1866. Mayhew, Ira, 119 Griswold St., De- NORTH CAROLINA. troit. 1884. Bingham, Robert, Asheville. LIFE MEMBERS. 13 OHIO. 1884. Bennett, C. W., 218 W. Ash St., Piqua. 1880. Bennett, Hampton, Franklin, War- ren Co. 1880. Burns, J. J., Canton. 1870. Cole, William H., Marysville, Union Co. 1883. Coy, E. W., Hughes High School, Cincinnati. 1866. Curran, Ulysses T., 623 Columbus Ave., Sandusky. 1880. Davidson, Chas. C, 59 W. Ely St., Alliance. 1880. Button, Bettie A., 94 State St., Cleveland. 1865. Hartshorn, 0. N., Alliance. 1870. Holden, L. E., Cleveland (?). 1879. McMillan, Reuben, Canfield, Maho- ning Co. 1880. McMillan, Mrs. S., Canfield, Maho- ning Co. 1880. Miller, Lewis, Oak Place, Akron. 1880. Peaslee, John B., McGregor Park, Cincinnati. 1883. Robert, James A., 330 N. Summit Ave., Dayton. 1880. Stevenson, R. W., 651 Franklin Ave., Columbus. 1870. White, Emerson E., 387 E. Broad St., Columbus. 1880. Widner, Esther, 201 S. Perry St., Dayton. 1870. Williams, Mrs. Delia Lathrop, 63 S. Liberty St. , Delaware. PENNSYLVANIA. 1870. Arey, Oliver, 303 Springfield Ave., Philadelphia. 1879. Avery, Rachel Foster, Somerton, Philadelphia. 1876. Brooks, Edward, 240 S. 39th St., Philadelphia. 1879. Gratz, Simon, 1309 Locust St., Phil- adelphia. 1865. Ingram, Samuel D., 113 Market St., Harrisburg. 1891. Schofield, Martha, 1717 Vine St., Philadelphia. 1879. Shippen, Edward, 532 Walnut St., Philadelphia. 1880. Singer, Edgar A., 4663 Penn St., Philadelphia. 1884. Stewart, Sarah A., 1530 Chestnut St., Philadelphia. TENNESSEE. 1887. Conway, Clara, Memphis. WISCONSIN. 1884. Albel, Geo. S., State Normal School, Oshkosh. 1884. Aylward, John Arthur, Pioneer Block, Madison. 1884. Beck, Geo., 135 Elm St., Platteville, WISCONSIN— CoTi^mwerf. 1884. Carpenter, J. H., 315 Wisconsin Ave., Madison. 1884. Chandler, W. H., Sun Prairie, Dane Co. 1884. Charlton, Edwin A., Broadhead, Green Co. 1884. Emery, J. Q., River Falls, Pierce Co. 1884. Flavin, John T., Watertown, Jeffer- son Co. 1884. Harvey, Lorenzo Dow, 335 23d St., Milwaukee. 1884. Hutton, A. J., Platteville, Grant Co. 1884. Nye, Chas. H., Box 301, Platteville, Grant Co. 1884. Parker, Warren D., 313 Qilman St., Madison. 1884. Parkinson, John B., 803 State St., Madison. 1884. Shaw, Samuel, Crandon, Forest Co. 1884. Stack, Joshua, Martin Flats, Wis- consin St., Milwaukee. 1884. Stewart, I. N., Appleton, Outagamie Co. 1884. Stearns, J. W., 513 Wisconsin Ave., Madison. 1884. Spencer, Robert C, Business College, Milwaukee. 1884. State Normal School, Platteville, Grant Co. 1884. Thayer, J. B., Madison (?). 1884. Twining, N. C, Monroe (?). 1884. Whitford, William C, Milton, Rock Co. 1884. Board Regents State N. Schools, Wis. State Historical Society, Madison. 1884. County Supts.' Association, Wis. State Hist. Soc, Madison. 1884. Board of Education, Beloit. 1884. Board of Education, Jamesville. 1884. Board of Education, A. N. Hardy, Clerk, La Crosse. 1884. Board of Education, Watertown. 1884. Supt. Public Schools (Board of Edu- cation), Milwaukee. 1884. Board of Education (R. H. Halsey, Supt. Schools), Oshkosh. 1884. Alumni Assoc. , City Normal School, Milwaukee. 1884. County Teachers' Association, Mil- waukee. 1884. Intermediate and Upper Section, Teachers' Corps, Milwaukee. 1884. Principals' Association, Milwaukee. 1884. Primary Section, Teachers' Corps, Milwaukee. 1884. Athenaeum Lit. Soc, State Normal School, Platteville. 1884. Philadelphian Society, State Normal School, Platteville. 1884. Public School Teachers, Jamesville. 1884.%W^isconsin Principals' Assoc'n (?). 1884, Wisconsin Teachers' Assoc'n (?). 14 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION ADDRESSES UNKNOWN. Letters sent to the last known address of the following were returned by postmasters, marked "Not called for," "Left for parts unknown," " Unknown," "Name not in Directory," etc.: Brown, Mrs. A. J. O'Connor, Joseph. Clark, L. H. Partridge, Lelia E. Corey, Lucien B. Faxon, Joseph. Crosby, W. E. Setzefaud, A. De Wolf, David F. Schmitz, J. Adolph. English, R. F. Spring, E. A. Franklin, M. B. Wilcox, M. C. Graham, Robert. Woodward, G. A. Harvey, G. I. Videlia, Dornia G. Heywood, C. W. Young, Chas. S. NAMES OF LIFE MEMBERS DECEASED. Danforth, Edward, New York. McVicar, Peter, Kansas. Hancock, John, Ohio. Stone, E. M., Rhode Island Harvey, Thomas W., Ohio. Stone, Mrs. M. A., Connecticut. Hobbs, B. C, Indiana. Tourgee, Eben, Massachusetts. Howland, H. C, Wisconsin. Wickersham, James P., Pennsylvania. FINANCIAL REPORTS. 16 TEE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES. To the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association : The Board of Trustees present, as their sixth animal report of the financial condition of the permanent fund of the National Educational Association, for the year ending June 30, 1892, the following : At the close of the fiscal year ending June 30, 1891, the amount of the permanent fund was thirty-six thousand four hundred dollars (136,400). During the past year there has been added to this fund, by one life directorship, the sum of one hundred dollars (1100), and by transfers from the receipts of the meeting at Toronto, 1891, as per Art. IV., Sect. 10, of the Constitution, the sum of three thousand five hundred dollars ($3,500), making the present total amount of said fund forty thousand dollars ($40,000). Investments. — At the date of our fifth annual report, the amount of the permanent fund invested was thirty-four thousand one hundred and thirty-eight dollars ($34,138). During the past year the sum of three thousand nine hundred dollars ($3,900) of these investments matured and was paid. Additional investments have already been made to the amount of eleven hundred dollars ($1,100). The total amount of investments, July 1, 1892, is thirty-one thousand three hundred and thirty-eight dollars ($31,338). The sum on hand uninvested is eight thousand six hundred and sixty-two dollars ($8,662), which will be duly invested at an early favorable opportunity. Income from Interest, e^c— During the past year the amount of interest received from the permanent fund was two thousand and forty-nine dollars and thirteen cents ($2,049.13), and the sum received from sale of the proceedings was one hundred and ninety-seven dollars and eleven cents ($197.11), all of which is included in the report of receipts by the treasurer for this period. Respectfully submitted. N. A. Calkins, Z. Richards, J- Trustees. Horace S. Tarbell, J ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES. 17 CERTIFICATE. This is to certify that I have examined the several bonds and securities of the '^ permanent fund" belonging to the National Educational Associ- ation, now held by the Board of Trustees, and that I found said securities to consist of a first mortgage for three thousand dollars ($3,000) on real estate in the city of Providence, Rhode Island, with a policy of fire insurance for $3,000 ; of bonds of several school districts in the State of Kansas to the amount of twenty-two thousand three hundred and thirty- eight dollars, with proper coupons attached ; of funding bonds of the counties of Grant, Lane, and Seward, and of the city of Marion, Marion County, Kansas, to the amount of six thousand dollars ($6,000) ; total amount of securities, thirty-one thousand three hundred and thirty-eight dollars ($31,338), all of which are kept in the safe deposit vault of the Nassau Bank of the city of New York. Robert H. Tillsoi?-. New York, July 6, 1892. SUMMARY OF TREASURER'S REPORT FOR 1892. J. M. Greenwood, Treasubeb, in Account with the National Educational Association. Dr. July 1, 1891. To balance of accoant from 1890- 91. as per Treasurer's report $69 58 Additional receipts from meeting of 1890 (St. Paul), per E. C. Hewett 192 80— $262 38 Annual membership fees at Toron- to, paid to Treasurer N. E. A . . . 1,198 00 Annual membership fees in Can- ada, per H. J. Hin 140 00 Additional memberships 30 00 Membership fees at meeting of Department of Superintendence at Philadelphia, 1891 180 00 Membership fees collected by rail- road officials 11,605 10 One Life Director, J. Pike, 111 ... . 100 00-13,253 10 Bureau of Education, D. C, for Proceedings Department Super- intendence, 1891 57 86 Sale of volumes Proceedings N. E. A 139 25— 197 11 Received from interest on perma- nent fund from July 1, 1891, to July 1, 1892 2,049 13 $15,761 72 SUMMARY OP year's FINANCES. Total receipts for 1891 $15,499 34 Disbursements for the year 8,349 75 Net proceeds $7,149 59 Saratoga Springs, July 11, 1892. This report of the Treasurer for the year ending July 1, 1892, has been examined and approved bv the Board of Trustees. •' N. A. Calkins, Chairman. Z. Richards, Secretary. Julyl, 1891, to July 1,1892. By publishing Proceedings of De- partment of Superintendence, 1891 $221 50 Preparing Proceedings of Toronto meeting for publication, etc., E. H. Cook 500 00 Preparing alphabetical list of mem- bers for volume 1891 24 00 Stenographic report of discussion, Toronto meeting 112 45 Printing and binding 4,000 copies Proceedings, 1891, Toronto meet- ing 3,777 25 Distributing volumes 1891, by ex- press ana mail, to members 876 06 Special expenses distributing vol- umes to members in Canada' 30 00-$5,541 Expenses of the President in mak- ing arrangements for meeting at Toronto 207 65 Expenses of the Secretary for meet- ing at Toronto 304 94 Expenses of Treasurer for assist- ants, clerks, etc., at Toronto meeting 381 00 For assistant treasurer at meeting of Department of Superintend- ence, Philadelphia, 1891 15 00 Expenses of Executive Committee on account of Toronto meeting . . 77 67 For badges, rubber stamps, print- ing, etc., at Toronto 65 25 For custom-duties and telegrams at Toronto 46 55— 1,098 General expenses of the Associa- tion from July, 1891, to July, 1892: Printing membership certificates, $37.50 ; circulars, $79.35 ; rent of depository, $30 ; services of cus- todian, $50 ; rent to safe deposit company, $21 ; freight on vol umei* Proceedings to the deposi- tory, $33.01 ; postage on volumes mailed at depository, $8.12 ; put- ting up shelves in new depository, $20.50; moving to new depository, $15; porter and packing books, $12.25 ; messengers and express, $9.89 ; postage and telegrams, $32.98 ; stationery, $5.55 Expenses of the several depart- ments : Superintendence, $52.50 ; Higher Education, $49.53; Art, $23; Secondary Education, $24; Kindergarten, $9.'-J5 : Elementary Instruction, $1..50 ; Music, $12. , . 171 78 Expenses of State Managers : Rhode Island, $4.75 ; New York City, Brooklyn, and New Jersey, $30 ; New York, $14.25; Ohio, $20; Nebraska, $19.50; Iowa, $19; Missouri, $20 ; New Mexico, $8. Expended for stock of the Henry Barnard Publishing Company, as Ser vote of Board of Directors, uly, 1891 ; Railroad coupon? of membership redeemed for life members Cr. 355 15 135 50- 307 28 1,000 00 48 00 $8,349 75 100 00 Total disbursements Transfer to permanent fund per Section 10, Article IV. of Consti- tution : One Life Directorship.. Surplus funds of Toronto meeting! 3,500 00—3,600 00 Balance for transfer to account of 3,811 97 $15,761 72 OFFICIAL MINUTES. THE National Educational Association, FIRST DAY'S PROCEEDINGS. MORNINa SESSION. A SPECIAL meeting of the Association was held in Congress Spring Park, on the morning of Tuesday, July 12, 1892. The meeting was called to order by President E. H. Cook, at 9:40 A. m. The session was opened with prayer by the Rev. Dr. L. H. Angier, of Boston, Mass. President Cook made a few opening remarks and then introduced the Hon. A. S. Draper, of New York, who delivered an address of welcome to President Harrison. At the close of Mr. Draper's remarks, President Cook introduced the Hon. Benjamin Harrison, President of the United States, who made a brief address to the Association. President Cook then thanked President Harrison in behalf of the Asso- ciation, and declared the meeting adjourned until 2:30 p. M. AFTERNOON SESSION. The meeting was called to order in Congress Spring Park, at 2:30 p. M., by Mr. E. N. Jones, Chairman of the local Executive Committee. Invo- cation by the Rev. Dr. J. L. Withrow, of Chicago. The Hon. J. W. Houghton was introduced by the Chairman, Mr. Jones, and delivered an address of welcome in behalf of the people of Saratoga. The Hon. J. F. Crooker, State Superintendent of Public Instruction of New York, was introduced, and welcomed the Association in behalf of the teachers of the State. The Hon. Melvil Dewey, Secretary of the Board of Regents of the University of the State of New York, delivered an address of welcome. The Chairman, Mr. Jones, then introduced President E. H. Cook, of New York, who delivered a brief response to the addresses of welcome, and then introduced Hon. W. R. Garrett, First Vice-President of the Association, who made a brief response. Responses were also made by Supt. J. M. Greenwood, of Kansas City, Mo., the Treasurer of the Association ; ^ R. W. Stevenson, of Wichita, Kan., Secretary of the Association ; 22 TBE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. Dr. N. A. Calkins, of New York, Chairman of the Board of Trustees ; Hon. W. T. Harris, U. S. Commissioner of Education, Washington, D. C, in behalf of the United States. An address was then delivered by Dr. Harris on : The Outlook of Education in the World. This was followed by an address on : A7neri- caiiism and the Public Schools, by Francis Bellamy, of the Youth's Com-- patiion, Boston, Mass. After announcements by the Secretary, the Association adjourned to meet at 8:15 p. m. in the Casino. EVENING SESSION. The meeting was called to order at 8:15 p. M., by President E. H. Cook, in the Casino. After the usual announcements by the Secretary, Dr. William Pepper, Provost of the University of Pennsylvania, delivered an address upon: The Relation of Undergraduate to Professional Curricula. At the close of Mr. Pepper's address, the Adelphian Male Quartette, of Doane College, Nebraska, appeared and favored the audience with a song. After a three-minutes recess. President Charles W. Eliot, of Harvard College, delivered an address upon : Undesirable and Desirable Uni- formity in Schools. The session closed with a song by the Adelphian Male Quartette. SECOND DAY'S PROCEEDINGS. MORNING SESSION.— July 13. The meeting was called to order at 9 a. m., in the Methodist Church, by President Cook. The President announced the following Committees : On Nominations — Aaron Gove, of Colorado, Chairman ; J. H. Phillips, of Alabama ; Junius Jordan, of Arkansas ; Earl Barnes, of California ; Aaron Gove, of Colorado ; L. L. Camp, of Connecticut ; Edwine B. Kruse, of Delaware ; Supt. W. B. Powell, of District of Columbia ; Frederick Pasco, of Florida ; Euler B. Smith, of Goorgia ; P. R. Walker, of Illinois ; L. H. Jones, of Indiana ; C. M. Grumbling, of Iowa ; A. R. Taylor, of Kansas ; C. H. Dietrich, of Kentucky ; Warren Easton, of Louisiana ; M. C. Femald, of Maine ; W. E. Sheldon, of Massachusetts ; M. A. Newell, of Mary- land ; Walter S. Perry, of Michigan ; D. L. Kiehle. of Minnesota; J, R. Preston, of Mississippi ; John P. Buchanan, of Missouri ; C. W. Danks, of Montana ; C. G. Pearse, of Nebraska ; C. C. Rounds, of New Hampshire ; E. 0. Hovey, of New Jersey ; Daniel D. Harkness, of New Mexico ; James M. Milne, of New York ; T. J. Mitchell, of North JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. ^3 Carolina ; F. W. Cathro, of North Dakota ; E. W. Coy, of Ohio ; E. B. McElroy, of Oregon ; N. C. Schaeffer, of Pennsylvania; T. B. Stockweli, of Rhode Island ; W. B. Lanier, of South Carolina ; A. T. Free, of South Dakota ; Frank Goodman, of Ten- nessee ; A. J. Baldwin, of Texas; C. S. Davis, of Vermont; F. J. Barnard, of Washington ; W. H. Anderson, of West Virginia ; A. J. Rogers, of Wisconsin ; William Maynard, of Wyoming ; D. R. Boyd, of Oklahoma ; D. R. Augsburg, of Utah. On Resolutions — John E. Bradley, of Minnesota, Chairman ; B. G. Northrup, of Connecticut ; John S. Crombie, of New York ; N. C. Dougherty, of Illinois ; W. H, Bartholomew, of Kentucky, On Necrology— C. W. Bardeen, of New York, Chairman ; Geo. P . Brown, of Illinois ; Henry Sabin, of Iowa ; W. E. Sheldon, of Massachusetts ; Mr. Lampson, editor South- western Journal of Education. On Honorary 3Iemberships—M.. C. Fernald, of Maine ; N. A. Calkins, of New York ; J. H. Baker, of Colorado ; J. M. Greenwood, of Missouri ; N. C. Dougherty, of Illinois. It was moved and seconded that all resolutions be referred to the Com- mittee on Kesolutions, without discussion. Carried. General H. B. Carrington (Mass.), U. S. Army, offered the following resolution, which, on motion of Mr. Canfield, of Nebraska, was referred to the Committee on Resolutions for consideration and report : A RESOLUTION To Promote Americanism in the Public Schools. It is evident that there is a revival of an earnest spirit of patriotic Americanism throughout the land. It is the result of various causes. Foremost among these is the work so wisely carried out by patriotic schoolmasters. Nowhere is this new spirit of Americanism more active than in our public schools. To day thirteen millions of our public school pupils are being trained by the State for the duties of citizenship. The State requires for her own protection that these pupils shall be so trained that they may be able to render back to the State loyal, wise, and patriotic service. Concentration and uniform action on the part of educators, with a definite purpose clearly in view, will do much in the future to stimulate our entire public school system with a greater zeal in patriotic education. In view of the foregoing be it Resolved, That the National Educational Association appoint a committee of seven, whose duty shall be (1) To make a careful study of the various methods and plans adopted by educators, both in America and abroad, which have been successful in developing the patriotic spirit ; and (2) To report a recommendation as to the best methods which educators may employ to bring about a progressive and uniform system ^f patriotic education in our public schools. 34 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. After announcements by the Secretary, Irwin Shepard, President of the State Normal School afc Winona, Minn., read a paper on : Ethical Culture in the Kindergarten. This was followed by a paper on : Ethical Culture in Elementary and Secondary Schools^ by Mrs. Delia Lathrop Williams, of Delaware, 0. James H. Canfield, Chancellor of the University of Nebraska, read a paper on : Ethical Culture in the College and University. The discussion of these three papers was opened by Dr. E. E. White, of Cincinnati, 0. A general discussion followed, participated in by Mrs. Louise Pollock, of Washington, D. C. ; Prof. Fischer, of Wheaton College, 111. ; Supt. E. E. Ashley, of Troy, and Prof. Zalmon Richards, of Washington. Commissioner W. T. Harris, Chairman of the Committee on the World's Educational Congresses, read the report of the Committee, which was adopted. The Convention then adjourned to meet in the Casino at 8:15 p. m. EVENING SESSION.— July 13. The meeting was called to order in the Casino at 8:15 p.m. by President Cook. Music by the Adelphian Quartette, of Doane College. After the usual announcements by the Secretary, President Richard H. Jesse, of the University of Missouri, delivered an address on : University Education. Mrs. Frances W. Leiter, of Ohio, gave an address upon : Educational Equipoise. Music by Adelphian Quartette, of Doane College. Adjourned. THIRD DAY'S PROCEEDINGS. MORNING SESSION.— July 14. The meeting was called to order in the Methodist Church at 9:30 A. m., July 14, 1892, by President Cook. The Committee on Nominations submitted its report as follows : Your Nominating Committee beg leave to submit the following report : President — Albert G. Lane, of Illinois. Secretary— R. W. Stevenson, of Kansas. Treasurer—^. M. Greenwood, of Missouri. Vice- Prcndents— First Vice-President, E. H. Cook, of New York ; L. E. Wolfe, of Missouri ; G. J. Ramsey, of Louisiana ; J. W. Dickinson, of Massachusetts ; F. A. Fitzpatrick, of Nebraska ; C. P. Rogers, of Iowa ; W. H. Bartholomew, of Kentucky ; JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. 25 M. C. Feraald. of Maine ; E. E. White, of Ohio ; T. A. Futrall, of Arkansas ; Edward Searing, of Minnesota ; N. C. Schaeffer, of Pennsylvania. Directors — Solomon Palmer, Alabama ; Junius Jordan, Arkansas ; Earl Barnes, California ; David N. Camp, Connecticut ; R. H. Beggs, Colorado ; A. N. Raub, Dela- ware ; William T. Harris, District of Columbia ; Frederic Pasco, Florida ; Euler B. Smith, Georgia ; Jesse H. Brown, Indiana ; W. L. Steele, Illinois ; 0. J. Lay- lander, Iowa ; J. N. Wilkinson, Kansas ; Henry Rhoades, Kentucky ; A. A. Trenby, Louisiana ; W. J. Corthell, Maine ; John E. McCahn, Maryland ; W. E. Sheldon, Massachusetts ; E. A. Strong, Michigan ; Dabney Lipscomb, Mississippi ; J. T. Buchanan, Missouri ; Irwin Shepard, Minnesota ; R. G. Young, Montana ; C. P. Carey, Nebraska ; C. C. Rounds, New Hampshire ; T. M. Marshall, New Mexico ; C. W. Bar- deen. New York State ; Robert Bingham, North Carolina ; James McNaughton, North Dakota ; N. M. Butler, New Jersey ; J. A. Shawhan, Ohio ; E. B. McElroy, Oregon ; D. J. Waller, Jr., Pennsylvania ; T. B. Stockwell, Rhode Island ; W. B. Lanier, South Carolina ; J. D. Stay, South Dakota ; Frank Goodman, Tennessee ; H. C. Prichett, Texas ; G. P. Beard, Vermont ; F. J. Barnard, Washington ; Albert Hardy, Wisconsin ; W. H. Anderson, West Virginia ; William Marquerat, Wyoming ; D. R. Boyd, Oklohoma ; J. F. Millspaugh, Utah. Aaron Gove, Chairman Nominating Committee. The report as submitted was unanimously approved. Mr. Can field, of Nebraska, moved that the Secretary of the Association be authorized to cast the ballot of the Association for the election of the officers and directors as named in the report of the Committee, which motion was unanimously carried. In pursuance of the motion of Mr. Canfield, Secretary Stevenson announced that he had cast the unanimous ballot of the Association for the officers and directors as named in the report of the Nominating Com- mittee. President Cook : The unanimous ballot of the Association having been cast for the officers and directors named in the report of the Com- mittee, I declare that the same have been duly and unanimously elected as the officers and directors of the Association for the ensuing year. It will be the duty of the incoming Board of Directors to fill any vacancies that may exist, and I again call for the names of any delegates from any of the States and Territories not already represented in the Board of Directors. Mr. Canfield, of Nebraska : There has been distributed through the audience this morning a prospectus of the Gleason Home of Rest for Teachers, which has been established near Pasadena, Cal. The trustees of the home very courteously and very kindly, indeed, ask me to present this matter to the Association, and to present it in their name, represent- ing the donor, as a gift to the teachers of the nation. Mrs. Adell Gleason, a physician of the city of Elmira, N. Y., selected for her own home during a portion of the year the tract of land to which reference is made in this little circular, and she built upon it a very attractive home. Afterward finding that she could not occwpy it as she desired, it occurred 26 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION to her that there could be no better or wiser use made of it than to place it at the disposal of the teachers of the nation as a resting-place for those who were weary. The outline of this plan is given in this prospectus, and I need not enlarge upon it, except to say that since I have reached here I have received a letter from the trustees, stating they had made this slight change in the plans : that any teacher paying the initiation fee of five dol- lars, and the monthly dues of fifty cents per month for nine months of the teaching year, and remaining a member for five years — which, you will see, places tlieir total contribution at about twenty-five or twenty-seven dollars — will be entitled to sixty days' free entertainment at the home. So that they are able already, by reason of the donation of the original gift, and by reason of some donations that have been made to it since, to maintain this home in this way. They hope to do still more. What they may do hereafter will depend very largely upon the action of the teachers of the country, and the way they indorse this whole movement. The Secretary of the Trustees hoped to be here to present this matter in person, but that was impossible, as the deeds of transfer came quite late, and the organization was perfected but a little while before the date of this meeting. I beg leave, therefore, to make this brief presentation, and ask a refer- ence of the whole matter to the Committee on Resolutions, in order that a proper resolution may be drawn covering the subject. The matter was referred to the Committee on Resolutions for their con- sideration and report. Mr. Richards : I desire to say that those members of the Association who went to California three years ago do not need any argument to con- vince them that it is a good place to go to. I am sure every one who can do so will enjoy the great privileges which are set out in the prospectus of this Gleason Home of Rest at Pasadena. After announcements by the Secretary, E. 0. Vaile, of Chicago, editor of Intelligence, read a paper upon : Teaching Current Events in School. The discussion was opened by 0. F. Presbrey, of Washington, D. C, editor of Public Opinion. The discussion was continued by Principal R. H. Beggs, of Denver, Col., and Miss Morris, of New York, and was closed by the author of the paper, Mr. Vaile. Announcements by the Secretary. After a short recess, Mr. George E. Hardy, of New York City, presented a paper on : Literature for Children. The next paper was read by Mr. Hamilton W. Mabie, editor of the Christian Union, on : Literature for Teachers. After a rising vote of thanks had been tendered Mr. Mabie by the Association, Supt. Albert G. Lane, of Chicago, read a paper upon : The Representation of Educational Systems at the World's Exposition. President Cook read a letter from Josiah L. Pickard, President of the Association in 1871. On motion of Mr. Marble, the President of the Asso- JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. 27 ciation was instructed to send the cordial good will and wishes of the Association to Mr. Pickard. Usual announcements by the Secretary. Adjourned. EVENING SESSION.— July 14 The meeting was called to order in the Casino at 8:30 p. m., July 14, President Cook in the chair. The addresses of the evening were by Hon. A. S. Draper, of Albany, N. Y., on : The Duty of the State in Relation to the Kindergarten, and by Inspector James L. Hughes, of Toronto, Ont., on : The Harmony between Control and Spontaneity. Adjourned. FOUETH DAY^S PROCEEDINGS. MORNING SESSION.— July 15. The meeting was called to order by President Cook, in the Methodist Church, Saratoga, at 9:30 A. m., July 15, 1892. M. C. Fernald, of Maine, Chairman Committee on Honorary Member- ship, reported as follows : "Mr. PREsroENT : Your committee desires to present the name of but one man to be the recipient of this honor. The selection, it is believed, will commend itself as appro- priate, and as a grateful recognition of the special consideration which he has shown the National Association at the present meeting. ** It is with great pleasure that, in behalf of the committee. I name for honorary mem- bership his Excellency Benjamin Harrison, President of the United States." The report of the committee was unanimously adopted by a rising vote. Mr. Bradley, of Minnesota, submitted the report of the Committee on Resolutions. Mrs. Leiter, of Ohio, moved that the resolution in regard to Physical Culture be amended to read as follows : "The importance of physical education is fully recognized, and provision for such training heartily recommended. " The amendment was adopted. The report of the Committee on Resolutions was then unanimously adopted. On motion, the recommendation of the committee that a rising vote of thanks be tendered President Harrison waaimnanimously adopted. 28 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. Hon. L. E. Wolfe, of Missouri, read a paper upon the subject : To what Extent can a School System he Improved hy Legislation? President Cook introduced Supt. D. J. Waller, Jr., of Harrisburg, Pa., who opened the discussion of Mr. Wolfe's paper. The subject was further discussed by Supt. W. H. Anderson, of Wheel- ing, W. Va., and Supt. J. R. Preston, of Mississippi. Supt. L. H. Jones, of Indianapolis, Ind., was to have spoken on the subject : The School and the Criminal. Mr. Jones having been unex- pectedly called away by a telegram, his paper was read by Mr. Jesse A. Brown, of Indianapolis. The paper was discussed by Principal H. G. Larimer, of Topeka, Kan., and Supt. A. P. Marble, of Worcester, Mass. After announcements by the Secretary, President James MacAlister, of the Drexel Institute of Philadelphia, Pa., delivered an address upon : The Relation of Education to the Economic and Industrial Conditions of the Time. President Cook appointed as a committee on Americanism and Patriot- ism the following : J. B. Upham, of Massachusetts ; A. S. Draper, of Ohio ; W. E. Sheldon, of Massachusetts ; J. R. Preston, of Mississippi ; W. R. Garrett, of Tennessee ; Supt. Brooks, of Philadelphia, Pa. ; and (by request) the President, E. H. Cook, of New York. Mr. Zalmon Richards, of Washington, submitted the following report of the Committee on Necrology : The Committee on Necrology would respectfully report that they have received no notice of the death of any other members of this Association than that of Thomas W. Harvey, of Ohio, whose memorial has already been received and printed in the Proceed- ings of the National Superintendents' Association at Brooklyn. Adjourned to 8:15 p. m. EVENING SESSION.— July 15. The meeting was called to order by President Cook at 8:35 P. m., July 15, 1892, in the Methodist Church, Saratoga. President William De Witt Hyde, of Bowdoin College, Maine, addressed the Association upon : The Organization of American Education. The closing address of the convention was given by State Supt. A. B. Poland, of New Jersey, upon : Scientific Physical Culture. The following resolution was read and unanimously adopted : Resolved, That the National Educational Association learns with pleasure that the second volume of the Report on Art and Industry— ''American Education in Fine and Industrial Art "—prepared by Col I. Edwards Clarke, and issued by the United States Bureau of Education, has just been published. This encyclopaedic volume relating to industrial and manual training in public schools is a storehouse of valuable iuforma- JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. tion concerning those topics, and is a most timely contribution to the movement of the new education. The completion of this report is awaited with great interest, and it is the judgment of this Association that when complete another edition from the stereotype plates should be ordered by Congress for the use of the educators and libraries of the country. CLOSING EXERCISES. President Cook asked Dr. Calkins, of New York, to conduct President- elect Lane, of Chicago, to the platform. Mr. Calkins : Mr. President-elect — It becomes my pleasant duty to conduct you to the platform where seven years ago to-night I was con- ducted to receive the honor that is about to be bestowed upon you. President Cook received President-elect Lane with a few words, to which Mr. Lane briefly responded. President Lane then called upon Miss Howe, of Flushing, N. Y., to lead the audience in singing the Doxology, after which he declared the Thirty- Second Annual Convention of the National Educational Association adjourned sine die. 30 TBE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION MINUTES OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS. Saratoga Spri^^gs, N. Y., July 12, 1892. The Board of Directors of the National Educational Association was called to order in the Grand Army Hall, Saratoga, at 5:40 p. m., July 12, 1892, by President Cook. Twenty-nine directors responded to the roll call. The minutes of the last meeting of the directors were read and approved. C. 0. Bounds, Chairman of the Committee on Membership, submitted a partial report. On motion of Mr. Dougherty, the partial report was referred back to the committee, with instructions to embody the recommendations of the committee in a resolution, in conformity with the by-laws of the Associa- tion, and report back to the Board of Directors. The annual report of J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer of the Association, was received, read, and ordered printed in the proceedings (p. 16). N. A. Calkins, of New York, Chairman of Board of Trustees, read the trustees^ report for the past year, and the same was ordered printed in the proceedings (pp. 17, 18). On motion of Mr. Leipziger, of New York, the President, Secretary, Treasurer, and the Board of Trustees of the Association were appointed as an auditing committee for the Association. On motion, the suggestion of the Board of Trustees to establish an Emergency Fund was approved by the Board of Directors. The following resolution was offered and adopted : Resolved, That there be established, as soon as the current expenses of the Associa- tion will warrant, an Emergency Fund not to exceed $4,000. Said fund shall be sub- ject to expenditure by the Board of Trustees in accordance with votes of tlie Board of Directors at any regularly called meeting. The said fund may be used for the purpose of meeting deficiencies of income of the Association, and for such additional investiga- tions and publications as may be determined by said Board of Directors ; and it is further Resolved, That the Board of Trustees be hereby authorized to transfer from the sur- plus funds of 1891-92, to the Emergency Fund, a sum not exceeding $2,500 ; and that additional transfers may be made to said fund from the surplus receipts of 1892-93 ; and it is further Resolved, That the Trustees be and .hereby are authorized to appropriate from the Emergency Fund suras duly authorized, not to exceed $2,500, the same to be expended by the Board of Trustees as recommended by the Board of Directors ; the said expendi- tures to be made upon duly approved vouchers, satisfactory to the Board of Trustees. MINUTES OF THE BOARD OF DTRECT0B8. 31 Mr. Butler, Chairman of a Committee from the National Council, sub- mitted the following extract from the minutes of the National Council, which, on motion, was received and placed on file : To the National Council of Education : In the opinion of the conference of Representatives of Colleges and Secondary Schools, called by authority of the Council, certain conferences by departments of instruction of teachers in colleges and secondary schools are desirable. We therefore recommend to the Council that the following ten persons, namely, President Charles W. Eliot, of Harvard University ; Dr. W. T. Harris, Commissioner of Education ; President James B. Angell, of the University of Michigan ; Mr. John Tetlow, Master of the Girls' High School, Boston ; President James M. Taylor, of Vassar College ; Mr. O. D. Robinson, Principal of the Albany, N. Y., High School ; President James H. Baker, of the Uni- versity of Colorado ; President R H. Jesse, of the University of Missouri ; James C. MacF\enzie, Head Master of the Lawrenceville, N. J., School; and Prof. Henry C. King, of Oberlin College, be designated an Executive Committee, with full power to call and arrange for such conferences during the academic year 1892-93 ; that the results of the conferences be reported to said Executive Committee for such action as they may deem appropriate ; and that the Executive Committee be requested to report fully con- cerning their action to the Council. We recommend further that the Council ask the directors of the National Educa- tional Association to authorize the payment of the necessary expenses of the confer- ence, and that they set apart out of the income and current funds of the present year the sum of f^2,500, which sum shall be available so far as may be necessary to carry on the work of the committee, and shall be disbursed by the Trustees of the National Educational Association, on vouchers signed by the Chairman of the Executive Com- mittee herein recommended. Mr. Butler offered tlie following resolution, which was adopted : Resolved, That the directors assent to the recommendation of the Council that a series of investigations into the courses of study in secondary schools be undertaken by spe- cialists under the direction of the committee named for the purpose by the Council and hereby confirmed by this Board, and that the Trustees be authorized to appropriate therefor from the Emergency Fund $2,500, or so much thereof as may be necessary. Mr. Garrett, of Tennessee, moved that the resolution offered by Dr. Butler be amended to the effect that $1,000 be fixed as the limit of expen- diture under the resolution, which motion was lost. The resolution of Dr. Butler was adopted by a vote of 21 for and 9 against. A petition signed by the officers and members of the Business Edu- cators^ Association for admission as a department in the National Educa- tional Association was read, and the petition granted, and the department designated as the Department of Business Education'. Adjourned to meet in the vestry of the Methodist Church, at 12:30 p. m., July 13, 1892. ^ R. W. Stevenson, Secretary, 32 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. ADJOURNED MEETING. The Board of Directors of the National Educational Association was called to order in the Methodist Church, Saratoga, 12:30 P. m., July 13, 1892, by President Cook. The roll-call showed 33 directors present. Mr. C. C. Rounds, Chairman of the Committee on Membership, reported to the Board of Directors as follows : To the Board of Directors, National Educational Association : The committee appointed at the meeting of the Association in 1891 to consider the question of such changes as may be deemed necessary to secure the establishment of a permanent membership, and the collection of annual dues from such members, would submit the following report : They would recommend that two classes of membership be at once estabhshed, to be styled active and associate members, of whom only active members shall be entitled to participate in the business of the Association and to hold office. The active membership of the Association shall consist only of those who are consti- tutionally eligible to membership. A classification shall, so far as possible, be made of the present membership of the Association, comprising in one class those who are con- nected with the work of education or with any educational association, and who shall be considered as constituting the present active membership, and the remaining class shall be considered as constituting the present associate membership. The directors are requested to communicate to the Secretary of the Association the names of those worthy of active membership, and the Secretary shall forward to such persons a statement of the conditions and advantages of such membership, with a request that they become members of the Association, and, on receipt of the annual fee, shall enroll them among the active members. At the first session of each regular meeting of the Association, the President shall appoint a Committee on Active Membership, to whom shall be referred all questions of active membership during such meeting, and persons recommended by this committee may become members by a majority vote of members present and voting at any meet- ing of the Association, During the month of January (or any other), the Secretary of the Association shall send to each active member a request for payment of the annual fee ; and any member who shall neglect for one year the payment of the annual fee shall by such neglect forfeit his membership . The committee would recommend that the By-Laws of the Association be so amended as to accord with these conditions. C. C Rounds, Chairman. E. E. White. Geo. F. Osborne. Saratoga, N. Y,, July 12, 1892. On motion of Mr. Dougherty, seconded by Mr. Butler, the report was referred back to the committee, with instructions to draft a by-law in accordance with its recommendation, and report back to the Board of Urectors. MINUTES OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS. 33 The committee subsequently submitted the following draft of a by-law to the Board of Directors : First, The membership of this Association shall consist of two classes, to be styled respectively active and associate members, of whom active members alone shall be enti- tled to participate in the business of the Association and to hold oflBce. Second, The active membership of the Association shall consist only of those who are connected with the work of education or with some educational association. Other members shall constitute the associate membership of the Association. Third, The directors shall communicate to the Secretary of the Association the names of persons worthy of active membership, and the Secretary shall forward to such per- sons the statement of the conditions and advantages of such membership, with a request that they become members, and, on receipt of the annual fees, shall be enrolled among the active members. Fourth, At the first session of each regular meeting of the Association the President shall appoint a Committee on Active Membership, to whom shall be referred all ques- tions of active membership during such meeting, and persons recommended by this committee may become members by a majority vote of members present and voting at any meeting of the Association. Fifth, During the month of January of each year the Secretary of the Association shall send to each active member a request for payment of the annual fees, and any member who shall neglect for one year the payment of the annual fee shall by reason of such neglect forfeit his membership. The report of the committee was received and approved. Mr. Harris announced the following changes in the Committee on International Congress of Education : Music — N. Coe Stewart in place of Walter Damrosch, declined. Normal Department — E. 0. Lyte in place of J. W. Cook, declined. Elementary Department — James L. Hughes in place of L. F. Soldan, declined. Business Education — Robert C. Spencer. Experimental Psychology— G. Stanley Hall. Rational Psychology— J. G. Schurman. Technical Education— Francis A. Walker. On motion, the nominations of Dr. Harris were confirmed. On motion of Mr. Greenwood, the following resolution was adopted : Resolved, That the retiring President, under the direction of the Board of Trustees, be authorized to edit, curtail, and revise the volume of proceedings of the Association for 1892, and that the sum of five hundred dollars ($500) be appropriated for the incidental expenses connected with the editing and issuing of the same. On motion, it was unanimously agreed that all reference in the proceed- ings of the Board of Directors, of July 12, 1892, as to what shall constitute a quorum should be expunged. Mr. Stockwell, of Rhode Island, moved that not less than twenty members of the Board of Directors shall be necessary to constitute a quorum of the Board for business, which motion was lost. The motion of Mr. Greenwood, that a c?tmmittee of five be appointed 3 34 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. to report at the next regular meeting on the method of obtaining mem- bership in the Board of Directors, was lost. The motion of Mr. Garrett, that a quorum of this body shall consist of rhose present at a regularly called meeting was unanimously adopted. Adjourned, subject to call of the Chairman. R. W. Steveksoi^, Secretary, NEW BOARD OF DIRECTORS. The Board of Directors for 1892-93 were called to order in the Grand Army Hall, Saratoga, N. Y., at 4:30 p. m., July 14, 1892, by President Lane. Thirty-six directors responded to the roll-call. On motion of Mr. Cook, the President of the Association was author- ized to fill vacancies in the Board from the States and Territories not represented by suitable persons at any time hereafter. On motion of Mr. Butler, the President, 1st Vice-President, Secretary, Treasurer, and Chairman of the Board of Trustees were constituted the Executive Committee of the Association for the ensuing year. Mr. Cook read the following from Milwaukee, Wis., inviting the Asso- ciation to hold its next convention in that city : Milwaukee, Wis., July 12, 1892. Chairman Executive Committee, N. E. A. Convention : Milwaukee School Board passed unanimous resolutions inviting National Educational Association Convention here for ninety-three. Henry E. Legler, Secretary School Board, Milwaukee, Wis., July, 1892. Chairman Executive Committee, N E. A. Convention: Mayor and Common Council, by unanimous resolution passed this afternoon, extend cordial invitation to National Educational Convention for ninety-three. Reception will be hearty. Geo, R. Mahoney, City Clerk. Milwaukee, July 11, 1892. President Cooh Board of Directors, N E. A., Saratoga, N. Y. Dear Sir: At the last meeting of the Milwaukee School Board the following resolution was unanimously adopted : ^Resolved, That the Milwaukee School Board extends a cordial invitation to the National Educational Association to hold its annual convention in 1893 in this city. Yours truly. Henry E. Legler, Secretary School Board. MINUTES OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS. 35 The same were received and ordered inserted in the minutes for con- sideration of the Executive Committee. Mr. Malone presented an invitation from Salt Lake City, Utah, inviting the Association to meet in that city, as follows : Salt Lake City, Utah. Governor, mayor, presidents Board of Education, Chamber of Commerce, Stock Exchange, and Real Estate Exchange authorize me to extend invitation to National Educational Association to meet here next year ; if no meeting '93, then come in '94. Tabernacle and other halls tendered ; ample hotel and other accommodations guar- anteed ; usual railroad rates promised ; cheap excursions to National Park, coast, etc. ; assured side trips through Utah, and other entertainments, concerts, etc., promised. J. P. MiLLSPAUGH. The same was received and ordered inserted in the minutes, for consid- eration by the Executive Committee. Mr. Barnard presented an earnest invitation from Seattle to hold the next meeting of the Association at that place. On motion of Mr. Sheldon, the renewed invitation from Seattle, as well as all other invitations (except Saratoga) presented to the Association at Toronto, be reconsidered by the Board and the Executive Committee in fixing the place of meeting in 1893 and 1894. The Chair appointed a committee to fill certain existing vacancies in the National Council. The committee reported back the following recom- mendation : Mr. Baldwin, of Texas ; Mr. Soldan, of Missouri ; Mr. Calkins, of New- York ; Mr. Canfield, of Nebraska ; and Mr. R. Gr. Boone, of Indiana. The recommendation of the committee was unanimously approved, and the persons named duly elected as members of the National Council. On motion of Mr. Butler, the Commissioner of Education of the United States, Dr. Harris, was appointed a committee, with power to associate with himself two other members of the Association, for the purpose of pro- posing a plan by which the round-table conferences may be organized and made a part of the work of the National Educational Association. On motion of Mr. Sheldon, Zalmon Richards, of Washington, D. C, was reelected one of the Board of Trustees of the National Educational Asso- ciation, by acclamation. Mr. Gove offered the following resolution : Resolved, That a committee of five be appointed by the Chair, with instructions to report to this Board recommendations for reorganizing the administration of the busi- ness affairs of the National Educational Association, in order to permit more careful and deliberate action, and render the decisions to such questions as require prompt consid- eration during the year legally operative. The resolution was adopted. In pursuance of the last resolution, theTlJhair appointed as such com- 36 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. mittee Mr. Gove, Mr. Shepard, Mr. Canfield, Mr. Greenwood, and Mr. Calkins. Mr. Greenwood : I move that the Board of Trustees be authorized to appoint a person, at a salary of fifteen hundred dollars a year, to edit the proceedings and transact other Association business under the direction of the Executive Committee. Mr. Wolfe moved to amend by striking out the words fifteen hundred and inserting in place thereof three thousand. After a long discussion, on motion of Mr. Coy, the motion was laid upon the table by a vote of twenty-five to fifteen. On motion of Mr. Butler, the Board of Trustees were authorized to expend a sum not to exceed fifteen hundred dollars for the purpose of editing and publishing the annual minutes, and such other purposes as the Executive Committee may determine ; the work to be performed under the direction of the President of the Association. On motion of Mr. Gove, all matters pertaining to the administration of the aifairs of the Association, not already provided for by specific resolu- tions, were referred to the Executive Committee with full power to act. A-djourned. R. W. Stevei^son, Secretary. ADDEESSES, PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS GENEEAL ASSOCIATION. / GENERAL SESSIONS OF THE ASSOCIATION. ADDRESSES OF WELCOME TO PRESIDENT HARRISON, DR. E. H. COOK, PRESIDENT OF THE ASSOCIATION". President Harrison: In the sea of upturned faces before you, you behold the representatives of more than three hundred thousand men and women whose hearts and minds are earnestly and thoroughly engaged in carrying on a great warfare against ignorance. They are the men and the women who are to mold the character and prepare the citizens of our future Eepublic. What shall be the character and citizenship of that Republic a quarter of a century hence will depend chiefly upon the work they are doing to-day in the country, the hamlet, the village, the town, and the city. It will be an inspiration to those men and women for me to repeat the words which were so deeply impressed upon my own mind a few days since in Washington, when you said that the hope of the nation, and, in fact, the hope of everything in the future of our great country, depended upon the proper education of its youth. It gives me pleasure, sir, to welcome you in behalf of the National Educational Association, and to present to you and to this audience the Hon. A. S. Draper, ex-State Superintendent of Public Instruction of New York, whom I have invited to speak more fully of our high appreciation of this recognition of the work of education by the Chief Magistrate of the nation. HOK. A. S. DRAPER, ALBANY, N". Y. President Harrison : The most unmistakable proof, the highest evi- dence, of sincere and cordial welcome to the meeting of the National Educational Association will not be found in any poor words which I may utter, but rather in the radiance of this scene, in this charming place, upon this glorious July morning. The happy faces, the cheery words of this great throng, announce their welcome, and assure you of their respect more earnestly and eloquently than can be expressed in words. We are here from every part of our great country. New England and the Middle States, the fair and sunny South, the old Northwest, the newer States beyond the Mississippi, even those beyond the Rockies, are (39) 40 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. all represented here. We have some friends also from the Queen's dominions beyond the St. Lawrence, who adjure me that I shall uof exclude them from the word of cheer and respect to the Chief Magistrate of the United States. There is no limit upon the membership of this Association, save one. The only condition of eligibility is that members shall be connected with the work of education. The colleges and universities, the secondary schools, the normal schools, the great public elementary school system of the country, the private schools, the publishers of educational books and periodicals, are all largely represented here. We differ about politics and religion and all other matters of preference and opinion. Indeed, we never fail to embrace the slightest opportunity for differing in opinion. But upon two points we are thoroughly and entirely united. We believe that the safety of American citizenship, the security of the great Eepublic, lies in putting a sound elementary educa- tion within easy reach of every home in the land, and in making more liberal learning accessible to all who may acquire the taste and have the ambition to lay hold upon it. And we are loyal and patriotic citizens. We know the history, we recall the cost, and therefore we appreciate the value, of our distinguishing American institutions. And so we uncover in the presence of the flag, and so we look upon the Chief Magistracy of the Republic with respectful veneration. This is not quite all we would say. I am not fully and faithfully representing the sentiments of the National Educational Association if I say no more. Our greeting is not purely perfunctory, and it is not alone official. We are likely to separate on the tariff, but not in our esteem for the head of an American home who always governs his children but is always goyerned by his grandchildren, for the lawyer at Indianapolis, for the gallant soldier of the Union army, for the senator from Indiana, for the man who has exemplified the best qualities of American citizenship in the most exalted political and official station in the world. We know the occasion of your journey to the mountains. Consider us not obtrusive if we say that the prayer of this great Association, as of all good citizens, is that your mission of love may be abundantly successful, and that the woods and waters and the bracing air of the Adirondacks may give health to your home and bring joy to your heart. We count ourselves fortunate that this journey has by chance given us the benefit of your presence. Your sentiments, and your felicitous powers of expression, have frequently commanded the approval of all citizens, and promoted the honor of the ximerican name around the world. You have frequently taken occasion to show your interest in the good cause of education, and to utter expressions which have carried counsel and cheer to all enlisted in its advancement. We will wait upon your words, and then we shall all be glad to pass along and shake your hand and say a / ADDRESSES OF WELCOME. 41 word of cheer. This over, we will thank you for the courtesy which prompted you to stop at our meeting, and then say God speed on your journey, in the hope that we have cast no additional burden upon you, but that new courage, added wisdom, and greater strength for wisely meeting the responsibilities of your great station may flow from your call upon the National Educational Association. ADDRESS BY PRESIDENT HARRTSON. Mr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen: If it is ''more blessed to give than to receive,^' this is a blessed audience ; for I do not know any class of our people who give so largely in excess of their receipts as the instructors of the young, and especially the female teachers. It gives me great pleasure to stand for a few moments in your presence, and to receive this cordial expression of your respect and interest. It is quite as appropriate, I think, that the President of the United States should review the teachers of the land as that he should review its army or its militia. For, after all, the strength and defense of our institutions, not only in peace but in war, is to be found in the young of the land, who have received from the lips of patriotic teachers the story of sacrifice which our fathers recorded to establish our civil institutions, and which their sons have repeated on hundreds of battle-fields. The organized army of the United States, if we include the militia of the States, is in- significant when put in contrast with the armies of the other great powers of the world. Our strength is not in these : it is in that great reserve to be found in the instructed young of our land, who come to its defense in a time of peril. It was not of the brawlers, it was not of the frequenters of the tavern, of which our army in the civil war was made, or of which our army must be made if any great emergency of war again confronts us. I recall a battle scene. The line was advancing against an in- trenched enemy ; from behind strong parapets eight double-shotted guns belched their missiles of death into the advancing line ; there was a pause that threatened instant retreat, when a stripling soldier, a mother's boy, stepped to the front with cap in air, cheered the line on to victory. The instinct of patriotism, of moral courage, was triumphant over mere physical daring in that hour, and it always will be. It is not simply to give that power that comes from education, but to give it safe direction, that schools are established. He is not a benefactor of his race who develops un- or misdirected power. Therefore it is we must insist that in all our schools the morality of the Ten Commandments shall be instilled ; that lessons of due subordination to authority shall be taught. In the family and in the school are the beginnings of this fundamental element of good citizenship — obedience to the law ; a respectful deference to 42 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION public authority ; a self-sacrificing purpose to staud by established and orderly administration in government. I rejoice in nothing more than in this movement, recently so prominently developed, of placing the starry banner above every schoolhouse. I have been charged with too senti- mental an appreciation of the flag. I will not enter upon any defense. God pity the American citizen who does not love it ; who does not see in it something more than bunting and color ; who does not see in it the story of our great free institutions, and the hope of the home as well as of the nation. And I think, notwithstanding perhaps a little too much tendency to rote in our public schools, that it is still true that our teachers, and especially the women, are not without sentiment. I am not here to instruct this convention of instructors. As I have just intimated, it has seemed to me that we are taking on in education some of the developments which characterized the mechanic arts. No workman produces a finished product. He gives it a little touch and passes it on to somebody else. I sometimes regretfully recall the days when the teacher left his strong impress upon the pupil by reason of long years of personal intercourse and instruction — universities where the professor knew the members of his class, and could detect the fraud when a dummy was substituted. Now we have the little one for a few months in the kindergarten, then pass him on to the primary ; and the graded system catches him, much as a moving belt in a machine-shop, and carries him on, until he is dumped from one of these great universities — a " finished product." Perhaps the work is so large, and the demand for economy so great, that this system is inevitable. Perhaps it throws the pupil some- what more upon himself, and out of this there may come some advantage. But without discussing the relative merits of the old way and the new, let us thank God that this great army of instructors, reinforced by the great body of our citizens, is marching on to reach that great result, when there shall not be found an adult citizen of the United States who is not possessed of an elementary education. There is a just mean, I think, between a system of intellectual competition which destroys the body and a system of physical training that eliminates the mind. Perhaps the stress is applied too early upon our little ones. I throw out this word of caution to our good lady friends here who have them in charge. Some years ago I was passing down a street in Indianapolis from my residence to my office, and on the way there was situated one of our public schools. The children were just gathering in the morning. As I came near the corner, two sweet little girls, evidently chums, approached from different directions, and meeting at the crossing soon had their heads close together, but not so close but that I caught the conversa- tion. One said to the other : '' Oh, I had such an awful dream last night !" Her sympathizing little fellow put her head still closer and said : " What was it?'' " Oh," said the trembling little one, *'l dreamed I did not ADDRESSES OF WELCOME. 43 !'' It is safer to allow such little ones to dream, as in my careless country boyhood I was wont to, about bears. But I have already, in this desultory way, talked too long. [Cries of '* Go on, go on.''] That is very kind. I see that motto everywhere about me. It is in- scribed over every door in that public institution where I live. There are some proverbs or sayings that we use without any adequate appreciation of what they mean. I never knew what the old story of the *' last straw " and the *' camel's back" meant until I was called to exercise the office of President, and you will never know until you have that experience. It gives me great pleasure to express a sincere personal interest, and to commend with whatever official sanction I can give to it, the great work in which you are engaged. I sympathize with it not only because I see in it the safety of our country, but what is more, or perhaps what is the same thing, the safety of society. I sympathize with it and appreciate it because I love children. If you did not understand me to present a plea of guilty to the suggestion of Colonel Draper, I desire to do so now. I hope all of you may return to your homes and work with a new sense of, and interest in, and consecration to it. There is none other like it. It has the power of multiplication ; it has an element of life in it that no other work has ; it is eternal. It has that communicating touch of intelligence, morality, and patriotism which runs from one to another, and which goes, in the elements of character which come to it, to the skies. If not crowns of wealth, if not the luxury and ease of great fortunes are yours, yours will be a more enduring crown, if it can be said of you that in every touch upon the life of the young you have lifted up. That your meeting here in this delightful place may be accompanied by every incident of pleasure and profit, and that you may find in it a fresh inspiration and dedication to your work, is the wish I leave with you. Note. — At a subsequent meeting of the Association, President Harri- son was unanimously elected an honorary member of the Association, and in reply to an official notification by the President and Secretary, the fol- lowing was received. Executive Mansion, WASHiNaTON, July 18, 1892. E. H. Cook, Esq. My dear Sir : The President directs me to acknowledge the receipt of your favor of the 15th instant, informing him of his election as an honorary member of the National Educational Association. Will you please accept for yourself, and convey to your associates, his sincere appreciation of this expression of respect and goodwill ? Very truly yours, B. W. Halford, Private Secretary. 44 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. ADDRESSES OF WELCOME. JUDGE J. W. HOUGHTON, OF SARATOGA SPEINGS. Mr. President, and Ladies and Gentlemen of the National Educational Association : It is no ordinary welcome which Saratoga desires to extend to you. And yet it is not unusual for Saratoga to welcome conventions. In her midst have been discussed, year after year, problems of science, philosophy, law, jurisprudence, religion, church, state, economics, me- chanics, finance, manufacture, trade. But to you at this time the greatest welcome is given, not alone on account of your vast numbers, but because of the great and grand profes- sion which you represent. With you, the educators of our land, rest the future destinies of our lives, our property, our government. The law can but punish crime ; you can instill abhorrence of crime, and thereby prevent it. The problems of immigration and socialism, of capital and labor, of race, threaten our institutions. It is with you to so educate the children of the land, that all shall become Americans, that capital and labor shall be just and intelligent to one another, and that with equal intelligence race shall be forgotten. It is only by you, and through you, that our children shall enjoy the heritage our forefathers bequeathed to us. It is said of justice that it is cheap at any price. How much more, then, is education cheap at any price ? And it is one of the evidences of our appreciation of this truth, that, by law, the poor man may say to the rich man, '' Give me of your suljstance to educate my child, not meagrely, but in the languages, the arts, the sciences, that he, too, may become learned and powerful and rich." Your task is an infinite one. To you is delegated the duty of so training our children, that they shall have exactness and quickness of mind, trained to receive impressions and draw correct conclusions in after life, vigor of body, honesty of heart, correctness of conduct, beauty of thought, beauty of expression, beauty of action, and beauty of manners. The necessities of the system are such, that you have to contend with the bright and the dull, the active and the sluggish, the quick and the slow, the careful and t^he careless, side by side. Your manner, your speech, your conduct, may be a child's inspiration. It is expected of you that you draw from the universe of nature, of let- ters, of science, of art. And yet some say it is easy to teach ! You will permit me to compliment and congratulate you upon being engaged in the noblest of professions. Without your training and influ- ence, stupidity and perjury would ruin the lawyer's cause, ignorance would render the doctor's remedies useless, the editorial would be mean- X ADDRESSES OF WELCOME, 45 ingless, and the preacher's words would fall upon stony and barren ground. It is because of your noble profession, your great work, that Saratoga feels herself honored by your presence. You are met together to discuss how your profession can be improved, and how your work can be better done. I want to congratulate you upon remedying one feature of our public school system by the establishment of manual and industrial departments. It is one of the first principles of education, that nothing is to be obtained without labor ; and one of the chief truths of social economy, that man- ual labor is honorable. A little learning is a dangerous thing ; and just enough learning to make a boy think he is better than his father, who is an honest carpenter or blacksmitli or mason or farmer, is a fatal thing. It were better to have stopped short with him, before he arrived to that high degree. When it is appreciated that honest toil is just as honorable as any pro- fession, and that success in one is just as hard as success in the other, both the toilers and the professions will be improved. Upon learning that your association had decided to honor us with this meeting, the citizens of Saratoga, with unparalleled enterprise, put their hands in their pockets and raised eighty thousand dollars to build, for your occupancy, the largest and most substantial permanent convention hall in the Empire State. Much to our regret, the vastness of the under- taking and the unfavorableness of the weather have made it impossible to complete it. The massive walls stand, however, as an evidence of our good faith, and other arrangements have been made which we trust you will find comfortable. If, however, you will honor us with another visit, we will have for you a safe, comfortable, and complete convention hall, which will seat you five thousand strong, and every person shall have a seat as good as his neighbor. Again let me welcome you to our beautiful village, to its delightful drives, to its beautiful parks, to its magnificent hotels, to its unparalleled springs ;. and let me express the hope, that, when you depart, it will be with as much satisfaction as we feel at being honored with your presence. H0:N^. J. F. CROOKER, state SUPERTN^TEN^DENT of public HS^STRUCTIOl?', N^EW YORK. Mr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen, Menibers of the National Edu- cational Association : In the name of the Empire State, so largely repre- sented in your distinguished body, and in behalf of the citizens of Sara- toga, I bid you a hearty welcome. This, I believe, is the fourth time that Saratoga has been honored by your presence, and its welcome is as earnest and profound as when it was first tendered ^'ou some ten years ago. This beautiful village has long been the chosen spot for conventions of all 46 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. kinds. National associations, differing widely in character and purpose, have selected it above all other summer resorts for their annual meetings. Honored as the citizens of Saratoga deem themselves to be by such prefer- ence, the honor is vastly greater when conferred by an association whose grand purpose is ^*to elevate the character and to advance the interests of the profession of teaching, and to promote the cause of popular education in the United States." It is an honor, indeed, beside which all others pale. The citizens of Saratoga invite you to try again the eflBcacy of their health-giving waters, and the great body of professional brotherhood of New York State personally invite you to drink freely from both the mental and mineral springs that flow here so copiously for the benefit of mankind. Unlike the Pierian spring, it is unnecessary for you to drink deep at the bubbling fountains, which gush from Nature^s bosom in almost every part of this beautiful village, to convince you of their efficacy and exhilarating properties. Indeed, these celebrated water fountains are eloquent teach- ers of moderation. The waters of these springs have long been celebrated for their peculiar properties even before the adventurous white man had tasted them. The Indians were well acquainted with their medicinal properties long before they had formed the acquaintance of the *^fire water " of the early settlers. The original patrons of these springs were very numerous and happy in this vicinity at one time, but in late years the ^' war whoop " is only heard here at political conventions, where instead of tying a prisoner to a stake, they make him a candidate for office or a reluctant orator of the day, which is nearly as bad. The pristine dwellers in Saratoga could not offer their stray visitors such superb hotel accommodations as we have to-day. They were entirely unacquainted with the Saratoga of the present time, with the most mag- nificent hotels in the world. It is very doubtful whether they ever knew the meaning of such common and enigmatical expressions as '^the favor- ite and the field." They certainly never heard of Worth toilettes, Mrs. Grundy, or a four-in-hand, and would have stared in wonderment had you mentioned polo, lawn tennis, or a garden party to them. The present good citizens of Saratoga, then, know a thing or two that their aboriginal predecessors never dreamed of in their primeval homes. The Saratogians of to-day have cultivated above all else the art of generous, graceful hos- pitality, and cheery welcome to friends and guests. The evidence of their hospitality is never more bountifully shown than when educational assemblies are held here. The citizens of Saratoga invite you to visit the many beautiful spots that Nature and art have together provided them, and which have received fresh adornment and attraction since your last visit seven years ago. They ask you to renew the pleasant associations of former visits, and ADDRESSES OF WELCOME. 47 they cheerfully pledge themselves to do all in their power to make this meeting equally enjoyable to you and themselves. The Empire State is proud of its high position in the sisterhood of States, of its vast industries, extensive commerce, large manufacturing interests, great cities, numerous thriving villages and hamlets, admirable system of canals and railroads, its rapidly increasing population and con- stant prosperity. It is still prouder of the grand and successful efforts it has made in the past and is still making in the cause of popular educa- tion. In that cause it has been liberal to a lavish degree, and its liber- ality in that direction is an act it has never had any reason to regret. In education, as in commerce and business enterprises of all kinds, New York has been true to its State motto and excelled by few if any of its sisterhood. It is, therefore, with unstinted cordiality that I, in behalf of the New York State members of this Association, welcome the other members within our borders. And in the name of the public I congratulate this Association for having performed such valuable services for education during the thirty-five years of its existence. It has labored earnestly and effectively to advance the standards of American schools, and as one of the prominent factors in the educational machinery of our country it has been potent in placing them in the front ranks of the educational progress of the world. I consider it an honor, higher than words can express, to welcome such a distinguished body, so thoroughly representative of our great country. Here the East greets the West, the North the South, in the name and under the broad banner of education. The Pacific slope sends representatives to tell us of the advancement of school interests on the golden shores of the Far West. The great prairie States, bustling, progressive commonwealths, extending from the mighty Ohio to our northern frontier, are well represented here to-day by earnest, active workers in the field of education. Fp from the sunny South come zealous laborers in the same cause, bringing good tidings of educational progress in the land of fruits and flowers. We have visitors also from the vast Dominion beyond the St. Lawrence and the great lakes, all deeply interested in the proceedings of this convention. We were their guests last year at Toronto, and cherish grateful re- membrances of their hospitality and kindness, striking evidences of inter- national brotherhood, and of the bonds of friendship which unite educa- tional workers the world over. In looking over the list of members I am astonished by the wide extent of territory, even outside of our own country, that is represented in this body. Every part of the Dominion of Canada where a schoolhouse stands, from Nova Scotia to the Northwest Territoj^, is represented on your list of members. Even far-off Brazil has a name enrolled, and England and 48 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. France have the same honor. I trust that at no distant day your mem- bership list will become of thoroughly cosmopolitan character, in conso- nance with the spirit of your Association. Thus the sacred cause to which you are devoted will grow and prosper until it embraces the entire world in its good work, bringing all mankind within its healthful, refining influences, and leading us to a nearer approach of the real millennium. The wider the sphere of activity of such an association, the larger the beautiful results ought to be, and the more rapid the progress of education in any direction. The educational field is limitless in its possibilities, and a convention of this kind may be likened to a band of explorers, exchanging ideas and experiences, and seeking out new routes and new realms to conquer. Such gatherings and interchange of ideas cannot fail to bring forth ricli results. Such conventions are schools of incalculable value to us all, as they furnish opportunities to leaiii new truths, new methods, acquire new ideas, and to broaden and deepen our views of our noble profession and work. They serve as powerful incentives to still greater zeal and more earnest exertion in our chosen field, and they lead to the solution of many perplexing problems of educational moment, over which some of us may have labored long without gaining the desired end. In the arena of discussion, where each question before the meeting is fully and exhaustively treated, the bene- ficial character of such gatherings is demonstrated to the best advantage. Again I bid you welcome in the name of the State and its great teach- ing staff, and in behalf of the inhabitants of this hospitable village, and I trust that your stay will be replete with enjoyment, and that you may bear home with you pleasurable remembrance and great profit from your fourth visit to Saratoga. MELVIL DEWEY, SECRETAKY BOARD OF REGEN^TS, UlflVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK, ALBAKY. Ladies and Gentlemen : I have the pleasure of giving you a welcome that you can have in no other State. It is a welcome from a State university without a student, without a professor, without a campus, without alumni ; and yet we believe in New York that this peculiar university has a great work to do, and that other States will hereafter find that the work can be done better in this way than in any other. This is not a new thing ; as most of you know, it is one of the oldest institutions in the State, and dates back to the time of the creative genius of Alexander Hamilton, when his mind was full of the Federal Constitution, and the idea that a great nation could be made by a union of the sovereign States. So we have in New York a university made of a confederation of our colleges, universities, and secondary schools. We have now in the university 440 institutions — 252 high schools, 103 endowed academies, while the universities, colleges, law, medical, and theological schools, ADDRESSES OF WELCOME. 49 through the professional technical degrees conferred, amount to 85. We are proud of what New York has done in the past, and many of us feel more than the pride of the past the responsibilities of the present. Nature seems to have designed New Yorkers for a serious stewardship. For, if you think a moment, no other State has had done so much for it by nature. With the greatest seaport of the Western world at the one end ; Ontario and Erie, the inland seas, on the other; with Champlain, Lake George, and twenty lakes (any one of which would be famous except for its fellows), Niagara, and the Thousand Islands ; with the great St. Lawrence, the Hudson, and her agricultural and mineral resources. New York has been singularly favored. Then, by its location, it stands at the cross-roads of the nation ; the great lines of travel between the North and South, the East and West, all intersect at our capital. And then our great railroads, running side by side with the Erie Canal, represent the highest attainments in railroad and canal engineering. All the signs of material prosperity — wealth, population — are ours. "But to whom much has been given, much will be required." And if in the past the teachers of New York can look back with pride to what has been done, all the more, many of us feel, is our responsibility greater to-day ; and all the more we feel that the generation of New Yorkers who cannot hold their place yery near the front ought to be ashamed of themselves in their failure of duty to the land that has given them birth, and has given them all these facilities for their work. It is not strange that, long before Hendrick Hudson pushed his way along the Palisades in the wonderfully beautiful valley of the Hudson, this magnificent land was known to the dusky warriors of the Six Nations, from Buffalo to New Orleans. And so it is that we are trying to work out the problem cast upon us in our department. Our latest contribution was only the other day in the three new laws. We are glad to assure others with our experience. We are glad to teach if we have anything to give ; and we are more eager, more glad to learn, and more anxious to have from you the results of your experiment, that we may build up our schools. I will mention as our latest contribution that which is now one of the established laws, and which rids the law of and protects the public against legal technicalities such as cost the city of New York the most magnifi- cent library ever planned. That law proposes to give, and does give, full authority to any man or woman to leave his property in any way he may choose for the benefit of the public, and so it cannot be taken away from the public by a technicality. Secondly, Under the library law, established fifty-three years ago, there is given $55,000 for the establishment of a system of school libraries, under such restrictions as experience has shown to be wise. Third, The most important of the new university laws, which replaces seventy laws that have gro^n up in the last century, and puts within the compass of a dozen pages a new law, gives all the institu- 4 50 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. tions of higher education in the State a recognition for the first time. It recognizes for the first time that the great institutions of education, on which we have spent so much money, and to which so many of our best and noblest lives have been given, are entitled to protection from the State against charlatanry and quackery, just as much as insurance and banking are entitled to protection from the State. This new law makes it, for the first time, a State's prison offense for any man or association or corporation to use improperly the name, or do business under the name, of a university or college, or to sell or traffic in degrees or credentials of educational insti- tutions, feloniously and with intent to deceive the public, and further provides that any man who shall represent that he holds these credentials shall be held guilty of a misdemeanor and be punishable by imprisonment. Therefore, as we look over our past, we are satisfied that New York need not be ashamed. As we look at our present, we are inspired, because we see so much earnest endeavor for the highest and best things. As we look over our future, we see that it is full of hope. And with the welcome that I give you to-day, I leave to you the great work before American educators, and assure you, each man and woman, that New York will never do less than her full share in aid of human progress. SUPT. E. K. JOl^ES, CH AIRMAIL LOCAL EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE, SARATOGA SPRIN^GS, N. Y. The work of the Local Executive Committee in the direction of this meeting is ceased. I now turn over the control of this Convention to Dr. E. H. Cook, President of the Association. RESPONSES, E. H. COOK, PRESIDENT OF THE ASSOCIATION. It gives me great pleasure, in behalf of the representatives of the three hundred and seventy-five thousand teachers of the United States, who are molding the characters of the future citizens of the Republic, to respond to these hearty and cordial words of welcome. We appreciate the great efforts made by your various committees in preparing for this grand convention. We trust that our stay here may be one of mutual benefit and inspiration in the great work of education. Again accept our thanks for your welcome and your preparations. I now take great pleasure in introducing to you the Hon. W. R. Garrett, First Vice-Presi- dent of the Association. RESPONSES. 51 W. R. GAREETT, FIRST VICE-PRESIDENT. If this Association were disposed to entertain any doubt of the sincerity of the words of welcome which have just been spoken to us by represent- atives of the educators and citizens of Saratoga Springs and of the State of New York, that doubt would be removed when we reflect that their welcome is offered to us to-day for the fourth time, and that, in the very act of welcoming us, they have used the occasion to extend to us an addi- tional invitation ; making the sixth invitation they have given us to meet at til is beautiful resort. Neither does our cordial appreciation of their hospitality admit of doubt ; for we have accepted their invitation four times, and have met at Saratoga oftener than at any other place. In the future, as duty directs our steps from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and back again from the Pa- cific to the Atlantic, gathering together our educational family from all portions of our ocean-bounded country, as we pass on our annual journey, we shall always look wistfully toward the great resort of health and pleas- ure. And where can we find a place at which our meetings will be more profitable and delightful ? It brings us in contact with the educators of the Empire State, whose educational institutions are an example and an inspiration. The health-giving waters, the invigorating atmosphere, the complete accommodations, and the cordial hospitality of Saratoga afford all that we could desire. " The largest and most substantial convention hall in the Empire State,'' which will soon be completed, and which our friends assure us was built especially for us, is a standing invitation. But, beyond and above all such considerations, the greatest educational association in the world deserves that its teachers should have rest and relaxation at the greatest watering-place in the world. J. M. GREENWOOD, TREASURER OF THE ASSOCIATION. Mr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen : This is a period of readjust- ment in educational work in this country. The universities and colleges are readjusting and shaping their courses of study. The high schools are endeavoring to fit the colleges and adjust themselves to the schools below. The graded schools, including the primary, the intermediate, and the grammar, are revising, readjusting, and carefully examining their courses of study. Not only this, but in many of the States of our glorious Union more than a thousand men and women are considering at this time the greatest of all edivcf}t)i,ODal^^'prpbI^qis ()i; s)ui*; iioiin^^ry^how to benefit and uplift our country schoolslSo^-iha^ h'o^dve^Vwe view the great educa- tional movement, from the; AtJ^otift t^ i^e,. Pacific, from the Gulf to the Great Lakes on the norti, ^V^.iiad /{jUe; 'inost intense personal, individual 52 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. activity. Not only are we readjusting in the machinery of our school work, but we are beginning to consider the question as to whether our little boys and girls are not capable of doing something on their own account ; whether there is not an inherent energy in them that we have not taken into consideration in very much of our educational work. I predict that the time is not far distant when we will commence making a map of each child, and study the strong points and the weak points in each character, rather than shoot at a bunch and then afterward try to get our baggage off the field. Another suggestion in the half minute that is left me. I trust the time will soon come, when in the history of the National Edu- cational Association it will be one of the duties of the President to give us an annual review of the great educational work of our country. But, ladies and gentlemen, I did not come here to speak, I came here to collect. B. W. STEVENSOl^, SECRETARY OF THE ASSOCIATION^. I believe it a proper thing for me to respond to your words of cordial and sincere welcome, in behalf of the people of the Great West. While the Association is composed of no one section, and recognizes no East, no West, no North, no South, but the whole United States, the Territories, iind Canada, yet we of the West believe we are second to no other section in our appreciation of, and in our gratitude for, your words of warm wel- come, and the accommodations you have provided for the entertainment and comfort of all whose good fortune it may be to attend this meeting of the Association. In times past, so highly have the educators and teach- ers west of the Great Father of Waters esteemed the professional value of the meetings of the National Educational Association, they have, in pro- portion to the population, attended them wherever held, in the largest numbers. It was our earnest desire that this meeting should be held in the North- west, that we should have the pleasant duty of making the speeches of welcome, and you the responses ; but we were fairly beaten, and gracefully accepted the situation. To show you that we hold no ill-will, we have come to you in the East in larger numbers than ever. There are objects of interest and comforts in this beautiful city which we might not have been able to furnish, and yet we believe that we could have provided you with many objects of equal interest and value which you cannot fur- nish us. In Yellowstone Park, for instance, there is a piece of ground called the " DeviFs Half Acre.'^ Some of you Eastern people would have had an excellent opportunity of looking once more on your old homestead ! It might have been possible f op Tjsit^.esctend- the area of this Jialf -acre to ten, that standing room m.igih.t.^G piavi&d for brfi^'MajevSty^snUmerous children of the East. The air in our country is so;pHre, sp invigorating, and so ex- hilarating, that artificial stimul^iit8,/jko\iid^ii:ij;:your country by saloons, RESPONSES. 53 are unnecessary. This good air is "what makes prohibition possible in our country — God's country. We have also pyramids and Eiffel towers as places for an outlook thousands of feet higher than those of Egypt and France, New England and New York. Our country is so much healthier than yours that we risk much physically in coming here, and our morals are so much better that they are in danger of corruption ; but courage and power to resist temptation are among the prominent characteristics of the Western people. The fame of the remarkable medicinal properties of the mineral waters so abundant in your city has reached us, and we are persuaded that these waters, freely taken, will in some degree produce effects similar to our own pure air. Besides, we have heard that these wonderful waters are both meat and drink, and for this reason the hotel-keepers urge their guests to visit the springs and partake freely just before meals. But I sincerely thank you, gentlemen, for the words of hearty welcome you liave spoken, and you, the members of the Local Committee, for what you have done to make our stay in this beautiful city pleasant and profitable. N^. A. CALKINS, CHAIKMAN" BOARD OF TRUSTEES. Mr. President, Felloiu Teachers and Educational WorJcers of the United States : I am glad to greet you here on this occasion. It is appropriate to recall a few of the important events in the history of this Association, which are identified with the place in which we are assembling to-day. In 1882 this Association came to Saratoga for the first time, with an indebtedness of nearly six hundred dollars due to its officers for money advanced to pay the expenses of previous years. In 1883 the Association returned here with an indebtedness of nearly seven hundred dollars ; but it left with all its debts paid, and a balance of five dollars in the treasury. The proceeds of the large meeting of teachers that gathered at Madison, Wis., in 1884, left a balance of over three thousand dollars in the treasury, after all the expenses were paid. A third meeting of this Association was held at Saratoga in 1885. As results of action taken at that time, the National Educational Association became an incorporated body, with a Board of Trustees as its executive financial officers ; and it is in the capacity of Chairman of that Board that I thank those who welcome us here to-day for their cordial greeting, and that I express my pleasure in returning again to this delightful summer resort, with the privilege of announcing to you that the treasury of the National Educational Association to-day has in its permanent fund forty thousand dollars. And, while it is fit that we should allude to these matters of the past, it is more fitting that we should now act so that this Association shall go forward in its great educational work, and when it returns here again some time duping the next ten years, as I hope it may, that it shall be able to present to you facts showing that it 54 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. has acquired a still greater reputation, because of the good it has done throughout the country. HON. WILLIAM T. HARRIS, UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. The President of the United States has already responded this morning for the whole country ; as his Commissioner of Education, I will respond for the educational interests of this country. In behalf of these interests I thank you for your welcome to this place of health-giving waters, to this land of rest and refreshment. The members of our Association come from the four quarters of the national domain to confer on the problems that beset the work of education. They come to gain wisdom by learning what solutions have been dis- covered to those problems, and they come to gain strength and courage to face the difficulties which the future sends toward them. There are two elements of conflict which our national meetings give us help to meet. There is the struggle between civilization and savagery, the struggle to overcome the strongholds of illiteracy and the slums of our cities, to overcome and heal the causes for social weakness that produce crime and pauperism. The second struggle is that which goes on within the ranks of the educational forces ; it is the struggle between education as a lofty ideal of culture, and education as a means of fitting the individual for his trade. Both of these ideals are good and positive, although they are not of equal value. This National Educational Association helps to reconcile these two ideals by methods which obtain both results, the useful and the beautiful. In the name of the educational interest of the whole nation I thank you for this welcome to sit with you in conference on these themes so important to the conservation of the Republic. GREETING FROM DOMINION EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIA- TION HON. DR. INCH, CHIEF SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS OF NEW BRUNS- WICK, CANADA. Mr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen : The great honor has fallen upon me of bearing to you the greetings of twenty thousand teachers of the Dominion of Canada, as represented by the Educational Association of the Dominion. As your President has said, the coming of the National Educational BFSFOKSES. 55 Association to the city of Toronto last year was welcomed by the teachers living under another government, and over whose head floats another flag, as an evidence of the desire of the teachers of the United States to cultivate a closer acquaintance and a more fraternal relation. And this desire was responded to so generally from the east and west of the Dominion, that we not only welcomed it as a token of greater things in the future, but we give what may be regarded as the sincerest proof of admiration, by following in your footsteps, and imitating your customs in the organization of an association of teachers in the Dominion similar to the National Educational Association in the United States. Last week, in the city of Montreal, the first annual convention of the Dominion Association was held ; and though our members were not so numerous as had been hoped, yet the enrollment showed the presence of four or five hundred teachers, and there were a series of important sessions held, at which most interesting and instructive papers were read and discussed ; and this gives us the promise that the enterprise will be of great advantage to the cause of education in the Dominion of Canada. I am talking, Mr. President, under a consciousness of the limitations, and of the further fact that the permission you have given me to speak is a matter of special courtesy, even for the prescribed three minutes. There are so many things I wish to say which I must leave unsaid. Yet permit me to say that we, in Canada, feel especially under obligations to the United States and your honorable Commissioner of Education for furnishing our educational departments so freely with the valuable publi- cations of his bureau. The national boundary seems to form no obstruc- tion for the free passage of educational documents ; and we trust that this indication of good-will on the part of the United States will result in even closer intimacy in other respects between the two countries. - The Canadian teachers, although rendering loyal and loving obedience to the noble woman who represents the majesty of the British Empire so well, are still proud to be allowed membership in the National Educational Association of the United States, as you have already heard ; and from Nova Scotia to British Columbia, the various provinces are represented in your Association, and we are trying always to be worthy of fellowship in that still grander republic — the republic of letters. We hope — we look to-day to it as a dream, and trust that it may not always be a dream, that our country, so little in point of population, but so grand in territory and resources, that that country is to be, under Providence, the medium by which the whole vast English-speaking peojile of the world are to be brought into closer relationship and more intimate fellowship. Standing, as Canada does, with political relations to the mother country across the water, and with traditions which are woven through the history of a thousand years ; and, on the otker hand, so intimately related to this great Republic by geography and contiguity, by the increased and 56 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. increasing intercourse of the inhabitants of the two countries with each other, by a common interest, by a common origin, by the common senti- ments which animate us — let us hope that under the providence of God we may together be the means of extending Christian civilization and the blessings of freedom over the wide world. Standing, as we do, inter- mediate between the Kepublic and Great Britain, we stretch forth one hand across the water to the mother-land, and the other hand to our eldest sister, the Eepublic of the United States, and we say to them, one to the other, Clasp hands across the waters, and we three united shall form an alliance which shall guarantee the reign of universal peace, and extend liberty wherever men dwell upon the earth. Teachers of the National Educational Association, teachers of the Dominion Association of Canada, if this dream is ever to be a reality, upon you depends its accomplishment. TWENTY YEARS' PROGRESS IN EDUCATION. HOl!^. WILLIAM T. HARRIS, UIJ^ITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. The three characteristic instruments of modern civilization are the railroad, the daily newspaper, and the common school. The railroad means the connection of each part of the country with the market of the world. The newspaper means the participation of each man and woman, who can read, in the experience of the human race, so that each individual may profit by the lives of all his fellowmen far and near. The common school means the acquisition on the part of each boy and girl, whether rich or poor, of the necessary knowledge required to read the newspaper, and make use of the railroad to exchange the products of their own industry for a share in the products of the world's industry. These implements of human invention are devised for the sake of the general welfare and to promote democracy. The modern trend of human history since the discovery of America has been slowly moving toward this result. The New World gave a great field for adventure and the development of individuality. Adventure in new lands and on untried seas has been paralleled and accompanied by adventures in the world of thought and theory. In fact, the revival of learning, so called, preceded the epoch of discoveries, and this epoch then followed as a result. The revival of learning and the epoch of discovery ushered in the epoch of natural science, which has made possible the epoch of useful inventions. The epoch of discoveries, too, led to the founding of colonies by the TWENTY YEARS PROGRESS m EDUCATIOJST. 57 most hardy and headstrong among the citizens of western Europe. The accidents of birth and wealth do not bear transportation on ships that sail to new countries. Only the aristocracy of intellect and will-power goes for anything in the settlement of a border land. Hence, with the settle- ment of America, every step has been toward democracy and local self- government, and toward the escape from the trammels of caste founded on birth and wealth. So great has been the influence of America upon Europe by way of reaction, that all the countries which have furnished immigrants for the New World have been drawn toward democracy so far as to have constitu- tional limitations adopted in their forms of goyernment. This has been noteworthy in Northern Europe, less so in Southern Europe. The progress grows more rapid as the Christian spirit which leavens our civilization sends forward, one after the other, its legions into the field. For great inventions, as well as great moral reforms, proceed from Chris- tianity. The discovery of Watt in the last century gave us the steam engine. Fitch and Fulton soon applied it to the movement of boats ; George Stephenson, to railroads. In 1830 there were locomotives running between Manchester and Liverpool. But even as late as 1840 there was only a force of two millions of horse power derived from steam in the whole world. This doubled by 1850, and again doubled by 1860, and still again by 1870. Since 1870 the aggregate steam power of the world has increased from eighteen millions of horse power to sixty millions. About one-third of all the steam power in the world is in the United States — some twenty millions of horse power. Of this vast force which toils for us, two-thirds is in the form of loco- motives, which connect the hack country with its cities, and its cities with each other. Over twelve millions of horse power mounted on wheels in the form of locomotives is now in process of making all the people who live in the country sharers in city civilization. The people in cities have the advantage of the world market and of the world's discoveries in science, art, literature, and history. The city offers to each of its inhab- itants the inestimable blessings of society with the wise and good. Now, it is steam power which has, so to speak, moved the back country into the city, to the extent of twelve millions of horse power. What the country can produce of agricultural products and mining is made of much greater value by cheap transportation. Then, in turn, the products of manufactures and the articles that come from around the world are made cheaper to the farmer and the miner by the same process of cheap freights on the railroad. In 1860 the cost of freight on railroads was three and four cents a mile for each ton ; now it is less than one cent per mile. We have stationarv steam engines, to the amount of six millions of horse power, manufacturing goods for us. 58 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. According to Engel, the great German statistician, there were indus- tries to the amount of thirty-two billions of dollars that depended on steam for their motive power, and at this time there are upward of fifty billions of dollars invested in industries for which the steam engine gives the force and the laborer furnishes only the guiding power. Looking at the nations of the world, we can see which are producing the wealth and which are democratically lifting up their population into a share of the world product of industry, by the statistics of their steam power. For each thousand inhabitants the United States has a steam power of three hundred horses. Great Britain is the only nation which equals us in the amount of steam power per inhabitant. Germany has a little more than half as much, France less than half, and Russia only one-eighth as much, according to population. I dwell on this lesson of the steam engine because it is this which is making us a wealthy nation. In 1800 I find that the total product of each man, woman, and child in the United States did not amount to ten cents a day. In 1850 it had increased to twenty-five cents. In 1880 it amounted to forty cents. It now comes to nearly, or quite, fifty cents per day. The new census gives us data to prove that the total increase of wealth in the last decade, 1880-90, was twenty billions, or an average of two billions a year. The increased use of the steam engine has made this accumulation possible. The increase, to some extent, is due to the increase of the value of land near cities, and to new farming lands brought under cultivation. But far more of it comes from buildings and improve- ments which have been made by labor aided by steam. The use of machinery in productive industry causes a transfer of labor- ers from agriculture to manufactures and commerce. We need fewer persons to obtain for us the raw materials of food, clothing, and shelter. More persons can be spared for the elaboration of the material. Fewer persons are required to produce the bare necessities of life, and more are set to work on articles of luxury and human comfort. More and more persons are employed, too, for the care of the spiritual wants, of protec- tion and culture. In a savage state, only one in a hundred can be spared for the produc- tion of articles of luxury and ornament, and for protection and culture. In the old civilization, before the invention of the steam engine, only one in twenty could be spared for such work. Now we can spare one in ten of the population, and we are soon coming to the time when we can set one in five to work at the production and distribution of newspapers and books, at the use of the telegraph and telephone, the work of teaching and preaching and lecturing, and the work of the professions of law and medi- cine, which protect life and property. The vocations of man that have for their object the production of com- TWENTY TEARS' PROGRESS IN EDUCATION 59 fort and ornament, and the care for man's spiritual welfare, are bound to grow from more to more with the increased application of machinery to productive industry. In the statistics of incomes for 1888 my attention has been attracted to the increase of comfortable, well-to-do families in those countries where the steam engine is much used, and where the laborers are educated into artistic skill. Thirty out of every hundred families in G-reat Britain are receiving $1,000 and upwards a year. Think of the comforts that can be purchased in London for $1,000 ! France, thanks to its instruction of its people in forms of art, manufac- tures works of taste and ornament for the world, and twenty-four per cent, of its families are receiving $1,400 and upwards a year. In England, the seventy per cent, of the population remaining receive on an average $500 per family, and this means greater luxury than the average nobleman enjoyed three hundred years ago. But in Italy, with only one-tenth as many steam engines per thousand inhabitants as Great Britain, there are only one-tenth as many families in the hundred that receive $1,000 a year. Ninety-seven per cent, of its families get on an average only $300 a year. It is important to notice that the machinery of productive industry demands eclucated intelligence to supervise and guide its direction. This has been one of the causes why the nations of Europe have, one after the other, felt the need of adopting national systems of education. Especially those like England, France, and Germany have seen that to hold the markets of the world it is necessary to develop the intelligence of the laboring classes by means of schools. A still deeper lesson was learned by the results of the two wars which Prussia carried on — the first one with Austria, and the second with France. Both of the conquered countries at once set about reforming their school systems. Austria has doubled its ratio of school attendance since the battle of Sadowa, and now has thirteen per cent, of the population in school. France has increased its school attendance to fifteen per cent, of its population from the nine per cent, which it had in 1804. Meanwhile, the number of illiterate men and women in France has decreased from fifty- eight to eighteen in the hundred. A great French statesman said that it was the German universities that conquered at Sedan. The alarm at the military success of Prussia aided the Englisli reform- ers in carrying through Parliament the radical measures of 1870. Large sums of money were given to encourage private schools and the school systems of towns. The schools thus aided were teaching at first about eight per cent, of the population. On the wave of this reform the friends of education succeeded last August in making the schools free to all chil- dren of the compulsory age. France had done this ten years before. The effect of the English effort has been toijncrease the school enrollment from eight per cent, to sixteen per cent, of the population. 60 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. The other countries, Italy and Spain, have increased their school attendance to over ten per cent, of their respective populations, or to double the number enrolled in 1860, and have thereby decreased the amount of illiteracy. Turning to our own country, one striking item of progress is that of the rapid increase of property used for school purposes. In 1870 the prop- erty for the common schools in the aggregate amounted to one hundred and thirty millions of dollars. In the twenty-two years this has increased to three hundred and fifty millions of dollars, or almost exactly ten mil- lions a year on an average. It is interesting to note that up to 1888 the London school board had expended forty-two millions for school buildings. More remarkable than this is the increase of school attendance in the Southern States. In 1870 the south Atlantic division of States, comprising all from Delaware to Florida, enrolled in school only six per cent, of the entire population. In 1891 the enrollment is twenty per cent., or one in five of the population. The south central States, including Missouri, Kentucky, and West Virginia, and the States south of them, enrolled in school only seven and one-lialf per cent, in 1870, and more than twenty per cent, in 1891. To understand at their true value the efforts of the South to make their schools what they should be, we ought to remember that the wealth which numerous large cities give makes it easy in the North to raise money for the support of schools without making a great burden for the tax-payers. In the South the taxes are large, but do not yield the requisite amount to support the schools for more than one hundred days in the south A.tlantic division, nor for more than ninety days in the south central. This, of course, is in process of correction, as the present villages grow into cities and the States grow wealthy. The average length of school year in the north Atlantic division (full of cities) is one hundred and sixty-four days ; that of the north central division is one hundred and thirty-four days. The largest enrollment of children in the schools is in the north central division, amounting to nearly twenty- three per cent, of the population. That of north Atlantic and the Pacific coast and mountain region falls below the south in propor- tion enrolled in school. This is explained by the fact that children do not constitute so large a proportion of the population in those sections as in the other parts of the nation. As a whole, the United States appears as enrolling in school quite twenty per cent, of its entire population. This is a better showing than that of any other nation, except Saxony. But many other nations of Europe have a much longer annual school session than we have. Here is tiie place to show improvement in future years. To sum up the results of our outlook, we see the nations of Europe first AMERICANISM IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 61 making education of all their people compulsory, and next, after some years, but as a logical consequence, making education free. We see that there are reasons of self-preservation, both industrial and military, which lead to this. In our country tlie political reason was per- haps the first, as it is now the leading motive. We are to govern ourselves, and each of us is to help govern the rest. It is obvious that the better educated each citizen is, the better governed we all shall be. The introduction of instruction in manual training has become a large feature in recent years, and will grow a larger feature in proportion as cities are called upon to grapple with the population of their slums. Higher education is becoming more practical in that it studies the problems of the people, and endeavors to solve them in the laboratory. University extension has a great role yet to perform to connect itself with the public libraries growing up everywhere in the cities, and to form classes of serious-minded men and women throughout the community who are anxious to continue their studies for the sake of culture or for special preparation in arts. In these lines of progress we see the development of the missionary spirit of Christianity, which goes out into the highways and by-ways and seeks out the maimed, the halt, and the spiritually blind, and brings them into the house of the Father. AMERICANISM IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. BY FRAKCIS BELLAMY, OF THE ^' YOUTH'S COMPANION. We are in the midst of a revival of Americanism. All signs point to the fact that Americans are giving a fresh attention to America. The gathering impulse to foster American trade ; the awakening to the need of a navy large enough to fit the nation ; the turning of scholarship to a scientific study of American institutions, political and social ; the new popularity of American topics in our magazine literature; and, not the least, the schoolhouse flag movement, which is giving to our public schools a national sense — these things are indications of a rising tide of American feeling. Tliis growing sentiment is to be hailed with delight. There has been need of such a revival. For after the war there came a natural reaction. Material developments absorbed attention, and our people had little mind for national ardors. Besides, we had a growing comparative sense of our place among nations ; and this undoubtedly made us a trifle apprehensive lest our old-time emphasis of the Americq,ji idea might seem like provin- cialism. 62 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. But to-day witnesses a palpable change of attitude regarding the senti- ment of country. Americanism is the word which covers this new spirit of national culture ; this new consciousness America is beginning to have of her own true value and destiny, and which marks a new epoch in our history. This nev7 Americanism brings a duty. It must be deepened and made solid. It must be made a force strong enough to touch the immigrant population which is pouring over our country. Furthermore, Americanism must be defined. A clear discrimination needs to be made between true Americanism and that which is inferior ; between the Americanism which cares for the highest destiny of the Republic, and that which goes no further thau markets for special indus- tries and prerogatives on the seas. In a generation so lacking in idealism as ours, amid a people so given to scornful materialism, it is not strange that the tone of patriotism has not been high. We have produced captains of industry in plenty, but large-brained statesmen only a few. It is not enough in our day, while the spoils and the barrel are still regnant in politics, to arouse a sentiment for country : that sentiment must be informed with a clear sense of what the United States really stands for. How shall Americanism be defined ? Do we not all agree that the only Americanism we care to cultivate is, devotion to the highest interests of America ? Then, Americanism is not national self-conceit ; that belongs to a pro- vincial period, and exists only to be outgrown. Nor is it national bump- tiousness ; that quality of quarrelsomeness, of hot sensitiveness, of schem- ing aggressiveness, is a survival of barbarism, and America lifts up her great tranquillity among the nations as sign of a better way. Nor, again, is Americanism national selfishness ; granting all that is required for self- protection, our country has too broad a horizon, too large possibilities in the future, for Americanism to be simply synonymous with the care of American trade. America has climbed beyond the point where these qualities seem noble, and stands as a protest against them among the peoples of the earth. The true Americanism is more than exultation over square miles and multitudes ; it is a joyous sense that America must be another name for opportunity — opportunity for the realization of justice; opportunity for the free use of all native powers ; opportunity for the rounded develop- ment of every individual. True Americanism is more than pride in our achievements and in our institutions : it is a conviction that the rights we have asserted involve duties we must render — the duty of each citizen to think for himself, to be independent of inferior party leaders, and to be thoroughly acquainted with both sides of the political issues of the day ; the duty of every good citizen to attend the primary and not to miss the AMERICANISM IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 63 polls ; the duty of a personal care that American self-goyernment is not a farce, but a truth. And true Americanism, also, is more than solicitude for American wheat and iron and hogs ; it is more than the fostering of American wealth, more than the feeding and clothing of American bodies ; the true Americanism is the putting steadily the thing that is fair, the thing that is just, into legislation. Our politics are not hindered by the antique conventionalisms of Europe. There is no reason why we cannot start out and legislate the simple right. America is geared for this. Our free institutions themselves are but a means to a superior end — the end that the right thing may be done in the easiest way. And it is the special glory of America, that, in spite of shameless leaders and of corrupt party machines, the heart of the people, in the long run, is true to right- doing. The ideal Americanism, then, not only sees in the Republic the attorney for every citizen, but also the mighty friend of all nations ; not narrow, grasping, selfish, like the old powers, but the generous bene- factor, the moral guide, the strong example for the world. It is in the power of the public school to make this ideal American- ism the practical politics of the approaching century. President Harri- son said the other day, " When I was a boy, the schools thought if they taught the three E^s, as we called it out West, they had done their duty ; they never thought of training boys for the duties of citizenship." If the schools had been mindful of this kind of training, the few real statesmen of our day would not be so lonely. The demand upon the public school to-day is the systematic training of citizens. Talk about patriotism in the schools is not enough. The time has come when the highest ideals of American citizenship should be made a part of the curriculum, in the high school of course, and in the gram- mar school and the little schoolhouse on the country road as well. Instruction in civics — the story of our political struggles as a nation ; the way our town or city, the state, the nation, is governed ; the explana- tion of the principles at the bottom of our institutions ; and, above every- thing, the moral duties of citizenship ; all this should be taught from the primary grade to the end. It should be taught picturesquely, and with enthusiasm. The normal schools and institutes should begin to train teachers specifically and carefully for the luminous teaching of civics. These efforts should be supported by object lessons which appeal to the imagination and stir the enthusiasm. In this need of an appeal to senti- ment is the importance of the school flag movement. There are those who depreciate the use of tlie flag ; call it a fetich, and claim that our generation has risen beyond the need of any symbol of textile fabric. It was well these ideas were not advanced in 1S64 ; men were dying for a textile fabric then. The time is far distant when our race will have out- grown the need of visible symbols. The flag over the school-yard makes 64 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. the nation a real thing to the very ones who are most in want of that les- son. The daily ceremony of raising and saluting it is a perpetual educa- tion. Eecent testimony from teachers shows that in many schools an increased interest in American history has been manifested since the advent of the flag. Perhaps the most striking feature of this testimony is the frequent statement of the salutary influence on children of foreign parentage ; to them it is a daily object lesson in patriotism for the land of their adoption. Visit the New York City schools, where Col. Balch of the New York Board of Education has introduced his system of patri- otic instruction. These schools are made up from the very poor and from foreign families. The children of Italy, and G-ermany, and Portu- gal, and Ireland are all there. But the enthusiasm with which the sing- ing of ^^ Watch on the Rhine," and the other European national airs, is followed by " The Red, White, and Blue,'' and '^ America," and the stars and stripes are given a series of thrilling salutes, would be evidence enough that the flag has as great a potency to Americanize the alien child as it has to lead regiments to death. One of the most significant events in this school flag movement occurred last Christmas in Salt Lake City. An Eastern journal made a gift of some twenty-five flags to the schools of that city, which a few years ago half-masted the United States flag on the Fourth of July. The Mormons dared not refuse to rent their great tabernacle for the exercises, where nearly ten thousand people gathered. That stronghold of disloy- alty echoed with patriotism for the first time in the history of Utah, as the most distinguished Gentile citizens made addresses, and the great organ led the singing of the '' Star-Spangled Banner " and " My Country." The fabric means something still. It is more than the symbol of the grandest republic on earth. It is an education which in these days of individualism and special religious and secular interests is tremendously needful to remind our citizens of common obligations in a common coun- try. While, with the children who are to be taught the duties of citizen- ship, its flashing appeal to their sentiment is the spur which the study of Americanism needs. Another movement of vast importance to an intelligent appreciation of America in the schools is the national public school celebration of Colum- bus Day. In response to the suggestion to set apart this four hundredth anniver- sary of America for a public school celebration, thousands of letters were received from teachers warmly approving the plan. At the Brooklyn meeting of the Department of Superintendence of this Association, the project was given final indorsement, commended to the public schools of America, and committed to executive officers, who were especially in- structed to prepare a uniform program for use in every school in Amer- AMERICANISM IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 65 ica. The idea has met with wide popular response. Nearly all the State Superintendents have taken measures to make the schools of their States the centers of the local celebrations of Discovery Day. Several governors have already made proclamations for the school observance of the Day. The Grand Army of the Republic is taking a warm interest in the Cele- bration, and General Orders have been issued for the Posts to encourage the schools to assume the leadership of the local Celebrations, and on October 21 to send a detail of Veterans to assist the pupils in raising and saluting the flag, and in the afternoon Parades to act as an escort of honor to the schools. In addition to this, Congress has recognized the movement by passing a bill authorizing the President to recommend to the people the observance of the day by suitable exercises in the schools. The press from the start has shown marked friendliness to the idea, and the support of thousands of newspapers has gone far to bring to pass its present accept- ance. By the 1st of September the Official Programme, uniform for all locali- ties, is promised for publication. It is to provide for a morning Celebra- tion, on October 21, in every schoolhouse in the Republic, and in the afternoon for a Public School Review, and a mass meeting of citizens in which the school idea shall still be the dominant feature. This national observance of America's four hundredth anniversary pre- sents a great opportunity to the schools. One object of the Celebration is to give fitting prominence to the free school as the most characteristic product of the four centuries of American life. Another object is to emphasize to our people and to the world the fact, that upon universal education is based the foundation of the greatness of this Republic. Still another aim is to impress upon our thirteen millions of common school pupils something of the real meaning of America. They will be made to grasp the forces that went to form this Western civilization ; they can be made to see its destiny, and to understand its dangers. Moreover, these millions of school-children, united on that day in concert of action, will be made conscious of their coming power as the citizens of the new century. It will be their first lesson in citizenship. This national demonstration is to be urged as one more means to stimu- late a pure Americanism in the public schools. Wherever it is followed by increased training in civic matters by earnest teachers, the ardor of the Celebration is not likely to be a spasm, but a persevering impulse toward intelligent patriotism. Among other methods which may be used in the schools as a persisting inspiration for Americanism, probably one of the most effectual, is the school lyceum. The old-fashioned village lyceum was an institution which made young men familiar with the issues of the time, and trained a race of statesmen. There has already begun an extensive revival of the debat- ing society. A league of lyceums, or^nized to teach young men the 5 66 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION duties of good citizenship, is now stretching throughout the United States. It is one of the many excellent patriotic organizations in which the pres- ent time is prolific. The debating club, however, has special advantages which fit it for school work. It is first of all a natural thing. Young men like to debate. The matching of logistic skill is always a popular thing, and school-fellows like to meet in evening aiTay, where each is on his nerve and nothing is tame. Moreover, the debating club is a place where the schoolmaster can meet his pupils on equal terms — a man-to- man mingling, most salutary for class-room interest. For training pupils in Americanism the school lyceum is almost a necessity. Here the ab- stractions of civics become living questions. Here young men may learn the first duty of an American — to think for themselves, instead of always submitting to the views of text-book and teacher. In this arena where national problems, and especially the local issues of the town or city, can be fairly discussed, our boys will become conscious of the responsibilities which bear upon the true American. The school lyceum, as an annex to the political instruction of the class-room, is the schoolmaster's opportu- nity for the promotion of intelligent patriotism. I have named these three things — the schoolhouse flag with its cere- monies and its culture ; the National Public School Celebration of Colum- bus Day, in which the schools shall take the responsibility of leadership in the local demonstrations on October 21, throughout America ; and the school debating club, where the patriotic impulses already aroused may be focused and developed. I have named these only as certain very practi- cable devices for stimulating and supporting the pupils' interest in the American instruction, which ought to be perseveringly given by every teacher in the land. The teacher is patriotic ; but civil government and political economy have been dry-as-dust studies, and he wants to know how they can be illuminated. These subjects can be made very centres of light by the wise use of some such outside methods as these which touch the sentiment and fill the imagination. The schoolmaster holds the future of American politics. With the general increase of interest in Americanism all around him, with the pres- ent responsiveness of our youth to patriotic projects, the school-teacher is responsible for the organizing of this unorganized impulse into a system which shall develop a new race of Americans. We shall always have parties to look after our political issues ; we shall have politicians to look after the parties ; we need somebody to look after the politicians. The public school of America is the only organization wide enough, and trusted enough, to render that service. The State fos- ters the school ; it is the schooFs business, in return, to make for the State a substantial bottom of citizenship, to supply it with leaders who will lead worthily and intelligently, and with statesmen who will dare. If our educational system shall rightly address itself to its present UNDERGRADUATE AND POST-GRADUATE CURRICULA. 67 chance and duty, the approaching twentieth century will regard the pub- lic school training as a high civic qualification, and will distinguish the teacher as one of the responsible officers of the State. All the centuries have celebrated the patriot soldier and the patriot statesman ; the twen- tieth century must be made, above all, the age of the patriot school- master. RELATION OF UNDERGRADUATE TO POST-GRADUATE CURRICULA. BY WILLIAM PEPPER, M.D., LL.D., UNIVERSITY OF PEKKSYLVANIA. In" replying to the question of your President as to the subject of my remarks to you this evening, I fear that I selected the particular question of the " relations between undergraduate and post-graduate curricula," rather because it interests me so deeply at the present time than because I have anything new or important to submit to you upon the topic. But, in reality, we seem to have reached a point in the development of our col- lege and university work at which this problem forces itself upon us more urgently than ever before. As is tlie case with many others of our great educational questions, the data for the solution of this one are probably not yet adequately at hand. It is altogether likely that various solutions may be found, or, at least, that for some years to come interesting experi- ments will be conducted along various lines. The mere fact that wide- spread attention is being given from an university standpoint to the courses of study in our professional schools marks a distinct and important advance in our educational position. I presume that the immense changes which have been made in the cur- riculum of our American colleges during the past twenty years have been almost wholly without reference to post-graduate or professional courses properly so called. These changes have for the most part consisted in the marked increase in the requirements demanded for admission to college, in the introduc- tion of considerable numbers of new branches to the lists of subjects taught in the four undergraduate years, and in the adoption of more thorough and exacting methods of instruction in each branch. There has been, as a necessary consequence, a marked increase in the ratio of the teaching force to the number of students taught, and in the amount ex- pended by the college for each degree earned in course. The average age at entrance to college has advanced two full years in the last quarter of a century. The opportunities for high attainment and the incentives thereto have been multiplied, and with this greater maturity on the part of the 68 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION students there has come au elevation of the grade of scholarship, and an improvement in the tone and dignity of nndergradiiate college life. The development of the free elective and of the group elective systems would have been inevitable as a result of the overcrowding of the roster. But other causes have contributed to produce the result. The gratifying advance in the status of the teaching profession has been closely connected with the reduction in the number of hours required per week from each in- structor ; and with the advance in professorial salaries attainable as the result of the greater wealth of colleges and of increasing competition for success- ful teachers. So long as the average college professor was overworked and underpaid to the extent that prevailed a score of years ago, his influence was necessarily restricted . It speaks eloquently for the force and devotion of our elder teachers that in spite of such grave disadvantages they raised so high the standard of their calling, and impressed so deeply upon their students and associates the lessons of their self-consecrated lives. But with the re- turn of a measure of leisure, and with the enjoyment of more liberal facili- ties for study and investigation, the college professor has become a vigorous and progressive student and a frequent and successful author. His re- lations to society, to his students, and to his special subject have under- gone great changes. His methods of instruction have felt the inspiration of the freer and fresher intellectual life enjoyed by himself. His students get more out of him, and in turn he gets more out of them. In every live college in America to-day it is safe to assert that each hour in the roster stands for a greater reality and thoroughness of intellectual work on the part of teacher and student than has ever before been secured here. With such a state of affairs, new subjects clamoring for admission to the curriculum, each subject claiming more hours and more earnest applica- tion, more force of instructors and wealth of illustration, the introduc- tion of some privilege of election between studies became inevitable. At the same time, no less inevitably there appeared the desire on the part of the more progressive teachers and of the more earnest students for an extension of study beyond the possible limits of the undergraduate course. We have thus seen within a few years the raj^id development of post-graduate studies as a feature of our American college system, a feature whose importance was certainly not recognized at first, and whose relations with undergraduate work are still far from being clearly defined. In most institutions there was little or no endowment available for the snj^port of such advanced work. It encroached upon the time of the ablest teachers, who alone could conduct it. The fees of the few students who sought it formed no adequate compensation. It is not strange that at first it met with no warm encouragement, and that the attempt was made to crowd the advanced work back into the already overcrowded undergraduate cur- riculum. Up to this very recent stage the nearest approach to a fully developed I UNDERGRADUATE AND POST-GRADUATE CURRICULA. 69 university that was made by even the most highly organized among our col- leges was in the co-existence of a vigorous undergraduate department with one or more professional schools which owed their privileges to the same charter and were nominally under tlie control of the same board of trustees, but which in reality had no more to do with the college than if they had been wholly independent institutions. The trouble was aggravated by tlie fact that such professional schools were nearly if not quite always managed in the interest of the faculty. In many cases it was known that the profits were out of all proportion to the duties performed by the pro- fessors, and it was more than suspected that the standard of education was deliberately kept down to favor a larger attendance of students. It is not strange that popular enthusiasm and benevolence did not go out towards that aspect of university work. Nor is it strange that when the college department of such an institution enriched its curriculum, elevated its standard at entrance and all along the line, and later projected a post- graduate department under a so-called faculty of philosophy, but little concern should have been felt for the effect such changes might have upon its relations with its own semi-detached medical or law school. Yet, as a matter of fact, during these same eventful twenty years the tender consciences of medical and law faculties were beginning to prick uneasily at the flagrant disparity between their standards and those of other countries. A few of the stronger schools bravely incurred the risk of prolonging the course of study, exacting examinations at entrance and at the close of each term, and increasing the number of subjects taught. The wild race for cheap and easy diplomdfs went on, and these schools suffered seriously for several years. Their classes were greatly reduced ; their faculties did double labor for half pay. But, with few exceptions, they did not falter, and the tide soon turned. The graduates under the improved educational methods immediately demonstrated their superiority, and carried off all the prizes available. Now, as ever, one may safely assume that the American public will choose, and will cheerfully pay for, the best product, so soon as convinced of its superior excellence. In a few years the success of the higher grade schools of medicine and of law became greater than it had ever been with lower standards. A strong revulsion of feeling occurred in favor of thorough, honest, and adequate professional training, and it was not long before those who had doubted the possibility of exacting three years of six months' study began to plan for four years of eight or nine months each. Let us consider briefly what this implies in the case of medical study. I speak of this more fully, because it happens at present to be of the more immediate and urgent importance. Twenty-five years ago an American medical education meant the attendance upon two sessions of five or six months' duration, the instruction consisting of seven courses of didactic lectures, which were repeated annually, and a limited number of medical 70 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. and surgical clinics. The faculty comprised from four to seven professors, all engaged in the practice of their profession, and expecting to receive the larger share of their remuneration from the wide-spread advertisement of their prominent position, and from their cordial relations with their graduates, who, indeed, may well have reciprocated the indulgent favors shown them at their final examinations. The only equipment necessary was a building with one room big enough to hold the swelling classes ; if possible, it should be conveniently accessible to a hospital. Laboratories there were none, excepting the dissecting-room. The apparatus was most meager, and a library would have been regarded as a needless luxury. It will give some idea of the strenuous efforts that have been made to equip this one branch of professional education when I state that when the University of Pennsylvania inaugurates an obligatory four-year course of medical study, in 1803, there will have been expended for the requisite buildings (including the Medical Hall, the Hospital, the Chemical Lab- oratory, the Laboratory of Hygiene, the Wistar Listitute of Anatomy, and the Laboratory of Biology) over $850,000, without counting the value of ground and equipment, which could not be estimated at less than $250,000; that the annual cost of maintenance, without including a single professo- rial salary, will amount to $115,000 ; and that the staff of instructors will number between eighty-five and ninety. It is evident that this means a serious stroke of work, and that the schools which will stand together on this advanced plane count confidently upon the support of the most intel- ligent and highly educated portion of the community. It is evident they must begin to compete vigorously for endowment, and that they will apply to the generous public for funds to endow professorships and fellowships, and to maintain costly laboratories (for we should spend several times as much in running a laboratory as will go to the teachers connected with it), with no less weighty reason than now supports the appeals for our colleges. Within a year there will be half a dozen great schools offering facilities in medical education, almost, if not quite, equal to those obtainable abroad. This four-year obligatory course will be carefully graded : the first two years will be devoted to the fundamental branches ; the latter two years, and especially the last year, should be so largely clinical in character as to be equivalent to a term as interne in a hospital. The principle of election will be introduced in the last year ; a certain number of hours will be laid down, and then a certain number of additional hours must be made by choosing out of a list of special subjects offered as electives. In- ducements of the most weighty nature will be offered to lead students who have the means, and particularly those who would fit themselves as teachers or investigators, to remain over a fifth year, and to devote this added time to work in the fully equipped laboratories, the hospital wards, and the extensive libraries. As may be gathered from the above statement, it has been found pos- I UNDERGRADUATE AND POST-GRADUATE CURRICULA. 71 sible everywhere to interest the generous public in the endowment of pro- fessional schools just so soon as it is made clear that the school is conducted in behalf of science and the community and not of the members of its faculty. It must, not be supposed that I would imply that medical pro- fessors were sinners beyond all the rest that dwelt in college land in these days. Human nature is wonderfully uniform. They did but what we all should do under similar conditions. There was absolutely no restraining authority on the part of the State or of boards of trustees. There was an immense continent being opened up and sparsely settled ; the demand for medical men was unprecedented ; neither time nor facilities could be had for turning out the needed thousands with thorough training; half-baked loaves were gladly taken by those who otherwise must have fed on patent pills. The case was just as bad with the supply of teachers. What proportion of that great army had even the rudiments of the science of education ? It remains true, that until each State of the Union shall enact some wholesome legislation to protect the lives of its citizens from the malpractice of incompetent doctors, and the minds of its children from the malpractice of incompetent teachers, there will be abundant supplies of these commodities. It is easy to argue that we may not hope to supply every $500 place with a man with a $5,000 equipment. But in fact it is precisely in those small and inaccessible places, where the incumbent is thrown upon his own resources, and where the counsel of colleagues and the opportunities for self-improvement are hard to obtain, that we need the services of men who have had thorough and practical education. It cannot be expected that as students they will all have been able to pay their own way through a long and costly course in college and in pro- fessional school. The time has come when the public and the State must hear and heed the demand for the endowment of the higher educa- tion, and especially for the establishment of great numbers of fellowships in schools of medicine, schools of pedagogy, schools of law, so that earnest students may complete their preparation for their life-work. In the last report of the Bureau of Education (Washington, 1891) the statistics for the year 1888-89 show that in 354 colleges and universities, with 86,996 students, there were but 111 fellowships endowed, 581 scholar- ships established by the State, and 4,588 scholarships established by private funds. In 32 schools of science endowed by the National Land Grant, with 9,621 students, there were 9 fellowships ; 2,976 scholarships estab- lished by the State, and 207 scholarships established by private funds. In the remaining 32 schools of science not endowed by the National Land Grant, with 7,716 students, there were 20 fellowships, 50 State scholar- ships, and 93 scholarships endowed from private sources. In these three great classes of institutions for higher education, with grounds and build- ings then estimated at $64,898,319, and productive funds reported at $76,487,973, and total annual income from investments, from State or 72 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. municipal aid, or from tuition fees, of $10,170,485, and with benefactions for that year of $4,839,851, the number of endowed fellowships available for post-graduate students would seem to have been only 140, although the total number of resident graduates is reported as 1,358. On turning to professional schools, we find in 141 schools of theology, with 6,989 students, that the number who had received a degree in letters or in science was 1,453 (20.8^), and the number of endowed scholarships was 584. The total income was $959,654, and the benefactions for that year had been $630,402. In 52 schools of law, with 3,906 students, the number who had received a degree in letters or science was 829 (21.2^), and the number of en- dowed scholarships was 26. The total income was only $55,589, of which $46,164 was from fees of students, and no benefactions were reported. It is needless to comment upon the low state of equipment and endow- ment revealed by these figures. In 115 schools of medicine, including 92 regular, 9 eclectic, and 14 homeopathic, with 14,066 students, the number who had received a degree in letters or science was 1,378 (or 9.8^), and the number of scholarships was 219. The value of buildings and grounds is reported at $3,356,618; the amount of productive funds, $248,000; the total income, $486,990, of which $390,361 was from fees ; the benefactions for the year had been $104,343. During the years 1888 and 1889 there were 12,898 degrees in course conferred, of which only 121 were Ph.D. In 129 public normal schools, with 20,622 students of the science and art of teaching, and in 42 private normal schools, with 4,487 students, it does not appear that there were any endowed scholarships or fellowships. I come now to what seems a point of extreme importance. It will be readily inferred from the above figures that, in spite of the magnificent promise of the last few years — a promise which surely will be more than kept — there is no practically conceivable amount of benefactions which will enable the bulk of these students to accomplish the desirable purpose of securing a baccalaureate degree before entering on their professional studies so long as the completion of their college course occupies them until the close of their twenty-second year. John Fiske, in his ^* Outlines of Cosmic Philosophy,^' has some fine passages on the influence of the length- ening of the time of caring for children, upon the development of the family, and of the lengthening of the period of youthful mental plasticity upon the ability of a new generation to improve upon the ideas and cus- toms of its predecessors. But this process must be a very slow one ; and the honest merchant or farmer who would fain give his ambitious child the best equipment for his profession will draw from it small comfort in his efforts to support that child up to the age of twenty-five or twenty-six years. Although I have spoken of the medical ])rofession chiefly, it must be remembered that the preparation needed for the highest success, or I UNDERGRADUATE AND POST-GRADUATE CURRICULA. 73 even for good work, in very many callings is now so extensive and minute as to constitute a veritable professional education. This is so, of coarse, in the case of theology and of law. Is it not practically the same as regards pedagogy, journalism, chemistry, engineering, architecture, literature ? It is assuredly the case that to-day all who aspire to be well equipped for any of these avocations desire, and, were it attainable, would insist upon a post-graduate course in the branches specially related to the profession of their choice. Of course, great numbers of the seven thousand gradu- ates * who received their degrees in letters or science last month will enter at once upon work in some of the professions which are not yet protected by the requirement of a special additional course of instruction. Many others will be forced to satisfy themselves in their choice of a professional school with those whose diplomas can be most readily won in the shortest time. Many of us can attest this from our personal experience, but the fact is confirmed by the small percentage of the students of medicine, law, and theology who, as already shown, have received i:>revious degrees in letters or in science. No one questions the importance of previous academic training to every student of these professions. The higher the standard of the pro- fessional school is raised, the more evident does the need of a higher entrance examination become. We would gladly insist upon the degree of B.A. or B.S. as a prerequisite for admission. But in practice the significant fact has been observed — and especially in medical schools, where the recent advances in standard have been more marked than in other professional schools — that as the course has been lengthened, and the curriculum rendered more rich and difficult, the proportion of students holding degrees in letters or in science has tended to decline. It cannot be doubted that if the four-year obligatory course of medical study which will speedily be enforced at the leading schools of the country were to be associated with the requirement of a baccalaureate degree for admission, there would not be a single institution that could stand the strain with their existing inadequate endowment. Whatever entrance examination may be enacted will presumably be dealt with in most cases as a matter for cramming, rather tlian be met, as it should be, by the presentation of a suitable degree or certificate won in a properly adjusted course of under- graduate study. Very much the same thing exists in regard to the law schools, where, however, the case is further complicated by the fact that the routine of the lawyer's office and the bar examination offers in most States an additional avenue of entrance into the legal profession. The truth is, as indicated above, that all the changes and advances and pro- longations of tlie undergraduate curriculum have been without reference to the effect upon these great branches of post-graduate study. * There were 6,475 degrees in letters, science, and phif^ophy conferred by American colleges in 74: THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, But the difficulty which has been for some years conspicuous as regards these branches is coming to be felt keenly as regards others, such as peda- gogy, architecture, engineering, the science of administration and finance, and the like. The recognition of an actual need called into existence schools of science, and their unprecedented success has forced the colleges to reconsider their curriculum. As the requirements for the profession of chemist, of architect, of engineer, have been successively advanced, it has become clear that a typical education for any student intending to pursue one of these professions would be, just as in the case of medicine or of law or of theology, a good college course followed by two or three years in a post-graduate professional school. It is not necessary to consider the question here as to the propriety of a single baccalaureate degree B. A., or of several, such as B.S. and Ph.B. in addition. The decision has come to hinge almost upon the single item of Greek. Most people now belieye that the discij^linary value of courses in science with a fair proportion of letters, is equivalent to that of courses in letters with a fair proportion of science. Nor can it be doubted, I think, that each of the branches above mentioned demands expansion into a highly equipped post-graduate pro- fessional school. Nay, more ; I think it will soon be conceded that each of these schools — medicine, law, theology, pedagogy, architecture, art, social and political science, literature — embraces more than one subject which should be recognized in the strictly university course leading to the doctorate of philosophy. * When scientific courses were first opened in colleges, in competition with the preexisting literary courses, the grade was so much lower that they attracted not only the students who intended a serious preparation for their profession, but many others who chose them only on account of their easiness. As the standard of scientific education has been steadily advanced, literary studies are being more and more crowded out from these scientific courses, and we are witnessing the development of professional schools of technology as integral parts of the undergraduate departments of our universities. Within a few days I have listened to the earnest appeal of Professor Shaler, Dean of the Lawrence Scientific School at Harvard, for a larger recognition and development of these professional scientific courses in the college department of that university. At the University of Penn- sylvania we tried for fifteen years to conduct the courses in the Towne Scientific School from a university — or rather from a non-technological — standpoint ; but it has been found impossible to evade the difficulties and defects of that position, and now they are fully equipped and conducted as true technological courses. Each technical course covers four years and leads to the degree of B.S. in architecture, chemistry, civil engineer- ing, mechanical engineering, and electrical engineering, respectively. * For instance, at Johns Hopkins pathology, and at the University of Pennsylvania hygiene, have been so recognized. UNDEROnADUATE AND POST-GRADUATE CURRICULA. 75 Graduates of these courses who have shown marked progress in their pro- fession and have submitted a satisfactory thesis may receive the degree of master of science^ together with the professional degree appropriate to the course pursued. At the same time, a scientific course covering five years is conducted, the first two years devoted to general literary and scientific study, the last three years chiefly to technical work in the various profes- sional branches. At the end of the senior year the general degree of B.S. is given, and at the end of the post-senior year the degree of master of science. The professional degrees may be conferred upon masters of science of two years' standing who have made satisfactory progress in their professions and have presented an acceptable thesis. The effort to provide for the wants of earnest and valuable students, who cannot postpone entirely the preparation for their profession until after the completion of their undergraduate course, is leading in the same way to the intrusion into the B.A. and B.S. courses of subjects of the most diverse character, which are clearly portions of post-graduate true university work. At the same time, the growing demands of each branch of professional study for more thorough, advanced, and prolonged work will lead to the establishment of numerous and varied post-graduate schools, whose curricula cannot be adjusted economically to that of the B.A. or B.S. course, since its demands are so great as to make it increasingly difficult for the student to take a full college course prior to entrance upon his professional studies. It seems inevitable that this process should go on, and go on rapidly, if the age of admission to college continues as high as at present, and if the requirements for the B.A. degree are made, as of late, more and more exacting. Of course there are colleges and colleges — several hundreds of them, and of all degrees of strength and soundness. It is quite possible that one or more may maintain such a standard and continue to draw adequate numbers of students. There is much to be said, however, in favor of uniformity of educational requirements. There is wide scope for superior excellence in the greater degrees of thoroughness with which they are exacted. And, looking at the subject from the stand- point of the interests of the whole country, I have not been able to resist the conclusion, the reasons for which are here merely glanced at in a des- ultory and defective fashion, that it would be better for the future of our university education if the age of admission to college were to be lowered decidedly, and if the B.A. degree was made to represent a definite stage of true college education attainable by good students of not more than nineteen or twenty years of age. I believe firmly, moreover, that with the estab- lishment of proper relations between the college and the secondary school — a result which would be rendered infinitely easier by an approach to uni- formity and simplicity in the entrance examinations and curricula of our colleges — it would be found possible to send students up to college at an age decidedly lower than at present, and with even better preparation than can 76 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. now be secured as a rule. There would go with this, as an inseparable corollary, the deyelopment of a group of vigorous, highly equipped post- graduate schools, with curricula of two, three, or four years^ duration, according to the subjects involved. As an essential to admission would be exacted the B. A. or B.S. degree, or an equivalent preparation, and in consequence there would be a harmonious and economical adjustment of instruction in the undergraduate and post-graduate courses. The post- graduate schools would confer the appropriate professional degrees or the degree of Ph.D. according to the faculty in which studies were pursued, and the coordination of this system of schools would constitute the uni- versity in the full sense of that term. It is obvious that we in America are developing a great national system of college and university education. It may be too early to predict what its leading features will be. The entire absence of governmental control makes it all the more important that frequent.and full discussion shall be held upon all the important questions involved. One thing that may be assumed is that it will not be a mere imitation of the system of any other country, whether France, England, or Germany. At the same time, it would seem likely that the general plan which in Germany has led to such brilliant results may present more features adapted to our conditions than are to be found in the educational systems of other countries. All are famil- iar with the organization of the gymnasium and the realschule ; and with- out assuming that the courses of instruction therein provided, either under the former regulations or as recently modified, would be most desirable as a college curriculum for us, it is important to observe how completely the difficulties to which I have already alluded are there avoided. In general, the boy enters the gymnasium or the realschule at the age of nine years, and the course in each is arranged to occupy nine years. By the more lib- eral conditions established by the recent official decrees, there is a distinct approach to a common type, as shown by the fewer hours devoted to clas- sical studies (especially Greek) in the gymnasium, and by the correspond- ing increase in the amount of time devoted to the natural sciences and the mother tongue. The right to confer the certificate of maturity (admitting to the university) now pertains not only to the gymnasium, but to both of the two schools into which the former realschule is now divided — the real- gymnasium and the ober-realschule. The gymnasial certificate, however, still carries the higher distinction, and is the only one which admits to all faculties of the university. We see here a proof that the German system is plastic, and that it can adapt itself to the established claims of new educa- tional opinions. The fact that the certificate of the gymnasium, or the real- gymnasium, or even the ober-realschule (though in the case of this latter only to certain courses), admits to the university without further exami- nation, shows how thorough is the adjustment of the different stages of education, and how effectively and economically the time available can be ,/' UNDERGRADUATE AND POST-GRADUATE CURRICULA. 77 I disposed of. It results, then, that the student can enter the university at from eighteen to twenty years, either by special examination or on certifi- cate, and that he at once begins the special line of study adapted to his future career. Throughout the gymnasial course the fundamental princi- ple is the giving of a liberal training, and there is declared opposition against the introduction of professional studies of any kind, and even against the giving of a professional turn to instructiou in any subject. The import- ance of this principle as helping to secure the broadening and strengthen- ing effect of education upon the mind at this stage of its development cannot be over-estimated. Yet, with all this, the degree of Ph.D. can be attained in three years' study in the university, or by the age of twenty- one to twenty-three. The courses ia theology and law are of the same length ; while even that in medicine, which is the longest, and occupies four or five years, can be completed, with the stato^s examination for license to practice and with or without the doctor's degree, by the age of twenty-three to twenty-five years. The entire educational system of the country — and this includes Austria as well as Germany-^is thus directed to secure thorough liberal training in letters or science, followed by thorough professional study, and yet is so arranged as to permit the student to enter all branches of professional life or the higher employment of the state at a reasonably early age. Practi- cally the same result is secured in France, where, for instance, the candi- date for the degree of doctor of medicine must possess the degree of hachelier es lettres, corresponding about to the certificate of maturity (Abitiirienten-Zeugniss of the German Gymnasia), and in addition must possess the haccalaureat es sciejices as regards mathematics and natural sciences. In spite of this very thorough preparatory education, and of the fact that the required course of medical study is four years of ten months each, the license to practice can usually be secured by the age of twenty- four years. In France also, therefore, the system is coherent and secures effective results with economy of time and labor. In England, on the other hand, a struggle similar in some respects to our own seems pending over this very question of the relation of the medical to the undergraduate curriculum. The demand for more thorough instruction in natural science and the clinical branches has led to a con- viction that the medical curriculum must be prolonged to five years ; and the General Medical Council of Great Britain has accordingly passed resolutions that all students of medicine who matriculate after January 1, 1892, shall pursue a five-year graded course of study. Before entering upon this course there must be passed a preliminary examination in English, in Latin, in mathematics (including arithmetic, algebra, and the first three books of Euclid), in the elements of dynamics, and in two optional subjects chosen from the follo\>ing : Greek, French, German, higher mathematics, natural philosophy, logic, and moral philosophy. 78 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. The new medical curriculum ordains only a limited amount of instruc- tion in botany, natural history, physics, and chemistrj^, and it is evident that the above preliminary examination is scarcely equal to that required for admission to the freshman class of our stronger American colleges. At the same time, in a report presented to the Board of the Faculty of Medicine of Oxford University, and communicated to my friend Dr. Ord, of London, by Sir Henry Acland, the principle is reaffirmed, that no can- didate should be admitted to the first examination for the M. B. degree of Oxford until he has passed all the examinations required for the degree of B. A. It seems to me apparent that, just as with us, the whole bearing and influence of this new legislation will be to still further divorce pro- fessional from college education, and to still further reduce the proportion of those who bring up to the professional studies a degree or certificate attesting thorough previous education. The question of time seems to me to enter so largely into the problem that even though we advance the requirements for admission to our schools of medicine, of law, of theology, of pedagogy, of political science, as we should and as we must, we shall not secure the great disideratum of more general attendance at college, so long as the requirements for admission to college and the college curriculum are such as to make the age at graduation from twenty-two to twenty-four years. We shall rather, I fear, tend to make a larger and larger proportion of students depend upon the secondary school or upon special cramming to prepare directly for the entrance examination to the various professional schools ; a result clearly, as it seems to me, to the disadvantage of the secondary school, the college, the professional school, and the student. There are, it would appear, but two alternatives — either a general restora- tion of the B. A. degree to its old signification and value, or else a continu- ance of the process of modifying the college curriculum, which has set in so vigorously, with the view of adapting it to the increasing requirements of the post-graduate curricula. I have already expressed my preference for the former of these courses ; but this would be a slow process, and the requirements of the case are, in various directions, urgent. Pending more full study of the question, it will be interesting to note how the various expedients that are to be tried will work. For instance, at the University of Pennsylvania the adoption of the obligatory four-year course of medical study has induced the trustees and the college faculty of that institution to provide a special elective group in biology and natural science, covering junior and senior years, which may be chosen by those who have entered either for B.A. or for B.S. A student who pursues successfully this elective course will be admitted to the second year of the medical school. Even better than this, there has been arranged a graded five-year course which may be elected at the close of sophomore year, so that thus also the baccalaureate degree and the medical degree may be UNDERGRADUATE AND POST-GRADUATE CURRICULA. 79 earned in seven years. In this really admirably combined biological and medical course there are offered advantages not surpassed, if equalled, by the new five-year English curriculum or by that of either the German or the French universities. In effect, indeed, it is not unlike theprovision in Germany where the student who has won the gymnasial certificate of maturity, and proposes to take the medical course in the university, passes at first into the philosophical faculty to study zoology, mineralogy, botany, physics and chemistry, anatomy and physiology, and at the close of the second year passes the tentamen physicum, after which the final two years are devoted wholly to technical medical branches. The advantages of the methods adopted by the University of Pennsyl- vania are obvious, and they are very considerable. They are open, how- ever, to the serious objection that they still further complicate the under- graduate curriculum and still further introduce into it the professional element. They are open to a further practical objection. Such an arrangement may be excellent where there are exceptionally strong advan- tages for the biological and natural science studies ; but it is difficult to see how it can meet the wishes or promote the interests of other col- leges. It may induce a limited number of students to leave their colleges at the end of sophomore year so as to take advantage of one or the other of the elective courses above described, but this were a result which would seem undesirable. I do, indeed, venture to hope that this action of the University of Penn- sylvania— particularly if, as I trust to see, similar action shall be taken also by other leading universities with strong medical schools — will have the effect of inducing colleges to introduce such full biological courses in the last two years of their curriculum as will lead many students to take their baccalaureate degree, since it would secure admission to advanced standing in their professional course and save one full year in the acquisi- tion of the doctorate. But I fear that for the most part the immediate effect of the advanced standard of medical education now established by a number of the leading schools will be to deter students from going to college, and to induce them to prepare specially for the examination which will admit directly to the professional school. I know that the entrance examination, even to our best medical schools, is shamefully low. Personally I advocate getting the prolonged medical course, with its ample practical and laboratory instruction, strongly estab- lished before loading the experiment down at the other end. The absence of endowment and the destructive competition among the absurdly numer- ous medical schools make me apprehensive. But either at once or in a couple of years the entrance examination must be decidedly advanced. The most advanced requirement demanded to-day is, I presume, that called for by Harvard College, which includes onl^ the following subjects : 1. English. — Every candidate will be required to write, legibly and cor- 80 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION rectly, an original English composition of not less than two hundred words, and also to write English prose from dictation. 2. Latin. — The translation of easy Latin prose. 3. Physics. — A competent knowledge of physics (such as may be ob- tained from Gage's Elements of Physics). 4. Elective Sulject. — Each candidate must pass an examination in any one of the following subjects : French^ German, the elements of algebra or plane geometry, botany. By the recent action of the Regents of the University of the State of New York, it is directed " that hereafter they will require their academic diploma (which Mr. Secretary Dewey defines ^ as meaning a good, thorough high-school course ') or its equivalent as a minimum of general preliminary education from any candidate for any degree conferred on examination by the university." But even when all the leading colleges shall have come up to, or shall, as I trust to see before five years are over, have passed the standard thus set, I am convinced we shall not have lessened in the least the difficulties of those students who would gladly take both college and university courses, but are hindered by the exalted requirements for the B.A. degree. The expedient recently adopted at Columbia College seems to me neither more hopeful nor less objectionable. As President Low writes : '* At the end of the junior year our seniors take all their studies under one or the other of the university faculties, including those that give a professional education as well as those that do not. By this system the student must still give four years of study for our B. A. degree, but for such students as combine with the college course a professional training, the total time is shortened by one year." The ultimate effect of this arrangement upon both undergraduate and post-graduate curricula in Columbia cannot be foretold ; doubtless there are the strongest reasons for expecting it to be excellent, or the plan would not have been adopted by the distinguished president and faculties of that institution. I can readily imagine also, that, as regards a single university, the curriculum of the first three years might be so arranged as to enable such a plan as the above to work well. But if, as would be in- ferred from statements published, though not official, it were proposed to admit students from other colleges at the close of their junior year to full standing in the senior class at Columbia, with the privilege of securing the B.A. degree in one year, and, for instance, M.D. in three years more, the arrangement would seem open to grave criticism from the standpoint both of Columbia and of the general college system of the country. It were indecorous to discuss more fully arrangements which have not been promulgated officially in full detail, and equally indecorous to more than allude to the proposition advanced at Harvard by our distinguished col- I UNDERGRADUATE AND POST-GRADUATE CURRICULA. 81 league, President Eliot, since it has not yet been embodied in legislation by that university. I feel that no apology is needed for the introduction of this subject. Even with the imperfect statement I have made, it challenges your serious attention. There are said to have been almost twenty thousand students in medical schools during the last college year ; less than nine per cent, had baccalaureate degrees. The claims of this great army of students deserve consideration. Precisely the same problems are arising with regard to our law students, and our students of theology, of pedagogy, of archi- tecture, of engineering, and of other professions. So many experiments have been tried with the undergraduate curricu- lum that we hear from every side demands of the most extraordinary boldness. If the process which, most unfortunately as it seems to me, has been pursued with constantly accelerating speed for twenty years be continued much longer, it is to be feared that the undergraduate college curriculum will be hopelessly distorted and perverted, and will become a medley of college and university instruction, divorced from the true university schools, and yet wholly inadequate for any class of the community except for those estimable gentlemen of independent means, who find it unneces- sary to fit themselves for any serious pursuit in life by thorough education in any single branch. It seems doubtful if any of the expedients suggested to avoid the urgent problems forced upon us in consequence of the present state of the undergraduate curriculum are of more than local and temporary value. It remains to be seen whether a wiser course toward a solution of more permanent and general efiiciency may not be found in concerted efforts on the part of university, college, and secondary school in favor of a restora- tion of the baccalaureate degree to a position of greater stability and more in accordance with its original historic signification. The great anniversary year, 1893, will find us with the victory over the huge mate- rial forces of this continent practically won ; it will find us with our political federation strongly, and, as we devotedly trust, indissolubly cemented. But we must recognize that our greatest battles are still to be fought — between sound doctrine and specious error ; between the wise and humane equities of a true democracy, and the blind ignorance or the blatant folly which would array labor against capital, and masses against classes ; between the forces that make for and those that make against truth and order and progress. The issues are portentous. Naught but education, thorough, free, universal, can win for us. No less than we needed political federation do we need the federation of our educational forces from the primary school to the university— their federation and their loyal, effective cooperation. 82 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. UNDESIRABLE AND DESIRABLE UNIFORMITY IN SCHOOLS. BY PEESIDENT CHAKLES W. ELIOT, CAMBRIDGE, MASS. My subject is "Undesirable and Desirable Uniformity in Schools ; " the word " Schools'' being used in a large sense. To present it with tolerable completeness I shall be obliged to state some facts and principles already familiar to many persons in this professional assemblage. Education is properly the development and training of the individual body, mind, and will ; but when it is systematized, and provided for many thousands of pupils simultaneously, it almost inevitably adopts military or mechanical methods, and these methods tend to produce a lock-step and a uniform speed, and result in a drill at word of command rather than in the free development of personal power in action. The interests of the individual are frequently lost sight of, or, rather, are served only as the individual can be treated as an average atom in a homogeneous mass. This natural tendency in systems of education I belieye to be a great evil, particularly in a democratic society, where other influences, governmental, industrial, and social, tend toward averaging the human stock. I. Let us first consider in some detail the undesirable uniformity in schools. The graded school of large towns and cities will supply our first illustration. In any room of a perfectly graded grammar school we find, in the fall, a single class of from forty to sixty children who are supposed to have had the same preparation for their coming year's work ; who are to have the same lessons in the same books, at the same times, under the same teacher, throughout the year ; who are to make as nearly as possible the same progress each day in each subject, and submit to the same tests at the same intervals. They are all kept together day by day, so far as is possible. The bright ones never work to their utmost, and are frequently marking time ; the slow ones are urged forward at a rate which drives some of them to despair ; and the ideal of the class is that of equal prepa- ration, equal capacity, equal progress, and equal attainments. If at the beginning of tlie year the children are obtrusively unequal in capacity or attainments, it is an inconvenience to be regretted. The teacher will not be able to " handle her class '' so easily as she could if they were all of the same mental size and strength. If at the end of the year they have not been pretty well evened up, the teacher has been less successful than she could have wished. This is an extreme statement of the most undesirable UNDESIRABLE AND DESIRABLE UNIFORMITY IN SCHOOLS. 83 uniformity in schools. This is the sense in which close grading is an educational curse. In my opinion the right aims in any room of a primary or grammar school are to recognize at the beginning of the year, as promptly as possible, the different capacities and powers of the children ; to carry them forward throughout the year, each at his own gait and speed ; and to turn them out at the end very much more different in capacity and attainments than they were at the beginning. It has always seemed to me that a teacher who did not discharge his pupils, at the end of each year, much more unlike in powers and acquisitions than they were at the beginning, was a proved failure. We all know that children, like adults, are not alike, but infinitely different ; that the object of educa- tion, as of life, is to bring out the innate powers, and develop to the highest possible degree the natural and acquired capacities of each individual. An education or training, therefore, which at the end of four years, ten years, or twenty years, leaves the subjects of it alike in skill, capacity, or power of service must have been ill directed. The individuals in any group of men and women, who start together in active life at about twenty years of age, become, through their various work, service, and experience, more and more different as they go on. We expect that at sixty their powers will be very different, having been exercised in unlike fields and in various measure, and that their acquired stores of knowledge and experience will be as different as their powers. This variety is at once the strength and the charm of human society. Now, the effect of school work on children should be analogous to the effect of life on adults, for school is preparation for life. Let us take another illustration at a higher grade — the secondary school, represented in the United States by the high school, the academy, and the private preparatory school. These schools hold children until the seventeenth, eighteenth, or nineteenth year. 'By that time of life almost every peculiar mental or physical gift, which by training can be made of value to the individual or to society, is already revealed to its possessor, and to any observant friend, provided that the youth has had access to those various fields of human knowledge and research in which the various mental capacities and activities find play. If a youth has never had access to any studies except Latin, Greek, and mathematics, he will, perhaps, remain ignorant of his powers in scientific or historical study. If he has never had access to any language but his own, his linguistic gifts may be concealed from himself and his friends. This revelation to himself of a youth's natural predispositions and faculties is one of the principal objects of secondary education. Now, if the only school that the youth has attended has had a narrow, uniform programme, contain- ing a limited number of subjects without options among them, this important object in secondary education may not have been attained for the individual. A good secondary school must have a programme of 84 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION studies larger aud wider than any single pupil can follow, else its range of subjects will be too small to permit the sure fulfillment of this all- important function of a good secondary school — the thorough exploration of all its pupils' capacities. Let me further illustrate undesirable uniformity in schools with a higher programme still — that of an old-fashioned college. A young man on completing his college course is to make choice of a profession. A large majority of the graduates of all our colleges go into the three learned professions — so called — into teaching, journalism, and the other literary pursuits, and into the various scientific professions. I need not say that the choice of a profession is of immeasurable importance in deter- mining each man's future happiness and serviceableness. Now, these pro- fessions are so very unlike, calling for such different mental attributes and personal qualities, that the choice among them should always be led up to by clear indications of the individual's aptitudes and tastes obtained in earlier years. The young man who is fit to make a physician should have been earlier drawn irresistibly to chemistry, physics, and natural history. He should have exhibited a natural tendency toward those subjects, and that tendency should have been gratified. The young man who is to be a minister should have been drawn in college to the study of language, philosophy, ethics, sociology, and political science, and should have had ample opportunity to obey those natural attractions. The young man who is to be a lawyer should have felt disposed to study in college Roman and mediaeval history, the history of institutions and governments, political history, ethics, rhetoric, and logic, and to practice discussion and debate in speech and writing. The journalist, long before he decides to begin his specific training as a writer for the press, should have been conscious of a preference for literature, sociology, political science, and history, and should have been drilled daily for years in the writing of English under criticism. Now, the uniform prescribed college curriculum gave no proper opportunity for the students to follow, each for himself, his natural leadings toward the wise choice of a profession. Considering the diversity of discipline and knowledge which should underlie the professional training for these various callings, is it not wonderful that many generations of teachers should have advocated a uniform preliminary training for them all ? Yet the old-fashioned, uniform, prescribed, elementary college course was just that — a pre- liminary training supposed to be equally good for those destined to any of the learned, scientific, and literary professions. It was a vivid example, indeed, of undesirable uniformity in schools. People have always recognized the great diversity of power between remarkable individuals and the common run of men, and even the diversity between one remarkable individual and another. Thus, man- kirid has always refused to believe that its greatest benefactors belonged UNDESIRABLE AND DESIRABLE UNIFORMITY IN SCHOOLS. 85 to the common race of men — they were gods, or demi-gods — and eyery- body sees that Shakespeare, Napoleon, and Lincoln were types of quite indescribable diversity in character and mental powers. But man- kind has apparently failed to perceive how different ordinary people are one from another ; and human society, until it became democratic in organization, never had a fair chance to win the proper advantages from the real diversity of ordinary individuals. It required the mobility of democratic social classification to prove the importance to society of discovering all the small, peculiar gifts and faculties which reside in individuals. We know now that it is greatly the interest of society to dis- cover and utilize the man, ordinary in other respects, who has the little gift of determining with certainty the commercial value of different sorts of wool merely by rubbing them between his sensitive fingers. We know that it is important to discover and educate as a surgeon the man who can feel more, and more certainly, with the tip of his fore-finger, in places out of sight, than any other person in the city. We know that it is for the interest of society to discover and train every man who has the peculiar eye to recognize by tints, which tarry but for an instant, the right temper of a steel drill. We know what a tremendous influence may come from a ploughman who can write verse, or from a peasant woman who can sing, if only their natural gifts be discovered and trained. We have lately learned that from two German workmen of the mechanic class — father and son— endowed by nature with an exquisite eye for tints and textures, may come, with proper training and encouragement, an entirely new method of illustrating flowers, so that they can be studied in colored glass models, both of natural size and of enlarged size, at all seasons of the year. It is the mobility of democratic society — a new thing in the world — which has brought home to us the importance of discovering and training each least individual gift and power. The greatest natural gifts reveal themselves, and the genius is as a rule independent of institutions of education. It is the humble, small, inconspicuous, but vastly more numerous, peculiar individual endowments which systems of education should take infinite pains to bring out. Uniformity in schools crushes and buries them. Again, democratic society cannot help seeking equality of condition for all men, though it is not so foolish as to believe in equality of natural faculties or powers. Now, the best chance of securing an approximate equality of condition lies precisely in this discovery and development through education of the peculiar endowments of each individual in the community. The great capacities or powers do not lead to happiness and prosperity in this world any more surely than the small personal gifts. A little gift well utilized may do more for the individual and his family than a greater gift. The world does not reward men in proportion to the intellectual quality of their work. The village shopkeeper earns more 86 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. than his miuisfcer. Many a skillful mechanic, whose gift is one of the eye or the hand, earns more than the grade teacher or the newspaper writer. If public education discovered and developed the infinite diver- sity of gifts and powers among the school-children, the chances of an approximate equality of condition during the adult life of those chil- dren would he greatly increased. Uniformity in schools impairs these chances. Any one who has had much experience in schools or colleges must have learned that as the course of education goes on, and new subjects are set before a class or group of pupils, the bright and the dull children not in- frequently change places : those that were accounted bright become appar- ently dull, and those that were accounted dull become perhaps leaders. The reason is that the dull children have finally been brought to a subject in which they excel ; while the bright ones, who have been exercising a faculty which they possessed in large measure, have been brought to a new field to which their powers are not adapted. Flexible and diversified school programmes will give all the children their most favorable chance ; stiff and uniform programmes will not. No machine, like an army, a ship, or a factory, can be a democratic institution ; for it demands from the many implicit obedience, and the subordination of the individual energy to the movements of the mass. So far as a school is a machine of uniform product, it must fail on that very account to serve as it might the real interests of democratic society. I have thus far urged that a strictly graded grammar school, a high school or academy with a single limited programme, or a college with a uniform prescribed curriculum must suppress individual differences in- stead of developing them, and must leave individual capacities undiscov- ered and untrained, thus robbing the individual of happiness and service- ableness, and society of the fruits it might have enjoyed from the special endowments of thousands of its numbers. But this is not all the harm done by undesirable uniformity in schools. It also degrades the teacher's function, and converts his occupation, which should be varied and inspir- ing, into a killing routine which runs its round in a single year. I do not know how a woman teacher of one class in a grammar-school grade, who goes year after year through the same prescribed routine with pupils pre- viously made as uniform as possible, and to be turned out as uniform as possible, can maintain any intellectual freshness or enthusiasm in her work for more than five or six years. There are many persons who say that teachers in the graded schools ought not to serve more than ten years at the outside, for the reason that they become dull, formal, and unin- teresting ; but, if this be true, it is certainly the fault of the system rather than of the teachers. If we go higher in the educational hierarchy, the same objection to uniformity holds. What can be the intellectual fate of a man who year after year is compelled to read the same extracts from the UNDESIRABLE AND DESIRABLE UNIFORMITY IN SCHOOLS. 87 same Greek and Latin authors, with boys at about the same stage of their education, who present to him not a carefully cultivated diversity of power and attainment, but the greatest similarity which the educational mill is capable of producing ? Many of us can recall college teachers who went over the same text-book with the junior class in college every year for twenty years, making year after year the same hopeless effort to develop an interest in the subject in students who felt no attraction toward it ; to drive the unwilling to make some attainments in it, however slight ; and at the same time to satisfy those who had some aptitude for the subject in hand. It was a task well calculated to blunt the keenest enthusiasm, to destroy all pleasure in teaching, and to dull the mental faculties and scholarly aspirations of the victim. The main interest in the teacher's life is to be found in studying and developing the infinitely various men- tal and moral qualities of his pupils. A rigid, uniform programme, alike for all pupils, deprives the teacher of ready access to this most interesting field of his calling ; and this degradation of the business of teaching is one of the most mournful results of undesirable uniformity in schools. A teacher who is to preserve his mental freshness and enthusiasm must seek to vary his teaching as much as possible from year to year, and to culti- vate intimate contacts with pupils, whose infinite variety he recognizes and takes pleasure in developing. This principle applies just as well to the primary school or grammar school teacher as it does to the university professor. If it be observed, the teacher's life can never become monoto- nous, dull, or depressing. It is proper here to recognize the obvious fact, that whereas twenty years ago the tendency in American schools was toward stricter grading, simultaneous promotions, and uniform prescribed programmes, the tendency in later years has been toward freedom and variety. Witness the introduction of English sides, or courses, into the old classical academies, the subdivision of the single high-school courses into three, four, or even nine parallel courses, and the recent introduction of heretical options into the sacred grammar-school grades. We begin to hear a good deal about loose grading, and flexible classification, and frequent irregular promotions. It begins to be recognized that close grading and stiff classification are not good things, but evil ; and that uniform programmes, gradings, and promotion examinations are, at bottom, merely economical, mechanical inventions, which enable a city or large town to get tolerable school results from a large number of inadequately educated and poorly paid teachers, who are directed by a small number of better trained and more experienced principals and superintendents. One of the most encouraging school papers that has appeared of late years is the valuable report of Dr. Emerson E. White, of Cincinnati, on ''^Promotions and Examinations in Graded Schools ; '' a papei*wliich not only describes evils, but also suggests remedies. 88 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION But is not a school or a college necessarily a machine in some degree ? Is it not an organization for dealing as intelligently and effectively as possible with large numbers of pupils, who must be sorted, classified, and drilled, on general principles, in masses and not as indiyiduals ? Is not a school inevitably conducted with fixed hours of instruction in fixed sub- jects, with examinations long anticipated and prepared for, with uniform standards, and therefore with uniform means of enabling large numbers of pupils simultaneously to reach those standards ? All these questions must be answered in the affirmative, but with care- ful qualifications. A school or college must be a machine in some degree. Let it be to the least possible degree. Let us avoid to the utmost cast- iron rules, arbitrary enactments, and uniform prescriptions. Of course classification is necessary in every large school or college. Let it be as flexible and as frequently renewed as possible. Tests of faithfulness and of mental condition are also necessary at stated periods ; but these tests should be directed to ascertaining what the pupils can do rather than what they know. There must be examinations, anticipated and un- anticipated. Let them always be conducted by the teacher for the teacher, and as helps and guides in teaching and in learning. The teacher needs to ascertain, from time to time, by such tests, how his instruction has been assimilated by his class; and the pupils need to learn from them what the teacher expects of his class. Of uniformity in sub- jects, in the periods allotted to each subject, and in minimum standards, I propose to treat in the second part of this paper. The best way to avoid undesirable uniformity in schools is to push steadily toward the individualization of instruction, by reducing the number of pupils assigned to one teacher. The larger the number of pupils assigned to one teacher, the greater the inevitable uniformity of method and pace, and the smaller the account that can be taken of individual peculiarities, good or bad. If one woman teacher has fifty to sixty pupils to deal with from nine o'clock in the morning until one o^clock in the afternoon, she is little likely to have leisure to attend to the peculiar capacities or the peculiar defects of individual pupils, and a semi-military machine method becomes inevitable. Such conditions may well make one contrast the graded urban school of to-day with the old- fashioned rural school of thirty years ago, to the advantage of the latter. In the New England village-school of forty pupils, the college under- graduate then taught a dozen classes ; the pupils were at every stage of progress, and the bright boy or girl could pass rapidly from one class to another under the guidance of a sympathetic young teacher, whose work was various, and whose interest was keen in the progress of all his earnest and capable pupils. To the individualization of instruction will be added in time the careful study of each pupil's temperament, constitution, and mental aptitudes and defects by some method like UNDESIRABLE AND DESIRABLE UNIFORMITY IN SCHOOLS. 89 that so well described and practised by Superio tec dent Frye, of San Bernardino. II. I turn now to consider desirable uniformity in schools ; for there is such a thing, and it has great importance in a system of public educa- tion, extending from infancy to manhood and womanhood. Although it may not be best for all children to study algebra, geometry, zoology, physics, or a foreign language, there is probably a best way of studying each of these subjects, which best way all the pupils who attack any one of them should follow. Moreover, it is altogether probable that there are certain topics within each of these subjects which all children who take up the subject should study; and the expedient limits of each one of these topics can probably be defined with a good degree of precision. Again, if it be worth while to teach a given subject at all, there is probably some ascertainable number of week-hours which may best be devoted to it through some ascertainable number of years. Thus a con- vention of experts in teaching physics ought to be able to agree on the best topics in i^hysics for beginners, the best mode of teaching the subject, and the number of year-week-hours which may wisely be devoted to it ; they ought to be able to arrive at a similar agreement for the second stage in the study of physics, when the pupils, having mastered the elements, are ready for its more diflScult problems ; they ought to be able to agree how many topics can be advantageously taught to a class of twenty pupils, working six hours a week in the physical laboratory, and hearing three lectures a week, in the first, second, or third year, of a progressive course on physics. If physics be one of the subjects which may be presented at college admis- sion examinations, as part of the evidence of the candidate's fitness to pursue college studies, then teachers of physics in secondary schools, in conference with college teachers of physics, ought to be able to determine the reasonable limits of knowledge of that subject for a candidate for admission to college at the age of eighteen years. In like manner, if elementary plane geometry be one of the subjects taught in the seventh or eighth grade, it ought to be possible for experts to determine about how much geometry could advantageously be given to pupils of that grade, and in how many year-week-hours. Some pupils would do more than the advised amount ; undoubtedly others would find it impossible to master so much ; but a minimum standard for a given grade could probably be agreed on. Without desiring that all pupils should study the same subjects, or should move at the same rate through any subject, and making ample allowance for the very various aptitudes for each subject in any given group of children, it must still be possible by careful study and by comparison of views to determine the reasonable limits up to which each subject should be pursued at^ given stage of the individual pupil's advancement. One pupil may begin algebra at ten, another at 90 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. eleven, another at thirteen ; but whenever they begin algebra, if they devote a certain number of hours a week to it for a year, a reasonable minimum expectation of attainment within that first year can be estab- lished. Conventions or agreements covering topics, time allotment, method, and appropriate tests for each of the subjects which enters into the grammar school programme, and into the high school and academy programme, are very desirable, in order to prevent waste of force and time at each of these levels of the national system of instruction. The grammar school pro- gramme is the foundation of the high school programme, and the high school and academy programmes are the foundation of the college courses. Now, although it is wholly unnecessary that all the pupils who go from the grammar schools to the high schools in any year should have studied the same subjects, it is desirable that all high schools should be able to count on all grammar schools having taught a given subject in a given way, with a range and scope agreed on, and up to a minimum standard of acquired power in the subject. So at the close of the high school period, it is neither necessary nor desirable that all candidates for admission to col- leges should have pursued the same subjects ; but it is desirable that their attainments in those subjects which they have pursued should represent a tolerably uniform number of year-week-hours, and should normally cover a definite number of selected topics in each subject studied in an agreed- on method. This is by no means the case at present. For example. Harvard and Yale universities conduct admission examinations at a large number of American cities, scattered over the country ; but there are curious little diversities within the same subject in the requirements of these two universities. Thus, they both require Latin and algebra for admission ; but every schoolmaster who presents candidates at both uni- versities knows that the Yale requirements differ from the Harvard requirements both in Latin and in algebra. The Association of Colleges in New England has done something to diminish the absurd diversities within the same subjects in the admission requirements of the twenty col- leges of New England ; but there still remain many unmeaning and trivial diversities of a very vexatious character. The diversities within the same subjects which the schools and colleges of the country at large exhibit are, of course, much more serious and numerous. Now, the number of subjects which enter into grammar school, high school, and academy programmes, though somewhat formidable when we imagine the attempt made to define the proper limits of each for school purposes, is still distinctly small. Considering the immense expansion of knowledge within this century, it is remarkable how few subjects are used in a substantial way for primary and secondary education. The require- ments for admission to Harvard College are more varied than those of any other institution, in the sense that the number of options permitted to UNDESIRABLE AND DESIRABLE UNIFORMITY IN SCHOOLS. 91 candidates is larger than in any other institution ; yet the number of sep- arate subjects is only sixteen. They are — English. Greek (elementary and advanced). Latin (elementary and advanced). German (elementary and advanced). French (elementary and advanced). History of Greece. History of Rome. History of the United States. History of England. Algebra (elementary and advanced). Plane and solid geometry. Trigonometry. The elements of analytic geometry. Astronomy. Physics (elementary and advanced). Chemistry. The options among these subjects are so wide that at every annual examination for admission from seventy to ninety different combinations of subjects are presented, and hundreds of combinations are possible ; yet the examinations are conducted with perfect administrative ease, and with less labor and trouble on the part of the examiners than if one rigid set of sixteen examinations were prescribed for all candidates. The Harvard requirements include at least two advanced subjects ; that is, two subjects to which the candidates must have given several years of study, and which have therefore been pursued beyond the ele- ments. In seeking a just variety of gates of admission to the higher education, some colleges and universities have given entrance to persons who only present a considerable variety of elementary subjects, without any advanced subjects ; but such gates will always remain inferior to the traditional door of Latin, Greek, and mathematics, for the simple reason that they include no prolonged or advanced study of any one subject. The main reason why the ordinary programme of a so-called preparatory school yields a better training than the ordinary programme of a high school is that the pupil's attention is more concentrated ; that the number of subjects is fewer, and that each subject is carried farther. It has long been supposed that the superiority of the preparatory schools was due to the fact that Latin and Greek were there studied ; but my conviction is that their superiority is due chiefly to the concentration of work on a few subjects, and that many other subjects, if given as large a share of the pupil's time as the classics have had, would yield as good a result. How- ever that may be, we may be sure that to study botany, zoology, geology, physiology, physics, chemistry, and astronomy, all taken together, in the scientific course of a high school for only the same time devoted to the single subject of Greek in the classical course, will not yield so valuable a training as to study the Greek. We may be sure that to study French two years and German one year three times a week will not yield so good a linguistic training as to study either language three years three times a week. In order to get good discipline out of any subject at the age of fourteen to eighteen, it must be pursued beyond its mere elements ; there must be prolonged and advanced study of it. 92 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. The admission requirements at Michigan and Cornell universities illus- trate, in another way from that which obtains at Harvard, variety for the individual candidate procured through a few different combinations of a moderate number of subjects. Thus, at Cornell University there are four distinct groups of admission requirements ; the first, and most difficult, composed of eleven subjects, the second of twelve, the third of eight, and the fourth, and easiest, composed of ten subjects. To make these four groups, only fifteen separate subjects are used. At the University of Michigan there are five distinct groups of admission requirements, contain- ing from nine to thirteen subjects each, but using twenty-one separate subjects in all. The reason for the larger number of separate subjects at Michigan is this : to keep nearer the high schools, Michigan permits can- didates to present among other things a selection from seven scraps of subjects, no one of which is supposed to be pursued for more than half a year. Now, it is not desirable that all the American colleges should have the same requirements for admission, or that any college should have but a single set of requirements ; but it would greatly facilitate the work of secondary schools if all colleges and universities should agree on the limits of each subject which enters into their requirements for admission, on the time to be devoted to it at school, the proper method of teaching it, and the fairest way of testing the student's knowledge, of it. So much uni- formity is desirable, and it is by no means unattainable. If four or five of the leading universities, such as Harvard, Yale, Cornell, Michigan, and California, should enter into an agreement on this subject, the work of the important secondary schools would, in all probability, be gradually conformed to the recommendations of the universities. At present, the subjects which enter into the ordinary grammar school grades are few in number, so that for these grades an agreement could be reached with more ease than for high schools ; but the advantages to be derived by high schools and academies from an agreement for grammar schools covering the points above mentioned would be great, . particularly by academies, because they receive pupils from many widely separated com- munities. The great field, however, for the profitable application of the doctrine of uniformity by subject is public secondary education. The number of subjects which enter into the four years' course of many high schools in this country is large in comparison with the number used in grammar schools ; but this four years' course is very commonly divided into three sections (classical, Latin, and scientific), within which a considerable number of options occur, so that no individual student is compelled to study all the subjects which enter into the course or courses. The fol- lowing list, which is made up from the programmes of a considerable number of high schools situated in different parts of the country, is UNDESIRABLE AND DESIRABLE UNIFORMITY IN SCHOOLS. 93 believed to contain all the subjects from which high school programmes are now commonly made up : 1. English (including both Hterature and composition, and therefore compre- hending the elements of rhetoric). 2. History (ancient, mediaeval, and modern). 3. Civil government. 4. French. 5. German. 6. Latin. 7. Greek. 8. Arithmetic. 9. Algebra. 10. Plane geometry. 11. Solid geometry. 13. Trigonometry. 13. Analytic geometry. 14. Physical geography. 15. Geology. 16. Botany. 17. Zoology. 18. Physiology. 19. Physics. 20. Chemistry. 21. Astronomy. 22. Psychology. 23. Moral philosophy. 24. International law. 25. Political economy. 26. Science of education. 27. Music. 28. Drawing. 29. Stenography. 30. Bookkeeping. After all, these subjects are but thirty in number, and it ought not to be beyond human wisdom to lay down the approximate limits of each sub- ject for the years between fourteen and eighteen, the right method of study in each subject, and the proper number of year-week-hours to be devoted to each. It does not seem impossible that a board of experts should agree that a few of these subjects are desirable for all pupils, but that the great majority of them should be optional subjects. Perhaps there are in the list some subjects which such a board would agree ought not to be included at all in a course intended to cover the years from four- teen to eighteen, unless, indeed, as reading matter. In the whole course of organized education from five years of age to twenty-five, the public high school presents the greatest difficulty for the attainment of uniform- ity by subject. Since the adoption of the elective system by all the prin;- cipal colleges, the variety of subjects attempted in the high school by the individual pupil is greater than in any other institution, considering the shortness of the course ; and from necessity most of the subjects are treated only in their barest elements. The old-fashioned curriculum in the American colleges was just such another exaggerated group of ele- mentary subjects ; but that was partially redeemed by the fact that Latin, Greek, and mathematics bad already been studied for several years by students admitted to college, and that these three subjects were insisted on during the greater part of the college curriculum. There is much to be said in favor of the growing practice of organizing a city school system in twelve grades, without dividing these grades into groups called primary, grammar, and hi^h. Among other advantages gained, uniformity by subject and variety for the individual pupil are 94 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. both facilitated by this arrangement. It makes it easier to provide that the twelve grades may be finished in nine, ten, eleven, or twelve years. There is no real division corresponding to these three traditional groujis, and the nomenclature which implies a division probably has some effect to diminish the proportion of pupils proceeding to the upper grades. The introduction of new subjects into the grammar-school course — already begun in many places with vigor and prompt success — is going to affect very favorably the high-school programmes, and will bring us per- ceptibly nearer to the realization of the only truly democratic school prin- ciple— every grade to provide tlie best possible power-training for every pupil at his stage of progress, no matter at what age his education is to end. More information can never compensate at any age for less power. To give children whose training is to be short a poorer education for power, just because their years in school are to be few, is surely to add injury to misfortune. The enrichment of the grammar-school grades means options for the individual pupil, and probably means also a differ- entiation among the grammar schools of the same town or city. Either of these improvements will reduce undesirable uniformity, and promote the advent of the desirable. Our governmental institutions supply no broad, authoritative super- vision of education. The national government has no function of that sort. Some of the newer States have a State superintendent and county superintendents ; but the authority of these officers is often limited, and their tenure brief and uncertain. Many of the older States have no such officers. In the main, the administration of education is local, each town or city being independent as regards school administration. Accordingly, the best hope of exerting an influence throughout the nation over school and college programmes is through the voluntary action of a few experts in each subject of instruction, who can command the cooperation of institutions which have obtained an acknowledged preeminence, and can act under the sanction of an association having a national organization. As encouragements in an undertaking which looks arduous, I take time to mention four interesting instances of considerable changes brought about in the United States by the voluntary cooperation of a few compe- tent persons and corporations — one in practical affairs and three in educa- tional. The change in practical affairs was the adoption of the standard times across the continent. This improvement was brought about by some of the principal railroads acting on the advice of a few astronomers. It was the work of a small number of strong corporations and of a few experts. Yet it affected the daily lives of almost all the people of the United States, and in those sections where the standard and the local time differ by nearly or quite half an hour the population >vas distinctly incon- venienced by the change. The first of the educational changes to which I refer was the early UNDESIRABLE AND DESIRABLE UNIFORMITY IN SCHOOLS. 95 replacement of Euclid in American schools and colleges by much simpler geometries, translated from the French. This great improvement was achieved by a few mathematical teachers in leading institutions. In England, Euclid was retained for two generations after it had practically ceased to be used in this country. A second interesting result of effective leadership in a few American colleges and schools is to be seen in the adoption of the so-called Roman pronunciation of Latin, which, being recommended by two or three pro- fessors of Latin in leading institutions, spread rapidly over the whole United States, and is now the accepted pronunciation in most schools and colleges. In sharp contrast to this result is the actual state of things in England, where the professors of Latin in Oxford and Cambridge united in recommending the adoption of the new pronunciation more than twenty years ago ; but their recommendation has as yet had scarcely any effect in English schools and colleges. The third educational change which has proceeded from a few centers in this country, and yet has been rapidly and widely adopted, is the sub- stitution of the laboratory method for the book method in teaching natu- ral science. This is the most important improvement in educational methods during the past twenty years, for it gives science for the first time a fair chance in the competition among subjects as discipline. The new method yields the real training which science is adapted to furnish ; whereas the book method yielded nothing characteristic of science, and for memory training science so studied was inferior to history, grammar, and literature. I urge, then, that uniformity in schools is undesirable so far as it means uniform subjects, gait, and pace, for individuals ; that it is desir- able so far as it means selection of all the subjects which may wisely be included in the successive grades, either for all pupils or for some pupils, definition of those subjects, determination of the average or ordinary time to be devoted to each subject, and prescription of the methods of instruc- tion appropriate to each. And, finally, I believe that the most hopeful way of bringing about that desirable uniformity is through recommenda- tions as to selection, definition, time allotment, and method, which pro- ceed from judicious experts acting under the sanction of a national asso- ciation like this, to be soon adopted provisionally by a few leading cities and institutions, and to be constantly improved by cooperative experi- mentation in many institutions and school systems year after year in all parts of the country. 96 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. ETHICAL CULTURE IN THE KINDERGARTEN. BY IRWIK SHEPARD, WIlfONA, MII^TN. The importance of ethical culture in school education is questioned by no one, and there is little difference of opiuion as to the general character and aims of such culture ; but the times, the methods, and the means are not agreed upon among teachers, and few individuals, even, are satisfied with their own solution of this many-sided question. I am asked to discuss the relation of this culture to that department of school training which is scarcely yet recognized as a part of the national public school system, but which is winning its way to recognition largely through what it has done and is peculiarly fitted to do for ethical as well as physical, emotional, and intellectual growth. The more clearly we understand the philosophy of education, the farther back toward infancy do we fix the time when systematic philo- sophical instruction should begin. During the past quarter of a century we have elevated the primary school to the place of chief importance in our educational system. Yet when the child enters the lowest class of the primary school, at six years, we must presuppose an education which in extent and importance will hardly be matched in the next sixteen years. He has already acquired a language ; a knowledge of the external world ; a facility in the use of senses, memory, imagination, and reason- ing ; habits of attention or non-attention ; a code and a practice of ethics which often makes his whole school life largely supplemental or corrective. That period of child-life which can wisely be set apart with care for the physical growth only is very brief, if indeed it exists at all, and in the period intervening before school life is ordinarily begun the ethical as well as the intellectual bent is largely determined. We have come to realize that no child even begins life anew, but comes to it endowed with the accumulated power of inherited tendencies, not to say fixed ancestral habits. If these tendencies and habits are ever to be modi- fied or overcome, it must be done in the very earliest years before they become rigid through exercise. The great ethical battle of life is between the two opposing forces of the self and the not-self, the individual and the general interest; and who that has stood in the presence of the petted, untrained, selfish, self-willed child of three years, will not say that the battle is already on and will be won or lost before school life begins ? Language comes early to the child as the expression of his budding thoughts, but it does not come earlier than those social acts which are the expression of his ethical emotions and concepts. The wonderful ETHICAL CULTURE IN THE KINDERGARTEN. 97 achievements in sense perception, discrimination, assimilation, association, memory, imagination, and reasoning which must precede a child^s first sentence are fully equalled in the complexity of interlacing and interact- ing perceptions, emotions, desires, and volitions which condition his first social act as his first sentence of ethical language. All this would seem to point to the home as the place where ethical culture should begin, and so it is. No institution can or should displace it, as no love or care can or should displace a mother's love and care ; but if every home were an ideal home, and every mother a true teacher, with no busy tasks to turn her from the training of her children, it would be found that the ethical culture of the home, beautiful and essential though it be, is necessarily incomplete. No educator has seen this so clearly, or has done so much to honor the home and to aid the mother in her respon- sible duties to her child, as Froebel. He would have her realize that edu- cation begins with the mother-play and the nursery-song. Through his Mutter und Kose Lioder he sought to bring the spirit and methods of kindergarten philosophy into the home and make of each mother a true kindergartner. At its best, the home has its limitations. It may train with loving care in the knowledge of the right, and may develop the full strength of noble emotions ; but the highest ethical culture of the home often results in only ideals of duty, without either the disposition to do or the habit of doing the duty — in moral temperament rather than moral character. The very affection which has surrounded the child and guided his growth in filial love often makes difficult the exercise of that altruistic choice of the right which is alone the ethical element of an act. Beauti- ful as filial and fraternal affection is, it may become so self -centered in the common self of the family as to become purely egoistic and hinder true ethical growth, which springs only from the soil of a broader fellowship. Ethical culture without an opportunity for the exercise of altruistic love is impossible. The power and habit of feeling rightly and beautifully, and of knowing truthfully, constitute an ethical tendency, which becomes an ethical ele- ment of culture only when it finds its expression in the good, the beauti- ful, and the true act. The home does not often furnish the conditions of fellowship essential to such ethical training unless the family is a large one, and then, too often, the child reigns as a crowned king over the subservient older broth- ers and sisters, until in turn he takes his place as the slave of a later and younger prince, while neither condition has been conducive to ethical growth. The kindergarten furnishes the fellowship of equals so essential to the action and interaction of forces in whiclt the ethical habit is best fixed. It is here that many a child first loses his little self in the greater self of 98 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. the community, and realizes the ethical kindergarten motto, '^ Each for all, and all for each/^ And in losing himself lie first finds himself ; for it is here that the birth of self-respect, through individual thinking to a definite end, individual feeling to a worthy choice, and individual willing to the accomplishment of a right action, comes like the dawn of a new morning to the kindergarten child. Here he learns to meet and to bear the re- sponsibility of his own act, and to measure himself by the highest stand- ards of justice, truth, and generosity, while in their felt presence he learns to conquer and govern himself. Troebel rightly conceived the first principles of educational philosophy when he said : ^*^It is my firm conviction that whatever gives a child pure, persistent pleasure is connected with some deep truth in his nature, and has in it the germ of highest possibilities.^'' But Froebel also saw that a child's play did not always yield a pleasure which was either pure or persistent ; but that it was more often a capri- cious activity which reaches a pleasure-giving end only by accident, while it leaves no healthful habit in the actor. So he devised the kindergarten gifts, occupations, and song-games, in which the ruling thought is simple and truthful purpose in play, in which every act that enters into the builded blocks or woven mat or folded sheet or happy game stands for a clear and definite idea — for a general truth so simple that the child grasps it with ease, yet so true for all time that he will never outgrow it or leave it behind ; a truth which will be his pillar of cloud by day, and his pillar of fire by night, in all of his journeyings through the wilderness of social life. To unfold within a child's mind simple but great truths, so that they linger on his lips, are hummed as he works, break into song as he plays, are acted in his games, and are interwoven with all his happy hours, is the method of ethical culture in the kindergarten. In this way did Froebel aim to secure the first great end of all education, which Thring calls " set- ting the loving and the hating on the right track.'' It is a well-established principle of educational philosophy, that all men- tal growth has its origin in a self -directing energy which acts and reacts on the world about. The later growth is largely conditioned by the char- acter and definiteness of these early reactions out of which all concepts are built ; and whatever interests, and therefore holds, the attention directs the will. I need not discuss the value of the kindergarten exercises in establish- ing the early mental activities and habitudes which make for the best intellectual growth. The ethical value of these exercises is not less promi- nent; indeed, the two phases of growth are most happily blended. A gift in the kindergarten does not come to the child as gifts usually do— the embodiment of another's thought and labor ; but as material upon which he may work out his own ideal, and which stands when completed as the ETHICAL CULTURE IN THE KINDERGARTEN. 99 well-earned reward of its young designer and maker. With the pleasing consciousness of individual creative power comes the ethical conscious- ness of individual responsibility for the use of that power. The occupa- tions no less emphasize the moral lessons, that one may enjoy the rewards of his own labor and of that alone, that nothing is right unless it is exactly riglit, that all unused material is wasted material, that harmony in color and song is not more necessary or beautiful than harmony in social life, that the law of opposites applies to things that are right and wrong as well as to things that are right and left. It is here that the child best learns that great ethical lesson of obedi- ence, obedience to law, which constitutes the first steps in realizing that individual liberty without which there can be no moral growth. Eichard Hooker voiced the great ethical principle of the kindergarten when he said : '* Of Law there can no less be acknowledged than that her seat is in the bosom of God ; her voice the harmony of the world. All things in heaven and earth do her homage — the very least as feeling her care, and the greatest as not exempted from her power ; both angels and men and creatures of what condition soever, though each in a different sort and manner, yet all with uniform consent, admiring her as the mother of their peace and joy." The youngest child in the kindergarten learns to know and to obey that voice which is ''the harmony of the world " and "the mother of his peace and joy," for Froebel has based every exercise of the kindergarten on definite law, requiring exact obedience to secure any result whatever; the law of rhythm, the law of opposition and contrast, the law of number, the law of unity and proportion in design, and all the other laws of Froe- bel's philosophy, which are as inexorable as they are beautiful and tender and true. It has been said that there is music in heaven because there is no self-will there ; but perfect self-willing, obedience to law. It is the glory of the kindergarten that it teaches so beautifully and thoroughly the first lessons in such obedience. The games especially furnish the social intercourse of equals so essential in ethical traming. Here the domineering and arbitrary spirit and all forms of rudeness are checked ; diffidence and self-distrust yield to gentle encouragement. Here there is a minimum of theory about the duty of self-restraint, self-denial, and love for others, and a maximum of practice of courtesy, gentleness, kindness, and love in a sunny atmosphere of happy play where ''Virtue kindles at the touch of joy." The kindergarten has been fitly called the soul-school for children. Froebel recognized the symbolic age of the child, and so he blended a spiritual symbolic training, through the Mutter und Kose Lieder, with the physical and intellectual activities of the gifts and occupations, and the ethical culture of the social games, it is in the mother-songs that the child realizes his spiritual self, in the highest type of self-activity freed 100 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, from the limitations of matter, physical power, or social surroundings, and builds with clear vision and joyous zeal his ethical ideals. The analysis of a single mother-song, " The Three Knights/' shows the range and depth of its ethical symbolism. It teaches : the child's responsibility for his acts ; the reward of loving deeds, in the loving esteem of friends ; ideas of right must conform to the universal standard of truth ; only the highest ideals are worthy ; the distinction between right ideals and right acts ; the ethical value of right effort as distinct from the accomplished result ; the dependence of social harmony on individual generosity ; the '^ discipline of consequences." The value of these ideals appears in Froebel's thought, " The clearer the thread which runs through our lives backward to our earliest conceptions of pleasure and right and duty, the clearer will be our onward glance to the goal."*' Childhood is the age of poetry and song, and kindergartners have done well in adding to ^^Die Mutter und Kose Lieder " a wealth of songs and poems for children with which our literature abounds. The song of the "Great, wide, beautiful, wonderful world;"" Lucy Larcom's glad song of "The Brown Thrush," in which it seems indeed as if ' ' The world's running over with joy ; " Mary Hewitt's " Buttercups and Daisies," *' Speaking to our hearts of Him Who doeth all things well ; " Jane Taylor's " Violet," teaching " That I may also learn to grow In sweet humility ; " and the sweet song of Little Christel, with its lesson : «' Do noble things, not dream them all day long, And so make life, death, and that vast forever One grand, sweet song," are but types of the many that deserve and find a place among the child- songs of the kindergarten. But it is not the songs alone that so beautifully cultivate the ideal side of child nature. The kindergarten story as well furnishes means for ethical. training, limited only by the genius and skill of the kiudergartner to select and adapt from the Avorld of human thought and action. So thoroughly interwoven is ethical culture with every element of kindergarten philosophy and practice that we cannot but say : " The paths that lead us to God's throne Are worn by children's feet." / ETHICAL CULTURE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 101 Who ever visited a true kindergarten and did not feel thrilled by the abounding presence of the good, the beautiful, and the true, in ideal, in purpose, and in action ? The wonderful hold which the kindergarten has on the confidence of the educational world is not due to its value for manual and intellectual training so mucli as for its beautiful ethical culture in that joyous atmos- phere in which *Move is the fulfilling of the law/' ETHICAL CULTURE IN ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS. BY MRS. DELIA LATHROP WILLIAMS, DELAWARE, OHIO. Iisr the short time allowed for this paper it will not be possible to enter into any detailed treatment of the topic of the hour — '* Ethical Culture in Primary and Secondary Schools." I shall therefore present but the briefest statements, hoping that the discussion which follows will supply details. I assume that all who hear me admit both the desirability and the practicability of direct and methodical moral training in the common schools; and also the possibility and practicability of basing this training upon the principles of moral science, so that this phase of education shall be no more empirical and inconsequent than the training of the intellect. Every member of this Association recognizes the fact that character is vastly more important than mere intellectual attainment, and the further and vital fact that intellectual attainment is largely dependent upon moral character. Lack of moral sense in children and youth is likely to issue in such phases of wrong-doing as very much to embarrass the work of intellectual culture, if not to make it altogether impossible. Only the pure and high-minded youth is in the narrow way that leads to the highest intellectual life. All immoralities that absorb the attention, or unduly excite the imagination, are in direct and immediate antagonism to school work ; all habits that work harm to the body directly affect mental ability ; all lax moral conditions — such conditions as demand no conscience, no ^'right-because-it-is-right" rule of action, no standards planted under which to fight the omnipresent inclination to self-indulgence, idleness, cheating, and sham work of every sort — make the highest intellectual achievements impossible. There is but one royal road to learning, and that is the highway of moral purity. The al) c oi moral instruction is not to be taught even in the primary school. The average child of our public^schools, from the time he was first able to comprehend a command of his parents, has been compelled to 102 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION form moral judgments upon his own acts and those of his mates. The patrons of our public schools wish their children to be respected and res])ectable, and the home rule is, in the main, in the direction of correct living. Most of the children of our public schools attend some sabbath instruc- tion, in which further emphasis is put upon morality of conduct. Then '* A Boy's Town " itself has a code which is mainly on the side of honor and truth, and which is good as far as it goes. Yet the character which the average child brings to school is both very imperfect and very incomplete. Even if the utmost care were exercised by the parents, the home training would require constant reinforcement in tlie school training. Growing intelligence, and the consequent larger outlook upon life, bring with them new ethical inquiries ; and the circumstances attending the constant association of large numbers of children not only give rise to new moral questions, but tend to destroy a sense of personal responsibility in the more conscientious, and to embolden and make aggressive the evil- minded. What is attained in ethical culture outside the school furnishes a basis for school work, a " known " element from which to proceed to further instruction. It is the business of the public school to find what has been already done in the cultivation of the virtues which lie at the base of a sound moral character, and, building upon these, to correct false notions, to supplement the lack of correct principles of action, and as far as possible to render right thinking, feeling, and doing habitual. This is not an easy task. It is the universal judgment of teachers that formal moral instruction is much more difficult than intellectual culture. This arises from several causes. First, teachers are not prepared for the systematic teaching of ethics. It is true that in order to teach practical morality it is not necessary to teach a systein of ethics, but the teacher of practical morality must get his order of sequence, his terminology, his knowledge of the relation of the intellectual and moral faculties, and his justification for his positions, from the science of ethics, which has its roots in the nature and relations of the powers of the soul. Only so can the teacher be a wise master- builder, knowing the exact j^lace of each block which he puts into his structure. I have recently been watching the building of a large and complicated stone edifice, and the marvel to me is that there has been no fitting of stones to their places required on the ground. The entire plan is so present in the minds of the builders that each stone is prepared and marked for its place before it is delivered. The workmen on Mount Lebanon had the same secret thirty centuries ago, for the record is : ''And the house was built of stone made ready before it was brought ETHICAL CULTURE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 103 thither, so that neither hammer, nor ax, nor any tool of iron was heard in the house while it was building." I have been asking myself, again and again, whether we teachers are such trained workmen. Have we an ideal, and are our blocks carefully fitted each to its place, and does our structure go noiselessly up according to the pattern ? I have sometimes feared that in an ill-advised haste we seize the first block of material we can reach, and with little estimate of its fitness for the especial demand, and with no all-comprehending plan, we fling it upon the wall, and then despair of ourselves and our pupils because our structure does not come from our hands symmetrical and beautiful. Before teachers are prepared to give moral instruction in any methodical and comprehensive manner, they must themselves be instructed in the science of the moral nature of children. Without this, ethical teaching is rote teaching, mere empiricism. A second difficulty is that children require individual attention. In- tellectual training may go forward in large classes, but character building is largely a heart-to-heart business. It requires personal contact, intimate association, genuine sympathy. In the schools the numbers are large, and the teacher finds it next to impossible to come into intimate relation with each pujjil. No two children have the same mental or moral characteristics. N^atural temperament and home surroundings must be taken into the account in estimating the real character of pupils. Children must be reached by different methods. The motives that influence one child will not reach another. Again, the circumstances of the same child differ. What will influence him to-day would have been powerless yesterday. A new experience has come to him, a new door is opened, and access is now possible. There come climacteric experiences in the life of every child ; a day arrives when it is as if he had a peep at life through a Lick telescope. The soul opens its eyes upon a new heaven and a new earth. All nature begins to talk to him in a half-articulate, awe-inspiring way. Then he begins to question the past and the future. Happy the teacher who can read his opportunity in the new light of the boy's face. More can be done in an hour's wise conversation now, while the moral fiber is all vibrating with this thrill of new power, than in all the previous years. Not infrequently the difference between success and failure depends upon seizing Just the critical moment "to do the right thing, to say the right word, to give the encouraging or the reproving look." Eoutine may not be fatal to intellectual teaching, but character build- ing cannot so proceed. There must be quick apprehension of motive, quick play of emotions, ready adaptation of means to ends, just discrimi- nation between physical infirmity, flaccidity of will and moral obliquity. For a man to be weak may be a sin, but* not so for a child. When on that sultry forenoon in which Dodd fell from grace and became restless / 104 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. and mischievous again, the wise little Amy Kelly sent him on a quarter of a mile race to the old maple tree and back, she knew that the diffi- culty was a purely physical one ; that the undue accumulation of nervous force must be used up, and that there could be no equipoise till the excess of animal spirits was exhausted. So she held her watch to mark the time, and when he returned told him how many minutes he had been gone and bade him take his seat; and between wondering why he was called on to perform this feat, and being tired from his race, he was a good boy all the rest of the morning. Not all teachers are geniuses, but all can make a study of children, and get much nearer their inner selves than most persons do. Except one become a little child he cannot enter this kingdom of service for children. Childlikeness of spirit is a sine qua non. A third difficulty is that character is of slow growth. A friend of mine is accustomed to say that it takes twenty-one years to civilize a boy after you have caught him, and then he is not civilized. It requires a large measure of faith to work on, never ^* bating heart or hope " when no returns are discoverable. In moral instruction there are no examination tests by which to prove our faithfulness, no brilliant class-day performances to gratify our pride and secure to us commenda- tion. What we are working for is not an intellectual apprehension of duty, a mental assent to the right and dissent from the wrong ; but a habit of right thinking and feeling and acting. Habits are growths, and who sees a character grow ? He sees it least who is in deepest sympathy with it. Oh, the patience, the faith, the love it requires to fashion the soul of the average boy into the nobility of manhood ! Anxiety cannot do it. Fussiness will spoil all. Perpetual repression is fatal. There are a thousand ways not to do it. "• Except one become as a little child," one cannot find the one right way. I cannot pass on to the discussion of formal ethical teaching without a word upon the power of unconscious moral tuition. The pupils in our primary and secondary schools are at the most plastic age, that in which habits are most readily formed, and are most tena- cious. During these years, the capable and strong teacher is an almost omnipotent factor in the child's life. He is the child's ideal of attain- ment and behavior. His opinions are unquestioned ; his decisions are final. You know what a marvelous power there is in the influence of a strong teacher. You have felt this power in your own childhood. You may not even now be able to analyze it or trace it to its sources, as I cannot, but you have known teachers whose lives, flawless under the keen scrutiny of their pupils, have been the most powerful element of their teaching. Who can estimate the actual value to a child of living with such a person in the intimate relationship of the schoolroom six hours qaeh day, five days in the week, nine months in the year ? I ETHICAL CULTURE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 105 Bat a noble character cannot be simulated. In the schoolroom a man must be what he seems, or he is a shorn Samson. This real nobility of character is essential to effective moral training. It is not mere saying, but heing, that counts with pupils. From the nature of the case, the teacher stands before his pupils as the exponent of his teaching, and if there be any divergence between his character and his precepts, what the teacher is will weigh vastly more than what he says. An artist may hide his own personality behind his pictures, an author may live a life outside his books ; but the teacher and the ma^i are inseparable. That there should be a vast amount of moral tuition connected with all the literary work of the school will be readily admitted. The building of character, the giving of pupils the mastery of themselves, the leading to the intelligent choice of the right, however attractive the wrong may be, is the chief consideration in every lesson, whether it be reading, arith- metic, or geography. Moral instruction may be drawn from much of the matter of the text- books, not formal lessons, but the sharp, awakening blow which comes from a single question or remark : "Do you admire that boy, that girl, that act ? Why ? Describe the opposite. Do you like it ? Why ? " Such questions teach a discrimination between right and wrong, win the approval of the right, call attention to motive, teach pupils to reflect, awaken right feeling, inspire good resolutions, create a high ideal, and so prepare for the test in action. But can formal moral lessons be profitably given in schools ? Undoubt- edly such lessons can be profitably given, but undoubtedly not all that have been attempted have been profitable. As has been before stated, teachers must base their methods upon the principles of moral philosophy and work in harmony with nature to secure the best results, and this has not always been done. Moral science tells us that in order to secure correct action there must be, first, an intellectual apprehension of moral distinctions. Moral judg- ment must be developed and a habit of moral discrimination. Secondly, the feelings must be enlisted. A love for the virtues, such as purity, truth, justice, loyalty, must be stimulated, and a corresponding aversion to the vices, such as selfishness, deception, injustice, cowardice. The sentiment of duty must become the controlling one. Thirdly, a proper value must be attached to motive. The child is to be taught that the nature of an act is not determined by its appearance to one's associates, but by the subjective character which the soul of the actor has given it in its conception. The act in its true character is the mirror of the soul of the actor. This method of looking at action induces reflection and a sense of personal responsibility. The will must be discii)lined to choose the right, though solicited to do the wrong as easier and more pleasurable These choices of right must 106 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. be so invariable that a habit of right-doing shall be formed and tbe power of solicitation to evil be broken. Then the boy becomes his own master. He has attained to freedom of spirit. Can special lessons be so prepared and taught as to lead up to this ulti- mate result, the end of all living — perfect self-mastery ? Let us see in the light of the most approved educational methods what characteristics such lessons must have. 1st, They should be given in the concrete, except, possibly, in the advanced classes of the secondary schools. The statement of abstract moral truths will have no power whatever to awaken the moral faculties of a child. Even we remember the illustration, the incident, the story, and forget the text. The basis of the lesson must be an incident from the present life of the child, from biography, history, or literature, vividly presented, and capable of teaching a moral lesson. It must be so positive in its character that the judgment of the class will decide on the right side. It must appeal to the sentiments. The feelings must be moved to confirm and fortify the judgment. The element of motive must enter into the incident, so that children can be led to determine the quality of the act in the light of it. This is the limit of the teacher's direct work. The Creator himself can go no further. The will of the child is his own to exercise as he shall choose when occasion arises for his own moral act. Here personal responsibility begins, and every pupil is an independent soul. Compul- sion may sometimes be resorted to for temporary ends, but moral victories come only through freedom of action. This thought of personal respon- sibility is a tremendous one when it is first comprehended by the child. 2d, These lessons should proceed from the known to the unknown, from the already attained to the immediately attainable. As before stated, the children come into our schools with many of the virtues quite established by home and sabbath training. May it not sometimes happen that, not taking account of this, we do not give our pupils credit for the excellences they already possess, and by this failure make our instruction so puerile or so general that it is valueless ? It is in human nature to wish the good in it properly recognized. In a lesson upon truthfulness, for instance, it would be very unfortunate to assume that all the pupils are liars, and liars at every point. Far better would it be to note the circumstances in which all would undoubtedly tell the truth ; but suppose this particular temptation, out of the ordinary experience, then who has the will-power to resist ? Or the lesson may be addressed to some fault which prevails through lack of moral discrimina- tion, as peeping into books in recitations, receiving assistance upon examination, etc. Often the conscience has not been asked to sit in judg- ment upon such matters. 3d, The lesson should have a specific object. This has been already ETHICAL CULTURE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 107 assumed. Not all selfishness, but one particular form of it ; not all dis- obedience, but one especial phase of it — should come under discussion. Only so can the '^ thou-art-the-man " conviction, come home to the child. 4th, It is without doubt true that moral conceptions are made more Tivid by their expression in poetic form, and therefore a moral lesson may properly culminate in the memorizing of a beautiful sentiment poetically expressed. These " poetic gems " will remain in the memory, a restraint from evil or an impulse to good, long after the occasion which suggested them has been forgotten, perhaps after the teacher himself has passed out of mind. History is full of incidents where the snatch of a song or the verse of a poem has inspired fainting virtue, has opened a door of hope to a despairing soul, has been the very voice of God to one unused to hear him speak. In closing, let me repeat with the utmost emphasis, that all moral teaching is a sounding brass and a tinkling cymbal — words, words, words — emptiness itself — unless the teacher has received the baptism of the spirit for this ministry to youth. Do you ask how one can secure this prepara- tion ? First, By making conscience regal in the teacher's life. There must in no sudden wind of self-interest be a single flicker in his character. It must shed a calm, pure, steady radiance, which neither flattery nor defa- mation can affect. It is true that to be weak is only to be human, but the ideal teacher abounds in superhuman graces. Second, By understanding and properly estimating the nobility of the teacher's calling. His is not a call to teach a few pages of geography, arithmetic, and grammar, each year, but a laying on of hands, setting one apart for the work of making out of very imperfect material men and women in the image of God. The great Teacher has shown the way. Let us study his methods, but above and infinitely more than all, let us study him. Third, By learning to value childhood. God has given, to children the leadership of the world. We see everywhere the verification of Scripture, '^A little child shall lead them." For whom is all the world toiling— the father in his shop, the mother at the hearth ? For whom is the daintiest garment fash- ioned ? For whose coffin are the sweetest flowers chosen ? It is these priceless treasures of the home that are put into our care. We have accepted the responsibility. There is no charge compared to this. Fourth, By getting into sympathy with children so as to see life from their angle of vision. To do this, one sliould talk with them, try their games, read their books and papers. No teacher of children can afford to ignore children's story-books and children's papers. Blessings be upon the good men and women who have dra\v» out for us the charming pict- 108 TEE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. ures of child-life which can be found in our libraries and book-stores. One who can read them and not become a child again has '^ no part nor lot in the matter/^ Fifth, Bj keeping a brave and cheerful spirit. Clouds may lower to-day, but the sun is shining somewhere, and our clouds will lift by and by ; the heavens may weep to-day, but " into each life some rain must fall,'' to mellow and enrich it ; immediate results are disappointing, but we are not building for to-day, but for eternity. While we are humble and faithful, all is going well. Hope is the sure and eternal anchor, and faith laughs at impossibilities, and cries, '^It shall be done."' ETHICAL CULTURE IN THE COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY, BY CHAKCELLOE JAMES H. CANFIELD, LIIS^COLN, NEBBASKA. I AM to give twenty minutes this morning to the discussion of '^ Ethical Culture in the College and in the University." In such a brief time such a subject must be discussed in a fragmentary way, in an assertive way, and in a rather dogmatic way. There is little chance for carefully elaborated argument or for rounded periods. There is vast opportunity for misunderstanding and misquotation on the part of those who hear. The subject is unfortunate not only in the time allotted to it, but in that it endeavors to cover and express the proper form of instruction in two wholly different fields. In spite of all that may be said to the contrary, we are rapidly differentiating the college and the university in this country, in life and in spirit, if not in curriculum and in form. It is already quite difficult to prescribe the same rules, or lay down the same lines for both. And the differences in point of fact are precisely those which affect to a great degree this very question of ethical culture. There is a certain fixedness and rigidity in the college, and a larger liberty and independence in the university. Very generally it is still true that immature youth are sent to the college by parents and guardians, while young men and young women, largely capable of making their own choice and of directing their own lives, go to the university. The one retains the old dormitory system ; the other generally knows little or nothing whatever about this. The one has an exhaustive disciplinary code ; the other simply asks for exemplary conduct and strict attention to business. The one has a fixed curriculum ; the other gives larger latitude in choice of subjects. One still gauges advancement by recitations ; the other seeks for growth by the freest discussion of largely independent work. In the one the faculty are taskmasters ; in the other, co-laborers and friends. The one has pupils; the other has students. The one / ETHICAL CULTURE IN HIGHER EDUCATION. 109 dictates ; the other inspires and guides. In the one, precept still largely controls : in the other, influence is by far the more important and effective factor. The one is still busy with the preparation for life ; the other is the beginning of life itself, and the very highest kind of life. The student in the one is still of such age as to warrant direct and continual ethical instruction of the simpler and more direct form ; the student in the other may profitably take a broad review of the history and philosophy of ethics, but especially needs to see and feel that ethical thought and life is not for nursery-maids and kindergartners, but fills a large place in the lives of strong and earnest men. The methods of instruction, therefore, will vary between the two as they are sharply distinguished, or shade into each other. In one a certain grade of text-books will be used, in a larger sphere there will be a choice of different authors ; while in the university there will be no text-books, but the largest possible use of the library. In the one there will be but a few weeks given to the subject, and in what may be called a second-hand way ; in the other there will be as much time as the subject warrants, and as the student may choose to employ with more thoughtful work. One will be content with a single author, who has written expressly for the class-room, and for a rather limited constituency ; the other will try to sweep the whole field from Spencer to Bascom and Hopkins. Though I can readily believe that at the very threshold of all strong and righteous existence stands a keenly apprehensive and responsive intellect, I am very far from believing that the cultivation of the intellect alone is enough to answer the purposes of wise education, or of any education worthy of the name. There can be no question that all education lifts man above what are sometimes known as the common or baser crimes. The coarser forms of licentiousness,^ drunkenness, petty thieving, and mid- night burglary — these and many of their kind are almost impossible to a man who has advanced at all in the walks of learning and scholarship. But they often seem impossible just as mere manual labor seems impossible, because there has been created a distaste for this at one and the same time with an ability to do more and better. And so it is that all intellectual education possible does not seem to lift men above forgery or counterfeiting, or gigantic frauds and steals. Indeed, sometimes unusual temptations seem to be brought to bear by the very fact of an unusual sharpening of the wits, and by the very sense of superiority to one's fellows in this respect. The crimes of reflection, as they have been called, the crimes of the higher passions, are not at all uncommon among the highly educated, especially where men have been content to let the intellectual faculties have full sway, with little if any thought of the ethical. When one examines a modern college curriculum, therefore, he can but be struck with the small part positive instruction in ethics seems to bear, and at once seeks for an explanatiTIn of this apparent negligence. 110 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. For all wise men recognize that that is a poor education which has not secured the right training of the will through the emotions ; the only way in which the will can be reached and stirred at all. It is scarcely con- ceivable that any will was ever moved to action by mere intellectual concept. Let me assume at once, then, the necessity for ethical training, but let me also turn at once from forms of class-room instruction, and from the schools and authors, to that which I deem of far more import- ance, that which may in part account, though unconsciously account, for the short time given to positive and direct ethical instruction, yet that which seems to be only too often overlooked. The main business of education is twofold — to secure power in man, and to secure dignity in man ; to put man in the line of conquest, first of himself, since without this he can do nothing worthily, and to put man in the line of large and generous service. All success worthy of the name is conditioned upon this. If education is to enlarge the man, to enable him to stand outside of himself, and to give him a happy life, it must make him honorable and it must make him beneficent. Without this education is a failure, man is a failure, and life is a failure, in the saddest sense. The trinity of powers which are conditions to this success are right thought, right feeling, and right action, each dependent on the others, neither long existing (if at all) without the others, and the three so closely interwoven as to be scarcely separable. These three alone can save us from all that is base and ignoble and narrow and selfish in man, and in the life of man. The greatest of these is right feeling. Thought and feeling go together, but it is feeling that gives power. They are like light and heat : we go but blindly without the one, but without the other we go not at all. No instruction is sound, therefore, that has no ethical purpose in it or in its treatment. But while this is true, and while ethical instruction is good, ethical influence is far better. The difference between the two is the difference between the letter of the law that killeth and the spirit which maketh alive. It is the latter which I desire to push sharply this morning. Others may dispute about masters and schools, I much prefer conditions and results. All worthy results seem to spring from two con- ditions or factors — the ethical atmosphere of the institution, and the ethical influence of the faculty. I press these because, deny it as we may, we are just now unconsciously and consciously slighting these, though not ignoring them altogether. Unquestionably the strongest form of moral influence and culture is that which comes from loving and unselfish contact. God recognizes this in the constant revelation of his fatherhood. Man recognizes it in the ready admission that in ethics the best school for the child is the sym- pathetic indwelling of the mother. The prime necessity, then, in any ETHICAL CULTURE IN HIOHEB EDUCATION. Ill institution that is to give strength to those under its influence, is a large and sympathetic life, the largest and most loving service to all who are within or who may possibly come within its walls, and to offer this service to all alike. This is the education that tends to the unification of society, to the general advancement of all, to the breaking down of barren pride and aloofness and reserve, to securing earnest life and un- selfish life and wholesome life. The institution that exists for some given class ; that tends to separate rather than unite society ; that creates or continues and fosters artificial distinctions ; that forgets to labor thought- fully and intelligently for the welfare and advancement of all ; that fails to welcome all ; that adapts itself to a preferred few, rather than thank- fully working side by side with the great uncommon common people — such an institution is unethical and practically immoral in all its life and influences. All the formal instruction in ethics known upon earth can- not save it from the final scorn and reproach of all true men and women. I recall not many years ago hearing an instructor in a celebrated Eastern college say that not one of its faculty would send his children to the public school in the town (though I happened to know that the school was of high rank) because it was '''the common school, you know; and full of the children of artisans and day-laborers." An institution in which such a spirit exists is a constant menace to all ethical impulses and ethical life. A man may repent of licentiousness, and may turn from his cups, but if he is once attacked with exclusiveness in this malignant form he rarely recovers. He is a moral cripple and weakling all his life. And so with the institutions that seem to love scholarship and erudi- tion for their own sake; who make these ends and not means ; who hug themselves with joy because they are not as other men, and especially are not as this practical fellow, who always wishes to know what may be done with what he is to receive. These are the institutions that weigh a single monograph on the iota subscript against years of devoted and successful life in direct ministration to public and common welfare. Their degrees and their commendations are for the men who publish something, not for the men who do something. They desire to sit in the shade by their own filled and overflowing fountain and minister to their own small segment of society, rather than that water should be poured out freely by the roadside for every passer-by. They mistake the scaffold- ing for the building. They think that mere erudition is better than power. They forget that handling any moral means below its level is in itself immoral ; so they become the most unethical and immoral of all instructors. There is a constant divorce between such colleges and the activities of daily life ; there is an utter lack of that true scholarly spirit which is tempered by a constant recognition of personal and institutional relationship ; that turns to the immediat^and pressing needs of one's fel- low-men ; that recognizes that man must live before he can live well ; 112 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, that seeks first to secure the strongest and bravest of life in the state at large, through the strongest and bravest life of its students and through a certain large and well-defined publicity of life ; and there is ever present the spirit that talks about scholastic cloisters rather than the market place, and prefers the fossil leaves of ages past to the green blades and branches which wave in God's sunlight of this nineteenth century. No matter what may be its pretensions in morals or religion, no matter how padded its curriculum may be with the philosophy of ethics or ethical philosophy, here is the salt that has lost its savor, and is fit for nothing but to be cast out and trodden under foot of man. This same weakness, and fatal weakness, of ethical influence, is also found with those institutions that forget that the first object and end of all wise instruction is to seek the truth, and that the truth may only be found by the freest investigation and research and discussion ; which hang an index expnrgatorius on one wall of the library, and an index proMbi- torius on the other ; which even question the wisdom and safety of any library or library methods ; which seem to forget that there is no Presby- terian geometry or Congregational astronomy or Lutheran geology ; and that the Episcopalians have no exclusive property in the rule of three, nor the Methodists in the laws of falling bodies, nor the Baptists in the hydrostatic paradox, nor Republicanism in economics, nor Democracy in civics and reform. This substitution of teaching tenets, secular or relig- ious, in place of teaching the truth— though I am not to be understood as saying that the two are always and necessarily contradictory — is in itself constantly undermining the ethical strength of every student on the rolls. Only the institution which is possessed of large and strong and brave and earnest life can possibly draw to it and retain in its teaching ranks the men and women who are best fitted to secure the same characteristics among the students. Yet next to the general atmosphere of the institu- tion and institutional life, comes the power and influence of the faculty as a whole ; determined, of course, by the power and influence of the individ- ual instructors. I am not sure that this does not touch the student more keenly and helpfully, or otherwise, than does the institutional life and spirit. If there exist that daily contact, that frankness between the teacher and taught, that ever-present sympathy, and that spirit of help- fulness that ought to characterize the daily life of all men worthy of the position of instructor and friend, there can be little doubt that here is the ethical power of the highest degree. Without this 1 do not believe that a man should receive the recognition of the profession by employment. I know that it is somewhat dangerous, in the State of Charles Bardeen, to speak of the ideal teacher ; yet it is delightful to know that in this State there is this one bold and daring and outspoken advocate of manhood as the first and most essential characteristic in all worthy instructors. And ETHICAL CULTURE IN HIGHER EDUCATION. 113 what are tlic characteristics of manhood if they be not an ever-present sense of opportunity and of duty, unceasing industry, unwearied patience, the strictest honesty and integrity, the most unswerving candor and good faith, impartial justice, that high heroism that makes man ready and will- ing and glad to be worn out in gratuitous and generous service, that rev- erence which gives man his true place in the economy of Grod, that char- acter that manifests all these daily, combined with such lower qualities as promj^tness, order, and accuracy, and that tempers all with friendship, sympathy, and affectionate regard for all under his care ? These are the qualities that the world needs more than it needs great railways, or great cities, or great factories, or thriving commerce, or extended trade. And these are the qualities that will bring the young men and the young women who have the good fortune to be under such influences, not into a slavish discipline, but into a voluntary and glad conformity with what is right and just and true. Yet think of the carelessness with which faculties are often made up in re- spect to these things. Think of the time-serving, and the indifference, and the idleness, and the jealousy and suspicion, and the unfaithfulness, and the selfishness, and the unlawful ambition gratified by unlawful means, and the want of loyalty, and the petty cliques and parties, and the thrift- lessness, and the coldness, and the partiality, and the dishonesty, known to exist in so many faculties of even the highest institutions of the land. Think of young people coming under such influences, and stirred to take part in all this unworthy life, and even and often almost coerced into par- tisanship on the one side and distrust on the other. And think of the men who undertake to teach such ethical principles as temperance, with a reeking breath ; or purity, with mouths often polluted by obscenity ; or honesty, with a lecture yellow with indolent age ; or duty, with a record of class work frequently neglected or slighted for trifling and personal reasons ; or loyalty, while holding by sheer force a position long after usefulness has been outlived ; or helpfulness, while never showing the slightest interest in student life or thought, or making the slightest sacri- fice in its behalf ; or sweetness and light, with extended chin and dis- tended lips trying to draw fire and nicotine from a friend's cigar. And think of the established authorities of educational institutions ignoring such things because a man is *^ smart," or because he is *' a noted spe- cialist,'^ or '' is a frequent contributor to leading magazines," or is '^a rec- ognized authority." It is not difficult for me to recall a surly, indolent, ill-mannered brute, who long held high educational place for one or more of these reasons ; nor do I forget the fact that those who attacked him had to bear the odium of inability to appreciate his '' expert knowledge," and wore themselves assailed as willing to lower the standard by putting an inferior man in his place. I well recaW the remark made in my hear- ing a few years ago, by one of the great college presidents, '^ I cannot 8 114 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION scrutinize this man^s character too closely, for he is one of the ablest entomologists in the country '^ — which was simply establishing an utterly wrong basis of selection and appointment. Young people are neither fools nor blind, though we often live as though we thought them both. I prefer the estimate of a man^s students in the long run to that of his associates or contemporaries; and the result of this intercourse with his students is the very best criterion. It is a safer basis on which to elect or reject a candidate. And all the formal study of ethics known to man is of no consequence whatever under the conditions and influences at which I have just hinted. I beg you not to misunderstand me. I am not even intimating that many of those engaged in the work of higher instruction are immoral. But some are ; and more are unethical, and still more are non-ethical, in character and in influence. I simply wish to enter a strong protest against the present worship of mere intellectualism, and to make a plea for giving due consideration and a proper value to intensity, to sympathy, to earnestness, to all true manliness and womanliness, as of the highest ethical value in connection with ethical instruction, as with all instruction. And so I come back abruptly to my starting point. Make the institu- tional life and the life of the faculty, collectively and individually, what it ought to be ; create an atmosphere in which every instructor and every student is exj)ected to do his duty, and his whole duty, and simply because it is his duty ; and there will be no trouble about the teaching of ethics. Whether it be material or Christian ; whether it be natural or revealed ; whether it be evolutionary or inborn ; whether it be human or divine — and I am very far from saying that it matters not what form instruction takes — there will be at least this inspiration that comes with and from all higher life, without which ail formal instruction is worthless, and with which without formal instruction man may walk with his forehead touch- ing the stars. DISGUS8I0N, Dr. E. E. White, of Ohio : I am asked to attempt the impossible task of discussing three twenty-mimite papers in fifteen minutes. I obey orders, and let the responsibility for the result rest on the President of the Association. The first agreement of these three papers, to which I devote a minute, is their clear recognition of the important fact that ethical training is the central function of the school, and character its supreme test. It seems to follow from this fact that moral training should not be crowded into a comer, and given the odds and ends only of school time. Another agreement of the three papers is their recognition of the fact that the one essential condition of vital ethical training is character in the teacher — that the one element that surely works for righteousness in a school is rightness in the teacher's life. It is thus seen that in ethical training character stands before intellectual culture or learning. What is this but a recognition of the historic fact that the most uplifting force that has yet touched the human race is the inspiring life of the Great Teacher ? mSGUSSION^. 115 The supreme ethical need of the school is an inspiring life back of precept, a soul- inspired manhood back of instruction. We have at last learned that it is not words on the lips, but truth dwelling regally in the life, that touches children's hearts with transforming power. Are we also ready to say with Dr. Huntington that ' ' not the most eloquent exhortations to the erring and disobedient, though they be in the tongues of men or of angels, can move mightily upon our scholar's resolutions, until the nameless, unconscious, but infallible presence of a consecrated heart lifts its holy light into our eyes, hallows our temper, breathes its pleading benediction into our tones, and authenticates our entire bearing with its open seal " ? This suggests that the unwritten law of the school should be : "No man or woman shall enter as a teacher whose character and life are not fit models for the young to copy." As we pass from these two elements of unity in the papers— the elements of end and condition— to the question of method, we do not find equal agreement, and for the good reason that they refer to pupils of widely different ethical experience and power, I cannot devote a minute to these differentiations in method, but I must go straight to the heart of ethical training in the elementary school, and here I can do but little more than repeat what was so beautifully said in the excellent paper by Mrs. Williams. The specific leading purpose of moral training is the training of the will; the training of the will to act habitually from high and worthy motives. The practical outcome of moral training is right conduct, and right conduct is right motive carried out by an act of will into a deed. It is thus seen that will-training is, in its essential nature, the effective use of right motives, and here we touch the ethical weakness of thousands of schools. They seek to secure school results by an appeal to motives that are low and selfish ; they thrust between the pupils and duty artificial incentives, and thus rob them of the joy and help of virtuous action. The two enemies of intellectual and ethical training in the schools are respectively mechanism and artificialism. I do not believe that it would be possible for an angel from heaven to develop manly, true, and self-centered character in pupils by the use of the artificial incentives that have so long been used in many English and American schools — incentives that increasingly bring the will under bondage to low and selfish desires. Think of urging a band of pilgrims on the way to paradise, every step of the way attended with its own satisfying reward, by a swarm of hornets in the rear for the laggards, and alluring imps in advance waving prizes, class honors, honor seats, etc. , and, at stated intervals, pro- motion tickets bearing the image of those gods of the modern school — 90^ to 100^. If his Satanic Majesty had taken the job of alluring these pilgrims to that other place, I could understand, in part, the {)hilosophy of his tactics ! The time has come for a radical and thorough discussion of the whole question of motive as a determining element of ethical training. Another important factor in ethical training is effective moral instruction, and what is now specially needed is the basing of such instruction on sound pedagogical principles. The ends to be reached by such moral instruction are the awakening of right feelings, the quickening of the conscience, and the development of clear moral ideas — the train- ing of the moral judgment ; and in the elementary school the materials for such instruction must be concrete examples — not didactic lectures, not the science of ethics — and fortunately this material is abundant in literature and in life. Here, as in intellectual training, we must begin with sense and end with reason ; must begin with experience and end with principle and law. I have only time to add that ethical training must give the pupil increasingly a clear perception of right conduct, and it must increase the imperativeness of the sense of duty, and, to these ends, ethical motives should be enforced by religious sanctions, and here, again, example will be found more effective than creed or dogma. The great law of right conduct is love to God and man. Mr. H. a. Fischer, Wheaton College, 111. — 3Ir. President, Ladies, and Gentlemen : I trust the authors of the admirable papers in many respects will kindly excuse me if I take no part of my five precious minutes in commending their excellent things. But if in some respects" I shall not agree with them, I wish to have it understood that in many respects I certainly do agree with each one of them. As your President has announced, I am — perhaps I ought to be sorry for it after what Chancellor Canfield has so eloquently said — I am, however, the representative of a Congregational college. It does seem to me th^ whatever Chancellor Canfield said was excellent about these educational institutions oelongs to the college as well as the university. It is a matter of regret to me, as well as to the chancellor, that the subject 116 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. was not divided right here, and that a college man — not the one now speaking to you, but some more eloquent and able — might be permitted twenty minutes to speak for ethical culture in the college. Let me proceed from the college and university into the kindergarten. How shall we teach unselfishness in the kindergarten ? 1 say the best way of all is to set before the children in the kindergarten the example of the one perfect, unselfish man that ever lived — the God-man, Jesus Christ. How shall we teach obedience to law and recognition of the authority of law ? I say first of all by bringing into the hearts and lives of the children the consciousness of the fact that there is an authority supreme — an authority above all human authority. Children think that parents are the best people in the world ; at least, parents ought to live so that they can believe this. They are apt to think that their teachers are among the best people in the woi-ld, and I am glad to say that in most cases they do belong to the best people in the world. But when the child passes out from the round of school life and enters political life, how is it then ? Who are the ones to stand before him as the representatives of law ? Why, they are the men you send to Albany. They are the men that we in Illinois send to Springfield ; and I am not ready to say that we in Illi- nois send the best people to Springfield. I do not know what you New Yorkers will say about Albany. The"political child, or when the child begins to be political in his thoughts and ambitions, sees before him the examples of politicians. How can you teach that child reverence for law after he has made his observations of the doings in his State Capitol, where a large proportion of the lawmakers had to be carried up- stairs in an elevator, because they were too drunk to walk or stand in the elevator? How can children retain respect for law, unless we can show to them that there is an authority above all human authority ? However imperfect these men may be who repre- sent the law, they represent in one sense the authority of God. And then I want to say also what I read in a book written by the gentleman who pre- ceded me, Dr. White, that in his opinion, at least, people will yet learn that it will be very difficult to teach morals correctly without reference to the best text-book on mor- als known, the holy word of God. SuPT. Ashley, of Troy, N. Y. — Mr. President and Members of the Association : I wanted to have a place here, because of a story that came to me concerning an incident that occurred years ago while I was teaching in the South. One negro met another and said, " Massa and I had a great 'spute this morning." " What did you and massa 'spute about ?" " Well, massa and I was down in the corn-patch, and he looked all over the field at the young sprouting corn, and he says : ' I think we are going to have a downright good crop of corn this year,' and I said, ' Massa, I think so too ; ' and there we stood 'isputing about it for more than an hour." Now, fellow teachers, I feel there is nothing for us to dispute about in regard to this matter. I will tell you why I sent my name up. Last February 1 was in Brooklyn, and I heard some excellent talk there in regard to kindergarten work ; and to-day the papers on " Ethical Culture in the Kindergarten," on " Ethical Culture in the Elementary and Secondary Schools," and on '* Ethical Culture in the College and University" meet my approval. About twenty years ago it was my pleasure and privilege to be a teacher in the schools of Wisconsin. I was there when they passed the law making the university a part of the public school system ; to allow a pupil in the high school to take the examination there, and send that examination paper to the university, without going to the univer- sity for examination, and so the pupil could be admitted to the university if he stood high enough in his per cent. Now, it seems to me we are doing, in many things, that which has been done years ago. The college stands for itself, the public school stands for itself, and the kindergarten stands for itself. If we were to take a vote to-day in this vast audience, in regard to the kindergarten, I think you would be surprised to see how many would vote it simply a play school. I was opposed to it when I thought of it that way ; but when I saw. the possibilities of the kindergarten for intellectual devel- opment, for true psychologic growth, without the child knowing it, I became converted to the kindergarten. One of the grammar masters in my State said to me the other day, "Why, all the teachers of the primary school say that the most difficult children they have to govern arc those who come from the kindergarten." My only answer to him— and I want to say to all of you, and to the State superintendent, what I wanted to say in Brooklyn last February, but which I hadn't the courage to get up and say — was that you need to make the kindergarten and the primary school one by having the teachers of the primary REPORT ON THE WORLD'S EDUCATIONAL CONGRESS. 117 school instructed hi the kindergarten method ; not alone in Froebel's method of object teaching, but in reaching the mind and heart of the child ; and if they do not know this, teachers should be told it. In the past thirty-six years I have talked with pupils and teachers. I have looked upon public employees in all departments from the highest to the lowest ; I have taught in the South. 1 have taught in Wisconsin, and I have taught in this State, and I want to say there are no public officials in the great Republic in which we live, none in the commonwealth, none in the municipality, that so faith- fully, so earnestly, so conscientiously labor as do the teacHers in the common schools of the United States. The great difficulty is, they do not know how to labor to the best advantage. What we need is that teachers shall be instructed in the normal and train- ing schools, not alone in one branch, but in all branches of the elementary schools, from the kindergarten up through the university, so that there shall be one magnificent system of education ; not great stepping-stones, but one grand perfected whole. Mr. Zalmon Richards, Washington, D. C. — Ladies and Oentlemen : I have only time to emphasize one thought which has come to me as I have listened to the papers and the discussion. It seems to me that the first element of human character, of mak- ing character in the training of our children, is to teach them obedience — obedience to the laws, their parents, their teachers, the laws of their country and their Goc^ It seems to me, in relation to the kindergarten work, that we possibly need a little more of this principle inculcated into the minds of kindergartners, in the conduct of those schools, in order that this principle of obedience, unvarying obedience, shall be secured. Then I would go and take up the second principle, to which a beautiful reference was made by the first paper, as to the influence of love — love for our fellow creatures first, love for the authority under which we live, love for God, love for the highest authority. Then I would take, as the third point, the means that shall be used in the future cul- ture of the child, carrying out the principles that have been so well brought out in the culture of the child, that it shall be a continued, constant culture, all the way through the child's life. And finally I would say, as has been most emphatically brought out here to-day, give us the exemplary character, or all the instruction that can be given in the kindergarten, the pi'imary, the secondary school, the college or university, will be of little avail. REPORT ON THE WORLD'S EDUCATIONAL CONGRESS. To the National Educational Association : The undersigned would, beg leave to report that a committee was appointed at the annual meeting held at St. Paul, and empowered by the National Educational Association to make provision for holding an inter- national congress of education at Chicago in the summer of 1893, in cooperation with a local organization in that city, organized under Act of Congress by the name of The World's Congress Auxiliary of the World's Columbian Exposition. The committee thus appointed, after due delibera- tion, resolved on the formation of a committee of arrangements as the best means of providing for the work of preparing the programme for such international congress, inviting its delegates, and organizing its corps of presiding officers. Said committee was to consist of the IT. S. Commis- sioner of Education, Chairman, and a number of other members appointed by him, subject to the approval of the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association, one for each department of the congress to be held. The Commissioner of Education, accepting the position thus ten- dered him, selected as his associates the following gentlemen : James MacAlister, President of the Drexel Institute, for Art Education, 118 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION W. H. Maxwell, Superintendent Brooklyn Public Schools, for School Supervision. W. N. Hailmann, Superintendent of Schools, La Porte, Ind., for the Kindergarten. Professor Nicholas Murray Butler, of Columbia College, for Higher Education. Eay Greene Huling, Principal of the High School of New Bedford, Mass., for Secondary Instruction. E. Oram Lyte, President of the Pennsylvania State Normal School at Millersville, for Normal Schools and Training Schools for Teachers. James L. Hughes, Inspector of Schools of Toronto, for Elementary Instruction. C.»W. Bardeen, of Syracuse, N. Y., for Educational PuUications, N. Coe Stewart, Musical Supervisor, Cleveland, 0., for Musical Instruc- tion in Schools. A. J. Rickoff, of New York, for Manual Training, It should be mentioned that the following-named gentlemen were first appointed and resigned : F. L. Soldan, Principal of St. Louis High and Normal School, for elementary instruction ; J. "W. Cook, President of the State Normal University at Normal, 111., for training schools; Walter Damrosch, of New York, for music. It is proposed that a department congress devoted to schools of tech- nology be set off from the Congress on Higher Education, and that Fran- cis A. Walker, President of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, represent that department on the committee ; that Robert C. Spencer, of Milwaukee, be added to the committee, to represent the department recently added to the National Association, under the name of Business Education. It is further proposed that the National Council of Education be rep- resented at Chicago by two department congresses devoted to psychology, inasmuch as the work of the Council is, and has been, chiefly in this department ; and that G. Stanley Hall, President of Clark University, Worcester, Mass., represent on the committee of arrangements the Con- gress of Experimental Psychology, and J. G. Schurmann, President of Cornell University, represent in the same manner the Congress of Rational Psychology. Your committee would also report that it may be necessary further to subdivide the department congresses or to add new departments for the best practical success of the meetings to be held, and for this they will ask authority from the Board of Directors. Your committee has undertaken the preparation of lists of questions on the points under dispute at home and abroad, with a view to draw out written theses from the educational thinkers of Europe and America, and thereby obtain the requisite material for opening the discussions of the REPORT ON THE WORLD'S EDUCATIONAL CONGRESS. 119 various congresses. Selections from these theses can be made by the com- mittee of arrangements, which will set forth in a salient manner the questions which it is desirable or feasible to take up in the conferences. Your committee has been forced to consider the relation which a group of world's congresses on education would have to the regular annual meeting of this Association. It has, after many discussions and much consultation with the public opinion that exists within the ranks of the Association, found it advisable to recommend for your adoption the fol- lowing plan : Firsty Let the regular officers of the general Association and its depart- ments, which will be elected at the close of the present meeting, be instructed to lay out their programmes for the meeting in July, 1894, instead of 1893. Let them be further instructed by their several depart- ments to be present in Chicago at the opening of the congresses which represent respectively their several departments, and call the meetings to order, and induct the several officers appointed by the committee of arrangements into their respective chairs, and deliver to them the pro- grammes agreed upon. Second, Inasmuch as the ordinary means for collecting the member- ship fees due this Association, namely — the extra railroad coupons — are not available for the year of the Columbian Exposition, it is further recom- mended that the treasurer of this National Association be present with a sufficient number of deputies to collect in their several department con- gresses the usual fee of two dollars, entitling the member to a copy of the volume of proceedings when published. Your committee has proposed that the time of the congress be placed in the week that includes the last days of July and the first days of August, in order to meet the convenience of delegates from abroad. It proposes two joint sessions of the entire congress, one to be held at the beginning, and one to be held at the end of the series ; namely, the first on the evening of Tuesday, and the second on the evening of Friday of said week. It proposes that the mornings of Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday be devoted to the several department congresses meeting in the separate places assigned them by the local committees of the World's Congress Auxiliary in Chicago. It is understood, of course, that each department congress can dispose its work so as to hold a morning and afternoon session if it so decides. Your committee would further report that all questions of cooperation with the World's Congress Auxiliary have been amicably arranged, and to the advantage of both parties. The Auxiliary recognizes fully and freely the work and prerogatives of this Association, and, on the other hand, in all the invitations and announcements, yoiir committee of arrangements explicitly states the position of the World's Congress Auxiliary as the duly 120 TEE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. authorized board of management of the entire series of congresses, and as the source of the power delegated to this Association. Your committee of arrangements has been given full authority to act in all matters relating to the announcements of the congress, its lists of delegates, its invitations, its programmes, and its appointments of presiding officers. W. T. Hakkis, Chairman, Kay Greeke Huling. E. Oram Lyte. Nicholas Murray Butler. C. W. Bardeeis^. James MacAlister. UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. BY president RICHARD H. JESSE, UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI. In the early history of this country, the influence of English precedent was powerful in shaping our educational institutions of higher grade. As examples, let me cite only Harvard in Massachusetts, and William and Mary College in Virginia. The cause of this influence is not attributable to our British origin alone, but even more to the fact that the scions, of wealthy families, sent to the mother country to complete their studies, returned home deeply impressed with her institutions of learning. The Eevolutionary war struck the first blow at this influence, and the blow was effectually repeated in the struggle of 1812. As the wars with France, and the consequent loss of her Continental possessions, helped England herself to develop on lines other than those of Norman origin; as later wars repeatedly stayed the influence of France in the progress of English literature — so here, in America, Anglican tendency in the forma- tion of our schools was sharply checked by the war of the Revolution, and finally arrested by that of 1812. Common origin and common speech might have restored it but for circumstances which I will now detail. The establishment of our national independence, the evolution of our political institutions, and the phenomenal growth of the country thereafter turned the eyes of the world to the new Republic. Immigration set in, forging a band of knowledge and sympathy with every land in Europe. A diplo- matic service had to be maintained at every court in the civilized world. To show that I do not overestimate this last-named agency, let me cite the fact that Jefferson^s ideas on education did not ripen into maturity or receive practical embodiment in any way until after he had served as min- ister to France. His residence abroad marks an epoch in American edu- cation. For not in France only, but elsewhereiikewise on the Continent, XimVERSITY EDUCATION. 131 he was preparing for a great work. A professor of the Johns Hopkins, writing under seal of the National Government, has recently declared that the University of Virginia, which Mr. Jefferson founded in the fullness of years and which is the image of his ripened thought, has been the one great molding influence on Southern institutions of higher grade. What his ideas have effected in the great Louisiana Purchase and elsewhere throughout the West, I need not remind you. Simultaneously with the revulsion from English precedent, the establishment of national existence, the institution of diplomatic service, and the inpouring of immigration, there came a wonderful development of commerce and a multiplication of the means of travel. All Europe was subjected rapidly to the inspection of American eyes. It was like a vast model museum suddenly opened to a quick-witted people. While the spirit of independence and eclecticism governed the choice of our forefathers in everything, they were, nevertlic- less, willing to profit by the experience of others. What land was to fur- nish models ? Not England ; for she, however, continued to be an object of more or less antipatliy almost to the middle of the present century. Not France ; for she, after shocking the world by a revolution of unparall- eled atrocity, had plunged into recurring periods of unstable government, coup d'etat and imperial despotism. Moreover, her reputation in morals was much against her, after the religious feeling was intensified in America by the sweeping revivals of some fifty years ago. From what country, therefore, was the new nation to take her models, consciously or uncon- sciously ? Just about this time — that is, the first quarter of the present century — Prussia, though crippled and impoverished by the Napoleonic wars, began to struggle forward under leadership of men like Stein and Wil- helm von Humboldt. These venerable men conceived the idea of redeem- ing Prussia by lifting her up intellectually. The mind of the whole people was invigorated by common schools, secondary schools, and universities, all under government supervision, all practically at government expense, and all of the best quality. As head to the entire system, in one of the darkest hours the nation ever saw, the University of Berlin was estab- lished, which has since become, all things considered, the finest seat of learning in all the earth. It is far from my intention to assert that this was the begin^^ing of successful school work in Prussia j a notion is already advanced to conceive and execute even through leaders such a plan of national resuscitation. Nevertheless, this movement of which we are speaking marks, perhaps, the greatest advance in pedagogical evolution that Europe has witnessed in the present century. Other German states, too small to hope for political glory, vied with Prussia and with one another in the intellectual race. A government that could not compete with larger powers in military array or territorial possession could achieve a certain glory through a university, a polytechnicum, a museum, an art gallery, or a school of music. With this alititude of government and the 123 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. eager support of the people, it was not long before such men as Stein, the two liumboldts, Niebuhr, Schleiermacher, Friedrich August Wolf, Buth- man, Savigny, Fichte, Goethe, and Schiller, and a host of other intellectual giants, made Germany the literary and educational center of all Europe. This fact was quickly perceived by the sharp-eyed American. Our young men began trooping thither in eyer-increasing numbers for higher, lighter, and deeper learning. Coming back, they brought German conception. German method, and German thoroughness first to scores, and then to hun- dreds of American institutions. Nor is this movement yet abated ; prob- ably it is rather increasing constantly with the shortening of time and the lessening of expense in travel. As a result of all this, it is safe to say that in the latter half of the present century Germany has exercised greater influence than all other countries combined in molding our institutions of higher learning. Not that we haye copied slavishly ; that has been kept out no less by inborn American independence than by peculiar environment. But as the constitution of Crete helps us to understand that of Sparta, in spite of certain divergencies ; as the development of con- stitutional right in England throws light upon our early political institu- tions, widely different though they were ; as our own institutions must be held in mind to understand the drift of British politics in the last sixty "or seventy years, notwithstanding sharp contrasts — so the influence of Eng- land explains much in the foundation of our early schools, while that of Germany accounts for even more in their later development. And, more- over, the consideration of these things enables us to forecast, perhaps, in certain directions whither we are now drifting. But we must keep in mind constantly the difference in national genius and the dissimilarity of environment, lest we go grievously astray. In Germany, boys enter the secondary schools a little less advanced in years, and perhaps in attain- ments also, than they do with us. The average age of entrance there is ten or eleven years. Their secondary schools are of three distinct types : (1) Gymnasia, in which the strictest attention is given to Latin and Greek, and as much as possible thereafter to science, modern languages, and other things ; (2) Eeal-gymnasia, in which Latin is taught thoroughly, but no Greek, the time thus saved being given to better work in other branches, chiefly science and modern languages ; (3) Real-schulen, in which neither Latin nor Greek is taught, but all the time is devoted to science, modern languages, and some minor subjects. The course of instruction is from seven to nine years long, the student passing the final examination and entering the university at from eighteen to twenty years of age. These figures are, of course, all general and approximate. But in the Royal- Gymnusium at Leipzig, where the course is nine years long, I found the average age of the graduating class to be nineteen and a half years. In America, the students enter the secondary schools a little older and a little more advanced in attainments, I think ; perhaps the average age UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 123 of entrance might be stated approximately as from thirteen to fifteen. Widely as the courses of instruction differ in the high schools and acad- emies throughout the length and breadth of this vast country of ours, it may be safely said that they generally include the classical languages, one or more modern languages, and one or more sciences, thus coming meas- urably nearer than the German schools to uniformity in curriculum. With us the course is usually from three to four years long, after which the student enters upon a college course of four years more, making the whole time from entrance into the high school to graduation from the college a period of about eight years. For the secondary education in Germany, we must remember, includes tlie four years at our academies, and likewise the four years thereafter at college. Our secondary system has two stories — the lower labeled high school, and the upper labeled college. These are of equal height, but of only one story. These three types of German schools offer three curricula, diverging from the very beginning ; with us there is general uniformity in the first period, and divergence only at the half-way point — the college-door. This postpone- ment of divergence is, I think, in favor of our system. We now see how this modern notion of equivalent curricula in college courses probably arose. Manifold as are the differences in these curricula, they generally fall into three great classes : (1) The classical course, corresponding mainly to the last four years at the gymnasium ; (2) the semi-classical, including Latin, but substituting for Greek more science or modern language, after the model of the Eeal -gymnasium ; and (3) the scientific course, which includes neither Latin nor Greek, but emphasizes science and modern languages, even as the "Real-schule does. No doubt this idea of equivalent curricula is attributed to President so and so, of such or such a college, and perhaps it really belongs to him ; but, after all, the presence of Teu- tonic prototype seems discernible, even though slavish imitations have been wanting. It is decidedly in favor of the German system in secondary instruction that the student finishes it two or three years earlier in life than our students do their equivalent course in high school and afterward in college. And, at the same time, it is unquestionably true that success in their last examination is a full equivalent for baccalaureate degree in our American institutions. At eighteen to twenty years of age the Ger- man is generally ready for what we call post-graduate or professional, what they call university, work ; whereas, at the same age, in our best institutions, at least, the average American is not yet through the sopho- more class. The faster time the Germans make, with equal or even greater attainment, is scarcely attributable to better methods of actual instruction, I think, but rather to better instructors all along the line. Their teachers as a class are superior to ours, not in skill, but in depth and thoroughness of learning. Much, I fear, is lost in our public graded schools through the suppression of individualism. The fact that in our 134 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION best colleges the student at man's estate has generally two or three years more of undergraduate work before he can enter upon the richer field and freer movement of post-graduate or professional study is beginning to be felt as a serious evil in our American system. It has sprung from the fact that in the older portions of the country the courses at the high schools have been lengthened and strengthened, and the requirements for admission to college have been raised, simultaneously, while the curricula have still remained four years long, and, at the same time, have been both crowded and intensified. As a partial remedy of this evil of superadding four years of college, or upper secondary work, to an ever-growing statue of high school, or lower secondary work, the device has been employed of offering election, mainly in the junior class, thus allowing greater specialization in the last two years. But this has not remedied the evil adequately. And now come the presidents of two leading univer- sities, east and west — Harvard and Ann Arbor — proposing as a remedy the reduction of the college curricula to three years and the strengthening of the post-graduate or real university courses. Prophecy is always risky for the reputation of the prophet ; but does it not look as if this proposi- tion, though temporarily rejected, must ultimately be accepted, and if the condition of life is progress, and, therefore, the high schools and academies continue to advance their instruction, may not three years of college cur- riculum be some day shortened to two, and finally abolished altogether? Then the examination for bachelor degrees in art and science would be held in the high schools and academies, as an American equivalent to the last examination of the Gymnasia, Eeal-gymnasia, and Eeal-schulen of Germany, while the academical courses in the universities would become professional schools in philology, philosophy, science, art, and technology. I dare not say confidently that all this will ever come to pass, but assur- edly German models, the present tendency, and the law of progress seem all to point that way just now. The Johns Hopkins pays no attention to undergraduate courses. Such, roughly speaking, seems to be the present status and the prob- able tendency in those parts of our country, east and west, in which education has been best developed. If our larger universities, relieved from the tax of undergraduate — college curriculum — or upper secondary courses, could concentrate all their resources on special professional schools of philology, philosophy, history and political economy, law, science, medicine, art, music, and technology, our higher education would be wonderfully developed up to real university standards, up to full equality with European institutions. But before this can be done some advance is necessary in our secondary schools, and some radical changes must be made in our public graded schools. It should not take eight years for quick-witted children to exhaust their instruction. The uni- versities would then become, what they should be, great nursing mothers UNIVERBTTY EDUCATION. 125 to all that aim for mastery in any and every large department of intellect- ual endeavor. Tliey would train men into largest aptitude and highest skill ; not for law, medicine, and engineering alone, but also for commerce aud railroad management, for agriculture and manufactures, for journal- ism and statesmanship, for art, music, and architecture, for every great occupation, in short, that rests upon a basis of high knowledge. Our universities have been bringing their instruction steadily closer to the employment of actual life. Half a century ago they were generally regarded as reservoirs of light and culture, where men got strength and symmetry of mind ; but direct preparation for occupation in life was confined to the so-called learned professions of law, medicine, and, at the most, engineering. Even theology was excluded from the range of direct aim. But we must remember that manufactures were then in their infancy ; invention, as we understand it, had hardly been invented ; tech- nology was hid in handicraft; agriculture was a thing of manual labor and good or bad weather ; architecture was for master carpenters ; music for women ; and art mainly for itinerant Italians. Perhaps, after all, the universities of our fathers were as close as our own to the range of learned occupation. But that range has increased enormously, and the universi- ties have only tried to keep pace with it. The complaint is sometimes made that our institutions of higher learning are developing too rapidly in the direction of science and its application to industry. But the world is moving in that direction with fearful speed, and we must move with it. In fact, our instruction has not kept full pace with this world-movement of modern times. For while the usefulness of science as the handmaiden of manufactures is universally admitted, and training is given in certain specific applications, we have generally stopped far short of the mark. There is no reason, except perhaps a financial one, why a school of manu- factures, with a number of different chairs, covering the whole field of larger production, should not form part of a university as much as a school of mines or of mechanical engineering. Our courses make no direct pro- vision as yet for that complex thing called commerce, or for what is included under that vast word '^transportation." Mercantile schools have, indeed, been established on private foundations, but they deal almost exclusively with the technique, and not with the history, evolution, and laws of trade. They scarcely enter the vast field of commercial eco- nomics. Does not commerce afford ample basis for learned investigation and groups of studies ? And is not the same true of transportation by railway and steamship systems ? Ask any of our merchant princes or railroad magnates whose eyes are ever fixed on the markets of the world; on the product of mine, farm, and factory over all the earth ; on the prog- ress of invention ; on the forming of treaties, and the ratings of tariff, and the mutations of national and international policy. Something is already done for instruction in these directions by our departments of economic 126 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. study, but much more is needed to make our universities the nursing mothers in these immense provinces of human thought and occupation. The French have achieved some good results in this direction and for their country. If it be urged that full preparation for these employments can- not be gotten from schools, let it be remembered that the same is true of law, medicine^ or engineering. The instruction of the lecture-room can- not supersede actual experience in anything; but it may be made an invaluable j)reparation for it — it may form a basis from which experience may lift to higher skill and larger performance. A few years ago agricul- ture was regarded as beyond the pale of college instruction. Now the whole nation is busy with the problem of bringing it within that pale. A course of study leading to journalism was looked upon as a novelty not long ago ; politics were learned on the hustings and in the halls of legis- lature, while statesmanship was supposed to be a direct gift of God. As subjects of higher education, in America at least, such things as music and art would have been scouted in former days. Yet music is a noble science of sound, harmony, and expression. Its development from age to age taxes the powers of social and historical investigation. The same is true of art, if we substitute for sound and harmony form and color. All of this old-time notion has passed away in many parts of our country, and is rapidly disappearing everywhere. We are all straining to add facility after facility, until our universities become nursing mothers to all that hope for mastery in any large form of art, investigation, or occupation. This was Mr. Jefferson's idea, advanced some seventy-five years ago. I am but fol- lowing in his wake long after in time — long after in ability. This was Ezra Cornells idea, nobly expressed in the university that bears his name. It is fast reaching universal acceptance. But all of our courses should not look always at practical occupation in life. ■ This would be rank utilitarianism. We should remember that universities are also great reservoirs of sweetness and light. Thousands come to them for culture and intellectual strength, aiming at nothing more. Ample provision should always be made for these noble souls, seeking spiritual light and spiritual strength as the chief aim and study. It is the presence of such spirits that makes a university far more than an aggregation of professional and industrial schools. We must remember, on the one hand, that it is man's destiny to win his bread by the sweat of his brow ; but we should also remember, on the other hand, that man does not live by bread alone. The chief obstacle in the way of such development of our universities as I have described is lack of money. Some of them have vast incomes, greater than that of any Ger- man university ; but these princely resources are largely consumed in maintaining the undergraduate, upper secondary, academical curricula. If our high schools and academies could be lifted up into closer equiva- lents to the college proper, if the pace could be quickened for the quick ones in our common schools, if the curricula could be amended a little, EDUOATIOWAL EQUIPOISE. 127 and post-graduate and professional study begun a little earlier, the devel- opment in our uniyersitics " would be very rapid. Our institutions of highest learning would become more than equal to their correspondents in Europe, through the superior cleverness and larger invention of the American people. It should be remembered that post-graduate work dif- fers from undergraduate not in depth alone, but also in purpose, spirit, and method. But while some portions of our country seem to be advanc- ing toward tlie conversion of high school and academies into colleges, and of the college curricula into post-graduate or real university courses, there is a struggle in other portions for the establishment of the regular second- ary schools and the maintenance of the regular college curricula. The secondary schools are not numerous enough, or thorough enough, as a class, at least, to fill the colleges, and these, to get material to work upon, maintain sub-freshman courses. The maintenance of these courses in time is sadly in the way of development in the secondary schools. Such is the status of aifairs throughout the greater part of the South and West. I have endeavored to show how post-graduate work is hindered in our best universities by the maintenance of college curricula. With us the maintenance of college curricula even is hindered by our sub-freshman courses ; post-graduate work is wholly impossible. EDUCATIONAL EQUIPOISE, MRS. FRANCES W. LETTER, OF OHIO. A profou:n'd thinker of the present day has said :- "The world is not a playground, but a schoolroom; life is not a holiday, but an education." This expresses in a nutshell the philosophy of human existence. The truthfulness of the utterance is more and more apparent as, through study of natural laws, we come to a keener sense of the Divine idea in evolving man. We turn to Genesis and read the history of the creation. The supreme act in that great drama was consummated when God^'s breath made living flesh the habitation of a human soul — a soul whose beginning was tlie thought of the Eternal ; whose gradual development in the space of time usually allotted to man is according to nature's laws, modified by environment ; and whose end, so far as time is concerned, means simply passing on to the unknown but eternal "beyond," to joy or suifer as the soul has profited under this world's tuition. Races multiply upon the earth according to fixed and mysterious laws. Indifferently as we may permit ourselves to regard the birth of any child, 128 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION whether in circumstances of state or abject poverty, the same mysterious act results as was manifest in the Garden of Eden — flesh becoming life through the presence and power of the Creator. Adam and Eve little dreamed of the progress in store for the human race, even under the curse of Eden's fall. After long ages of experience, out of the plastic existence of that creative period has developed a type of humanity whose knowledge has steadily grown through faithful study of God's laws. Science, which is revelation through natural law, stands at the cradle of the new-born babe to-day, and unfolds to us the wonderful wisdom of the higher Power in adapting tlie body to the demands of the soul. Science, which has intimated a vague something of what is life in its essence, and taught us much regarding the development of the human frame, assures us, also, that in this helpless organism called a babe lies a dormant power named the intellect, whose gradual unfolding, if under normal circumstances, is according to fixed laws sealed by the same Creator. If we will permit it, the first few years in the life of any child can reveal to us somewhat of the Divine plan in the development of human existence ; and the lesson should help us recognize and remedy some of the errors and defects in what is considered education. It is the first helpless cry of the infant which informs us that the vital current is coursing through the precious little body. For weeks this power to cry is the only audible assurance of life — little more than a mollusk, save for the possibilities which are cradled in that cradled form. With what eagerness do fond parents watch for evidence of recognition through tbe faint smile, the first assurance that the child has any knowl- edge of the great world outside its own diminutive self. Then come the movements of the hands and feet, an intuition existing in the child for its bodily growth. Soon follow evidences of dawning coordination, when the feeble will, barely more than embryonic, has its first positive exercise in attempting to grasp objects beyond its reach. When this same feeble will reaches such a point in its development that it ventures, for the first time, to combat the will of the mother, this proficiency, signifi- cant as it may prove in the future of family life, is regarded with justifi- able pride by the parents. The child is first upon its feet, with reasonable power of locomotion, before speech is rapidly developing. In fact, the power "to get about" is the forerunner of the investigating tendency so characteristic of the unfolding mind. The aphorisms that have grown out of childish proclivities mean more than critical declarations of exasperated members in the household : such as, "Little pitchers have big ears;" "Bobbing up and bobbing down, never still and always around;" "Eyes in all parts of the head;" " Children and fools speak the truth." The faithful, conscientious study of child nature eventually revealed the fact that these same aphorisms are EDUCATIONAL EQUIPOISE. 129 simply homely utterances of scientific truths, demonstrated through natural tendencies in the early years of life. We are beginning to realize and act thereupon, that the first natural development of the child, from the intellectual standpoint, is largely through the senses ; and if we desire to aid in this early natural development, whether at home or in school training, we should follow this trend of natural law. Cultivating the intellect through the senses has a physical as well as mental bearing. The ceaseless activity of children possessing reasonable degree of health, and the ravenous appetites that prove to be the **poor man's wealth versus poverty," are nature's methods for accommodating the capacity and proficiency of the body to the growing demands of its Master-tenant — the Soul. Theorize as we may, we cannot set aside the fact, that during the entire formative period, through childhood and youth to the very threshold of maturity, the development of the body should keep steady pace with the development of the mind. Upon this depends the success of the indi- vidual. The logic of experience proves that if these draught-horses in human existence must pull unevenly in the early part of the race, the rein should be given to the physical rather than the intellectual. The tendency of the age is to specialize. Even nations have been known to ride hobbies ; while the trend of individuality on the part of the people leads, frequently indeed, to strange separations of what are really component parts, and incongruous connections of ideas and things that have no definite relation. Through this individuality there is tendency to operate in tangents, rather than comprehensive circles defining planes of action. Even educa- tion does not escape altogether this tendency. Let us illustrate. If it were convenient, we would place before this audience the fairest specimen of American boyhood or girlhood that this country can produce, of the age when New York or any other State expresses, by law, its right to assume the education of the child in preparing it for citizenship under a free republic. We would next call to this rostrum the various bidders for the conduct of the education of this child, as they are represented in society at large : First, the physicalist, placing beside him the full- fledged gymnast or acrobat ; second, the metaphysician, accompanied by the " book-worm ;" third, the moralist, placing by his side the " dysi)eptic religionist." Each of these specialists in the line of education will regard the needs of the child through the lens of his own individuality. The physicalist, in making his bid, will discourse upon the wonderful mechanism of the human body, in its parts and as a whole, dwelling particularly upon the necessity for such a course of training as will develop all the tissues of the body, producing the fine physique so nJtich coveted, whose harmonious operations will have reflex influence on the mind. The acrobat will be 9 130 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. ready to exhibit some results of cultivated muscle, in varied gyrations that have become to him the sum and substance of existence. The metaphysician will, as a matter of course, dwell upon the import- ance of cultivating the intellect, setting forth the possibilities of the mind under systematic discipline ; while the '' book-worm/^ with his lank body and expressionless visage, will step forward with scholastic deliberation as a living example of how much one may actually Jcnow without corre- sponding power to do. The moralist will weigh, measure, and estimate the conscience which God has implanted in every human being, conveying the idea that to be finely physiqued or intellectually proficient will be of small consequence in the day of reckoning which will surely come. Now, it is true that the acrobat, the book-worm, and the dyspeptic religionist are extreme types of what these three systems of education will produce, if pursued exclusively. They, nevertheless, indicate the trend in each case. To train this promising child into an acrobat only, means activity without application. To develop him into a book- worm possess- ing all the lore that can be packed and crammed into one cranium, is of little value in a world where active intercourse is the true sharpener of " wit and wisdom,'^ and developer of much-needed common -sense. It means cultivated intellect, hide-bound. To degenerate him into a dys- peptic religionist, as this is properly understood, perverts the higher pur- poses of life under the influence of a narrow mind and disordered liver. These three special systems, imperfectly presented in these few sen- tences, are simply parts of the great whole. In their fullest interpreta- tion these should, together, constitute the sum and substance of education, each with its modifying and harmonizing influence. A cultivated brain supported by a lamp-post remains only a lamp-post. An educated body, with only sufficient brain-power to guide and control the movements of the body for the ordinary demands of life, is compara- tively little more than a lamp-post, with added power of intelligent loco- motion. A cultivated mind in a disciplined body, with uneducated or perverted moral sense, is to be feared in any community. The most dar- ing ventures and atrocious crimes, involving deep-laid schemes, are perpe- trated by intellectual villains. The records of penitentiaries pi-ove this to be the case. A sound mind in a sound hody, without a doubt, expresses, humanly speaking, God's conception of a perfect man. Analyze this con- ception in the fullness of the human utterance, and we shall find that it means vastly more than is attributed to it by the indifferent thinker. It involves all that is found in anatomy, physiology, and hygiene, with our most rational interpretation of psychology and theology. A sound body signifies every organ and part of the body working successfully in itself, and in harmony with each other. A sound mind signifies all the intel- lectual faculties in first-class existence and running order for action or EDUCATIONAL EQUIPOISE. 131 application, with ''will-power^" capable of belting every capacity of soul and body to the demands of life, regulated by a conscience devoid of offense to both God and man. By a strange misinterpretation of the Divine Idea, man is, by many, regarded a dual being, composed of soul and body, but sustaining no graver relation to each other than that of house and tenant— the one to be lived in, and the other simply accommodated. If this were true, then the tendency to specialize in education would prove less detrimental to the success of human existence. We turn from the physicalist, the meta- physician, and the moralist, to the psycho-physicalist who regards the physical and spiritual linked together in the bond that recognizes the mysterious touch of the Divine Hand. We have only to note intelligently the varied experience as individual life progresses, to understand how great help or hinderance the physical part of our existence can be to the development and prolonged usefulness of the soul. To sum up, briefly, a great matter, the body is the medium of commu- nication between the soul and the material world. The adaptation of the subservient one to the superior other involves the hidden process which we call life, but ]c7ioiu only in name. We have physical eyes, whose optic nerves are lenses through which operates the soul-power to see. - We have physical ears, whose auditory nerves are psycho-physical harp-strings that transmit vibrations from the outer world to the receptive inner being. We have nerves for execution, which pass from the great centers through the arms and hands, giving to the wonderfully constructed fingers the power to lessen the distance between the surging emotions of the soul and the keys of the instrument that simply echo higher, more subtle harmonies. When accident, or growing years and waning force devitalize these ordained connections of the spirit with the material world, the soul-powers to see, hear, and feel remain entombed in the physical sepulcher until final dissolution sends the immortal back to Him who gave. The marked unfolding of intellectual power during the years of natural development for the body, and its progress on through life, if under favor- able physical conditions, together with the gradual closing-in of this developed power during the period when physical force is abating, cer- tainly demonstrates two facts : First, All soul-power in the individual has a physical basis upon which it rests absolutely in this material world. 8eco7id, The greatest success of this soul-power is inseparably con- nected with the welfare of man's physical existence. With these premises, it is easy to conclude that any system of educa- tion designed to develop the highest possiltilities of the individual should provide for both mental and physical discipline. 132 TBE NATIONAL EDVGATlONAn ASSOCIATION. Oar forefathers built with wiser, deeper significance than was tben known, when this Kepublic was based upon the education of the masses. The free-school system of America stands the safeguard of this nation, and its privileges for the individual have kept steady pace with increas- ing demands upon citizenship, from the i7itellectual standpoint ; but if we place the curriculum as it represents the schools at large in these days, and as it sums up in results through the individual, beside the standard which nature has ordained, we are forced to read in unmistakable terms : " Weighed in the balance and found wanting/^ This is no new declara- tion to such an audience as this. Prominent educators have long recog' nized the lack of physical drill in our public school system. The action of a goodly number of large cities and a few favored towns shows there is tendency to correct this vital defect. We learn from a published report, that as early as 1860, American edu- cators, assembled at Buffalo in the same capacity as you are assembled at this time, declared that physical training should become, by law, a part of the public-school system. More than thirty years passed before this judgment was carried out by the first State. There is explanation for this neglect. The public-school system originated at a time when the demands of pioneer life gave active employment to the majority of the people, pro- ducing such vigor of body as is not found in these days. As the country has become more densely populated, the tendency has prevailed to con- gregate in centers ; while the manner of living, and methods of securing a livelihood, have materially changed. According to estimates by compe- tent authority, more than one-half of the people are engaged in pursuits that do little to make them hardy. Even farmers, who rank as the most favored class in this respect, are to-day so relieved by mechanical inven- tions and appliances that they suffer, to an extent, from lack of suitable exercise in some directions. Then, too, our cities and towns, as tlitey have extended their areas througli increasing population, have trespassed upon the time-honored playground both as school premises and convenient fields for sport. The delightful hill for coasting, sooner or later, yields to the onward march of improvement ; while the long-cherished pond, that was the croaking-ground of the frog in summer, and the skating rink for youth in winter, succumbs eventually to the same spirit of enter- prise. As a consequence, young and old have, as a rule, been crowded into recreations and amusements that largely neglect physical needs. During the earlier part of the century, log school houses and backless benches with their forking legs were abundant accommodations in acquiring a fair knowledge of the three R's, during, perhaps, three or four months each year. In those days, a leap or two could carry the comfortably burdened student from the ** master's" authority to the un restraining, unbounded territory of recreation EDUCATIONAL EQUIPOISE. 133 With increasing demands upon citizenship circumstances have changed. In our cities and towns, where youth are educated ''in bulk/' the log schoolhousc began long ngo to give place to beautiful edifices, stories high, tlirougli whose corridors and down whose stairs pupils must pass with noiseless step, under the critical eye of the teacher, even to the outer gate. Here the burly officer, duly suited and starred, virtually stands with authority in behalf of the public peace. The three R's have lost their primitive personality under a system of education eight and ten stories high, with its apartments, corridors, bay- windows, recesses, and nooks, broadening, all told, into acres of intellectual privileges, over which, as the allotted years roll by, the average child must attempt to spread his mental capacity if he hope to receive the coveted bit of parchment. If the curriculum of the representative school is examined, you will find well-developed plans for mental discipline, while little if any effort is made to restore vitality sapped through the nervous strain of nine and ten months of steady application each year. As consequence of these changed conditions, the children of to-day inherit physiques showing the retrograde tendency. Improperly developed bones, flabby muscles, and, with all the intellectual advantages, in many instances still flabbier mental conditions, promise little under the exigencies of the period. "What is the result of this unbalanced education? If truthfully answered, it must be admitted that many forms of nervous disease manifest themselves even in the early years of the course ; and physicians tell us that constantly increas- ing mechanical demands, through the use of the pencil, are producing afflicted eyesight. A very small per cent, of those entering the primary grade ever reach the high school. This is due to a variety of circumstances. It is, how- ever, too frequently owing to debilitated physical condition, particularly true of girls. This exhausted state becomes more apparen' \)y numbering and noting the students of the several years in this advance department. Boys drop out from various causes, permitting the girls to outnumber them in the graduating classes. Of the girls who do graduate, too many, indeed, are so seriously shaken in health that further intellectual pursuit becomes an impossibility. Place a representative class of those advanced pupils, boys as well as girls, under the critical eye of a competent physical examiner, and you will hear reported — round shoulders, sunken chests, drooping heads, un- graceful carriage, uneven hips and shoulders, with frequent lateral curvature of the spine ; while the prematurely dulled eye and sallow complexion tell of disordered digestion and imperfect nutrition. Many of these girls pass from the graduating rostrum back to the schoolroom as teachers of the risingjk generation, poorly equipped, through physical disability, for the important duties laid upon them by the State. Too frequently these teachers are themselves unfortunate 134 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. object lessons to pupils, who ought to be trained to understand that physical and mental development should go hand in hand, if education produce the best results for the individual. And these girls who survive the strain of the schoolroom, going into mature womanhood, matching fair mental qualities with such imperfect bodily conditions, are to be mothers of coming generations. What dare we expect for the future of the nation if this trend is not changed ? Even parents are seeking remedy, not alone to prevent the public-school system from falling under its own weight, but to protect the home from the calamities of general ill- health, that is stamping our high-pressure existence with low-pressure nervous prostration. This gradual, almost imperceptible, growing out of the old into the new order of things has not wholly victimized the philosophy of the people, and some conclusions may be drawn : First : — A system of education which provides for mental drill, without corresponding physical discipline, is not only seriously one-sided in its aims, but equally one-sided in its results. Second :— Under systematic progressive physical drill there is reason to believe the possibilities of the body may be made to keep pace with intellectual progress, so that, under ordinary circumstances, the graduate should step from the schoolroom in better health than her constitution, perhaps indicated in the beginning of the course. Third :— A part of education that seems not only so imperative physi- cally, but promises so much from the intellectual standpoint as well, should not only be permitted, but put beyond the contingencies of unconcerned (because not informed) officials, onto the plan of unquestioned requirement. This means compulsory physical education" lif our schools. The question may be pertinently asked : What constitutes physical education ? We will summarize, as suggested by various authorities : 1. It means the development of the body, particularly during the grow- ing period, symmetrically and harmoniously, according to the best-known standard. 2. It aims to preserve and increase, or produce, bodily health, strength, and grace, through carefully devised and well-directed exercise. 3. It seeks greater brain and nerve power through increased and more healthful brain and nerve matter. We have long believed that exercise develops and improves muscular tissue ; but people are only awakening to the fact that with this increased muscular development comes also brain and nerve development. 4. It creates and establishes in the body, through persistent drill, such ])ossibilities as ''activity, dexterity, and efficiency," that the individual may become the possessor of a rounded, well-balanced, efficient physique, through which a cultivated mind and soul may operate with the least possible hinderance. Occupations, trades, and professions show the power of training in special directions. W EDUCATIONAL EQUIPOISE. 135 5. It develops will-power. This connects mental energy with physical activity. One prominent specialist defines physical education as " train- ing pnpils to make the body subservient to the will," adding, that this necessarily includes health, strength, activity, dexterity, and efficiency. The history of physical education shows that early efforts were con- nected with military demands. In 1817, when the militia was undergo- ing reorganization, effort was made in Congress to provide, by law, for physical drill in all public schools, military tactics to become a part of the higher education. This failed. From that date until 1860 the whole subject was left to spasmodic efforts on the part of educators. In 1861 a significant fact occurred. As soon as war was declared. South as well as North, the call went forth for troops. In both sections recruiting offices were established, and men of all ranks and ages, includ- ing boys scarcely out of their teens, marched up to these enrolling places, each writing his name upon the books. This meant a pledge to serve the country according to their best knowledge of loyalty. What happened ? Immediately these raw recruits, in squads, were placed under a drill-master, and the *^ setting-up'^ process became the first order, and was continued with other drill through the war. What was this for ? First, to get the body under better condition and command for the strain of warfare ; second, to make these men more completely obedient to their superior officers, upon which the success of campaigns materially depended. Now, if getting men upon scientific base with true physio- logical poise was desirable for killing purposes, is it not good for living purposes ? If bodily training made them more obedient soldiers, is not this same training good in making the individual more thoroughly sub- servient to his superior commander, the unllf Physical education pro- poses this initial ^'setting-up'' process in our public schools, commencing with the primary grade. We need not go far to-night to discover how few know how to stand, walk, and sit properly, and more than all how to breathe. We would teach the fundamental principles of success in human life, the **^A"of which is the largest possible hreatliing capacity. This concerns girls as well as boys, and women as well as men. We have read recently an account of the effort made by Mr. William B. Fowle to intro- duce physical exercise in the Boston Monitorial School for girls, in 1825. After overcoming, with some difficulty, the prejudice of prim parents, he finally wrote to a friend interested in physical education the following : " I hope the day is not far distant when gymnasia for women will be as common as churches in Boston ; and that our young men, in selecting mothers for their future offspring, will make it one of the conditions of the covenant, that they be healthy, strong, and capable of enduring fatigue, encountering dangers, and helping theiaselves." To this we say Amen, with the addition, that our young women, in accepting fathers for their children, will make it one of the conditions of the covenant, that they be 136 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION able to give purity for purity, with lives untainted by the drugs and weed which are to-day wrecking the manhood of this nation and cursing pos- terity through the relentless laws of heredity. The only physical drill that I can now recall in my early school life, outside of vigorous applications of birch and ferule — which did get up lively circulation occasionally— was '^toeing the line" in class. Some- times it was a chalk mark ; again, it proved to be a convenient crack in the floor, if the joiner's plans happened to be favorable. Yes, we were told to fold our arms, forward usually — a most unhygienic act, according to modem ideas. " Toeing the line," however, was the sine qua non, if we may judge from oft-repeated movements — sui generis. Under the new phase of education we are still '' toeing the line" — an imaginary one — turned on end. We are not only toeing it, but breasting it as well. With the opening of the civil war physical education revived, since which time it has steadily grown, until it is in the very air, waiting only for an application of public sentiment to connect it inseparably with the public-school system, where it properly belongs. This introduces the vexing question of methods — a controversy which has had some influence in hindering the progress of the work in our schools. The physiological laws upon which the development of tissue depends are called the foundation principles in physical education. The applica- tion of these foundation principles in different countries, or through indi- viduals in the same country, has given rise to varying methods or systems. The ideas prevailing in the mind of those applying these principles deter- mine the chief characteristics of special methods. The main point of difference concerns the use of apparatus, one faction relying upon it, and the opposing faction regarding it wholly unnecessary. One method dis- cards music entirely, while no one regards it applicable in all exercises. One specialist places marked stress upon periodic measurements, basing exercises upon the same ; while another fails to appreciate its importance. One considers a well-devised system of pulleys and chest-weights compre- hensive and effective in results ; while another, seemingly as successful, vigorously opposes them. One seeks health and strength ; another adds precision in movement with promptness in execution. All plans promote the end sought, while none can yet claim perfection. The principal methods recognized are the German, tlie Ling (Swedish), and the Amer- ican. Graduates from these various schools hold responsible positions over the country, and are realizing encouraging results. The unsettled problem which is agitating i:)rominent apostles of this new education con- cerns the adaptation of these metliods to our system of graded schools, with the limited facilities of the ordinary schoolroom. It was a significant gathering of specialists that assembled in Drexel Institute at Philadelphia last spring. As usual, this question came again EDUCATIONAL EQUIPOISE. to the front, eacli system claiming superiority over others. It was my ])rivilege to be present. The one thought that impressed me at the close of that conference was the great wealth of plans, but dearth of applica- tion. That body represented the principal colleges of the country. Young Men's Christian Associations, private gymnasia, and a limited number of public schools. The burden upon the mind of one listener, at least, was the uncared-for balance of the twelve millions of children who to-day are in the hands of the State preparing for citizenship. Over in Ohio, just before the close of the last session, the legislature did enact a law making physical education compulsory in all cities of five thousand inhab- itants and more. This is the first and only State to take such a step. Now, if this added tuition is desirable for the children in fifty-five cities in one State, why should not the same privilege be extended to all States, from the district school to the university ? This involves outlay of public funds, as such instruction should be in the hands of able directors, not inexperienced makeshifts nor broken-down athletes. The end to be attained will justify all that it will cost. Adajiting this tuition to the limited facilities of the schoolroom will accomplish much ; but the best will not result until the pupils from each and every grade can be drilled at stated times under the director in a properly equipped gymnasium, which should be found in every school-building. Every true method aims to promote : (1) Health ; (2) Strength. This involves no controversy. Health is the condition of the body which per- mits one to live and work with the greatest possible ease, and this should not be sought as a condition of maturity only. When a child is born, through the laws of heredity its possibilities are already determined. As another has expressed it, '^ The germ of perfecti- bility is there " — meaning the tent of which the individual is capable. But to develop this germ certain conditions are essential, such as fresh air, healthful food, proper clothing and rest. The need for systematic exercise in producing the degree of perfection foreshadowed in the germ is not so well appreciated. Exercise is muscular movement produced by muscular contraction, or the power to shorten the space between the extremities. Exercise breaks down tissue, and the nutritive system builds up. During the growing period, if conditions are favorable, the supply of new material exceeds the waste, so that the body increases in bulk — it grows. In restoring the reduced system to normal conditions, the same results. Strength depends upon the frequency of these changes. The quickened, more healthful action of the voluntary muscles quickens also the action of the involun- tary muscles, producing corresponding and harmonious change. The results of educational exercise, in a strictly physical bearing, have been summed up by a prominent specialist as follows : 1. It increases the size and power of the voluntary muscles. 138 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. 2. It increases the functional activity of the involuntary muscles. 3. It promotes the health and strength of the whole body, by quicken- ing the circulation and increasing respiration. Recreative exercise, such as games and sports, is sufficient to keep the body in good condition when fully matured ; but it is not sufficient dur- ing the growing period, if we aim for the best that the individual can produce. After some weeks in a gymnasium, an English soldier was asked by the specialist Archibald Maclaren, what he thought of it. The soldier replied : *^I feel twice the man I did, sir.^' When questioned as to what this meant, he responded, '^ I feel twice the man I did, sir, for anything a man may be set to do." This implied more than physical com- petency. Brain and nerve tissue is matter subject to the same conditions of change resulting to other parts of the body through exercise. Increas- ing the quantity and quality means all that brain and nerve tissue indi- cates in the body, so it cannot fail to result in quickened perception and increased intellectual ability as well as physical readiness. We do not quite indorse the utterance of the writer who declares that every sick man is a villain ; but it is apparent that with added physical force can come higher moral tone, particularly if the natural trend is not in the opposite direction. It has been satisfactorily demonstrated that systematic physi- cal drill in the schoolroom not only improves the physical condition and mental ability of pupils, but the government of the school more nearly and readily approaches the high ideal of self-control. It increases, also, self-reliance, courage, and we may add patriotism. The Greeks and Romans understood its value in promoting the qualities of good soldiers. The consideration of this subject cannot consistently close without reference to a phase which has scarcely yet been given its place in the curriculum of physical education. During the Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia, in 1876, the great Corliss engine was the center of power in Machinery Hall. From the time when Watt first studied the steaming teakettle on to that culminat- ing period, long strides had been made in harnessing this force for the demands of the time. Under the controlling hand of the master engineer, that giant engine became the thing of life for the vast area of industries whose machinery plied from early morning till night, showing to the pass- ing countless multitudes what the inventive genius of man had wrought. If, for even brief periods during the day, the operations of any portion of the applying machinery were suspended, the connecting belts were slipped, and the unused energy remained, for the time being, a reserve force in old Corliss and its far-reaching connections. When wood, iron, and water are concerned, economy in expenditure is carefully studied, from the construction of the engine for the generation and transmission of force through its application. We turn from all this, the product of man's fertile brain and skillful labor, to man himself, as a machine, possessing EDUCATIONAL EQUIPOISE. 139 and applying nerve force in the exigencies of life. All the learning of ages has not yet fully comprehended the marvelous structure and design of this matchless body ; and yet man, the divinely appointed keeper of this wonderful machine called self, involving such possibilities, uses less care and judgment in its management than he bestows upon his own mate- rial inventions. This is an age of great nervous pressure through mental activity, and high nervous tension through unnecessary and extravagant expenditure of nerve force. Spindles are kept whirring when the mate- rial is off ; shuttles are kept flying when the web is not in, until, sooner or later, physical wreck tells of the disaster. As a matter of economy and safety, engines are supplied with governors, safety-valves, and fly-wheels — this the applied device of man ; but in the greatest, most subtle of all mechanism, which combines the service of mind and matter, the power is permitted to boom on, trusting that the delicately constructed machine will stand the pressure for the years num- bering an average life. The representative American does not even know how to rest, which is one of Nature's most imperative laws persistently violated ; still less does he know how to economize vitality. We have much to learn from children and the animal world on this point. The child knows how to yield its body to the bed or the arms of the mother. The child knows how to fall, or does fall, in a manner to sustain the least possible injury. The cat that purrs at the fireside, and the fierce animal that roams the forest or is caged for menagerie purposes, prac- tically understand, through instinct, that constantly used power is abused. After discipline for health and strength should come training for action and trai7iing for rest. As it counts in the purposes of life, this may be called applied gymnastics. A symmetrical physique means the development of the voluntary mus- cles to their highest state of perfection, with organs correspondingly proportioned. To make these five hundred and more muscles so many fretting steeds, wearing the harness in season and out of season, is a per- version of nature^s laws. The power to act should be balanced by the power to relax — letting go the hold. Simple as this may seem, we do not really do it. The perfect control of the body, however, depends upon this balance. The horse which has proved so faithful a servant is of little value until his magnificently developed strength and will are brought under complete submission to the will of his master; standing, if need be, docile and restful in the harness until the directing touch of the rein brings his strength to bear in the transportation of weight, or carrying the rider with fleet foot and rhythmic motion until commanded to halt. Man controls this faithful servant more successfully and completely than he manages himself. How many of us know how to pursue a single subject of thought for 140 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. even a limited time, to the exclusion of all else that may concern us, save under the most favorable circumstances ? How many of us are able to carry on mental effort without holding some part of the body in some kind of unnecessary strain ? How many of us know how to use any one part of the body in its own specific work, without calling into service some part not at all involved save through sympathy, increasing the nervous demand ? Will-power is the crowning characteristic of the mind. It is designed to be the throttle-lever that turns on and regulates the force ; but, until we can bring our entire being in reasonable harmony with nature's laws concerning action and rest, as they are mutually related, will-power is prostituted. It is not the horse that frets in the harness before the rein is given that is likely to win in the race. It is not the engine that fusses and sputters, sending the piston with uneven tread in its bearing upon the great driving-wheel, that can be relied upon to carry the steamer freighted with human life safely across the Atlantic ; but the finely constructed, well-balanced engine, whose equilibrium can steadily, persistently, and safely transmit the power, measuring distances at sea. It is supreme consciousness of self that makes certain years between boyhood and manhood a period of such distressing awkwardness. Why is it so ? Because, through deficiency in education, it is the period when nerve-power runs rampant in every part of the rapidly developing frame, with will-power an undisciplined, undisciplining force. T lie ease which comes through unconsciousness of self can only be acquired in these days of inherited tendencies and deficient education, by first becoming intelli- gently conscious of the existence and power of every part of the body, through exercise, and then learning to withdraw the power when not needed for action. This applying and withdrawing energy according to the '^ eternal fitness " of demand, disciplines the will and adds to our power of concentration. Many of us, at this very moment, can call to mind individuals who are making woeful failure in life, simply because they lack this power of con- centration, whether thought or action be involved. Training the mind to concentrate its power stands even ahead of training it to acquire knowl- edge, because upon it the success of the latter depends. The basis of mind training is muscle training ; the natural development of the body proves this to be true. Proper muscle training involves deliberate relaxa- tion as well as action. Under physical tuition as it prevails to-day, the will is brought to bear in producing action ; but not so marked always is this discipline of withdrawing the power. From training the body with this double motive in view, including the muscles, nerves, and senses, we turn the will-power upon the mind, train- ing it to this power of concentration, without scattering of force. Upon this depends the greatest success in life. When the developed body has reached the degree of freedom and ease EDUCATIONAL EQUIPOISE. 141 intimated, and the will has acquired not only the habit of application, but the habit of reserving all force not directly needed, then can the dis- ciplined body, in its attitudes and movements, become the expression of the biglier being. This art of expression is founded upon conservation of force ; but con- servation of force, built upon preparatory physical training, has not yet been properly recognized in its educational bearing. To mention the name of the one who has given to the world the most significant utterances in this direction, may hold me liable to criticism. It is the w*5representation and ?7^^■sapplication of Delsarte theories which have given rise justly to some of these criticisms ; but when the completed method for the fullest development of psycho-physical possibilities is in operation, the work of M. Delsarte will find place. The utter absence of specific training to conserve nerve force accounts for much that grows out of the public-school system which is detrimental to both pupil and teacher. When students learn how to concentrate the mind during study, with power to fully relax mental effort when in recreation, there will be less cause for complaint about the demands of school and the strain of examinations. We may then be able to secure high grades for intellectual effort, with low per cent, of nervous outlay. It is worry, rather than work, that sends the pupils of any grade into the condition of sleepless nights, feverish pulse, and parched lips, with incli- nation to study long past the period when the mind receives clear-cut impressions — all this at the expense of what is being sought. Education, then, as the summing up of possibilities, should mean : 1. Developed and trained physical force. 2. Developed and trained intellectual force. 3. Developed and applied moral force, adjusting properly the individual in his relation to God and man. An illiterate workman upon the highway encounters a huge boulder partially imbedded in the ground. Scarcely knowing how to read, his occupation has educated him to a practical knowledge of laws which the scholar usually acquires only in the study of physics. The great iron crowbar is produced, and support is temporarily constructed which will fur- nish leverage on the weighty mass. He well knows that if the boulder is to be lifted a certain space, he must look to the height of the support, the length of the crowbar and its adjustment, as well as the force which is necessary to balance the weight under this adjustment. This is equipoise in physics. In raising a human being to the highest possible standard, a similar adjustment is recognized — discip^lined intellect, disciplined moral force, with will-power as a connecting lever, reding upon the fulcrum of per- fected bodily conditions. This, the acquired result of systematic, com- prehensive education, is equipoise. 142 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, TEACHING CURRENT EVENTS IN SCHOOL. BY E. 0. VAILE, EDITOR OF "INTELLIGENCE^' AND ''THE WEEK'S CURRENT." Honest and intelligent citizenship is the foundation of the Republic. It is the one thing above all others which we must have if we are to live and prosper as a nation, and we should congratulate ourselves on the number and activity of the forces which to-day are working to this end. While it is quite possible, and a tendency has appeared on this platform, to exaggerate the power of the school to affect the intellectual and moral condition of the nation, there can be no mistake in maintaining that the school is an exceedingly important, if not the most important, element in solving the problem of intelligent citizenship. Think of the number of homes existing all over our land in which the first elements of parental responsibility and of intelligent citizenship are entirely wanting — homes transplanted from all parts of Europe and filled with the ignorance and stolid indifference of the most stolid class of for- eigners. Think of the number of truly American homes in which the mental and spiritual needs of the children, their needs as future citizens, are ignored. In comparison with the great mass, how small is the minor- ity of homes in which the children receive adequate training and educa- tion with reference either to tbeir own good or the good of the commu- nity. Surely the American school is the salvation of the American republic. Now, what are these schools doing in the way of systematic training of our boys and girls for intelligent citizenship ? I include thQ girls in the query, for I believe our girls should be educated for all the duties of cit- izenship just the same as our boys are, and I honor the girls who have the womanhood and the pluck to fit themselves for the same fields that their brothers enter. Yes, educate the girls for the responsible duties of citizenship. Train them to take intelligent interest in public matters. The investment will prove a good one. To-day the elements of civil government and the Constitution of the United States are regular subjects of instruction in our high or grammar schools. But is this instruction adequate to furnish what our boys and girls will need when they become full citizens ? The movement of the times answers the question. The conviction is becoming universal that our schools should do more than they have done in the past to fit our boys and girls to discharge the duties that are soon to devolve upon them as mature citizens. How are they to have their minds set in the direction of the needs of good government ? How is the spirit to be cultivated that will demand TEACRING CURRENT EVENTS IN SCHOOL. 143 honest officials, that will look after the primaries, that will stand up in the convention resolutely for what is pure and right, that will insist at all hazards that every voter shall have a chance to cast his vote, and that every vote shall be honestly counted ? True Americanism means not only intelligence, it means right inclination, right determination, will to secure the rights. Americanism of this type cannot be developed by a term's work in civics or in the Constitution. It comes as an attitude of mind, as a trained power of discriminating between what is right and what is wrong, as a habit of looking at questions from all sides, of candidly and intelli- gently weighing the pros and 'cons ; it comes as a passion to see the right and the best prevail. For cultivating this Americanism there is no way so effective as the sys- tematic study of the affairs of our own day. It arouses the interest of our young people at once. It forces them to feel the economic and moral bearings of all political and national questions. There is nothing else which will so broaden and vivify the intelligence and exercise the judgment. Let any boy or girl consider the questions, international, finan- cial, engineering, and commercial, involved in the Nicaragua Canal enter- prise, and what a breadth of view it gives him! Suppose he — and bear in mind that ^Mie^' means ^^she'' as well — has studied the cause, methods, and results of the late election in the United Kingdom. Could any- thing be more valuable as a comparative study in the matter of govern- ment, or in deepening reverence for the Anglo-Saxon principle of self- government ? What an opportunity and what a necessity for sifting and weighing arguments and evidence is presented by the tariff question ! There is nothing equal to the study of current events for giving a prac- tical application and color to what has been learned from books. One cannot understand the past excepting as he understands the present. The reader of Dr. Arnold's life remembers how strongly he urges the teacher of history to use the present to illustrate and illuminate the past. As a means for developing love of country, for enabling our boys and girls to understand and realize what our own institutions are and what they afford in comparison with the institutions of other countries, the study of current history is not only invaluable, it is indispensable. A true Americanism clearly requires not only a knowledge of our own country and its affairs, but a knowledge of other countries and their institutions. We can truly appreciate our own only by comparing it with others. The study of current history is constantly provoking these comparisons, and furnishing the knowledge which must be their basis. This one consideration is sufficient not only to justify but to demand the regular study of current events in e^ry school in which the children are old enough. But there are other weighty reasons which sustain the general judgment that more attention should be paid to this subject. 144 THE WATIOKAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, The proper study of current matters develops that much-needed habit in newspaper readers — the habit of discriminating, of deliberately shutting the eyes to what is worthless speculation or gossi]"), to what is sensational and demoralizing, and of instinctively giving attention to that only which is of actual value and profit. You can preach to ordinary readers until the crack of doom about the folly and harm of giving time to the record of the police court, divorce i^roceedings, social crimes and scandals, suicides, murders, and executions, which occupy so much space in the daily press. This is the kind of reading which the ordinary reader can most easily read and best enjoy. It is on a level with his intelligence and his curiosity. He will have it. It contains the sensational spice which is so essential to tickle the reading palate of a low taste and an inferior intelligence. No daily paper can omit this class of matter and hope to thrive, although ninety-nine editors in the hundred despise it and confess its demoralizing effect on the general mass of readers. Give to the ordinary reader of the daily paper a clean, wholesome sheet, free from the sensational and exciting, and he will soon weary of it and demand a paper that has '* news^' in it. In the first place, his reading vocabulary is not large enough to enable him to find ease and comfort in the mechanical work of reading such a paper. In the second place, he is not sufficiently familiar with the ordinary trend of subjects and discussions in such a journal to make him feel at home with it and enjoy its society. The fact must not be overlooked, that to be an intelligent reader of current history one must be in a measure trained to it. The person bred merely on. the school scrap-book reader or on the sensational part of the daily paper will have little appetite for serious articles on the leading events of the day when he first undertakes to read them. For want of previous reading or explanation, he does not under- stand the plot, so to speak. But let him read in company with a well- informed person until he becomes acquainted with the situation, and then the discussion and progress of events will be to him matters of interest. Here appears the advantage of the school study of current history. By it a reading fiber and taste are developed in our young people which will insure the closing of their eyes in their future reading to the trashy and worthless stuff that everywhere entices them, a fiber and taste which will give them a genuine relish for, as well as an instinctive recognition of, things which it is worth an intelligent person's time to read. Give our boys and girls a taste for better things, and the daily press will soon find a constituency that will enable it to thrive upon a higher plane. The study of current events tends more than most school work to train our boys and girls in the power of getting and retaining ideas by simple reading as distinguished from what, in school phrase, is called '' study." In paying attention to current matters it is hardly possible for a class to pore over the written text, conning it by heart. Lessons in this subject cannot be assigned by pages. The pupils must do their studying not by TEACnmO CURRENT EVENTS IN SCHOOL, 145 memorizing, but by reading — the only real way to study. In other words, they learn to read in the real sense, to get and hold ideas by simple read- ing with attention born of interest, instead of by conning. The study of current events in school has a most wholesome effect in connecting school life with the home and the world. The school and all its work take on a new meaning when the pupils find themselves grap- pling the same topics and problems in the class-room wliich they hear discussed on the street and in the counting-room. The pupil's horizon grows. He feels a new stimulus to acquire knowledge. He finds new life in the schoolroom because he feels the pulse of the great world outside. Parents feel a strong added satisfaction in the school when they find their children better posted, possibly, than themselves in the affairs of the day, and intelligently alive to new developments. Not the least of the beneficial effects of the study of current events is the effect on the teachers themselves. The lamentable ignorance of teachers as a class in regard to contemporary matters has long been a cause of mortification to all intelligent friends of our teachers and our schools. Doubtless most of you can recall illustrations that make you blush while you laugh. The sentiment is growing that teachers should be compelled to purge themselves of this disgrace. In the State of New York a knowledge of current affairs is now one of the requisites for a license to teach. In other States there are indications that a similar step will be taken before long. While it is humiliating to think that the great mass of teachers have to be compelled to thus qualify themselves, there is sat- isfaction in thinking of the added respect and dignity which the new acquisition will bring them. Whether in country or in city, the teacher who knows what is going on in the world has a hold upon the respect of the community which the mere book-informed teacher will long for in vain. In addition, the regular school study of current events has a wholesome effect on teachers, by its tendency to force them out of the oracular, posi- tive ways into which the hearing of text-book recitations is so apt to lead them. When it comes to considering a newspaper article, and the ques- tions which it suggests, the person of ordinary good sense will be very cautious about dogmatizing. Next week he may find cause to radically change his opinion. It is a wholesome thing for the average teacher to have to consider with her class some subject which cannot be crystallized into formal text-book statements, and in which positive assertions are apt to lead to embarrassment. Considering the value which the community now begins to place on this subject, and the importance to the teacher of not only being well informed, but of acquiring the broad outlook wlfich comes from this study, it is surprising that in our normal schools and colleges so little attention is paid to the study of current history. 10 146 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. As a rule, normal school faculties seem to think that it is none of their business whether or not their students are readers of current history, and in very few of these schools is anything attempted in this line beyond a few comments now and then in general exercise, and the admonition, which is seldom heeded, to read the daily paper. In our colleges it is still worse. Considering their scholarly habits and tastes, it is doubtful if there is another community so ignorant or so indifferent on this matter of current history as the college community, including professors as well as students. In regard to both colleges and normal schools, the misfor- tune lies not so much in the ignorance which they tolerate, as in the habit of thought and attitude of mind which they foster. The mere informa- tion might be picked up quickly; but the habit, so essential to good citi- zenship, of taking an interest in all public matters, of interrogating the facts, of carefully weighing the arguments before coming to a decision, requires time to develop. But little can be said in defense of that method of attending to current events which puts the daily paper into the hands of the pupils and requires them to pick out the news items of interest or value. For a young reader to look through the daily paper wastes an amount of time that he cannot afford to lose, and which no pupil should be allowed to lose. He has not the judgment and experience which by a glance can distinguish the valuable matters which he seeks from the worthless ones for which he has no use. Consequently he has to read through the entire paper with more or less care in order to make his selection. Not only does this consume his time without profit, it obtrudes upon his attention many things which no judicious teacher or parent would deliberately put before the eyes of a young person. It is the teacher's business to read the daily paper in order to separate the wheat from the chaff, and to prepare the bulletin of news. There are several weekly papers which now publish an admirable digest of the week's news, and which the teacher will find very serviceable. Not much can be said, either, for the defense of the numerous attempts to teach current matters in the lower grammar grades. To study these matters with advantage requires no small stock of information to start with. Probably the seventh school year is as early as it is profitable to undertake this subject. To make a fad of it, as is the tendency in some quarters, is a misfortune. Neither can much be said in favor of the plan of presenting to pupils the news of the day in the form of brief, scrappy items. Of course, every week items of interest and sometimes of importance go the rounds of the press, which should receive more or less attention. But in the main their value lies not in themselves, but in their suggestiveness. They form excellent texts or starting-points for conversations between the class and the teacher, in which the pupil's mental power of association is greatly TEAcnme current events in school. 147 stimulated, and he is trained to be quick and alert in rallying all his resources of information and judgment on any point that may chance to come before him. But the really significant news of the day needs to be treated more fully. It needs to be explained and interpreted, or it is of no value to the imma- ture reader. Of what use is it to the pupil to be put in possession of the bare fact that Prince Bismarck came out of his retirement to visit Vienna and attend the wedding of his son ? In that brief blackboard statement there is no value whatever for the pupil. But the interpretation of that simple fact and its accompaniments opens an important chapter in late German history. Hence the whole account should be given with some fullness of explanation. But this is only a single illustration of what appears in the news of every week. A mere tabular statement of events has no educational or culture value in current history or any other history. What our boys and girls need is not merely a record of current significant events. They need an explanation of these significant events, showing how one is connected with another, and throwing cross lights in all direc- tions. If the teacher can furnish this commentary, all well and good. If he cannot, he should have at hand the papers that can. The large, rounded view the pupils should have, at all events, and they should not be turned oif with a skeleton news bulletin of two-line items on the black- board. Some teachers complain that the language in which the press discusses the news of the day is beyond the range of their i^upils ; that so many of the words are new to them and have to be explained that it is hard or im- possible to keep up an interest in the subject. There is undoubted ground for this complaint in the ordinary style of some writers. But it should be remembered that no writer can adequately treat of the events of the day and confine himself wholly to the vocabulary of the school. It is simply impossible, and no man of sense will attempt to write ^'^down " on such themes. When a class takes up physical geography or any other science, no matter how common, they have to master a new set of terms. They find things coming under consideration for which their previous vocabulary contained no names. The only thing for them to do is to master the new words. So it is in current history. The words must be used that express the ideas, and it is one of the benefits of this study in school that it gives to our children such a familiarity with these ideas and terms that they afterward find it no labor to follow the serious discussion of the great topics of the time. It helps to furnish the higher class of news- paper journalists with a constituency which they must have before any decisive reform in the character of the daily press is possible. So the only answer to the teachers yAio find this difficulty is, '^ Don't dodge, or allow your class to dodge, the new words. Face every one patiently and resolutely every time it occurs. Of course, you must not 148 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION expect your class to conquer it at the first encounter or the second. New- words of broad significance do not plant themselves in our comprehension in that way. They grow into our vocabularies by degrees, by repeated settos with them. But inspire your class with patience and perseverance. In six or eight months' time you and they will be surprised at the extent to which the difficulty has disappeared, and the ease with which they read articles that before were nearly impenetrable." To be sure, some writers lumber their sentences by the needless use of words that do not belong to the working vocabulary of young people, or even of the adult mass. But choose your language as carefully as you will in discussing current events, and you cannot avoid such terms as fina^ice, local government, socialist, anarchist, absolutism, paternalism, reciprocity, free silver, free gold, free trade, protection, tariff reform, municipal re- form, tariff for revenue, etc., terras which every reader must master before he can hope to find meaning or pleasure in any genuine discussion of the leading topics of our day. The complaint is also made that the subjects are often too hard for school study. This is to be expected when the pupils are too young for the study, as they often are. With this exception, it is doubtful if the complaint is ever heard, unless the teacher is too lazy or too weak men- tally to handle this department. To be sure, there are questions in regard to which light, or what is thought to be light, is breaking very slowly on our best intellects. The silver question and the tariff question are among these. But these questions are with us. We cannot escape them. They will have to be settled by the citizens who are boys and girls of to-day, if their fathers and mothers do not settle them. But the world is not order- ing its movements with regard to what people, young or old, can read and understand with ease. The editor cannot assort at will his array of topics. He has to take things as they come, and it is hard to see how the teacher and her pupils can do otherwise. However, this ought to be borne in mind : It is never wise to pursue anything too far, particularly a hard newspaper article. The subject of current history can easily be maintained as an interesting and appetizing subject, and where it is anything else the presumption is strong that it is because the teacher does not know where to stop. It is hard to realize how few things of importance come up in our coun- try which are not tinged with partisanship. Our press and our people take sides on most of our domestic matters before they come up in the schoolroom. Now, your genuine Republican and your genuine Democrat have very thin skins if you chance to drop opposition suggestions into the minds of their children. But the thinnest skin, by all odds, grows on the mugwump, and for him you must be constantly on the watch. This is the secret of the difficulty in treating adequately in school of American affairs. Our own affairs are the ones that our children ought to study the DISCUSSION. 140 most, and yet they are the affairs which it is the hardest to touch except in the most barren way. You can safely tell your class, or you can have them read, that a certain political convention met in a certain city on a certain date and nominated certain candidates. But of what benefit is that ? To go beyond it, however, is perilous. We all agree that it is not tlie province of the public school to help make Democrats, Republicans, or mugwumps, but to do its utmost to make good, honest, conscientious, intelligent, patriotic American citizens. But to become intelligent citi- zens our children must understand the questions upon which our political parties differ. They must see all sides of each question, and the argu- ments that bear upon it. This it is the business and duty of the school to accomplish. In his schoolroom the teacher must not be a partisan, nor must he be a cowardly or indifferent know-nothing on the party issues of the day. He must speak of all parties with respect, explain their tenets and arguments with clearness and candor, holding his personal convictions in quiet so far as his relation as a teacher extends. Fair play is a part of true Americanism, and no teacher in any enlightened community need fear criticism of his explanation and discussion of current American affairs if he has due regard to fair play. If the Republican platform has been read and discussed in school, as it certainly should be, see to it that the same time and attention are given to the Democratic and to the Prohi- bition platforms. Treat free trade and protection in the same way, and all other disputed questions. Outside of good morals, good character, and supreme loyalty to the stars and stripes, and all they stand for, allow yourself in school to be the champion of nothing, but the expounder of everything that the course of events makes prominent in the thoughts of the people. So shall you escape criticism and contribute to the making of intelligent, truth-loving American citizens. DISCUSSION, O. F. Presbhey, editor of Public Opinion, Washington, D. C. : No subject of greater importance than that suggested by the paper just read will engage the attention of this great gathering of educators. Solomon wisely said, "Train up a child in the way he should go, and when he is old he will not depart from it ; " and Wordsworth declared, "The child is father of the man." Milton phrases the same truth most beautifully: "The childhood shows the man as morning shows the day." If these declarations are true as to the individual child, how greatly their importance is intensified when we remember that there are 12,728.419 children in the common schools, 753,972 in private, and 737.182 in parochial schools. Think of this vast army of 14,219,571 persons of school age now under the instruction and guidance of 420,000 teachers. These youths comprise nearly one-fourth of our present population, and within the next decade three-fourths of them will have crossed the threshold of their majority, and entered upon the duties of active life and responsibilities of American citizenship. The future destiny of this nation is soon to Be controlled by these millions, now under instruction in our schools and colleges. There are many portentous clouds hang- ing over the horizon of our beloved country at the present time, and philanthropists are asking. What of the future of this favored land ? What shall prove a solvent potent 150 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. enough to calm the troublous tides that flow athwart the pathway of our national life ? What can bridge the chasm that seems to lie wide open between capital and labor ? How are these millions of foreign-born children and those born of foreign parents to be so educated and molded as to become in an all-rounded sense patriotic American citi- zens ? These are important questions, and it remains for us to answer them wisely. Js it not becoming more and more apparent that the ordinary curriculum of school instruction falls far short of preparing students to enter as loyal Americans upon the responsibilities of citizenship and the active duties of life ? No man can be an ideal citizen who is not in close touch with the world in which he is living, and familiar with its daily occurrences and topics of thought. Why, then, should these students in our schools and colleges be confined to a course of instruction which makes no provision for the study of political, social, financial, economic, and other important questions which tliey will be confronted with in their majority long after the routine work of the school- room is forgotten ? The ordinary English branches and the languages are important, but the study of American history and current events and the discussion of acknowl- edged facts and achievements in the material world, the growth of social and political science, the expansion of religious thought, the history of different nations and people, their trials, failures, and successes, will furnish the student with a vastly better equip- ment for the battle of life and the obligations of loyal citizenship. There are thousands of students who liave passed through the public and private schools and spent ten years in preparatory, collegiate and professional studies, and have graduated and entered "upon life's responsibilities with a very narrow range of intellectual vision, because the ordinary course of study failed to keep them constantly in touch with the passing events of every- day life. They had no opportunity to take part in the discussion of important questions affecting the growth and permanency of our institutions, which demanded attention during the many years they were shut out from the great world with its critical culture and its multiform activities. This is an intensely practical age. The thoughts of to-day become the germinating power of new vital forces to morrow. Every new question that arises, whether in poli- tics, religion, or sociology, is subjected to the sharpest criticism. Ignorance of the cur- rent history of one's own country may be tolerated in a monarchy, but in our American republic, where every man is a sovereign, it is all important that the young man in his student life should be so instructed as to widen his intellectual vision, and enable him to form opinions as a patriot and a loyal citizen after a careful examination of all sides of every question. The student whose reading is confined entirely to a party paper will pass out of the schoolroom into the business world an ignorant partisan, while lie who critically examines opposing views on every question, and weighs the arguments on all sides, will be an intelligent, patriotic citizen. There are many who believe that intense partisanship endangers the perpetuity of our national life. The noble band of educators of America have it in their power to avert and dispel all such threatening dangers by introducing into every school the study of current events, and requiring each student to carefully examine and critically analyze all phases of every political and other controverted questions. These millions in our schools and colleges are hungry readers. They are charmed and captivated by the passing events noted in the daily press, and a careful inquiry as to the character and interest taken in such reading would doubtless surprise many teachers and philan- thropists. The rapid increase in the number of public journals in the last few years is conclusive proof that not only those of mature age, but the young, are hungry readers. Since 1871 about 14,000 new journals of various kinds have been established, making a grand total of over 20,000, and it is estimated that two new ones are added to the list every day. Could all the presses used in journalism in the United States and Canada be brought together in the Columbian Exposition, the grounds would be more than cov- ered, and a hundred monster engines would be required to set this vast mass of machinery in motion. . The press is Argus-eyed in its pursuit of current happenings in our own land and in the whole world. No new discovery in electricity, mechanics, science, or art escapes its notice. It lays down at the hearthstone of every home its printed pages, bearing the fruits of the indefatigable labors of its untiring agents, who explore every country, learn its climate, resources, history, and laws. There is no enter- prise on this continent or in the remotest portion of the globe where these knights of the quill are not sent to search out its history and progress. Continents are crossed, ocean beds are fathomed by wires that pulsate with a language freighted with the on- moving currents of thought and events in every land in the known world. The press is a vast text-book of current events, a syllabus of the thoughts and experiences of all people, an encyclopedia of their material' growth and advancement, and a library filled with conceded facts and recorded achievcinents. The press is the most influential and DISCUSSION. 151 exhaustive text-book of the age ; and in these millions of homes — the nation's great American imiversity — there is none so much studied, so wide in its scope of instruction, and so potential in shaping character and molding public opinion, because it gathers and focuses the thoughts of the world, and photographs its important events, and dis- cusses critically all questions growing out of and attendant upon their occurrence. Is it not time to break down the barriers which now prevent the scholars in our schools and colleges from studying with a keen intellectual relish all these great ques- tions so closely connected with our own national life not only, but with the marvelous progress and material advancement of the whole world ? This great army of students in our schools and colleges should be kept, by constant study, in close touch with all current events during their entire course of instruction, that they may be enabled to leave the schoolroom and enter upon their life-work with opinions that have been formed by the fullest discussion of all sides and views of every subject demanding pub- lic attention. At no period in history has the teacher held so honorable and important a position as to-day. The schoolroom is the birthplace of influences which are to con- trol society not only, but the future character and destiny of our Republic. Narrow views and ideas are no longer in harmony with our rapid growth and the material prog- ress of our country. The intellectual character of our entire nationality is improving with every passing year. Creeds are being so broadened as to embrace the universal brotherhood of man. All these changes emphasize the importance of keeping these mil- lions of students in close touch with the real world, that they may be educated in the widest sense, and fully prepared, with ripened judgment and patriotic devotion, to enter upon the responsibilities that await them as citizens of this glorious Republic. The one great need of our country in this the four hundredth anniversary of its discovery is, that these millions in schools and colleges shall be fully educated and equipped to determine and settle great problems that are constantly arising, and to meet these responsibilities as loyal, patriotic American citizens, that the work begun by the founders of this Repub- lic shall more and more become magnified as the years go by, so that our country shall truly occupy in all the future the highest position among the nations of the earth. R. H. Beggs, Denver, Col. : As my views upon the subject under discussion will perhaps seem to you narrow and illiberal, I trust you will pardon me for stating, in self-defense, that circumstances with me, for some time past, have been unfavorable to the formation of unbiased opinions upon this topic. I have been teaching in a school in which there appears to be less need of things to teach, than of time to teach them well. The regular teachers complain that no subject has the time necessary for its satisfactory treatment while every special teacher is in a state bordering upon despair on account of the insignificant space allotted him upon the daily programme. The director of music maintains that thirty- three hours per year is a beggarly allowance for so grand a subject ; the director of gymnastics asserts confidently, that six minutes per day for half the days in the year cannot be so employed as to develop fully and symmetrically the human form divine ; while the supervisors of drawing and of German find them- selves treated no more generously. This constant demand, in every quarter, for more time for the subjects already in the curriculum, almost necessarily predisposes one to look unfavorably upon the claims made for any new addition to the course. Hovvever, an examination of the published courses of study in other schools con- vinces me that the state of affairs in our city is not exceptional in this respect. Indeed, I almost blush for our own meager course when I read the imposing array of topics treated in many other schools, in all parts of the Union. These courses usually include paper-cutting, paper-folding, weaving, modeling, color study, primary^ geometrical forms, reading, botany, anatomy, physiology, hygiene, writing ; the physiological, psy- chological, and ethical effects of the excessive use of narcotics and stimulants ; draw- ing, hydrostatics, hydraulics, pneumatics, mechanics, gymnastics, geography, acoustics, pyronomics, optics, spelling, electricity, magnetism, meteorology, grammar, elocution, Delsarte, history, an elaborate course of manual training for boys, a still more elaborate course for girls, drawing, civics, patriotism, zoology with special emphasis upon ento- mology and conchology, type-writing, stenography, and current events. And now an influential school of reformers is urging that more time shall be given to amusing the dear children ; while from the prairies of Illinois, the forests of Michigan, and the classic halls of Massachusetts there comes an imperative demand that the time of com- pleting this course shall be shortened, and that the^course itself shall be enriched by the addition of algebra, geometry, Greek, Latin, and a fair assortment of modern lan- guages ! But the crowded condition of the common school curriculum is no argument against further additions. It is far easier to introduce a dozen " ologies " now, than it was to 152 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION add the fourth subject to the alliterative three of half a century ago. Indeed, the expan- sion of the school course appears to be like the inflation of a toy balloon — the farther it is carried the easier it becomes. Some of the veterans in this room remember what years of courage and perseverance it took to introduce language study into the primary and intermediate grades ; while within the last two years, a few smooth-tongued canvass- ing agents have, in New England alone, introduced type-writing into more than two hundred schools, and a writer in June Education informs us that the manual training course for girls has been successfully enriched in at least one excellent school by the addition of a full course in dry-goods shopping. I admit that my last illustration is hardly fair, as shopping comes under the head of manual training, making its introduc- tion easier ; since it is a well-known fact that all manual training simply stimulates mental activity, serving, as the electrician would say, to convert the intellectual cur- rents of low tension into those of higher voltage. But while the congested condition of the graded school course may not be urged as a reason for refusing to assign current events a place on the daily programme, it would appear at first view that this part of the child's education might more advantageously be undertaken by the home. Statistics show that between the ages of six and twenty- one less than one hour out of twenty is spent in the schoolroom, or, making deductions for s'eep, about one hour out of thirteen is given to the school. The average home does do this work to a greater or less extent, regardless of what the school may do, and children in sixth, seventh, or eighth grades will be found wide apart both as to the amount and the character of the information they possess, and consequently wide apart as to the quantity and character of that which they can assimilate. The instruction that will have real educational value for one part of the class will be practically worthless to the majority. That which meets the wants of the best informed will possess little value for minds practically destitute of related facts. The boy who has read " How I Found Livingstone" and "Through the Dark Continent" will be interested in Stanley's political campaign, and through this personal interest in one candidate may acquire some general notion of the present political outlook in England ; while to others in the same class a paragraph concerning the African hero's candidacy would have neither interest nor value. On the other hand, instruction adapted to the wants of the one possessing the least general information will be simply threshing over old straw for others. The child who knows nothing of tlie fabled Atlas, or of England's relations with her colonial pos- sessions, must have these explained to him before he can understand the reference to England as the "weary modern Atlas," and while this explanation is made the re- mainder of the class are idle. But should I suggest leaving this work to the home, I should be met with the unde- niable statement that some homes do not and cannot do this work, and far be it from me to disparage that generous sentiment that prompts one to search all day in the deso- late, coyote-infested arroyas for the one lost sheep, while the ninety and nine securely starve in the dusty corral! No: we cannot shirk the responsibility; one-thirteenth of the child's available time is given to the school, and who will dare question that this entails upon that institution the entire responsibility of equipping the citizen for the satisfactory performance of every duty he owes to himself, his family, his neighbor, his country, his God, and the newspaper! If, then, current events should be taught, it is ours to assume the task. But should they be taught? Of course, every skillful teacher will make use of such events of the day as have a more or less direct connection with the assigned lesson. If ventilation is the subject, and by an accident a number of men have been imprisoned in a not distant mine, and have died of suffocation, an account of the catastrophe will take the place of the story of the Black Hole of Calcutta. But the teacher of current events would make the incident the subject of independent consideration, and, if it happened to have some bearing upon the regular lesson, might perhaps call attention to the relation. To follow the first plan would be wise ; to follow the second would be otherwise. As to disciplinary value, little can be claimed for this subject, while in most impor- tant respects its effects are injurious. The mind should be trained to associate new ac- quisitions with related facts previously acquired; but this study, by filling the mind with unrelated and undigested facts, begets the habit of receiving without assimilating. Again, no other power of the mind is more valuable, or should be more assiduously cultivated, than that of sustained and concentrated attention ; but this study, by pre- senting a kaleidoscopic succession of subjects to the child's mind, tends, in no slight degree, to weaken and impair this power. As a means of acquiring information which shall have either practical or culture value, it is a delusion and a snare. It is true that society demands of the man or the DISCUSSION. 153 woman a knowledge of what is transpiring in the world, but it makes no such demand upon the child. And bear in mind that when we teach the child the events of to-day, we are filling the mind of the adult with facts that have lost all interest to the world at large. It is giving to the dead past a prominence due only to the living present. The contents of to-day's paper are worth to-morrow about as much as a collection of second- hand Chinese door-plates would be to a Hibernian charity society. By sending the boy home with his head full of anti-Chilean bluster or modus vivendi jargon, we may win a little cheap applause from the unthinking ; but, while this may make the unskillful stare, it cannot but make the judicious grieve. If the study bo defended upon the ground of cultivating a habit of reading news- papers and periodicals, the sufiicient reply is that the habit needs no cultivating — it already prevails to a hurtful extent. Whether the man of to-day reads anything else or not, he reads the daily paper. In a well-considered article upon " What to Read" Canon Farrar uses these words : "Avoid the habit of promiscuous reading. The in- discriminate devouring of newspapers, magazines, and periodicals has much to answer for. It wastes our time ; it dissipates our energies ; it distracts the attention ; it vul- garizes the soul ; it weakens the memory ; it fills the mind with undigested or half- digested scraps and fragments of knowledge which have little or no relation to each other, and which give the semblance of information without the reality." During the last meeting of the superintendents' section of this ^ ssociation, while discussing the subject of school libraries, Superintendent Coy is reported as declaring it to be his opin- ion that "newspapers and periodicals furnish the most serious obstacles to good read- ing," and no dissent from this opinion was recorded. Bearing in mind that reading matter for young people was the subject under consideration, the opinions of these men deserve serious consideration, if not unqualified approval. It will be noticed that they deplore not the quality, but the promiscuous, desultory character of the matter read ; hence it cannot be claimed that the study of current events in school tends to the for- mation of correct habits in this respect. The essential character of the subject-matter almost necessarily leads to the strengthening, rather than to the correction, of an aim- less habit of reading. It is true that a little may be done in developing good taste in the selection of matter, but only a very little. What one selects depends upon what he is, and one strong wholesome book will do more to mold the character and create a taste for the best in literature, than tenfold as many pages of the most carefully selected chapters of cur- rent history. Even for supplementary reading, stories from the ancient classics — stories that all must know, to read the best literature of to-day with profit — and the biographies of American pioneers, the representatives of our own heroic age, are to be commended on stronger grounds than ean be claimed for current events. Miss Morris, New York : Mr. President, Ladies, and Gentlemen : Mrs. Stowe makes Christopher Crowfield say to his wife: "Mrs. Crowficld, that remark is as good as though 1 had made it myself." So I say of the papers which have preceded me. They are good, they are very good ; yet the American boy and girl will read the newspapers — they are reading the newspapers. Now, how shall the teacher of the American boy and girl direct that reading ? May I give a little out of my own experience ? It will be par- donable, I trust. Let me say how we use the newspaper in our school. Perhaps you may find some better way. Let me take a concrete example. Immediately after the assas- sination of President Garfield, I used the daily papers of New York and Brooklyn, that the boys and girls in the grammar department might feel in touch with the story of President Garfield's sufferings. Immediately after the opening exercises there were a few words read from an editorial, usually from the New York Tribune. At the close of the sad story the papers were gathered up and put into a large portfolio. We used also the illustrated papers of New York, and those were put by for future use. That was the study of current history. I may take also another illustration. At the time that our eyes were turned toward Emin Pasha, illustrated papers from across the water were brought into the schoolroom. Maps and pictures were used. They were hung in the corridor. Very little time was taken from the school hours, but all these maps and pictures were placed where free access could be had to them. At the close some little papers were written. One little fellow became so interested that the superintendent, when he examined the school, seemed much delighted with what this little fellow had gathered from these pictures and papers. We made great use of the editorials i*the Youth's Companion. There we got a colorless statement of current events, put in a brief, plain way, for boys and girls. In the higher class we also made use, at times, of the Christian Union. I remember one evening after school going into the corridor and hearing a little fellow say : " Eh ? " 154 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. I said, " What is it ?" He said : "Why, the Christian Union and the Youth's Com- panion don't say the same thing about Erain Pasha." 1 had read both articles myself and hadn't noticed any contradiction ; he had noticed more closely than I. Now, a boy or girl accustomed to the best reading, or the use of such papers as the Youth's Companion and the Christian Union, will in later life read those same papers. I believe there is a large possibility in this direction. The bright things that 1 should have said I cannot say, as my time is exhausted. Mr, Vaile : I have but little to say ; but I do want to notice some of the objec- tions presented by Mr. Beggs. I realize fully the demoralizing effect of miscellaneous periodical reading : it has a very injurious effect. What our children need in the way of newspaper reading is well-digested matter, and that the average news{)aper does not give. Take the dispatches ; how many times you read over the same thing in the same paper, only coming from different hours of the day, perhaps only a few minutes apart. Yet we all read a whole column of dispatches on the same subject. If our newspapers would only digest the matter and give us the substance of the news, and let us be done with it, I think that would meet much of the objection which my friend makes to periodical reading. Another point : this newspaper reading of current events is not so much for the pur- pose of forming an opinion as it is to put the boy or girl in position to be able to form an intelligent opinion on current events, which should be its main object, and which is its only legitimate purpose in the schoolroom — to put the pupils in position to form their own opinions, to draw their own conclusions on great questions which they must face in the future, and which we are facing now. LITERATURE FOR CHILDREN. BY PKINCIPAL GEORGE E. HARDY, NEW YORK CITY. Eecognizin'G what experience has so amply demonstrated — namely, that any scheme of education which does not provide for the moral develop- ment of the child is radically defective, and contains within itself the germs of its own ultimate destruction— let us consider whether under exist- ing conditions there is any instrument of ethical culture available whereby we as teachers can teach the child its duty, which, as Immanuel Kant has truly said, is the obligation to act from pure reverence of the moral law. It is not a task of great difficulty for one who is gifted with any insight into child nature, or any sympathy with child life, to enlist a twelve-year- old boy on the side of nobility, self-sacrifice, and right-doing. But when this ingenuous period of child life is past, in what way can we in our daily work inspire our pupils with lofty ethical ideals, and plant them firmly in the rugged path of duty ? LITERATURE AS AN ETHICAL AID. It is my conviction, based on the observation and results of ten years' work in this direction, that under our present limitations this most im- portant and vital part of our work can be accomplished only through the continued reading and study by our scholars of the best literature. In LITERATURE FOR CHILDREN. 155 view of what I have already said, I cannot now be misunderstood as advo- cating the doctrine that in the study of literature will be found the regener- ation of mankind : nevertheless, accepting the definition of Professor Laurie, that ^''literature is the universal medium for the expression of the whole range of man's nature under the impulse of the beautiful/^ it has seemed to me that in presenting the beauties of our noble English litera- ture to our children we are training them in higher aspirations, and both by precept and example silently guiding and advancing them in the spirit- ual life. Plato in his ^' Republic '^ has said '' that the words of truth and beauty are the best garrisons of souls whom God loves," and although mere aesthetic training can never take the place of training in morals, yet, as an introduction to the beautiful, it can, through the medium of litera- ture, be made the stepping-stone to a loftier conception of life. Certainly it is most probable that an intimate acquaintance with the purest and best of our literature will call into existence the spiritual life in many a child who, for one reason or another, is beyond the reach of any higher forma- tive agency, and with it will bring to him an elevation of character, which in itself is a development of moral strength. THE TKUE FUN^CTION" OF THE READING LESSON. The great problem of the schools to-day is not to teach our pupils how to read, but what to read. The true function of the reading lesson is to stimulate and control the child's imagination, to fill his mind with the highest thoughts of the best men, and to create for him an ethical ideal which shall dominate his entire being and be at the very center of his consciousness ; and it is our bounden duty as teachers to supply such inspirations to our pupils at every stage of their intellectual life, by pre- senting them the best of our literature that they can appreciate and understand. If we fail to do this, and content ourselves with giving the child the mere mechanical ability to read, we are leaving him in the possession of a power that is equally potent for evil as it is for good. For nowadays a child who can read, must read ; and, if we do not lead and direct his taste, the enemy, who is ever lying in wait for poor, faltering humanity, will give the child abundant opportunity to taste of the knowledge of evil ; and this evil, whose knowledge is death to the soul of any pure boy or girl, is crowding us at every turn and corner of life. In what way can we save our little ones from such contamination ? My answer is, by making it impossible from the very beginning for them to like such literature, and by filling their minds from their earliest years with great thoughts, so that by constantly thinking of them they will become like greatest men. • But, you ask, where will such important work be commenced ? Every intelligent teacher is agreed nowadays that English literature should be 156 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. substituted for the modern graded reader in the upper grades. Not every intelligent teacher, however, is prepared to agree with me, I venture to say, when I state that a child should commence the reading of real literature when he has acquired the mechanical power of reading — in other words, when he has mastered the primer. OUR USELESS GRADED READERS. Apart from the novelty of this statement, there can be no other real objection to it. To discard the graded series of readers with their trivial and commonplace reading matter, and to substitute real literature in their place, is neither the burdensome nor hopeless task that it appears to be at first sight. We are not called on to make literature : it is lying at our very doors. For real literature commences in the nursery with Mother Goose, and continues onward through the folk and fairy tales un- brokenly, till it reaches up to the greatest masters of our tongue. We will find it everywhere among the classics of our language, in the works that have stood the test of years, " the books of all time " as Mr. Buskin calls them. OUE TASK AS EDUCATORS. Our task is but to select and arrange ; to grade and adapt. Reading from the great masterpieces under the careful direction of his teacher, the child will often form for himself unconsciously a correct standard of the true and the good ; and, acting under its influence, he will reject the false and the impure. In the course of time he will become possessed of a conscious ideal of life, which, while not rising to the highest, will yet serve him as an ethical touchstone to which he can safely refer many of the problems of life. In the possession of even such a standard he will refuse to accept phrases as principles, turgid sentiment as virtue, and jingling words as measures of right living. If we can thus advance our pupils upward in the path of right living, we shall have attained the high- est results that teachers in our schools can hope to attain. THE TEACHER HIMSELF. Having made our selection of literature so as to bring it within the sympathy and intelligence of our young charges, there remains little to be said ; for if the teacher's nature has not ''been subdued to what it works in, like the dyer's hand," and he fails to bring the growing minds of his scholars into sympathetic relations with the thoughts and aspira- tions of the saints and the sages into whose company he has admitted them, then no discussion by me of the rules of method or procedure will avail him. He, too, like our present scheme of public instruction, will have failed in the most \ital part of the great work of education. LITERATURE FOR TEACHERS, 157 LITERATURE FOR TEACHERS. BY HAMILTOIT W. MABIE, EDITOR OF Mr, President, Ladies and Gentlemen : I should not stand before you to-day in this place if I did not agree with Matthew Arnold that in what we call literature consists the greatest educational force available to man. This is an extreme statement, but I begin with an extreme statement in order that you may see how radically I propose to express my own views. You have listened to an admirable paper on the importance of the study of " Literature for Children/' approached, I may say, from a some- what novel standpoint. I want to speak to you about the importance of literature for ourselves ; if you will permit me, ladies and gentlemen, — avoiding as I shall any attempt to discuss this question from the technical side, — to class myself with you as a teacher ; for surely the office and func- tions of the teacher are not confined to the class-room, but belong to all those who, whether with the pen or voice, attempt to guide, instruct, and inspire public opinion. There is behind every special aptitude a general force. There is behind every intelligent energy, constantly and successfully put forth, a deep and rich nature. It is this which, it seems to me, literature is eminently qualified to deepen and enrich. If I understand the special perils of the teacher, they are the danger of routine and the possibility of loss of zest and interest. It has been my good fortune to be under several eminent teachers. I have observed that their special quality was not so eminently scholarship — though adequate scholarship is of course always necessary — but something personal, intimate, and individual ; something not to be had from books or from other men ; something which they pos- sessed, and in a sense they alone possessed. And that which gave them their influence and their power, was the impartation of this personal quality by contact between the individual teacher and the individual pupil. Now, how to get this richness and fullness of life ? In all great leaders, whether teachers or otherwise, in all great artists, this characteristic is noticeable, that what we call work becomes play ; for when tasks pass so far onward that the nature becomes adapted to them, accustomed to the doing of them, and enters deeply into the spirit of them, they cease to become work and they become play. For the distinction between the two is obvious : work is forced, work requires the action of the will, work is a means to an end ; play is spontaneous, play is free, play is a joy in itself. Now, the great poets, and the great painters^ and the great orators, and the great writers, and the great teachers have so mastered their themes and are so possessed by them, that these themes, through tlie whole expression 158 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION of their thought, become the natural overflow of a full-tided nature ; become not severe task work, but the gracious, easy, lawful, natural out- going of the tides of power within. Now, it is this vital, this life quality that we find in the great writers. It is this quality which literature offers us. I might say that there is no body of material in the world superior to literature for the teaching of information, of fact. But that is not its great quality, or the distinctive quality of the greatest writers, of Homer and Dante and Shakespeare and Goethe. The distinctive quality of these writers is not the body of thought or compass of information in them. It is the life quality, the vitality that pulses through them and makes their works refulgent with this force. You remember Milton^s definition of a great book. He says : " It is the life-blood of a master's spirit/' So it is with all the books of the writers I have named ; and, for the purpose of which I am speaking to-day, they are just as available in translation as in the original. This quality of vitality is the supreme quality in each and every one of them. A man who really knows his Shakespeare ; knows him, that is, not in the academic sense, — for I have known men, who know Shakespeare in the academic sense, to be as dry and dull and dusty as the country highroads in summer — a man who knows Shakespeare not in the academic sense only, but in a vital sense, in the literary sense, cannot be either a dull teacher or a dead teacher. There is a quality of life in Shakespeare which has the power, the faculty of imparting its power to our life. The wonderful thing about any group of plays which you may take — as, for instance, Antony and Cleopatra, Julius Caesar, or Henry V., these three contrasted plays by way of example — is not the thought, the quality of genius in expression, so wonderful, so rare, and so fine at times that there is nothing beyond it except nature itself. It is not this which is so wonderful ; but it is the quality of life in each one of these plays. For when you study them to the bottom, when you get at the spirit of them, you feel that you have three different streams of life flowing in upon you. You have Oriental life, you have Roman life, and you have English life. Each play, to the very heart of it, the last detail of it, corresponds, illustrates, and conveys the life which it represents. There could be no more beautiful or perfect contrast in art than between the richness and splendor and languor of Antony and Cleopatra, the clear-cut architectural solidity, completeness, and distinctness of out- line of Julius Caesar, and the vital, manly power, the individual courage in Henry V. There is something here more than art, my friends, some- thing here more than the touch of the great man ; it is the impartation of life through another great life. And what is true of Shakespeare is true of Homer. The teacher who knows his Odyssey can teach the real significance of the ocean — I mean, can convey to his pupil an idea of the ocean as one of the sublime features of the natural world, one of the great features of the natural land- LITERATURE FOR TEACHERS. 159 scape, and as a great international highway in history — infinitely better than he who knows every physical quality and fact about it. And so is it with Dante. I do not know whether Dr. Harris is here, but I agree with Dr. Harris in thinking that if we had only Dante, and we knew him to the heart, we should be educated as very few of us are educated to-day, for in Dante there is tlie pulse of the life of a thousand years beating for him who can put his finger upon it. This is true also of Goethe, one of the greatest sources and fountains of education. However we may differ from him in some of his ideas of life, however we may differ from him if we choose to regard him as an ideal of character, we are agreed when it comes to the substance of education, the comprehension of life, the perception of thought, and the broad sympathy and insight which makes the man a master of his time and interpreter of it ; certainly there is none greater than this greatest of the modern minds. These great leaders, as I have said, are vitalizing. They are great be- cause they were so full of life, not because they were so full of fact. Great historians were full of fact, full of information, but you may run the eye over the long list of their forgotten folios in any university library. But the distinctive quality of great writers is that they were so full of life that there were few dull moments in the lives of any of them. They were so great because they were so full of life, and so freely imparted it ; because thought did not become commonplace to them, nor experi- ence become commonplace, and the great world did not lose anything of its charm and its power. They have the power of inspiration, because they touched life at first hand, and they have preserved it in fathomless fountains for all those who choose to go to them. There is one other quality in these great leaders of which I must speak to you. If I spoke out of my own experience, I should say that the teach- er above all men needs constant education in the larger truths ; needs to get away constantly from details ; to climb, as it were, out of the valley and out of the dusty highroad, and stand as often as may be on the heights overlooking the whole landscape. The greatest things men have ever done have been the interpretation of their own lives, through symbols in art. These are the supreme achievements of the race. These are the things to which all other knowledge is secondary, and to which all other knowledge contributes. Any change of knowledge — and it is sig- nificant— involves ultimately a change in our conception of life. The recent advances in science have compelled a revision of our view of life ; and so, ultimately, every bit of knowledge that goes to the foundation of things reaches these finer conceptions and modifies them. They are the supreme achievements of the race, to which all other achievements mount and climb, and in which they are^expressed more beautifully and more enduringly. Now, these supreme achievements, these great inter- pretations, are found in art, and chiefly in literature. They are found 160 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. especially in the great writers whom I have named, and I take these names not exclusively, but because they stand for the whole company and for the first and the greatest. If you want to know what the Greek thought of life was, go to your Homer : you will find it there ; and you will find it not merely as a reflec- tion, but as a vital thing. Open your Dante : you will find again the life not only of the mediaeval times, but of the ages behind them. Open your Shakespeare, and there is another conception of life. Open your Goethe, and there is still another. Now, these great thoughts of life are the things for which education exists ; it is for the creation of these things that education exists. Not that we may gather facts with it, not that we may become informed sim- ply, but that we may press knowledge on to truth, that we may press from every fact the general law, and at last come face to face with the universe and understand what it is and what our lives are in it. Let me say, in closing, that I wish we understood a little more the prac- tical use of poetry. We think of it as an idle thing. I think of it as the supreme expression of life. Do you remember Wordsworth's definition of poetry ? "The breath and finer spirit of all knowledge '," '^the impas- sioned expression on the countenance of all science." When truth mounts high enough and becomes general enough and broad enough, it passes on out of science into poetry. Now, there has been one great age that was educated on poetry, edu- cated on a single poet — the Periclean age. You know what the Athenian education was, and how in a hundred years they produced supreme masters in half a dozen different directions. It is true, race had some- thing to do with it, but education must have had something to do with it. How were those boys trained ? To what school did they go ? I do not need to tell you that Homer was their Bible, their text-book ; that every Athenian boy knew that book, and by that knowledge was nursed at the breast of his race. He did not depend upon text-books ; he was nurtured by great myths, he was taken straight to the history of his race. He learned it not abstractly, but in its great stories, its great poetry, its great characters. And I cannot help thinking that there was something vitalizing in that education; that it was no accident that the drama, that architecture and art and eloquence had their supreme illustrations and examples in the age that was nursed upon poetry. There was, I believe, a direct connection between this education and the splendid fruitage of Athenian life. There were two qualities in this education which are always present in great intellectual movements ; it was vital, and it stimulated the imagination. It did not deal with mere records of fact, it held up constantly heroic men and their deeds ; it did not content itself with imparting information, it conveyed great truths of EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS AT THE WORLD'S EXPOSITION. 161 life as they were understood at that time, and conveyed them not abstractly, but concretely, by living example. There is nothing to be said against the education which informs and instructs ; it is good as far as it goes, but it does not go far enough, and there is something beyond it. In some form education must possess and impart the quality of inspira- tion. It must furnish motivity as well as material for mental action. Now, inspiration springs not from the fact, but from the perception of the truth to which the fact ought to lead. And this truth receives its finest expression and its noblest form in poetry. Therefore, I urge you, as I constantly urge myself, to the study, the companionship of these great writers who have this power of life, and, through a constant companionship with these supreme conceptions of life, to get out of the dreariness of detail, and out of the bondage of fact, into the larger liberty of truth and into the great world of ideas and force, which can inspire and elevate the life of drudgery and toil. REPRESENTATION OF EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS AT THE WORLD'S EXPOSITION. ALBEET G. LAN"E, CHICAGO. 1. In^ February, 1890, the department of superintendence of the N. E. A., at its meeting in New York City, very fully considered the question, ''What shall be the character and scope of the American Educational Exhibit at the International Exposition of 1893 ?" Valuable suggestions and outlines were presented by Hon. John Eaton, James H. Canfield, Aaron Gove, James MacAlister, William E. Sheldon, 0. W. Bardeen, Dr. Butler, and others, which very fully covered all departments of educational affairs. In addition thereto are the circulars of information and direc- tions for the preparation of exhibits which have been issued by the chief of the Department of Liberal Arts and by the various State Superintendents or special committees representing State Teachers' Associations. These schemes have been carefully examined, and exhibits are being prepared in nearly every city, town, county, and State in the Union in accordance with the instructions issued by the various State departments. The special characteristics of each State system will be prominently set forth. There will be of necessity much that is duplicated, and repetition must be expected. 2. A brief summary of information furnished by Dr. Peabody shov/s that nearly five acres, or two hundred tl^usand square feet, of space have been given to the educational exhibit, which will be placed at the entrance of the building assigned to the Liberal Arts and Manufactures. This 11 162 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. building is the largest in the enclosure of nearly six hundred acres, fronts the Grand Central Ayenue, and has a total floor-space of forty-two acres. It has been stated in the public press that there is not room for the foreign exhibits, that the space on the main floor which has been assigned to Education is urgently needed for Manufactures, and that the Depart- ment of Liberal Arts will be obliged to occupy the galleries. I am in- formed that no action of this kind has been taken by the management ; but, if it should become necessary, the construction of the great building is such that the galleries constitute the lightest and finest position for educational exhibits. Let us still hope that the appropriation asked from Congress may spe- cially provide that at least $350,000 shall be devoted to the construction of a separate building for education. 3. The exhibits will be arranged by States and Countries in parallel sub-divisions extending north and south, and by grades or classification according to the age of the children whose work is presented, from east to west. By this arrangement the exhibit of a State may be examined as a unit, or the grades of work from the kindergarten to the university may be compared or traced through all the States. 4. The yery complete reports of the educational systems of the States and of foreign countries, published by the Bureau of Education, show an approximate similarity in the classification of children, as follows : 1. Kindergarten, 4 to 6 years of age. 2. Primary, 6 to 10 years of age. 3. Grammar, 10 to 14 years of age. 4. High school, 14 to 18 years of age. 5. College, 18 to 22 years of age. This classification will practically cover the different divisions, and the number of years in each division will indicate the grades of work in our own and foreign countries. Comparisons must be made upon the work done with children within certain limits of age. 5. It is difficult to determine when the first educational exhibit was ever held. Not, however, until 1867, at Paris, did education receive special attention. Since then, at Vienna in 1873, at Philadelphia in 1876, at Paris in 1878, at New Orleans in 1885, and at Paris in 1889, the educational systems of various countries have been partially represented in material exhibits. The United States has not been adequately represented at any of the foreign expositions. The educators of this country, however, have care- fully studied foreign educational systems, and have introduced, experimen- tally, special features into American schools, such as the kindergarten, manual training, sloyd, sewing, cooking, etc. The relation and value of each of these special subjects to a general education are still topics for discussion and controversy. The efficacy of EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS AT TEE WORLD'S EXPOSITION. 163 true kindergarten instruction for young children has been demonstrtited after twenty-five years of testing in this country. It is gradually becom- ing an essential part of our educational system. Primary teaching has been materially modified by it. Manual training is seeking a legitimate place in our schools, and slowly it is being introduced. Sewing and cooking are demanded in the great cities. Trade scliools have been introduced from foreign educational systems. These indicate the problems of education that must be solved in dealing with the children in the great centers of population. The demand for the practical in education is a cry for only the training which will enable children to become bread-winners. A high ideal of education must be maintained, and the introduction of manual training in its varied forms must be made to enlarge, strengthen, and make efficient the mental, moral, and physical development of children. If the exhibits of foreign nations which have fostered a system of trade schools and have made manual training valuable in education, if the sew- ing, cooking, wood-carving, and other forms of hand-work, show increased mental power above purely intellectual training, then the evidences of broader thinking, better discipline, and higher culture will be manifest in their exhibits. 6. Systems of education have been formulated in courses of study by a few leaders. Courses of study have been copied or have been determined by the text-books in use. The text -books have been mighty agents in diffusing the best educa- tional methods, and at the same time have placed limitations on the power of the teacher. The text-book has been the measure of the child's growth, and examinations have been used as the measure of a pupil's power. Unskilled teachers have made the system a burden and a hinder- ance to mental growth. 7. A reaction in favor of the skilled teacher as compared with the drill-master has come. The new in education opens the world of things, with their differences, resemblances, uses, form, color, a field for observa- tion limitless, inviting the child to explore and to express his observations in his own language. His effort to learn new things offers the opportunity for presenting the symbols of his thought while his interest is intense, thus making reading, writing, and number aids and helps in the repre- sentation and expression of thought. Geography and history become the means of interpreting conditions about the child, and ultimately those beyond his sight. The world of science, the phenomena of nature, life, and growth are studied with reference to the unfolding of an exact knowl- edge and a right relation to all things. * 8. The text-books in use will constitute a very important and valuable feature in the exposition. Every device or special method in teaching 164 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. that has any merit will be accorded a suitable place. Every map or chart illustrating any part of the whole scheme of education must find its proper position. All that pertains to apparatus, furnishings, plans, and construction of schools, heating, light, and yentilation of buildings, must be presented. 9. The most effective agents in educational growth are the normal schools and departments of pedagogy in our own and foreign universities, the educational publications, the institutes for teachers, the libraries, and the reading circles. They have all combined to make our systems of edu- cation vary in the different States according to the degree or extent to which these means have been employed. The normal schools have been the experiment stations where ideal plans could be thoroughly tested. The educational magazines have become potent factors in the education of teachers — clearing-houses for educational ideas. The institutes annually gather one hundred thousand teachers to study the best ways of teaching. The libraries are silently broadening and mentally enriching the American people. The reading circles and university extension lectures are agents in making teaching the equal of any other profession. Compulsory education is so prominently before the American people at the present time, that all items of information which will give the require- ments of the laws enacted, and the statistics showing the reduction of illiteracy in States and countries where compulsory laws have been enforced, will be of great value. The establishment of night schools in the cities, their courses of study involving work from the beginning of the common branches to business forms, architectural drawing, stenography, and typewriting, demand attention, and should be properly represented. 10. The Exposition of 1893 will represent all these and other phases of the educational problem. The exhibits from the several States will make an immense representation of the visible products of our school system. The special features which will indicate the result of original investiga- tion, the application of some principle in education, or the elimination of needless work from the course of study will be found, provided suflBcient time is given for investigation. 11. The leaders of educational thought have outlined and discussed the ideal systems of child training. No one place has incorporated all these ideas. We have had several mass exhibits, and there is now a demand for a selected exhibit, graded, related, and unified, showing the status of the best in our varied systems. By way of illustration, St. Louis might be selected to represent the kindergarten, St. Paul the primary grades, Washington (D. 0.) the gram- mar grades, Toledo the high-school grades, Albany the normal schools, and Michigan State University to represent higher instruction. Manual EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS AT THE WORLD'S EXPOSITION. 165 training, color work, science in elementary schools, drawing, physical culture, improved laboratory systems, would all be represented in the exhibits of these schools. The organization and scheme of work in our rural schools might be illustrated by the best selections which could be made from Illinois, Indiana, or Wisconsin, which were the first to adopt a uniform outline of study for all rural schools in the State, and to provide institutes for the instruction of teachers in the method of carrying out its provisions. This National Educational Association would render an invaluable service to thousands of teachers, would honor itself, and greatly advance the best interests of education throughout the world, if it would authorize and collect such a special exhibit under the direction of Dr. Peabody. 12. The proposed world's educational congresses will afford opportuni- ties to use the material exhibit in the illustration of ideas and principles which may be the themes of discussion. Certainly it will be possible to show many forms of educational work in active operation ; not in the crowded public thoroughfare, but in some of the smaller assembly rooms, which will be arranged for illustrative exer- cises in manual training, laboratory work, physical culture, etc. Wherever it is possible to properly represent a system by a working class, there should be the active exhibit. There are many great problems relating to capital and labor, economy in foods, dress reform, storage of power, waste of materials, that are demanding the attention of thinkers throughout the world. Opportunity must be given for the fullest consideration of these topics in discussion and in material expression where possible. Such questions are of the utmost importance to the welfare of this and other nations. Far more important and above every other interest that may find repre- sentation in the great Exposition of 1893 will be the problem of determin- ing the best methods and means of developing a perfect physical being, of unfolding symmetrically intellectual faculties, and for the training of the moral nature in its growth, so that children may be brought to a perfect use of all their powers, may live in right relations to their fellow- men, and thus honor God and their country. The source of power is in those who control education. ** The people which has the best schools is the first people : if it is not so to-day, it will be to-morrow.'' 166 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATIOff. THE WORLD'S CONGRESSES OF 1893. BY HON. C. C. BONKEY, OF CHICAGO, PEESIDENT OF THE WORLD'S COI^GRESS AUXILIARY. The aim of this address is to convey as mucli information in regard to the World's Congresses of 1893 as can be given within the allotted time. The educational advantages of the international congresses, to be arranged and conducted by the World's Congress Auxiliary in connection with the World's Columbian Exposition of 1893, can best be shown by a plain statement of their plans and purposes. It may, in a preliminary way, be said that these congresses are planned to constitute a world's summer university, in which may be studied the progress of mankind in all the departments of civilized life. That the exhibit of human achievements in material forms will be a magnificent success is already known throughout the world. But what is the World's Congress Auxiliary ? What is its relation to the World's Columbian Exposition ? What is its relation to the Govern- ment of the United States ? What is the scope of the proposed World's Congress scheme ? What has actually been done in the execution of that scheme ? What still remains to be accomplished, and by what means does the Auxiliary expect to attain the desired results ? The world has become familiar with the idea of international exhibi- tions, and the tremendous influence which they have exerted in advancing the civilization of the age is universally recognized. The Exposition at London in 1851, at Philadelphia in 1876, and at Paris in 1889, con- fessedly marked new eras in human progress. "The spiritualization of thought" in France, wrought by the magic power of the last Exposition at Paris, is of such a remarkable character that it has justly excited the surprise and admiration of those who watch with solicitude the important events of the age. It is safe to say that no recent event has excited more wide-spread won- der than the selection of Chicago, the youngest great city of the globe, as the site for the proposed quadri-centennial celebration of the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus. We naturally look to the older cen- ters of civilization for the highest displays of human genius and aspiration, and it almost seems as though some mighty and mysterious power must have intervened to so change the common course of events. As soon as the location of the Exposition was fixed at Chicago, it was felt that no merely material exhibit would answer the demands of the time. The intellectual and moral forces of the nineteenth century have become so THE WORLD'S CONGRESSES OF 1893. 107 potent and active that there at once arose a demand for their proper pre- sentation in connection with the proposed Exposition. A formal proposal of a series of world's congresses soon followed, and the evolution of that proposal has steadily proceeded until the present time. The primary idea of the project was that many of the leaders of human progress will naturally come to the Exposition of 1893, and that it is due to them that some arrangements be made under which those of similar tastes and callings from different countries may form the acquaint- ance of each other and engage in friendly conference on matters of com- mon concern. This primary idea developed into the secondary thought — that to increase the benefits of such acquaintance and conference, and to enlarge the attendance at the Exposition, a reasonable effort should be made to induce a general attendance of those who have taken an active part in any of the great fields of human endeavor. This secondary idea speedily developed into a third— that instead of leaving the intellectual and moral administration of 1893 to occupy a merely incidental relation to the material exhibit, a proper organization should be effected, an adequate and comprehensive plan devised, and a persistent and well-directed effort made to crown the Exposition of 1893 by a proper presentation of the achievements of human genius in a series of great assemblies to which the chief apostles of progress in all countries should be invited, and by the formation of a series of world-wide fraterni- ties to promote the future welfare of mankind. With these ideas, a committee was formed to make the preliminary arrangements. The general proposal was received witli so much favor that the necessity for a separate and relatively independent organization soon became manifest, and the World's Congress Auxiliary was accord- ingly organized. It consists of the usual general officers, a local mem- bership divided into various committees of organization and direction, advisory councils to assist these committees, and general honorary and corresponding members. The committees of organization are necessarily local, to enable them to attend committee meetings and execute the details of the necessary arrangements. The advisory councils constitute the non- resident branches of the various committees. The members of such coun- cils are selected from different countries throughout the world ; and such members are expected to cooperate actively, by means of correspondence, with the committees to which they are adjoined. The general honorary and corresponding members constitute what may be called the advisory council of the whole Auxiliary. Although originally authorized and supported by the directory of the World's Columbian Exposition, and subsequently by the Government of the United States, the World's Congress Auxiliary has, nevertheless, always had the independent control and conduct of its own work. 168 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. The Auxiliary was, soon after it entered ujoon the execution of its plans, formally recognized by the Government of the United States. The origi- nal announcement of the World's Congress scheme was sent with the President's invitation and other documents to foreign nations. An act of Congress was passed making an appropriation for the support of the Auxiliary, recognizing it as the proper agency to conduct the proposed series of international congresses. Subsequently the Senate of the United States, in acting on a report of the Committee on Foreign Relations, form- ally declared that the World's Congress Auxiliary so far represents the Government of the United States, in respect to such international con- gresses, that any further action on the part of the President of the United States or of Congress is unnecessary. In pursuance of the action thus taken, the foreign ministers of the United States have been in- structed to invite the governments of the countries to which they are respectively accredited to select and appoint delegates to all or any of the proposed world's congresses, in addition to the representatives who are expected from the various institutions and societies throughout the world. The organization for the proposed world's congresses has been devel- oped to meet the needs presented from time to time. The committees are not of any fixed number. Each committee is formed according to the circumstances of the case, and an addition to its membership may be made, for cause, at any time. While the committees of organization are generally of small numbers, the advisory councils may consist of any con- venient number, located as they are or may be in all parts of the world. No committee has been appointed except when the occasion for it arose. If the committees are numerous, the demand has made them so. The idea of a series of separate and disconnected conventions of various learned societies has never been entertained by the Auxiliary. On the contrary, the leading idea from the beginning has been to bring the high- est and best representatives of all the departments of human progress together in a series of harmoniously arranged and closely connected con- ventions to occupy the whole six months of the Exposition season of 1893. It is obvious that if a large number of independent organizations should attempt to meet in Chicago next year, and each hold its own separate convention, it would be impossible to provide adequate places of meeting, and the value of the proceedings would be seriously impaired by the repe- titions and duplications which would be inevitable. For this and other reasons it was very early determined that all the learned institutions and societies which should respond to the invitation to participate in the world's congresses of 1893 should be asked to merge their papers and discussions in appropriate world's congresses in which all should have just recogni- tion. At the same time, it was seen that such societies should be afforded an opportunity to transact any necessary business without holding an THE WORLD'S CONGRESSES OF 1893. 169 additional meeting at any other time and place. Arrangements will there- fore be made for brief sessions to enable the various existing organizations to transact such business. It is also expected that arrangements will be effected to secure the pub- lication of the proceedings of the whole series of world's congresses ; their distribution by the Government of the United States to foreign govern- ments, libraries, and other institutions, and a supply of the proceedings of all or any of the congresses, at cost, to all persons who may desire to obtain the same. The arrangements for the various congresses cannot be understood with- out a clear idea of the places of meeting which are in course of prepara- tion. The Art Institute of Chicago and the Directory of the World's Columbian Exposition have united in a plan which will secure the com- pletion, in time for the use of tlie world's congresses, of a magnificent building called *^The World's Congress Art Palace," located on the Lake Front Park of Chicago. This building will contain two audience rooms capable of accommodating about three thousand persons each ; also more than twenty smaller rooms with a seating capacity of from three to seven hundred persons each. In these smaller rooms the meet- ings of the various sections of different congresses will be held. These places of meeting will enable numerous bodies to hold simultaneous or alternate sessions during a given week or longer term of the Exposition season. The World's Congress work, as thus far organized, consists of seventeen departments, subdivided into more than one hundred general divisions, in each of which a congress will be held. Each of the sciences, for example, has its appropriate division, and will of course have its own congress. The popular sessions, for the presentation of subjects in which large num- bers of persons will be interested, will be held in one or both of the large audience rooms ; while the meetings of the chapters or sections of a divi- sion will be held in the smaller rooms, which will doubtless be sufficient to accommodate those who will desire to attend. But how will the various congresses be constituted, and under what reg- ulations will the proceedings be arranged ? The first public official act of each committee is to issue its preliminary address, to be sent to persons interested throughout the world, to inform them of the general plans and purposes of the proposed congress, and to invite their suggestions of persons, themes, and modes of proceeding to be utilized in forming the programme of the congress. The World's Congress Auxiliary expressly disclaims the idea of organizing and conducting a series of world's congressss without the cooperation of persons interested, in all countries. The Axillary therefore defers the for- mation of any programme until such persons shall have had opportunity to furnish the desired suggestions. With such opportunity the managing 170 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. committees will form the appropriate programmes, and with due advice from the advisory councilors will finally settle and promulgate them. The world's congresses of 1893 will not seek to do everything. If they should attempt to do this, confusion and failure would result. Their work will be limited to certain specific objects which are believed to be capable of attainment. They will endeavor to present in every depart- ment a summary of progress down to the date of the Columbian Expo- sition. They will also endeavor to present in a graphic and comprehensive manner the pending problems of progress, the difficulties which impede their solution, and the means by which those difficulties may be removed. It is obvious that there will not be any time or opportunity for any pro- longed debate over any of the great themes which will be presented in any of the proposed congresses. The papers for the congresses of 1893 are not to be submitted to the passing decision of those who may happen to attend, but to the deliberate judgment of the enlightened world. Themes will not be selected to suit particular persons ; but, the proper subjects having been chosen, the persons believed to be best fitted to make ade- quate presentation of them will then be chosen. It is expected that each selected writer will be given at least half a year for the preparation of the paper assigned to him. The regulations in regard to papers and discussions will all be fixed with reference to the proposed publication, and not merely with reference to the oral presentation during the congress. The Auxiliary committees will trust their advisory councilors throughout the world to give them good advice in relation to themes, persons, and modes of pro- ceeding, and hope that, on the other hand, it will be believed that they are both willing and able to follow the good advice so to be given. Very obviously, a well-considered World's Congress scheme would not only embrace, but largely depend upon, the cooperation of existing socie- ties and institutions of the various participating countries ; and it was therefore provided that such societies and institutions be not only invited generally to attend and participate in the various congresses, but that they be also asked to appoint Committees of Cooperation to represent their respective organizations and take an active part in connection with the committees and advisory councils in arranging plans for the various con- ventions to be held. By such committees of cooperation, existing organ- izations may not only have proper recognition, but may also be given opportunities to participate more actively than would otherwise be practi- cable in the arrangements in which they are concerned. The administration of the several congresses will be such as to present to the attending participants the largest practicable number of the lead- ers in the department. Distinguished representatives will be invited to preside at different sessions, or at different parts of the same session, of a given congress. While controversial debate will be excluded, arrange- ments will be made for remarks by eminent specialists in elucidation of a THE WORLD'S CONGRESSES OF 1893. 171 subject which shall have been presented. The utmost pains will be taken to economize the time at disposal, and secure the most useful and lasting results. The aim will be to make such a presentation of the actual state of education, literature, science, art, government, labor, agriculture, and- the other departments of progress iu the different countries of the world, as will be a worthy and enduring memorial of the Exposition of 1893. But of all the benefits which are expected to flow from the world's congresses of 1893, none can exceed the advantages of mutual acquaint- ance and the establishment of friendly relations among the leaders of mankind from various countries. For such acquaintance and relations will be sure to advance the peace of nations and the general welfare of all peoples by promoting the reign of moral and intellectual forces through- out the world. The dates for the various congresses have not yet been definitely fixed ; but the list as it now stands, subject to needful changes, is as follows : WHEN THE world's CONGRESSES WILL BE HELD. I. May 15, Woman's Progress. II. May 22, The Public Press. III. May 29, Medicine and Surgery. IV. June 5, Temperance. V. June 12, Moral and Social Keform. VI. June 19, Commerce and Finance. VII. July 3, Music. VIII. July 10, Literature. IX. July 17, Education. X. July 31, Engineering. XI. July 31, Art, Architecture, etc. XII. August 7, Government, Law Reform, Political Science, etc. XIII. August 14, General Department. XIV. August 21, Science and Philosophy. XV. August 28, Labor. XVI. September 5, Eeligion, Missions, and Church Societies. XVII. October — , Sunday Rest. XVIII. October — , Public Health. XIX. October 16, Agriculture. With this presentation of the nature and work of the World's Congress Auxiliary, the educational advantages they will offer can readily be seen. Each congress will be a summer school of the subject committed to its charge. If this shall be so, an attendance on the series of congresses, or any considerable number of them, would manifestly involve such educa- 172 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. tional advantages as in the natural course of events would not be offered twice in a lifetime. So much distinguished cooperation has been promised, that the general success of the World's Congress scheme is now regarded as well "assured. A day would not suffice for the presentation of the commendations received from leaders in various countries. A passing glance at the different constellations catches the familiar names of King Oscar, Lord Tennyson, Lord Coleridge, Henry Drummond, Emilio Castelar, Cardinal Gibbons, Archbishop Ireland, Bishop Brooks, Washington Gladden, Lyman Abbott, Josiah Strong, Philip Schaff, Edward Everett Hale, John G. W^hittier, Oliver Wendell Holmes, George William Curtis, Andrew D. White, William Dean Howells, James McCosh, William T. Harris, Charles W. Eliot, James B. Angell, D. C. Gilman, William E. Gladstone, Max Miiller, Sir Edwin Arnold, James Bryce, Georg Ebers, Francis A. Walker, Carroll D. Wright, Seth Low, E. B. Andrews, Francis Wayland, George Dana Boardman, Bishop Vincent, Seymour D. Thompson, among hundreds of others who will do what may be in their power to promote the world's congresses of 1893. These congresses are planned, not so much for specialists as for the people. If the illustrious names in any department are few, there are nevertheless multitudes who have such knowledge and appreciation that they will be eager to see and hear the leaders they revere. Those leaders will therefore be asked to speak to the people, as well as to each other, in the congresses of 1893. THE EDUCATION"AL CONGEESSES. On this occasion it will be expected that some more specific information in relation to the Educational Congresses will be given. The state of education throughout the world will, as far as practicable, be presented in those congresses. The achievements of the past, and the improve- ments demanded by the future, are the leading themes proposed for con- sideration. The educational authorities of all countries are invited to meet in a World's Congress to consider the relations of the state to the education of the people. The faculties of the coHeges and universities of all lands are invited to meet and consider how they may best cooperate to extend the blessings of higher education throughout the world, especially among the masses of the people, that genius, wherever born, may find a helping hand to guide it to the heights of human service. The business and commercial colleges and allied organizations are invited to convene for the purpose of elevating the standard and extending the influence of education among all those by whom the business of the world is conducted. THE WORLD'S C0NORE88E8 OF 1893. 173 The apostles of the new education — the kindergarten, manual and art training, physical culture, the scientific instruction of the mechanic and the farmer — are asked to come, and in the light of the brilliant successes already attained consider how the principles they advocate may be extended and enabled to exert their benign influence on all systems of education. The leaders in the musical education of the people, and in the various other educational specialties, are invited to meet and consider how the benefits of the work in which they are engaged may be more widely extended. The wonderful progress made in recent years in philanthropic educa- tion, such as the instruction of the deaf and the instruction of the blind, will also be suitably portrayed. In response to repeated applications, arrangements are in progress for appropriate congresses of students. It is proposed that there shall be not only a congress of college students, somewhat like that which convened at Paris in 1889, but also a congress of representative youth drawn from the public schools of all countries under the direction of the ministers of education or other appropriate oflScers. These congresses, if properly con- vened, will have a peculiar charm. They will bring to Chicago selected representatives of the rising generation, to witness for themselves the events of the quadri -centennial Columbian Exposition, and be able to bear witness thereof when the leaders of our own generation shall have ascended to what the greatest of orators called *' the clear upper sky " of enduring renown. Educational authors and publishers have not been forgotten. They also have interests peculiar to their own relations, and should be given an opportunity to consider and present the important subject of educational text-books and the immense advantages which would result if substantial uniformity could be secured in similar grades of all countries. The well educated in any one country ought not to be ''a stranger in a strange land '^ in the educational domain of another. But these alone would not meet the requirements of the occasion. It still remains to make all the departments of education one, in a Greneral Educational Congress, in which each will have its appropriate place and part, and in which their reciprocal relations will be considered, and their common interests advanced. This General Educational Congress has been committed to the charge of the Hon. William T. Harris, Commissioner of Education, and the executive committee appointed in this behalf by the National Educational Association. For the distinguished cooperation and aid thus secured, I cannot do less on this occasion than express the thanks of the World's Congress Auxiliary to this Association, as the largest and most powerful educational society in the world ; and also to the eminent educational leader who now honors the office of commissioner of education, and who, by reason of his 174 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. high personal qualifications, as well as on account of the magnitude and importance of the interests administered by him, deserves to be the sec- retary of a department of education, with a seat in the President's cabinet. "With this adequate provision for the General Educational Congress, the educational committees of the Auxiliary will be able to give more efficient attention to the special congresses of which mention has been made. Such are the opportunities which the world's congresses of 1893 will offer to the educational world. If these opportunities shall be improved, as there is every reason to believe they will be, the practical benefits which will result to the peoples of all countries will be so many and so great, that the genius and art of the orator, the poet, and the historian will be taxed to do them justice. THE DUTY OF THE STATE IN RELATION TO THE KINDERGARTEN. BY SUPT. AN-DEEW S. DRAPER, OF CLEVELAND, 0. Mr. President f and Ladies and Gentlemen of the National Educational Association: In all the bewildering multitude of newly discovered facts in the history of Columbus which the approaching celebration has caused to be placed upon the market, I haye observed the statement that while he was pursuing his idea, a petitioner at the court of Isabella for the means to sail unknown seas in search of other lands upon the faith of his belief, the children were wont to follow him through the streets with derision, and tap their heads in suggestive inference that he had lost his reason. When the invitation to address the National Association upon the kin- dergarten came to me, the first effect was to call up in memory the remark which a word of mine, favorable to the kindergarten, once provoked on the part of an ex-president of this Association — a genial, knowing, self- possessed man, quick in wit and effective in speech, whom we shall all and always delight to honor. Tapping his own majestic brow in a very inferential manner, he consigned my word to the deeps which are dumb, with the exclamation, ^' Another good man gone daft ! " Eemember- ing that one should not be altogether and forever discouraged by an opinion and an expression bred in an inflated atmosphere away up in the top notches of the Rockies, I accepted the invitation and assign- ment, with full knowledge that there would have been more wisdom in giving it to any one of other thousands, but in the hope that I could make some advance toward the repossession of my old place in the good opinion of my friend, even though I could not hope to discover or explore a world, or provoke a fair on the shores of Lake Michigan, or contribute to the aggrandizement of the city of Chicago. THE STATE IN RELATION TO TEE KINDERGARTEN. 175 For obvious and imperative reasons the comparison with Columbus will be pursued no farther. DUTY OF THE STATE CONCERNING EDUCATION. ''The duty of the state in relation to the kindergarten." What is it ? It is worthy of remark, that the query suggests and assumes that the state has some duty in relation to education. And what do we mean by ''the state" ? Manifestly that organized aggregation of individuals which exercises sovereign authority over all, for the good of all, pursuant to established rules and according to the determination of the greater number. Under our plan of governmental organization, that sovereign author- ity upon one subject is lodged in one place, and upon another subject in another place. So far as our coinage, a tariff upon our imports, or our relations with other powers, are coucerned, it is with the Federal Govern- ment at Washington. So far as public proyision for the education of the people is concerned, it is with the governments of the several States. It has never been given over to the United States. Of necessity it could not remain with the hamlets and villages and townships after State govern- ments were organized and alone became possessed of the right to exercise sovereign authority. There are those who continue to maintain that a town meeting, which may be, and frequently is, ignorant, impoverished, filled with caprice, torn with contention, which has neither original nor final authority to make an order or enforce its observance, is the only power for determining the scope and supervising the operations of such system as it may choose to provide foi general education. So there are those who fail to see why a great city, the center of wealth and intellectual activity, should give of its information and its means to the education of a remote and impover- ished district, even in a State where the impoverished district helps make the laws, and even under a system the corner-stone principle of which is that "the property of all the people is pledged to the education of the children of all the people." But the greater number, indeed nearly the entire membership of this Association, do not hold to these views. In their opinion, ample author- ity to do an unmixed public good is not dangerous to human liberty. They are loath to believe that school officers and teachers are liable to become tyrants. Seeing the rapid growth of both Federal and State authority, imperatively associated with the wonderful increase in popula- tion and the development of the resources of the country, discerning the dangers of the future, profiting by experience, they would promote educa- tional activity everywhere and through all instrumentalities. They would employ local agencies for local administrations, but they would hold the 176 THE NATIOKAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. power which makes and administers the laws responsible for the existence of schools within reach of every home ; and not of schools only, but, so far as practicable, of such schools as will hold out to every child educa- tional advantages equal to those enjoyed by any other child of the com- monwealth. This is the unmistakable trend of public opinion, and ought to be. The safety of our system of public schools and the security of our plan of government are cornered upon it. Nor are the American people likely to find fault with the public educa- tional system, or the wide range of subjects it covers, or the cost it may involve. Childless wealth may here and there protest, theorists may specu- late ; but that irresistible public opinion which is wiser than any individ- ual, and which carries all things before it, says, and will continue to say, ^' Stay not your hand, go on with this work to the uttermost, but have care that the people get the worth of their money, that you reach every child, that your education makes good, sensible, and substantial American citizens.''^ Because of this general sentiment concerning public education, our educational system has come to have a broad basis, and its operations have a wide scope. With conscious pride we are accustomed to assert that it includes all branches and grades, from the kindergarten to the university. But there is very little of the kindergarten in it. In rare instances, it has been taken up in earnest. More frequently a town tries the experi- ment in a half-and-half, unscientific way, which is barren of results. Everybody talks in favor of the system, but it mostly ends in talk. An accomplished woman, who is at once an object lesson and an inspiration in herself, travels across the country to address a national meeting of superintendents upon the kindergarten. They admire the woman, they feel the force of what she says, but they also know enough of history to be aware that radical experimentation is frequently the price of superin- tendents^ heads. So they settle with the woman and with their own con- sciences by passing commendatory resolutions and dropping the matter until the next annual meeting. The less they expect to do, the more effu- sive and vehement the commendatory resolutions. KIKDERGAKTEN" A^J) PUBLIC SCHOOLS. It is not for me to discuss the merits of the kindergarten work or attempt to reenforce the lesson of its importance. If that were needed to be done, the task would fall upon others. We have passed that stage, however. In the presence of the National Educational Association, it would certainly be a work of supererogation. The responsibility which the occasion presses upon me is that I shall present and promote the deter- mination of the question whether the kindergarten is worthy, in its own right, of a place in the American public-school system. Not whether it THE STATE IN RELATION TO THE KINDERGARTEN. 177 is deserving of the efforts of a few noble women with missionary propen- sities, but whether tlie school system stands in need of influences and results which it alone can bestow, whether it is feasible to make it a com- })onent part of the system, and whether it is worth the effort and the cost involved in attempting to make it such. We ought to carefully consider and determine, not alone whether it is a good thing, not alone whether we can afford to have it, but also whether we can afford to go on without it. When a determination is reached, let us act upon our determination. When we come to a conclusion, let us stand by our opinion. If we come to believe in it, let us go about making a place for the work in our system ; and, when we undertake it, let us make the conditions so favorable that it may have a fair chance for its life. In approaching the discussion of this particular question, we must not do so from the standpoint of the mother too weak to meet the responsibil- ities of motherhood, nor from that of the maiden aunt who must always be deemed competent to instruct the mother, nor from that of the trained kindergartner who is charged with having a fad and riding a hobby, nor from that of the general teacher whose habits are fixed and whose action is limited, nor from that of the speculative psychologist who soars away from mundane and material things, nor yet from that of the college professor who disagrees with every other college professor and seems to think that the main business of the public schools is to prepare students so that his particular university may the more easily make philosophers of them. The kindergarten must stand the test of general utility, or go to the wall. Its philosophy must materialize, or it must fail. It must meet a practical necessity, or it cannot last. The plain man of affairs in his office or in his shop, the plain woman of sense at her fireside, must see that it makes better schools, which more thoroughly promote health as well as grace of person, mental alertness as well as gentleness of disposition, love of kin- dred and of country, or it must end in overthrow. If the makers of pub- lic opinion see that it makes more trusty American citizens and promotes the public security, it will endure. IMPORTANCE OF PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. We cannot too often emphasize the importance of the best primary instruction. It reaches all who ever come into the schools. The greater number get no other. It prepares the way for what follows. It is what the base is to the mountain, what the foundation is to the building. If the child is entitled to anything in this life, if a self-governing state is bound to bestow anything, the one is entitled to receive and the other is bound to give the best elementary education which means can provide, and which human experience and ingenuity can devise. 12 178 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Yet, if there is indefiniteness and uncertainty, lack of plan and of scien- tific treatment, anywhere in our American public schools, it is in the primary work. Nor is this all, nor is it the worst. There is visible interest and improvement everywhere else ; there is little or none here. The teachers are, as a rule, the weakest and poorest of the whole system, for the upper grades absorb the best. Each one is a law unto herself. She works for small pay, and without competent supervision or definiteness of plan and purpose. Attendance is irregular. Commonly she is overworked because she works at a disadvantage. The Prussian or the French primary teacher, a skilled and disciplined person with the whole power of the gov- ernment behind him, and working to a fixed plan which rests upon a scientific basis, is confronted with the problem of producing definite results in a given time, with full and regular attendance, and without any danger of interruption or outside interference. The American primary teacher, with attendance when it suits the will of the parents, if not the will of the children, and drifting without pilot or chart, is confronted with the problem of showing indefinite results in an undefined time, if irate parents, or disgruntled petty officials, do not in the meanwhile destroy her. What American educational work most needs is a decided movement, initiated and supported by the best thought of the country, in behalf of primary education. In two governments which I have just incidentally mentioned, the best statesmanship and the highest wisdom are not above the problem of insuring for all the people the best elementary education which is attainable. Nero fiddled while Rome burned, it is alleged. The Christian Church discusses and divides about whether unbaptized infants will be allowed in heaven, while the grog-shops are sending full-grown men to hades by a limited express. There is no doubt about that. The educational Sanhedrim of America to-day discusses such delightful, cool, and refreshing subjects as *'The Failure of Scientific Pessimism to Es- tablish Cosmic Suicide as an Adequate Solution of the World-drama,^' "The Results of Psychological Psychology for Education," and ''The Validity of St. Anselm's Proof of Divine Existence ; " while illiteracy increases, and grave public apprehensions multiply as to the practical efficiency and the stability of the public schools upon which the security of the Republic rests. There is no trouble about finding logical ground upon which to rest high schools and universities. But the subject which presses upon the United States to-day is the elementary education of all her children. Insure so much, and all the rest will take care of itself easily. To insure this, there must be a decided movement in a new direction, which must be led by the scholars, by the men and women of educational force, throughout the country. Such a movement must have a topic and a rallying point. What better than the kindergarten for such a purpose and such a result ? THE STATE IN RELATION TO THE KINDERGARTEN. 179 THE KINDERGARTEN THE BASIS OF NEW EDUCATION. We have changed all our educational theories in recent years. We have changed our methods to suit our theories. We are unquestionably right in both. In the logic of the old education, the human mind was a vessel to be filled ; in that of the new, it is a magnificent engine to be fired and used. The object of the old was to read and remember ; that of the new is to see and to do. The old was for information ; the new is for power. The change in theory has displaced and overthrown the book as the chief instrument of education. Things themselves, not characters representing things, claim the attention. Original investigation is the order of the day, and the opinion of another is of weight only when it stands the test of scrutiny and of thought. Every object is fruitful of suggestions which light the fires of intellect and set the mind's wheels in motion. Nor is this all. The new education is not mechanical or materialistic. It is real life. It appeals to the emotions and the affections, to faith, hope, love, reverence, conscience. A writer in last week's Christian Union, treating of this subject in an able manner, quotes Dr. Roswell D. Hitchcock's defi- nition of greatness in these words : " He only is great of heart who floods the world with great affections ; he only is great of mind who stirs the world with great thoughts ; he only is great of will who does something to shape the world to a great career ;'' and adds, ** The object of the new education is to confer something of this greatness — to give the pupil power to flood his world w^ith a great affection, to stir it to great thoughts, and shape it to a great career. The old education told its pupils about the great feelings, the great thoughts, the great deeds of the past, and trusted that the information would kindle life in them. The new education aims directly to create life — to endow with that power." The old plan of operations was entirely ineffectual to carry out the new theory of education. The differences between the old methods and the new need not be discussed at length here. The difference is complete from the beginning to the finish, even more materially and consequentially so at the beginning than at the finish. The old plan commenced with the alphabet and the book; the new plan commences without either, and before either can be practically employed. It takes the little one before he can be taught to read and becomes a fascination and a joy to him. While it gains his interest, it exercises his muscles, sharpens his observing and per- ceptive faculties, and starts the habit of inquiry and investigation ; it arouses his emotions and directs his affections ; it trains his eye and his hand ; it develops his reason and stimulates his moral sense. This is the beginning which is imperatively necessary before there can be any advantageous prosecution of the new svstem of education. Then the state has a duty in reference to it. And this is the work of the kinder- garten. 180 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. IKTELLIGEKT DEVELOPMENT. The essential principle of the new plan for intellectual development is the habit of observation and of original investigation. It is perhaps too much to say that if this habit is not acquired in the kindergarten age it never will be acquired at all. It is undoubtedly within the fact to say that it never will be acquired in the same degree of strength or of usefulness. Thcn^ what is the necessity or the utility of this line of reasoning at all ? When a six-year-old child sees a stone of unusual appearance, when he is looking for the difference in the leaves of the maple and the elm, when he is talking about the appearance and the habits of the sparrow and the robin, we know that he is not only acquiring a love for nature which will make him a better man, but he has acquired a habit of investigation which will make him a stronger one. The habit will not desert him. It will rule his life, and he will quicken continually in intellectual alertness and grow in intellectual power. So far as the mass of American children is concerned, where and how is this habit to be acquired at all, if not in kindergartens which are an organic part of the public schools ? SHORTENING THE COURSE. Throughout the land, particularly at the centers of population, we hear the demand that the course of study be shortened, and that the competent be not held back to suit the convenience of the slow. As great cities multiply and grow, as the population becomes more dense, as competition becomes more close, and the struggle for livelihood more severe, this de- mand will become more imperative, and it must be listened to. How can it be met so effectually as by gaining time at the beginning of the course, and by augmenting and wisely directing intellectual strength from the start ? PHYSICAL EXERCISE. The physical development of our children claims interest, and v^^ell it may. The subject is receiving the attention of the schools. Calisthenic exercises afford relaxation in the schoolroom. The extent to which they promote the development of the body is probably not great. The gym- nasium trains athletes. It reaches but a small number of persons, how- ever. When the physical development of American children is general, it will not be purely mechanical. Outdoor life, activity, love of nature, fondness for open-air games and sports will inevitably lead to physical health and strength. Cultivate a disposition for these things if you would have this kind of life among the people. A boy who has no fond- ness for games before he is ten years of age will never have it ; a girl who has no music in her soul before that age will never have it. Then TEE STATE IN RELATION TO THE KINDERGARTEN. 181 commence early to arouse and direct an interest in these things. Let little children know that grown people believe in them, and they will love them. It is nature's tendency. It can be trained and developed more easily than it can be repressed. Develop it, and there will be no lack of ])hysical exercise. The songs and games of the kindergarten rest upon this theory and are strong instrumentalities for promoting this end. If we could give all American children the advantage of this influence and this training, 1 am confident that it would give them a new interest in out- door life, a new love for nature, increased activity, better health, and stronger bodies. INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT. The decisive educational movement of recent years has been toward what will be readily understood as covered by the term '' manual train- ing." Public sentiment has insisted that our schools must prepare chil- dren for the practical affairs of life, for manual as well as intellectual pur- suits. The demand has been for eyes that are accurate, and hands that are deft. Schoolmen have been trampling over one another, trying to meet this demand. But how ? Here is a great, beautiful, busy city with a population of many thousands of souls. It is clouded with the smoke of manufactories, and the hum of machinery is heard upon every side. Its people have eagerly demanded, and cheerfully paid for, the best schools they could get. It has primary schools and grammar schools and high schools in imposing array. But these schools are cultivating the intel- lectuality alone ; they must cultivate the mechanical instinct, they must help the shop as well as the office, they must dignify manual labor, they must promote the industrial growth of the city. To be sure, they should. The demand is the logical outgrowth of the situation. It is not anly a demand from the people, but it is a reasonable demand, and it must be met. How is it met ? It is met in measure so inadequate, with a plan so ineffectual, that it may truthfully be said that it is not met at all. A room is secured, a mechanic employed, and one boy out of twenty in the high school goes puttering around two or three hours each week in heroic efforts to saw a board on the square, and make a stool that will stand up ; and the public schools of the city are said to be sprouting and training the mechanical instinct of the city. In the expressive language of a friend, it makes one tired to contemplate it. What becomes of the ninety- five children out of every hundred who never go to the high school ? What becomes of the nineteen out of twenty high-school cliildren who do not go into the shop ? Indeed, what becomes of the one-quarter of one per cent, of the entire number in whom the mechanical instinct is neglected until the high-school age, and then ministered unto in this feeble way ? How long at this rate before the school shop will add skilled mechanics, improved machinery, and new enthusiasm to the industrial equipment of 182 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. this city, to an extent which will be appreciable ? If the last generation had depended upon this reed for its material prosperity, where would it be now ? But the problem is not fictitious : it is real and it is pressing. It is thrust upon the schools, and the schools have undertaken its solution. Circumstances are changing, have changed. The men who have pro- duced the industrial prosperity of the present generation were boys before manual training schools were established. They had their training in the schools of experience and necessity. Many of them were country boys who broke steers and mended harness and made their own sleds ; in the cities, they came from homes where poverty was the inspiration of industry and ingenuity, and they came by way of the factory and the shop. In either case, they were in contact with things, and they had to use their hands. There are such boys in this generation, and there will be in the next. But the conditions arc not the same, the demands are more ex- acting, and the proportion of such boys in such circumstance is not as large. The unprecedented growth of this country in the last twenty-five years has of itself produced a false conception of the foundation upon which industrial progress must rest, and a thoroughly unsound and highly unfortunate estimate of the most honorable or most promising road to individual success. It would seem that if the schools are to attain any measurable success in the solution of this problem, they must put children to doiug things. They must reach not a few but the whole number. They must com- mence in the first years of school life, or they will never commence at all. They must germinate the mechanical tendency when it may be germinated, if they would train it when it may be trained. They must give all an equal chance, and they must reach the multitude, so far as the multitude will be reached. Here is the field and the necessity of the kindergarten. In piling blocks, in cutting and folding papers, in weaving mats, in modeling clay and molding sand, under competent supervision and instruction, there is more to develop mechanical interest on the part of the new generation, and more to carry industrial power to the next generation, than through any other work which can well be related to the public schools. If this work is followed by form-study and industrial drawing through the primary and grammar schools, the public will be doing as much for hand training on the one side as for mind training on the other, in the elementary schools, and the foundation for the manual training school and the technological school will be laid. If the foundation is not laid, it is idle to attempt the superstructure. If the foundation is well laid, it is likely that the child who deserves to get on will get on, whether the public helps him farther or not. In any event, the public is bound to help impartially, and to do what will most promote the public interests. THE STATE IN RELATION TO THE KINDERGARTEN. 183 It must not maintain high schools and colleges to help those who tend toward the professions, with the inevitable inference that this is the best or the only road for youth to travel, without also maintaining special schools which will attract toward the manual industries, which will put a premium upon skilled hand labor, and which will promote and direct the indus- trial development of the country. THE ARTS. Art is struggling to get upon its feet in the United States. Music and painting and sculpture find difficulty in doing so. The artistic taste is growing, but it is not strong among the masses. The impression may not be justified, but certainly it is strong, that works of art of large value are not being produced in this country. Wealth seeks its art treasures in the foreign market. But art treasures of large cost, which only find their way into the homes of the wealthy, are of comparatively small conse- quence in cultivating the artistic taste and increasing the demand for art products among the people. We are doing much better in the way of industrial and decorative art. How the demand for these products has strengthened in recent years, and how the taste has improved ! How architecture has grown, and how sound and discriminating has the household taste become concerning interior furnishings and decorations ! All this is one of the most gratify- ing and encouraging proofs of sound national progress and healthful national life. We do not know, or we fail to remember, the debt of gratitude which that art which makes the homes of the people brighter and happier owes to the irregular and voluntary kindergarten work which has here and there been inaugurated. Nor can we have any appreciation of the aid which the good cause of home culture would gain from the general introduction of this work into the public schools. CULTIVATION or THE MORAL SENSE. Thoughtful men are thinking, and they have occasion to think, of the moral training of American children. Patriotic men are solicitous, and they have occasion to be solicitous, about the influence of sectarianism upon the public schools. And churchmen are apprehensive about the influence of the schools upon denomi nationalism. The whole trouble pales and disappears before the spirit of the kindergarten. And what is the spirit of the kindergarten ? It is not for me to undertake to describe it. The task would be too much for a non-professional — perhaps too much for a trained and accomplished kindergartner. It may be felt, but it is doubtful if it can be described. Bu^ read, for instance, that book by Miss Elizabeth Harrison, of the Chicago Kindergarten Training School, on *'The Study of Child Nature," with its wealth of sound principle 184 TEE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. and new gospel, of incident and illustration, and you will gain a new realization of the obligations which adult life owes to child nature, and a new conception of the way to train cliildish instincts if you would strew the pathway with flowers, while you grow men and women who will be loyal to their own consciences, and whose character will make the character of the state. Instill the intelligence and the spirit which breathes through every line of that book in the mothers and teachers of the land, and you will go a long way in the solution of the problem of moral culture in the United States, for you will apply sound principles in a realistic and natural way, so that they will not be repelled, but find lodgment in the soul. THE SPIRIT OE THE KIJiTDERGARTEN IN^ THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. And the spirit of the kindergarten is precisely the spirit of which the public schools stand in need. An understanding of the developing pro- cesses of child nature, a scientific method of treatment, individuality, freedom, pleasure, enthusiasm, real life, and natural ways in the school- room are what this materialistic age demands of the public schools. I cannot see how the kindergarten spirit is to be brought into the schools unless the kindergarten is made a part of them. Commence the course with this kind of work, and teachers must be prepared for it. Brought in at the foundation, its atmosphere will be carried up through all the grades, and its fragrant perfume will permeate every room and reach all the recesses of the whole institution. Of alleged teachers willing to work for four hundred dollars a year, the supply exceeds the demand. Of real teachers worth a thousand or two thousand dollars a year, the demand far exceeds the supply ; yet the life of the schools depends upon meeting it. Churches languish because the people care more for real life than for theology. Tell me that it is a restless and vicious age, and that the people are all wrong. Perhaps so ; perhaps not. I do not think so, but never mind. It is an established fact, and might as well be accepted. The people care more, they will continue to care more, for life than for dogma. They care little, and they will continue to care little, for theology which always soars and never lights. Churches must have preachers who are in contact with affairs, who are broader than doctrine, who are in touch with life, who are animated and alert, or they will languish. The old way will not do. The same thing is true of the schools. They must have a teaching force not only grounded in scholarship, skilled in peda- gogy, and at home in any center of culture ; but one that is broader than technical scholarship, in touch with the activities, and awake to the demands of the country. If not, they will languish. ASSISTING NATURE. And these teachers must act in accord with nature and not in opposition to the divine laws which are irresistible. The old way of training chil- THE STATE IN RELATION TO THE KINDERGARTEN. 185 dren by frowns and whips has happily gone. There is a new way, and the person who does not know it has no place in the schools. The efficacy of this principle is now very generally recognized in the training of dumb animals. The old way in training horses was to let the colt run wild, without any restraint whatever, until three or four years old, and then catch him and harness him in an intolerable fashion, and maltreat him in a most inhuman way, until his spirit was broken and he submitted from sheer exhaustion. This was the universal plan only a few years ago, but it is universally discarded by all intelligent horsemen now. The new plan is to handle and fondle the colt from birth, halter him as soon as he can stand, put a bit in his mouth and light harness upon him and drive him loosely by the side of his mother before he is old enough to leave her. Colts which promise speed are driven by the side of trotting horses when only a few months old. And so they are taught gentleness, given confi- dence, become more reliable, and answer all the good ends for which colts live, without so much fuss and trouble about it. If modern horsemen were presumed to know about psychology, I should say that they were acting upon psychological principles. They have learned the lesson not in the school of philosophy, but in the school of experience. And if this is the best way in the case of dumb animals without reason- ing faculties or a moral nature, how vastly important that it shall be universally recognized in the training of children ! This is the controlling principle of the kindergarten. It must be a vital principle of the future public school work of the country, if that work is to meet the demands upon it. Therefore, with no original predilec- tions in favor of the kindergarten, with no right to represent it now, I may say that I have slowly, and perhaps reluctantly, come to the conclusion that it can do for the American school system what it most needs, and can do it more readily and completely than any other instrumentality. IS IT PEACTICABLE ? If this is so, then the duty of the state is clear. If the kindergarten is vital, if its influence will lead in the very direction we need to go, then we not only can afford it, but we cannot afford to do without it. If other things are predicated upon it, and it should become necessary to choose between this and those other things — as it probably will not be — then it would be wisdom to take this even at the expense of letting some other things go. In bringing it into the system, however, there are two or three points which ought to be borne in mind. There is quite a disposition on the part of superintendents to compro- mise upon the subject. If unable to establish pure kindergartens, tbey will start schools which have a little of the kindergarten and more of 186 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. something else in them. This is all wrong. It is cruel to keep children of the kindergarten age in school unless they are treated with purely kin- dergarten methods. Again, these half-and-half schools do not succeed because they do not rest upon a scientific basis, and are not in hands that are properly trained. When they fail, the people imagine that the kinder- garten has failed, although it is something else that has failed. If there is to be any diplomacy exercised in getting the kindergartens started, let it be in starting a smaller number of schools than are needed, but make them pure in their methods, taught by a thoroughly trained kindergarten teacher. One such school will succeed, and in doing so will demonstrate the practicability of the system, and win the support of the people. Again, there is something of a disposition on the part of the kinder- garten enthusiasts to get into deep water. They live with their work and magnify it. They meet in convention and discuss ways and means of improvement. I heard a company of kindergarten ladies, this after- noon, speculating upon philosophical conundrums in a way which would have thrown even Dr. Harris in the shade. Then there is too much of a tendency to unnecessarily increase the expenses. If a word to them from an outsider who has much interest in the general introduction of their work would be welcome, it would be this : Keep closely to the original plan, maintain the work in its simplicity, and operate as economically as possible. Don't reach after the unattainable. Don't grope around for the unfathomable. Don't ask for all the costly furnishings and appli- ances which dealers are anxious to sell to school boards. I am confident that the observance of these principles will greatly promote and facilitate the general recognition of the kindergarten as a component and necessary part of our American public-school system. LEGISLATION". If the state has a duty in this connection, its only way of discharg- ing that duty is through legislation. Legislation is seldom spontaneous. Legislatures pass laws, but they seldom frame or prepare them. It is rarely that they act at all except when they are moved to action. Then let the friends of the kindergarten and the friends of the school system prepare legislation which will give the sanction and approval of the state to the kindergarten, which will make it the duty of state school authori- ties to aid its advancement, and which will modify the school age and otherwise open the way for its general introduction. This, with womanly tact and persistence in a good cause, will lead to action by the lawmak- ing powers of the several States, and this in turn will give the system recognized and authoritative standing ; it will arrest the attention and engage the interest of the people, and it may lead school oflBcers and teach- ers to more thoroughly understand its importance and act with the cour- age of their convictions. THE HARMONY BETWEEN CONTROL AND SPONTANEITY. 187 THE HARMONY BETWEEN CONTROL AND SPONTANEITY. BY INSPECTOR JAMES L. HUGHES, TORONTO, ONT. Yon Scotch lad is controlled by his father^s iron will. His duty in childhood and youth is unreasoning submission to law. There is power even in such discipline. In the boy's soul, dread of parental authority becomes in time a solemn veneration for the majesty of law ; and reverent submission to the human father rises into devout subordination to God, and forms the granite in Scotch character individually and nationally. Such training makes men strong, but narrow. It places law above liberty, and recognizes the power of the Creator more than his love. It values individual rights more than individual growth. This is control without spontaneity. In too many American homes we find spontaneity without control. The results are usually disastrous. Control alone is better than spontaneity alone for perfecting strength of character ; better even for the development of productive spontaneity. Untrammeled sponta- neity would be the ideal educational condition if all natural tendencies were toward truth ; or if all children had from their earliest years en- lightened conscience, developed wills, and a recognition of the rights of others so clear as to make them unselfish, and so strong as to be a con- trolling force in their lives. Unfortunately uncontrolled spontaneity often means unbridled evil and moral anarchy. The true ideal is the perfect unity of law and liberty ; and the greatest unsolved educational problem is, how to secure harmony between control and spontaneity in the train- ing of the race. Control and spontaneity have been regarded as antagonistic forces in the development of the child. They are really twin powers that should work in harmony. Truth can never be at variance with other truth. There are no irreconcilable contradictions, no chasms that clearer insight shall not span. Man cannot always see the harmony between principles that appear to be in conflict ; but Infinite Wisdom sees the mutually strengthening inter-relationship of apparent contradictions. Nature re- joices in the equipoise of opposing forces. As man grows consciously toward the Divine, he sees harmonies more clearly, and the revelation of new harmonies between the controlling laws of the universe makes the sweetest music that ever lifts his soul to higher joy. After the battles of past ages, the veterans who fought for opposing principles have joined hands in loving unity, when they have climbed through the clouds of error ; and clearer, wider vision has dispelled illusions, and shown the essential oneness of truths which partial insight had supposed to be at 188 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION variance. Eacli party saw a single truth, and in the brighter light of the hill-top the two truths were blended into one. Rightly understood, control and spontaneity work in perfect harmony. Spontaneity does not mean freedom from law, but freedom through law, in accord with law. Productive spontaneity cannot be at variance with law ; it can exist only in conformity.with law. Law and liberty are in- dissoluble. They are giants whose union produces life, and growth, and happiness. The *^naw of liberty'^ is the perfect law. David spoke wisely when he said, " So shall I keep thy law continually for ever and ever, and I will walk at liberty.^' " To the truly free man freedom coin- cides with control." Spontaneity is the essential condition of individual development ; law defines the relationship of the individual to the uni- versal ; control is the application of law. There is no wrong to the child in the exercise of wise control by parents and teachers. Such control is absolutely essential to the full development of character. We should control childhood in order to define respect for human law, and reverence for Divine law. The perfect work of Christianity will be accomplished when all mankind is consciously, reverently, responsively, cooperatively submissive to the Divine will. This condition can never be reached until the child in the home and in the school lives a life of cooperative obe- dience to its parents and teachers, and is thus qualified for conscious cooperative submission to the authority of the state, and beyond this to a cheerful recognition of Divine authority and the glory arising from co-working with God. Eochefort was more philosophical than usual when he said : *^ I rebelled against my nurse in the nursery ; I rebelled against my parents at home ; I rebelled against my teacher at school ; I have rebelled against the government of my country ; and, if I ever go where there is a God, I will rebel against Him." We should control children because the wise and definite control by a superior will develops the will power of the child, and qualifies him to direct his own life when he reaches maturity. If unchecked, the feelings and passions of a child sweep in an unrestrained torrent over his undevel- oped will ; lack of control becomes habitual ; selfishness and self-will act automatically, and character power is lost. More than half the energy of humanity is dissipated. Character energy must be controlled and directed by an enlightened will in order to become an executive force for good. The child's will is neither suflaciently strong nor sufficiently enlightened to guide his activities and control his powers. Uncontrolled forces lead inevitably to ruin and disaster. It is a saddening fact that so much of nature's physical force remains yet unmastered, but the saddest sight in the world is an uncontrolled soul. But, while control by a superior will is essential and natural, it should never prevent the full development of spontaneity of character. It is not necessary to dwarf a soul by controlling it. The child's individuality THE HARMONY BETWEEN CONTROL AND SPONTANEITY. 189 cannot be weakened without fatal consequences. Each child has an in- dividuality of his own. It is a sacred power intended to grow forever. It is the Divine in the child. It cannot be marred or misdirected without interfering with God's plan. I have no right to try to make a pupil like myself. He is God's child, not mine. I should help to make him his true self, not a reproduction of me. One of most of us is enough. God's will is never a substitute for man's will ; neither should the will of the teacher be in any way a substitute for the will of the child. The teacher's will may direct the child's will, but never safely act in its stead. The teacher's personality should never intervene between the child and the light. The relationship between control and spontaneity may be established on clearly defined laws. 1. Control by external agencies should last for the shortest possible time. Self-direction should be our aim for our pupils from the first. 2. Control should never degenerate into coercion. Plato said : " A free mind ought to learn nothing as a slave." There is no life-giving power in coercion. There is no growth in mere negation. God meant our characters to be positive, not negative. ^' Well, Tom," said a father on his return home one evening, '' what have you been doing to-day ? " ^' I haven't been doing anything," said Tom ; '' I've been don't-ing for mother all day." Poor Tom ! How small are his opportunities for real, true development ! When shall men and women learn that doing is a thousand times more destructive of evil, and a million times more pro- ductive of good, than don't-ing ? Coercion may repress evil, it never eradicates it. It can only repress the wrong for a limited time, and in doing so it restricts the good. Coercion never made a child creative, and the growth of his creative power is the central element in his education. Coercion does more than restrict the power of a child ; it corrupts his ideals. The common and unnatural dread of Divine authority arises from the degradation of human authority into unreasoning, unloving coercion. The terrorism of the unknown is the most dreadful form of coercion. Attempts to secure passive submission by threats of punishment by the mysterious interference of imaginary monsters, either fiendish or sacred, have done as much as any other cause to destroy the true spontaneity of childhood. It is impossible to conceive the fullness of the evil influ- ence of such threats at a time when the child's imagination is most act- ive. The imagination itself is perverted and often becomes a corrupting instead of a purifying power. The child's activity becomes passivity ; his instinctive interest in the great unknown dies out, and his spiritual development is thus prevented. 'J'he unk^iown land should be filled with angels, not demons. Many parents and teachers degrade even the Father of light and love into a sort of goblin to terrorize their children, With 190 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION sacrilegious impudence they dare to say to children, *^ God won't love you/^ till the child gets its little heart filled with misconceptions of God, and irreverence for him ; and these false ideals often keep out the truth forever. A little girl in Boston, whose mother said recently, " God will be very angry with you," replied, '^ Oh, well, he's always getting mad about something ! " Poor child ! She was not responsible for the con- clusion. 3. The child should not be conscious of the restraint of external con- trol through the personality of the teacher. The assertion of the personal will of the teacher inevitably leads to conflict and conscious resistance on the part of the child. This is the root of great evil. Through uncon- scious responsiveness the child should grow to conscious recognition of authority and obedience to law ; and up to the highest condition of human culture, perfect self-control and self-direction. The Divine will guides our wills in many ways that we do not understand or even recog- nize. Our control of childhood should be like Divine control in this respect. External control that reveals its personality to the child inevitably weakens its self-control, as external aid given unwisely necessarily destroys its self-reliance. Most children are injured by being helped too much. The child whose foolishly fond mother rushes to pick it up when it falls is usually hurt by the picking up more than by the fall ; so the child who looks to parent or teacher as its only controlling agency will never fully develop its own self-control. Self-control develops in the same way as all other powers of self-expression or self-direction, by regular and pro- gressive exercise. The child should be led to feel his individual responsi- bility, for a child's duty not a man's, as early as possible, and allowed to direct his own powers toward the accomplishment of his own purposes, limited by the law defining the rights of others. Reverence for the majesty of law is a mightier force in character building than yielding to the will of a teacher. Submission to law is an element of true manhood ; mere subserviency to a human being is a characteristic of a slave. The child who is forced to submit passively to the personal domination of his teacher can never have true conceptions of liberty and individual respon- sibility. 4. Human control, like Divine control, should be prompted by love, based on love, and executed by love. Human love is man's strongest con- trolling force, as well as his greatest life-giving power. Divine law is often necessarily restrictive of wrong, but it is lovingly restrictive. It is stimulating and growth -giving, never destructive. 5. It is utterly degrading to give pupils the idea that they are naturally expected to do wrong, and that the teacher's constant duty is to check their natural tendencies. The father who said to his wife as he sat down to tea : •* Well, Maria, what mischief has Tom been up to to-day ?" is a THE HARMONY BETWEEN CONTROL AND SPONTANEITY. 191 type of a large class of parents and teachers. Have faith in your boys. They deserve your faith, and, if they do not, you make them worthy of trust by trusting them. Let a boy understand that you expect him to do wrong, and he will usually fulfill your expectations. Boys love the right better than the wrong. They prefer the true to the false. They like to do good (not to be lectured about doing good) better than to do evil. They would rather produce than destroy. They love activity because it gives life ; they hate passivity because it leads to death. Even if a boy is bad, inspiration is a grander controlling force than coercion. The most complete belief in the depravity of a child's nature does not justify the destruction of its spontaneity. We should aim to control its depravity, not its spontaneity. Natural tendency may not always be toward the Divine ; natural power is always Divine, and may become the controlling agency in correcting wrong tendency. Bad tempers and evil dispositions are defined in the consciousness of a child by criticism and coercion. Such defining is necessarily evil. The wise teacher is never saddened by the exhibition of strength and force by a child, even if they are manifested in selfish forms. The child with most power for evil should become the strongest angel with wise training. The teacher's skill is shown by trans- forming power, not by destroying it. "We should remember that when the child comes to school he is in an advanced stage of his training. Human agencies, by improper control or by equally improper freedom, or usually by a dreadful mixture of both, have been destroying the true spontaneity of the child. 6. All control is wrong that attempts to fetter the child with a man's thoughts, a man's motives, or a tnan's creed. Herein lies the greatest danger. It is a fatal blunder to rob a child of his childhood. We inter- fere a thousand times too often with a child's spontaneity by checking its plays or by rousing it from its reveries. Eemember that what would be folly or indolence in you may be absolutely essential for the highest development of the child physically, intellectually, and morally. You may injure a child morally by stopping his play with the sand on the sea- shore, or his ramble among the flowers, or his apparently idle dream as he lies looking at the clouds, to force him to listen to religious exercises he does not understand. The music of the birds and bees is more likely to arouse his spiritual nature than the music of the organ. ^^I guess that fellow never was a boy," said a little boy when his teacher had unreason- ably interfered with a game. There are few of us who do not give our scholars reasons to come to a similar conclusion every day. He is the best teacher who most clearly remembers the feelings and thoughts of his own boyhood. You cannot force maturity on a child •in feeling, motive, thought, or action without making him a hypocrite, and you can make nothing w^orse out of him. The darkest hour in a child's life is the hour when it draws 192 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION a curtain over the windows of its heart to shut out mother or teacher, and deceit usurps the place of honest frankness. It is easy for a child to become- a monster when those in authority over him make him a hypo- crite, and turn the life-producing waters of his free, responsive nature into a stagnant pool. Evil habits are poisonous growths springing from the trunks of decaying powers and nourished by the sap intended to develop holy aspirations. Many people blame Satan for making monsters of their children, when they are themselves accomplishing the terrible work of character destruction so thoroughly that it would be a work of supererogation for Satan to interfere. The motives of men and women are not those that stir children's lives to activity. The child rises from high to higher motives if properly guided. Oh, how narrowing and restrictive and destructive of power creeds have been ! How they have prevented progress in thought ! How they have checked spiritual growth ! How they have imprisoned loye, that should have gone out freely to help humanity ! How they have shut out the Father they should have revealed ! Dr. McLeod told of an old lady in his congregation whose creed he attempted to broaden. Finding his efforts ineffectual, he gave up the attempt with the remark : " Why, Janet, I fear that you believe nobody will be saved but you and John." "Ah, doctor,'" she replied, "Fm not so sure about John!" Dear, poor, old woman ! She was only a little narrower than the great majority to-day. She was earnest and logical, and pure in motive, and a lover of the truth, but she was creed-bound. Creeds can never be made plain by words. Love grows when it is lived out in loving deed. We should lead our children to see truth in our own lives, and to live truth themselves, and we should train them to recognize the beauty of God's nature in the flowers, his sweetness in the bird-song, his perfection in the marvels of the speck of brown fernspore as shown by the microscope, his majesty in the mighty mountain, his vastness in the wide sea, his power in the trans- formation of the little seed to the sturdy oak, his wisdom in the rhythmic harmony of the movements of a million worlds, and his love in our tender, unselfish, self-sacrificing love for them, not merely when they are good, but especially when they are wayward. If we allow the young soul to have the proper conditions for unconscious growth toward God, there need be no anxiety regarding creeds. Infidelity is im2:)ossible to a being whose heart and mind have been filled with God as revealed in his works. Too often the attempt to control children by the motives and creeds of adults makes them skeptics as well as hypocrites. When our creeds are revealed by our lives, they become wings, not bonds, to our children. 7. Growth cannot be forced, and the attempt to force it checks spon- taneity and weakens individuality. Teachers often try to be power for their children, instead of guiding powers already existing in the pupils. They try to force growth or to restrict growth, instead of providing the THE HARMONY BETWEEN CONTROL AND SPONTANEITY. 193 best conditions of growth and reverently allowing growth to proceed in accordance with Divine law. They try to improve the flower queen by opening the rosebud, instead of strengthening the rose-bush. How grandly nature's laws act ! The sun never commands the flower to grow ; nor does the rain say chidingly, '^^ Drink, or you shall not grow." The rain falls gently, the sun shines brightly, and the flower becomes strong and beauti- ful. Yonder is a man throwing water upward with a syringe. He is trying to form clouds, but his clouds will never refresh the earth with rain, nor show to a single human soul the joyous message of the rainbow or the many-colored glory of the sun's farewell in the evening. There are, even yet, squirt-gun teachers who think they can shoot the souls of children upward through their little syringes. Of course, a squirt-gun teacher, illogical as he is, is better than the mere word-grinder, or fact-giver, or thought-crammer so often misnamed a teacher. Pity that so good a word should be so degraded ! Greater pity that soul-growth should be so retarded and misdirected ! 8. In the training of self-expression, self must not be sacrificed to expression, or spontaneity will be lost. The methods of training all self-expression of the pupil, adopted by the scliools in the past, have prevented the development of true spontaneity. "My pupils write so much alike that you can scarcely see any difference between their copy-books,'' says the proud teacher. Empty boast ! If it be true, then you have dwarfed every pupil in your class. Writing is . more than better formation and shading. A free hand moving automati- cally in harmony with a free mind should be our ideal. We have trained our pupils to draw letters, not to write. We have sacrificed freedom to form, and vainly hoped for the freedom that never came. We have restricted spontaneity by limiting lines, by direction lines and by faint letters to be traced. We have cramped the fingers and confined the free movement of the arm, and the cramping and restriction have reacted on the souls of the children. We have made our pupils slow copyists and slavish imitators of writing; we should have given power to express thought rapidly on paper. The two elements in good writing are free, rapid movement and accurate letter formation. We have striven for the second at the expense of the first, and in doing so have weakened the character of the race. Copying head-lines tends to make a race of copy- ists, of unreasoning imitators who live and die in bondage to those who assume the right to do their thinking for them. The time must come when there shall be no more mere copying in learning to write ; when writing shall be, in mechanical execution as well as in thought expression, the representation of conceptions defined in the mind of the child, not of form conceptions defined on paper by some other person. Copying sub- ordinates the individual and prevents the true conception of the independ- 13 194 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. ence and responsibility of the human soul. All conscious imitation, even of good, is weakeniug. " All children imitate naturally," you say. ^Tis a pity that your statement is true to a certain extent. But it is not fully true. The strongest do not imitate. Some are strong enough to resist the uniformly modeling process of the schools. Poor fellows ! They used to have a hard time. They still have to suffer at the hands of teach- ers who have not learned to reverently respect the individuality of the weakest child. As the human race rises to higher planes, it loses the ten- dency to imitate. The schools should help men to rise by climbing, not by holding on to some one else. Do not be satisfied with any teaching process based on imitation. The true test of writing is not the writing done while the mind is concentrated on the writing itself, but the writ- ing done while the mind is filled with original thought which has to be expressed in written form. It is equally true that freedom should precede form in all other methods of self-expression through the hand, such as drawing, painting, modeling, and wood- working. It is wrong to try to force the child to express our matured conceptions of the form of any object. It should express its own mental jDicture, not ours. Its power to express by hand, or tongue, or face, or gesture is weakened every time it tries to express what it does not clearly conceive. Its power to express its individual self is weakened every time it attempts to express the conceptions of anybody else. Such a course destroys the harmony that should exist between conception and representation, and loss of harmony always means loss of power. The crude lines made by a child to represent a bird, a worm, a flower, a man, or a horse may suggest no picture to your mind, but they are realities to the child who made them. A line does for a man at first. That painting of a fish made by a five-year-old girl looks as much like a log as a fish to me, but it represented life to her. She will scarcely believe at fifteen that she ever made that for a fish. Let us examine her book of sketches now when she is fifteen years old. She has been express- ing her own conceptions with her brush for ten years ; and now her flowers, and worms, and insects, and birds are nearly accurate enough, both in form and color, for illustrations in a work on natural bistory. She became free first, and her growth toward definiteness kept pace with her develop- ment in intellectual clearness. Her efforts to express herself, not some other person, defined her conceptions, and clearer conceptions gave greater power of expression. Oh, what growth is possible to humanity when natural processes are not reversed ! Natural conditions should often be changed, but natural processes never. Little children should draw at first on blackboards, so that they may have free scope to represent their conceptions in large form. They enjoy a wide sweep, which they cannot get in books or on slates, and this wide, free sweep of the arm defines the conception of freedom in their minds. THE HARMONY BETWEEN CONTROL AND SPONTANEITY, 195 The fettering of real spontaneity by bad methods of teaching oral expression has been more destructive of individual power than even the methods of training in hand expression. Both in public schools and in schools of elocution self-expression has been divorced from expression. No one can ever regain his grandest power to speak his own thoughts who was forced into formalism by oral reading when a child. There can be no method by which young children can be kept for years expressing the thoughts of others in the language of others without reducing the power of self-expression and weakening character. It is amazing that the abnormal process we call oral reading should have been tolerated in the schools so long. We should have more reading in the schools, and infinitely more training in oral expression than we now have, but none of the paralyzing process we call oral reading. I do not refer merely to the oral droning that all teachers ridicule, but most teachers develop ; I include the best oral reading done in any school in the wide world. Even the best is relatively unproductive, and is weakening to self-expression and character. Heading is thought extraction, not thought expression. Oral expression is a natural power ; ability to get thought from visible language is an acquired power. We should never destroy a natural power in acquiring a new power. Oral expression should be an ever-growing power. It would keep pace with the growing soul if it were trained as self-expression, not as the expression of the thought and language of others. There must, however, be definite, formal training of all forms of self- expression. There should be special practices to develop freedom of movement and propej* position of hand and body in writing and drawing ; the child should use the wood rasp, saw, and plane to gain power to rasp and saw and plane freely and definitely before it has to work to a hue with these tools ; there should be dictation lessons in color, and size and form, and symmetry and relationship, to develop and define these conceptions in the minds of the children ; there should be preliminary gymnastic pro- cesses in voice culture, in emphasis, in inflection, in gesture, and in the differentiation of the feeling, in order to qualify each individual for his highest success in oral expression. But unfortunately these special prac- tices and preliminary processes are usually the end of school work, instead of means of preparing each pupil for creative activity along the lines of his grandest powers. The wise kindergartner gives her little ones formal dictation lessons in the gifts and occupations, that by the use of material to produce certain effects new concepts may reveal themselves naturally to the child. But her lesson only begins with the formal process in which each child does the same work. In the real lesson each child uses the same material to work out his own pui^ose. This is a type of all true teaching, in which control and spontaneity are in perfect, productive harmony. There are frequent discussions regarding the relative values 196 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. of formal physical exercises and unrestricted play. The latter is infinitely better than tlie former for the development of the complete nature of the child, and no system of physical education is worthy of consideration that does not include the entire being in its aim. But formal exercises are essential to prepare the body for its best work under the guidance of the child^s own uncontrolled will. Fellow-teacher, if your writing-books are really *^ copy-books ^' and no more, if one drawing-book or color-book is a type of the books of the whole class, and if all your pupils always make the same things in clay and wood and paper, then you are making automatons instead of men and women. The worst schools are those in which there is least self- activity in working out realizations of original conceptions by the pupils. No teaching should be allowed to end with the acquisition of power. Power should be applied. Control should be exercised by the teacher in the production of the varied powers that enter into the characters of all well-trained men and women ; spontaneity should be unrestricted in the use of these powers by each individual in the execution of his own plans. In the development of the universal, the trained teacher finds his true place ; but in the unfolding of individual character, the wisest and most loving teacher should reverently stand with uncovered head to watch the development of the Divine. The teacher may cultivate power and may stimulate effort by supplying the conditions of growth, but independent activity alone can give life, and vigor, and progressive expansion to indi- vidual character. All methods of developing self-expression from without are barriers to real spontaneity. In elocution or oral expression, for instance, the almost universal plan of giving mechanical rules for emphasis and inflection, and the tones of voice or gestures to be assumed to represent the feelings, or facial expressions to be made to simulate ])assions, develops formalism and hypocrisy, not soul growth. The soul should dominate the body, and the attempts to make the body respond to, or suggest, the thoughts or feelings that have no real existence in the individual consciousness helps to destroy the real power of body, mind, and spirit. The body may be made erect, graceful, active ; and the voice may be made full, rich, elastic, pure, by careful training ; but by far the most important training is that which cultivates the mind and heart, and accustoms them to their natural control of body and voice. All kinds of training in self-expression are wrong that devote attention directly to the expression more than to the self of the pupil. 9. Spontaneity may be restricted by school programmes. Programmes have been too narrow and too abstract, especially in primary classes. The programme should be wide, because there can be no learning without attention, no attention without interest, and no general interest can be awakened and sustained without a variety of subjects for study and THE HARMONY BETWEEN CONTROL AND SPONTANEITY. 197 work. All children are not interested in the same subjects. Attempts to force a child to be equally interested in all subjects vveaken both the temper and the power of attention. The programme should be wide enough to stimulate each child to interested effort on the lines of its highest individual power. It is only when so working that man's growth is as definite, as rapid, and as harmonious as it should be. "Blessed is the man that hath found his work," said Carlyle ; 'Met him ask no other blessedness." When a child's life runs along the channel of his greatest individual power, all the other springs of power in his being flow into that channel, and his life becomes broader and deeper, and its current stronger, as the years pass away. A marsh is a stream without a proper outlet for its living: waters. There should be no human marshes. Each child should be a pure rippling stream, growing ever deeper and wider by fresh rills of knowledge and thought power, and gathering force by the exercise of executive power, till it becomes at length a glorious river turning some of the mighty wheels of human effort, and bearing on its breast the white sails of onward progress. The child acquires knowledge more rapidly, more definitely, and more permanently before it goes to school than it does afterward. Grod did not limit its range of study. Man always makes a pitiable exhibition of himself when he attempts to prove that God has made a blunder. The truest educational progress of the ages has been toward harmony between control and spontaneity, guidance and freedom, obedience and independence, submission and liberty. Freedom is the only basis broad enough for a system of education. Individual freedom and individual responsibility are the grandest lessons taught to the world by Christ, and the emancipation of the individual soul is the noblest work of the cen- turies since Christ. We must have free growth ; not the wild growth of the wilderness, but the free, assisted growth of the best cultivated garden. ^' No man is free who is not master of himself," said Epictetus ; and we may reverse his aphorism without altering its truthfulness — no man is master of himself who is not free. The Baroness von Bulow wisely says : " Childhood's unconscious lesson to us is that what is undeveloped can without guidance never be free, but, left to itself, must inevitably fall into caprice. Guidance capaci- tates for freedom. It is a dominant error of our age to demand freedom where the capacity for freedom is still lacking." We should prepare our pupils for fruit-bearing at maturity, but we should never try to make them bear to pattern as Dr. Blimber did ; nor should we dare to destroy their spiritual wonder power as did Mr. McChoak- umchild. Whatever there is of beauty, of purity, of holy aspiration in the child's vsoul, should be helped to grow. Soul growth must be from within. Emerson was right in saying: "^^ Though we travel. the world over to find the beautiful, we must carry it with us or we find it not." 198 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. The child is full of holy aspirations. Lead these aspirations out, and everywhere in the wondrous world they will find corresponding beauty, whose enjoyment will prepare them for the appreciation of the supernal glories that throughout the universe await the recognition of a higher spiritual insight. Each young heart in your class has a thousand strings that should pour forth enrapturing harmony forever. Break none of the strings. Dare not to play on the wonderful instrument yourself. No other hand can reveal its melody, but the hand of the child who owns it. Control the child, but your control should consist in letting in the sun- shine to its life, that it may stir to action, and through action grow to greater life. TO WHAT EXTENT CAN A PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM BE IMPROVED BY LEGISLATION? BY HON. L. E. WOLFE, JEFFERSON CITY, MO. Of what does a public school system consist ? Of territorial divisions called school districts or school townships, of schoolhouses, of a system of raising a school fund, of text-books, of courses of study, of an army of licensed teachers, sometimes of supervision. What is legislation ? It is the supreme direction of school districts, raising revenue, schoolhouses, text-books, courses of study, teachers. Legislation has already busied itself with these elements of a school system. It has foisted upon us a cumbrous, illogical, and wasteful system of school district organization ; has provided a method of raising revenue ; has intrusted the selection of text-books and courses of study to pedagogic tyros ; has taxed the people for the erection of schoolhouses in accordance with designs dictated by caprice and ignorance ; has provided a more or less efficient system of training and licensing teachers ; has established common schools, high schools, and universities without articulation, each standing out in its weakness. In other words, this public school system has received a legis- lative armor, close-fitting and unyielding, which in a short time so cramps its organs as to produce deformity and prevent growth. The hoary past has rained these unwelcome conventionalities upon us, and legislation has congealed them about our limbs. Shall these active, growing limbs remain forever bound by the armor of the past, or shall the same artisan that forged the armor shatter it to pieces and forge anew ? Then, let us not be alarmed by the cry of Laissez faire (Let alone, let alone), but let us attempt no legislation that has not been carefully conceived and framed by a competent committee appointed by the State Teachers' Association, or by a commission authorized by law. Then, first, what is the best school territorial organization, that our A PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM IMPROVED BY LEGISLATION. 199 millions of expenditure shall not bo in vain ? Is it our weak, irrational, independent school district organization ? A thousand times, no ! Day- after day there come pouring into my office, from all parts of the State, letters bearing these messages : ** I am three miles from the schoolhouse in my district, and only a mile from the schoolhouse in the adjoining dis- trict." '' I am separated from the schoolhouse in my district by an im- passable stream." ^^Our district is too small and too weak to hire a com- petent teacher, or to have a sufficient length of term." Shall our organi- zation not rather be school township organization ? Not a municipal township, nor yet a congressional township, but a school township, com- posed of about nine independent school districts, as far as possible, formed around towns and villages as centers — the eight encircling schools to teach a common-school course of study only ; the central school to teach, in addition to the common-school course of study, a secondary course of study of from one to four years ; this school township to be under the control of one board of education, and to have one rate of taxation. Glo- rious change ! No more forlorn letters telling of distant schoolhouses, swollen streams, and animosities engendered at the annual district bound- ary contests, for each i)upil would be assigned to the district most access- ible. No more complaints of short terms, weak districts, and weaker teachers, for the weak schools would be abolished. The school fund — what direction shall legislation take upon this sub- ject ? As previously shown, the school rate should be uniform not for a school district only, but for a school township at least. The day is com- ing when a uniform rate of taxation will leap not only the boundaries of school districts, but of school townships and counties, and be uniform for the entire State. ' ' For a' that and a' that, It's coming yet, for a' that ; That man to man, the warld o'er, Shall brothers be, for a' that." Again, shall legislation touch the articulation of the different classes of schools — the common schools, the secondary schools, and the universities ? Is it possible that effective articulation has been so long delayed ? Is it possible that in four-fifths of the common schools of this country teachers are attempting to teach everything, from the primer to geometry and rhet- oric ? That not only most of our academies and so-called colleges, but a large per cent, of our State institutions have an elementary department ? The common schools teach the fourth reader and geometry ; the colleges, geometry and the fourth reader. When a State champions an educational system at an annual outlay of millions of dollars, will it pay that State to employ the same organization and division of labor that obtains in all suc- cessful business enterprises ? Did I say business enterprises ? Is a public 200 TBB NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. school system ii business enterprise ? We had almost come to believe it a charitable institution for the benefit of the friends and relatives of the members of boards of education. Why not adopt school township organization ? — confine the tributary schools of the township to a common school course of study ; teach in the central schools a secondary course of study of one or two years in the smaller towns and villages, and of three or four years in the larger towns and cities ; legislate the elementary work out of the State institutions, and either legislate or frown it out of the colleges and academies, leaving nothing for the State universities except specialties and original investiga- tion ? No business enterprise managed as loosely as our public school systems would pay a dividend of one per cent. No argument is needed to prove that it is not profitable for a taxpayer to provide for teaching a common-school course of study in the local district schools and in the State institutions also, and that it does not pay a parent to squander money on his sons and daughters at private and State institutions before they are reasonably well equipped in the school work at their own homes, where board, lodging, and tuition are free. Some of these times the tax- payers and doting parents will refuse longer to be humbugged, and will rise up in their might and require their talents with usury. Again, should legislation prescribe courses of study for common schools, secondary schools, and universities, and require them taught, or shall all these be left to local boards and inexperienced teachers ? What I have said on articulation answers this question. But what shall be the char- acter of the common-school course of study ? Shall it cling to the effete past, or shall it be shaped in accordance with the world's advanced thought ? Shall it take for its model the tallow dip and the stage-coach, or the electric light and the lightning express ? Why is it that conservatism runs riot and worships the dry bones of the past ? Shall the course of study be left to caprice and ignorance, or shall it be conceived and shaped by a competent commission after mature deliberation ? Shall the pupil be doomed to wrestle year after year with compound numbers, or shall the great metric system become the heritage of English-speaking peoples ? Shall we burden our courses of study with common fractions, proportion, arithmetical and geometrical progression, and the hare-and-hound prob- lems, or shall we let the decimal system reign supreme, abandon the artificial and improbable hare-and-hound problems, and lay our arithmetic close to actual life ? Again, shall we cling to parsing ad infinituin, ad nauseam, or shall we nail to the masthead, " Language for Expression and Thought-Interpretation," and tack as close as possible to this line ? Then, there are geography, history, and the natural sciences. Geog- raphy, and especially the geography of location and boundary, like Aaron's rod, has devoured everything in sight. History is postponed to grades seven and eight, and natural science to the distant high school In a log- A PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM IMPROVED BY LEGISLATION. 201 ical course of study the natural sciences would begin in the first year of the child's school life, and end in the last. History, in the form of folk- lore, fairy tale, and legend, would begin in the first year and end in the last. Geography would be made to disgorge three-fourths of its isolated contents. The fundamental truths in geography are, man on the one hand with his multiplied needs, and nature on the other to supply those needs ; man, through the magic of commerce, laying under tribute the occupations and productions of all individuals and climes. And then there is our delightful and logical system of orthogTaphy, by which the word scissors can be spelled fifty million different ways. Must the chil- dren of the United States forever groan under this outrageous system ? Shall we have legislation upon text-books ? Yes, until teachers can teach subjects with any and all text-books. Shall we have district, county, or State uniformity ? Shall this uniformity be attained through contract. State publication, or district ownership ? I do not know. These are all vexed and comparatively new questions, requiring clear heads and honest hearts. In every State legislation has intrusted the examination and licensing of teachers to authorities more or less competent, usually less. The examin- ing authority should be a board and not an individual, the most com- petent and least subject to local pressure. This would rule out the county commissioner or county superintendent as an individual, for he is not only not a board, but he is subject to every species of local influence. The county board should be ruled out because of local pressure. Then, what constitutes the most efficient examining authority ? A board, com- posed of one local member — the county commissioner or county super- intendent— and of two or more able non-resident members ; the former as authority upon character and actual schoolroom work, and the latter (assisted by the former) upon scholarship and theoretical professional ability. But to secure able non-resident members costs money. Mis- souri secures them, without extra expense, by making the annual county institute boards of instructors also the examining and licensing boards. Missouri's town superintendents and principals and the county commis- sioners, in the capacity of boards of institute instructors and examiners, pass upon the qualifications of teachers at the close of the annual month's county institute. The institute boards, in a month's instruction, are able to estimate all those finer qualities which go to make up the successful teacher — tact, address, courtesy, persistence, self-sacrifice — these in addi- tion to scholarship. Again, there is the schoolhouse, a very important educational factor. Shall its construction be left to incompetence and rule-of-thumb, or shall it be constructed in accordance with the ktest deliverances of architec- ture, pedagogy, and hygiene ? Were plans and specifications furnished school officers by tne State, they would be followed in most cases without 203 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. compulsion. What railroad system would be indifferent as to the con- struction of its track, its rolling stock, its shops ? Laissez faire is, indeed, paramount when the giant hand of the State takes millions from the people's pockets for school-buildings, but refuses to give a single direction as to the character of the buildings to be erected ; when this same strong hand takes other millions for the payment of teachers, but refuses to pro- vide an efficient system for training and licensing them ; refuses to give us efficient school territorial organization, articulation, county supervision ; a rational course of study. Again, shall legislation provide for county supervision ? Yes, unless we wish to violate the economic principles obtaining in all great business enterprises. What would we think of a steamship line, a factory, or a railroad without a head ? What kind of supervision shall legislation give us ? Efficient supervision, luith a professional qualification, but without politics or religion. In many States, legislation has provided a system of supervision wofully inefficient — election, by the people, of a resident of the county for a specified time, thus introducing the "push" and "pull" of politics. County superintendents should be elected as town and city superintendents are elected — by boards of from six to twelve members chosen by the people. Think of a town being obliged by law — by that quintessence of wisdom — to confine its choice for town superintendent to its own residents for a specified number of years. Think of learned and dignified professors being told that they must submit their claims to a vote of the people. Yet are not the positions of town and county superintend- ents identical in all essentials ? The demagogue cries, " Undemocratic." It is the same representative democracy that employs teachers through boards in town and country, and legislates for municipality, State, and nation. With election by the people, it is comparatively easy for a dem- agogue to defeat an able and devoted teacher. With election by the people, first-class salaries will not always secure first-class superintendents. For proof, compare your town and city superintendents with your county superintendents. When county supervision comes for Missouri, let it come divested of politics, religion, and sex. But, finally, when will these reforms, or such of them as commend themselves to the thoughtful world, be inaugurated ? Not soon, if State associations still continue to beat the old straw of schoolroom methods and glittering generalities. In the reasonably near future, it is hoped, if State associations learn their high mission to inaugurate and push forward educational reforms through committees and commissions. While the necessity for reforms exists at the bottom, their inauguration must begin at the top with State and national associations, with commissions, with legislatures. You ask. Are all these reforms to be inaugurated at once ? No sane per- son would attempt all these reforms at the same time in the same State. A PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM IMPROVED BY LEGISLATION. 203 Which reform slionlcl be attempted first ? One in my State, another in yours. Each State will attempt the reform lying nearest the last reform and most urgently needed. The furrow to be plowed is the next one. Legislation is an order from above. Were I to see a team hitched to the side of a wagon instead of the front, dragging the wheels instead of rolling them, I would say unhitch and hitch right. Were I to hear the commander-in-chief give an army orders to march backward, I would say revoke the order and issue another. In like manner, when I see a great school system paralyzed by an illogical course of study, wasteful school district organization, want of articulation, I say revoke the legislative order and issue another. To leave the pupils and the rank and file of inex- perienced teachers to wrestle with courses of study and organization is like leaving an army without orders. But says one, " All this about articulation, organization, and improved course of study is visionary/' Visionary ? — to organize the educational interests in which this country invests hundreds of millions, when every great business enterprise of the world is thoroughly organized ? Vision- ary ? — for the fifteen thousand teachers of Missouri to join hands in cooperation, when the soul of all civilization is the clasping of hands across the continents and down the centuries ? Suppose a certain State was about to undertake, for the first time, a system of education at public expense. Suppose that you, as representative of a great syndicate, had just closed a contract with the State to furnish, for a specified sum, schoolhouses, apparatus, and teachers, and to equip all the youth between the ages of six and twenty in the common branches, and to give second- ary and university training to suclx as sliould desire it. Suppose, further, that the State was to appoint an examining board to pass upon the results of your work. Do you suppose that you would tolerate our eifete course of study, extravagant school district organization, want of articulation and supervision ? If you did, your syndicate would not pay running expenses. Oh these conventionalities of the past ! How they hamper and impede ! They come to us as inheritances, but they weigh down and handicap. Oh for power to sweep them away ! It would be a proud day for my State, could I in reality, as I do in imagination, sweep from it every schoolhouse and every district boundary line, and redistrict and rebuild. These inheritances of the past are found in every pursuit. But the hotels are being remodeled ; gas fixtures are being replaced by electricity ; the railroad tracks are being reballasted, and new and improved coaches placed upon them. Everywhere there is improvement. Every other occupation faces the future, and faces it squarely. When will the educational column squarely face the future and keep step to the drum-beat of progress ? With me these are not mere words, but wor^s to be backed with determined, organized effort. I would not presume to present a tlieory that I do not believe in. I believe the future holds a mighty work for the coming 204 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION educator. Our school system is but in its infancy. The sun has but fairly risen upon the day of universal education at public expense. It will not be given to us, or even to our immediate successors, to see high noon of this day. But let us so act that those who do witness the coming splendors will commend our action. Even though you do not accept a single solution I have given, my attempt to solve these great problems will tend to cause others to attempt their solution. The mighty army of teachers actuated by an honest, courageous purpose will yet solve the last of these vexed questions. Many valiant warriors will go down, but their places will be taken by others. Oh these mighty on-moving floods of reform — the home, the Church, the school, and the State ! The million tiny rills singing gently in their distant mountain homes go to make these four principal tributaries, and. these in turn the father of waters, ever seeking the infinite sea. DISCUSSION. SuPT. D. J. Waller, Jr. : The question indicates that legislation is not regarded as a catholicon, and yet that it may be a valuable remedy. It recognizes the fact that the communities constituting a State cannot be directly elevated to an ideal standard of education by legislation. Legislation in our land depends for its efficiency upon the approval of the people. It is the servant, not the parent, of improvement. Though it be an embodiment of ideas approved by a majority of the general assembly and by the chief executive, its vitality will depend upon the people's appreciation of the benefits to be derived from it ; or, in other words, upon its adaptation to their situation. The closer the fit the better the law is likely to be executed. Legislation can improve a school system as far as it can secure a close adaptation to local needs, and this can only be by a large measure of local control, but it can advance rapidly along this line by offering conditional aid. A large general appropriation distributed to districts comply- ing with prescribed terms will secure a given standard as to the qualifications of the teachers, the studies to be pursued, the length of the term, and even the salaries of teachers. Manifestly this standard will be the minimum standard, the least that will be countenanced anywhere within the commonwealth, but it can be raised, improved, as rapidly as public sentiment will permit. The general appropriation may be so distributed as to deepen public interest in edu- cation to the verge of enthusiasui. It is deep public interest — enthusiasm, if you will — that is all important for the improvement of a school system ; and this enthusiasm, not on the part of a few professionals, but pervading the people, is inseparable from local control ; it may be made both general and intense by an appropriation of money sufficient to insure active educators for annual county institutes. Legislation may, while allowing to localities, to townships, boroughs, and cities, the largest liberty, pro- vide for authoritative supervision by specialists ; the county, city, or borough super- intendent, a man of literary and scientific acquirements, and of skill and experience in the art of teaching. He, with power to grant and to annul teachers' certificates, by visitation of the schools becomes the professional adviser of directors or committee- men, and of teachers, and gives direction to the public desire to improve the schools, or stirs up by county and by local conventions those who desire no improvement. The legislation, then, that can improve a school system must include provision for a sys- tematic and an efficient application of the general laws. It must give the largest liberty consistent with system to localities. It must include authoritative local supervision by specialists, and a system of local and of general teachers' certificates. It must include the means for arousing systematically the interest of the general public. This is really the answer to the question propounded, given hj the system in opera- tion in Pennsylvania since 1854, under which she is distributing annually a general fund of five millions of dollars, the largest in the United States. DISCUSSION. 205 SuPT. W. H. Anderson, Wheeling, W. Va. : Since the free school system is a creature of the law, an offspring of legislation, it is quite natural and proper that we should look to our legislators with great expectations. The able paper to which we have just listened has covered about all the ground in sight, and has taken advanced ground, ground which is beyond the range of the common observer. In every State the school system should be something more than a name. It should be a systematic system, com- plete and unified, as is suggested by the paper just read. Commencing with the primary grades of our public schools, there should be an attractive graded course through grammar and high schools, and end with a course in the State university. This system should comprise city, town, and country schools. From these high schools there should be promotions to State normal schools. These schools should be located in different parts of the State, as is the case in many instances in our country. After completing the curriculum in these normal schools, about two years in the State university should complete the course. There is a conflict in the minds of the people as to how much the State should do for the youth to prepare him for citizenship. Those who look on the subject through the glasses of the unwilling taxpayer think that the State should do little or nothing, while others think there is little or nothing that the State should not do. The way in which this matter is regarded is, to a very great extent, a matter of '* habit in education." A good many years ago, when Church and State were a little mixed in New England, religious zeal led the people to support the pastor, and the pastor was teacher for all on the first day of the week, and a school-teacher on other days. In after years the work became too great for one man, and the people naturally, from the force of habit, were willing to contribute to a fund for the instruction of their children. In other parts of the country this was thought to be a very unfair thing to do, and was voted down time and again one hundred years later. The world moves, and as it moves people are moved to look on questions in a way different from the manner in which their fathers viewed them, or in which they them- selves once did. While we shall be compelled to wait awhile for legislators to favor all that Mr, Wolfe's paper proposes, yet the proposition must precede the realization. In my own State the free schools are very popular in counties which voted down the proposition to establish free schools when we belonged to Virginia ; my own county, Ohio, being the only county in the State to establish a system of free schools. The State can make no better investment than to furnish a good education to its future citizens. One of the annoyances and obstacles of almost every school is the failure on the part of some of the parents or guardians to supply text-books. These books should be sup- plied by the State. The object of the State in incurring the expenses of the free schools is to fit the pupils for good citizenship. The object is not secured as it should be unless pupils are ' ' thoroughly furnished for every good work " of school. If this is not the case, the expenses of the school will, so far as it is to benefit many pupils, be money spent in vain. In a great measure, the cost of these books comes out of the same pockets, whether bought by the school officers or the individual patrons of the school. In the aggregate this would be a great saving, because the books would be bought at a lower price when bought in large quantities, and would be better taken care of than when held as the personal property of the pupil, giving him, in his opinion, an unquestioned right to destroy. Each school should be a home for one teacher, and should afford him a way of sup- porting himself and family. In many instances it is almost impossible for the teacher to find a boarding-place, and often board can be found only at a place remote from the schoolhouse. To obviate this there should be a comfortable house and two or three acres of ground belonging to each country school, just as a parsonage often belongs to a church. A part of this ground should be planted in fruit and part of it left for a garden. In case the teacher is unmarried, he or she should be provided with board by such tenant as is allowed to occupy the premises belonging to the school. Since the subject has been treated so exhaustively in an affirmative way, it seems that it should be treated negatively. In my own State the free school system has been in existence about thirty years. The law was modeled after the school law of several other States, and was thought to embody many of the very best features of those models. Since that time it has assumed many different phases. It seems that most of the legislators have some time during life attended school. It seems, also, that the indelible impressions of younger days still remain, and the one thing which they know 206 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION much about is schools. So it is that each separate legislature gives the kaleidoscope a turn, and a new form is presented. We have had it in every conceivable shape. At one time a State board of examiners, at another this dispensed with and all State certifi- cates revoked. Again, the same thing is instituted. We have had at one time three trustees to manage each sub-district, at another but one, and again no trustees at all, but the whole matter left to the commissioners of the district or township. The regu- lations relating to the county examining boards have been multifarious, as well as those relating to the certificates issued by our State normal schools. So much change is very objectionable and quite a hinderance to the successful opera- tion of the system. A faulty law, well understood and well executed, is better than so many changes that by the time school officers and teachers learn what the law actually is it becomes something else. I conclude by saying that the eflaciency of the school system in any State depends not only on what legislation does for it, but, in addition to this, by how well it is let alone by legislative bodies. SuPT. J. R. Preston, Jackson, Miss, : Mr. Anderson said he believes in public education, and that his State believes in it better than any State in the South. Mine comes next. The people in his State put up seven and eight-tenths mills, and in my State seven and one-tenth mills for education. My State is really the poorest State in per capita wealth in the United States. I am really ashamed to say that ; but I am proud to say that, in proportion to her ability, she puts up to-day twice as much for public education as the great commonwealth of Massachusetts. We believe in public schools down there. We have taken hold of public schools down there, and we are build- ing them up for the town, and for the country, and for the black man and for the white man. We are willing to submit to taxation, and to do all we can to push the law out into every community, so that in that beautiful State, in the land of flowers, and where the roses in mid-January are in full bloom, we are trying to shed the light of intelli- gence into the intellects of the rising generation. We have had something to do, too, with legislation, and what legislation can do for a public school system, I am a great believer in local management of things ; but a pub- lic school system is a thing of the State, and I do not believe that local management should go too far. But 1 do believe in this, that the State ought through intelligent legislation to know what should be done to make an effective system of public schools, and that she ought to enact that into her law, and that then she should have a legisla- ture that would urge that upon the people. Now, how to get legislation is a very difficult thing, I have wrestled now with four different legislatures and with a constitutional convention; and when 1 tell you that one of them was an "Alliance legislature," some of you will know what I mean. I tell you that in order to get proper legislation you have to resort to all sorts of caprices and tricks and circumven- tion and dodges in order to get what you are entitled to. Well, we did it down there. In our very last legislature it was impossible to get the necessary school legislation passed, on account of the new constitution. Our entire school law was abrogated by the new constitution, and we had to get an entirely new law, and we had to get it out of an " Alliance legislature," and we got it, too. I saw from the Committee on Education in the house, that it could not be done if it had to go through the house, and conse- quently I had to have it delayed, run it into the senate, and had the seventy-five amendments put on to the school law in the house killed in a body through the com- mittee in the senate. Then we put on some proper amendments, sent it to a conference committee of the house and senate, and passed the law, and it is a good one. It is the strongest law we ever had. It has superintendence, supervision, it has the district system, it has county teachers' institutes, it has uniform examination, it gives to the State Board of Education power to adopt a course of study for the common schools, for the public schools of the rural districts, and makes it the duty of county superinten- dents to enforce the courses of study. We do not answer the politician. We do not deal with politicians down in our State. That feature has not got into our schools yet, and may it never come. Besides, we have great difficulties there in dealing with the two races, and that is a problem which I think has never been appreciated in the North. I know pretty well how the question is looked at ; but 1 tell you, my friends, if you were there dealing with that proposition, where five white children are to be educated along with seven colored children, and where the white people own ninety-three per cent, of the property, when you come to consider the question of taxation, you would begin to know what a difficult problem it was. But we are dealing with the proposition honestly, and Mississippi to-day, under her new system, maintains her new schools from beginning to end, throughout the State, DISCUSSION. 307 by State taxation, for four months in the year. And that is not all, for we give to the localities, in the county, the power to levy an additional tax to maintain their schools an additional time ; that is in the law, too. It is going to take time to get all our problems worked out, to get our people worked up to the mark; but 1 believe, with the law properly framed, it is capable of great growth, as it has grown wonderfully in the last ten years. With a law that reaches out on proper lines and gives proper power, I believe we can, by building up public sentiment, carry out the law through the remotest districts. I believe in that law which provides for the greatest degree of local enterprise. I believe such a law will give the greatest stimulus to local interests, I have a firm conviction that such a law can be carried into operation with the support of the teachers, and that under such an enactment there can be aroused the greatest enthusiasm in the hearts of the people for public education. I believe in a good law, and then in pushing that law, through your teachers, through the educational influences, and all the powers that can be brought into it The address on ^' The Eelation of Education to the Economic and Industrial Conditions of the Time/' by President James MacAlister, of Drexel Institute, Philadelphia, Pa., is omitted at the request of the author, who has been prevented by illness from preparing the same for publication. 208 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, THE SCHOOL AND THE CRIMINAL. BY SUPT. L. H. JOJiTES, I^-DIANAPOLIS, IN"D. The full treatment of my theme would require an analysis of four heads; yiz. : 1. The school as it is; i.e., the actual school. 2. The school as it should be ; i.e., the ideal or possible school. 3. The criminal as a product of definite factors. 4. The criminal as possible subject of remedial agencies. My brief time makes it necessary to treat the first hastily, and to omit the fourth entirely. My chief effort, therefore, shall be to show the possi- ble school to have in it the power to prevent the production of the criminal. Of the actual school, then, I can only say in passing, that it is poor enough to justify almost anything said of it by its enemies ; or, at least, so it would seem when compared with the ideal school. "When seen by itself, however, or compared with the other actual institutions, it assumes a perfection quite gratifying to its friends. At least, it needs to be defended against but one of the charges made against it by its traducers ; viz., that it is a factor in the production of criminals. An appeal has been made to statistics to prove this assertion. This attempt has given good reason to supplement the old adage, '* Figures will not lie," by a newer one, ''Liars will figure.^' To make the statement appear reasonable, statistics have been so manipulated as to leave the impression upon the mind of the reader of two classes of population — illiterate and educated — without any definite conception of the disparity of the numbers in the two classes. Then, with a flourish of trumpets, it is shown that the greater number of criminals come from the educated classes. Dr. Harris, as you know, has exposed the fallacy by showing that, in order to compare the numerators of two fractions, the fractions them- selves must be reduced to a common denominator ; and that the appro- priate comparison is between ratios, and not between numbers in mass. You are familiar with these results, so I need not state them further than to say that illiterate population is thus shown everywhere to produce from eight to twelve times its proportionate quota of criminals. But my purpose is not really to defend the actual school, but rather to arraign it because it has not become a larger factor in preventing the pro- THE SCHOOL AND THE CRIMINAL. 209 duction of criminals. When the actual school has been transformed into the ideal one, it will be so. A study of the criminal as a product of certain agencies will show us liow to make the school the best possible preventiYC agency against crime. Society creates its own criminals. I mean this in a new sense. In a primitive state there are no criminals, because there are no laws ; there are no laws, because there is no quickened public conscience out of which the idea of law can grow. As mankind emerges from barbarism, the laggard becomes the criminal. He is one whose practices offend the pub- lic taste and conscience, and who becomes amenable to the formulated expression of the taste and conscience of the upper stratum. As fast as institutional life becomes possible, the force of these institutions is turned upon this same laggard to civilize him, if possible, to a degree which makes companionship with him possible ; but, if he is not sufficiently developed to be lifted into communion with his self-appointed censors, these same institutions are called upon to separate him as a criminal from his fellows. So on throughout the evolution of institutional life, the rising culture of taste and conscience marks off an ever-increasing num- ber of actions as beneath the low-water mark of social propriety or the public sense of justice; and so it happens that the country of greatest enlightenment will in general exhibit the largest list of criminal offenses. Thus the criminal in any civilization is he whose taste is low, whose nature is coarse, whose perception is dull, whose selfishness is in excess, as judged by the standard of the average of the community in these respects as it has crystallized itself in belief, custom, law, and institution. And the enumeration just given includes all except one class; viz., those whose wills are too weak to enable them to withstand even a mild tempta- tion to fall below the common level of morality. Now, the value of the school in this matter depends on its ability to develop in these laggards of society the quick perception, the finer taste, the view of truth, the proper relation of self to society, and to strengthen the weak will. It is necessary here, then, to say a few words of the possible school, in order to prove it the capable instrument for the prevention of the growth of criminals. The school, like all other institutions, is an evolution. In order to understand it, one must study its embryology. The science of biology has made such rapid strides in recent years, because it has been willing to study the embryology of plants and animals, and has followed each through such metamorphoses as belong to its nature. An institution has a life and a development peculiar to itself. It is an association and organization of ideas. Sin^e ideas grow, institutions do likewise. The process of development may bring new names. The naturalist knows a butterfly as a developed caterpillar. But not all men are It 210 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. naturalists, and some people do not know a caterpillar from a worm. And it is peculiarly difficult to see the different stages of development of those abstract ideas upon which an institution is founded. The school, then, properly considered, is an organized institution, with its parts, forces, and agencies acting together for the realization of a purpose — that of the proper development of the pupil. It is necessary to see that the school is for the pupil. It is not for the parent, the teacher, or even the state directly. It is for the pupil. He comes to the school a bundle of undeveloped possibilities. These possibilities are to be devel- oped into realities. If the school shall do its perfect work in him, he will leave the school with his nature so developed that he will be fitted to live with his fellows in the other institutions — the state, the Church, the family, and civil society. The parts of the school are originally two — the parent and the child ; but in time, the progress of evolution, the parent, for good reasons, trans- ferred his powers and duties to the teacher. The teacher and pupil (or pupils) are then the two organs (or parts) of the school. The forces of the school are such as lie in the spiritual nature of each, and such increase and transformation of these as come from the increase of the number of pupils, and by the association of teacher and pupils. The powers of the teacher are the power to know, to feel, and to do. Those of the pupil are the same ; but always the powers of the teacher are those of a developed person as against the undeveloped powers of the pupil. Certain peculiar powers arise, also, in the interaction of these developed powers of the teacher with the undeveloped mind of the child ; laying a foundation for sentiments of respect on the part of the pupil for the teacher, which could by no means arise between persons of equal development. A new force arises, also, in the association of a large number of pupils under the same organization — a force called the influ- ence of numbers. The nature of a pupil is changed when, no longer the only pupil, he is one of forty. The action of developing mind upon devel- oping mind is peculiar and powerful. Now, the pupil has in him the germ of all that is good, and the nega- tive possibility of all that is evil. The school should nourish the germs of cliaracter and starve the negative tendencies to evil. If the child is to be saved at all, it is to be through the development in him of character ; and this development comes through action and reac- tion of teacher and pupil. The first action and reaction of teacher and pupil arise when they first meet, and have reference to the regulation of conduct. But no regula- tion should be made that is not required in the interest of the pupil, and only in a secondary sense can the teacher or parent be considered in this connection. Each regulation of the school must defend itself on the ground of its TEE SCHOOL AND THE CRIMINAL. 211 necessity to the well-being and normal development of the pupil, and not in any sense on the will and pleasure of the teacher. Indeed, the teacher himself, together with the pupil, is amenable to law and order — not, of course, to the same law and order, because they are the different but com- plementary organs of the school. But there must be no arbitrariness. Three great laws of the school will manifest themselyes at once. They are the laws of promptness, regularity, and silence. What is the ground of each ? Promptness, or punctuality — this is the time-element of institutional life. Its observance is part of the development of a soul, and its prepara- tion to live with others in the other institutions of life. It appears alike in competition and cooperation. The moment it is mentioned with ref- erence to school, the following questions suggest themselves : What is the most commonly talked-of offense against promptness in school life ? Tar- diness in assembling morning and afternoon. Is this the worst phase of its violation ? Why should pupils be taught to avoid being tardy ? Is it a good motive to place before a pupil, to urge him not to make a bad record for his school? Is this the highest possible motive ? Is a child fulfilling the law of punctuality when he barely gets into his seat at nine o'clock, puffing and blowing, out of breath and noisy, attracting the atten- tion of all around him, disturbing the serenity of those who have a right to quiet ? Has the law of punctuality a wider meaning for character than mere success in the objects of the school ? Is it right to urge a pupil to be punctual that he may not disturb others ? Is this the highest reason ? Shall we make the first exercise of the day of such interest that pupils will desire to be present and thus prevent tardiness ? Is promptness thus secured of so much importance in shaping character as the same secured through an understanding of the inherent laws of the organism to which they belong, and the other institutions for which we are preparing ? A rational settlement of such questions as these makes it possible that the very machinery of the school may be a potent means of developing character. The second law is regularity. This is promptness continued and con- tinuous, and its philosophy is the same as that for the practice of the other virtues. The last of the three is silence. Carlyle has said, *^ Silence is the soil in which thought grows, '^ and no study worth the name is possible without it. The chief business of the pupil is to study. Hard study is the only condition of sound scholarship. Silence also implies self-control, the foundation of character. The school, then, whose aim is the realization in its pupils of character and scholarship, must insist upon this funda- mental condition of both. These three great laws of the school may be properly classed as the laws of non-interference ; non-interference with the rights of others. They are negative, not positive, and furnish the conditions for the real activities of the school. 212 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. It is to be observed that there is a wonderful likeness of the school to the family, together with a striking difference between them. The same ethical principles in the main seem to control in each case ; but there is a difference of purpose in the two institutions, which results in a differ- ence of management that is very marked. The school is utterly devoted to the interests of the pupil, and does nothing for the other party of the institution, except by way of making him more useful in his further asso- ciation with the pupil. When, for instance, the teacher stands up for his rights, he properly does so not for his own sake, but because the pupil must be taught to give such respect for difference of station and for con- stituted authority. But in the family the other parties to the institution, the father and mother, have the right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness as well as the child has ; and their rights to life in this insti- tution for their development are quite as sacred as are the parallel rights of the child, and are not merely subject to the requirements of the child's development. Indeed, the average parent is very likely to overestimate his right to peace and happiness under his own vine and fig-tree, and purchases peace temporarily by granting license to the child; i,e., he tries to get along with him. It is the old story of dividing the house between them : the parents take the inside, and the child takes the outside, and so, if you will permit an Hibernianism, they get along together by keeping apart, and the child becomes a street Arab. When, however, such a child comes to school, without any sense of the mutual rights of the members of an institution, he is neither respectful to teacher nor courteous to his mates ; and the teacher undertakes his reformation not for her own ease, but for the protection of the other pupils in their rights, but chiefly for the development of the unruly child himself, fitting him for future living in institutional life. Upon the first conflict, the parent says the teacher does not try to get along with John ; she could do so, he knows, if she would coax him, etc. But, if the teacher under- stands her business, she is not merely trying to get along with the child, she is trying to develop him into moral sanity, and to teach him the ele- mentary ideas of institutional life. Too often, however, from continual nagging from parents, from misconception herself of the legitimate work of the school, or from lack of physical force to hold up her will, or from some one of the other thousand and one reasons that operate in this sphere, the teacher breaks down before the reformation of the child is complete, and he turns the school from its purpose, as he had done the family aforetime ; and, after the other institutions have tried their hand upon him, it is a mercy if he is not a confirmed criminal. But it often happens that the parent gives out before the teacher does, and the process of reformation is not relished, and the child goes out of school merely for lack of parental attention. It is a rare teacher THE SCHOOL AND THE CRIMINAL. 213 indeed who can visit the parent and say such judicious things as will induce father or mother to join in the effort necessary to retain and reclaim the child. It is indeed a rare teacher who can so operate a school as to secure to the children the necessary discipline of the will, without making any of the disciplinary processes objectionable to the subject of them. Especially is this true when the home life of the child has enamored him of selfish- ness and willfulness, and has left undeveloped for many years his better faculties. Thus far I have spoken of the operation of the school in so far as it affects character through the regulation of conduct. This is a side of the school that usually escapes notice altogether, or is not, at least, considered to have any large educational value. It is, of course, in a sense, only the negative side of the case ; it furnishes the condition for the active processes of study and recitation. But it does have an import- ant relation to the development of what may be called the minor virtues — virtues, the absence of which in the average person makes him not worth living with. No school system can do its proper share in the proper pre- vention of crime till its very administration is conceived in love, and carried out in accordance with one sole aim — the real and permanent good of the pupil, instructing him by precept and practice in the ideas of institutional life. But it will not do to leave the matter in this negative form. It will not do merely to hold the fort. An aggressive campaign in the field brings out soldierly qualities in an army. It is the lighting up of the iutellect, the creating and refining of ideas of life and conduct, the strengthening of the will by successful achievement in study, that presents the transformation of a human being that is possible in a school. These things become the pupil's own property by development in him through his own efforts, and are never by any circumstances placed as a thin veneering upon him. The ideal school not only teaches the child to read, but in so doing, by employing his efforts upon noble literature, so interests him therein and enamors him thereof, that the lower trash of libraries and news-stands has no attraction for him. To have the ideal school we must attend to the following conditions : 1. We must get the best people to teach our schools. There is a philosophy of education, I believe ; but it consists chiefly in getting the right person to do the teaching. The processes of instruction may be learned by a careful study of psychology, ethics, and related sciences ; but character outweighs all external trappings. But it is not enough to possess the character ; one must also have the means of making this character felt upon the children. This double possessiou-»-that of great character, and the power to make it felt — is a rare gift of nature. All things great and noble become possible to children in the presence of some people. Once 214 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. possessed, this power of inspiring can be cultivated. But nothing ever fills the vacuum left by its absence. The educational specialist who is seeking for teachers must seek first for this regal character, confident that all things else in rare scholarship may be added unto it. When such teachers are found, and the additional and necessary qualifications have been added, such teachers should be continued in oflSce secure from the outward disturbance of ward politics. 2. Regular attendance must be secured. The attendance must be for the full school year, not a spasmodic movement for the first two or three months, to be given up when school becomes serious work, or when some- thing else more attractive solicits attention. This attendance should be obtained voluntarily on the part of the parents and children, if possible ; but it must be obtained. That compulsory attendance is less valuable than voluntary attendance, I am prepared to admit. That most compulsory laws have failed to meet the expectations of their projectors, is without doubt true. But it is to be remembered that compulsory attendance, because of its regularity, after- ward becomes voluntary ; and it is capable of demonstration, that com- pulsory laws have failed most signally, because they have been political compromises and not rationally conceived measures. And, lastly, public kindergartens must take the children at four years of age, and give them two years of moral and aesthetic training before the beginning of school life proper. There arise in my judgment two unanswerable reasons for doing this. 1. The period between four and six is a very dangerous one morally to children that are not well cared for in their homes. Many of the evil habits learned during this period require for their correction the strength of the teacher for many years of school life. This reason in itself is suffi- cient proof of the wisdom of placing the child during this period where he will not only form no bad habits, but will form good ones. 2. Recent studies of physiological psychology have fairly well estab- lished a definite relationship between certain conditions of the brain and the adaptability of the mind to certain classes of studies, the main principle being that, during periods of greatest growth and most rapid development of the brain, the mind is adapted to receive lasting impressions, and to the forming of permanent habits ; that, during the later periods of slighter change, the mind acquires less rapidly, but tends to reflect more upon its acquisitions. Now, school life is chiefly acquisition, and life afterward ; gives the opportunity for reflection. Physiologists agree that the brain has three marked periods of difference in rate of growth. From birth to seven years of age, the growth is most rapid ; from seven to fourteen, slightly less so ; from fourteen to twenty- one, growth proceeds but slowly ; and at the age of twenty-one, in most cases, the brain has reached its full weight. DI8CU88I0:N'. 215 Psychologists, from their side of the subject, have long since deter- mined by observation the adaptation of the mind in these periods to quite different lines of acquisition. Within the first seven years, environment is tyrannical, controlling through the senses and emotions the culture of the child. Memory and the fancy are at their flood tide. The tendency to form habit is at its greatest. Long-continued attention is impossible. Most work must come under the guise of play. During the second period, memory is still quite active ; fancy changes to imagination, and some dis- position is seen to seek for important relationships of facts learned. The third period includes the time devoted, in grammar schools, high schools, and colleges, to the more serious mastery of the higher tools of culture. Now, it is well known that a large ratio of children do not complete the second period, and that a very small ratio finish the third period. It is manifest that all should complete the first and second periods, though, as has been said, the exigencies of life with the poor, and the lack of dis- cipline and aspiration in the families of the poor, make it well-nigh impos- sible to keep their children in school to the age of fourteen. Now, seeing that in all probability children will leave school at an early age anyway, and in view of the physiological and psychological proof of the great value of the years from four to seven, morally and intellectually, it seems downright stupidity to lose the two most valuable years, from four to six, from our school curriculum. If no serious school-work were done by the children in those years, but the time were taken chiefly in arranging, through play and voluntary activity on their part, the entire environment, so that distinct moral and aesthetic impressions should be imperishably made upon the growing brain, and through it upon the immortal spirit, the gain to the community would be incalculable. As an economical proposition, I claim that it is wiser to expend our money in reducing the probabilities of crime, than wholly in punishing the perpetrator after the crime is committed. I believe the public kindergartens, as a part of our general educational system, would prove an economical investment, aside from the increased happiness brought to all by the higher standard of living which would be brought about in the next generation. DISCUSSION. Principal H. G. Larimer, of Topeka, Kan. — Mr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen : I shall not detain you long. I hold the following truths as self-evident : Civilization increases the catalogue of acts which are called crimes ; education tends to decrease the number of criminals ; the public school is the great instrument of education. I think Superintendent Jones is correct in stating tha^the public school has not done all it should do with a view to correcting criminality ; but that it has done very much in the way he has outlined is true, and that it may do much more is to be hoped. Thus far we are in harmony as to what the public school has done, and, if I under- stand him correctly, we travel far together in outlining the ideal school. If he means 216 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. by punctuality, system and order in attendance ; by regularity, methodical scholarship ; by silence, self-restraint, I am agreed. And these are the meanings, 1 think, he attaches to the terms used. To these factors of the ideal school he adds but one or two more — the "regal teacher" and the kindergarten. And hej^e our paths diverge, here we join issues ; upon the rock of kindergarten at four years we split. Kindergarten. — 1 suppose that the weakling in body, in physical condition, is not able to keep pace with the strong in body ; that the weak in body is not able to support a strong intellect. There should be a strong body, that the intellect may have a strong basis upon which to work. A man so blessed is less likely to commit crime than he who is not in full vigor of life and health. It seems to me that our boys and girls, as was hinted by the President of the United States the other day, are placed under too severe stress, too severe a strain in the early period of their lives. If the kindergarten must keep them from the time they are four until they are six to watch their physical devel- opment, and pay no attention, except incidentally, to the moral and intellectual train- ing, all right and well. But it seems to me, instead of putting our boys and girls to school at the early age of six or seven, we should detain them at home, where they have homes, until they are at least eight years of age, that the body may grow strong in order to stand the strain and pressure that must soon be placed upon the mind, and through it upon the body. It seems to me this is sound doctrine — that a boy or girl who has been detained at home, where he has a home, until he is eight years of age, will accomplish more in two years, from eight to ten, than he will accomplish in six years, from four to ten, where he is detained part of the time ; unless it be in certain communities, smaller districts of our great cities, and then, if the child has no home, such a school should be provided as a home, call it a home, not a school, and the chil- dren should be kept there, not from nine till twelve, or from half -past one to half-past four, but be kept there all day long, where their mothers and fathers are away from home all day. But where the children have homes, let their bodies there be trained to withstand the great burden and the severe nervous strain that is to be placed upon them later in life, when the physical must perforce yield something in development to the rapidly growing mental. Obedience. — Then secondly, it seems to me, our public schools fail to teach absolute obedience to the requirements of school. It seems to me that the one fault of American manhood is that we have not enough reverence for law, for constituted authority, for human character, in our consideration and treatment of our great men. A boy or girl will -stop to ask for the reason ; a child insisting that he shall know the wherefore for the requirements of obedience. We ought to teach him to obey the requirements of the law of the schoolroom, exactly as the State requires obedience from us ; namely, because it is on the statute book. Teach him, "It is the authority, and therefore it is vour business to obey." Now, do not misunderstand me; I believe there are times when it is necessary for men to go outside the pale of the law in order to secure rights ; but such can never be the case with the child. Let me say here, I think there is one fatal error into which Superintendent Jones has fallen, and that is that the school exists for the individual alone. It exists for the greatest good of the greatest number ; and any teacher who goes upon the theory that the school exists or should exist for the individual only makes a great mistake. Indi- vidual rights must be subordinated to the rights of the majority of the school. There is no other excuse upon which you can ask the State to give of its finances for the sup- port of the public school. Religion.— C^rt'^m. archbishops have condemned the public school as a godless insti- tution. How far is this true ? It seems to me we are teaching the child bald facts of morality without any life in them. We are saying to our school-teachers throughout this land, teach morality, give lessons in morals, and instructing them to banish religion from the schoolroom. Oh, it is like giving the bone and muscles and tendons without the life and vigor of the soul I I think, in order to make American schools worthy of the name, they shall have to come back to something like the old Puritan doctrine : teach to the child day by day, hour by hour, that there is a God and a personal God, that there is such a thing as the immortality of the soul, and that every individual is responsible to God for his conduct here. Not teaching, sir, right because it is right and that only, not teaching to do this or not to do that because it will profit by and by, but do it because the great God who made you says that it is right and says that you shall do it. You cannot understand why, neither can I, but He has said to do it. Teach the God, teach the immortality of the soul, teach the individual responsi- bility of that soul to that God for acts done both within and without your schoolroom, and I do not care how much science or reading or arithmetic you teach, you are helping to make a citizen who will not commit crime. o H Q I— I P^ O o t— I H <1 IS3 o o P5 <1 :!j^A!TioN,-^^n.oo< ^ViOtS' % SGV 0\CE. <, c AT so i^.'R B 1- CD O -< ui < X o o ^ Pxx- ^^ f^Q:P t ^ /^,^P^.§d ?0 ~^fiJA 'h "^^Vi :< v^^ ^^A/ ^1 P^^t progress is made-in tiiis study. As Locke says, *' Children are not to be taught by rules, which will always be slipping out of their memories. What you think it necessary for them to do, settle in them by an indispensable practice." To summarize : The thinking of musical tones through their scale and harmonic relations, and the thinking of rhythm through the musical accent should be taught in the first year at school, continued through each year of the course, and made the basis of all work in music — because it is the foundation of all strictly mental culture in music ; it is only by this means that thoroughly progressive results can be obtained ; it is the only way to secure the efforts of all scholars and to get general singing ; it is the only consistent method of presenting the study ; it is the only way to teach the musically dull to sing and to give the mass of pupils permanent power as singers and readers, and because it is the only way to fully utilize the teaching power of good teachers who are deficient in music or unable to sing. Having presented arguments in favor of this first and fundamental element in successful school music at length, a brief mention of some other necessary elements, concerning which there is less division of opinion, will suffice. The second essential to successful music is — preventing injury to the voice by securing musical tones; in other words, teaching soft singing. If soft singing is secured, the extremes of high and low singing avoided, and good articulation taught, the voices will improve and not deteriorate from school singing. School music cannot be successful which permits loud, harsh singing, for by it voices are permanently injured, and vocal habits are formed which eventually render the voices wholly unmusical. Third, Pure intonation and blended voices in part singing should be developed. Where all the children take part in the singing, and they should always do so, this can only be secured by patience and persistency, and by the assistance of music reading. However, the teaching cannot be considered satisfactory which does not cultivate a keen conception of tones and harmony, and establish, so far as is possible, correct hearing and correct intonation. The study of the scales as a mental as well as a vocal exercise will be found very important in securing these ends. Fourth, A taste for the best in music^hould be cultivated by the use of music which is the best, musically speaking, which can be understood and mastered in the grade using it. When words are used they should have 536 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. literary merit. It is not difficult to create a taste for good music, it will be readily formed if good music is practised, and such a taste, formed in the school work, will prove a permanent and powerful factor in securing for the masses of the American people a more general musical culture. Finally, emotional singing is essential. Music is the natural expression of emotion, and children should early be taught to analyze the sentiment of songs and to give expression in their voices to the feelings of the words and music. The importance of securing this sort of singing is unquestioned. It is this element which softens the hard, smooths out the rough, cheers up the despondent, makes brave the timid. When the emotions are engaged in singing, the singer becomes, for the time, a new being; he is sympathizing with suffering, aiding the weak, inspiring the discouraged, burning with patriotism, thrilling with the highest emotions embodied in the music and words written by noble men, giving expression to the noblest sentiments which can inspire mankind. In emotional singing is the element which assists in the discipline, for it refines and ennobles, not only for school life, but for all life. No one of these elements which enter into the study and singing of music can be neglected without detracting from its value as a study, and as a means of culture. It may be that all are not of equal importance, but the best results cannot be obtained if any one of them is overlooked or lightly considered. In conclusion one practical point is suggested to this section of the National Educational Association. It would be of great benefit to the advancement of school music in general, if an influential body of teachers, like those gathered here, should adopt a statement enumer- ating the elements which are, in their judgment, essential to the proper teaching of music in the schools. Such a statement would be a valuable guide to students preparing themselves for this special field of labor, defining for them the scope of their work ; to older teachers who desired to know the opinion of their fellow-teachers on the important points with which such a statement would deal. But it would be of the highest use in furnishing a standard to superintendents and committees whereby to judge of the character of the work done in their schools. It could not fail to clear up the subject and to bring some degree of uniformity where now there is the greatest diversity and contradiction. We do not think such a statement should contain any reference to systems so-called nor to methods. The best teachers may differ vastly in their manner of teaching, and there should be no attempt in this body to abridge the liberty of teachers or to express disapproval of methods which are producing good results along proper lines. But it cannot be truth- fully said that the best teachers may differ vastly in the matter that they teach, because there are certain essential elements which must take their proper places, and be given proper attention, in any judicious course of METHODS IN TEACHING PUBLIC SCHOOL MUSIC. 537 study in school music. This would seem to be the proper place, and this a propitious time, for giving form to a statement or course of study, which shall explicitly state those elements which must be taught in order to reach that standard of results which is commended by the Music Section of the National Educational Association. METHODS AND DEVICES IN TEACHING PUBLIC SCHOOL MUSIC, BY B. JEPSOK, SUPERVISOR OF MUSfC IN THE NEW HAVEN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. To have lived in an age and especially in a country in which the univer- sal watchword seems to be "onward,^' is a cause for profound gratitude. Every avocation, profession, or calling whatever, is organized in quest of light, more light. AVe have lived to little purpose, as it seems to me, if we have not been influenced, more or less, by this great American quest. Educational methods on all subjects are undergoing a searching investi- gation, in fact I am informed that the department of music in this as- sociation has already been the theatre of some animated discussions. I believe that a little friction, just enough and not too much, is a very good thing, and while I am glad at all times and in all places to give a reason for the faith that is in me, I am also willing that others should be heard ; I am not willing, however, to concede that any one theory em- bodies all the wisdom and experience of the ages. If any one can accomplish more without the aid of staff notation than I can with it, they are certainly welcome to proceed on that line ; at the outset then I will say that I have no quarrel with Tonic Sol Fa, with fixed dohs or movable dohs. By way of defining my own position I may say that if the fixed doh is something which stays in one place for a long time, I suppose I may be fairly classed among the adherents of that system, as I have been a fixture in the New Haven schools since January, 1865 ; otherwise my sympathies are with the movable doh. It requires a degree of courage to figure up the number of years which have intervened since my first appointment, and I will therefore leave that task to those who are fond of statistics. I can only say in extenuation that I entered the service very young. Joking aside, however, it is a matter of pride that I was permitted to be a pioneer of public-school music in the State of Connecticut. Personally I feel it a privilege no less than a duty to do what lies within me in behalf of this great work, whether in a municipal, state or national direction, and I am glaJ therefore to be able once more to respond to the summons of your programme committee. 538 TFIE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. It has been my uniform experience that whenever the study of music in public schools has been thoroughly systemized and faithfully practised, it awakens an interest and enthusiasm which never die out. Especially is this the case in primary grades. When the little children find them- selves actually singing their first simple exercises by sight, their pleasure is unbounded, and this interest, when it reaches the parent, becomes inten- sified in a manner that impresses itself upon the whole community. Notwithstanding the recognition which music has received and is still receiving as a regular branch of study throughout the country, much, very much, remains to be done. With our magnificent system of graded schools the study of music should also be carefully graded, and in 6very respect made subject to the same rules and regulations as other branches. In other words, the study of music should be made a real thing and not a sham. But here comes the difficulty. Not all boards of education, superintendents, principals, and teachers can be made to see that the claims of music are equal, if not superior, to those of any other study, whethei* pertaining to life in its childhood or manhood. The popular estimate of music in schools has been, and in most com- munities continues to be, its use as a recreation to relieve the tedium of study in other branches. Taught in this way, the study of music loses all character and dignity, and the public come to regard it as an orna- mental branch to be lopped off whenever economy of public funds or political expediency may dictate. The practice of music is refining in its tendencies, conducive to social and moral elevation, decidedly antagonistic to pulmonary diseases, en- courages precision and punctuality in the pupil, is unequalled as a means of mental discipline, comforts the home, and makes the heart better. In a word, no single study can compare with music in its multifarious advan- tages to the children. "What we need at present, is some influence, more potent than any yet discovered, to make the public realize the truth of these statements. As teachers, we must aim by practical results to demonstrate the utility of music as a study, and at least make it morally impossible for future governors to veto legislative enactments in the interest of musical education. If in some communities reproach and failure have been the result of attempts to introduce music as a study, it must be said that not infre- quently, the underlying cause has been found to be the indifference or incapacity of the instructor. In some instances the study of music is made obnoxious by the dry and uninteresting manner of the teacher. In other cases tlie elementary practice is ignored and all progress is measured by the number of songs which may be taught in a given time. Surely the last estate is worse than the first. In this connection I may be per- mitted to say that if I have enjoyed a degree of success in public-school work, it has been entirely on opposite lines. I have endeavored in all METHODS IN TEACHING PUBLIC SCHOOL MUSIC. 539 possible ways to so sysfcemize and simplify the study as to make note practice even more attractive than rote practice. In music, as in everything else, the foundation must be laid before the superstructure is built. It goes without saying that the bed-rock of all elementary instruction is found in the kindergarten. In my early days of teaching, one of the greatest difficulties encountered was how to adapt musical study to the lowest primary grade. I have met many teachers who were similarly embarrassed, and many are still asking : IIow do you begin musical instruction with the little ones ? With the assistance of the class of boys present, I will presently endeavor to show how I would begin the study of music with " six-year-olds " on the first day of school life, and how proceed through all the various grades of study from kinder- garten to high school. I venture to assert that the elements of music, if properly presented to little children, can be more successfully taught than any other branch. My own experience is that children of tender years learn to read notes long before they can read the little words placed under them. It is needless to say that little children, not less than children of larger growth, need to have their studies amplified, not condensed. How many adults are there present who would achieve success in the study of music if asked to condense a dozen or more topics in the first lesson ? And yet there are many primary instruction books published in which staff, notes, time, rests, letters, keys, signatures, varieties of time, clefs, and all, are presented in the first few pages. In music, as in all other studies, the ability to read, and thereby to interpret and understand, must ever be the first great object in education ; and this must be our first great care with the masses who attend our public schools, comprising, as they do, the high and the low-born of every creed and nationality in the world. It cannot be expected, with but fifteen or twenty minutes per day devoted to musical instruction, that [iny portion of this time can be expended in the technicalities of vocal culture. It will surely be sufficient if, by a well- grounded knowledge of the elements of music, the children are fitted to unlock the treasures of music themselves. If I might condense all I desire to say in a single paragraph, it would be this : The highest and best incentive to sing music is the ability to read music. If the children of our public schools are well versed in the science of music the art will take care of itself, and so I say it is not well to go into the technicalities of vocal culture. In the practice of singing, children learn most by imitation ; not one in a hundred will fail to imitate cor- rectly, the first time, a loud tone, a soft tone, a sweet tone, or a harsh tone. On the other hand, scarcely one in a hundred will succeed, the first time, in giving the required sound wher^hampered by technical explana- tions. On the whole, 'twere better far, perhaps, that children should sing in blissful ignorance of vocal cords, diaphragms, abdominal muscles, etc. 540 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Children sing as sweetly and naturally as birds, if they are properly restrained. All that is needed, in this respect, is a few common-sense rules in reference to erect position, full breaths, and sweet tone, such as will suggest themselves to any competent teacher. The time spent in elementary drill by the regular teacher should be at least fifteen minutes per day ; more than that might prejudice the study, in some instances, especially when the school curriculum is somewhat crowded. A less amount of time would be insufficient. In primary grades more or less rote practice will always be necessary. Through the instrumentality of rote songs, many lessons in loyalty, rever- ence, obedience, filial affection, and other virtues, may be taught, which, if withheld until the children actually read music, might never be learned. No one doubts that the children should be early imbued with sentiments of loyalty and national pride, hence teachers of all grades, both public and private, have a duty to perform in educating the children to love, revere, and defend the flag, with all it represents. Surely this desirable result can be attained in no better way than by the practice of national songs. I know of but one objection which can be urged against a proper amount of rote singing. The practice of songs, especially those of a patriotic character, is much more exhilarating than that of solfeggios, hence the tendency to harsh singing. In reference to this whole matter of rote and note, I would say : let recreation in music be ever kept subor- dinate to study in music ; throughout the lower grades let the study of the science and the practice of songs go hand in hand, each having its allotted time in the school programme, and neither being allowed to inter- fere with the other. I am frequently asked my opinion in reference to the use of charts in teaching music. I think that all who have used them, whether for music, drawing, writing, arithmetic, or any other branch, will concede that they are very good in the absence of a blackboard. -In my early days of teach- ing I expended much time and money in the preparation of charts, but I soon found they were inadequate to furnish the needed supply of daily food for hungry music readers. The limited number of exercises which they contained were soon learned, and thenceforward were practised by rote. There is inspiration in an original exercise, or even in one which may be copied, so long as it is new to the class ; hence I have found crayon in the hands of a live teacher far more effective than either books or charts, especially in primary grades, where single-part exercises only are needed. In reference to time and measure, I have never yet failed to obtain per- fect accuracy in time, whether for the full, half, or quarter beat, by the most rational way, it seems to me, ever yet devised, viz., a motion of the hand. Pendulums and time-names may answer the purpose when atten- tion to the music is immaterial, but with pupils in the act of reading METHODS IN TEAGHINO PUBLIC SCHOOL MUSIC. 541 music, any device that does not permit pupils for themselves to estimate the length of rests and notes by self-made counts or beats, must be a fail- ure. The only device outside of themselves which can be of any use whatever, is the audible tap of the teacher. The ultimate object of all musical drill is to enable the pupil to read exercises at sight. The best results in this direction may be accomplished by frequent tests. In my own practice I have found that daily tests, and as many of these as possi- ble, from book, blackboard, or printed slip, greatly facilitate the work. In this kind of practice a single reading, perhaps two, is sufficient, as per- fect accuracy cannot be expected. The plan of fifteen minutes' daily drill by the regular teacher, which is now practised all over the United States, is obviously the best, as without the co-operation of the regular teacher perfect success cannot be attained. The speaker, by the way, adopted this plan in January, 1865, and unless some one can antedate him, is clearly entitled to the patent. Fellow teachers, we have every reason to feel encouraged in our work. Thousands of voices in every street and alley of our large towns and cities are ringing out the praises of public-school music. The grand army of adult pupils who have graduated, with more or less ability to read music, and have become parents themselves, are now anxious to perpetuate musical instruction in the schools for the benefit of their own children. Educational associations, both State and national, have accorded musical exercises and discussions a place in their programme. More and more, as the years move on, will come the demand for competent teachers and best methods. To those of us whose lives are devoted to this work, may these things be a perpetual stimulus and inspiration to fulfil our best desires and highest conceptions of the work intrusted to our keeping. In conclusion, I will submit for the benefit of any who may wish to know, a condensed programme covering eight years of study. First year : Development of scale ; blackboard exercises, using quarter note heads without form or measure, simply writing seyen-note cadences, first to three, next to five, and finally to include all the notes of the scale. Second year : Double, triple, and quadruple measure without skips, introducing quarter, half, dotted half, and whole notes. Dictation exer- cises in singing with cadences of three notes. Third year : Letters, note Avords, key signs, and slurs, " all-key exercises " written in Cand snng in G, F, D, B, A, and E. Dictation with five-note cadences and note words of three letters. Fourth year : Intervals from thirds to octaves with quarter notes, eighth and sixteenth notes, accent, triplets, and rounds, dictation with seven-note cadences, and note words of four letters. Fifth year : Treble and bass clef, two-jKirt music, varieties of time, slurs witli all intervals, singing with syllables lo and loOj dictation exercises on bass clef, also note words of two syllables. 542 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Sixth year : Three-part music, half beats, compound time, triad prac- tice, crescendo, diminuendo, and swell, dictation exercises on both clefs. Seventh year : Four-part music, diatonic and chromatic scales, acci- dentals, transpositions, syncopation, chanting, dictation with accidentals. Eighth year : Modulation, major and minor keys with accidentals, dic- tation exercises in C on either clef, transposed to any other keys. The reading of this paper was followed with a class exercise by a small company of boys from the New Haven public schools, with which Mr. Jepson illustrated various methods and devices as practised by him in his system of musical instruction. ROUND TABLE CONFERENCES ON PHILOSOPHY. • The Round Tables on Philosophy, The foHowing abstracts have been seut in for printing in this volume of Proceedings. A reference to the programme wiU show what proportion of these exercises they cover. It is regretted that reports of the other round- table discussions have not been furnished to the editor. A meeting was held at Congress Hall, and some twenty or more of the leaders in this movement gave their counsel as to the future of this part of the programme in the National Educational Association. President G. Stanley Hall pre- sided, and it was voted that the management of the round tables at the next meeting should be placed in the hands of an executive committee consisting of W. T. Haris, Nicholas Murray Butler and James MacAlister to act in conjunction with the President of the National Educational Association. I. Abstract of Professor Fullerton's Remarks. II. Letter of Professor Howison to Professor Fullerton. III. Abstract of Professor Bryant's Paper. IV. Abstract of Dr. McBride Sterrett's Paper. HOW DO CONCEPTS ARISE FROM PERCEPTS? (An abstract of Introductory Remarks made by Professor Fullerton' at the Round Table held at the meeting of the N. E. A., Saratoga, N. Y., 1892.) My remarks on the rise of the concept out of percepts will be brief, as the object of a Round Table is free discussion and an exchange of views, not the detailed exposition of the views of the leader. Moreover, I shall consider only the sense of the word *' concept" which makes it equivalent to "general notion," leaving out of view altogether the concept as mem- ory-image, and treating in the same way empirical general notions of the lowest order and the concepts sometimes known as rational or transcen- dental, the much-mooted universals of philosophy. By the concept I shall mean that by means of which the mind grasps and holds together as belonging to one class a plurality of individuals which have some element or elements in common. I shall briefly consider : (1) The relation of con- cepts to sensations and to percepts ; (2) The elements actually present to 546 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. the mind when it forms a concept ; (3) The various degrees of generality covered by the concept ; and the distinction between the abstract and the general notion ; and (4) certain questions arising out of my view of the nature of the concept. I. We may regard sensations and the records left in the memory by sensa- tions as the raw material of consciousness — elements which, when arranged and interrelated, give us consciousness as it appears when we are in a position to reflect upon it in even a rudimentary way. Of course, a group of wholly unrelated sensations is, to the developed mind, a something conceived of, but never actually experienced, for sensations, when they enter consciousness are ap perceived, i. e., are elaborated. Nevertheless, we can draw the distinction between the sensations, as mere material for thought, and the forms in which they are worked up into knowledge. Sensations and memories of sensations grouped in certain orderly ways form percepts, or individual things. Percepts do not differ from each other in all their elements, but contain points of likeness and points of difference. When the mind compares and classes them, it distinguishes, whether with or without conscious purpose, between the elements in which they agree and those in which they differ, and gathers them into a class by means of the former, ^. e., it frames a general notion. IT. Thus it will be seen that, in forming the concept, the mind takes cogni- zance of — holds in the focus of attention — certain psychic elements which are insufficient, taken alone, to form a percept, a complete individual, and recognizes that these elements are to be found now in combination with this group of other elements, now with that. In other words, our con- sciousness is* of a given nucleus with a varying ^^ fringe." It is the pres- ence of this varying *' fringe " that gives generality to the concept — makes it a concept proper, and not merely an incomplete image. As conscious- ness tends to rest in images, it is but natural that the attempt to discover by direct introspection what is actually in mind when one forms a concept should result in misconception. The nominalist, finding it impossible to picture the nucleus I have mentioned, denies generality to all but the name (Berkeley, ^' Principles," Introduction, § 10). The crude realist adds to this nucleus elements that belong to the '' fringe," and makes of his general notion an individual of the same nature as those he is trying to class (Pulleyn, ''Sentent.," p. 1, c. iii., quoted by Haureau, ''Philos. Schol.,"I., p. 328). The conceptualist admits that the mind can grasp the nucleus and abstract from the elements which, when added to it, form an individual, asserting generality of what is in the mind of the person forming the concept, but denying it of the world of real exist- HOW no CONCEPTS ARISE FROM PERCEPTS? 547 ences ; a procedure which, of course, denies that the mind knows things as they really are, and classes them by means of that which they really have in common. No one of these three doctrines expresses the whole truth concerning the concept. The couceptualist is, from the point of view of psychology, the nearest to the truth, though his philosophical position with regard to real existences is open to criticism. III. The concept may be one of the most rudimentary sort, or it may be the result of much abstraction and generalization. In every case the process of its formation is essentially the same. In every case there is the nucleus and the *' fringe," whether we consider the empirical concepts of common life or the ^' universals'' of the school-men. It may be difficult in any given case to discover just what elements belong to the nucleus, as it may be difficult to enumerate all the elements present in a percept ; but there is in the nature of the concept nothing occult or inexplicable, nothing to prevent one's forming a clear idea of the process and expressing it in psy- chological terms sufficiently unambiguous. The concept formed by the brute, as we may infer from his actions and his comprehension of general terms, and the concept discussed by the philosopher do not differ in kind, though they differ vastly in degree of generality and in wealth of meaning. In speaking of the rise of concepts out of percepts, one conveniently treats percepts as though they were definite and complete before the com- parison of them which results in the concept. But it is evident that concepts of a certain order may arise long before the mind has attained to such full and definite knowledge of percepts. That concepts may be formed, it is only necessary that the mind experience groups of sensations having points in common and points of difference. Concepts formed at such a stage of a mind's development are necessarily of a low order, and extremely vague. Still they are concepts, with nucleus and *' fringe," like concepts formed later. IV. The view of the nature of the concept expressed in what precedes sug- gests one or two interesting questions upon which I can merely touch. In the first place, can one hold this view, if one regards, with Professor James, the total consciousness at any one moment as an unanalyzable unit — a something without parts ? Plainly one cannot ; nor can one, in my opinion, make in any way intelligible what is present to the mind when it forms a concept. In the second place, can we conceive of the concept as having a physical basis in cerebral activity ? I answer, yes ; and we have here no greater mystery than that we meet in assuming a physical basis for sensations, or the complexes of sensation, which form for us individual 548 THB NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION objects. In speaking thus, I have no desire to bring forward any theory as to the nature of the connection between mind and brain. I wish merely to point out that one may as reasonably assume a physical basis for con- cepts as for sensations, whatever the significance one allows to that ambig- uous expression '' physical basis. ^^ Finally, may one ask why the mind forms concepts at all ? why it is thus active ? Yes, but it may also ask, and with as much reason, why it experiences sensations at all. If the former question can be satisfactorily answered, probably the latter can also, and probably the answer will, in both cases, be substantially the same. HOW DO CONCEPTS ARISE FROM PERCEPTS? BY PROF. GEO. S. FULLERTOI^-. Sir : I beg to offer the following points for the consideration of your company. They are not intended to furnish a definitive settlement of the question discussed, but rather to bring out certain facts and certain distinctions which seem to me to be of a determining importance for such a settlement. Eightly weighed, they should lead to the conclusive result. By way of preliminary, I may say that my attention has been called to this subject through a partial discussion of it that has been going on, at intervals during the past year, in '^ The Public-School Journal,'' the well-known educational magazine published at Bloomington, 111. The question appears to have been raised in that periodical by our eminent educational psychologist. Dr. W. T. Harris, now United States com- missioner of education. I agree with him, that there is no problem more fundamental to psychology than this of the true origin of concepts (unless it be that of the origin of percepts), and none of greater practical import to the right theory and the genuine art of education. I can there- fore well understand why its discussion, left as yet incomplete in the journal mentioned, should be transferred to the more public field of the National Association, and brought under the concentrated light of the best minds engaged in our teaching profession. My own purpose, in this brief communication, is to contribute, if I can, toward a just solution of this problem, so difficult as well as so vital, mainly by aiding towards an exact understanding of what the question started by Dr. Harris really means. Until an agreement is reached upon this, there can be no hope of a conclusive result. I. My first point is this : That the word concept employed in the ques- tion must, of course, have all its variety of meaning clearly realized, in How DO CONCEPTS ARISE FROM PmCEPTS? 549 order to a fruitful discussion ; and that this variety, or ambiguity, is much wider than seems to be recognized in the usual discussions. There is, in the first place, the distinction between the general, gen- eric, or "universal'' concept, and the particular concept — between the remembered image of any single object of sense and the generalized notion of the class to which we are in the habit of saying the object belongs. Very likely, the intent of our question, us apprehended by those who have raised it, is to include only the origin of these general concepts ; indeed, it may probably be claimed by some, that the word concept, as distinguished from the word conception, has a technical restriction to such generic notions. My main purpose, however, in this first connection, is to insist on the significance of the fact that the very same stem-word is used to cover both meanings, and to call attention to the need of considering both. The procedure by which the particular conception arises from the percept is at least as interesting and as im- portant an inquiry as the rise of the general notion. I believe that the true doctrine of the rise of the particular concept is the clue to the true doctrine of the rise of the generic ; if, indeed, it be permissible to speak of the " rise '' of concepts from percepts at all ; which, strictly speaking, I think is assuredly not permissible. This is so really the case, and so, thoroughly implied to be the case by Dr. Harris himself, in his letter on the subject to ** The Public-School Journal," that I am tempted to wonder why he did not rather reverse his question, and put it : Hoio do percepts arise from concepts 9 IT. For now we must not fail to notice, in the second place, that there is a still subtler distinction covered by the word concept. Over against all such concepts as we have thus far been considering, whether particular or general, stand concepts of a wholly different and a higher order, which, so far from being derived from them, or even from percepts, require us to admit that they are acts of consciousness strictly original. Without ad- mitting their reality, and their actual operation, the existence not only of the generic but of the particular concept will prove to be inexplicable; and not merely this, but the existence of percepts as well. For the sake of discrimination, let us agree to call concepts as they are usually understood, both general and particular, empirical concepts; and give to the others the name of transcendental. In this nomenclature we are following Kant, though we give to his term transcendental an extended and new applica- tion. Instead of restricting it to the absolutely primordial eleinents of thought, that are constitutively present in every concept alike, and indeed in every percept also, and usually kno^n as the categories, we carry it forward to cover all those primary yet specific acts of apperceptive unifica- tion of the categories and the sensation-contents, which must be recognized 550 TBE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. as at the basis of all percepts and all empirical concepts, both particular and general. We employ it in Kant's own meaning — to denote a causal thought that remains indeed within the limits of jyossz^^e experience, and is always engaged in setting objects of sense into being, but which neverthe- less passes beyond — '' transcends '^ — the limits of ac^?/aZ experience, actual sense perception, and predicts the course of subsequent perception, in that kindjhj laying down a priori the condition for the total career of each particular object of perception, and of the whole kind, or genus, to which it belongs ; indeed, the particular can be said to " belong " to the genus only in virtue of its transcendental concept covering by its nature the whole range of relations both within the particular object and within the class. This leads us to recognize now, that our 'transcendental concept" means the same as Plato's ''idea; " that is, when Plato uses the term consistently to signify the self-active ideal forms that are the life of real objects, and does not by confusion employ it, as he too often does, to signify the mere gen- eral notion abstracted out of experience. III. Distinguishing thus between transcendental and empirical concepts, and, in the latter, between the particular concepts and the general, and duly marking off all from percepts — that is, from the always particular objects of sense-perception, or actual existences, ordinarily so called — to which of these, now, does our question about the rise of concepts from percepts refer ? And will our answer to it vary according to the order of concept to which we may happen to refer it ? I will not occupy the time of the '' Table " by discussing this at any length. I will only say that those who give as the proper answer the doc- trine current in most books on logic, evidently consider no concept but the empirical generic notion, and that their answer is, from that point of view, of course convincing ; the generic notion, as part of experience, based on experimental reflection upon the particulars of experimental perception, is the result of comparison and abstraction; its ^' rise ''from the percepts is by dropping out the differential traits of the real particulars, and retain- ing only those common to all. This explanation, granting the assumption on which it rests, no one, surely, can accuse of incorrectness. Let us admit that it is right, so far as it goes; but let us not overlook the fact that it goes but a very little way on the regressive path to the cause of the concept investigated, and let us not ignore the perplexity into which its result plunges us. This per- plexity is the old and famous one that shook the mediaeval schools with that dispute over Nominalism and Realism, wliose faint echoes still reach trained ears in the close of this nineteenth century of '^ utility " and '' en- lightenment." Is the universal real 9 or is it a mere figment of speech 9 Or at best, shall we say, following Abelard, that it is a mere wag of thinking I JIOW DO CONCEPTS ARISE FROM PERCEPTS? 651 about particulars, which alone are real ? If the universal has no other reality than this ; if it is only away the thinker has of looking at realities, then farewell to all reality for science ; farewell, still worse, to the reality of human hopes for immortality, and even of human belief in God. For we cannot blink the awkward fact, that, if there is no other founda- tion for the universal than generalization by abstraction — if taking the ** common remainder " after dropping out every trace oi particular differ- ence be the true and sufficient account of it — then the universal is reduced to the nondescript that has neither definite quality nor quantity nor mode nor relation. '^ Triangle,^' for example, turns out to be that extraordin- arily *'pure" three-sidedness that has no real dimensions, no real slope of sides, and no real position. 'Tis only another name, apparently, for non- entity; and so, likewise, of all other general notions. Truly, it seems but just, that the phrase '' a mere notion" should have become the proverbial equivalent for vagary and phantasy. And yet, on the reality and the self-active character of the universal in our consciousness, and on its consequent conditioning of all our sense-per- ception (that is, of all Nature), depends our provable existence after death ; while upon this grounding of Nature in human nature depends the doc- trine that the eternal ground of things is the realized ideal of our true humanity — the doctrine, that is, that there is a God. IV. But if this view has unpleasant consequences for such as have no taste for philosophical scepticism, how is it to he evaded? So long as the ques- tion is so put as to imply a *^ rise'^ of concepts out of percepts, so long must the attention be fastened upon merely derivative elements in thought; so long, it would seem, must the purview of the inquiry he confined to the merely empirical and reflection-grounded aspect of the universal — to its mere pseudo-universal aspect of a generalization from particulars. It is no explanation, even of this mere general notion, to say that it '^ arises" from percepts by a "process" of dropping out particular differ- ences. This does not touch the Jcnoivledge of the general concept in its cause, which is the only philosophical knowledge of it, the only real knowl- edge of it. This is only to describe the manner in which the abstract uni- versal is found, on after comparison, to differ de facto from the particu- lars. While it answers that obvious part of the question which requires us to take note of concepts (general ones) on the one hand, and of percepts on the other, and include in our notice their differences, this is absolutely all it does. The vital word in the question — the word how — is silently ignored. How come we — this is the real question — how come we to have the instinct to drop the particular differences, and seek thus, even though in vain, for something that we feel is more real than the particular? — for something that may answer for the permanent identity of the partic- 552 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. ular amid the fleeting instants of its sense-perceived elements on the one hand, and something that may answer to the felt and experienced greater reality of its kind or genus on the other? Thus it becomes plain that, before we can look for a sufficing answer to our question, we much change its tenor. We must insert into it the real meaning of concept — the causal thought-element at the basis even of per- ception itself — if we are to save our investigation from ending in the cul de sac of Nominalism. The preliminary question, in short, is one which takes us still farther into the depths of a true and genuine psychology — the question. How do percepts themselves arise? Are they conceivable as merely coming to us from existences that are in and of themselves, whether we exist or no ? Are they mere data to us —us purely passive recipients — given by force of such things-in-themselves ? Or do they depend absolutely on certain pure thought-acts of ours, the existence and spontaneity of which, conditioning and so far setting into being the particulars of the sense-world themselves, are the real explanation of those after-experiences of reflection which we call by the name of concepts of experience, particular and general both ? As I have already indicated, it is not my object to present any solution of this question in this paper, but rather stimulate and guide inquiry upon it. In the hope that what I have written may really prove of service in that sense, I subscribe myself, Yours sincerely, G. H. Howisoiq-. University of California, Berkeley, July 6, 1893. THE FREEDOM OF THE WILL— DOES IT CON'CERN SPONTANEITY OR CHOICE? BY WM. M. BRYANT. (The paper here presented in abstract will be published in full as a monograph.) Will is life in manifestation. Freedom is self -consistency in such mani- festation. How does the will that is born become possessed of this quality (freedom) in the concrete ? For the created (evolved) individual, life, as Mr. Spencer has defined it, is the "continuous adjustment of internal relations to external relations.'' For our present purpose this is to be interpreted in its highest spiritual implications no less than in its lower physiological import. The existence of evolved minds presupposes the actual existence of a THE FREEDOM OF THE WILL. 553 perfect, and hence eternal mind ; that is, the type of mind is really thinkable (in the sense of tracing its necessary implications) only as com- pletely realized. Evolution is really thinkable only as a consistent process ; as the mani- festation of a power conforming to law, to a method. The ultimate energy manifested in the total range of evolution is thus self-regulated. It is the absolute ^o^«? of existence. Hence it can have no "external" relations. On the contrary, all relations, in respect of the ultimate energy, are necessarily internal relations ; for there is nothing beyond it to which it could bear relation. Thus, as the organic total of all relations, this ultimate energy, in re- spect of its method, must be intelligence; in respect of its manifestation, it must be self-directed energy or toill; and in respect of the unison between its method and its manifestation, it must hQ feeling. That is the type which it is the (normal) destiny of the individual (evolved) mind progressively to fulfil. Such mind is itself (initially) an "external " unit; since to all those aspects of the typical mind, which it has not yet realized in its own individual life, it still stands in relation as to something practically external. For it, then, life consists in the continuous adjustment of its own already developed modes of internal activity to the whole sum of those (as yet to it) external relations constituting (as ultimate complement of the individual mind) the total self-unfolding energy. But this means that for the individual (evolved) mind, life consists in the continuous adjustment of internal relations to external relations in such way that the relations initially external to it shall be progressively assimilated into its own substance and into its own modes. That is, for the individual (evolved) mind, life consists in the continuous and progres- sive 1 7' ans formation of external relations into internal relations. It is, in short, just the process of approximation on its own part to the perfect (and hence eternal) mind. The perfect mind is self-manifested in absolute self-consistency. That is the " necessity " of its nature. It is also its perfect freedom. To ap- proximate the perfect mind in the sense of progressively realizing in one's own life the universal type of mind, that is progressively to attain freedom. This process of self-realization is exceedingly complex. The relations of the world to which (as primarily " external '' to him) the individual must adjust himself are (1) physiological (including physical), as well as (2) social and (3) cosmic. The physiological relations involve the whole vast complex of conditions determining what is commonly termed "heredity."" Man is born of an ancestry reaching back, through more and more humble degrees, to a first generation. There heredity seems to vanish altogether. The ^^ first " 554 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. generation simply arose out of nature through the workings of purely *' natural " laws. But nature is itself nothing else than the outer aspect of the self -mani- festation of the ultimate energy or perfect mind. It is in and through this that man has arisen, as the highest term of evolution (that is, of the total creative process). In other words, nature may very well be regarded as literally natura — the eternal birth-process of man as the one (evolved) being possessing, in type, all the characteristics of the ultimate creative energy. Divine fatherhood and divine sonship are but correlative terms. Without this primal factor " heredity ^Ms a will-o'-the-wisp. With it heredity presents a legitimate account of the origin of man, both as an individual and as a race. Thus, in his nature, individual man is already at birth a will — a unit of energy destined to self -regulated development. And yet, as determined through heredity, he is at birth already a jt?redetermined unit. He has tendencies toward definite forms of activity ; but such tendencies are 2i\YQB.Ay predestined ihvowgh. his vastly complex and extended birth-pro- cess. Thus limited in point of development, will is of that degree known as simple instinct. It is will, but not free will. Nevertheless, the simplest act even of such will is still an individualized act ; and so far as such act is of a nature to emphasize the unison between the individual and his environment, it quickens his life-functions ; his energy as a will is thus increased and rendered more definite and consist- ent ; whence his activity is heightened in rhythm, ease, and effectiveness — that is, a degree of physiological freedora is attained. But mistakes are inevitable, and collisions resulting in pain to him will occur between the individual and his environment. His intelligence will thus be quickened. Whence (normally) he will come to prefer (choose) those modes of activity in which he avoids such collisions on the one hand, and on the other hand increases the degree of harmony in his relations with his environment. In this process he develops a "healthy nature^^ — is progressively born into a higher degree of life. Here, too, his more complex environment is the social world. In this sphere again he is primarily determined by his environment. But by degrees he comes to determine himself to it — unfolds the definite modes of activity known as hahit — that is, of subjectioe social freedom. So doing he gains in individual power ("force of character"), and so comes to react upon the environment, and in greater or less degree to determine it to himself; that is, he attains an appreciable measure of objective social freedom. This is a distinct expansion in his spiritual birth-process. The elements and conditions of his life are more complex, and there is undeniable increase of self-consistency and of vigor in the manifestation of his life. THE FREEDOM OF THE WILL. 555 This aspect also in the birth-process of the individual as will reaches back through the whole history of the race. For habit is but confirmed as well as consistent conformity to custom ; and custom is just the slowly evolved, organic habit of the race. But here, too, collisions arise — collisions of such subtle violence and wide-reaching import as to arouse the whole intellectual nature into a vigorous questioning of the whole order of the world in its widest com- pass. The intelligence, awakened out of mere vague wonder, becomes more positively infused with will. With the shock of contradiction the mildest interrogation points become keen-edged poniards to thrust into the heart of every mystery. What is the ultimate order of the world ? What is my relation to that order ? What is my destiny within that order ? Such inquiry leads to the discovery that the ultimate world-order is characterized above all by its absolute self-consistency ; that normal rela- tion of the individual to that order is a relation of conformity ; that the individual life is to be realized only through continuous self -adjustment (willing conformity) to that order ; and that, hence, the individuaFs destiny within that order is, by his willing conformity thereto, to progressively assimilate the very world-order itself into his own life-process. This, indeed, is the highest degree of the endless birth-process by which the individual attains the concrete realization of his own true {i. e., divine) nature. But thus also, in this very manifestation of his life (consisting, on first view, merely of reflex action upon external conditions), the individual attains continuously to richer degrees of actual life and to ever-increasing self-consistency of manifestation of life. That is, the continuous self -adjustment of the individual to the ultimate world-order in its spiritual as well as in its physical aspects is the process of actual assimilation of that order — the progressive transformation of the external or '^mechanicaV^ into the internal or '^ spontaneous.^^ It is the gradual approximation of the created mind to the creating Mind ; the increasing attainment of concrete, creative self-activity — Freedom in the ultimate or cosmic sense of conscious, deliberate conformity to the rational (ultimate) world-order. In its subjective, predominantly intellectual aspect, such self-activity is choice (as between subjective representations of possible courses of action) ; while in its objective or predominantly volitional aspect, it is spontaneity in the character of concrete self-manifestation of will, giving objective form to the selected representation (ideal, type, plan). It thus appears that the actual, concrete freedom of the individual will is progressively attained, and that it concerns both spontaneity and choice, since these are but the complementary*(subjective and objective) aspects of the will in its actual process of concrete self -manifestation. 556 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. COSMIC SUICIDE. (An abstract of Prof. Sterrett's paper.) Scientific pessimism fails to establish cosmic suicide as a solution of the world-drama. The topic was opened by stating the difficulty of taking pessimism seri- ously, its proposed cosmic suicide seeming, at a first glance, to be rather comic philosophy. Yet sucli philosophy is really only an analysis and interpretation of the Welt Schnierz (despair of life) that imbues so large a part of current popular literature. The discussion, however, eliminated all sentimental and rhetorical pessimism — that of mood and fancy — and was confined to the reasoned or scientific form given by Von Hartmann. The subjective, individualistic pessimism of Schopenhauer was only touched upon. Von Hartmann^s criticism of it being given ; note being made of the easy optimism and capricious individualism of the last part of the eigh- teenth and much of the nineteenth centuries, pessimism being a product of their failures. A brief outline of Von Hartmann's philosophy of the unconscious was given, showing his unreconciled dualism of a reasonless will and a powerless intellect, following through the three disillusion- ments of humanity in its progress to the goal of painlessness through a concerted cosmic suicide ; thus, as he says, *'to annihilate the whole actual volition of the world without residuum, and cause the whole cosmos to disappear at a stroke.''^ Granting this to have been once accomplished, it was maintained that there was nothing in the first principle to guarantee against another a logical act of creation, another resurgence of the reason- less will into the '* sinister fact^^ or ^'original mistake"' of creation again. Von Hartmann's concession of the probability of this occurring was noted and emphasized as leading to the Hindoo doctrine of cyclic trans- migration. The chief criticism was that of his failure to prove the unconscious to be a sufficient first principle rather than self-consciousness. The Christian form of the theistic first principle was maintained as meeting all the needs. His "Philosophy of Histoiy" was also sharply criticised by contrast with the Christian conception of the kingdom of God, resulting in the perfection of the creation back to God, its home, rather than in annihila- tion, due use being made of his relative optimism and of his caricature of Hegel's view. It was also pointed out, on the practical side, that his philosophy failed to show the sufficient moral dynamic necessary to carry on the social progress, intellectual and moral, to the point where cosmic suicide COSMIC SUICIDE. 557 would be possible. For he declares that growth of consciousness is neces- sary for this, and yet that all progress into consciousness is progress into deeper pain. Only a few will at first live through the third stage of illu- sion and gain the sense of the absolute worthlessness of life. And yet they must be heroic leaders in the moral conflict ; they, thorouglily blase, must heed the categorical, imperative calling to noblest forms of self-sac- rifice. But the practical syllogism of such prematurely enlightened ones will be ^' back to less knowledge and less pain," both for their own sakes and that of their fellow-men, and thus prevent that cosmic disillusion- ment that must come before man can resolve upon cosmic suicide. He has allowed that '' the life of a fish is more enviable than the life of a horse ; that of an oyster than that of a fish ; that of a plant than that of an oyster — till we descend below consciousness, and find individual pain dis- appear altogether." Maintaining eudaemonism, weighing the worth of the world in the scales of hedonics, he cannot expect individuals to do other than apply the same unheroic principle to their own conduct, and to decline the moral effort necessary to advance the intelligence of the race to the point at which cosmic suicide could take place. Among those who also took part in the discussion were Prof. King, of Oberlin, Rev. George L. Richardson, and Commissioner W. T. Harris. PEOOEEDIlSrGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL SUPERINTENDENCE. I Department of Superintendence. SEOKETAET'S ME^TUTES. FIRST DAY.— Morning Session. Tuesday, February 16, 1892. The Department of Superintendence of the National Educational As- sociation met in the rooms of the Brooklyn Art Association, Brooklyn, N. Y., on Tuesday morning, February 16, 1892. The President of the Department, Hon. Henry Sabin, of Iowa, called the meeting to order at 10 o'clock. Prayer was offered by the Rev. Dr. R. S. Storrs, of the Church of the Pilgrims, Brooklyn, N. Y. Mayor Boody, in behalf of the people of Brooklyn, extended a cordial greeting to the Department, tendering the hospitality of the city. President Joseph 0. Hendricks, of the Brooklyn Board of Education, speaking in behalf of that body and of the City Public Schools, extended a generous welcome to the members of the Department. To these very neat addresses the President of the Department made suitable response. On motion of Mr. W. E. Sheldon, of Boston, the President was author- ized to appoint the usual standing committees. Superintendent Edwin P. Seaver, ©f Boston, extended a most earnest invitation to the Department to meet next year in the city of Boston, submitting the following action of the Board of Education of that city : — Boston, Mass., February^, 1892. On motion of Mr. Capen, the Superintendent of Schools was authorized to invite the National Association of School Superintendents to hold their next annual convention in Boston, and to extend to them the usual hospitalities. Attest : PHINEAS BATES, Secretary. Action deferred until the afternoon session of Wednesday. Hon. Henry Raab, State Superintendent of Illinois, was introduced. He read a paper on the Rural School PiK)blem. Superintendent J. A. Shawan, of Columbus, Ohio, was appointed to report the discussions on this paper. 562 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. Superintendent Raab's paper was discussed by Hon. 0. E. Wells, State Superintendent of Wisconsin; Mr. John MacDonald, editor of the Western School Journal, Topeka, Kansas ; Hon. E. B. Prettyman, Srate Superin- tendent of Maryland; C. C. Rounds, Principal of Plymouth Normal School, Plymouth, N. H.; Judge Andrew S. Draper, State Superintend- ent of New York ; Hon. G-eo. H. Martin, Agent Massachusetts State Board of Education ; L. R. Klemm, of the Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C; and Dr. Henry Barnard, of Connecticut. The President declared a recess until 2:30 p. m. AFTEENOON SESSION". The Department conyened at 2:30 p.m.. President Sabin in the chair. The following standing committees were announced : — 0^ RESOLUTiOisTS.— Hon. Andrew S. Draper, of New York ; Miss Elizabeth Harrison, of Chicago; Supt. J. M. Greenwood, of Missouri; In- spector Jas. L. Hughes, of Toronto, Canada ; and Hon. E. B. Prettyman, of Maryland. On Nominatioks. — Supt. A. P. Marble, of Massachusetts ; C. C. Rounds, of New Hampshire ; Hon. D. H. Kiehle, of Minnesota ; Hon. N. B. Coy, of Colorado ; and Hon. W. R. Garrett, of Tennessee. Dr. Selim H. Peabody, chief of the Department of Liberal Arts, read a paper on the Educational Exhibits of the World's Columbian Exposi- tion. Supt. F. Treudley, of Youngstown, Ohio, was appointed to report the discussions of the afternoon. A running discussion* followed the reading of Dr. Peabody^s paper, con- sisting principally cf questions and answers, participated in by U. S. Commissioner Harris; Seaver, of Boston; Greenwood, of Kansas City; Tarbell, of Providence, R. I. ; Brooks, of Phildelphia; Supt. 0. M. Brands, of Paterson, N. J. , and others. Dr. W. T. Harris, U. S. Commissioner of Education, read a paper on the World's Educational Congress. The subject was discusssed by Supt. Lane, of Chicago, and others. IN MEMOEIAM. President Sabin, addressing the Association, called attention to the fact that the following distinguished gentlemen, members of the Depart- ment of Superintendence, N. E. A., had died since our last meeting. Dr. John P. Wickersham, late State Superintendent of Pennsylvania. Born March 5, 1825; died March 25, 1891. Dr. John Hancock, late State Superintendent of Ohio. Born Febru- ary 18, 1825; died June 1, 1891. Dr. Thomas W. Harvey, late State Superintendent of Ohio. Bora December 18, 1821; died January 20, 1892. REPORT OF SECRETARY. 563 Eulogies on the lives and public services of the above were pronounced by the following gentlemen : On Dr. Wickersham, by Dr. Edward Brooks, of Philadelphia. On Dr. Hancock, by Mr. W. E. Sheldon, of Boston. On Dr. Harvey, by Supt. L. W. Day, of Cleveland. Dr. Zalmon Richards of Washington also addressed the Department. The President declared a recess until 8 o'clock p.m. EVEN^INCt session^. The Department re-assembled at 8 o'clock, President Sabin in the chair. A paper was read by Supt.. J. H. Phillips, of Birmingham, Ala., on His- tory and Literature in Grammar Grades. Pres. Charles W. Eliot, of Harvard University, read a paper on Shorten- ing and Enriching the Grammar-School Course. Supt. V. G. Curtis, of New Haven, Conn., was appointed to report the discussions of the evening. President Eliot's paper was discussed by the following gentlemen : Dr. Brooks, of Philadelphia ; Hon. John T. Prince, of Massachusetts; Supt. Bouton, of Bridgeport, Conn.; Judge Draper, of New York; and President Low, of Columbia College. President Eliot closed the discussion. Adjourned until 10 o'clock, Wednesday morning. A reception was tendered the Department at the close of the session, Tuesday evening, by the Brooklyn Board of Education. SECOND DAY.— MoEiTiNG Session. Wednesday, February 17. The Department re-assembled at 10 o'clock. President Sabin in the chair. Judge A. S. Draper, of New York, moved that it be the sense of the meeting that persons who discuss papers do so without using previously prepared manuscript. Adopted. On motion of Superintendent Aaron Gove, of Denver, Col., the Secre- tary was directed to send the manuscript of the proceedings, addresses, and discussions of this meeting to the printer, not later than March 1, 1892. Commissioner Harris submitted the following preamble and resolutions, which were unanimously adopted : Whereas, The World's Congress Auxiliary of the World's Columbian Exposition have made a patriotic suggestion that, at the same time that the Exposition Grounds at Chicago are being dedicated on Oct. 12, 1893, the Anniversary of the Discovery of America, all the people of the United States unite in a celebration of the Anniversary, of which celebration the Public Schools of the Republic be everywhere the centre ; therefore. 564 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. Resolved, 1. That tlie Department of Superintendence of the National Educational Association heartily indorse this suggestion, as serving the purpose both of interesting the youth of the Republic in the Exposition, and also of giving to the Public Schools of the Nation a fitting prominence as the fruit of four centuries of American life, 2. That we ask Superintendents of Education and Teachrirs everywhere in the Republic to unite in the effort to do all in their power to make this National Columbian Public School Celebration universal and successful. 8. That we request the newspaper press of the United States to insure the success of this celebration by lending to it the powerful aid of their sympathy and co-operation. 4. That we name the heads of education in the several States as a General Commit- tee, ex-officio, to be the patrons of the celebration in their respective States, and to carry cut so far as they can, the suggestion of the Executive Committee, 5. That a Program Committee of five persons shall be appointed by the Chair to prepare a program of exercises and furnish the same to the Committee of Superin- tendents to use according to their discretion ; one of the five persons of said Program Committee to be the manager already appointed by Mr. C. C, Bonney, President of the World's Congress Auxiliary. In accordance with the above resolutions, the following standing com- mittee was appointed : Francis Bellamy, of Massachusetts; Hon. J. W. Dickinson, of Massa- chusetts ; Thomas B. Stockwell, of Rhode Island ; Hon. W. R Garrett, of Tennessee ; and N. C. Hewett, of Michigan. Superintendent Frank A. Fitzpatrick, of Omaha, read a paper on What is the Duty of the State towards children of Kindergarten Age ? The subject was further discussed by Superintendents Aaron Gove, of Denver ; Edwin P. Seaver, -of Boston ; Miss Elizabeth Harrison, of Chi- cago ; Inspector J. L. Hughes, of Toronto ; Superintendent W. B. Powell, of Washington, D. C; Eugene Bouton, of Bridgeport, Conn.; Mrs. Re- becca D. Rickoff, of New York City ; Superintendent W. N. Hailman, of La Porte, Ind. ; Judge Andrew S. Draper, of Albany ; Superintendent W. H. Maxwell, of Brooklyn; United States Commissioner W. T. Harris; and Superintendent Fitzpatrick, who closed the discussion. During the discussion the following resolution, offered by Superintend- ent Hailman, was, on motion of Superintendent Maxwell, referred to the Committee on Resolutions : Resolved, That the Kindergarten as a means to give to the nascent social tendencies of children direction toward benevolence and civic efl5ciency is a necessary part of a complete system of schools. Dr. A. J. Rickoff, having obtained permission of the chair, called atten- tion to two circulars that had been placed on the members' desks after the morning session. Both circulars were issued by Dr. W. T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education. The first one, dated March, 1891, calls to mind the efficient services of Henry Barnard (1839 to 1849), in reforming the schools of Connecticut and Rhode Island, and that then 'Miaving resolved to devote his life to the work of providing easy access to the great works on education in all REPORT OF SECRETARY. 565 laDguages, through translations into English, he printed and published thirty-one vol mes of the American Journal of Education, containing nearly one -thousand pages each, with the result of sinking his own private fortune and embarrassing himself in his old age by debts and mortgages to a vexatious degree." This circular further informs us that in March, 1891, Dr. Barnard *^ had on hand at his home in Hartford volumes of the Journal and special treatises derived therefrom, to the amount of at least $;30,000, counting at half price, together with stereotype plates of the Journal, which alone would cost $30,000 at current rates/' Dr. Barnard having thus exhausted his resources and arrived at an age when the further prosecution of the enterprise was impossible, many individual efforts were made to aid him, but they have all proved inade- quate. The printed matter was in danger of being sold for waste paper, and the stereotype plates in danger of being sent to the melting pot. To save this valuable material as the nucleus of a standard library for all who are now or in time may become interested in the cause of education or in any department of human culture from the Kindergarten to the Univer- sity, but one plan seemed available, the formation of a stock company to purchase the entire plant of the American Journal of Education. In the circular of December 1, President Harris formally announces the incorporation and complete organization of the Henry Barnard Publishing Company under the Laws of the State of New Jersey. '^ The amount of capital stock is twenty-five thousand dollars, which is divided into shares of 1100 each, FULL PAID AND NON-ASSESSABLE. Certificates of stock are ready for delivery on receipt of $100 by the Treasurer." In this circular he also publishes the fact that " the Company has pur- chased of Dr. Henry Barnard, of Hartford, Conn., the plates, stock, and entire plant of the American Journal of Education, to and including Volume 31, and all the special publications derived therefrom, and will continue the publication and sale of these works and of other treatises on psychology, pedagogy, and schools; and that, to facilitate the accomplish- ment of this object, a contract has been made and entered into with Charles W. Bardeen, Esq., of Syracuse, N. Y., whereby the latter has become the general agent of the Company for the purpose of publishing and selling the works named." The circular of Dec. 1, 1891, also announces that at the meeting of the Board of Directors held July 2d, action had been taken to establish the Henry Barnard Society, the object of which is to make known and pro- mote a general circulation of Dr. Barnard's publications. The management of the Society to the end of the year 1893 is in the hands of the officers and general agent o4 the Henry Barnard Publishing Company, and its business and correspondence will be conducted through them. 566 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCiATJON The certificate of membership, handsomely engraved by the Homer Lee Bank Note Engraving Company, "bears on its face a portrait of Dr. Barnard, from a daguerreotype taken when he was about to begin his educational publications, and a second, from a photograph taken fifty years later, when about to close his educational activity." On the back of these certificates will be printed the rates of discount allowed to mem- bers, as follows : 1. A member paying one dollar for a certificate of membership is en- titled to a discount of 25 per cent, on the retail price of any of the Henry Barnard Publications that are kept in stock by the Publishing Company. 2. The payment of five dollars or more for a certificate of member- ship entitles to a like discount of one-third of the retail price. 3. The payment of fifty dollars or more entitles to 40 per cent, discount. 4. Any number of members having paid, in the aggregate, one hun- dred dollars for membership in the Society are entitled to appoint a rep- resentative to act as a member of the Publishing Company. 5. Any club or other association may in its associate capacity become a member of the Company. In this way the National Educational Asso- ciation has taken five shares of stock at one hundred dollars per share, and also ordered and paid for five hundred dollars' worth of the publications of the Company, exchangeable for capital stock at the discretion of the Board of Trustees. Allow me to Tecapitulate briefly the means by which you may aid this enterprise. 1st. You may secure memberships of either the Society or the Com- pany from the attendants at State, County, City or Township associations. The names, addresses, and fees of all members of the Society should be promptly sent to the Secretary or agent of the Company for certificate and record. 2d. You may procure the sale of publications of the Company. Com- plete sets of the Journal should be placed in every public library. 3d. By becoming a member of the Company you will help to forward its purposes not only by your financial contribution but by your personal influence. Finally, permit me to express confidence that by the means proposed the teachers and friends of education in the United States will not fail to lift the burden from the shoulders of Mr. Barnard, who has struggled under it for forty years, and who by old age and by the exhaustion of his own private fortune is now compelled to relinquish any further prosecu- tion of an enterprise which from the beginning was designed, in the lan- guage of Dr. Harris's first circular, " to provide easy access for teachers to the great works on education in all languages through translations into English." The President declared a recess until 2:30 p. m. HEPOttT OF SECttETAitY. ml AFTERNOON SESSION. The Department was called to order by the President at 2:30 P. m. Mr. Charles W. Hill, President of the Massachusetts Schoolmasters' Club, read a paper on the subject : What can be done to bring Children on further in their Studies before they leave School to go to Work. The question was further discussed by Hon. J. H. Shinn, State Super- intendent of Arkansas ; Mr. J. H. Blodgett, of Washington, D. C. ; E. 0. Vaile, Editor of Intelligence, Chicago ; and Mr. C. W. Hill, who closed the discussion. President E. H. Cook, of the National Educational Association, made a number of important announcements in relation to the Saratoga Meeting. Judge Draper extended a cordial invitation to the members of the Department and teachers generally, to attend the N. Y. State Teachers' Association, convening this year at Saratoga, and also the University con- vocation at Albany early in July next. The report submitted by the Chairman of the Committee on Statistics, Hon. W. T. Harris, National Commissioner of Education, will be found on page 000. The report as submitted was unanimously approved. The matter of the selection of the next place of meeting was then brought up by Mr. W. E. Sheldon, in accordance with the action taken on Tuesday. Superintendent E. P. Seaver extended a cordial invitation to the Department to meet in Boston next year. Hon. J. H. Shinn urged that Little Kock, Ark., be selected as the next place of meeting. On motion of Superintendent G-ove, Boston was selected. On motion of Mr. Winship, a vote of thanks was tendered the people of Little Rock for the very cordial invitation extended to the Department to meet there next year. Adjourned to meet at the Pratt Institute at 8 o'clock p. m. EVENING SESSION. The evening session was held in the auditorium of the Pratt Institute, President Sabin in the chair. Superintendent John E. Bradley, of Minneapolis, Minn., read a paper on the subject : The Influence of Manual Training upon Habits of Thought. Superintendent W. B. Powell, of Washington, D. C, read a paper on the question : Is there a Place for Manual Training between the Kinder- garten and the High School ? The question was further discussed by Mr. W. E. Sheldon, Superin- tendent Hailman, Dr. E. E. White, of Ohio, Superintendent A. P. Marble, of Mass., and Superintendents Bradley and Powell, who closed the dis- cussion. Adjourned to meet at 10 a.m., Thursday. 568 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL AlSSOCIATION. THIRD DAY.-MoKNiNG Session. Thursday, February 18, 1892, The Department re-assembled in the rooms of the Brooklyn Art Association at 10 o'clock, President Sabin in the chair. Supt. W. H. Maxwell extended a cordial invitation to the members of the Department to vi&it the Brooklyn city schools on Friday. Dr. G. Stanley Hall, of Clark University, Worcester, Mass., read a paper on the Health of School Children as afPected by School Buildings. The subject was further discussed by means of running questions and answers, many members of the Department participating. Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler, of Columbia College, New York, offered the following resolution : That this Department deprecates most strongly the tendency in this country to make the political opinions of school officers a condition of their retention in office, and asks the sympathy and support of intelligent public opinion in wholly divorcing school administration from party politics. Adopted by an unanimous rising vote. The Committee on Resolutions, through the Chairman, Hon. A. S. Draper, of New York, submitted the following report, which was unani- mously approved : Besohed, That the thanks of the Department are hereby expressed to the Presi- dent, Hon. Henry Sabin, and the Secretary, Supt. L. W. Day, for the good judgment and indefatigable effort which have resulted in such complete and excellent prepara- tions for this meeting, as well as for the satisfactory manner in which they have dis- charged the delicate and exacting duties of their respective positions during the sessions. Their conscientious labors have largely contributed to the great success of one of the largest and most profitable meetings ever held by the Department. Resolved, That we likewise extend our appreciative thanks to the Mayor, the School Board, the Superintendent of Schools, his assistants, and innumerable citi- zens of Brooklyn, for the courteous attention and generous hospitalities which hav e been manifested at all times and on every side, and which will cause every member of this Department to hold this city and its active and generous people in pleasant and grateful recollection. Resolved, That the Department reiterates the declarations of the National Eitj- cational Association in reference to the importance of co-ordinating the Kindergarten with the Common School work of the country, and expresses satisfaction that the move- ment in that direction seems to gain strength and headway in the succeeding years. The Kindergarten has unquestionably passed the experimental stage, is not only en- tirely practicable in connection with the Common Schools, but will greatly promote their efficiency and greatly facilitate their work in preparing parents and children alike for the duties and responsibilities of citizeiis'hip. Resolved, That we commend the policy of the General Government concerning the education of the Indians, and urge upon Congress the increase of appropriations for that purpose until schools are provided for all. Adjourned to meet at 2:30 P. M. REPORT OF SECRETARY. 569 AFTER]!^OON SESSION. The Department met at 2:30, the President in the chair. Mr. W. H. Brett, Librarian of the Public Library of Cleveland, Ohio, read a paper on the Relations of the Public Library to the Schools and Workingmen. The question was further discussed by Dr. A. E. Winsbip, editor of the N. E. School Journal; Supt. Whitcomb, of Lowell, Mass.; Dr. W. A. Mowry, of Salem, Mass.; Hon. D. H. Kiehle, of St. Paul, Minn.; Dr. H. M. Leipziger, of New York City; Hon. N B. Coy, of Denver, Colorado; Miss Elizabeth Harrison, of Chicago; Hon. E. B. Prettyman, of Baltimore, Md.; Dr. Brooks, of Philadelphia; Supt. Greenwood, of Kansas City, Mo.; Mrs. Rebecca D. Rickoff, of New York; Dr. Houston, of Philadelphia; Supts. Powell of Washington, Lane of Chicago, Day of Cleveland; and Mr. W. H. Brett, who closed the discussion. The Committee on Nominations submitted the following report, which was unanimously adopted : For President, Supt. Edward Brooks, of Philadelphia. For Vice-President, Supt. John E. Bradley, of Minneapolis. For Secretary, Supt. J. H. Phillips, of Birmingham, Ala. Adjourned to meet at 8 o'clock p.m. EVENING SESSION. The Department re-assemb^.ed at 8 o'clock, the President in the chair. Dr. Max Hark, of Lancaster, Pa., read a paper on the Life and Character- istics of Comenius. Supt. W. H. Maxwell, of Brooklyn, N. Y., read a paper on the Text- Books of Comenius, illustrated by stereopticon views. Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler, of Columbia College, New York, read a paper on the Place of Comenius in the History of Education. Dr. Brooks, the newly elected President of the Department, was intro- duced. He accepted the responsibilities of the Presidency in a neat but brief address. There being no further business, the Department adjourned to meet next year in the city of Boston. L. W. DAY, Secretary, I THE RURAL SCHOOL PROBLEM. 571 PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS. THE RURAL SCHOOL PROBLEM, BY HOK. HEKRY RAAB, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF ILLINOIS. I When I promised to present at this meeting a *' paper " on the " Eural Scliool Problem " I felt conscious that I should not be able to solve this problem ; but in the conviction that everything that may help to bring this problem nearer its solution will be meritorious, I undertook to offer a contribution to that end. And the improvement of the rural schools is a task in which every lover of his country and his race may profitably engage. Our city schools, in fact all our schools, do need the thought and work of the best talent, but our social and financial conditions rest more heavily upon the schools of the country, and naturall}^ hinder their growth and prosperity. Where I quote statistics I can give them best for my own State, Illinois, but I believe that, except the former slave States and those recently admitted into the Union, Illinois is a fair average representative of the condition of the schools in the American Commonwealth. The superior or inferior features of the scliool laws of the different States do not affect the conditions of the graded or ungraded schools in such a manner as to come under consideration here. And what I am able to say about the school laws of my own State, namely, that the people under these laws have the power to make their schools good, provided they will put enough money into them and give them sufficient care and attention, is equally true of the other States. The machinery of administration in some States may not be quite perfect and the application of a little oil in its different parts might prevent friction, yet one thing the school laws of all the States permit the people to do : to employ competent teachers, to giving them permanent positions, and to pay them living salaries. The last two named things, especially, will secure the first, the desideratum in all schools, competent, well-prepared teachers, who love their calling and are proud of their work. For, with the most glorious enactments, the most spacious and well arranged school buildings, the most comfortable furniture, the best te^^-books and the most ingenious apparatus and contrivances, schools without good teachers are like a manu- facturing establishment without the propelling power. 572 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. After these prefatory remarks you will at once see where I stand and what I consider the solution of the problem mentioned ; yet there are other factors, which enter into the problem, and which have to be discussed. Though it seems scarcely necessary in this assembly of enlightened school- men to define what a rural school is, I make free to state, it is a school which is taught by one teacher and in which all ages from six years to majority are represented ; a school which is mostly kept open from five to seven months in the year ; a school situated all alone in the country and generally more than forty rods from any human habitation. It is dis- tinguished from the graded school, which is situated in a village, town, or city, and is divided into grades according to the attainments of the chil- dren, and is supervised by a principal or superintendent, and of which each grade is taught by a different teacher.* I very much regret that, for com- parison's sake, this distinction does not extend further back than 1880 in the school reports of Illinois, and the numbers for 1880 and 1890 only are here given. Of a total of 704,041 pupils enrolled in 1880, 266,831 were enrolled in graded schools and 437,220 in ungraded schools; in per cent., about 38 of the whole number in graded and 62 in the ungraded schools. The graded schools were taught by 4,908 teachers, or 22 per cent, of all the teachers in the State ; the ungraded by 17,340 teachers, or 78 per cent, of all the teachers in the State. Now mark how these figures are changed ten years later, in 1890 : Of a total of 778,319 children, 400,159, or 51 per cent., are enrolled in the graded ; 378,160, or 49 per cent., are enrolled in the ungraded schools ; of a total of 23,164 teachers, 8,462, or 36^ per cent., wei^ employed in the graded, and 14,702, or 63^ per cent., in the ungraded schools. The average number of children taught by one teacher was 47 in the graded and 26 in the ungraded schools ; the average length of term in the graded schools was 8.6, in the ungraded 7.2 months ; the cost of tuition per capita on the enrollment was $15.43 in the former and $13.25 in the latter per year, or to reduce it to an equality, $1.80 and 1.84, respectively, per month. What do these figures teach ? In the first place it is most conclusively shown that the number of children instructed in rural schools is con- stantly diminishing ; that the cost of tuition in rural schools is higher by a fraction than that in graded schools, owing to the smaller number of pupils intrusted to the teacher in the former compared with that of the latter, and that the salaries paid in rural schools are much smaller than those paid in the graded schools. Were the salaries paid in the country in a measure equal to those paid in towns and cities, the cost of tuition would be about 100 per cent, higher. And what a loss of human energy, when 51 per cent, of the children are taught by 36^ per cent, of the teachers, in the graded schools, and 49 per cent, of the children are taught by 63^ per cent, of the teachers, in the ungraded schools. I suppose the drift of population into the cities, instead of diminishing. THE RURAL SCHOOL PROBLEM. 573 will increase in the future, and the number of children instructed in rural schools will proportionately diminish, too. The labor-saving ma- chines in agriculture have lessened the number of laborers on farms, and the constant growth of our large cities has correspondingly drawn more men to those centers of population. But let us look first at the rural school, its grounds, building, sur- roundings, outhouses, drainage, water-supply, furniture, apparatus, and teachers. The picture that I have to draw has a few bright spots. There are rural districts where the culture and sentiment of the people demand good houses, beautiful surroundings, needful apparatus and contrivances, and comfortable furniture, and where the directors have the good sense to seek competent teachers and, when they have found such, to keep them by paying living salaries and sustaining them in their laudable efforts to instruct and educate the children of the district. Such bright spots, how- ever, are the minority ; the daubs and blotches, gray in gray, are far more numerous. In many instances the school grounds are bare, the fences torn down and neglected, no shade trees nor flowering shrubs, coal bin open to the depredations of the tramps, outhouses unclean and offensive, no walks nor well, a rectangular, tasteless house, looking more like a barn than a building for human beings to live in. The gable-ends without any windows, the door in one of them, and three windows in each of the long side-walls. The provisions for healthy light, one of the first requisites of a schoolhouse, are totally ignored. The door opens directly into the schoolroom, where, besides the furniture, clothing and dinner pails, and in winter time, sleds and skates and all sorts of things, have to be kept during school hours. (It seems impossible to keep the air in such a room in a condition fit to breathe.) The stove, oftentimes rickety so that it is constantly endangering the lives of the children, overheated in winter- time, causing those that sit near it to roast, while those in the remote corners are shivering with cold ; the walls dingy and without plaster in some places, the ceiling black with smoke, the floor unswept, the windows covered with film ; such is often the place into which the rural popula- tion sends its children. Without sound blackboards, without maps and charts, without globe, reference books or supplies, the teacher is com- pelled to *'make bricks without straw." Now, all this would not be so bad if care were taken to procure good teachers, those agents who can awaken the minds of the children and lead them to culture and humanity. But what is the practice ? The school- year is divided into a fall, a winter, and a spring term. During the winter term, when the work on the farm does not require their presence at home and the larger boys can attend school, a strong, experienced (?) teacher, sometimes a man, is hired ; in fall and spring, when only younger chil- dren attend, a young, cheap teacher of little experience, generally a woman, is considered good enough for that primary work. What, under such cir- 574 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. ciimstances, the results must be, needs no comment. If anything is done at all, the teacher can convey some little literary, textbook knowledge ; government and moral training receive very scanty attention. Yet, even where the school year is not divided into terms and the teacher is employed for the entire year, from five to eight months, cheapness is the condition on which he or she is hired. That '^ poor teaching, poor pay " go hand in hand, needs no proof. And where does our supply of teachers come from ? When a boy or girl, mostly the latter, has '^ fagged through " the country school as it is, and has imbibed sufficient textbook knowledge to pass the county superintendent's examination and is of the minimum age at which she is by law permitted to engage in teaching, she goes out in search of a school, and hires to the district at the closest salary they can agree upon. In the name of humanity, I ask, what preparation, what training, have these young people for the responsible office which they are to fill ? Do not tell me that *^ docendo discimus,'" that by teaching we learn, and that the desire to teach is inherent in man. Like the desire to teach, the desire to heal is inherent in man ; yet do you, for this desire, employ every man as your physician ? Do you not expect of the one who is to take charge of your body that he undergo a rigid training in a medical college, hearing lectures and dissecting bodies, studying in hospitals and at the bedside, before you allow him to apply the scalpel or to administer physic ? Yet, in teaching, no such preparation is deemed essential ; the desire to teach stands for the preparation and ability to teach. It is true many have become teachers in the course of years after many sad failures, but the truth is also that only few, as teachers, survive this time of trial and experiment. The average life of the teacher in Illinois in '84 was as follows : In graded schools, men 81.5 months, women 59.5 months; in ungraded schools, men 34.5 months, and women 21.5 months. Or in other words, men in ungraded schools taught almost five years and women about three years. No one will contend that five or three years, respec- tively, are sufficient time for acquiring experience in teaching, even for teachers who have before had professional training in normal schools. Since the average experience of the teaching force of one entire State is of so short duration, the graded schools have another advantage over the rural schools, that of supervision. Where in towns and villages more than one teacher is employed, generally the more experienced one is made principal, and to that one the subordinate teachers look for guidance, aid and support, for counsel and admonition in questions of government and instruction. In cities some person or persons are appointed simply for this work. But in the rural schools the young teacher has for days, nay, weeks and months, no one to look after him or her, if a disgruntled parent does not come around to ^' look after things." The county super- intendent would gladly do more in this direction, but the great number of schools and their distance from one another forbid that officer from THE RURAL SCHOOL PROBLEM. 575 doing more. By supervision our city school systems are kept in motion, and somewhat creditable results are obtained iu them. Then the city teachers enjoy the advantages of living in constant touch with their col- leagues ; scarcely a day passes on which questions of common interest are not brought under discussion among them. I do not wish to multiply the many hindrances to good education in rural districts, but will turn my attention to the means by which the teaching in country schools may be improved. The farmers themselves are beginning to feel that they do not hold the position in the common- wealth which by reason of their numbers, their importance as the princi- pal producers, they ought to occupy. They have organized themselves into all sorts of societies, open and secret ; granges, alliances, and clubs are found in many townships. Among a great many impossible things they demand also a great many just things, and in these they deserve the recognition and support of every citizen and, especially, the teachers of the country. When the farmers demand special legislation in their be- half; when they propose to form into a political party by virtue of their occupation ; when they expect the government to purchase their surplus produce and store it ; when they demand the unlimited issuing of paper money without any funds to redeem it; then citizens, and especially teachers, will respectfully differ with them ; but when they strive to im- l^rove their social, intellectual, and financial condition, every one may well contribute his share towards the consummation. But as long as the- farmers expect salvation from without, they will look for any improvement of their condition in vain, even in the shape of legislation. They can elect public-spirited, liberal men, school directors, vote sufficient funds to main- tain good schools, and cause their children to attend these regularly and for the necessary length of time. In the same manner they may improve their condition socially and intellectually. What hinders them from uniting in townships or smaller territories for the purpose of organizing reading circles, debating clubs, dramatic and musical entertainments, and similar pastime ? With a little energy and a small outlay of money, not only an improvement of the social and intellectual needs of the farmer will be accomplished but also another complaint would be silenced, namely the drift of the young people into the cities. For, why do the young people wish to leave the country and go into the city, if it is not from the desire to take part in those social and intellectual advantages that city life offers ? Perhaps, the expectation of better financial results in the city may lead to this drift. But it is a well-known fact that the fittest only survive and the great majority go under in the race ; shattered in fortune many, too many, return to the country to find themselves unable to follow the work there. Used to city^ays, they find it impossible to work with energy on the farm. Would it not be better and cheaper for the parents to prepare for their sons and daughters the much coveted 57G THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. prize at home and allow them under their parental surveillance all those liberties and amusements, those opportunities for mental improvement and recreation, in the country ? I believe teachers of ambition, too, could be induced to remain in rural districts where they may have a more bliss- ful field of labor than ever they can find in graded schools. It seems to me that school officers should labor both in meetings and through the press in this direction to convince tlie farmers of the necessity of their helping themselves in this matter. If they go on in their present course, the evil will grow greater from year to year ; whilst by a judicious self-help the regeneration of the rural schools is not impossU)le. Even if there should be the present employment-of home talent only, that talent will be so much more serviceable and better cultured as the farmers avail themselves of this self-help. In another direction the farmers have to exert themselves. We have seen from the figures quoted that 49 per cent, of the children in rural schools are taught by 63 per cent, of the teachers, or while one teacher in the city was able to instruct 47 pupils, in the country he was able to instruct only 26 pupils, on an average. I know by inquiry from county superintendents made in 1886, that there are numerous districts in which one teacher has an enrollment of less than ten children. What a waste of energy 1 For the most trivial causes dis- tricts are cut in two so that neither has enough assessed valuation of prop- erty to maintain a good school. The tendency has been to increase the number of districts, while, for the sake of strong, good schools, the opposite ought to be the rule. This is another text upon v^hich school officers and the press might preach. Since our people are apt to believe in self-given laws, and foreigners praise them for obedience to these laws, you will expect me also to pro- pose some amendments to the existing acts. The first one I have to make is, what I have always proposed as a condition sine qua non for effective work in all common schools, the training of teachers for their calling in State normal schools. The recruiting of the teaching force for the com- mon school from the common school, without professional preparation, is so detrimental to the interests of education, and the lack of provision for the professional training of teachers is so manifest, that it seems to me like " carrying coals to Newcastle " were I to dwell upon this extensiA^ely in this assembly. I hold these truths to be self-evident : The State hav- ing assumed the control of elementary education for its own sake, it fol- lows that this elementary education should be made as thorough and effective as human skill can make it. Education is both a science and an art. Scholarship alone does not constitute ability to impart knowledge, nor the ability to govern a school well, nor to educate. The ideal of the teacher, namely, to develop the human being in all its powers and to all its possibilities, is not the product of common school life, not even of the high school or college ; it must be acquired by careful training and con- THE RURAL SCHOOL PROBLEM. 577 stant exhibition of example to this end. And, when the ideal has been secured, the means leading to this end do not come as a matter per se. These means have to be taught, theoretically and practically, so that the teacher may perform his work cheerfully, harmoniously, and successfully, with the least expense of energy and the highest advantage to the taught. What is most conducive to all this, is not acquired by chance ; it can not even be acquired in colleges and universities which make scholarship and general culture their aim ; but there have to be established by the State professional schools for this purpose, the same as law schools for the jurist, medical schools for the physician, theological schools for the clergyman, and all the polytechnic schools for the engineer and architect. And is not the field covered by education sufficiently large to demand special schools for the training of those who are to engage in it ? The demands made upon the teacher are so enormous, and ought to be great, and the agencies to satisfy these demands are so scanty. Especially in the country is there such a wide field of usefulness for the progressive, enthu- siastic teacher. The establishment of libraries, instruction in horticul- ture, in bee-keeping, etc., the leadership in all intellectual and social entertainments, would be a task that every teacher might be proud to engage in. But in order to do this, the teacher must have superior cul- ture, should be well versed in literature so as to assist in all these laud- able enterprises. Would not men who possess these qualifications enjoy much greater confidence and respect than is now the case, when the peda- gogue is looked down upon by every one who is competent to earn a few pennies more ? Is is not about time that Ichabod Crane existed in litera- ture only ? But who is sufficient for that circle of usefulness that I should like to see the teacher hold in rural districts ? Certainly not those who graduate from the rural schools such as they now are. The State normal schools should make it their business to prepare their students to fulfill this mission for teachers when they are to take places in country schools. And I have no doubt that, when such usefulness and attendant respect is accorded the teacher in rural districts, he will prefer to remain in the country, thinking like Julius Caesar : '^ I would rather be first in this village than second in Rome." While I like to see women teach in certain departments of graded schools, I think it unwise both for directors to employ and for women to accept places in ungraded schools. While I believe that women when they possess the scholarship and the necessary training can instruct as well as men, I doubt whether they can properly govern a school or exert the proper educational influence over large boys and girls. We cannot close our eyes to this condition of things. There are certain things which women, because of their sex, can not do ^d should not be made to do. I, for one, have always considered it cruel to place an innocent girl all by herself in a country school, there to watch over the large boys. 578 TBE NATIONAL EJDDCATIOJStAL ASSOGlATlON. This reflection brings me to another one and the last suggestion I have to make. Our country schools need closer supervisi(m. There is more and better work done in city schools because of the supervision. Now, I am not of the opinion that in the country schools supervision is necessary for the enforcement of courses of study, for uniformity of attainments and all those measures which govern the city schools, but for the en- encouragement and assistance of the teachers and ascertaining whether each one makes the best of his opportunities for the good of the people of the district. There is now supervision, and it is made incumbent upon him by law in Illinois, by the county superintendent ; but when you consider a territory of 550 square miles with 200 teachers scattered over it, you will see that close, nay adequate, supervision is impossible. If a law could be passed to enable the districts of a township to unite in ap- pointing a competent teacher, superintendent to watch over the schools of the township, visiting them often and doing all that a principal in a town or village school does, much in the way of better instruction and disci- pline might be accomplished. I feel that I have not been able to advance any new thoughts upon the subject of the rural schools. But, on the other hand, I am conscious that startling disclosures could not be expected on this subject. It re- mains partly in the hands of the farmers themselves, and partly in the hands of our law-givers, to make the best of the opportunities offered them. As the people are the source of all power in our commonwealth, it is also the people who must aid themselves, if they really desire the help which is to liberate them from the vice of indolence and to give them intelligence and culture. I do not preach extravagance, but true economy. Too often the people do not derive the advantages which should accrue from their investments. It will not be necessary to invest 25 per cent, more under the favorable conditions named, to improve the schools 100 per cent. But one thing is needed in addition to the enhanced investments, namely : as much care and attention to the education of the young as the prudent farmer gives to his crops and to his stock. The noblest product of crea- tion is, after all, noble men and women. DI8CU88I0N. [Reported by Stjpt. J. A. Shawan, Columbus, Ohio.] HoK. 0. E. Wells, Madison, Wisconsin. — The solution of any problem requires us first to find out the conditions, and then to apply rational prin- ciples. If there is a rural school problem, it offers no exception to the rule. We are not at liberty in the office or in a convention,' to describe ideal conditions to be secured by theoretical applications. A good DI8CU88T0N. 579 system of schools must be a growth under normal conditions and in natu- ral ways. If the people have low ideals, they must be taught higher ones, but it takes time to grasp and to appreciate new and noble ideals. We must study the schools as they now are. We need to know what changes they have undergone or are undergoing. If they are at a standstill, we should know whether they have crystallized at perfection or in deformity. Complaints and denunciations will work no cure. If the rural schools are ill-housed, it is of no use to rail at the people for giving better quarters to their live stock than to their children. It is not so unnatural that they should do so as it seems at first statement. The farmers' gains are largely due to it. Well-sheltered stock can be more cheaply and better prepared for the market. It is not so easy to see what poor school-houses and un- tidy surroundings have to do with the child's education, health and morals. The untimely death of the boy may be due to a crack in the wall or a cold floor or to foul air, but the parents are quite as likely to charge it to a mys- terious Providence. Bad manners and morals may be due to vile pictures and filthy apartments on the school premises, but it is more than probable that they will be considered as the outcropping of inbred tendencies. Better school facilities will come with increasing wealth. Comfortable homes will be followed by comfortable schoolhouses. It may be more fitting that these latter should have precedence of barns and sties, but the rule has usually worked the other way. It may be that an educated boy is a more productive animal than a fatted calf, but the fact has not been so readily perceived. There may even be a higher ideal in education than the production of wealth, but the necessity of gaining a livelihood gives money-getting a natural precedence. The stern facts of daily life take little heed of fine theories. This is why there is so much misdirected effort upon the part of the well-to-do. If anything could be done to im- prove the condition of the masses in material things, the educational and esthetic would not be long wanting. Mr. Carnegie has said, in substance, that it is better for the people that the government should so shape its policy as to concentrate their earnings in the hands of a few, because the money would thus be more wisely spent. It may be true that great universi- ties and public libraries would be built in centers of wealth and population, but it is not so clear that the children of the peasant and the laborer would be better provided for. It cannot be too often nor too strongly urged that any scheme for help- ing the rural population must recognize their pecuniary ability, their way of thinking, and their real needs. Their conception of an education as the ability to read, write, and cipher is not illogical or short-sighted. It more nearly meets their present needs than any other ever proposed. Their ideal does not need change but expansion. They need not only •to know how to read, but what to read and to love to read. The world has not gone entirely wrong during all the centuries. The instincts of 580 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATJOJ^. tlie people are right. They want, first, the keys of knowledge, and, second, enlarged and enlightened views. We do not, therefore, need a new system or new machinery. We ought rather to try to perfect what we have. The first requisite is closer and more intelligent supervision. No one will question this who has seen the revolution made by a capable superintendent even in one brief term. It is often saia, *' As is the teacher, so is the school." With equal propriety may it be said, *' As is the superintendent, so are the teachers, and con- sequently, the schools." The efficient superintendent does his most effective work not by means of legal enactments, but by tactful leadership. His gentlemanly bearing, his scholarly habits, his prudent counsel, his industry and enthusiasm create conditions and direct effort in ways that laws can never reach. In order that this influence may be at its maximum, the superintendent districts should be limited in extent. Seventy-five schools will afford ample scope for the best available talent. If the usual terms could be lengthened and the salary increased to an equality with that paid to the principals of the city schools, the position would attract and hold capable men. The wise superintendent will strive to introduce proper courses of study and se^ that they are intelligently followed. He will explain and exemplify the courses, and enforce suitable methods of instruction in examinations, in associations, in institutes, in summer schools, m training classes, and in personal visitation of schools. He will co-operate with high schools, academies, and normal schools, in the preparation of teachers and in secur- ing employment for them. By personal contact and correspondence with the people, by public addresses, by circulars, and with the help of the local papers, he will create and direct public opinion. These are agencies through which he may labor according to his ability. I know very well that there is nothing new in these suggestions ; they are almost as old as the system of public education, and as commonplace as the air or sunlight. This is a commonplace world with commonplace people upon it, whose commonplace wants are met by commonplace sub- stances in nature. The crying need is for common-sense superintendents, with such a love for our common humanity that they can mingle with it, inspire it, instruct it. A system formulated at the capital and imposed upon the people .through the aid of subservient supervisors can never affect them as a wise development of their own plans will. One must know the people and sympathize with them if he is to understand their plans and improve them. He must therefore meet them face to face, or address them through their channels of communication. He must also co-operate witn the individual and combined efforts of the teachers. Thus the logical development of the agencies enumerated is indicated. The attempt to solve this problem is in the right line. Improvement must come, if it come at all, by perfecting the instruments and agencies. The schools are I)ISCUSS10]!{. 581 not so desperately bad as superintendents commonly think them to be. From the nature of their position they hear the worst side. Ever}"one with a grievance makes his complaint to the superintendent, and the welkin seems to ring with the cry of strife. Contented people seem to have no voice. A little computation will show that scarcely more than one district in a hundred is really in serious difficulty. The schools are already in process of peaceful growth. The problem is simply that of stimulating a more rapid and healthy growth. A powerful factor in this development, though not as yet in general use, is the district library. Not a collection of profound and ponderous tomes, but the presence in every school of a few simple, vivifying books. Fables and folk stories, classic tales, stories of travel and adventure, works upon natural history, simple biographies of noble men and women, all these brighten and sweeten life. They should be read aloud in the homes, and not confined to the schools. Books of the higher class will come in their own good time, some of them, perhaps, as supplementary reading, and thus will the pupils grow i»p in reading and loving good books, and their awakened intelligence will permit no lack of facilities for good schools. It will doubtless be conceded without argument, that there are defects in our system of rural schools, and that they are generally so well known that I need not now mention them. All plans for their removal may fairly be classed under two heads, namely, the strong government, or *^boss" theory, and the self-governing system. The former is more prompt and certain in its operation, up to the point where the will of the people begins to control. It can only be made perfectly effective by tak- ing all administrative power out of the hands of the people. This will require the chief supervisor or state superintendent to be appointed, rather than elected. The local commissioners or county superintendents must also be similarly selected. With a system which would always secure good and wise men and with only wise laws to administer, there might be a speedy uplift which should have some degree of permanence. In a cen- tralized government the chief danger lies in the possibility of a failure at some time to furnish good men and wise laws. Moreover, the necessity for it increases with its growth. The more people are stayed up by outside force, the more will they need to be, and the system is likely to fall the moment the props are taken from under it. I am aware that an appointive system has among its representatives such men as Henry Barnard and Horace Mann ; yet this is hardly suffi- cient to justify the growing favor with which this plan is advocated in certain quarters. An aristocracy, which is literally a government by the best, is attractive in statement and seemingly perfect in theory, but there is nothing in human history to justify it in practice. It has always and everywhere failed to do for the people as well as they could have done for themselves. The method of self-government may be slower in devel- 582 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. opment, but it is in harmony with our political ideas, and the system will be self-sustaining when developed. Mistakes will be made under it, but they carry their own lessons. Those who suffer have the remedy in their own hands. The people now have the control of these schools, and they will continue to exercise it. We can only help to a wiser application of it. Mr. Johi^ MacDonald, Topeka, Kansas.— I think Supt. Raab has very fairly stated the problem, and has also fairly stated the remedies. I by no means take the rose-colored view of our rural schools, that Supt. Wells takes. There is much more than a gentle stimulation needed ; there is needed the voice of inspiration heard in the valley of dry bones, we read about in the Bible. I am sorry to learn that the rural population is decreasing, because from the rural school comes a large percentage of our distinguished people. The boy from the rural school coming into the city schools with his obtrusive angularities and ungracef ulness, 'is found to be a serious disturb- ing factor by city principals trying to fit that angular creature into Procrustean grades. That angular boy is far behind his gracefully curved brother from the city, and short-sighted mortals draw inferences. The time to compare and to contrast results is fifty years later, and then it will probably be found that the ungraceful and angular boy from the rural schools is, because of his angularities, far in advance of the city boy. While in the main I agree with what has been said in the paper, I differ with Supt. Raab, when he says that the people can pay high wages to teachers if they choose. A school district which has an assessed valuation of 18,000, and which is dependent for its revenue on its own resources, and which can levy a tax of two per cent., will at the maximum rate of taxa- tion have a total school income of $160 per annum. Dividing that amount by nine will give a fraction more than $17 per mouth. How, I ask Supt. Raab, can competent teaching be secured for such a salary as that ? There are in the Western States hundreds of districts which have valuations as low as $8,000. We do need legislation. The ways of the wicked, we are told in the Bible, are unequal. That is true of our school laws. Yet the prospect is not discouraging. It is only when we look back over twenty-five or fifty years of work that we can see what a great advancement has been made. In my own State of Kansas a vast deal has been done, by normal schools and institutes, to fit teachers for their work. In this State of New York a great deal has been done to improve the schools and teachers, but now the blighting hand of the politician comes down and checks progress. EDUCATIONAL EXHIBIT OF THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION- 583 THE EDUCATIONAL EXHIBIT OF THE WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. BY DR. SELIM H. PEABODY, CHIEF, DEPARTMENT OF LIBERAL ARTS. The Edncatioaal Exhibit will be installed chiefly upon the ground floor of the Main Building, which has been assigned to the Liberal Arts and to Manufactures. It will occupy the entire south end of the building, and will be approached through the lofty entrances opening upon the Grand Avenue that connects the principal marine and railway entrances to Jack- son Park. The space given to the Educational Exhibit is about 200,000 square feet, or between four and five acres. Adjacent to this will be arranged the exhibits of music, literature, physical apparatus, hygiene and sanitation, medicine and surgery, etc. The Educational Exhibit will be organized both by States and by grades. Each State will occupy a definite area, which will be assigned with refer- ence to the elements which the several States will have to represent, as nearly as that can be ascertained. These areas will be side by side, in parallel subdivisions extending north and south. The arrangement of the elements in the several States will be expected to conform to a general plan, presenting the several grades in consecutive arrangement extending east and west. The studious observer may follow the grades, from the most elementary to the most advanced, in any State ; or crossing the areas he may trace the similarities or variations in any chosen grade. The parochial schools will have a definite place in the scheme, conformably to the same system. Each State exhibit will include : 1. A presentation of its public school system. 2. Its academies, normal schools, colleges, and universities. 3. Its special, technical, and professional schools ; except in cases where a specialty in education can be better illustrated by a collective exhibit, independent of State lines. Thus, there will be a single collective exhibit, showing library organization and management ; one of commercial schools; of manual training-schools ; of trade schools, etc. This method should probably be adopted, with exhibits of schools for the blind, the deaf, etc. The ruling idea will be to bring into the closest local relationship those elements which have the closest educational affinities, thus to offer the best opportunities for interesting comparison an4 critical observation. In some cases these benefits may be secured better by observing State lines ; in others by obliterating them. 8 584 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. An earnest desire has been expressed, both in private and by resolutions publicly adopted, that all grades of educational work should be shown in active operation, in the actual work of living teachers upon living pupils. The suggestion is an attractive one. It has received careful consideration. In its discussion, no question has been raised as to space, or expense ; but only. Is such a presentation of schools a feasible project ? All worthy teaching aims to aid the growth of the soul, and the dis- cipline of the intellectual powers. The larger part of the work employs only the reactions of intellectual and spiritual forces. Yet certain forms of instruction find abundant uses for material and concrete modes of illus- tration and such as can be practically applied. The public mind, seldom philosophically accurate, readily groups' our work into two divisions, according as they are supposed to present more notably, in practice and in results, the intellectual or practical phase. The latter kind of work may be illustrated to some extent in active exhibits, pupils and teachers work- ing together, as in the kindergarten, the sloyd, manual training, labora- tory work, physical culture, etc. Facilites for this work will be provided. The attempt to present forms of class-room work, other than that just named, will not be made. The conditions of a World's Fair in intensely active progress, the throngs of visitors, the tumult of distracting events, sights,' sounds — strange, brilliant, exciting, engrossing — will inevitably remove from the minds and hearts of both pupils and teachers the quiet environment and the inspired attention indispensable to either teaching or learning. The Commissioner of Education, commenting upon this sub- ject, asserts that ^^the atmosphere of an international exposition is con- vulsed with a spiritual tornado ; " that it '' will require supernatural powers either to teach or to study in such a place ; " and that " the in- struction will speedily drop to the purely mechanical level, and become both an untruthful and an undesirable presentation of American education." In the presentation of public school systems, the several States and Territories will be the smallest units for which separate provision can be made by the Chief of the Department. Cities, villages, and rural schools will find such recognition and representation as can be allowed within the limits assigned to the States which include them. The educational exhibit from each State will be under the immediate supervision of a duly authorized executive officer or committee, who may have been selected by the State Commission for the World's Columbian Exposition, or may be the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, or a committee represent- ing the State Association of Teachers. It is not presumed that any conflict of authority can arise, but that in each State such amicable arrangement will be made as will harmonize all elements, and thus promote the most complete success. In every case the exhibit will be subject to the ultimate supervision of the Chief of the Department, acting under the Director- General of the Exposition. EDUCATIONAL EXHIBIT OF THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 585 So far as is practicable, the liigher institutions of learning, colleges, universities, technical and professional schools, will be arranged according to the sequences of their respective States. This plan maybe varied when it shall appear more desirable to unite more closely the elements of any specific phase of work, to facilitate comparison and study. The State executive officer will naturally extend to each collegiate institution the largest liberty in arranging its own affairs. Colleges and special schools may apply to the Special State Commissioner, or directly to the Chief of the Department. All distinct applications for space must be entered in the office of the Director-General. The assignment of space to the several States and Territories will be determined by the information secured as to the character of the respective State exhibits. Evidently, the most suitable division will not give to each an equal allowance, or on3 proportioned to area, or population, or even to school attendance. The State which has made the most decided educa- tional progress, and has the best harvest to show, should have the best opportunity to show it. Each State should present a clear and concise epitome illustrative of its public school system. The conditions in the several States vary widely. Exact rules of procedure cannot be formulated. Reliance must be placed upon the good judgment, invention, taste, and skill of the several State executive committees, and the teachers and school officers co-operating with them. The general regulations of the Exposition, as well as the special rules of the Department of Liberal Arts, must be observed. The several State exhibits will show some or all of the elements to Lc enumerated, and substantially in the following order of arrangement. 1. Organization and Administration. — A mdp of the State upon a generous scale, readable at a distance of fifteen or twenty feet, showing by suitable conventions of color, the location of every educational institu- tion, from the common school up, proving in many instances that the school house crowns every hill top, and nestles in every valley. That the colors maybe uniform, special directions and scale will be furnished by the Chief of the Department. Diagrams may show, by the graphic methods so well understood, the progress of education, by years or by decades, in the history of the State ; as to the kinds and values of school buildings ; the numbers of pupils, by ages, sexes, colors, and grades; the numbers of teachers, actual and related to number of pupils, and their ratios by sexes; the cost of schools, actual, and in ratio to other taxes and to the wealth of the State ; illiteracy ; statistics of public and of school libraries, etc., etc. The authorized or approved courses of study for rural, city, and village schools. Qualifications for admission to various grades, and for graduation. Qualifications of teachers ; length of service ; opportunities for improve- ment by institutes and normal schools. 586 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. The school law ; division of territory into districts. County, township, or district organization. Manner of election, term of of&ce, and duties of school officers, trustees, boards of education, city and county superin- tendents, etc. 2. Selected Specimens of the Actual Work of Pupils. — Concrete results, drawings, maps, essays, examinations, apparatus, shop-products, etc. The evident danger here is that there will be gathered a wilderness of material which will appall the visitor by the magnitude of the exhibit, and the endless repetition of similar things. It is not necessary, when showing the splendid agricultural resources of the State of Illinois, that a sheaf of wheat and a shock of corn should be offered from every farm, or every township, or even from every county. The teacher, as well as the farmer, must content himself by showing in a limited way that which is characteristic, and that which is best. For this reason it is evident that complete exhibits from organic units less than the State, as cities, counties, etc., such as might be appropriate in an exposition representing a territory of smaller extent, cannot be provided for in this. It is not possible to assume that every city or county can have a distinct repressnta- tion. But whatever is shown should be carefully credited to its source. As before suggested, the method of obtaining pupils' work must be en- trusted largely to the discretion of the State executive authorities. What- ever method is adopted, much stress should be laid upon the injunction that every item of work presented as the product of the pupils should be absolutely genuine. The interference of a teacher, even to the correc- tion of an obvious mistake, the retouching of a shade in a drawing, the fitting by a shaving of a joint of woodwork, the dotting of an " i " 6r the crossing of a ''t," should be deemed an inexcusable fault ; and any work so " improved " should be rigorously rejected. Each item should be for- warded exactly as the pupil left it. No special instruction, practice, or drill should be given to any pupil, class, or school, preparatory to work which is intended for the Exposition. The actual fruits of the regular school system should be presented without being worked up for this special purpose. The Educational Executive Committee in each State will collect, select, prepare, forward, and, under the approval of tlie Chief of the Department, install the material for the State exhibit. The following plan of selec- tion is suggested, but will not be insisted upon, if a better can be devised : Let the Executive Committee in each State appoint a series of days upon which papers may be prepared upon assigned subjects by the pupils of all schools which wish to offer work for exhibition ; one day for history, another for grammar, another for essays, etc. Questions prepared under the supervision of the State executive are distributed under proper pre- cautions and regulations ; an equal number are added in each community, prepared by the local officers, the work to be done on the same day, and EDUCATIONAL EXHIBIT OF THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 587 between given hours, the pupils to have a given time for answering the questions, and for making a fair copy of the answers upon paper of a pre- scribed form and style. Let the teacher select the best portion, say one- fourth, of the papers presented by his class, to be sent to the next higher officer, say the principal of the school. From these papers let the princi- pal select, say, fifteen or twenty, which shall be put together as the work of the representative class of that school upon that subject, and be sent to the superintendent of the town, city, or county. From the classes which come to him, let the superintendent select that class which he will send forward to represent his city or county in the State exhibit. If the num- ber of pupils in the city be large, let a number of classes be thus sent for- ward, proportioned to the number of pupils to be rei">resented. From the classes thus received let the State executive select a given number, say fifty or sixty, or even a larger number, which may go forward to the Ex- position. It will happen that in a given city one school will win the honor of sending forward the representative class in one subject, another in another, and so on. It will be possible that every community which is really excelling in some particular may have the honor of being repre- sented in something in the final selection. Each pupil will feel that the honor of a position in one of the representative classes is worth striving for, and these honors may be distributed among a great number, while the principle of the survival of the fittest will have its application. After the representative class in any school has been selected, let the members be i^hotographed together in a group, the photograph to be the frontispiece of the papers that the class has written, to be followed by a neatly* engrossed statement setting forth names, ages, nationalities, grade in school, length of time in grade, etc., after a form to be presented by the State Committee. To this might be appended a further statement setting forth the facts concerning the numbers represented by the class, the course of study, and the place of this subject in the course ; time devoted to it, methods of instruction, etc., etc. .The work of ^imilar classes may be bound together in convenient vol- umes, plainly lettered on the side to indicate the facts in the case. Drawings, elementary, from the flat, from objects, designs, maps, etc., may be selected in a manner somewhat similar j but it may not be prac- ticable to order special examinations from a central point. Some draw- ings may be produced, like examinations, within a limited time. Ad- vanced pupils may be encouraged to offer more elaborate work, designs, sketches, finished drawings, from nature, from life, etc. In such cases each drawing should bear a legend, giving, in addition to tlie name, age, etc., of the pupil, a statement of the amount of time given to drawing ; the time, in hours, spent on the given piece of work ; whether it is original or copy, and with or without aid from tlTe teacher, it being understood that aid was limited to advice or suggestion, and that in no case was any 588 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. mark or erasure made by any person other than the pupil whose name is attached. All drawings with pencil, crayon, chalk, etc., should be '' fixed " to pre- vent rubbing. They should be of such size as will permit mounting on cards twenty-two inches wide by twenty-eight inches high. Smaller drawings may be grouped on cards of the same size, when it can be done consistently with harmony of arrangement and economy of space. A limited number of pictures of special merit may be framed and glazed, but the framing should be modest and unobtrusive. Photographs will be found useful throughout the exhibit. They may illustrate schools in operation, exteriors, interiors, classes, museums, labo- ratories, special appa^ratus, etc. The best size will be eight inches high by ten wide, of which six may be mounted on one side of the card described above. They may be placed on both sides of the card, the card to be mounted on a " wing " frame, by which device a large number may be shown in a small space. As a rule, photographs should be sent unmounted to the State Committee, wliich may then arrange them in an orderly and systematic manner. Each view should be accompanied with a full de- scription. School architecture will form a valuable element of a State exhibit. Sets of drawings of school houses, existing or proposed, may show floor plans, elevations, perspectives, systems of heating and ventilation, light- ing, etc. They should be drawn to an uniform scale of one-fourth inch to the foot, and should be bound together in sets in folios. In some cases the perspective may be framed, reference being made to the folio which contains the remaining sheets of the design. An historic series of school houses will be instructive, presenting the oldest as well as the newest examples, and including the very humblest, the log-houses, sod- houses, dug-outs, etc. Bonaventure's tobacco shed would be a welcome addition. A special department will include architects' plans, designs, etc., and these will not find a place in the State exhibits. Evidently a part of each State exhibit will illustrate general progress and the status of affairs as a whole. Another part will show material gathered, as previously suggested, or otherwise, from all parts of the State. This is the portion which will present most of similarity and rep- etition. To relieve this in a measure, to economize space, and at the same time to give wider range to the exhibits from cities and schools, the following plan is suggested : After the work, which is deemed worthy of presentati(m, has been care- fully selected, let that from the public schools be divided into four parts as nearly equal as possible in quantity and value ; let each element, as primary, secondary, etc., be included in equal portions in each division. At the opening of the Fair one-fourth of the material will be placed on EDUCATIONAL EXHIBIT OF THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION 589 exhibition, while the remainder will be placed in drawers, where it may be easily accessible if there should be any reason for consulting it. After six weeks the first fourth may be withdrawn, and the second fourth put in its place, for a similar length of time, and so with the other portions. Many advantages will accrue from this method of treatment, which will be apparent without explanation. It will be more logical to place special schools alongside their corre- sponding grades of public schools, than to separate out two distinct series, public and private, in the same State exhibits. Kindergartner's work should be placed near primary work, but not confused with it. Along with high-school work, come all forms of secondary instruction intermediate between the grammar school and the college, except such as may be grouped by themselves as specialties. Then follow normal schools, col- leges, schools of agriculture, of technology, universities, with their pro- fessional schools, and professional schools detached. It will not be possible, and it might be invidious if possible, to attempt any sharp grada- tion among institutions of higher grades. They will form a group, whose arrangement must be determined by good nature and convenience, bring- ing kindred institutions as much in line as possible. An exception has been suggested as to manual training schools, which will apply to some others of a similar character. As before explained, provision will be made for a series of active exhibits of this practical kind. These exhibits will not form a part of the systematic organization which has been described, but will have a place near by, and at the same time withdrawn from the busiest throng of visitors. They will be easily accessi"ble, but not on the thoroughfare. It will probably follow, that the manual training exhibits should be grouped in the immediate vicinity of the active exhibit of that specialty. The same may apply in like cases. College and university exhibits will vary greatly, both with the charac- ter of the institutions themselves, and with the genius and skill of those who prepare them. In this respect technical departments and schools will have a decided advantage, because their work lies so much in the horizon of the material and the concrete. It will not be so easy to present ^_^ logic or logarithms, as it is to show chemistry, or art, or shop-work, ^k If one were endeavoring to present a college, he might wish to show, ^B by graphic methods, its history, its development, its progress, its faculty, l^B its courses of study, its requirements for admission and graduation ; the ^^m number of its students by classes and sexes, and departments ; its \^M alumni, and if possible, it would be interesting to follow those alumni v^k into life and to show what they are doing and have accomplished. I^K There may be views of buildings, without and within ; illustrations of I^K equipment, and of all beautiful features, ^natural and artificial. There Y^L should be portraits of founders, presidents, notable professors, and of L 590 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. such alumni as have achieved distinction ; usually those who would be particularly anxious to appear in such a portrait gallery, are they who should be excluded. That which is shown should present something that stands for an achievement or a product of the institution, not something that it has been rich enough to purchase. If a professor has devised a new method of investigation or of instruction, has invented a new piece of apparatus, or a process, we wish to know it, and it should be presented with such accessories as are needed. Apparatus which will illustrate the growth of any science or art, which will present the history of its development, will be particularly desirable. If that which the venerable Professor Snell had gathered at Amherst, much of it his own handiwork, had not perished it would fill a most important place in the Exposition. But the ordinary equipment for instruction should not be brought forward. A professor of civil engineering need not occupy space with a transit and level, and a sheaf of arrows, unless his own brain has exerted its formative power upon these very instruments, so that they are his in some way more intimate than because he has paid shekels for them. Any other possessor of shekels may do the same. The Exposition has other places for this sort of display. Some institutions may make a valuable exhibit by showing the achieve- ments of their alumni, in those lines which represent the natural outcome of their college discipline. Besides the portraits already suggested, there may be tablets, or scrolls, on which will be written the names of those who have added to the renown of their alma mater by service in their country's defense, on land or sea ; they who have been chosen to places of honor and responsibility, congressmen, governors, foreign ministers ; they who have won distinction as jurists, clergymen, physicians, teachers, inventors, etc. What a glorious diadem would be a collection of all the books which have been written by the alumni of one of our older universities, say Har- vard, Yale, or Columbia ! Many of these institutions have precious relics of the olden time, like the crown in the library of Columbia College, sent by the King of England, when the college was called Kings; manuscripts, missals, charters, etc., which, in fact or in fac-simile, they might use to add interest to their exhibits. The space assigned to this exhibit is by far larger than was ever before offered to this interest. It is in the choicest place in the Exposition. It is environed by the great departments, every one of which is its child, some of them, in former expositions, being included within its fold. If to any the space still seems inadequate, the remedy is to fill that space with only the noblest and the choicest material, leaving behind all which is feeble and commonplace. There is room enough, there is material enough, to make the Educational Exhibit the jeweled crown of the World's Columbian Exhibition. THE WORLD'S EBUGATIOXAL CONGRESS. 591 THE WORLD'S EDUCATIONAL CONGRESS. W. T. HARRIS, COMAITSSIONER OF EDUCATION, U. S. It has been well considered by the World's Columbian Exposition at Chicago, that side by side with the exhibit of the material resources of all nations there should be an exhibit of the spiritual achievements. To use the words of the announcement, ** To provide for the proper presentation of the intellectual and moral progress of the world," there should be held *' A series of World's Congresses with the assistance of the leaders in all the chief departments of human achievement." Acting on this idea a programme has been mapped out which sets apart each of the six months of the exposition for some one class of these con- gresses. First the month of May, 1893, is set apart for art, literature, and music. It is very appropriate that the series should begin with a discussion of the spiritual activities which have for their object the artistic display of human nature — the manifestation of spirit in material forms — because the whole exposition rests on this idea. Every inter- national exposition is a revelation of the ideals and achievements of the peoples of the world. For the second month it is proposed to hold the congresses and con- ventions that relate to religion and morals, including temperance, social reform, and the suppression of vice in all its shapes. The third month, July, is set apart for education in its various forms. This is the special month which interests our National Association. But not merely school education is provided for in congresses. Besides this there are all manner of learned societies devoted to science, philosophy, and invention, which are to meet in conference. For August the congresses of jurists, the students of politics, the framers of laws, and the military ; also the secret societies. September is set apart for labor congresses and kindred movements; while October closes the series with congresses of agriculture, commerce, and finance. The bare mention of these great spiritual interests impresses us with their vastness. In order to properly provide for such a series of con- gresses it became evident that a separately organized directory body had to be formed with nearly as much work on its hands as the business of the main exposition. The directory to whom is intrusted this series of con- gresses is called '' The World's Congress Auxiliary," and it consists of loca' committees resident in Chicago and of advisory councils residing in vari- 592 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION ous parts of the world. The committees resident in Chicago are charged with the management of the whole enterprise. Keturning to the educational congresses in which we are especially interested we note that local committees and advisory councils have been formed on the departments of higher education, public instruction, music, teaching, instruction of the unfortunates, and special education. The special committee of ten from the National Educational Association appointed on ^' The World's Congress of Educators" has been recognized and made an advisory council on public instruction. Inasmuch as the National Educational Association has nine departments and represents that number of educational interests, your committee have been at first somewhat embarrassed by seeming to find their functions limited to the office of making suggestions to the local committee in Chicago on the subject of public schools and excluding the topics of higher education, manual training, music, and the kindergarten. A correspondence with the President of the Auxiliary and a full and free conference with the local committee on public instruction have removed nearly all of our difficulties and the way seems now open for the following course of action. The committee will act in conjunction with the local committee as a joint committee, and adopting the action already taken by the latter, proceed to complete the organization of the several departments of the Congress by inviting distinguished educational specialists from the several States and from foreign nations in Europe and on this Continent to join in the work of the following named sections : {a) The Kindergarten. {h) Elementary Instruction. (c) Sexjondary Instruction. {d) Higher Instruction. (e) Normal Instruction. (/) The Superintendence of Schools. (g) Industrial Education. {h) Art Education. (i) Musical Education. {h) Educational Publications and School Journals. These sections, omitting the last, cover exactly the scope of the National Educational Association, and if it is to move at all in this matter of an international congress it seems to your committee that it should under- take all these departments. Let us suppose for one moment that the higher education were to be omitted from the programme as provided for in your committee. This would imply that the department of higher education in the National Educational Association is not a representative body of such dignity as to jtand for higher education in this nation. It would mean such a slight to this department, that in future there would certainly be a decline of THE WORLD'S EDUCATIONAL CONGRESS. 593 the interest which has grown up in later years. What would be the effect of abolishing in the National Association the department of higher educa- tion ? The educative influence that comes from association with the best educated teachers in the country would be all lost for the teachers and superintendents of the lower schools. We may add, too, that the managers of higher education would give up by the same act of withdrawal that inter-communication with elementary and secondary education which the National Educational Association has for a long time cultivated. This, too, would happen just at a time when important changes are proposed in the course of study of the common schools to effect an earlier preparation for college. There has never been before an epoch when elementary and secondary education seemed to be on the point of being enriched through the studies made upon it by the leaders of higher education. We espec- ially in this department of superintendence have profited repeatedly from the sharp and wholesome criticisms of the President of Harvard Univer- sity and the President of Clark University. Just now, too, the management of the National Educational Associa- tion is reaching out wisely to add dignity and usefulness to its influence by applying a portion of the proceeds of its large and increasing endowment funds to publish and distribute full reports of its proceedings ; to offer annual medals as a recognition of the most distinguished educational con- tributions of the year ; to establish conferences for distinguished special- ists at its annual gatherings, and by these to attract those rare minds engaged in original investigation to our annual meetings. Whatever injury would come to the National Educational Association if the department of higher education were to be withdrawn or even slighted, would happen in a less degree if any other' one of its nine departments were thus removed. I think that it is clear that we must insist on the representation of all our sections in the National Congress. But on the other hand we see the necessity of the local executive com- mittees at Chicago, and must not propose to them any abdication of their rights of final adjudication in this matter. Although our committee desires to act, it must act subject to the approval of the local committees of the Auxiliary. What shall be the scope of the World's Congress ? The programme must be skillfully prepared, and distributed throughout this country and Europe before the coming summer. The questions must be of inter- national interest and not mere local questions. The following list has been prepared and printed by President Bonney of the Auxiliary, and we can all see that it touches live questions in our education systems : (a) ''■ The rational limits of education for children under five years of age, and the like limits for children of ten, fifteen, and twenty years of age, respectively. 694 THE! JSTATIONAL EDVOATtOKAL ASSOCIATION. (b) The rational limits and practical utility of recitations and examina- tions. (c) The rational methods of control and discipline. (d) The essential principles and proper place of kindergarten education. (e) The essential principles and proper place of manual training and art education. (/) The proper office and use of music in the public schools. (g) How far agricultural chemistry, economic geometry, economic entomology, and the like branches, should be made a part of the course of instruction in the common schools of agricultural districts. (h) How far the use of tools, and the sciences applicable to the mechan- ical arts should be made a part of the course of instruction in schools in villages and cities. (i) How far the laws of life and health, and the use of remedies in case of accident or other emergency should be made a part of the course of instruction in the common schools. (/) How far the subjects of civil government, embracing the holding of public meetings, the conduct of public business, and a knowledge of the laws involved in the every-day proceedings of common life, should be taught in the common schools. (Jc) How far the universal principles of morals and religion should be taught in such schools. (l) The extension of higher education among the masses of the people. (m) The school library as a means of education. {n) What reforms in the architecture of modern school buildings and in school furniture and apparatus should be recommended. (o) Whether the existing educational systems may be best adapted to the recent enormous increase in all departments of knowledge by dividing the educational term into three periods, during the first of which the scholar should be taught the merest rudiments of the largest practicable number of branches of knowledge, but the details of none except his own language and matters necessarily incident thereto ; and during the second of which periods he should be taught the exact details of a special course of instruc- tion, selected with reference to his future calling in life ; and during the last of which he shall be taught the practical application of technical knowledge to the subjects involved in his proposed life-work. (p) How far uniformity of scholastic attainments should be required, and how far prescribed courses of study should be adapted to the intellec- tual characteristics of individual students. (q) Whether the manual of arms and the simplest principles of tactics should be taught in the common schools, as involving all the substantial benefits now derived from what is known as calisthenics, and giving the students in addition thereto the benefits of superior discipline and deco- rum, and providing, for the sake of the State, the rudiments of the knowl- THE WORLD'S EDUCATIONAL CONORESS. 595 I edge necessary to convert the citizen into a soldier for the defense of his country. (r) The importance of a national civil service academy, in which students selected from each representative district throughout the whole country shall be educated and trained for the civil service as such stu- dents are now educated for the military and naval service in the military and naval schools. {s) The importance of a scientific education for common soldiers and marines, to the end that when not engaged in military operations they may be employed in scientific observations and explorations under the direction of qualified officers, and to the further end that such soldiers and marines may be saved from the habits of dissipation and vice engendered in idleness. {t) The history, influence, results, condition, and prospects of educa- tion in different countries.^' We must compare these questions w4th the existing live questions in Europe, and strike the common ground so that the debates may interest alike the delegates from all nations. It has been the custom in international educational congresses to pub- lish in advance the questions, and invite written theses to be sent in to the executive committee. From these theses are selected such as are found most suitable to be read and debated at the several sessions of the congress. There are three great questions, the pivots as it were of all our educa- tional management, and if we can bring out these in our international conference we shall accomplish the best results. These pivotal questions relate to the course of study, the methods of instruction, and moral training or discipline. These are quite properly placed in the foreground in Presi- dent Bonney's scheme above. The course of study question, for exam- 'ple, involves these practical issues of shortening and enriching the pro- grammes of our common schools : Can we flank a certain amount of higher arithmetic by placing algebra and geometry in our elementary schools ? Can we change the work of the college so as to require the study of gen- eral history and the rudiments of natural science such as are given in the so-called '^ natural philosophy" and '* physical geography" text-books used in our high schools ? Ought the colleges to lower their standards of admission so as to diminish the dangerous hold which secondary schools are getting to have in our national education ? The old question of religious education in connection with the public school is alive yet in this country, and it is very important just now in Germany, where there is a reactionary school law proposed, and in France, where the State is endeavoring to completely secularize the schools ; and finally in England, where the parochial schools are strongly contesting the rising influence of the non-sectarian education. Finally, the general objects of the international congresses are so well set forth by the World's Congress Auxiliary at Chicago that I read from 596 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. their circular of last October, wherein they present these objects as themes of the six great classes of congresses : I. "The grounds of fraternal union in the language, literature, domes- tic life, religion, science, art, and civil institutions of different peoples. II. *' The economic, industrial, and financial problems of the age. III. "Educational systems, their advantages and their defects ; and the means by which they may best be adapted to the recent enormous increase in all departments of knowledge. IV. " The practicability of a common language, for use in the commer- cial relations of the civilized world. V. " International copyright, and the laws of intellectual property and commerce. VI. "Immigration and naturalization laws, and the proper interna- tional privileges of alien governments, and their subjects or citizens. VH. "The most efficient and advisable means of preventing or de- creasing pauperism, insanity, and crime ; and of increasing productive ability, prosperity, and virtue throughout the world. VIII. "International law as a bond of union and a means of mutual protection ; and how it may best be enlarged, perfected, and authoritatively expressed. IX. "The establishment of the principles of judicial justice as the supreme law of international relations ; and the general substitution of arbitration for war, in the settlement of international controversies. " It is impossible to estimate the advantages that would result from the mere establishment of personal acquaintance and friendly relations among the leaders of the intellectual and moral world, who now for the most part know each other only through the interchange of publications, and, perhaps, the formalities of correspondence. "And what is transcendently more important, such congresses, con- vened under circumstances so auspicious, would doubtless surpass all previous efforts to bring about a real fraternity of nations, and unite enlightened people of the who^.e earth in a general co-operation for the attainment of the great ends for which human society is organized." Following Dr. Harris, Mr. Lane, of Chicago, made brief remarks. He said that demands had come in from various learned societies, for opportunity to deliberate upon their work. He said that the committee of which he was a member would co-operate with the National Edu- cational Association, and endeavor to bring all things into harmony with it. Ho gave account of the opportunities that would be afforded by the Art Institute building and the Auditorium for all meetings that might be held, and said, in conclusion, that while invitations in general had been extended to foreign nations to participate, all special matters belong- ing to it would be referred to the National Educational Association. IN MEMOniAM. 697 Dr. Johk Wickersham, of Pennsylvan^ia., Born March 5, 1825, Died March 25, 1891. Dr. John Hancock, of Ohio, Born February 18, 1825, Died June 1, 1891. Dr. Thomas W. Harvey, of Ohio, Born Dec. 18, 1821, Died January 20, 1892. 598 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. IN MEMORIAM—DR. JOHN WIOKERSHAM, BY DR. EDWARD BROOKS, OF PHILADELPHIA. It is very gratifying to me that, though through an inadvertence the name of Dr. Wickersham does not appear on our program, he is not for- gotten by the members of this Association. It is also gratifying to me to be called upon to speak a few words in his memory, though I should have been better prepared to do justice to the occasion had I known beforehand that this duty would be assigned me. Dr. Wickersham was Pennsylvania's most distinguished educator. I am sure I do not overstate the matter when I say that he did more for the progress of education in our State than any other man in Pennsylvania. Moreover, I believe that Dr. Wickersham ranks among the greatest educa- tors that this country has produced. His work was deep, broad, and lasting, and his name deserves to be enrolled among America's most eminent educators. His career was one of uninterrupted advancement and success. Every position he occupied was filled with conspicuous ability, and became the stepping-stone of a higher position. He began his educa- tional work as a teacher of a country school, then became the principal of an academy, was then elected county superintendent, then became princi- pal of the first State Normal School of Pennsylvania, and finally crowned his work by being placed at the head of the Department of Public Instruc- tion in the Keystone State. As teacher of the country school he aroused the enthusiasm of his pupils and patrons ; as principal of the academy he became known throughout his country as a wise and progressive edu- cator ; and as a county superintendent he was one of the most intelligent and distinguished in the State. As principal of the Normal School at Millersville he laid the foundation for normal instruction in Pennsylvania. The Normal School law of the State was largely shaped by the work of this school, and it became a model after which the other schools of the State were patterned. Dr. Wickersham's views on education were broad, progressive and phil- osophical. He was one of the earliest to base pedagogical instruction on philosophical principles, and to claim that teaching could be developed into a science and an art. His lectures to teachers at the beginning of the Millersville Normal School, nearly forty years ago, presented many of the principles which have since been called the " New Education." The basis of this course of instruction was a careful study of the nature of the mind, and this was before any works on educational psychology were IN MEMOniAM-DR. JOHN WWKER8HAM. 599 published. So high was his appreciation of the value and responsibility of this work, that these lectures were prepared with the greatest care. No amount of labor seemed too great in order to make them worthy of the attention of h*is classes of student-teachers. These lectures were subse- quently published, forming his two works " School Economy " and ** Methods of Instruction," works which were not only extensively read iu this country but have been translated into several foreign languages. In 1866, he resigned his position as principal of the Normal School and was appointed State Superintendent of Public Instruction. In this position Dr. Wickersham showed, pre-eminent abilities, and accom- plished a great work. He put a life and enthusiasm and dignity into the department that it had never before known. This influence permeated every part of the State and gave a wonderful uplift to the cause of public education. While as State Superintendent his name is not identified with any striking act of legislation, it can be truly affirmed that no one who ever occupied the position did so much for the advancement of the cause of education in Pennsylvania as Dr. Wickersham. Necessary legislation had already been made ; what was needed was a strong executive to put the machinery into motion, and Mr. Wickersham was such an executive. The educational atmosphere of the State was filled with the spirit of life and progress. School buildings were improved and multiplied, new nor- mal schools were established, teachers' qualifications were raised, county superintendents were stimulated and strengthened in their work, and there was a grand movement forward all along the line. Upon his resignation from the office of State Superintendent he was appointed Minister to Denmark, a position which was not congenial to his taste and which he resigned after a few months' residence abroad. Mr. Wickersham was more widely known abroad at one time than any other educator in this country. Many here present will remember th.e position he occupied at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia in 1876, and will corroborate the statement that no American educator attracted wider attention among foreign educators than did Mr. Wickersham. It was my pleasure to renew my acquaintance this summer with M. Buisson, Director of Primary Instruction in Paris, who was at the head of the French Commissioners of Education in this country in 1876, and the first question he asked me, after a few words of personal greeting, was in respect to his old friend, Dr. Wickersham of Pennsylvania. He seemed deeply touched to learn of his death, and spoke in high terms of his writings and his work, Mr. Wickersham was a distinguished member of the National Educa- tional Association. He was present at its organization in Philadelphia in 1857, was elected President in 1865, and ^p,s also President of this depart- ment of superintendents. He took great interest in its meetings, was one of its wisest counselors, and his contributions to its literature showed 600 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. a clear, vigorous and practical thinker on educational subjects. At the meeting of this Association, one year ago, Mr. Wickersham was present, and the distinguished presiding officer, Judge Draper, seeing him enter the hall and remembering his conspicuous and honorable services as an educator, invited him to a seat upon the president's platform. A few months later and, unexpectedly to himself and his friends, he was suddenly called away. His strong and impulsive heart ceased to beat, and he passed over into the land of silence. But though he is not with us to-day, his memory remains as a rich heritage of lofty purposes and noble achieve- ments, and we honor ourselves as we pause a moment in our exercises to do honor to his deeds and his memory. And it is with great personal gratification that I twine this wreath of grateful memories and lay it on his honored grave. IN MEMORIAM— THOMAS W. HARVEY. BY SUPT. L. W. DAY, CLEVELAND, OHIO. Ohio was one of the first States in the Union to adopt State supervision of public instruction. As early as the year 1837, in obedience to a most earnest appeal made by a semi-state organization of teachers, the legislature passed a law creating the office of State Superintendent of Schools, to which position, on request of the same body of educators, Mr. Samuel Lewis was soon after appointed. It may be worthy of note that within a few weeks after the appointment of Mr. Lewis, Horace Mann, whose memory is venerated by all Ohio teachers, was placed at the head of the Massachusetts schools as Secretary of the State Board of Education. In Ohio there was some instability, the duties and responsibilities of the office being assumed by the Secretary of State during a portion of the time down to the year 1853. In that year the commissionership of the common schools was made an independent office, and clothed .with such authority and power as to give it, at least, a degree of dignity. Among the men who, under circumstances at once disheartening and discouraging, labored unflinchingly for the elevation of the schools and the cause of education generally in these early days, as well as in the prosperous years that succeeded those dark hours, may be named Samuel Lewis, Lorin Andrews, A. D. Lord, M. F. Cowdery, M. D. Leggett, Horace Mann, Andrew J. Rickoif, I. W. Andrews, W. D. Henkle, Thomas W. Harvey, John Hancock, E. E. White, Anson Smythe, Andrew Freese, John Eaton and many others, each of whom was a hero in the protracted struggle against the powers of ignorance and indifference in our good State. The enthusiasm of these men knew no permanent discouragement. IW MEMOBIAM— THOMAS W. HARVEY. 601 Strong in the right, powerful in will, determined and united in effort, they conquered a glorious measure of success. Into the State Teachers' Association, organized in 1848, all the leading educational workers of the State came, bringing with them experience, ability and reputation. The teachers of the State were roused, conven- tions and institutes were held, the standard of teachers' qualifications was raised, local supervision of schools was urged, public school libraries were established in both town and country, normal schools were urged, methods were discussed, better school buildings were secured, especially in villages, towns and cities — in short, every school interest received its due share of attention with more or less of success. Under the inspiration of this organization and the influence of the army of earnest men and women enrolled as educational workers, the schools steadily forged ahead. It was to an inheritance thus founded that Mr. Thomas Harvey came, as State Commissioner of Common Schools, in the year 1871. He labored most assiduously to extend, broaden and deepen the work of his prede- cessors in office and his co-laborers in educational work. He placed great reliance in the efficiency of the Institute, and sought steadily to strengthen and establish firmly the feature of educational effort. Layipg aside his official robes at the expiration of his term, he continued his interest in the common schools without abatement of zeal, laboring shoulder to shoulder with his associates in all parts of the State. In step with the wise and determined leaders of thought and effort throughout the nation, he was always found in the storming column in the assaults upon the citadel of ignorance, a stalwart in the fray armed cap-a-yie for the fight. Born among the hills of New Hampshire, he was early imbued with a spirit of self-reliance and independence, which were leading characteristics of his life. An earnest, conscientious boy, he developed into a noble man, broad of view, pure in thought and word, a safe leader, an inspira- tion to all. His early educational privileges were limited. He availed himself of every opportunity which his vicinity afforded, and at the age of fifteen began the printer's trade in Painesville, Ohio. Later he became a student in the Western Eeserve Teachers' Seminary, at Kirtland, Ohio, where he laid the foundation of a broad and liberal education. He was a close student all his life, and although not a graduate of any college he was a thoroughly educated man. Eminently practical, genial and perse- vering, his work prospered in his hands. He came to the office of School Commissioner fully equipped, and through his writings, his books and his addresses, thoroughly intrenched in the confidence of the teachers and friends of education throughout the State. Upon all appropriate occa- sions, as a private citizen, a teacher, and a State officer, he spoke earnestly for the normal school, the teachers' institute, for local supervision, for a more comprehensive course of study, and%r a higher grade of excellence on the part of teachers. He accomplished much. In the Association of 602 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION his own State, on the floor of this department, and in the councils of the National Association his voice was often heard pleading for measures cal- culated to better the condition of the common schools. His interests were not divided ; he pursued no uncertain course. He was not a politician in the offensive use of that term, but he was an educator with decidedly optimistic tendencies. Keenly sensible of the shortcomings of the public system, he nevertheless looked bravely forward to the time when the handicapping of the schools should be, in large measure at least, removed, when the mission of the public school should be more fully appreciated, and when illiteracy, ignorance, superstition and bigotry should be dis- solved in the light of moral and intellectual excellence. To the accomplishment of this desirable end he devoted his life. To us he has left the legacy of a noble character, the example of an unselfish career, the inspiration of a broad, generous, pure Christian gentleman. IN MEMORIAM—JOHN HANCOCK. BY W. E. SHELDON, OF BOSTON. The contemplation and study of the individual characteristics of repre- sentative men who have achieved success in educational work furnish material for comparison, contrast and imitation. The character and life of a good man open a field for the student's investigation that will yield him pure and permanent pleasure, and will reveal the elements of true success in life. John Hancock has left behind him a record of a noble manhood, of an eminent educator, of a highly-cultured gentleman, of a patriotic citizen, and of a sincere Christian. From the dawn of his life to the end of it he illustrated the value of habits of diligent application, of temperate living and of high thinking. In such elements of character lies the secret of his useful life. Count Hamilton once said of Richelieu that ^^this man commanded little armies, and little armies did great things." So we would say of Mr. Hancock, that from his early experience in the log school-house, as student and teacher, as superintendent of schools, as a writer and lecturer, and as Commissioner of Education of the great Commonwealth of Ohio, he never neglected the little things that presented themselves in the dis- charge of his daily duties. He never worked for the mere rewards of well-doing, nor did he despise or refuse the well-earned advancements that came to him from such a course of action. In reviewing Mr. Hancock's life and work, in every position he held, one cannot fail to be deeply impressed with his methodical habits in all m MEMORIAM—JOUN HANCOCK. 603 the details of his life. Every step he took was a logical one. Everything he did was systematized, and this marked characteristic, which was prac- tised and developed from his early youth through his entire career, un- questionably furnishes the key to his remarkable success. We cannot too strongly emphasize the practical benefit that it would be to young men entering upon a life of educational work to read the memoir of Mr. Han- cock so well prepared by his life-long friend, "W. H. Venable, LL.D., of Cincinnati, Ohio, to which are appended selections from his writings. It will serve to encourage, to stimulate, and to guide them. The study of his boyhood will quicken our youth to a truer sense of the value of this period as a time for preparation, and open the paths to a realization of their highest and best aspirations. His life confirms the truth of the words of a great writer, who said, "It is no man's business whether he has genius or not ; worh he must, whatever he is, quietly and steadily, and the natural and unforced results of such worh will be always the things that God meant him to do, and will be his best. ... If he be a great man he will accomplish great things ; if he be a small man he will perform small things." Mr. Hancock, although a bright young man, could not be regarded as a genius, but his life illustrates the truth that men of good talents, wisely directed, will often advance securely in the way of success, when what is called '^ genius " vainly attempts to scale the rugged heights of the hill of diflficulty. Goethe once said, '^ We are not all born to solve the problem of the universe, but to find out what we have to do, and confine ourselves within the limits of our powers of comprehension," and we may add, of action, also. Mr. Hancock evidently relished grappling with large questions, for we find tliat when he was only twenty-three years of age he prepared and read an essay at a teachers' meeting in Clermont County, Ohio, " On the National Association for the Promotion of Education." The mastery of subjects, broad and comprehensive in their scope, made him, unquestion- ably, the man of influence and power he has ever been in the councils and work of the National Educational Association and its departments. He joined the Association in 1858 at the meeting held in Cincinnati, where his close friend, Andrew J. Rickoff, was chosen the President. As Director, President, and active member of this body, he had, for a third of a century, held a front rank among the earnest workers of the nation for the promotion of popular education. His prominence was largely due to his earnestness, his attractive methods of speaking, his charming social qualities, and to the piirity of his motives. His reports, as Superintendent of Schools in Cincinnati, Dayton and Chillicothe are models, showing a thorough and intelligent knowledge of the varied departments of scliool administration, and of the best approved methods of instruction. His reports made for the National Council of Education, and his addresses 604 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. before Count}^, State, and National associations, all give evidence of a broad and comprehensive study of educational subjects. The position he took was generally the golden mean between the extreme views held by conservatives in education, who think that the good old methods are always the safest and best, and those advocated by the enthusi- astic radicals, who think they have discovered a more royal road to learning, or, to quote the words of Mr. Hancock, '^ who think they have dis- covered the true educational philosopher's stone, that will transmute everything it touches into the golden ore of wisdom." His mind once made up on any question of vital importance, it was not easily changed. His character was of the positive order. Convince him that he was in error, and he knew how to yield gracefully, but no special pleading or sophistry ccfuld change his mind when he had studied a sub- ject deliberately and taken a position. To him firmness was an element of power and a means of usefulness. In his relations with teachers under his supervision, he was a model superintendent. He recognized the fact that all real instruction must emanate from the individual teacher, and always encouraged large freedom in work, looking to results as the test of their efficiency. His individuality was a distinguishing characteristic, and showed itself in public and private relations. Being largely a self-made man, he had confidence in his opinions. His forceful manner at times might have led the casual observer to think him, to a degree, intolerant, but by those who knew him better, no such charge would ever be made. He was often, in the discussions of the National Council of Education, inquisitive, and availed himself of his rightful privilege to gain all the light on a question he could, with a view to broaden his knowledge and aid his judgment in arriving at correct conclusions. Even when he was not fully satisfied with the answers he obtained from those differing with him, he respected his opponents' honest opinions. He won his fame and success by strict integrity and close adherence to right principles of action, and the conscientious discharge of his practical duties. From his purpose to devote his life to educational work he never turned aside. He put great industry into all his work. His self-reliance and perseverance were shown in every position he held. He loved the right and despised all shades of wrong-doing. I never knew him to become excited and vehement in utterance but once, and that was when he felt called upon to denounce a sham pretense in educational work. The tenor of his life was earnest, and yet he had ready wit, and his humor gave zest to his conversation. In his educational doctrines he was liberal and progressive, and at the same time he was unwilling to set aside the lessons which experience had taught him. New theories and devices in education were all brought to the test of his deliberate judgment. REMARKS OF Z. RICHARDS, OF WASHINGTON. 605 Mr. Hancock was a conspicuous member of a remarkable group of good men wbo have represented the State of Ohio in educational councils and work. Many of them have gone, with him, to their reward. The names of W. D. Henkle, Lorin Andrews, Israel TV. Andrews, ex-President Garfield, Anson Smythe, Thomas W. Harvey, Eli T. Tappan, Horace Mann and many others have left behind them the imperishable monuments of good service in the varied walks of educational work. Of this group remaining in the ranks are Andrew J. Kickofif, E. E. White, John Eaton, B. A. Hinsdale, L. W. Day, and many others. Long may they live to enrich the world by their counsel and work. They all mourn with us the loss of Mr. Hancock as a worker, as a comrade, and as friend and brother. May our reflections upon his life and character strengthen our efforts to maintain the great principles which he so faith- fully and courageously defended, and so well illustrated in his life. REMARKS OF Z. RICHARDS, OF WASHINGTON, Mr. Presideitt : I rise to express my full approval of the interesting and appropriate remarks which have been made in memory of three lamented deceased members of the National Educational Association, viz., J. P. Wickersham, John Hancock and T. W. Harvey. But our friend Sheldon, in his very appropriate reference to these departed friends, as among the original founders of this Association, and in referring to the ^' only two " of the original members now present, has unintentionally I am sure, forgot to mention our worthy friend. Dr. D. B. Hagar, now present with us, who has the honor of preparing the first Constitution of the *' National Teacher's Association." We are happy to know that our kind Heavenly Father has prolonged his useful life, to permit him to be here with us to-day, to join with us in paying our tributes of honor to the memory of a Wickersham, who helped to organize this Association, at its first meeting in Philadelphia, thirty- five years ago, and of the noble Hancock, who was among the first to wel- come and assist the very few original members at our first anniversary in Cincinnati, in 1858. In all my connection with the w^ork of this N. E. Association, I am happy to say that the lamented Wickersham, Hancock and Harvey, have been among our best co-workers, and our best friends in this Association. 606 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. HI8T0RY AND LITERATURE IN GRAMMAR GRADES. BY SUPT. J. H. PHILLIPS, BIKMII^GHAM, ALA. It is not without trepidation that I appear before this Department to discuss so vital and comprehensive a subject as that assigned to me by your president. Fully aware of the fact that I am addressing those who are far better equipped than I for this task, I beg at the outset that what I shall say upon this important topic may be considered tentative and suggestive rather than didactic. The connection between history and literature is so intimate that the treatment of the latter in its broad sense might include the former, with- out violence to either. Considering each in its more restricted meaning, however, and particularly in its commonly accepted scholastic sense, the reason for the separation of these subjects in the caption becomes appar- ent. In presenting the claims of history and literature to a place in the cur- riculum of the elementary school, I do not feel that I am advocating the introduction of new subjects into our already too crowded course. His- tory has been assigned a place for many years in the majority of our schools, and literature has received at least a passive recognition. The actaal instruction in both has been far from satisfactory ; in quantity, it has been for the most part, nominal and uncertain ; in method, aimless and desultory. That these subjects have not been — are not now — ade- quately appreciated by the vast majority of the educational guild of this country, will be readily conceded. During the past decade, the methods of instruction in nearly all of the other branches of elementary school work have undergone radical changes, and have reached a wide range of development. In the subjects of history and literature, however, it must be admitted that but little if any prog- ress has been made in securing systematic instruction either in matter or method. In language and arithmetic, we find a careful gradation throughout the course ; in every stage of the child's progress, we become conscious of an efifort to adapt matter and method to the capabilities of the growing mind, to arouse and develop self-activity by creating an interest in the sub- ject-matter. An extended examination of courses of study in different sec- tions of the United States reveals the fact that in few instances only has there been any serious attempt to apply to history and literature the systematic treatment accorded to other subjects. HISTORY AND LITERATURE IN GRAMMAR GRADES. 607 The explanation of this fact cannot be found in any inherent difficulties in the subjects themselves. The plaintive question of the venerable Walt Whitman regarding our national literature may have been unconsciously applied by many to our national history, though we should be loth to make the admission. Popular indifference may, perhaps, be joartially attributed to the absence in our local and institutional history of the ele- ment of antiquity, an element quite necessary to enlist the attention and take hold of the imagination. Until within recent years, our people have been more actively interested in the making, than in the record- ing, of history. As a people, we are even yet standing far too near the seething caldron of our later history to form a calm dispassionate judg- ment respecting its character and value. Proper perspective will doubt- less enhance our interest, both in American history and American litera- ture. There is still another cause, deeper lying perhaps, but farther reaching in its results. The curriculum of the common school is not a mere arbitrary or acci- dental catalogue of subjects ; it is a development, a growth, under influ- ences as potent and as complex as those which have given life and form to our social organism. On the one hand we find those fundamental prin- ciples, physiological and psychological, which appertain to the nature and development of mind, those laws of mental action which indicate the relative strength and activity of the several powers at different ages and stages of growth, and dictat(j the order and methods of training. These factors, so far as understood, within certain limits at least, are definite, universal and invariable, and must constitute the subjective basis of a rational course of study. On the other hand, we encounter objective con- ditions and requirements, among which may be mentioned the sphere of activity and environment designed for the child, the time and extent of his education, the spirit of the age and the demands of public sentiment as dictated by that spirit. These factors, embodying the popular ideal of education, are variable, and are subject to changes and modifications, some- times radical and revolutionary, always more or less definite and percep- tible. This elasticity of conditions, due so largely to the genius of our Ameri- can institutions, is in itself an important factor in the progress and de- velopment of our national life, as well as of our educational ideals. Based upon these primary conditions, we find two distinct lines of educational thought, characterizing the two predominating ideals of the century. The one, emphasizing subjective conditions, subordinates the acquisition of mere knowledge or information to the disciplinary value of the studies pursued; the other makes the i^tility of the subject-matter the measure of its disciplinary valuo. The predominating t3ndency of the former has been the concentration of all the agencies of education to 608 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. secure the severe training and exact discipline of the intellectual faculties, leaving the culture of the emotional and executive faculties largely to the accidents of life. Such subjects as were deemed unsuited to intellectual gymnastics, were carefully excluded. History, poetry and music, were laid aside as too trivial and effeminating for men who aspired to intellec- tual strength. With the rise of the utilitarian ideal, we find in recent years a pronounced tendency towards the opposite extreme. The practical arts as elements in individual and national progress, have demonstrated their marvelous power to such an extent that to-day science is idolized and knowledge is declared omnipotent. It is not difficult to see that under the sway of these two great educa- tional ideals, history and literature have received but little direct encour- agement as branches of school work. Considered by the one inadequate as a means of severe mental training and exact scholarship, and by the other as containing too little promise of immediate utility in the business of life, these subjects have been assigned a subordinate and precarious lodgement in the curriculum of the elementary school. The tendency has been to relegate the study of literature "as such to the high school and the college — to place it as far as possible beyond the reach of the masses. The value of literature as a means of culture may be admitted, but it is claimed to be beyond the comprehension of pupils below the high school. In the meantime, these pupils take their reading into their own hands, and drift away unwarned to the dangerous shallows of sensational and ephemeral literature. AY^i^n we remember that only about fifteen per cent, of the children in our elementary schools ever reach the high school, it becomes evident that those educational agen- cies designed to advance the masses and to conserve the highest interest of the state, must be concentrated in the grammar schools. In the mil- lions of youths in these schools to-day are centred the hopes and the in- terests of the future. The boys from these schools, not those from our high schools and colleges, will roll up the future majorities in our great cities. For many years to come the battle-ground of the republic must be the grammar school, and the instruction here imparted will determine the future battle-cry of American civilization. It was not without fitness that literature and its allied subjects were called by the ancients the humanities. These studies appeal directly to the human element in life, and are calculated to inspire the soul and mold the life more effectively than all the other subjects of our elementary course combined ; these are the only studies of the course that are likely to be projected into the child's after-life ; they serve to cultivate the affections, to ennoble the emotions and the desires — in short, to purify the springs of human action, and to render secure from pollution the streams of social and national life. Literature in its comprehensive sense has been defined as the expression niSTOBT AND LITERATURE tN GRAMMAR GRADES. 609 of life ; history relates to the visible form, the outward expression, while literature in poetry and fiction deals with the throbbings of that inner life which animates and beautifies the whole. The interest of both cen- ters in man. History and biography, appealing to individual experience, and exercising the imagination by vivid portrayals of past scenes and incidents, constitute perhaps the surest and most direct avenue to the broader fields of literature. This service of history to literature will be admitted, but not so readily recognized as the connection between the other naturally related subjects of the grammar school course and litera- ture, the supplement and complement of all. It is evident that reading, grammar, history and geography are bound together in a most intimate relationship through the bond of literature. Reading is not reading, if it stops satisfied with word-calling and a mechanical observation of pauses and inflections. That study of United States history which fails to invest the lives of the noble men and heroic women of the past with an interest all absorbing, and to lead the child to appreciate in their proper setting the eloquent and impassioned outbursts of patriotic sentiment, has fallen mis- erably short of its mission. If the long and dreary journey through the desert of language a.nd technical grammar fails to vouchsafe now and then an encouraging glimpse of the promised land of literature, even if it be beyond the Jor- dan, much time has been wasted, much energy vainly exhausted. As ^'all roads lead to Rome," so should all the studies in the grammar school lead to the cultivation of the literary sense as the end and sum of all education below the high school. The study of history and geography might be profitably united through- out the course. While studying the physical and political characteristics of different countries, let the child learn something of the prominent men and notable events associated with them in history. Call to his aid a few of the heroes and noted travellers of history ; let Alexander, Hannibal, or Napoleon, Captain Cook, Livingston, or Stanley do service as guides. Let the progressive map of Italy, Greece, or Germany, as it expands before the pupi], become instinct with the living, glowing millions of the past ; let those horrid wriggling lines be translated by the imagination into remark- able rivers, lakes, and mountains, associated with deeds of valor and renown, and invested with something of the ancient glory of romance. Both in general and American history the child will thus associate place and circumstance in such relation that the one may recall the other. His- tory and geography as studied independently are woefully abused ; in the one, the element of time is unduly emphasized, in the other that of place. It is in their union we must seek strength. If need be, let the geography be rewritten, and let the endless list of ijisignificant places that have failed in all the centuries to prove interesting to the makers of romance and history, rest silent in deserved obscurity. Winnow, if you will, from 610 . TBE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. the school history much of dry indigestible detail. Let history and ^QOg- raphy be co-ordinated, and the two will move on hand in hand, mutually helpful, mutually inspiring. But, while much may be accomplished by co-ordinating the more obviously related subjects of the course, and by organizing the instruction in these subjects with reference to literary culture, specific and exclusive attention should be given to history and literature in any well- arranged curriculum. A brief survey of history-teaching in the grammar grades is all that can be attempted within the limits of this paper. The course in United States history usually covers a period of one or two years. In a few in- stances we find English history or outlines of general history in the highest grade. Earely do we find any systematic effort to teach history before the sixth or seventh year of the child's school life. The increased attention given to this study of late in many of our lead- ing colleges and universities, under the direction of eminent specialists, has revealed three important needs of history- teaching in the grammar school: 1. Better preparation on the part of teachers; 2. Improved methods of teaching ; 3. Better gradation of the course in history. Dr. Thorpe, in an article published in 1887, gives the following vivid description of the prevailing method of instruction in history : ^' The teacher assigns a fixed number of pages in the text-book to be memorized ; pupils repeat the text in recitation; they are examined in the text, and the subject is dropped, usually willingly. This method pre- vails in large cities and in crowded schools, and is the sine qua non of every teacher who is compelled to hear lessons which he does not under- stand. The result is that thousands pass from these schools with a brief mental incumbrance of names, dates and isolated events. In some public schools no text-book is used. The teacher not being a special student of history talks text-book on a small scale. The notes of pupils are discon- nected statements swept together into a table which is memorized. The recitation is the story after the teacher with unique variations by the child ; the text-book abridges the larger work, the teacher abbreviates the text-book, and the child abbreviates the teacher." Dr. Thorpe's conclu- sion is anything but flattering : " In these schools for elementary instruc- tion, the study of American history as at present conducted is, with few exceptions, time wasted, money wasted, energy wasted, history perverted, and intelligent elementary knowledge of elementary history prevented." This is doubtless true enough to-day, though the past five years have wrought progress in many schools. The grammar school teacher of to- day, be it remembered, is not a specialist; existent conditions preclude such a possibility. In the majority of our schools, the grammar school teacher is required to give instruction in almost the entire circle of the arts, and is expected to include in her mental equipment the elements of all knowl- HISTORY AND LITERATURE IN GRAMMAR GRADES. 611 edge. The salary received in most instances is barely sufficient to justify respectable subsistance, much less afford the luxury of extended travel and study. Yet, some of the overworked, underpaid grammar school teachers I wot of do excellent work even in history, better, perhaps, than many a university specialist could do — in the grammar school. But while we cannot emphasize too much the need of better prepara- tion and better methods for the teacher, faulty instruction may be often- times attributed to the arrangement of the course of study. Good history- teaching in the grammar grades must have its roots deep in the primary. We must recognize the fact that the study of history, like that of language and arithmetic, is essentially progressive in its character ; gradation should be adapted to the several stages in the development of the histori- cal sense. To place in the hands of a grammar school pupil an advanced text-book in history without previous instruction, without securing even a mental attitude favorable to the study, is a blunder second only to the placing of technical grammar in the hands of a primary language tyro. If the childhood of man repeats in miniature the childhood of the race, and the education of the individual proceeds upon lines parallel with those of humanity, as Herbert Spencer tells us, we may get from history itself a valuable suggestion with regard to the development of the histori- cal sense. With the child, as with the race, a vivid imagination revels amid fairy tales and legends of wonderful beings, superhuman in size and power. To the nursery and the kindergarten belongs this the first stage of history-teaching. Chronology, geography and biography, time, place and personality, are the primary essentials of history. The child cannot grasp these rela- tions simultaneously. The chronological sequence of past events is too abstract a conception for the beginner; the effort to locate the story ■weights down the imagination too much ; the personal element alone attracts and dominates the fancy during the first two years of school life. In the third and fourth years, we may expect the element of place to com- bine naturally with that of personality, and geography and biography constitute the vehicles of history-teaching. Any adequate conception of orderly sequence in the great past is as yet too vast for his mental grasp, though the story may expand into an elaborate narrative and the personal sketch into a respectable biography. During the next two years, the three elements are called into requisi- tion; the fragmentary accumulations of former stages, in which the child now feels something of a proprietary interest, may be reproduced and supplemented, and the whole crystallized into a connected narrative. In the last stage of the grammar school, the deeper and more philo- sophical relations of history will be appreciated. The facts of history may be examined in their general relations as conditions and results, causes and effects. The simpler generalizations may be derived and their 61^ THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. more obvious applications utilized, while the philosophy of history in its wider generalizations and applications to social and political science, must be reserved for high school aad college. Time will not permit me to touch upon text-books or specific methods. My effort must be confined to this simple outline of the basis of a course in history as indicated in the development of the historical sense. If the course be thus begun in the primary, the study will prove more fruitful in results, both as a means of mental discipline and as a practical guide in the duties and exigencies of life. I have dwelt thus at some length upon history, because it is recognized as the doorway to general literature ; besides, what has been said with regard to the development of the historical sense, applies with equal force to the development of literary taste, particularly in the primary grades, where the foundation must be securely laid. DeQuincey classifies literature into two great divisions, the literature of information and the literature of power, or inspiration. The latter now claims our attention. How shall we cultivate in our grammar schools a taste for that class of literature which inspires the soul and ennobles character ? Many plans and devices have been suggested, and tried with varying degrees of success. In many schools the old system of numbered readers has been either supplanted or supplemented by the introduction of con- tinuous selections from our best English and American authors. The celebration of authors' days in many schools has proven an excellent method of impressing upon the mind the character and personality of eminent men of letters, and of familiarizing the children with their works. The spasmodic character, and the celebration feature of this method, how- ever, constitute an artificial stimulus not entirely favorable to the forma- tion of the '* reading habit," unless supplemented with more permanent and continuous work. Another effort, assuming various forms and proportions according to circumstances and local surroundings, may be termed the "library method." It is not my purpose to examine specifically into the merits of the sev- eral methods suggested. Their existence serves to emphasize the convic- tion that the need of special instruction in literature is most urgent, and is a virtual admission of the fact that the teaching of English in our schools to-day is a failure so far as it concerns the cultivation of literary taste. We give ample time to English in our grammar schools ; reading, language, grammar and composition — the related English studies, occupy nearly one-half the child's time in school. Are the results at all commen- surate with this vast effort ? A very large per centum of our pupils pass through our grammar schools, aud even enter our colleges without mas- tery of the rudiments of language, with no facility of expression in their msTonr akd literature iist gram^iar grades. 613 own vernacular, and with no appreciation of the wealth and splendor of the literature within their grasp. Is it not possible that our language teaching is too cold, abstract and technical ? that our aims are too verbal and our methods too mechanical ? In other words, are we not trying to teach all ahoiit the language and too little in and o/the language itself ? We too often content ourselves, it seems to me, with the method of the dissecting-room : the pupil studies the anatomy of a language that to him is practically dead, so far as its soul-breathing literature is concerned. Sucli a process may bring dexterity in the mechanical manipulation of words, but it cannot inspire thought. It may develop skill in analysis, but corresponding power of synthesis and the enlargement of the intellectual life do not of necessity follow. Far from decrying technical grammar, I hold it indispensable as a means of training in the relation of ideas and in the logical analysis of language. As a science it has its place, but as a science it demands that the pupil shall first come face to face with the living facts upon which it is based — the literature of the language. Could we turn the light of mature experience upon our early school time, and vividly recall our early views of literature, we should feed our pupils less on the dry, unpalatable husks of thought. What wonder some of us were led to conclude that the masterpieces of Jefferson and Webster, Clay and Calhoun, were written expressly for the big boys to declaim on Friday afternoons ; that the fragmentary literature with which the pages of the grammar were so generously sprinkled had been generated for the sole purpose of illustrating rules of syntax? Yet, these '^ disjecta memhra" of poet, orator and essayist, constituted the sole literary equipment of the millions who left the district school of the long ago to enter upon life's duties. But many of us cherish tender memories of the old school reader. The fragments read and memorized in school time may have been enigmas then, but how often since have they flowered into consciousness and power. How often since have we been surprised and iielighted to recognize our old familiar friends, when met by chance, no longer isolated nomads, but at home, in the pages of Irving, Wirt or Webster; Dickens, Scott or i^_ Bulwer.; Wordsworth, Bryant or Longfellow. ^P' But the old school reader has been dethroned ; it holds to-day but partial sway in our city and village schools. A literary scrap-book, it may yet serve as a hand-book of elocution, a drill manual in the mechanical process l^kof reading, but it creates no lasting interest in literature, cultivates no taste for continuous reading. Let the reform go on ; let the grammar school pupil read with the teacher some of the old masterpieces bequeathed by the children of the past ; introduce ''Robinson Crusoe," the "Swiss Family" and "Gulliver," Whittier, Longfellow or Tennyson; Irving, Scott or Hawthorne. Begin in the lowest primary with the substitution 614 THE I^ATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. of suitable child literature for the insipid commonplaces and worthless inanities of the average primary reader. Let the literary taste be developed by natural stages from the primary to the high school, and the pupil will leave school having an intimate acquaintance with a few great masters of thought and style, with more exalted views of life, with judgment strengthened, taste cultivated and desire ablaze for truth and beauty. The reading of a few great masterpieces in their integrity, with sole refer- ence to their enjoyment and appreciation as literature, may both precede and accompany verbal drills and grammatical analysis. True culture does not consist simply in the development of the reason- ing faculty or the power of discrimination in the subtleties and trivial niceties of technical learning. The child has sentiments, feelings and emotions ; an innate love of the beautiful, the true and the sublime ; a yearning for immortality, an impulse to the ideal and the perfect. Shall we emphasize the grosser faculties of the mind and neglect these, the divine part of his nature ? Frederick von Schlegel in his Philosophy of History has the following admirable passage to the point : '^ There can be no comprehensive culture of the human mind, no high and harmonious development of its powers and the various faculties of the soul, unless all those deep feelings of life — that mighty productive energy of human nature — the marvelous imagination, be awakened and excited, and by that excitement and exertion attain an expansive, noble and beautiful form. Were the mental culture of any people founded, solely on a dead, cold, abstract science, to the exclusion of all poetry in action or thought, such a mere mathematical people, with minds thus sharpened and pointed by mathematical discipline, would never possess a rich and various intellectual existence, nor even probably attain to a living science, or a true science of life." In illustration of this argument, an eminent authority has suggested a comparison of the philological methods of two representative American universities. The high standard of exact scholarship in the one made possible the most critical analysis and laborious research upon a few lines of Horace or Sophocles, while the beauties of thought, sentiment and style were passed with scant attention. Its graduates have been celebrated as exact scholars, and prodigies of intellectual acumen, but they have contributed little to the enrichment of the world's literature. The other imparted a more generous culture of the imagination and the feelings, and gave to the world a Prescott, a Holmes, a Long-fellow and a Lowell. The two dominating educational ideals exist side by side in the modern school, now diverging into extremes, now converging, and uniting through a series of compromises, but seldom fusing in harmonious coalescence. If the exclusively disciplinary use of the old school reader constitutes one extreme, the other extreme may be seen in the reactionary and unwise HISTORY AND LITERATURE IN GRAMMAR GRADES. 615 substitution of strictly information readers, science readers, the newspaper and manuals of current events— all falsely labeled as literature. If the one emphasizes intellectual gymnastics at the risk of mental starvation, the other may simply tickle the palate with modern sweetmeats, in the name of utility, to the fatal exclusion of wholesome nutriment. If, on the one hand, there is danger of emphasizing the exclusively disciplinary ideal in the grammar school stage by introducing Latin, algebra and geometry, there is danger on the other of enfeebling the curriculum with a dilute mixture of commercial and industrial branches. The simple terms, '^ commercial" and '* industrial," possess a potent charm to the educational as well as the popular ear, and we must make room for Commercial Book-keeping, Commercial Stenography, Commer- cial Savings Banks, and even '^Commercial German," with ''^ Reciprocity Spanish " doubtless to come in later ; we must make room for industrial drawing, the industrial science, and the whole round of " industrial-isms," vaguely accredited to Manual Training. This diversity of instruction may produce versatility, but it is incompatible with intensity. No wonder our common schools are so often charged with the overproductii)n of moral debility and mental mediocrity, when the curriculum is crowded to the verge of feebleness and teaching energy is so effectually dissipated. No wonder the great educational essentials, the mold of humanity and the glory of civilization, must be abandoned, while we open wide our doors to a throng of modern marvels to convince ourselves of progress. The gravest danger of our educational system to-day, lies in the effort to make the common school subserve too many specific purposes. The wrecks of the schools of antiquity admonish us against this error. The failure of popular elementary education in ages past has been chiefly due to the effort to subserve some selfish aim, some immediate purpose. Com- pensation for the neglect of certain powers of the human soul was often sought in the over-education of others ; the unique product too often con- sists of an intellectual giant combined with a moral imbecile, or an intellectual and moral dwarf with massive but unorganized and impotent information. We need to-day in our common schools the counteracting influence of those studies which will exert a direct power upon the moral conduct of life. Far better omit the rigid drill in advanced arithmetic and technical grammar, if need be, than to send out the millions of youth now in our schools, to assume the duties and responsibilities of life, without the aid to character building obtained from the examples of noble lives recorded in history and biography, without inspiration to noble living drawn from the visions of beauty and moral loveliness presented in literature. It is not enough to teach reading ; ability to read is a power that grows more dangerous day by day. This power in the hands of the child, without direction, may be perverted to the basest of uses and prove at the last his 616 THE NATIONAL EDtTGATtONAL ASSOCIATION. one soul-destroying instrumentality. Thomas Arnold did not speak unadvisedly when he said, ^'1 would rather that a son of mine believed that the sun went round the earth, than that he should be entirely defi- cient in knowledge of beauty, of poetry and of moral truth." It is not enough that the child's mind be prepared by a scientific pro- cess to receive truth ; the seed must be sown, and the tender shoot must be nourished by sunshine, rain and dew, if we are to expect abundant fruitage in the life. As the *^ heirs of all the ages," the youth of America should be impressed with the value of their inheritance, and the solemn responsibility it entails; they should learn the trite but oft forgotten truth, that the past is our only key to the future : that " The unerring voice of Time Warns us that what hath been, again shall be. And the broad beacon-flame Of History casts its light Upon Futurity." When the history of American institutions, and the literature of the English tongue in its most inspiring and enduring forms, become funda- mental studies in our common schools, then may we hope for the speedy assimilation of the diverse elements now thronging our shores from every clime, into homogeneous American citizenship ; then will the priceless inheritance of the past, cherished in tlie hearts of a grateful and patriotic people, prove an exhaustless well-spring of individual solace and joy, and the substantial guaranty of social purity and national integrity. (This paper was not discussed.) SHORTENINQ AND ENRICHING GRAMMAR SCHOOL COURSE. 617 SHORTENING AND ENRICHING THE GRAMMAR SCHOOL COURSE, BY PRESIDEl^T CHARLES W. ELIOT, HARVARD UNIVERSITY. The subject assigned to me is, shortening and enriching the grammar school course. I. We may properly use the term shortening in either of two senses. In the first place, the number of grades may be reduced from ten to nine and from nine to eight, so that the combined primary and grammar school periods shall end at fourteen or thirteen ; or, secondly, the studies of the present course may be reduced in volume or in variety, or in both, so that there shall be room for the introduction of new subjects. I ob- serve that both kinds of shortening have actually been begun in various towns and cities, and I believe that both are desirable, if not universally, at least, in most localities. The argument for the first kind of shortening is a compact and convincing one ; averaging the rates of progress of bright children with those of dull children being the great curse of a graded school, it is safer to make the regular programme for eight grades, and lengthen it for the exceptionally slow pupils, than to make it for ten grades and shorten it for the exceptionally quick. In other words, since holding back the capable children is a much greater educational injustice than hurrying the incapable, the programme should be so constructed as to give all possible chances of avoiding the greater evil. Without altering the nominal length of the programme in years, a great shortening of the course can be effected for part of the children, simply by permitting the capable ones to do two years' work in one. I heard a grammar school master testifying a few days ago, in a teachers' meeting, that nearly one- quarter of the pupils in his school (which numbers about 650 children) were successfully accomplishing this double task. Such a statement opens a cheerful vista for one who desires to see the grammar school course both shortened and enriched. With no more words about the first kind of shortening, I turn to the second kind, namely, the desirable reductions in the volume and variety of the present studies. The first great reduction should, I believe, be made in arithmetic. I find that it is very common in programmes of the grades to allot to arithmetic from one-eighth to one-sixth of the whole school-time for nine or ten years. In many towns and cities two arith- metics are used during these years ; a smaiU one of perhaps one hundred pages, followed by a larger one of two or three hundred pages. Now the 618 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION small book ordinarily contains all the arithmetic that anybody needs to know ; indeed, much more than most of ns ever use. Before a body of experts like this it were superfluous to enlarge on this proposition. On grounds of utility, geometry and physics have stronger claims than any part of arithmetic beyond the elements, and for mental training they are also to be preferred. By the contraction of arithmetic, room is made for algebra and geometry. In a few schools these subjects have already been introduced, with or without mention in the official programmes, and they have proved to be interesting and intelligible to American children of from eleven to thirteen years of age, just as they are to European children. Moreover, the attainments of the pupils in arithmetic are not diminished by the introduction of the new studies, but rather increased. The alge- braic way of solving a problem is often more intelligible than the arith- metical, and mensuration is easier when founded on a good knowledge of elementary geometry than it is in the lack of that foundation. The three subjects together are vastly more interesting than arithmetic alone pur- sued through nine consecutive years. Secondly, language studies, includ- ing reading, writing, spelling, grammar and literature, occupy from one- third to two-fifths of most grades' programmes. There is ample room here for the introduction of the optional study of a foreign language, ancient or modern, at the fourth or fifth grade. Here it is to be observed that nothing will be lost to English by the introduction of a foreign language. In many schools the subject of grammar still fills too large a place on the programme, although great improvement has taken place in the treatment of this abstruse subject, which is so unsuitable for children. In the Beginner's Latin Book, by Messrs. Collar & Grant, I noticed, five years ago, an excellent description of the amount of knowledge of English grammar needed by a pupil of ten or twelve years of age about to begin Latin. Of course, the pupil who is not to begin Latin needs no more. All the grammar which the learner needed to know before beginning Latin was ^'the names and functions of the parts of speech in English, and the meanings of the common grammatical terms, such as subject and predicate, case, tense, voice, declension, conjunction, etc." Manuals have now been prepared in considerable variety for imparting this limited amount of grammatical information by examples and practice rather than by rules and precepts, so that the greater part of the time formerly spent on English grammar can now be saved for more profitable uses. Thirdly, geography is now taught chiefly as a memory study from books and flat atlases, and much time is given to committing to memory masses of facts which cannot be retained, and which are of little value if retained. By grouping physical geography with natural history, and political geography with history, and by providing proper apparatus for teaching geography, time can be saved, and yet a place made for much new and interesting geographical instruction. Fourthly, a small saving of time can be made SHORTENINO AND ENRICHFNO GRAMMAR SCHOOL COURSE. 619 for useful subjects by striking out the book-keeping, which, iu many towns and cities, is found in the last grade. This subject is doubtless included in the grammar school programme, because it is supposed to be of practi- cal value ; but I believe it to be the most useless subject in the entire programme, for the reason that the book-keeping taught is a kind of book- keeping never found in any real business establishment. Every large business has in these days its own forms of accounting and book-keeping, which are, for the most part, peculiar to itself. Almost every large firm or corporation lias its own method, with printed headings, schedules, bill- heads, invoices, and duplicating order-books, adapted to its own business, and intended to simplify its accounts and reduce to lowest terms the amount of writing necessary to keep them. What a boy or girl can learn at school which will be useful in after-life in keeping books or accounts for any real business is a good hand-writing, and accuracy in adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing small numbers. It is a positive injury to a boy to ^ive him the impression that he knows something about book-keeping, when he has only learned an unreal system which he will never find used in any actual business. At best, book-keeping is not a science, but only an art based on conventions. As trade and industry have been differentiated in the modern world, book-keeping has been differentiated also, and it is, of course, impossible to teach in school the infinite diversities of practice. II. I have thus indicated in the briefest manner the reductions which may be conveniently made in some of the present subjects in order to effect a shortening of the present grammar school programme. My next topic is diversifying and enriching it. The most complete statement of the new subjects proposed for the grammar school programme is that made by the Association of Colleges in New England at their meeting at Brown University last November. That association then invited the attention of the public to certain changes in the grammar school pro- gramme which it recommended for gradual adoption. These changes are five in number : — The first is the introduction of elementary natural his- tory into the earlier years of the programme, to be taught by demonstra- tions and practical exercises rather than from books. The term natural history was doubtless intended to include botany, zoology, geology and physical geography. Some room for these subjects is already made in most grammar school programmes, and the recommendation of the asso- ciation refers as much to methods of teaching as to time allotted to the subject. The association recommends that the teaching be demonstra- tive, and that adequate apparatus be provided for teaching these subjects. There is a lamentable lack of the proper apparatus for teaching geography in the public schools. Indeed, in many schools there is no pro].-)er appa- ratus for teaching geography, or any otfcer natural history subject, to young children. Natural science apparatus has been provided in some 620 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. exceptional high schools ; bufc as a rule grammar schools are still destitute in this important respect. The second recommendation is the introduction of elementary physics into the later years of the programme, to be taught by the laboratory method, and to include exact weighing and measuring by the pupils them- selves. The third and fourth recommendations cover the introduction of alge- bra and geometry at the age of twelve or thirteen. The fifth is the offering of opportunity to study French or German or Latin, or any two of these languages, from and after the age of ten. III. Such are in brief the proposals for shortening and enriching the grammar school course. I want to use the rest of the time allotted to me for discussing the objections to these various changes. The first objection I take up is the objection to a reduction in the time devoted to arithmetic. Many teachers are shocked at the bare idea of reducing the time given to arithmetic, because they believe that arith- metic affords a peculiarly valuable training, first, in reasoning, and secondly, in precision of thought and accuracy of work.' They perceive that the greater part of the school programme calls only for memorizing power, and they think that arithmetic develops reasoning power. The fact is, however, that mathematical reasoning is a peculiar form of logic which has very little application to common life, and no application at all in those great fields of human activity where perfect demonstration is not to be obtained. As a rule, neither the biological nor the moral sciences can make use of mathematical reasoning. Moreover, so far as mathematical reasoning is itself concerned, variety of subject is very use- ful to the pupils. The substitution of algebra and geometry for part of the arithmetic is a clear gain to the pupil so far as acquaintance with the logic of mathematics goes. Again, practice in thinking with accuracy and working with demonstrable precision can be obtained in algebra, geometry and physics just as well as in arithmetic. It is quite unnecessary to adhere to the lowest and least interesting of these exact subjects in order to secure adequate practice in precision of thought and work. The second objection is that there are children in the grammar schools who are incapable of pursuing these new subjects. Assuming that this allegation is true of some children, I have to remark, first, that we shall not know till we have tried what proportion of children are incapable of pursuing algebra, geometry, physics, and some foreign language by the time they are fourteen years of age. It is a curious fact that we Ameri- cans habitually underestimate the capacity of pupils at almost every stage of education from the primary school through the university ; the expec- tation of attainment for the American child, or for the American college student, is much lower than the expectation of attainment for the Euro- pean. This error has been very grave in its effects on American educa- SHORTENING AND ENRICHING GRAMMAR SCHOOL COURSE. 621 tion all along the line from the primary school through the university, and till within twenty years the effects were nowhere worse than at the college grade. It seems to me probable that the proportion of grammar school children incapable of pursuing geometry, algebra and a foreign language would turn out to be much smaller than we now imagine ; but though this proportion should be large, it would not justify the exclusion of all the capable children from opportunities by which they could profit. At the worst this objection can only go to show that it will be necessary to adopt in the grammar schools a flexible instead of a rigid system — some selection or choice of studies instead of a uniform requirement. Those children who are competent to study a foreign language should certainly have the opportunity of doing so at the proper age, that is, not later than ten or eleven years, and those who are competent to begin geometry at twelve and algebra at thirteen should have the chance. If experience shall prove that a considerable proportion of grammar school children are incapable of pursuing the higher studies, that fact will only show that the selection of appropriate studies for children by their teachers should be adopted as a policy by the public grammar school. To discriminate between pupils of different capacity, to select the competent for suitable instruction, and to advance each pupil with appropriate rapidity, will ulti- mately become, I believe, the most important functions of the public school administrator — those functions in which he or she will be most serviceable to families and to the state. Another objection to the changes proposed often takes this form— ^they are said to be aristocratic in tendency. The democratic theory — it is said — implies equality among the children, uniformity of programme, uniform tests for promotion, and no divisions in the same school room according to capacity or merit. I need not say to this audience that these concep- tions of true democracy in schools are fallacious and ruinous. Democratic society does not undertake to fly in the face of nature by asserting that all children are equal in capacity, or that all children are alike and should be treated alike. Everybody knows that children are infinitely diverse ; that children in the same family even are apt to be very different in disposition, temperament and mental power. Every child is a unique personality. It follows, of course, that uniform programmes and uniform methods of instruction, applied simultaneously to large numbers of chil- dren, must be unwise and injurious — an evil always to be struggled against and reformed, so far as the material resources of democratic society will permit. It is for the interest of society, as well as of the individual, that every individual child's peculiar gifts and powers should be developed and trained to the highest degree. Hence, in the public schools of a democracy the aim should be to give the utmost possible amount of individual instruction, to gradie according to capacity just as far as the number of teachers and their strength and skill will permit, and 622 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. to promote pupils not by battalions, but in the most irregular and individ- ual way possible. A few days ago I heard an assistant superintendent in an important city declare that many grammar school teachers in his city objected to any division among the fifty or more pijpils in each room, any division, that is, according to the attainments and powers of the individual pupils. They wanted all the jmpils in a given room to be in one grade, to move together like soldiers on parade, and to arrive at examination-day having all performed precisely the same tasks, and made the same progress in the same subjects. If that were a true portrait of the city graded school, it would be safe to predict that the urban public school would be- fore long become nothing but a charity-school for the children of the de- pendent classes. Intelligent Americans will not subject their children to such a discipline, when they once understand what it means. The country district school, in which among forty or fifty pupils there are always ten or a dozen distinct clavsses at different stages and advancing at different rates of progress, would remain as the only promising type of the free school. Not only is it no serious objection to the new proposals that they must diminish uniformity in schools — it is their strongest recommendation. So far from the changes proposed being of aristocratic tendency, they are really essential to a truly democratic school system, for they must be adopted and carried into effect before the children of the poor can obtain equal access with the children of the rich to the best education they are capable of, whatever the grade of that education may be. Accessibility of appropriate opportunity is the essence of democratic society, not equality of gifts, attainments or powers, for that equality is unnatural and impossible, not abundance of inappropriate opportunities, for such abundance is of no avail, but accessibility of such appropriate opportunities as the individual can utilize for his own benefit and that of society. The American gram- mar school programme now actually prevents an intelligent child from beginning the study of a foreign tongue at the right age. We all know that that age is very early, long before the high school period. It prevents him from beginning the study of algebra and geometry at the right age. It makes it impossible for him to get a chance at the right kind of study of natural science. If a boy is not to go to the high school, he loses that chance forever under our present system. If he is going to the high school, he does not get the chance till much too late. The poor boy in the United States should have as good a chance as the child of a rich man to obtain the best school training which his character and powers fit him to receive. Is not that a fair statement of what democratic society may reasonably aim at, and seek to effect through its own grammar schools ? Yet the existing grammar school programme actually prevents the poor boy from getting that chance. The rich man can obtain for his children a suitably varied course of instruction, with much individual teaching, in a private or endowed school, but the immense majority of American chil- SHORTENING AND ENRICHING GRAMMAR SCHOOL COURSE. 623 dren are confined to the limited, uniform machine programme of the graded grammar school. A democratic society was never more misled as to its own interest than in supposing such a programme to be for the in- terest of the masses. The grades for pupils from six to fifteen years of age are an obstruction to the rise through democratic society of the children who ought to rise. Uniformity is the curse of American schools. That any school or college has a uniform product should be regarded as a dem- onstration of inferiority — of incapacity to meet the legitimate demands of a social order whose fundamental principle is that erery career should be opened to talent. Selection of studies for the individual, instruction addressed to the individual, irregular promotion, grading by natural capacity and rapidity of attainment, and diversity of product as regards age and acquisitions must come to characterize the American public school, if it is to answer the purposes of a democratic society. It is further alleged that the changes proposed are chiefly for the advan- tage of the well-to-do children whose education is to be carried beyond the grammar school to the high school, and possibly to the college above the high school. They are indeed for the interest of this class of children ; but they are much more for the interest of the children who are not going to the high school and for whom, therefore, the grammar school is to provide all the systematic education they will ever receive. The Associ- ation of Colleges in New England distinctly says that it makes its recommendations in the interest of the public school system as a whole ; " but most of them are offered more particularly in the interest of those children whose education is not to be continued beyond the grammar school." Take, for example, the subject of geometry. It has many and very important applications in the arts and trades. Every mechanic needs some knowledge of it. Its applications are as important as those of arith- metic, if we except the very simplest and commonest arithmetical operations. That the great mass of American children should leave school without ever having touched this subject, except perhaps in arithmetic under the head of mensuration, is a grave public misfortune. To intro- duce variety into the grammar school programme is in itself likely to profit the children who are never to go to school after they are fourteen years of age, even more than the children who are. A child who is dull in one subject may be bright in a different subject. Thus, a chiW who has no gift in language may be keen and quick in natural history studies. A child who has no taste for arithmetic may prove unusually strong in geometry. One whose mind is not easily moved through purely mental exercises may be intellectually developed through drawing and manual training. In college we are extremely familiar with these diversities, and the elective system is now giving in most American colleges free play for the profitable exhibition and cultivation M these diverse gifts. In a similar manner the grammar school will be better for even the dull and 624 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION slow children, if its studies are made more various and its whole system more flexible. A fifth objection to the introduction of new subjects is that children are already overworked in school. In an address I gave rather more than a year ago, I pointed out that there are two effective mechanical precau- tions against the ill-effects attributed to overwork at school — precautions which it is delightful to see are more and more adopted. They are good ventilation, and the systematic use of light gymnastics at regular intervals during school hours. School time ought to be the best managed of all the day from a sanitary point of view, excepting those hours which the children pass out of doors. If the school-room were invariably healthier in every respect than the average home, we should hear less about over- work at school. There is, however, a third precaution against overwork which is quite as important as either of those already mentioned — it is making the school-work interesting to the children. Four years ago I asked the attention of this department of the National Educational Association to the depressing effect which lack of interest and conscious progress in school-work has upon children. To introduce new and higher subjects into the school programme is not necessarily to increase the strain upon the child. If this measure increases the interest and attractiveness of the work and the sense of achievement, it will diminish weariness and the risk of hurtful strain. Lastly, there is an apprehension lest the introduction of the new sub- jects recommended should increase existing difficulties with regard to promotion. Parents are sensitive about the promotion of their children. They want the dull ones and the bright to be promoted at the same rate. Their sympathies are quite as apt to be with the slow children as with the quick. I believe that this practical difficulty should be met in part by the abandonment of uniform attainment, or of a standard of required knowl- edge, as ground of promotion. In Harvard College, where there is no such thing as a uniform programme of study for all students, and where, indeed, there is small chance that any two students out of fourteen hun- dred and fifty will pursue the same course of studies during their four years of residence, we have long since abandoned uniform attainment as ground of promotion from one class to another. The sole ground of pro- motion is reasonable fidelity. I venture to believe that this is the true ground of promotion in grammar schools as well, and that by the sole use of this principle in promoting, the difficulty now under consideration would be much alleviated, if not done away with. The right time for advancing a child to the study of a new subject, is the first moment he is capable of comprehending it. All our divisions of the total school period into years, and into primary, grammar, and high schools, are artificial, and in most cases hurtful or hindering to the individual. The whole school life should be one unbroken flow from one fresh interest and one SHOBTENING AND ENlUGBING GRAMMAR SCHOOL COURSE. 625 new delight to another, and the rate of that flow ought to be different for each different child. Economical school administration inevitably interferes somewhat with the desirable continuity and variety of motion ; but the most skillful and wisest administration is that which interferes the least. On reviewing the progress of this reform since I had the honor of dis- cussing the question " Can school programmes be shortened and enriched?" before this Department of Superintendents four years ago, I see many evidences that a great and beneficent change in public school programmes is rapidly advancing. The best evidence is to be found in the keen interest the superintendents and teachers take in the discussion of the subject. Through them the proposed improvements will be wrought out in detail, their influence will be successfully exerted on parents, committees and the public press, and their reward will be, first the daily sight of happier and better trained children, and secondly the elevation of their own pro- fession. e26 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. WHA T SHALL THE ST A TE DO TO WA RD THE ED UCA TION OF CHILDREN BELOW THE SCHOOL AGE, BETWEEN THE AGES OF THREE AND SIX? BY SUPEKINTEl^TDEiq^T FRAKK A. FITZPATRICK, OMAHA, NEB. The topic assigned me for discussion will be treated as follows : Fir sty What can the State do under existing conditions ? Second, What may the State do at present ? Third, What would be the effect of this extension of the school age downward ? Fourth, What are the limits of State interference within the domain of the family ? Fifth, What are the physical impediments in the way ? Sixth, What is the proper method of procedure ? Until comparatively recently the province of government was thought to be merely the protection of the weak ; but the exigencies of modern life have impelled the State to reach down into the details of private life, and thus to shape more or less the environments of its citizens. Thus, fire limits are established in cities, inside of which no frame building can be erected ; awnings and sheds over the pavements are also prohibited ; a citizen may not even build a bay window projecting over the walk in front of his house, and in many cities cannot even make use of the well upon his lot, but must use the water furnished by the city water-works. He may not even build windows overlooking his neighbor's yard ; he may not make such a fire in his furnace or heating plant as will throw out uncon- sumed fuel in the shape of smoke ; he may no longer whip his wife, and, in some places, his children ; he may not even keep his children at home away from school ; he may not carry weapons to protect himself from real or affected dangers ; he may not, in Nebraska, make a contract with his laborer to work longer than eight hours in any one day. Instances might be multiplied to illustrate that the modern State has taken under its charge many duties which years ago would have been thought violent usurpation of the rights of citizens. In the modern world the tendency has been to continually enlarge this power of the State, and correspondingly to encroach upon the sphere of the family on one side, and to trench upon the domain of private enterprise on the other. In the older States compulsory enactments require that what is commonly known as primary, grammar, and high school education shall be provided. In the newer States addition to this is made by giving THE EDUCATION OF CBILDREN BELOW THE SCHOOL AGE, 627 permission to citizens to obtain college and university, and, in many instances, even professional education at the exi^ense of the public purse. In Washington, one of the newest States, a proposition appears in the constitution which reads as follows : '^Tlie State shall establish common schools, high schools, and a university ; but the entire revenue derived from the common school fund and the State tax shall be exclusively applied to the support of the conimon schools." But that this marks the beginning of a change in public sentiment relative to the extension of a system of public education upward may well be doubted in the prevalence of a well-nigh universal demand that the province of the schools be extended downward, until it includes children of three years of age. Nearly every commonwealth has provided, either in its constitution or by legal enactments, for a system of common schools for the proper education of the children of the State. In all of these States some limitation has been put upon the power of boards of education and municipalities in the direc- tion of restricting the expenditure of public money to the education of a certain class of children ; /. e., to that class of children in the community whose ages are directly specified either in the constitution or in some legis- lative enactment. Thus : Eleven States limit the expenditure of money to children between the ages of five and twenty-one (5 and 21). Two States limit the expenditure to children between the ages of six and twenty (6 and 20). Fourteen States, between ages of 6 and 21. Five 6 18. Two 4 21. One State 5 18. One " 8 16. One " 7 21. One " 7 20. One '' 6 17. Two States 5 20. One State 5 upward, To be more specific, public money is expended and explicitly authorized to be used in the States of Oregon and Wisconsin for the education of all children between the ages of 4 and 20 ; in Maine and Montana, between 4 and 21 ; in New Hampshire, New York, Virginia, Mississippi, Minnesota, Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas, Idaho, New Mexico, and Washington, between the ages of 5 and 21 ; in Vermont and Michigan, between 5 and 20 ; in New Jersey, from 5 to 18 ; in Rhode Island, from the age of 5 upwards ; in Georgia, South Carolina, Arizona, l^ouisiana, and Nevada, between the ages of 6 and 18; in Kentucky and Missouri, between 6 and 20; in Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, West Virginia, North Carolina, Flor- 628 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. ida, Tennessee, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Wyoming, Colorado, Arkansas, and California, between the ages of 6 and 21 ; in Dakota, from 7 to 20 ; in Alabama, from 7 to 21 ; in the District of Columbia, from 6 to 17 ; in Texas, from 8 to 16 ; while in Massachusetts there is no direct constitu- tional or legislative prohibition of the use of public money for the educa- tion of children of any class, public sentiment seems to have somewhat crystallized in the compulsory school law of that State, which requires the compulsory attendance at school of children between the ages of 6 and 14. In the following named States ; Colorado, Wyoming, Montana, Nebraska, Kansas, Iowa, and Missouri, this limitation as to the school age is constitutional. In the remaining States this limitation is simply an enactment of the legislature. I have used the expression 'limitation to certain ages^' advisedly ; for in the only decision of the courts upon this question that has been brought to my notice— that of Roach vs. the City of St. Louis — the Supreme Court of Missouri held that within that State, where the school age is fixed by the constitution at from 6 to 20 years, public money could not be used to maintain kindergartens for children who are under six years of age. In consequence of that decision the city of St. Louis was compelled to limit the attendance in the common schools and kindergartens to those children who were between the ages of 6 and 20, instead of admitting them to the kindergarten at the ages of 4 and 5 as was the custom from the time of the starting of the kindergartens in that city in 1875, up to the time when the decision of the Supreme Court was rendered. In the absence of special powers conferred by the constitution or legislature in any particular State, it seems to be the opin- ion of attorneys that boards of education can be successfully enjoined by any tax-payer from the expenditure of public money for the education of any child below or any child above the limits fixed by the constitution or the legislature of such State ; such opinions being in the line of the Mis- souri decision, as well as decision of courts in other States, denying to boards of education the right to prevent by local regulations the attendance of children upon the school who fall within the limits as to school age defined by the State. Thus, for instance, it has been held by the Supreme Court in a Western State that where a child five years of age in the community, by reason of a statutory enactment, was entitled to be enumerated, and thus to draw public money from the State, any action of the local board limiting the age at which children might be taken into the school to the age of seven was invalid and inoperative. It would seem, therefore, on the basis already formulated, that there is no valid legal objection visible at this distance to prevent the successful establishment of kindergartens in the States of Maine, Montana, Oregon, Wisconsin, New Hampshire, New York, Virginia, Mississippi, Minnesota, Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas, New Mexico, Idaho, Wasliington, Vermont, Michigan, New Jersey, Rhode Island, and Massachusetts. While in Kentucky, Missouri, Penn- THE EDUCATION OF CHILDREN BELOW THE SCHOOL AQE. 629 sylvania, Delaware, Maryland, West Virginia, North Carolina, Florida, Tennessee, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Wyoming, Colorado, Arkansas, Cali- fornia, Dakota, Alabama, and Texas, kindergartens, if established, would need to limit the attendance to those pupils who are six years old and upward, at which time children are usually not fitted to profit in the highest degree by kindergarten training. In spite of the experience of John Stuart Mill, as given in his auto- biography, there has been a pretty unanimous consensus of opinion among educators, that the school education of children could not profitably begin before they had attained the age of six ; and, while there have been some minor differences of opinion relative to the exact age, there have been as many careful observers who held that seven years was even a better age for the average child to begin his school life, as there have been those who rather timidly expressed the opinion that the child should begin his career at school as early as five years of age. It may well be doubted, had it not been for the work of Froebel, and the consequent developments of the kindergarten as a phase of primary instruction, whether this question of the early attendance of children at school would have, even in this age, any substantial support. It should never be for- gotten, however, that the State in its schools always does more than to merely provide for the intellectual training of its children. Every year of school influence should add to the child's power of self-control, because a wise restraint of children always leads to a wise self-control. **And the habits of neatness, regularity, and order that are begun in the tender years of childhood are strengthened by a prolonged effort through the additional time gained by early admission to school." It is therefore in the interest of the general community that children, especially in the crowded districts of cities whose population is mainly of the poorer people, be admitted to school at the age of five years. It would not be profitable to enter at this time into any discussion as to the relative value of the differing and diverging opinions held by follow- ers of Froebel as to the best means of adaptation and application of kinder- garten principles. While many enthusiastic followers of Froebel at times claim that kindergarten methods are applicable all through the school life of the child, and seek in reality to have the rest of the world change its modes of life and modes of thought, that they may be in har- mony with what they hold to be the doctrines of Froebel, the more thoughtful representatives of the new education merely seek to graft the j principles of kindergarten instruction upon the school life of the child, J that these principles may indirectly modify the present system of instruc- tion. In consequence of this belief, the latter class of kindergartners hold tenaciously to the opinion that th«re are limits beyond which kin- dergarten instruction cannot be pushed without damage to the child. Indeed, the results obtained in a Western city after an experience of nearly 630 TltE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION twenty years with kindergartens, where children were not admitted at an early age, would seem to leave grave doubts as to the net value of kinder- gartens, under such limitation, as an element of intellectual growth. Some of the most prominent kindergarten teachers in this country do not hesitate to ascribe the apparent negative results obtained in that city to the fact that children are not admitted to the kindergartens until they have reached the age of six years, after the most modifiable period of a child's life has to a great extent been outgrown, and have, therefore, concluded that the time from the age of six to seven in the life of a child was not suitable to the best and highest kindergarten training. If there be a limit upward beyond which kindergarten training may not be safely pushed, it would seem possible, also, that there is a limit below which kindergarten instruction may not be profitably placed. The kindergarten philanthropists and amateur kindergartners, whose tender hearts are filled with love for little children, but who have never studied in detail the physiological grounds upon which the kindergarten rests, nor the aims to be reached by the new education, doubtless see no limits below which kindergarten training may not be pushed. To them it seems as if the principles of Froebel, properly applied, would mean a complete regeneration and upbuilding of the race ; because it makes it possible, in their view, to substitute for debased and vicious and unwise and careless and shiftless maternal care, the wisest and best and most careful training. In other words, in their eyes it affords the oppor- tunity, possibility, and certainty for giving those children who have not the advantages of educated, cultivated, and refined mothers, a foster- motherhood in the shape of carefully trained teachers in the kindergarten, who are to eradicate the ills that this uncultivated childhood is heir to, and thus, in fact, give every child the same opportunity for development that the more carefully nurtured child of cultivated parents possesses. Like all amateur physicians, they seek to prescribe a remedy for the ills and evils of society without diagnosing the causes which have led to the growth and development of these ills. But to the more thoughtful, their chances of success are not greater than the chances of cure for diseases held out by any of the venders of patent cure-alls. Indeed, the proposed plan reminds one of that adopted by the Turkish Grovernment in the Middle Ages to develop that famous branch of their military service known as the Janizaries. One child in every five of the Christian population living in the Sultan's dominions was taken away by force from the parents and sent off into a different part of the empire, carefully drilled and trained in all of the elements which seemed to look toward the upbuilding of a perfect physical manhood, and when they reached the age of eighteen they were gathered together in this branch of the military service as soldiers of the Saltan! Their characteristics are known to the world : they were obedient to the state, cold and callous I THE EDUCATION OF CHILDREN BELOW THE tiCHOOL AGE.iJ^l to the sufferings of others, and as pure children of the state were always ready to do the bidding of their master in the most expeditious and mechanical manner. It would be both interesting and profitable, at this stage of our discussion, to have before us some statement as to the com- parative effects upon child-life and child nature, of the substitution of even such an agency as that of a well-regulated and efficient orphan asylum for the training of a less than average home. But no inves- tigator has yet given to the world the results of his investigations into this comparatively unknown region. History has presented us with some parallels, which, however, are not sufficiently near us to be studied in the proper spirft, nor with much hope of being able to arrive at any satisfactory conclusion. Of course the well- known kindergarten axiom, of return after separation, makes a compen- sation here for some of these ills, if the child be not too young. Nature has fixed many periods in the early child-life when divorce from the mother means an increased difficulty in raising the child to maturity. Up to an age more or less certain, the child does not feel the need of any companion or playmate, and he is as much the companion of his mother as he was before he acquired the power of self-locomotion. Any observer of the development of child-life must have noticed the ease with which young children amuse themselves, and the simple devices which chain their attention during this era, when they are growing away from the side of physical union with the mother. At this period, the child not only does not care for other playmates or for the outside world, but rssents in an. unmistakable manner any attempt to divorce him from his mother, or to take him out of her sight or out of her immediate vicinity. After a time, however, the period arrives when a child longs for other children, and desires more or less definitely to separate himself from his mother, and to go out upon the world which his growing vision sees spread out before him. This epoch marks a more thoughtful period, and the beginning of the era at which kindergarten training should begin. While varying in different children, it is very rare to find this epoch of separation developed before the child reaches the age of four and a half years, and oftener it is at some point between the ages of four and a half and five years of age. Before this age the child has not developed sufficiently on the mental side to make it profitable to begin kindergar- ten instruction. Therefore, if children are to be gathered into a State school at the early age of three, and until they are four and a half or five years of age, the pattern of school must be after the type of the French maternal or the English infant schools ; which schools are radically differ- ent from, and indeed subversive of the ideas which lie at the basis of, kindergarten training. For, primarily, the end sought in the maternal and infant schools is the early development in the pupils of these schools of the power to take care of themselves — the teaching of language, let- 632 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. ters, and numbers, that the children may be able to acquire knowledge the more rapidly and certainly, during the short interval of time before they must go out upon the world to become bread-winners, than would other- wise fall to their lot if they were kept out of school and on the streets until they reached the age of six ; while the kindergarten, on the other hand, seeks to keep the child in the realm of developing ideas, and, there- fore, postpones the teaching of the alphabet, and the practical side of school life, until a later time. In fact, the kindergarten, in its develop- ment, seeks to provide for the period of infancy by lengthening the time from infancy to maturity, while the infant and maternal schools seek to shorten that time. \his will mean, briefly stated, that if the State undertakes the care of children between the ages of three and six, two distinct types of schools will be necessary in order to properly provide for and educate these children. These infant and maternal schools also presuppose a division of the population into classes, and the existence of a duty on the part of the so- called upper classes to take care of and provide for the children of the lower classes. This tendency makes these schools pauper schools, the sup- port of which, in a free State, must be left to the fostering care of philan- thropic private enterprise. As such, therefore, the State should not be called upon to attend to the education of children below the school age, who are between the ages of three and four and a half 3^ears. On the contrary, as the kindergartners propose to enlarge and widen the scope of training for all children of the State, by lengthening the period of infancy, and thus extending the period of growth and usefulness, the State should provide facilities and means for the education of children below the school age, who are between the ages of four and one half and six years. There are, however, grave difficulties in the way of providing proper facilities for kindergarten training, even after all legislative and consti- tutional objections have been swept away. I believe it is a generally conceded fact, by authorities on the kindergar- ten, that the greatest good derived from kindergarten instruction comes to the children who belong to the poorer and the wealthier classes. In nearly all the addresses and reviews upon this subject, great stress is laid upon this phase of the results of kindergarten training, but usually the author- ities are silent as to the benefits to be derived by the children of the great middle class, who more than ever are called upon to bear the increased burdens of taxation. The development of urban life in this generation seems to have brought forward conditions which point to our large cities as the localities which are especially favorable for kindergarten training. These same large cities, where people live faster and mature quicker, are exactly the places where the training of the kindergarten would have its greatest scope and most favorable results. THE EDUCATION OF CHILDREN BELOW THE SCHOOL AOE.QZ^ By a singular irony, however, these large cities — I mean those cities having a population of 100,000 and upwards — which would be so greatly benefited by the establishment of kindergartens for the education of chil- dren below school age, have their resources taxed to the utmost to provide accommodations for the education of children who are, under present regulations, entitled to attend school. In the large majority of these cities in the West, it is only possible to provide suitable schoolhouses for the shelter of the children of age, by the issue of bonds, and the consequent laying of burdens upon the population that is growing up to care for the necessities of the present. And in one typical Western city, which I have in mind, it is estimated that it will take seven years' time before the school authorities can, with the large means at their command, provide suitable accommodations for the children who are clamoring for admission to school. And if rumor is to be cred- ited, none of the larger Eastern cities are yet able to say that they are ready and able to take care of all the children who are now entitled under the law to demand the benefits of the common schools. On this side of preparation for the physical necessities of the kindergar- ten, it may be said that a proper room for kindergarten purposes should be nearly twice as large as the ordinary schoolroom, and> that the furni- .ture needed in such a room will cost about as much as that required to equip an ordinary primary schoolroom. From the experience of other cities, it may be assumed that a suitable building for kindergarten pur- poses may be erected for about $3,000, and that such a building will accommodate sixty pupils— one-half of whom may attend in the morning, and one-half in the afternoon — and that the cost of proper kindergarten instruction is about double that of the instruction now given in primary schools. This item of expense may be largely reduced if the children are turned over to the tender mercies of inexperienced assistants, who are to get their practical training at the expense of the children placed in their charge. But the experience of localities where this plan has been tried has not been encouraging. The figures given out by the census author- ities show, approximately, that to extend the school age down to four and one half years would add about twenty per cent, to the school enrollment, and probably fifteen per cent, to the average daily attendance, and increase running expenses twenty-five per cent. In almost any one of these cities mentioned, such an increase of expend- iture would produce very great complications, and perhaps cause a recur- rence to the device which saved the kindergartens in a Western city ; viz., the voting of a reduction of ten per cent, in salaries of teachers who were employed in the primary, gramma«^ and high schools. Again, in the effort to establish kindergartens, we always encounter the same old prejudices with which conservatism combats every reform. For 634 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. instance, there is probably no one branch in the common-school curricu- lum, the mastery of which to a greater or less degree offers such increased remuneration to the laborer or artisan, as drawing ; and yet in most school systems it requires constant pressure to prevent the children who would be the most benefited by drawing from dropping the study on account of prejudice against the new departure from both parents and pupils. It is so with the kindergarten. If entrance to the kindergarten and the primary school is equally free to pupils, fully fifty per cent, will elect to pass by the superior prospective advantages of the kindergarten train- ing, for the more alluring immediate practical information and power given by the primary school. ^ It is possible that this conservatism on the part of the people arises from the new presentation of an old conflict. The State desires to educate its children in order that they may ultimately be worth more to themselves and indirectly to the State. The parent desires to educate his child in such a way and to such an extent as may the sooner relieve him from the burdens of the .child's support, and thus indirectly assist himself in his battle with the world. The one side reiterates the old statement of the indebtedness of children to parents. The other preaches the new dispensation of the indebtedness of parents and the State to children, who have no voice relative to their entrance into the world, and thus are entitled to the utmost consideration from both parents and the State. This conflict comes up in many forms in the efforts to enforce the com- pulsory school law, where at times great suffering results from the forced attendance of young children at school, who are really the only support of a bereaved family. And it came to the surface quite often in England, early in the present century, when, in the laudable efforts of the govern- ment to collect the taxes assessed as poor rates, reputable and industrious people were reduced to the condition of paupers by having their belong- ings seized and sold to support the idle and shiftless who were already in the almshouse. Fortunately in this age the exemptions from seizure of the implements with which a man gains a livelihood, and the exemption from taxation of a minimum amount of household furniture, have prevented the recurrence of many of these distressing scenes. And, as it is, this conservatism is really of service to us in our efforts to establish a system of kindergarten instruction, because it largely reduces the prospective immediate demands upon our resources, enabling us to make a beginning with a comparatively small amount of money. This conservatism also materidly assists us upon another side. It may be doubted whether a greater calamity could befall the kindergarten than to have each one of twenty large cities begin to equip and maintain a system of kindergartens inadequate for the needs of each of them 5 for the reason. THE EDUCATION OF CHILDREN BELOW THE SCHOOL AGE. Q^h that this would necessitate the employment of a large number of teachers, who are unfitted by nature, and wanting on the side of correct practice and theory. It may well he doubted whether the kindergarten has not already suffered much more in the public estimation from the establish- ment of kindergartens all over the land, under charge of incompetent teachers, who emphasize the side of games and play, to the exclusion of the '* occupations '' and *^ gifts," than from unfriendly critics. There- fore, this conservatism of the people reacting will have a tendency to make it easier to establish kindergartens in a given locality, and thus make it possible to secure competent teachers and better results. There is another phase of this subject, however, which always has made and always will make difficulty in the way of taking advantage of this conserv- atism of the people relative to the gradual establishment of kindergartens in any given community. I refer to the efforts and agitation of kinder- garten enthusiasts, and people who are alive to the advantages of the kinder- garten, toward the locating of kindergartens in their immediate commu- nity. This discussion always develops the fact that a board of education, acting for all the people, cannot consistently and legally establish kinder- gartens for the avowed purpose of improving the instruction given in the schools in such a way as to favor any one class of people or any particular locality, and ignore the wishes of other classes of people and other locali- ties. There is still another phase of the question which may be touched upon here ; viz., that as it is, as I conceive it, the duty of the State to hold fast to the organization of the present primary schools, for the functions therein contained, the problem which will always present itself for solution, is how to harmonize and adapt the kindergarten and the primary school to conserve the best interests of the children who pass through these departments. To this end, the State should carefully guard the interests of the children in the kindergarten, and not delegate the control of such an adjunct to the schools to any separate body or organization, and not allow any supervisor of kindergarten instruction to lose sight of this necessity for so arranging the outcome of instruction that it will fit into the primary school. Although the development of the kindergarten, both at home and abroad, has been provokingly slow, and indeed discouraging to those who have fought its battles in season and out, there is one redeeming element in the fact that public interest is continually growing in the right direc- tion, and it is significant that there are few educators of the present day who do not see the need, while holding fast to the functions of the pri- mary school, to still further hroaden the work of primary education by adding to the analytic side of the primary school the sympathetic side of the kindergarten. To this end it is fitling that kindergartens be estab- lished in all com.munities where the law permits the attendance of children at the age of five years, and where the establishment of such kindergartens 636 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. will not interfere with the education of children above that age. In such States as limit the age of children attending school to those above the age of six years, it would seem that kindergartens at public expense are not profitable or feasible/ In such States the real friends of kindergartens should confine their attention to the necessary agitation that will secure such modification of existing legislation as will reduce the school age to four and a half or five years. DISCUSSION. SuPT. Curtis, of New Haven, Conn., took the chair, and announced that the next thing in order would be the discussion of Mr. Fitzpatrick's paper. SuPT. Gove : I should like to say something, if I could, to prevent what I seem to see before me, a great dispersion of this discussion within the next hour and a half in this way— the presentation of the claims and advantages of kindergarten instruction. If I understand the pur- poses of the committee and the temper of this paper to which I have just listened, they are to teach us or tell us, who have come up here for that purpose, how certain objects may be accomplished, we accepting and conceding, without time being taken to-day to demonstrate it, that the kindergarten has an existence through the efforts of its first promoters ; and that this education is exceedingly desirable, more than desirable, and important ; and that we, as superintendents and teachers, desire its intro- duction and use in every city and State of the country. The paper has shown to us some of the obstacles which are to be surmounted ; and now, Mr. President, I trust the Chair will hold those who follow in this discus- sion to that point of the work, instead of allowing the presentation of the claims of an institution which is so popular, and which has already gained that which it deserves — enthusiastic support and assistance in almost all parts of our land. "We are confronted to-day with this problem : Here is something so excellent and desirable, it would seem that we must have it ; we need it in our school. How shall we get it ? Gentlemen and ladies are here who have it already. It is their dut_y to tell us how they suc- ceeded in getting it, and how they are progressing with the work. First, the paper presented to us the financial problem. I regard the statutory provisions as unworthy of attention. There is no legislature which can be induced to prevent the efficiency of public education. There is no legislature, from the State of California to the State of Massachusetts, that will not enact laws which will advance the cause of education. That does away with statutory obstacles. According to the statement which the discussio:n^. 637 I paper gives in regard to the increase of the enrollment in the schools, if I remember aright, fourteen per cent, of the enrollment in the schools are children five years old, fifteen per cent, are four years old, and eighteen per cent, are three years old. Accepting the proposition that those three years old need not be counted, and that those three and a half years old need not be counted, that makes a material increase, does it not, in the expenditure of the schools ? Therefore I conclude that to be the first problem for discussion here. Can we persuade the people to increase, or are they willing to increase, the present school expenditure from fifteen to twenty-five per cent, in order that we may, as we believe, return to them its value by lowering the school age and educating the young people ? Can that be done ? Now, we read in the press that several cities already have public kindergartens. It is true that what we read most about are the private kindergartens. I have a sort of notion that the only real, good, beautiful, and efiicient kindergartens to-day are those private kindergartens which are managed by intelligent administrators backed by the purses of powerful financial friends. The difiiculty of expense being overcome, it would seem that if we should at once proceed with the introduction of the kindergarten, another obstacle would appear in the proposition to furnish to a portion of the people of the city kindergarten schools, while another portion of the people of the same city, and under the same administration, is suffering from lack of adequate school accommodation. If Philadelphia, that we saw a year ago, has founded public kindergarten schools — Mr. McAllister said it had — it is a question with some of us in the far West what defense can be made for providing kindergartens in some wards, and saying to the children in the other ward (there are two hundred and fifty children in it) We will have to give you quite inferior accommodation and inferior teach- ing. What defense can we make ? How did the superintendent and the boards of education take care of themselves on that problem ? A third thought has occurred to me, vvhich seems to be, and I believe it is, a greater one than either of the others. To revert, however, for one moment to the last thought. It may have been said, and could have been said two or three years ago, that all enterprises can be begun in a small way ; try an experiment with the kindergarten, and show the people how desirable a thing it is. Now the experimental age is past. Every one is satisfied with the desirable things in the kindergarten. Some in our profession are spending their time on this question. It is nonsense, in my mind, to give that part of the discussion a moment's thought. The people are all ready for the kindergarten. Bat the third great trouble that I refer to is the material to place upon the teachers' platform. Now, in reply to that, the average superintendmit of the city is informed that the material for kindergarten instruction is as plentiful as was the material for unskilled instruction fifty years ago. Therefore, as there must be a G38 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. begmning to all things, these obstacles that have presented themselves may be, if they have not already been, overcome. The administration of our schools, we were told yesterday, depended largely upon the teachers. We have been told so a great many thousand times, until we really believe it. The best school that any one of us has seen has had the best teachers. With kindergarten instruction, the number of teachers necessary in order to make the establishment a success must be more largely in proportion to the pupils than the ratio is in the primary and grammar grades. I pre- sent to this gathering these thoughts, and trust that the limitation I sug- gest will be heeded. The most important problem to us now is not the merits of the kindergarten, not the desirability even of giving earlier instruction in the public schools at the public expense, in charge of well- administered public school systems, but how shall the obstacles, as pre- sented in the paper before us, be overcome, that the public kindergarten may be established as a part of our public school system ? [Applause.] The Chair : Accepting the suggestions of the speaker, you will con- tinue the discussion as to ways and means for the removal of the obstacles. SuPT. Seayer, of Boston : I am not on the programme, Mr. President, but I want to say a word. 1 feel very much as if I wanted to write a paper, and that paper would give to you the history of the introduction of the kindergarten in the city of Boston. We have in that city now 33 of them, containing about 2,000 pupils. In other words, one-third of the children are between three and a half and four and a half years of age. Our limit of age, however, is from three and a half years to five. Now, accepting the limitations which have jusfc been laid down by the last speaker, for I must speak but a moment, I will say there is Just one way in which the financial diffiaulties can be removed, and that is by means of an object lesson long enough continued to convince the people that every dollar that goes into the payment for kindergarten instruction is a dollar better expended than any other dollar in the whole school expense. [Applause.] That practical demonstration by means of an object lesson was given in my city, as is well known, by Mrs. Quincy A. Shaw, whose labors in behalf of the kindergarten are well known, and whose generous purse enabled her to carry out her plans. About fifteen years ago an experimental kindergarten was started in Boston, and it flourished a little, and it dwindled a little, and then it died. But it did not die without a resurrection. [Applause.] Mrs. Shaw took that kin- dergarten, told the teachers to go on and she would pay them. Then she added another and another, until in the course of ten years she had estab- lished in the city sixteen kindergartens, well provided with able teachers whom she had taken pains to have instructed by kindergartners the best the country could produce. These kindergartens were established in the DISCUSSION. 639 primary school rooms. Whenever the school board decided to increase the number of school buildings, Mrs. Shaw got a room if she could and established a kindergarten. Then it came to be a serious question whether the school committee sliould adopt those kindergartens from the date of their establishment in the city and pay the salaries and other expenses. The impression still prevails in parts of the city, where those kindergartens have been established, that they were part of the public, school system. I well remember the surprise of some of the members of the Common Council with whom I had interviews, when they were informed that those kindergartens had been supported wholly by private charity and not at*all by public money, except so far as the rental of the school- rooms was concerned. They didn't know it. They thought they had been supported by the public school committee for a number of years. When I told them that it was not so, they said there should not be any more difficulty in getting the money for them. I said : '' You convince a few more members of the Common Council, and there will be none." A Voice : Is that in Boston ? SuPT. Seaver : Yes, that is in Boston. I grant that it sounds a little like New York. [Applause and laughter.] We want you to come down there and see what they aie like. Well, to finish my story, we wanted $20,000 added to our regular school appropriation in order to adopt the kindergarten and pay the expense of the rooms and the material for the children ; and although the Common Council thought it was in a narrow financial condition, tliat 120,000 came as easily as a five dollar bill would come out of Judge Draper's pocket if I were short of money and wanted to get home. There has been no trouble in getting ths money since — no difficulty at all. The kindergarten now is the most popular part of our educational sys- tem. The number of kindergartens has increased from 17 to 33. They contain a large number of children, and they are under the instruction of skilled kindergartners — not green girls who are learning the art at the expense of the children, but skilled hands — those who have received instruc- tion for a year and a half in the normal school, and a half year's tuition in the special instruction necessary for the art of kindergartning. Now, an object lesson, if it can be established and maintained long enough, will, I believe, convince the people in any city that the money necessary for the kin- dergartens should be voted it, whether any other money is voted for school instruction or not. One other point and I am done. Reference was made to the condition of legislation in Massachusetts. We arc very fortunate, for we never have had a lower limit for the school age. The statute of Massachusetts provides that every child has the right to attend school in the town or city where he resides. A few years ago a question arose, involving the payment of a large sum of money, upon the meaning of the 640 THE NATIONAL EDZfCATIONAL ASSOCIATION word "child " in the statutes. It was concluded that the school age in Massachusetts was from five to fifteen years, and that that should consti- tute the definition of the word child. It turned out that that is not a limitation — that the school agfe does not define a child. Then it was con- tended that the compulsory education age, 8 years to 14, should define a child. It was proved then that that is not the school age. The court finally held that the word child meant any human being from the age of one hour to the age of 21 years, and practically this is the position now, and always has been. Any child, however young, may be admitted into school by the rules established by the school committee of the town. Boston at one time established four years as the proper time for* admission into the primary schools. Later it provided that five years should be the limit. Still more lately it has admitted to the kindergarten children as young as three and a half years. There is no legal obstacle in the way, if the school committee should decide to-morrow to admit into school children of the age of one year or one mouth, to prevent such a thing. There is absolutely no limitation. That construction has been established by a recent decision of the Supreme Court, in a case I could cite if I had access to the books. The first step is to get rid of the constitutional limi- tation, or rather get rid of the statutory limitation, and admit children of all ages to the schools, which must have the kindergarten in time. SuPT. Sabik, of Iowa : I see that Miss Harrison, who is the superin- tendent of the kindergarten college of Chicago, is here. I think it would be well to have her tell us something about the kindergarten. Miss Elizabeth Harkisok : I thank you, gentlemen, for the privi- lege of standing before you to-day. I wanted to make a reply to, or some comments upon, Mr. Fitzpatrick's paper, and although I have not a manuscript, I have brought headings from which I wish to speak. In the first place Mr. Fitzpatrick spoke of the difficulties which might arise in connection with the training of children under three years of age — the early difficulties. It seems to me that we, as educators of the nation, should take more into consideration the education of the mothers of the children. And I know that the influence of the teachers in this direction particularly may have and can have much to do toward making the average mother feel that there is much yet for her to learn. In our own city of Chicago, we have about 2,000 mothers of the educated class studying kindergarten principles as applied to home work. We have this last year started a number of classes in the poorer districts of the city for the mothers of the children that are in the free kindergartens of Chicago. And we find it an enormous help to us. We find it also a great revelation of the earnestness and the interest and the loyal intelligence of the class of women ordinarily known as the char-women of the city. It seems to me DISCUSSION. 641 that when this great subject of kindergartens is properly understood, it means the study of human nature and how to develop it so that the mother classes will grow spontaneously ; that is, that the kindergarten will have its own class of mothers. The next point which Mr. Fitzpatrick makes, which I heartily indorse, is that the kindergarten class should have but sixty chil- dren—thirty at a time— thirty in the morning and thirty in the afternoon. My one fear is that there would be a tendency to crowd too many children into the room. If the children are subdivided into morning and after- noon classes, that will do away with the necessity for two rooms. The rooms you have here in New York and Brooklyn would be sufiBciently large for all practical purposes for a kindergarten of thirty children. The third point is that generally there is too high an estimate given, too large an idea of the expense connected with the kindergarten. I have just been informed by Felix Adler of New York, who is thoroughly familiar with the workings of the kindergarten, and who has watched its progress with great interest, that there are 100 children in a private kindergarten and the material used by them during the year costs only $0.50 a year per pupil. SuPT. Powell, of Washington : Will the lady permit a question right here ? Does the one teacher attend the forenoon and afternoon classes ? Miss IIakrison^ : That would depend upon that individual teacher's physique. If she was as strong as she ought to be, she should ; otherwise she should not. I thank you for your question. I have come here to-day with a very earnest heart and a very burning desire to help one kindergar- ten, and I beg aid of your State Superintendents in this matter, because our fate rests in your hands largely — not altogether. [Applause.] We are going to have the thing, whether you can help us or not. The next point Mr. Fitzpatrick touched upon was that concerning the influence of teachers. I would indorse and emphasize that, but I would say, in continuing the matter, that the mother element so strong in the heart of every true woman — that mother element which brings the woman into sympathetic touch with the little child — will do much to obviate difficulties and make atonement for many other defects. In Chicago we require three years^ training before we send our young ladies out as fitted for kindergarten instruction. The next point which I would like to speak upon is that of having special studies for the kindergarten. Any true kindergartner, beginning with the cradle and going to old age, would do what she could to cooperate with the after-life of the school. If there is allowed in the public schools a special superintendent of drawing and music and physical culture, and other things — which I believe is allowed In our schools — why should there not be a special supervisor or superintendent of this very important branch of the educational system known as the kindergarten ? 642 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. Now my last point is this : I got an impression from Mr. Fitzpatrick's paper, contrary to the impression which I had previously of his belief on the subject. I may be mistaken in my impression; that is, as to the im])ortance of the games and the plays. I understood the paper con- tended that a great many people could go in and see the children at their games and "plays, but w^hen they came to ask the children as to the needs of the occupation and of the materials used they could not answer them. The play circle is the center. The child begins with the passive period — the period of infancy ; the receptive period — the period when environment is all-important. I could tell you many, many things which have been, called to my attention in connection with the little tots who come into the kindergarten, if I had time. Then comes the creative period, which calls for a spontaneous expression of what is within the child. Then later on comes the school period of the child. The true kindergartner takes the child out of himself. I use that in the broad sense of pre- paring him for life. If education means anything at all worthy of the life-work at which it aims, it means that process of training by which a human being leads, hereafter, a nobler and a more rational and better life, and which helps him to meet the problem of life better than he could without this education. I think it is proper to speak of this prepara- tory play. Ealph Waldo Emerson said that in music there were certain things no man hesitated to buy. I think of the kindergarten the same can be said, and I shall quote here in support of that statement the willingness of the Boston school board to spend $20,000 for it. In the play circle the child is trained by his gifts — trained intellectually by the powers of observation, trained by the powers of judging and contrast- ing the things he sees ; his memory and imagination and creative powers are trained, he learns occupation ; his love of the beautiful is trained. And then, I say, in the play circle of the kindergarten comes the promi- nent and all-important element of understanding his or her relationship in life. He is taught to bear and forbear. He is taught his own place among others in life, his significance and insignificance in the world. We not only develop the child's muscles by the plays, and train him concern- ing the materials he has, but by the actual handling of the materials and his use of them. We begin his training in preparation of what is to follow later, his understanding of them to the relationship to life. We begin with birds and bird life, and the father and mother and the little baby birds, and in a thousand and one ways, by means of songs and stones, and particularly games, in which he imitates these little things, usually cap- tives in a cage, he is gradually led into an understanding of the family relationship. We have a little game called the '^ birds' nests," in which four or five little bird children may represent the baby birds. Here they are flying off into the air while the mamma bird is training them how to fly. On one occasion I stopped the gam-e. I said : "Alfred, what kind of DISCUSSION. 643 a papa bird have jou here, I would like to know ? Why are you not help- ing mamma to teach the babies ? " He turned his head to one side and said : *^' Why, I got the worms for them/' [Laughter.] I do not know whether you think Alfred was in the right. Yes, I said to him, '^ But, Alfred, don't you think you ought to help teach the little baby birds to fly ?" The little fellow looked up to me and was not quite sure of my views. So I turned to the class for public opin- ion and said : "What do you think about this ?" Instantly the whole class decided yes, that he ought to help teach them to fly. Then we had very little trouble with the fathers after that. I will give you another illustration. Our system believes in coopera- tion and coeducation, and equality of men and women, but in different spheres and in different ways. Another time we were playing the black- smith's game. Two little girls were chosen to do their part of the game, and two little boys were to be the blacksmiths. The little boys were pounding on their anvils, and blowing the fire, and attending to the vari ous duties in connection with a blacksmith's shop. One little girl entered heartily into the spirit of the game. The other little girl, dressed in vel- vet and plush, seated herself off a little way and seemed indifferent. ^^Why," I said, "Beatrice, I am afraid you won't have any dinner ready when Charles comes home for it." She gave a haughty toss of her head and replied: "My mamma does not cook dinners." The dinner hour came ; the blacksmiths washed their hands and started for their homes. Then I said : "Beatrice has no dinner for the tired and hungry black- smiths." With that, Charles walked over to the house of the other little girl, where he found a nice dinner awaiting him. The next time Beatrice played she did her part of the household work. [Applause.] Little by little they gain the knowledge of what is to be required of them in the future. The little girl learns what her duty is in the home ; the boy, what is expected in that sort of trade. Later on in the year, we begin to lead these children into the knowledge that the blacksmith's children must have shoes to wear, and the carpenter's children must have bread to eat, and the blacksmith's wife must have clothes to wear, and the black- smith must have his tools, and so on through all the avenues of trade and necessities for them which have grown up into the world of civilization. We take the children at different times to the carpenter's shop, the shoe shop, and the tailor shop, so that they can see the men at their work, and come back to the class-rooms and imitate them the better. I shall never forget the lesson a dear little five-year-old girl gave me on one occasion. We brought a scissors-grinder into the room in order that the children might see how he patted his foot, and how he made his wheel go, and what he did in sharpening the knives o^^ scissors. When he had finished sharpening the scissors I paid him his charge, and he was going out of the room, when the little girl looked up into my eyes and said : " Why, you for- 644 TBE I^ATIONAL EDUGATIOITAL ASSOCIATION. got to thank him, too. " [Laughter and applause.] The little girl had been playing scissors-grinder at one time. She had had it indelibly impressed upon her that courtesy, as well as wages, was due. A lesson in the ques- tion of capital and labor, which can well be taught the citizens of Brook- lyn and New York, is that the laborer is worthy of a courteous word as well as wages earned. [Applause.] I want to say, here is one of the necessities which we cannot afford to do without. Later on in the year these trade activities are connected with advanced life. We have to be served by policemen who will protect the carpenter's home, the blacksmith's shop, the shoe store, and the corner grocery. Then we show what firemen are for, how they put out fires in the homes of the people, and then we get up to where the children learn of the heroes of all nations who have sacrificed home and family and prosperity for the sake and honor of their country ; and if you could see, as I have seen, twenty-five, thirty, and forty little ones, calling themselves Swedes and Germans, and nihilists and anarchists, marching in our kindergarten with their swords drawn and their banners flying, and understanding what it all meant, you would think of the import- ance of State relationship to this matter, and the necessity for this kinder- garten education for the little ones three, four, and five years of age. [Applause.] It was this point particularly that I wanted to emphasize. Later on we come to the universal relationship, or tlie church relation- ship. That means the common brotherhood of all mankind, for without that relationship it is not worthy the name. We cannot say with truth " Our Father who art in Heaven" until we can say our brother who is on earth. [Applause.] I have taken more time than I should, but it was with the feeling that if we were to amalgamate this great nation for all that is good and dear to us, for the elevation of the human race in gen- eral, I know of no way in which this solid foundartion can be cemented together for a higher national life, which begins with the child in its infancy, better than this agency which trains him to realize, the differ- ent pledges of life, that teaches him that which makes all the difference between the savage and the civilized world. It is for this great realization that we take so long a time to prepare our students for the work of teach- ing. It seems to me that we should have a supervisor of this department, for not only are the skilled hand and brain and earnest heart required in this work, but philosophic views of life ; and I earnestly appeal to you, gentlemen, not to put off the day of considering the subject of the kinder- garten as the foundation of the great public school system of America, which is the bulwark of our nation. [Applause.] BRING tNG PTTPIL8 FURTHER ON IN THEIR STUDIES. G45 WHAT CAN BE DONE TO BRING PUPILS FURTHER ON IN THEIR STUDIES BEFORE THEY LEA VE SCHOOL TO GO TO WORK? BY CHARLES W. HILL, PRESIDEiq-T MASSACHUSETTS SCHOOLMASTERS' CLUB, BOSTON. The topic assumes the existence of a class of pupils whose school life is made undesirably short, with school acquiremefits correspondingly meager, by some real or supposed necessity for exchanging the work of the school for those forms of activity in which the pupil becomes a wage-earner. The assumption is all too well founded. I have not thought it necessary or desirable to inflict statistical tabler oearing upon this matter upon a body of men who, of necessity, spend so large a part of their lives at such tables, and whose requests for material therefor, addressed to the busy workers in the schoolrooms, sometimes sound the knell of cherished plans for rest or recreation. Boston is not below the average of her sister cities in holding her pupils through the grammar course. By the report of Supt. Seaver on this mat- ter it appears that less than three-eighths of those who enter our gram- mar schools finish the course and graduate, the other five-eighths falling out before reaching the end. Assuming that these proportions are fairly representative, and assuming that a child should at least finish the grammar course before leaving school for work, we realize something of the great importance of the subject before us. It is not a matter affecting a few of our pupils only, but is of great importance to large numbers of those who for a longer or shorter time may be connected with our schools. A discussion of this topic is especially timely, in view of the attention which is being turned toward the work of the elementary schools by the criticisms and propositions of the N"ew England Association of Colleges, which you heard so ably and skillfully presented last evening. Some of these propositions are wise and have been for some time in practice in our best schools. All are put forth in good faith and with an evident desire to benefit the schools. It is unfortunate that their authors lack experimental knowledge of what is now being done in our element^fe-y schools, and of the average ability of the pupils instructed in them. Beautiful theories, which seem unassailable, sometimes need consider- 046 THE NATIONAL EDVCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. able adjustment to facts and possibilities when the light of a personal experience is thrown upon them. These changes are proposed from the standpoint of the college ; I do not say in the avowed interest of the college, for that would not be true. Still, there seems to be an easily traced and perfectly natural and proper anxiet}^ on the part of these distinguished educators, that our school courses should face the bright boys and girls toward the doors of the college. Almost of necessity, we look at the world from our own stand- point, and in weighing opinions this fact should be kept in mind. The naturalist sees in a tree an opportunity to explore the mysteries of secretion and growth, the poet and the painter see a thing of beauty and a perpetual joy, and a woodman sees so many cords of wood. In judging what you are to do with the tree, and in taking advice, you need to know whether it is the poet or thg woodman who gives it. We all agree with the college presidents that as many of the bright boys and girls should take the college course as can spare the time, but only a very small minority do or can take it — one in fifty it is said. They agree with us that the supposed or real interest of the one must not be per- mitted to eclipse that of the many, especially as the one is usually, by en- dowment and surroundings, the one best able to care for himself. It is particularly gratifying that this large and influential body of edu- cators turn their thought, for a time, away from the fortunate and gifted to the less fortunate, less interesting, struggling majority ; to those who, by force of circumstances or their own inertia, are deprived, or deprive them- selves, of the benefits of a full course in our grammar schools. In order to discuss intelligently the topic before us, we need to recall to mind some of the causes which take such pupils out of the schools, and also some of the reasons why the grammar course, or its equivalent, should be completed before school-days close. Among the causes which operate to shorten school-life the cupidity of the parents of some children has a prominent place. Owing, partly, to the suicidal laxity of our immigration laws, there is a large and increasing number of parents among usj not all of them of foreign birth, but sordid and alien in spirit, who are perfectly willing their children should grow up in ignorance, and even in vice, if only they may lazily stretch themselves in the sun while they continue their worthless and corrupting lives by means of the money earned, begged, or stolen by the poor unfortunates who are forced to call them parents. Such children in our large cities are often so employed as to evade the laws restricting the employment of child-labor, the cupidity of the parent being aided and abetted by the equally culpable cupidity of the employer, whom the sharp competitions of business have made blind and deaf to all considerations except the ratio of profit to cost. Very far removed, in the intellectual and moral scale, from such parents as we have described, is another class whose children do not as a rule BUINQING PUPILS FURTHER 01^ IN THEIR STUDIES. 647 complete the grammar course. They are the parents who have fallen behind in the race of life, a race so sharply contested that Carlyle says : *'Woe to him who stops to tie his shoe-string." Having thus fallen behind, the tide of remunerative business goes by their doors, before which the wolf of an unrelenting poverty stands, till in desperation the child's schooling is sacrificed to help keep the faniiily together and off the public charge. There is still another class of parents who neither from cupidity nor poverty are dependent, but whose children early terminate their connection with the schools. They are the easy-going parents, who, having had few school advantages themselves, and having been able to make their own way fairly well without them, fail to appreciate the advantage to their children of at least as much as the grammar school can offer. Such parents, shut up in their little world like passengers in a railroad sleeper, fail to realize that the train of modern life is passing on with lightning speed into new and more intricate conditions, and that what answered for them in their day a very good purpose will leave their children as far behind in the ever sharpening competition of society, as that city would be which should now depend upon stage-coach connections with the out- side world. The children of such parents often hear so much about self-made men, who, while never having attended school more than a few weeks or months, have yet risen to the highest places, that the impression is some- times left upon their minds that school preparation is no advantage, if it be not a real disadvantage, to the smart, enterprising fellow who ''has it in him." Such parents, or any others, would do well to teach their children that real force of character will enable them often to rise superior to circumstances, but a great harm is done when such lessons are so taught as to lead the child to despise those early school advantages which give such a tremendous start in the race of life. Often it is against the wishes and best judgment of the parent that school connection is broken. The lazy fellow drags himself out of school because it is too much of an effort to keep in sight of his mates who are willing to work. Then there are those at the other extreme, who scent the world's battle from afar, and long to be in it ; who, intensely active, find the restraints of school and school work irksome ; who look forward with an intense longing to the time when they shall be in business and go down-town with the men to do something manly. Then begin the pleadings to be allowed to leave school and go to work, until the too yielding parent succumbs, school connection ceases, and work begins. A short experience often dispels the illusion and turns the poetry of anticipation into the hard aiM grinding prose of realization. Then come bitter regrets, but school ties are broken, time has been lost, pride prevents a return to take one's place among younger associates in 648 TBE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. school work ; and so the poorly equipped fellow, now conscious of his mis- take, goes handicapped into the hard struggle, almost sure to fail of the highest success. The long time required to work up in almost any good business, if destitute of influential help, Tcry naturally leads many a boy, who would otherwise be glad to continue in school, to question whether he can afford the time. But, while parents and pupils are justly to be held to responsibility in this matter, the teacher and the school authorities are not always without blame. Children, hungry for intellectual food, have held out their hands for bread, and we have sometimes given them stones ; they have asked for fish, and we have tried to persuade them that serpents were better. Happily the stones and the serpents are being removed from our bills of fare, and this reason for cutting short the school course no longer exists to the former extent. The causes, then, which we find for the failure to hold some pupils in school as long as would be desirable exist in the cupidity, poverty, or easy indulgence of parents, the laziness or impatience of pupils, and the failure of the school, sometimes, to meet the needs of those who have no extra time to spare upon school work. Let us now consider some of the reasons why it is important that ou pupils should be further along in their studies before they leave school to go to work ; why, if possible, they should complete the grammar course. A reason, not of the greatest importance, is the moral power acquired by carrying to success what one begins. One of the most distinguished educators in Boston was asked if he did not intend to withdraw his sons from the grammar school and place them in the Latin school, where they could earlier begin their special preparation for college. His reply was : ^*No ! whatever course of study they begin, I intend they shall complete, and not acquire the habit of leaving one thing undone to begin another.^' Perhaps he was an extremist, but the habit he sought to form will be of very great value to his boys in the restless age in which they are to live. If it be unwise to leave a course of study unfinished in order to begin another, it certainly cannot be wise, except from absolute necessity, to leave it unfinished with no purpose of beginning another. It should be noted that a pupil, dropping out of a course of study before completing it, loses the most valuable part. If the course is one of six years, the loss of the last two years is the loss of more than a third, perhaps more than a half. It is in the beginning that the cost is most disproportionate to the result, whether it be in moving a railroad train, acquiring wealth, or mastering a course of study. A very important reason for bringing pupils further along in their studies before they go to work appears in the growing necessity for BRINGII^Q PUPILS FURTHER ON IN THEIR STUDIES. 649 higher and higher degrees of intelligence to do successfully the ordinary work of life. If it was ever necessary that there should be an ignorant, menial class to do contentedly the coarser and more disagreeable services necessary in a complex civilization, there is no such present necessity. The place of the unskilled laborer is being filled by machinery to a greater extent each year. Intelligence is needed to guide and manipulate these machines, themselves almost endowed with intelligence. Skilled labor is in demand, and will be more and more so as our country grows older, and the rougher work which newness involves disappears. There is danger in adding to the army of unskilled and unintelligent labor, either by native or foreign recruits. The danger approaching imminence is that those capable of performing only the rudest kinds of labor, and finding the demand for such labor disappearing, will not only be driven into- crime and pauper- ism themselves, but, as tools in the hands of unscrupulous leaders, become a menace and peril to the body politic. And this leads us, naturally, to notice the increasing necessity for intel- ligence, in order to perform aright the duties of citizenship. The tariff : shall it be protective or for revenue only ? The coinage of silver : what will be the effect of its being unrestricted ? The relation of capital and labor : how can each be made the most helpful to the other ? — These and questions like these, now demanding serious thought and careful adjust- ment, are as far beyond the reach of one who has never been taught how to look for cause and effect, or to reason with any degree of correctness, as are the mountain tops to the child who lifts up his hands to them. The only part he can take is to follow his leader, and the leader he chooses is very apt to be a demagogue. The duties to the discharge of which the state has a right to call the citizen, from casting a ballot under the Australian system, and serving on a jury, to holding offices of trust and responsibility, cannot rightly be fulfilled by him who has had but little or no mental training. As the principles of a true civil service reform are carried out, he who lacks mental training will be more and more shut out from the public service, and rightly, too, though by natural endow- ment he might have been made ready to serve the state well in some line of effort for which he may have special aptitude. There is one other reason, among many still unnamed, for advancing the pupil further in his studies before going to work, which is too impor- tant to be passed by unnoticed. It is the acquiring of power and in- clination to use wisely the increasing hours of leisure resulting from the shortening work day. For the man who reads and thinks, who can keep company with the good and great of all ages, it is a priceless blessing to have some hours after the day's labor iji which, with his family about him, he can commune with the past, study the problems of the present, explore the works of God, and grow into his likeness. But it is a ques- 650 THE NATIONAL EBUOATIONAL ASSOCIATION. tion whether it is a real advantage to that man who has no resources in himself or in his family, to have his work day shortened. Thoughtful observers are coming to look upon the lengthening time after work hours as a positive source of danger to the ignorant and thoughtless. They, finding the time drag, are easily tempted to turn to the saloon as a con- venient meeting-place with kindred spirits, and to vicious sources, for the excitement craved. We find, then, that we should carry our pupils fur- ther on in their studies — because of the moral power which comes from carrying to success that which is begun ; because, for the times in which they are to live, a considerable degree of intelligence will be necessary for even the most ordinary work of life ; because, otherwise, the duties of citizenship cannot rightly be performed; and because in no other way can they be prepared to make the best use of leisure time. In considering what can be done to retain all the pupils of our ele- mentary school till each shall have gotten as much out of the school ast for him may be possible, it is evident help must come from without and from within. The state and the home must become allies of the school to accomplish the best results. One very helpful agency in accomplish- ing the work we are considering is the hinder garten, the duty of the state toward which you consider at this gathering. By means of this agency the school work and discipline may be extended downward into the unproductive years of the child's life. The kindergarten is proving itself capable of shortening ordinary school life a year; that is, before the age of five, that may be accomplished which will bring the child of eight as far along in his school work as an ordinary child of nine would be without these advantages. And this can be done not only at no risk to the child's physical well-being, but to his great advantage in that re- spect. Its work and play are so wisely planned, and so in accord with nature's ways, that the child is much better developed, physically, than he possibly could be if left to his own devices. He is happier to be occu- pied a part of the day with his teacher-playfellow, than when the whole day passes without regular occupation. It becomes a great joy to him to be able to see and do for himself, and he forms habits of observation, patient endeavor, and of being in right relations to those about him, which not only easily save him a year in the primary schools, but which also come to his aid all the way through his school life. .Educators, in- terested in any department of school or college work, should rejoice that this helpful agency is so rapidly growing in usefulness and power just now when it is so much needed, not only in meeting the difficulty now under consideration, but also when its natural methods and true aims are so much needed in leavening the spirit of the work to be done all along the educational line. This association, and all educational organizations, should unite forces in helping to make the kindergarten an integral part of our school systems. It would be an agency for the accomplishment of BRINGING PUPILS FURTHER ON IN THEIR STUDIES. 651 great good in any community, at any time ; but with us, with our hurry and high pressure felt all through our school life and work, it becouies of especial importance to save that year of unproductive child life, especially as his physical and moral natures are both greatly benefited thereby. As it is comparatively easy to hold pupils in school up to eleven or twelve, the lower part of the course of study, which very nearly all our pupils take with more or less thoroughness, should be made as rich as possible with those studies which will so interest as to- help hold for future work. This is being done to a much greater extent than is realized in the higher educational circles. Nature studies can be made still more useful. Nothing elaborate should be attempted. The "R" studies should not be crowded out. But if the boy who does not memorize readily, or reason accurately, finds that what he knows about birds and stones, and what he has noticed about physical and chemical changes, are considered useful knowledge and give him a standing in the class, it will not be as easy as it otherwise would be to get that pupil out of school. Something more than we have had of manual training is to play an important part in holding these short- time pupils in school. Attention has already been called to the fact that many children are withdrawn from school at an early age, because of the long time it takes to work up to a good position in almost any occupation ; but if he is to work with his hands, here is a line of school work which must tend to shorten that long period. He sees that it must give him the lead in the race, and so he and his parents often come to regard it a great privilege for him to be able to remain where such preparation is possible. He may, and prob- ably does, exaggerate the relative value of this part of the course of study ; but, nevertheless, it holds him in the school, and so gives him time to get interested, also, in other lines of school work, as he finds that the more he knows along any line the more he is helped along every other. This is not mere theory. Manual training, where intelligently introduced, has already been found to have a decided influence in retaining these pupils who are so inclined to cut school life undesirably short. It doesn't make angels of them, nor does it always lead to brilliant scholarship ; but it does help, in very many cases, in giving them an intelligent and hearty interest in school work. Something more of flexibility in our courses of study is desirable. There are classes in some of our city schools in which, on entering, not a pupil can talk or understand English. We are sometimes asked, in a triumph- ant sort of way, '' Can^t American schools do for their pupils what Ger- man or French schools do for theirs ?" Now the German teacher sits down before his pupils, all German, with German type of mind and German traditions, and makes his pupile good Germans. We do more than he does : out of divergent and antagonistic races we are making a 7ieio race, and it ill becomes one to minimize the value of the work. Such .• 652 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. classes are clearly outside of an}^ ordinary course of stud^f. But, in less extreme cases, there are topics of study which are desirable for pupils who are to continue some years in school, which are less desirable for those who, presumably, are to enter early upon the weary struggle for bread. Such topics can be dropped out for these pupils, thus gaining time for the work of highest importance to them as individuals and future citizens. A pupil thus situated will be able to keep well abreast of his class in the work he does undertake, his self-respect will be raised, and he will the more easily be retained in the membership of the school. This differentiation in the course of study should operate not only to retain longer in school those who are in danger of leaving to go to work, but also in retaining in the elementary schools, while they properly belong there, the pupils who are now drawn out to prepare for higher courses of study. There need be but few changes to meet the wants of both extremes. By far the larger part of what the elementary schools can or should offer is equally needed at both ends of the line. To reach most effectively these children who are in danger of continuing but a short time in school, requires an individualism in teaching and molding which is not possible to the extent necessary, while a teacher has as large a number of pupils as in this grade is now generally required. In Harvard College the ratio of pupils to instructors is seven to one. In Boston the average number of pupils to a teacher in the grammar grades is fifty-two. By rule it is fifty-six. Give the grammar schools the same proportionate teaching force that Harvard College has, and I am not sure that the teachers would not only take all the new studies recommended, but stuff the poor children with Greek and Hebrew to keep themselves out of mischief. In the story of rescue from the grammar school, and of refuge in the Latin school, with the great personal gain resulting, which we heard last evening, the speaker forgot to inform you that in the gram- mar school the number of pupils to a teacher is from fifty to fifty-six, while in the Latin it is from thirty to thirty-five — less than two-thirds. Also, that in the Latin school each teacher, after a probationary period, attains the rank and pay of the principal of the grammar school, making the cost in the Latin school somewhere about twice as much per pupil as in the grammar school. So that the rescued party didn't pay for his bringing up in the Latin school unless he came to know at least twice as much as his mates whom he left behind. It may have been true then that one did know twice as much, but it isn't true now. If our college presidents really wish to help the grammar schools in the most effective way, let them join hands with us in seeking to reduce the great inequality as to number of pupils to a teacher, which now exists in comparing this grade of schools with those above it. No teacher with fifty-six pupils can bestow upon each that individual study and interest which are necessary to search out in the depths of the BRINGING PUPILS FURTHER ON IN THEIR STUDIES. 053 child's nature— depths, perhaps, never explored before^hose hidden springs of interest and action, which, being touched by a friendly hand, cause the child to feel the throbbing of a life liitherto unknown to him. Thus new interest is excited, dormant faculties are aroused to action, bonds of mutual sympathy come to bind together teacher and taught, and the pupil becomes so happy in his work and so fixed in his place that nothing short of an imperative necessity will be able to take him out of the school. A good teacher will do something of this work in spite of excessive numbers, or of anything else, but she longs for strength and opportunity to do more of it. Such teachers often become morbidly self-condemnatory as they see pupils hardening under the influences surrounding them, sturdily refusing to be moved by any ordinary incentives, but whom the teacher feels sure could be saved to the school and to themselves, could she but find the right way. The harm arising from giving a teacher such numbers as make it impos- sible for her to do her work most successfully is admitted by all ; but, when it comes to a remedy, the greatly increased cost of suitably increas- ing the teaching force in our elementary schools seems to many to be an unanswerable argument. But is it so ? In this matter the Scripture maxim applies with peculiar force : ''There is that scattereth and yet increaseth ; there is that withholdeth more than, is meet, but it tendeth to poverty." While, to secure a proper individualism and the highest success in teaching in the lower grades, a larger proportionate teaching force is imperative, the need of improvement in the quality of the work is quite as urgent. No class in the community know so well as the superintend- ents, whom I have the honor to address, that during the last few years very great improvements have been made in the work of the elementary schools — improvements which many of those whose work is mainly in the higher grades fail to realize or appreciate. There has been a decided ele- vation of the plane on which schoolroom work in these grades is being done. There is still need, however, on the part of teachers, of more skill, better preparation, a more enthusiastic love of the work, and an unselfish devotion to it. There are still too many cases of appointments made, and teachers retained, in which the supposed interest of the teacher is the ground of action rather than the best good of the school. No matter what may be the circumstances of the candidate, or the past services of the teacher, neither should have any weight against the real interests of the school. The Teachers' Benefit Societies, now coming into being in our large cities, are to do much toward making it possible for teachers whose strengtli declines to leave their woi^t in more vigorous hands, releas- ing themselves from the exacting duties of the schoolroom, which they are now no longer able to perform, while at the same time they can retain 654 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. their own self-respect and not become altogether dependent upon friends or charity. Teachers who enter upon the work, or continue in it, with no love for children, and no solemn sense of responsibility regarding the work to he done, must be mercilessly weeded out. A teacher who cannot see in each child under her charge something to call out either her love or her pity, and show her warm, heartfelt interest and unselfish effort, is not the one to hold pupils in the school. A teacher who will crowd out of school pupils she deems undesirable, that she may have a prettier class or an easier time, is unworthy of her calling and recreant to her most solemn obligations. Such a teacher is in lienor bound to withdraw from her place and let some one take it who has the heart qualifications therefor. Some teachers rarely have pupils leave their classes to go to work. In some way obstacles are overcome, the pupil holds on while the class remains in that particular room, and forever after holds the teacher in grateful remem- brance. To aid teachers in this work of holding pupils in the schools, our schoolrooms should be furnished with all the appliances necessary for awakening interest, stimulating thought, developing the powers of obser- vation, and making a felt connection between the work of the schoolroom and the activities of the greater world outside. In too many American schoolrooms the progressive teacher is left to make her bricks without straw, or gather it when she ought to he resting, or draw upon her scantily filled purse to purchase that which, to her, is indispensable if she would develop and hold the interest of those who are in danger of dropping out. Too large a share of school funds has been spent in showy buildings, and too small a share in furnishing those appliances which are to the teacher what his tools are to the mechanic. A better day is dawning, and this poverty of means for interesting pupils needing encouragement is not always to stand in the way of teachers doing their best work. When the kindergarten shall have taken its proper place in our school system, when such changes shall have been made in our courses of study as are necessary to meet the needs of all classes of pupils, when in all com- munities suitable school buildings and appliances shall be provided, when teachers unfitted by nature and acquirements for the delicate work of teaching shall have been dismissed, and only teachers of sterling worth, skill, ability, and enthusiasm are to be found in our schoolrooms — then the question we are considering will be answered for large numbers of these short-time pupils. They will complete the grammar course, at least, and go forth in some degree fitted for their place and work in life. But for other large numbers the question is not answered. Were all possible perfections of school conditions at our command, what are we as superintendents and principals to say to that mother who interrupts her *'song of the shirt '' long enough to come over to the schoolhouse to talk BRING ING PUPILS FURTHER ON IN THEIR STUDIES. 655 with us about taking her daughter, now twelve years of age, out of school ? Shall we show her our splendid equipment and tell her how much we can do for her daughter ? Shall we tell her that we cannot spare the child, that she is the ornament of her class, and if allowed to remain is sure to come up, by and by, not only to an honorable self-sup- port, but to be also a source of pride and joy and help to her mother ? We may then learn, for the first time, that that mother has just as clear an apprehension of the yalue of an education as we have, that she sees with a clearer and fonder eye than we possibly can the signs of promise in her darling child. Our kindness may win her confidence enough for her to lift the veil from the family life, and we shall see with surprise how much it has cost that mother to send the child to school so long, keeping her neat and tidy all the time. We may learn that the father, now dead, had set his heart upon giving the daughter a good education, and so fitting her to support herself in the higher walks of life. We shall find that the mother has burned the midnight oil, not as an exception but as a rule, that such plans might be carried out, and that now she has come to the parting of ways. Her unaided strength can carry the burden no longer ; she has too much refined, womanly spirit to beg ; she has no friends who can help ; and the little that the daughter can earn is her only known resource. What shall we say to such a mother ? As things are in most communities, there is but one thing to say. A present neces- sity for food knows no considerations of future equivalents in mental power or social standing. Tlie food must be had at whatever loss to the child. The child must become an earner in that family, even if her whole future is thereby narrowed and darkened. It will be said that the picture is overdrawn, that there are really but very few such families. We all rejoice that there are no more, but the number of parents who are thus compelled to weigh the school advantages of their children against daily bread is larger than is generally supposed. Such parents, be they few or many, deserve sympathy and help. How helped ? It is not an easy ques- tion to answer. Two things should be taken for granted. In this land of plenty every child should have, does have, a right to its childhood for school purposes. The State should lay its hand upon so much of the great wealth of the community as will enable her to guarantee this privi- lege, this right, to every child. But the mother who came to see us would rather die than become a pauper. The feeling marks the nobleness of her nature. Christian statesmanship is surely adequate to the working out of the problem how necessary aid shall be rendered in the support of the children of such parents during the time necessary to be spent in school, so that the family shall not be pauperized nor the State's bounty be mis- applied. Possibly this aid may best be giv^ by means of some organiza- tion not directly under State or municipal control. However done, there should be in it no suggestion of charity or pauper-support, but it should 656 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. be placed upon the high ground of the right of the child to tlie opportu- nity ^o fit himself for the responsibilities of adult life — responsibilities growing more and more diflScult to meet. There remains to be considered the question, what shall be done with and for such children as, at the best, get only snatches of schooling between long intervals of absence, some of whom do not darken the doors of the schoolroom from January to December. Among these truants and absentees are some children, stubborn and perverse in nature, from comparatively good homes, whose parents would be glad to have them attend regularly had they the moral power to enforce their wishes ; but most of them are children of parents, who, as has been already noted, with cunning cupidity or sheer indifference, evade or trample upon all laws for the schooling of their children, in whose tenement-house homes the child works unchallenged ; homes often in which the common decencies of life are unknown, and in which a child without strong counteracting influ- ences has about as much prospect of growing up to an intelligent, honest, virtuous manhood or womanhood as a thorn-tree has of bearing grapes. These are the children who need our wisest planning. No one can visit the crowded tenement-house districts of our large cities, or walk through the streets of such sections on a pleasant Sunday afternoon, when the children swarm out to play, notice the marks of early and inherited vice, listen to the profane and obscene talk which is the current medium of communication — no one can make these observations and not be profoundly impressed with the gravity of the situation, and the peril involved in it. Now, what can be done for these children? When brought into our schools, as where there is an efficient truant force many of them are, it is most difficult to hold them, and if held there is great risk of a contaminating influence in which the loss to otherwise good children overbalances the good done them. Shall we let them go, and try to forget their existence ? Then good-by to our form of government. "We cannot go on forever with an ignorant and debased class multiplying about us. A free government commits suicide when it allows an ignorant and vicious class to increase in the community. Such a government must depend upon the intelligence and virtue of its citizens or it becomes the worst of all despotisms, that of the ignorant and vicious mob. No : these children cannot be left to come and go in our schools or absent them- selves altogether, as the whim may lead them, or as their parents may fail or succeed in finding something for them to do. In many communities more rigid laws regarding truancy and absenteeism, especially absentee- ism, are imperative. It should be no more possible for a parent to deprive his child of the opportunity of going to school by employing him at home than if he be employed in a store or factory. It should be made the duty of some officer to make frequent visits of inspection, especially in tenement-hoitse neighborhoods, to see that children are not being BRINGING PUPILS FURTHER ON IN THEIR STUDIES. 657 deprived of their school rights and privileges. What shall we do with such as cannot be safely admitted to ordinary school privileges, or such as will not attend regularly when admitted ? For such children a school like the school in Detroit, known as Tlte Ungraded School, would be an important auxiliary to any school system. (For facts regarding this school I am indebted to a recent report of Supt. Seaver, of Bos- ton.) Tiiis is a school which the Board of Education of the city is empowered by law to establish, and into which truant officers are required to gather all habitual truants and absentees, as well as those pupils from other schools who are incorrigibly turbulent, vicious, or immoral. Such pupils are not entirely removed from parental control, but they are obliged to carry their dinner, and are under the care of the teachers during the time between sessions as well as in school hours. Truant officers are empowered to compel attendance upon this school, and any absence is immediately made known to them. The term for which a child is sent to the ungraded school is indefinite in length. By good behavior, punc- tuality, and earnest work he may make it short, or by the opposite course he may make it long. No outside power is allowed to interfere and grant an undeserved release. Upon the child alone depends the length of his detention. In Detroit one term at the ungraded school works reforma- tion in three-quarters of the cases — a grand success. But when such a school as this Detroit school shall have done all it can do, there will remain children, in quite considerable numbers, whom it will be impos- sible to save while the home and street life exert their baleful influence for so considerable part of the day. For such children the parental school is a necessity. They must be taken out of the mire and filth of their surroundings and placed in charge of such foster-parents as shall give them what they have never before known, a real home. A parental school is not a prison, but a school-home, a school in which the child is taught what he most needs to know, especially along the lines of manual training ; a home in which he shall learn what the word ^^home" means, and in which he shall be placed under those healthful, elevating influences of which a real home is the center and inspiration. Membership in such a school-home should be continual, until if possible a relish shall have been acquired for the new ways, which shall restrain from a return to the old haunts and habits. Such a work will be often discouraging to those who engage in it. It will be too much to expect that heredity and early surroundings will in every case be overcome, but the child will at least have had a chance, and many will be encouraged and helped to a worthy and successful struggle against the odds of the lives to which they seem born. It will be expensive — expensive as it is efficient. In all our large cities there are children, in very considerable numbers, who ought to be gathered into such school-homes. Some cities have already r started in this direction. Delays are dangerous ; children who may be 658 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. rescued to-day, to-morrow will be beyond our reach. When we shrink from the expense of such reformatory work we should bear in mind the fact that such children, if let alone, will almost inevitably grow up to be a public charge, either in our penal or our charitable institutions. Which will involve the greater cost — this or that ? It may be said that this assisting during school attendance in the pecuniary support of the children of the worthy poor, and the colonizing of the children of the depraved and vicious, savors too strongly of social- ism, that it carries the work of the government too far, that the school supported at the public expense is as far as the government can properly go. It was far enough once, but do not the times in which we live and the conditions surrounding us demand more than that now ? The abso- lute right of the child to so much of its childhood as is necessary for school purposes should, in our country at least, be regarded as an axiom, and whatever custom, law, or precedent stands in the way of giving this right practical force must give way. Realizing, as we do, the importance of carrying these pupils further along in their school studies before they go to work, we shall use the power and influence of our positions in aiding to bring about such changes, both within and without the schoolroom, as will accomplish so desirable a result. We will not fail to bear in mind the fact that, much as these children need instruction and mental discipline, they need still more the strengthening and development of the moral nature and pur- pose. We shall teach, that knowledge put to bad uses is worse than ignorance, that learning is not chiefly valuable as a means for making money or gaining power, that it is infinitely better to be useful than to be rich, and that the more one knows the more useful he may make himself. Whatever we do or fail to do for the happy children of prosperous homes, we must not fail to realize the vast importance of doing all we may for these children born under a cloud, for whom often the only door of escape from the wretchedness and degradation of their home surroundings is the schoolroom door. Let us send into their lives as much of sympathy and help as may be possible, realizing that with them as with happier children we are working upon imperishable material, and if enough on the alert and sympathetic enough, we so may make our mark for good that no untoward influences shall ever blot it out. Let us hear as addressed to us the admonition of the great Teacher : " Take heed that ye despise not one of these little ones. '^ DISCUSSION, [Discussion keported by Hon. O. E. Wells, op Wisconsin.] Hq]^. J. H. SHiifN, Little Rock, Ark. : It has been said, that of the entire number of pupils attending the schools sixty per cent, are in the DISCUSSION. 659 primary grades, from six to ten ; thirty-five per cent, in the grammar grades, from ten to fourteen ; and five per cent, in the high school, from fourteen to eighteen. It has also been said, that of every hundred entering the primary less than half of them are found pursuing it to its end ; less than thirty per cent, finish the fifth year ; less than twenty per cent, the sixth year ; less than ten per cent, the seventh year, and less than six per cent, the eighth year. Taking these figures as bases, let us look at the problem : 12,325,411 children enter the primary department ; they divide as follows: 7,395,246, primary ; 6 to 10 years of age. 4,313,893, grammar; 10 to 14 years of age. 616,270, high school ; 14 to 18 years of age. This showing would not be so bad if all children entering each of the three great divisions pursued it regularly to the end. But of the whole number entering the primary department less than half pursue it regularly to the end ; that is, less than 6,162,705 children go beyond the primary ; that is to say, fully 6,162,705 children receive their whole school education in the primary department before the beginning of their tenth year ; that is to say, one-half the children of school age in the United States graduate from the schools in the beginning of their tenth year. The question is, ^'What can be done to bring children on further in their studies before they leave school to go to work ? " 1. What studies have they to be brought on in ? We begin to bring them further on by setting up limitations at the beginning which may not be We say at the start : No child shall know more at the end of four years* teaching than this : Reading : Finish the third reader. Thirty-six months or 720 days on the first, second, and third readers. Arithmetic: Through addition and subtraction of common fractions, with selected tables of weights and measures. 720 days on 100 pages of elementary arithmetic. Geography : The western hemisphere in outline, without a book. Penmanship : Words, phrases, and short sentences. Language : Develop the idea of an action word with an object after it to complete the sense ; develop the idea of when, how, and where an act may be performed. Four years gone, graduation at hand for over 6,000,- 000 children, and the transitive verb and objective case just reached, together with the use of adverbs. Tl%e whole of the last four months to be diligently devoted to the development of the transitive verb and the adverbs. 660 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. In orthography they are limited to about 750 words. In looking over this course, the one almost universal in our schools, one is prompted to ask, *' Could there have been a better scheme devised for keeping the children back ? " Wise men sometimes make great mistakes, and it is certainly a grave mistake to prepare a course of study for a set of children who are expected to continue regularly therein for twelve years, and apply it rigorously to the full one-half of our children who quit at the beginning of their fifth school year. The National Educational Association advised a system of public education which may be justly termed *Hhe three fours." Primary course, four years ; grammar course, four years ; high school course, four years. This same body then outlined the work which good schools might safely do in twelve consecutive years. The schools of America fell into line, and the twelve-year course became the standard for nearly all schools. To string out the common and high school branches through twelve j^ears, it became necessary to dilute the matter in the first four; to compensate for the singular dilution, the country was promised greater accuracy. Accurate in emptiness. Then more than 6,000,000 children were put into this course and required to master it. Then ten months to ten became a mania. Boys became so proficient in their alphabet after four years' teaching that they could say it backwards and read the third reader. They then quit school, and grave men began to discuss how to get children further on in their studies before they quit school to go to work. Is the mental stature of the aver- age nine-year-old only third reader high ? Grammar to the transitive verb high ? Arithmetic to fractions ? If so, then we can do no more than we are doing. If not, then the first step towards an answer is a destruction Of the false standards that now limit the progressive develop- ment of the great masses of the children. 12,305,411 children are the work we have to fashion. Only 739,504 enter the high school. 11,585,907 cannot go to the high school. They are as effectually barred out as if restrained by law. The environment of the universe takes more than ninety-four per cent, of the children out of school at the beginning of the fourteenth year. And we, grave teachers, deliberately construct a course of study wiiich deprives 11,325,411 children of any school knowledge of history, civil government, morals and manners as a study, citizenship, science, language, algebra, and geometry. My answer to this question is, to remove the course barriers that now obstruct child progress. Try the three-threes instead of the three-fours. Do from six to nine what is now done from six to ten ; from nine to twelve, what is now put from ten to fourteen. 1. The standard for the primary and grammar grades is too low. 2. It is too easy, and therefore requires too little labor. 3. The practice advances teaching at the expense of learning. DIS0U88I0N. 661 A second answer is : Have the children use good, logical books to obtain facts, and by a right use of these facts grow in developed power ; that is to say, abolish to an almost total degree the habit of developing facts that need no development, and of hunting everywhere for matter that is already in hand. Act as if the average boy had some sense, require him to work, and the masses of children will get further along in their studies. Oral teaching, unless done by masters, is a fraud of the worst kind, and is daily cheating thousands of children out of their heritage. Good books are authority and are lasting standards. Until the human mind reaches its last and highest estate, the power to reason rightly and independently, it should lean upon the books which contain the logical expressions of those who have reached that estate. Children should be led to lean upon authoritative statements of the truth, as they would lean upon the Rock of Ages. The teaching of a poor book is infinitely better than the vapid- ity of an oral instructor who is unfamiliar with his case. And ninety- nine out of every hundred are not so far masters of the subject as to be definite, certain, and logical. To get children further on is to give them great living books full of great living thought, and to require them to rub up against the fatness of the thing. Of all sad things of tongue or pen, the saddest are these, cadaverous orality by licensed men. A third answer is a change in management. Give the three primary grades into the exclusive control of women. For the high school and grammar grades let the division be as follows ; as many male as female teachers ; seat the girls from two consecutive grades in one room with a female teacher ; seat the males of the same grades in another contiguous room with a male teacher. Let the rooms interchange for recitations. Two influences will act upon each child in each room, in study and recita- tion, while the government of each sex will be in the hands of its kind. Last of all : To get children further on requires that adults be pushed further on. 1. Adults must be led to know that public education is something more than public beneficence. 2. Adults must be led to know that public education is something more than public defense. 3. Adults must be led to know that public education is a function of civilized government, without whose exercise it has nojight to exist. The common duties of men are common rights which demand a common teaching under a common law. The common hopes of men are common rights which demand a similar common treatment. Duties and hopes are the end of human government. Because these things are common, they should be taught in a common way under a common law. This will only come when each State shall have an educ^ional legislature equal in power and dignity, upon all educational questions, to the ordinary legislature upon the ordinary legislative questions. In the Federal government there 662 TBE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. should be a Secretary of Education, equal in the cabinet with any other cabinet officer. In each State all educational questions should be settled, by a co-ordinate, independent, educational arm. Great is the Diana of our Executive ; greater, perhaps, is the Diana of our legislative depart- ment ; greater, because quieter, is the Diana of our judiciary ; but greater than any one of these, and greater possibly than all, is the Diana of our State public education. We shall never get further on with child educa- tion till we advance further with adult education ; and the perfection of both will only be reached when the fourth estate, the Educational Depart- ment of Government, shall rise like the star in the east to glorify the ages. INFLUENCE OF MANUAL TRAINING ON HABITS OF TlIOUGUT. 663 THE INFLUENCE OF MANUAL TRAINING ON HABITS OF THOUGHT BY SUPT. JOHJS^ E. BRADLEY, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. It is difficult to trace formative influences. The forces which mold a character are manifold and often obscure. Blending with native aptitudes and hereditary tendencies, they yield widely different results under con- ditions apparently similar. Tastes and interests which seem permanent to-day may prove ephemeral to-morrow. Stimulating and ennobling influ- ences are lost upon one, while a chance word or trifling incident rouses another to grand achievement. Time alone can determine what product the fair promise of youth shall yield. In attempting, therefore, to estimate the relative value of various parts of our educational work, we have need, in the first place, of caution lest our predilections lead us to unwarrantable inferences ; and, in the second place, we need that openness of mind which will enable us to recognize the excellences of any system of training. We unconsciously magnify that which is familiar, and we are slow to accept new truths and new methods of work. I have therefore relied largely, in the preparation of this paper, upon the observations of those who are engaged in the work of manual training. I wish to report results rather than urge my own opinions. I have had before me the notes of eleven teachers engaged in various branches of manual training. Before I conclude, I shall quote some of their own words. I shall endeavor to reflect their views throughout this paper. Let me first quote from one who is not a teacher. A recognized leader, who has had large experience in the business world, said a few days ago : '* Education in books is only one-third of an educa- tion ; education in the ways of the world and a knowledge of human nature is another third, and education or training of the will is the other third. To a large extent, it is only the first third which is given in the schools. Book education alone is too deficient and one-sided to accom- plish anything in this world. Here is a man whose schooling was neg- lected or confined to a few months ; yet he is very successful in business and a man of great influence. Tliere is a college graduate whose life is a failure ; yet he is said to be a man of considerable ability and has no very bad habits. "You ask why is it that the man of so little education gets along so much better than the man with so much. You are simply mistaken as to which has the most education. The man who is almost illiterate has trained his 664 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. energy, perseverance, self-reliance, all the powers of his will, to a high degree, is well posted in the ways of the world, and has a thorough knowl- edge of human nature ; then he has two-thirds of an education. The other is lacking in these qualities, but he has a very thorough knowledge of books ; then he has a little more than one-third of an education. The education of each is deficient, neither has the education he should have, but certainly the college-bred man has the least. '^ Now, without stopping to reply to certain minor criticisms which will at once be made upon this utterance, I wish to inquire whether the one- sidedness which is here so graphically depicted must necessarily exist. Grant that the picture is drawn, as most criticisms of the schools are, by one who only knows of their work as it was conducted years ago, still is there not • here indicated a great need in mental training which the schools ought to supply ? No previous decade has brought so many changes in educational work as have occuri:ed during the last ten years. Most of them have been strenuously opposed by teachers and other friends of the schools. Progressive movements are often misunderstood. And yet so rapidly have our views changed with reference to the best aims and the best methods, that the teachers^ meetings are now full of convicted sinners and new converts. Need, we then, be too apprehensive concerning further modifications in our work ? If an element of training can be added that will develop neglected powers, should we not rather rejoice ? Too much has been claimed for manual training by enthusiastic advocates ; groundless fears and objections have been raised by its opponents. We need a new estimate, based upon experience and familiarity with the details of the subject. As we consider the influence of manual training upon mental growth, we need to look at the subject not with the eyes of the enthusiast and specialist, but from the standpoint of the teacher wishing to maintain due proportion in educational work, and to give due emphasis to that which is most important. Among the various educational ends which are proposed, there is none upon which all are more fully agreed than the '' Formation of Correct Habits.''^ It is true that Dr. Johnson, fixing his attention upon the enslavement of evil habits, represents education as principally concerned that youth should be free from their power ; and Kousseau, in one of his oracular utterances, declares that the only habit a child should be permitted to form is to contract no habits. But though moralists and teachers have thus often portrayed the dangers of evil habits, the world has come to see that man's safety and strength depend upon the establish- ment of good habits. Tlie law of habit is the same as that of association. It indicates a tendency in the mind to repeat its activities, and with a con- stantly increasing facility. It is Nature's method of accumulation of energy. Education implies personality — the ability to assert one's self. Intelligence is not abstract and absolute ; it waits upon performance. INFLUENCE OF MANUAL TRAINING ON HABITS OF THOUGHT 665 Habit gives ease and certainty. It not only lays down the lines of associa- tion, but it adds vigor to the will. The mind moves with greater prompt- ness and force when sure of its way. What, then, are some of the habits which the schools should cultivate in their pupils ? 1. Attention. The child^s thoughts flit from one thing to another, like a butterfly from flower to flower. He must acquire the power of concen- trating them upon one object. There is a spontaneous attention and there is a voluntary attention. The child should learn in the schoolroom to prolong the act of spontaneous attention and add new energy to it by an effort of the will. This implies careful adaptation of the instruction to the capacity of the child. His powers of purely intellectual activity are feeble ; his mind must be reached through the avenues of the senses. He is capable of observing individual objects, and his power of acquiring certain classes of facts is wonderful ; but his interest flags when you attempt to apply your story, and he gets nothing out of the relation, which to you seems so important. To a certain extent this necessity of the child to think along the line of specific and tangible objects remains for many years. The full significance of abstract ideas is grasped very slowly. A true philosophy of childhood teaches us, then, to supply, during the early years of school life, both objective teaching and manual occupation. Train the child to habits of attention by giving him employment to which he can attend. Horace Mann once said that if teachers would giye one- half the school hours to creating a desire to learn, more would be accom- plished than by giving all the time to book work. Primary teachers testify to the superior capacity of pupils who come from the kindergartens. The occupations which have trained the fingers and eyes of these little ones have also stimulated mental activity and given them power to think. The habit of attention must have its foundation in tlie activity of the senses. Vigor of thouglit depends upon interest. A primary teacher of large experience reports : ^^No exercises train children to habits of atten- tion like those in which the hands can be employed. The best ' busy work' is that which gives the hands most to do. The kindergarten occupations train the mind even more than the eyes and fingers. Tlie children learn to attend to the exact thing to be done." First of all, then, manual training has a place in the primary school. 2. Another habit which the school should cultivate is that of observa- tion. The intellectual fabric must have a solid foundation in sense- knowledge. Crude ideas of what constitute observation are too prevalent. A teacher, for example, carries an object into the schoolroom, and, as she calls attention to its various features, the^hildren look at them and try to remember them. It is called an observation lesson, and is perhaps useful. But something more is needed. True observation goes further. Suppose 666 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. now, that under the direction of the teacher, the children place different kinds of seeds on prepared paper or cotton and watch their germination and growth. Careful record is made in their little note-books of what they observe. They are permitted to ask questions ; their curiosity and interest are encouraged, but they are not too freely told what they can find out for themselves. Now a valuable habit of thought is fostered. They learn to examine and investigate for themselves. They observe for a purpose. Still more beneficial is the observation required in constructive work, like making and fitting the parts of an article accurately and taste- fully together. The acquisition of knowledge at first hand is needed for the best mental growth. The muscular sense should be developed and utilized. Manual training exercises conjointly the nerve-centers of the hand and eye, by which knowledge is primarily acquired. It is in the elementary and high school, what laboratory work is in the college. True observation has an end in view. Understanding alone is not enough. Intelligence is not merely a store ; it is also perceiving power. Knowl- edge must be kept alive by new acquisitions, else it becomes as worthless as unused coin. The child needs to handle colors, to place them side by side and select his own combinations. He needs to handle counters, weights, and meas- ures. He needs to handle plants, and to make and record his observations concerning them. He needs to handle the various type-forms, to draw them, and make them of clay, paper, and wood. He needs to represent in drawings and in solids the facts which he learns in geography, history, and elementary science, and to relate this work to his language exercises. These are the ways in which observation is trained and thought stimulated. And the exercises which require the closest and most delicate use of the hand and the eye are also the ones which best arouse mental activity. They are especially efficacious in reaching dull and backward pupils. A primary teacher says : " My pupils attend more regularly since we have had industrial work. I have never known a child to be absent, except for sickness, on clay day or sewing day. This work is particularly suc- cessful with dull children." Another teacher says : ''The work on card- board is just the thing for backward pupils." 3. The school should train to habits of definite and accurate thinking. Such training must be largely indirect. Generalization and inference, no less than memory and imagination, depend upon clear perception. Sully says: ''Thought will be loose and inaccurate when the preliminary stage of perception has been hurried over. The first-hand knowledge of things through personal inspection is worth far more than any second-hand account of them by description." Loose and shallow thinking must pre- vail where facts and relations are imperfectly understood. Every teacher knows how difficult it is to get pupils to clearly apprehend the exact thing which is to be done. Half of a class will raise their hands to answer, be- INFLUENCE OF MANUAL TRAINING ON HABITS OF THOUGHT. 667 fore they really know what the question is. They are ready to solve a problem or analyze a sentence before the teacher can state it. They feel no chagrin at mistakes, and hopelessly mingle thinking and guessing. What teacher has not been mortified and astonished at the mistakes of his pupils, misled by a sound or careless inference ? The author of '^^ Eng- lish as She is Wrote " gives us many ludicrous examples. She tells us of pupils who believe that '' the principal occupation of the people of Austria is gathering Austrich feathers," that '' mendacious means that which can be mended," that **the best fossils are found in theological cabinets," and that ^'a court-martial means a man who goes around late at night." One bewildered child, mistaking the identity of the State of Virginia, declares that Abraham Lincoln was the '^ Mother of Presi- dents." These are only extreme examples of the use of words without thought with which teachers are only too familiar. Pupils form the habit of depending implicitly upon the text-book or the teacher'*s statement, instead of obtaining facts for themselves. Instead of growing intellectu- ally honest and self-reliant, they grow listless. If a word is misapprehended and makes nonsense, it gives them no great uneasiness, because they do not really think about it at all. Manual training compels pupils to be accurate, to depend upon themselves, to consider before they act. A boy corrects an error in his arithmetic or algebra and thinks no more about it. He is used to such mishaps. But when he comes to similar oversights in the workshop, he finds that his labor is lost and his materials spoiled. He cannot afford to make mistakes. Ho quickly learns to work with his faculties alert. Manual occupations, from paper-folding to metal-work, require thoughtful attention. Dexterity of the hand implies a certain dexterity of thought which is acquired along with the manual skill. A primary teacher reports : ^^ This work cultivates exactness and rapidity of thought. Unless a trained mind can be manifested by a trained hand, half its power is lost." A principal who has a great variety of manual work in his building says : " To my mind, the main educational feature in all manual training is the fact that a pupiFs work is largely the expression of his practical and definite thought. Before a boy can do a thing he must have the idea of that thing clearly fixed in his mind. Careful work is always preceded by careful thought. The finished piece is a perfect picture of the mind behind it. Thus this training leads, I think, more directly to independent and original thought than any other training in our course of study. In much school work, pupils do not have an oppor- tunity to think for themselves. Their originality is crippled by method and process. In this work the pupil has a chance to express himself in spite of precept or teacher." 4. The school should cultivate the sestheMc nature. No words of mine are needed to set forth the importance of this work. There is need of every influence which can be exerted to raise the popular standards of good 668 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. taste. Let more sunshine into the lives of the children. The reading lesson, the language lesson, the general atmosphere of the school, should cultivate refinement and love of beauty. Nearly every form of manual training helps in this work. Who can inspect good drawing, or clay work, or the pretty designs in colored paper, and question their value for purposes of aesthetic culture ? The grotesque and incongruous disappear where such work is done. No pupil can construct a well-finished article in wood or metal without learning better to appreciate good workmanship. No one can execute ornamental designs in wood-carving or lathe work without gaining along with his skill in manipulation a corresponding delicacy of thought and feeling. A supervisor of sewing says : " This branch appeals especially to the personal pride of girls, to their ideas of neatness, grace, and beauty. It has a gentle, refining influence, cultivates the habit of observation and practical thought, and trains to taste in the harmony of color, materials, and arrangement. The work in sewing means not merely so many stitches taken in the proper manner, but also training in refinement, self-reliance, and self-respect." An instructor in wood-carving says: "Wood-carving, one of the most ancient of mechanical arts, has especial value on the artistic side of edu- cation. The requisites of success are an appreciation and study of plant forms and ability to adapt them to decorative purposes. Simple typical forms of foliage are taken for the first exercises, and the student soon recognizes the fact that all plant growth, while founded on certain geo- metrical forms, has an endless diversity in its development. The mere literal copying of natural forms is of little use for decorative carving, and their treatment in a ^ conventional ' manner must be considered. No rigid rules can be laid down. The skill and genius of the designer will be fully taxed. Every cut of the tool is a development of an original idea. This is education, pure and simple, as distinguished from the more literal reproduction of the work of others." Can any one doubt the refining culture of such training as this quotation describes ? 5. The school should be a place where pupils will acquire the habit of accomplishing something — a place for the training of the executive powers. Of what value are the '' cunning hand and cultured brain " un- less their owner uses them ? A generation ago most* boys and girls became practically familiar with some employment at home. The farm- er's son and daughter both learned to work out of school. Their quick and'accurate eyes were trained to observe every feature of an object. But nothing gives our modern city schoolboy any such opportunity. He does not even know the uses of so marvelous a mechanism as the hand. And this one-sidedness of his educational environment is a serious loss to his teacher as well as himself. Children gain the power of application very INFLUENCE OF MANUAL TRAINING ON HABITS OF THOUGHT. 669 slowly ; too many, alas ! never gain it at all. The world is full of men who have no power of persistent effort. They are intelligent enough to do good work, but they are restless and unstable. The schools should be places not only to inform the mind, but also to invigorate the character. To store the memory and train the reflective powers without arousing the executive faculties is like loading a steamer without providing engines and rudder. Indeed, the best training of the other powers is impossible if the will is neglected. The universal weakness of human nature, until trained and disciplined, is a tendency to do things imperfectly, partly from ignor- ance, partly from reluctance to make the requisite effort. The boys and girls in our public schools need to learn, more than any other lesson, the value of earnestness, of a great o'er-mastering purpose. Manual training strengthens the will. It gives specific direction and force to every mental act. The boy acquires in the workshop the habit of overcoming diffi- culties and persisting in an undertaking till it is crowned with success. He conquers his sluggish tendency to do things carelessly. He learns the lessons of industry, perseverance, and genuineness. Let me again quote the testimony of a manual training instructor of large experience : '' When a boy has put a question to nature in regard to a matter which can only be answered through the aid of a compound microscope, and by his own application has obtained the information sought, rather than take it second-hand from his teacher or text-book, he has done something to entitle him to respect ; and when he has chipped and filed a block of iron so well that no light shines under the try-square as he applies it to the faces and angles of the block, he has done something which requires patience, attention, and care. He can prove his work to be well done, and he has a right to be proud of it, for he is developing those qualities which go to make up the highest human character. It requires mind and will to do such work. Good intentions are of no avail unless the will is strong enough to carry them out. No other exercises of the school train to sustained effort like those of the workshop.'^ Another instructor in manual training says : ^' After several years of careful study of this subject, it is my belief that manual training proves a more complete and thorough all-round educa- tion than studies which are purely mental. It broadens the views, teaches exactness, makes students practical and self-reliant, affords vent to nervous restlessness, and stimulates to industry and perseverance. It reaches some students who are not interested in intellectual work. I saw last summer most beautiful and artistic work in the free schools of the People's Palace, London, which was. executed by students who had proved to be almost absolute dunces in classical and literary wor^." In this connection we also note that the success of each pupil after leaving school depends largely on his will-power — on his ability to work. 670 TEE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. While we would nofc teach trades in the public schools, this incidental benefit of manual training should not be overlooked, that the productive power of a workman is at once visibly increased by giving dexterity to his hands. The future leaders of our industries will receive their first train- ing in the use of tools in the public schools. The highest mechanical and artistic skill is usually the product of early training. Intellectual and manual training are both needed to qualify a man for the position of fore- man. When can the foundation of both these requisites be better laid than simultaneously in the public school ? Chauncey M. Depew, whose voice has been so often raised in defense of classical culture, said at the opening of the Drexel Institute : " Steam, electricity, and inventions have hardened the conditions of competition and multiplied indefinitely the number of specialties. In the briefest time, and almost without warning, we are brought face to face with the problem that education and prosperity, education and livelihood, educa- tion and morals, education and law, education and liberty are wedded together. Manual training solves the problem of labor and industrial development. It so equips the youth and opens avenues for his energies, that, instead of dynamiting the successful, he will be himself a success." The demand for manual training is not ephemeral. Such magnificent institutions as the Pratt Institute and Drexel Institute illustrate both the wide-spread need and the clearness with which that need is seen by philanthropic men. It should be the part of the patriotic leaders in educational affairs to guide this great movement to practical results — to make it the means of infusing strength and interest into the work of our schools. If now the value of this training be admitted, but the lack of time for it be urged ; if it be said that our courses of study are already over- crowded, I will venture to quote once more from Dr. Johnson. Boswrell relates that one day Mrs. Gastrell set a little girl to repeat to Dr. Johnson Cato's Soliloquy, which she went through very correctly. After a pause he asked the child what was the meaning of *' bane and antidote " in the passage. She was unable to tell. Mrs. Gastrell said: '^You cannot expect so young a child to know the meaning of such words.^' He then said to the little girl : '^ My dear, how many pence in six- pence ?'' "I cannot tell, sir," was the half-terrified reply. On this, addressing himself to Mrs. Gastrell, he said : '^ Now, my dear lady, can anything be more ridiculous than to teach a child Cato's Soliloquy who does not know how many pence there are in sixpence ?" Our courses of study have recently been much improved, but there are a few Cato's Soliloquies still left. There are some teachers who still cling with pride to exercises which might better be spared. The good names of drill and thoroughness are made to cover much misdirected work. We INFLUENCE OF MANUAL TRAINING ON HABITS OF THOUGHT. 671 need more of the spirit, less of the letter, of these things. If manual training could crowd out some of the dreary repetitions which still prevail, it would be a great gain. If freedom and originality could take the place of slavery to method, if powers could be evoked which are now repressed, all would rejoice. Already teachers and pupils feel that pressure is removed as the range of instruction is widened. Interest in the work makes it easier. Adapta- tion to the age, capacity, and needs of the pupils makes interest possible. Troublesome problems disappear as the schools become truly attractive. If we are now able to accomplish double the work in geography with half the labor formerly required, because our aims are better, let us not hesitate to welcome other changes which will increase the helpfulness of our schools. Let us remember with Lowell that: " New occasions teach new duties, Time makes ancient good uncouth." Useless experiments need not be tried ; good work need not be given up. But improvement is always possible, and vitality and progress should be steadily gained. The scope and methods of our work should be made more flexible. Provision should be made for the harmonious training of all the pupil's powers, and the people should have new reason for pride in their cherished system of public schools, because of their adaptation to the changing needs of society. 672 TEE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. MANUAL TRAINING BETWEEN THE EMPLOYMENTS OF THE KINDERGARTEN AND THOSE OF THE TOOL LABORATORIES OF THE GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. BY SUPT. W. B. POWELL, WASHII^^GTON^, D. C. Five years ago a small beginning in teaching the use of wood-working tools was made in the high school of Washington. Grradually, from that time to this, new branches of work have been added, each of which, together with the one with which we began, has been extended, so that now manual training is recognized as a regular and per- manent branch of education in all the schools. The manual training done in our schools, resulting from changes to which reference has been made, may be stated in a general way, as follows : All the girls of the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth grades are taught sewing one hour a week. We are gradually introducing shops in which the girls of the sixth grade are taught to cut and fit. All the girls of the seventh and eighth grades are taught cooking two hours a week. All the boys of the seventh and eighth grades are taught the use of wood-working tools two hours a week. All kinds of work thus far mentioned are practically compulsory, or as nearly so as is any other branch of the school curriculum. The girls of the high school are not taught cooking, as it has been determined that the two years of instruction given below the high school are as much as it is desirable for the schools to give in that branch of education. Boys of the high schools have one year at lathe work, one year of forg- ing, and one year of machine tool work. All manual training in the high schools is optional, as is every other branch of education with the exception of English. The subject that I propose to discuss is not the one stated in the pro- gramme exactly, being stated better as follows : Manual Training between the Employments of the Kindergarten and those of the Tool Laboratories of the Grammar Schools. The manual training that is now given in our schools is very inade- quately set forth in the foregoing remarks relating to the subject. It was MANUAL TRAINING. 673 a comparatively easy task to project plans for giving instruction in sewing, ^ cooking, and tool laboratory employments. It was not difficult, the financial means being assured, to provide and arrange appliances, and practically to put the work into the respective grades of the school. It was seen, how- ever, at the start, though much might be done by the introduction of the employments named, to give to some of the children valuable training in the use of the eye and hand, and a profitable acquaintance with practical things, that such a course would be unsymmetrical ; that it would post- pone the beginning of some kinds of muscular training too late for the most profitable returns for a given expenditure of effort ; that it would omit entirely some lines of desirable training because of its narrowness, and that children withdrawing from school during the early years of the school course would get little training of the kind we were seeking to give them. It was felt that a year or two of kindergarten work at the beginning of school life and a corresponding amount of shop or laboratory work at the close would not develop to a very high degree that accuracy of perception, deftness of hand, and trustworthiness of judgment in application that a child's school training should give to him. It was believed that the gap between the sense-training of the kinder- garten and the use of carpenter's and metal-worker's tools in manual training shops might be filled by a system or course of hand-work in the schoolroom running parallel with the purely mental studies of the curriculum of the same grades ; that such a course should, by its many and varied employments, develop the eye, the hand, and the judgment in the direction of expertness, facility, and reliability ; that definite, measurable results in skill, in ingenuity, and in continuity of effort for the accomplish- ment of purpose should be the aim of all teaching in this course of work ; that the objects studied and formed might serve as a foundation for or be the beginning of other kinds of work iij the school, and for supplementing, broadening, or explaining still other kinds of work ; that such a course, if practicable, would be in the interest of economy. Since the beginning of manual training exercises in our schools, there- fore, efforts have been made to arrange some practicable lines of hand- work that should begin in the first primary grade and lead sequentially to the employments of the tool laboratories of the seventh and eighth grades, for the boys, and that should be equally profitable to the girls who would be instructed in cooking when reaching the same grades. Drawing was at the time mentioned a branch of instruction in the schools. It was determined that the subject could not be taught well from flat copies. Though we had not been able, previous to the time to which reference is made, to direct the work of drawing in the light of our best knowledge, it was known that only by a liberal and intelligent use of objects by which children could be made acquainted with natural and 074 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. .art forms could drawing be successfully taught. It became more evident every day, as the work of teaching drawing was studied, that representation even — the simplest product sought by the study — could proceed only from an accurate knowledge of the facts of form ; for, however appearances of forms might differ from the facts, the underlying causes of the differences could be understood only by him who had been made acquainted with the facts. Furthermore, when contemplating the purpose of the study higher than that of simple representation, it was believed that as a healthy, productive imagination could be cultivated only after there had been acquired a store of facts well understood ; so artistic work could be done by him only who would fashion his art out of materials taken from his own conscious store- house of facts whose relations were understood. It was agreed, therefore, that if the child is to be taught drawing at all, no matter for what purpose, first of all the teacher must see that he has abundant opportunity to learn form-facts, and that, as in the study of spoken or written language, so in his study of drawing or of graphic language, he must be made to know before an attempt is made to teach him expression. An important step forward in the teaching of drawing was made when this almost axiomatic truth was recognized. It was believed, also, that facts of form could not be learned from dicta- tion or from representation, or from both. Children learn to know forms only imperfectly by seeing them and handling them ; they get correct, permanent conceptions of form best by analysis and by construction, by making them of different sizes and of different material and under different circumstances and for different purposes. It requires the action of one set of nerve centers excited by the eye, cooperating with other sets of nerve centers excited by muscular action of fingers and hands directed by the will, for the establishment of correct, permanent concepts of form. Concepts are built. Form study and drawing are sequential steps for beginners ; form study being the first, drawing being the second. Form study is a prerequisite to drawing. Manual training is one of the two coordinate parts of form study. Manual training, then, and drawing are as inseparable as are ideas and words in the study of verbal expression. A study of color cannot be separated from that of objects and their appearance. This is true in an especial sense of all objects in plant life. A most important educative purpose of learning to represent objects as they appear, or seem, is that the learner may acquire power to see objects in flat representations of them as they are, and not as they seem to be, just as learning to represent phenomena of physical geography in sand maps, and afterwards in flat maps, is to train the learner to see contour in flat maps. As he who has thus been trained to make flat maps can read con- MANUAL TRAINING. 675 tour in the flat and represent it in sand or some plastic material, so will he who has been taught to draw properly be able to draw objects as well from flats as from life. Such perfect seeing as is here implied requires a knowledge of color corresponding to that of form given in the foregoing and as a part thereof. The changes in the appearances of color under influence of light and shade, of distance, and of environment may be understood by him only who studies the subject in connection with the study of forms of objects under varying circumstances. The difference between the forms of objects in a picture, as they are and as they appear to be, is the personal equation of the picture. What is true of pictures is true of all art products. The ability to see the objects of a picture as they are, and thus separate them from what they seem to be, is the ability to see the artist in the pic- ture, and hence the art. In this work, so necessary to correct, profitable instruction in drawing, is found an opportunity for the training of the eye, hand, and judgment simultaneously. In these employments, the study and making of geo- metric forms, of natural forms allied to them, and of art forms developed from them, and of common objects whose forms are based on them, is in part the work for which we have been seeking. What an amount of profitable seeing is here made possible ! What employments for the acquirement of deftness and reliability in the use of the hands and fingers ! What delightful exercises for the development of judgment and taste ! Drawing was selected as the branch of study along whose lines of work related to them might be found those employments of mind and hand that would afford all the training desired to make the manual course of the school symmetrical and a unified entirety. To Mrs. S. E. W. Fuller, the directress of drawing in our schools, and her corps of assistants, is due the credit of adjusting the technical work of the different kinds of employments to the grades of the school. Apart from the strictly practical sense and hand cultivation, much may be done by this work to assist the aesthetic and the moral growth of the child. The study of graceful forms and harmonious coloring will stimulate a love for the beautiful and appropriate which will leave its impress on all the work of the hand. In his home, in his dress, and in the products of handicraft, good taste will guide his choice of form and color, and thus render the world brighter and pleasanter both for himself and for those about him. The appreciation of the beautiful and of the pure and chaste go hand in hand, and will keep the mind and heart ever ^ith higher and nobler things. From the kindergarten through the high school, the pupil should be kept in constant association with the object world about him, that he may 67G TUB NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. acquire knowledge of its structure and the laws governing its appearance. Without this knowledge of his environments, he is but a stranger in the garden of God. Bj the proper study of geometric solids and planes, and of forms related to these, he will acquire, through the natural avenues of acquisition, sight and touch, a comprehensive and classified knowledge of all forms. To the little child the form world must ever remain a perplexity until he has been led to a classification of its variations. The general purposes of the course of exercises developed are as follows : 1. Storing the mind with true conceptions of forms and colors, and developing the ability to acquire new concepts. 2. Developing the ability to select from masses of materials that which is appropriate for specified or desired purposes. 3. Directing the attention to the essential elements of the beautiful in nature and in art, neglecting in such attention the accidental, thus developing the beginning of an artistic standard. 4. Training the hand to use, shape, and arrange materials with neatness, accuracy, and taste, that the learner may express artistically ; i. e., with truth and beauty. 5. Teaching the use of tools adapted to the age and strength of the child and to the character of materials employed. CLAY. "There is no other material" like clay for bringing the mind down to the fingers."* The handling of perfect models of geometric forms may be followed by making them in clay. Natural objects whose forms resemble these are next made. Then objects whose forms are derived from these may be made. The objects to be copied are so easily obtained that every child can have a model on his desk for study. The amount of work possible here at the very threshold of form study is practically without limit. The clay soon becomes a ready material in which to fashion forms with which the eye is delighted and the mind interested. As from the making of apples in clay, to distinguish them from oranges, lemons, or pears, the child gives you the likeness of the individual apple on his desk as distin- guished from other apples, he begins to notice particulars in everything he looks at. He is beginning to notice appearances of objects, too, more closely. He gives you the likeness of a half apple, on which you are delighted to see the skin stand above the pulp which has been -wasted away by evapo- ration. He is beginning to see details of form. The amount of work possible here, too, is practically without limit. He studies roots, stems. MANUAL TRAINING. 677 leaves, flowers, branches, for science work and as a means of language training. He will get better science training and better language train- ing if he is made to see particulars and to represent them both in clay and in words. This work is not simple representation of forms. The child is to see the stem dimple of the apple and know its relation to the branch on which it hung ; he is to examine the blossom dimple of the apple and under- stand its relation to the blossom whence it came, that there may be thought in the mind before the building of form begins, else how can clay bring thought down to the fingers ? When knowledge and muscle cooperate in making natural forms, there is more in the product than shape. From the modeling of nature forms the learner, while yet in the fourth grade, may pass to the representation of objects from working-drawings, modeling to dimensions. In this the use of tools may be allowed and encouraged. The child should ascertain for himself the dimensions of the objects to be made. This will train his judgment and give him skill in doing accurate work. He may incise ornament designs ia clay plinths, and on other plinths cut away the clay from the drawn forms, leaving the ornament in relief. This develops careful workmanship with tools. If while working in clay the child passes to the study of historic ornament, he finds a limitless field for the exercise of mind and hand. The more he knows of the origin of the graceful forms and of those who originated them, the more he knows of the uses to which they were put and how they have come down to us, the more form he will see in them.. Let him model these from the casts and let him model them also from the flat, for he is strong enough to do it. In this work he may use tools both for measuring and for construct ing while doing the work. There is no limit to the original designing that may be done for production in clay forms. While the child has been at work with clay during the six or seven years of school life he has been doing other kinds of work correlated with it. TABLET AND STICK LAYING. He lays tablets and sticks to get proper concepts of surfaces and of edges. Before this can be done satisfactorily to the child who begins really to see form, the hand must acquire much steadiness. This is manual training. PAPER FOLDING. The child continues the study and making of geometric forms and developments from them, and representations of art forms based on them, by folding colored paper and cutting it. After the forms are cut they are 678 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. pasted on cardboard or stiff paper for preservation that they may be drawn. The number and variety of forms and the purposes to which they may be put in ornament and in uses is innumerable. The work, proceed- ing from the simple to the complex and compound, develops deftness of fingers and continuity of purpose. The use of tools appropriate to the work is also taught. MODEL MAKING. The child easily goes from making forms by folding paper to the mak- ing of objects of stiff manilla paper or cardboard. For these he makes the working-drawings to measurement, after sketching the object and one of each of its different faces. This is done by the shop method, involving the use of tools and demanding careful, accurate work. The amount of work that may be done in this branch of employment is practically without limit. It is most valuable for teaching the relations of the different dimensions of solids as a foundation for art study, and for supplementing the work in arithmetic as no other kind of work can do in this line. The child passes from the making of these working-drawings to making others for exercises and objects to be made in the shops with wood-working tools. COLOB. While pursuing the lines of work indicated but inadequately in this brief paper, the child has been learning color. The paper that he has folded and cut, as well as that he has made into solid forms, has been so selected as to teach him the relations of color to light. Color having its origin in light, the colors composing the light are deemed a proper basis for the study. From the observation of the spec- trum the child is led to notice the colors of the rainbow, of the plant world, the blue of the noonday sky, the red and yellow of evening, the green grass, the violet neutral tints of the roots and soil beneath his feet. The study of the hues of nature awakens his color perception and brings him into sympathy with the whole realm of color. A complete development of the subjects requires representation by washes in water colors. This has been done in many of the schools. The child has had washing tints of primaries in squares of paper ; coloring decorative arrangements around a center, and borders ; mixing second- aries, and washing in tints of secondaries. This work correlates with the paper folding, the paper model making, but more especially and delightfully with the study of leaves and flowers. The color work of the schools is not yet fully developed. MANUAL TRAINING. 679 DRAWIN^G. Parallel with these lines of work, supplementing them and auxiliary to them, the child draws. He represents all he handles and studies in the early grades of the school ; and he makes representative specimens in the later years of his course. In the beginning he draws only what he sees ; later he draws the forms of what he is to make, as well as the working- drawings for them, and the patterns for them, before he makes them. He has been learning to see fully and accurately : he has also been learning to represent truthfully. LAKGUAGE. In all the work the child represents what he sees and what he does, in good English idiom. This is no small part of the purpose of the work. He has learned the relative value of word representation and of graphic representation, and learns to employ the two when one is inadequate to show what it is desired to express in its exactions. ART. The child in all this correlated work has been developing the art sense, the art feeling, and the love of art. He is learning what art is. Throughout the work he is led to invent by change of form and by composition of form. He is led to study the need of decoration, the purpose of decoration, the character of the thing to be decorated, and the kind of decoration suited to it. He is led to get motives from nature, from art, and by composition. He is taught, by doing, the art principle, selection. As conceptions of forms and colors increase, more attention is given to the development of the power of selection and arrangement. This is done in the grouping of fruits and vegetables for object drawing ; in the adaptation of units to space ; in the selection of suitable curves to modify such units ; and, lastly, in the use of natural forms by seeking for the type form, deciding which type form is best adapted to the space, and rejecting details that interfere with the conception of this form as adapted. The child is early led to apply the law of selection to what he does, which is discriminating between the principal, or the essential, and the subordinate, or the non-essential. The artisan, the artist, and the author, alike, must, to succeed, skillfully apply the law of selection. It distin- guishes between the necessary and the accidental, between the essential elements and those that are ornamental, auxiliary, or complementary. 680 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. The beginning of power to select appropriately marks the birth of the artistic sense. Its correlated applications are the beginnings of judgment in other affairs. The details of the course of training that is here suggested may be modified to suit circumstances or tastes, or both. Such a course affords all employment in handicraft that the schools of the grade for which it is intended will have time to give. It exercises the eyes and hands for the development of accuracy in seeing, and skill and dexterity in doing, and for the acquirement of definite valuable knowledge ; its steps are sequen- tially graded and its employments logically grouped ; it furnishes employ- ments suited to the intelligence, size, and strength of pupils, and is practicable in schools where pupils do their own work ; it is done with tools which adults would use for the same purpose, and it is therefore in no sense adapted or play work ; it supplements by the investigation it requires into nature and into historic facts, as well as by its treatment of them, and thereby enriches most or all the other studies of the grades in which it is done ; it provides a means by which the future artisan may lay a faultless foundation for a meritorious, delightful, and profitable handi- craft, and at the same time it provides the only means by which it is possible to develop true art. The schools of those grades in which this work is done give the same scholastic training to pupils who are to be laborers, business men, and professional men. That is the theory of popular education. Upon no other theory can the public free school stand. In a corresponding way the schools may provide the early sense, hand, and judgment training for the unskilled laborer, the artisan, and the artist, as well as for him who will be neither of these. One purpose of art teaching in our schools is to make a constituency for better workmanship and for artistic products of the artisan, as well as for art products. For the development of artists we are content to labor and to wait. A general demand for a higher grade of workmanship by the artisan will secure it. This, while it will be the evidence of an advancing civilization, nourished and stimulated by the gratification of its own demands, will develop a national standard of handiwork and later on a national idea of art. Thus is it possible to develop a system of instruction which will give fullness of life in all its modes— life physical, life intellectual, and life moral. MANUAL TRAIN INO. G81 The following schedules show what is being done in the city of Wash- ington, D. 0. Schedule A. I SUB.IECTS. Grades. First. Second. Third. Fourth. Fifth. Sixth. Seventh Eighth. Drawing : Pencil drill From construction by the pupils X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Prom nature . . . X X Working-drawings X Geometric problems Modeling in clay : From made objects X X X X X X From nature To measurement and from working-drawings X X X X X X X X X X X From the cast X From original designs ;::::::j:' ■■: Carving in clay : Ornamt'nt from the flat, incised. X X X X X From original designs '".".'.'.' . ... X Construction with other materials : Sticks X X X X X X Paper folding and cutting Development in paper fjoin working-drawings X X X X X Designs, applied : To clay X X X X X X X X X X X X X To paper construction X To cloth X Languasre . . X X X X X X X X Color Schedule B. Tools and Materials in the Hands of Children. Grades. Clay. sticks. Tablets. Pencil and paper. Colored paper. Heavy ma- nilla paper and card- board. Tools for modeling and cutting. Muci- lage. Scis- sors. First X X V X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Second .... Third X Fourth X Fifth X X X X X X Sixth X X Seventh Eighth X 682 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. THE HEALTH OF SCHOOL CHILDREN AS AFFECTED BY SCHOOL BUILDINGS. BY G. STAI5LET HALL, PRESIDENT OF CLARK UI^IVERSITY, WORCESTER, MASSACHUSETTS. [An Abstract.] The development of education in nearly every country of the world in the last few years has been amazing. Not only in civilized, but in lands till lately uncivilized or half-civilized — in New Zealand, Algeria, Fin- land, as well as in India, South America and Japan — schools and school systems have become methods of colonization and of political influence. They now do the pioneer work once done by missionary preaching ; and even the missions of the world are more and more teaching stations. Schools have a control over the bodies and minds of children five or six hours a day, for five or six days a week, which is greater than the control ever exercised by any other institution in history. Schools are uniform- izing the knowledge and the sentiments of the world : men of all creeds, races, ranks, those who differ in everything else, unite in believing in the efficacy of schools. This is a consensus omnium gentium whicli the mediaeval church long sought, which philosophers have postulated, and is now more practical and comprehensive than either have ever dreamed. The modern school is thus in a sense a church universal, and has all that deep consecration of a belief — a love now well nigh universal. When a child begins to go to school the change of his environment is very great. Instead of constant activity, he must now sifc still and keep still ; instead of moving his hands and arms freely, the strain of effort is now focussed upon the very few, tiny, pen-wagging muscles. The eyes, instead of moving freely, are confined in the zig-zag treadmill of the printed line. It is no wonder, therefore, that the child so commonly loses weight on first entering school ; that short-sightedness and other eye troubles increase almost regularly through the school period ; that head- aches, anaemia, scoliosis, defects of development if not signs of disease appear in stomach, heart, and lungs, and especially in the nervous system, the gradual deterioration of which is so hard to recognize (see the well- known works of Hertel, Key, Warner, Cohn, and others). If the school is tending to physical deterioration and toward a sickly age, as certain mediaeval institutions are said to have caused the dark ages and the plagues, we ought to know it. The school ought to develop a sound mind in a HEALTH OF CHILDREN AS AFFECTED BT SCHOOL BUILDINGS. 683 sound body ; for what shall a man give in exchange for his health, or what shall it profit a man if he gain the whole world of knowledge and lose his own health ? I hold that it is not too much to say that everything about the school— building, seats and desks, hours, subjects and methods of study — should be determined primarily with a view to health, on which, especially in children, even morality so largely depends. In much of what follows I am immediately indebted to the studies of Dr. William H. Burnham, who has devoted the entire year in his course of Pedagogy at Clark University to hygiene, and who has allowed me to examine and condense his far more extended and detailed studies, a part of which are now in press for the '^ Pedagogical Seminary.^' Of his studies, much of what follows is simply a digest, and to these the reader is referred. The body of the growing child is a mazy federation of cells, freighted by heredity with reverberations from a past, the remoteness of which we can hardly conjecture. It is so infinitely plastic that there is nothing in the environment that does not affect it. Every effort of thought modifies the temperature of the brain, and every effort of the muscles increases the products of waste and modifies circulation, while fatigue and all its demoralization is always lurking to prey upon the body and mind. Yet so little does science know of many of these problems that the body might almost be called a laboratory marked "^o admittance;" while for the average teacher the ignorance of the psycho physic organism of the child is profound. The schoolhouse, which has been called more important for the develop- ment of the average child than the home itself, ought to be a palace of health. I proceed to sketch very roughly the salient points culled partly from laws, which are far more detailed in Europe than here, partly from norms recommended by educational bodies, and partly from ideals described in various books. A. The Site. — This should be high, dry, a natural and not artificial soil, with no foreign matter in it ; is sometimes tested by boring; marl, lime, or sand ingredients being good, and clay bad. It must be remote, if possible, from liquor saloons, the noise of machinery, offensive or un- wholesome odors, marshes, ponds, graveyards, dust, or any form of nuisance or danger, and the street should, if possible,, be asphalted near it. One norm prescribes that the distance of the schoolhouse from all other buildings should be twice their height. B. Yard. —This should be enclosed by a hedge rather than a high wall, or by some transparent enclosure, that children may see the life of the street, and that all passers-by may see and be interested in the children, their play, and the school. The yard should be a porous earth rather than brick. Some norms prescribe three square meters per child as the minimum. Sheds for play in rainy days, often with glass roofs, are very 684 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. common, especially in France. A few simple, permanent pieces of gymnastic apparatus are perhaps more common in Germany. In more rural districts school gardens containing a few medicinal plants, and even a few poisonous ones to be avoided, flower-beds, a bee-hive, a tiny hot- house, and even individual beds for children to be responsible for, etc., are often found. C. Basement and Walls. — All the building should be undercellared ; should never contain water-closets ; janitor's quarters, especially pantries, should be separated from the rest of the cellar by tight walls ; the floor should be cemented ; the basement should be kept scrupulously clean and well ventilated, and more or less heated. Some norms prescribe a water-table all round the building, a meter wide and plastered, to prevent the ascent of ground moisture. The walls should contain plenty of air chambers, and be strong enough for an additional story. Steps up to the building should always be protected above and on the sides, or, better yet, within the walls. D. Floors. — The lower floor, for the youngest children, should be at least a foot or two above the street level, should be of boards neither too hard nor too soft, but splinterless. Hamburg legislates on the cracks in the floor, which have been found to contain almost as many bacteria as the filth under the finger-nails of children. The thickness of the floor boards should bear a fixed ratio, often i^rescribed, to the distance between the Joists. There should be no dry sweeping, and the floor might sometimes be washed with a weak sublimate. Some ideals avoid all corners and angles by means of curved moldings such as are sometimes found in hospitals. All ceilings should not only be double, but should contain sound-deadening layers. E. Halls and Stairs. — The halls should be wide, light, well ventilated, so that not only clothes-racks and umbrella-stands can be placed in them, if necessary, and sometimes bookcases, etc., but that exercises may be held in them. This is, of course, quite ideal. The stairs should be at least a yard and a half wide, with steps broad and not too high, and corners not too sharp. The stairway should always be broken by one or two landings, never circular ; should be of brick or iron, or some fireproof material, should have hand-rails on both sides, should be light, warm, and ventilated. F. The Schoolrooms and Windows should contain no posts or pillars, should be from three to four meters high ; the walls of the room should be of some mild color — light blue, green, yellow, or gray. If a wood finish can be afforded, pipes for gas and water, and electrical and other connections, should not be covered. Some laws prescribe the proportion of length of room to its breadth as two to three, some as three to five. The ratio of the window surface to the floor has been regulated by many laws, and in point of fact has been found to range from one-third to HEALTH OF CHILDREN AS AFFECTED BT SCHOOL BUILDINGS. 685 one-ninth. There is little uniformity as to exposures, but south and east seem on the whole preferred. There should be no direct or reflected sun- light. Windows in front of the pupil are worst, those behind better, and windows on the left of the pupil are preferred. "Windows should be open- able, — a horizontal axis preferred, — should go to the ceiling, and be square and not curved at the top. The height of the top of the window should be at least three-fifths the width of the room. The bottom of the window in one norm must be a meter and a quarter above the floor; another law prescribes a minimum distance of one and a fourth meters between windows, but they should be as near together as possible. Dr. Cohn thinks that each child should see the sky from his seat, and has devised an instrument to determine the amount of sky visible to each child. He would have a photometer used in each schoolroom, and suggests, as the norm, what would be equivalent to the reading of good diamond type at a distance of ten inches. The door should be a meter wide, never behind the children, should open outward, and should have a transom. The cross piece bearing the number of the room should be as high as the eye of the average child in that room. G. Heating and Ventilation. — I am inclined to agree with the sentiment of Dr. Burnham, that whoever says that any existing system is superior to all others is either uninformed and crotchety, or else an agent. Architects, as a rule, know almost nothing of heating, and still less of ventilation. It is these matters in which false economies are most often practiced. Living, as we do, at the bottom of a sea of air, where it takes as much force to move 100 lbs. of air as it does 100 lbs. of iron, we forget too that each day has its own problem. Many an excellent system is quite ineffective because not well managed through the ignorance or care- lessness of a janitor. To change the air- in a schoolroom completely once in every twenty minutes or half-hour, as should be done if each child has on an average only IJ square meters of surface and five cubic meters of air space, is a very grave problem. The "school smell,'' and the injury foul air works in the blunting of faculties and the deterioration of tone, is due not so much to the carbonic acid as to the organic matter in the air of which this in the index. One ideal system is heating at frequent intervals all over and through the floor, with gratings and pockets to prevent the ascent of floor dust, by a central system regu- lated by thermometers in each room, with electrical contact shutting off or letting on heat automatically — a system, however, involving great expense, and therefore not generally practicable. Jacketed stoves, with air coming directly from out-doors, are used in country schools. Open fire-places with their great waste are now sometimes resorted to in despair of a better system. This whole matter i^ a very complex bundle of problems in physics, as yet but partially understood, and still less often well applied. 686 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. H. Cost and School Architects. — The German Government prints once in ten years an account of all educational buildings of all grades, each of which is described in tables of fifteen columns. An interesting method of presentation here found is to calculate always the cost of the entire building per cubic meter, per square meter, and per child, and also the cost of heating, ventilating, and plumbing per cubic meter. Educational arohitecture in Europe, while not exactly a vocation by itself, has an increasing number of experts, and has a vast and rapidly accumulating literature.* Within the last decade and a half the number of buildings erected has been enormous; a single lycee, recently finished in Paris, cost nearly two and a half million dollars ; a single university building in Vienna, nearly four million dollars ; and for all grades of education the present might almost be called an architectural epoch. Even very special institutions, like school baths, school dormitories, eye clinics, school and university gymnasia, have elaborate laws or norms full of details and specifications, while the views of the tax-payer and the doctor, which are perhaps most opposed on the question of expense, are com- plicated and confused by the traditions of carpenters and the ideas of convenience by teachers. 1. School Seats and Desks. — These are most important for the child. Sharp corners and angles must be avoided ; the teacher desires convenient visibility of as much of the child's body as possible, ease and quickness of getting in and out ; while the doctor insists on adjustability to every part of the body with severely orthopaedic exactness. Before Barnard's epoch- making work, which prompted a German writer to say that the school desk was the only contribution of America to pedagogy, seats some- times ran around three sides of the room, so that the children sat with their backs t&ward the center and- must swing their feet over the seat to get out. In Freiburg, where many thousand children were lately meas- ured, the difference in total height, and the way that the total height was distributed between back, legs, etc., was found to vary. Thus, the method of marching before a scale, in the presence of the janitor, the numbers on which designated the seat proper for each scholar, seemed in- adequate, convenient and rapid as it is for approximating a fit for seats. The body should be held upright, in a healthfnl, symmetrical position, with least muscular effort. Seats which favor bad positions tend to lateral curvature of the spine, and interference with the functions of chest and stomach. The desk should overlap the seat by an inch or two ; that is, the so-called ''distance" should be minus. When the lower leg is at right angles to the floor, and the foot rests squarely, the lower part of the upper leg should touch the seat with the lightest possible contact. The distance from the seat to the floor is not the same for two persons of the * See "Pedagogical Seminary," Vol. I. No. 3. HEALTH OF CHILDREN A8 AFFECTED BY SCHOOL BUILDINGS. 687 same height, and foot-rests, both horizontal and inclined, are very common in Europe. To get the distance from the top of the seat to the top x>i the desk, the child should sit erect, and the distance from the seat to the elbow, plus 2 inches, is a common rule. The ideal seat and desk are of course adjustable to fit each child, and children should be re-seated two or three times a year. J. Writing. — This is the most important question of school ortho- paedics, and concerns especially the spine and eye. The position in writing now much commended in Germany is perfect uprightness of the body, both arms resting symmetrically in front and upon the desk about two inches from the elbow ; the copy-book square and in the middle, not slightly to the right, and not obliquely to the edge of the desk. The new vertical script now introduced, either as an experiment or permanently, in a number of places in Germany (Vienna, Bavaria, Wiirtemburg, Bo- hemia), brings the pen on the down strokes perpendicular to the line, and the line is a very short one. [Samples of these copy-books were shown. J Paper straight, writing straight, body straight, is the motto of this script of the future, and indeed of a not very remote past. It is easier and more rapid. One observer found that over ninety per cent, of the children, when required to change from the old method of writing to this, straight- ened up the body, and when changed back to the old script, fell into the " collapsed '^ position, and twisted the head so as to keep the axis joining the two eyes perpendicular to the direction of the down stroke of the pen. This latter position brings the eyes to unequal distances from the letters, and, some think, is distinctly productive of optical disorders. The new vertical script favors an engrossing pen with no sharp lines ; the pen must point toward the elbow, which must be held one hand's breadth from the body ; the pen must be grasped at a good distance from the point, the hand supported by the side of the nail of the little finger. The line is only from eight to ten centimeters long, and the paper must be pushed up after each line. One writer says he can always tell by the position of the body what script is used. One of the worst positions ever devised is one which has been introduced in some parts of this country, that requires the child to sit with its right side to the desk, and the left turned away almost at right angles to it. K. Reading Hygiene. — The zig-zag of the eye in reading lines and dis- criminating letters throws great strain upon the nervous centers involved. Many of our reading books are now printed in very good type, but diction- aries, atlases, and maps are often wretched. Cohn, and especially Javal and Sanford (see American Journal of Psgcliology, Vol. I. No. 3, on the *^ Relative Legibility of Letters"), have made very careful studies of this subject. The scientific problem is, how to secure the greatest amount of legibility for a given surface, without interfering too much with the tradi- tions of type makers or of readers. The forms of a few letters, like the small 688 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. '*e," which has a very low degree of legibility, and is confused with other letters at the least distance from the eye, are very slightly changed, as are the common rules of spacing, and all with great gain to the eye. The latter moves along a line with its focus directed to the upper half of the letters, for in English it is in the upper half that the letters are chiefly distinguished from each other. The little lines in letters should never be less than a quarter of a millimeter in thickness. The lower lengths of the " j '' and ^^y " can be slightly shortened. The line should not exceed ten centimeters in length, and new rules are laid down for spacing and leading. I have spoken of but few points connected with school hygiene, and of these in the most sketchy and inadequate way. The subject requires a course of lectures, and there is nothing in all the school courses of study that should not be considered from the standpoint of health. Fatigue in school work brings not only distaste, but habits of inaccuracy and care- lessness, and thus blunts the *' school conscience." Burgerstein has shown by elaborate experiments and careful tabulation of the kinds of error made in simple arithmetical operations, based on the study of a large number of school children, that fatigue begins far sooner than was supposed, while over-effort brings increased speed of work, but greatly increased number and kinds of error. His studies are of great importance. Lakorsky thinks that the fourth hour is degraded in value 33 per cent, less than the first hour, by fatigue. We know now that school children grow far more rapidly in certain years than they do in others, and that during the stationary years they are most liable to disease. It is possible that we may infer that during the growing years they both catch and originate the most new impressions and ideas, but are most easily injured by strain and fatigue. Again, we know that growth is greatest at certain periods of the year, and yet again that the body does not grow uniformly in all directions at once, but that the energies of growth are focussed now upon hands and arms and their centers, now upon chest and trunk, or face, or sex. Other experiments are showing us what are the most effective hours of the day for work. We are making progress in obtaining a table of normal interests of chil- dren. Just as the hand is dwarfed if too great strain is thrown upon it in drawing or otherwise, before its ^' nascent period," while it would thrive and grow strong under the same strain just after, so, if an interest is forced jirecociously, its development is arrested. School life and work may cultivate a habit of haste, rush, nervous im- petuosity. It may develop sluggishness, apathy, indifference, and distaste for all the exquisite pleasures of intellectual activity. It may foster a diathesis of care, anxiety, and worry, and I sometimes think that the method-cram is breeding a morbid neurosis of its own (for all form and no substance is straining to the mind; as one of our humorists says, ^' To kick at nothing is wrenching "). Or, finally, the school may bring new DISGU88I0N. 689 interests and deepen old ones, and deliberately foster a habit of repose and reserve which is not incompatible with eager curiosity. Nothing is so worthy of love and reverence and devotion as the soul and the body of the growing, healthy child, and no institutions can be so noble as those which have for their object to bring these to most complete maturity. DISCUSSION. LReportkd by Mr. J. H. Blodqett, op Washington, D. C] SuPT. Barrington, of Newark, N. J. : What is your view of the mid- session recess ? Dr. Hall : It is of the most vital importance. Every moment over a half hour's attention by the younger children in the primary school is a source of error through a slackness of attention. The no recess plan is an abomination. SuPT. J. M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo.: Would you teach the girls especially as to ascent aii4 descent of stairs ? Dr. Hall : There are elements of the greatest importance in the ques- tion, and details are given in the authorities named. SuPT. W. B. Powell, Washington, D. 0. : What is the physiological eifect or influence of attempting to read that which is not understood by the pupil ? Dr. Hall : All that a child is called upon to do that he abhors is hurtful, except so far as it trains the will. SuPT. Greenwood : What influence has the school had in causing myopia and other eye difficulties ? Dr. Hall : American conditions have developed a most wonderful type of the human eye. It is injured by using it under unfavorable con- ditions. SupT. Treudley, of Youngstown, Ohio : In the matter of writing, what is the influence of '^ lattice " ruling ? Dr. Hall : It is of vastly more importance to have the lines exact in their relation to the axis of the eye than it is to have any ruling that does not produce this condition. Vertical letters and lines are considered better than slanting lines, and such writing is coming into great favor in many sections. Physiologically, it is the correct method. coo THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION SuPT. BouTON, of Bridgeport, Conn. : What is the result of investiga- tions made with reference to the use of blackboard and slate ? Dr. Hall : Black lines on a white surface are about one-third better than white lines on a black surface. SuPT. Tarbell, Providence, E. I. : What is the effect of copying from the blackboard to the slate or paper, thus frequently varying the focus ? Dr. Hall : The effect is likely to be beneficial ; it acts as a relief by change. SuPT. Treudley : How long should pupils of primary grades be held to close attention ? Dr. Hall : The intensity of child life is greater in America than in other countries. Primary children should never be held to continuous attention more than half an hour without change and respite. SuPT. Gilbert, of St. Paul, Minn.: What do you consider the best color for blackboards ? Dr. Hall : Black and white are best for contrast. SuPT. Greekvtood : What especial influence is temperature supposed to have in matters educational ? There seem to be radical differences in different countries. Is this due to different climatic conditions ? Dr. Hall : This matter has received much attention in several coun- tries, but reliable results are not attainable. Children can work better in summer than in winter, according to some hygienists. The reverse is claimed by others. We must have a surplus energy to use in the work; the child must therefore be comfortable. Various methods of heating and ventilating have been devised at different times and in different countries. One plan was to use a perforated floor, the air to pass through the perforations and out through the ceilings. I mention this as a novelty. SuPT. A. P. Marble, Worcester, Mass., said he was much delighted with the exhaustive resume of the opinions of experts in all these various directions. The paper was an invaluable treatise on the sub- ject ; but he desired to point out some of the difficulties in securing the best conditions. The ideal metliod of introducing warm air into a schoolroom, as set forth by an expert, was itself extremely faulty. To force the warm air through minute perforations in the floor and allow it to escape by means of its own rarity through the ceiling, is open to the very grave objection that in this way all the air to be breathed by the pupils comes up through the dust of the floor and all the inevitable DISCUSSION. 691 impurities brought into the room on muddy shoes. Children would breathe in a perpetual cloud of impalpable dust impregnated with bacteria, bacilli, and all sorts of fatal microcosms and infinitesimal creatures with magniloquent names — in other words, the dust of a school- room floor is not fit to breathe. Now, if such a difficulty exists in an ideal system, how far from perfect must the real systems be ! In con- templating the difficulty in securing perfect sanitary conditions for children, Mr. Marble called attention to the fact that the healthy human animal has the power of adapting himself to varying conditions. Of all creation man alone (with the exception of the house fly, perhaps) can live in all climates. He can winter amidst Arctic ice, and summer in tropical heat. He can work by day in the deadly gases of the sewers and be healthy and strong. While attempting, then, to secure the best possible sanitary conditions for school children, which is a plain duty, at the same time is it not well for us to devote some attention to work from the other end of the line ? With the automatic heat-regulator and damper, and along with the adjustable seat, should we not try to develop bodies robust enough to withstand the inevitable climatic changes — to develop the adjustable boy ! Dr. White, of Ohio : Are the educational conditions of to-day less favorable than they were twenty-five or fifty years ago ? Dr. Hall : The demands are more exacting. In concluding the discussion Dr. Hall said : ^^ After all, I have much sympathy with the notion that the old district school was excellent in its day. But everybody thinks that we can do much better. The demands are far different ; the problem of to-day is much more complex. But we shall be able to solve it with much success, and moreover we shall be able to meet in large measure the changing demands of our growing nation. In doing all this we shall be obliged to give much attention to the questions of health and morals. Good bodily health is the most favorable condition for good moral health. A study of the various phases of the health ques- tion, as presented in the paper this morning, will be found valuable, as the results of the most patient investigations are there given in reliable detail." 692 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION THE RELATIONS OF THE PUBLIC LIBRARY TO THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. BY W. H. BRETT, LIBRARIAN, PUBLIC LIBRARY, CLEVELAND, 0. In speaking of the relations of the public library to the schools, I use the term public library in its common acceptation, as including only those libraries intended for the use of the entire community, and free as the schools are free. I do not attempt a discussion of the use of books in connection with any theory of education. I assume, however, and the discussions to which we have listened during this meeting strengthen the assumption, that there is a strong desire and earnest effort to broaden and enrich without attenuating the course of study in the grammar schools, and it is with grammar schools that I am particularly concerned. I assume that the varying and to some extent contradictory plans which are urged for this purpose have this in common — that they are disposed to free themselves from the exclusive use of text-books — text-books which are too often mere quiz-compends— and to study literature, history, and the natural sciences by a broader and more attractive method. This implies the use of books and suggests the library. The desirable relationship between the school and the library is one of mutual helpfulness, "and is eminently a practical one. I have nothing new to offer. If I can collate a few familiar facts in such a way as to illustrate the value and emphasize the necessity of the cooperation of the teacher and the librarian, I shall have accomplished my purpose. The public library is the creation of the last sixty years, and the substantial development of the common-school system is included in the same period. These sixty years of the life of our country have been years of vigorous growth, boundless expansion, mar- velous activity, and undreamed of progress. They have witnessed changes in the conditions of business and manufacturing which amount to an economic revolution. The shoe-shop, the hat-shop and the tool-shop of each town and village have been replaced by great manufacturing establish- ments, employing their hundreds or thousands of operatives, and selling their products in every market. The little shop is being replaced by the great bazar, where one may purchase anything from a pin to a piano. An army of shop-keepers and small manufacturers have felt their business slip from their grasp, and have been thrust over into the crowded ranks of the wage-earners. It is not wonderful that a large and increasing popu- lation has not been able without friction to pass through such a revolution. RELATIONS OF THE PUBLIC LIBRARY TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS. G93 and cannot without difficulty and distress accommodate itself to such changed conditions. When we consider that this transformation has been accomplished within two generations, and that while it has been in progress the country has received and begun to assimilate an immense immigration, it is, indeed, wonderful that the hardships are not greater, and the discon- tent more general. One result of this has been a widespread dissatisfac- tion with the prevailing educational methods, and a demand for some change which will render education more helpful in the struggle for existence. The answer to this has been sought in different directions. An earnest movement has progressed with increasing volume during the last twenty years for the popularization of education. The Chautauqua Circle, the societies for home study. University Extension, and other similar activities, have for their purpose the sharing of that culture which will sweeten and enrich the life, and bring content, even though it put no money in the pocket. Seeking the answer in the opposite direction, it has been urged that the public school should aim to fit its pupils to earn a living, should give them information which has a money value, should to some extent replace the obsolescent apprentice system. This demand ignores real education. The aim of the school is character, not livelihood. Given this, and that will follow. It would fit its pupils to live a life, not merely earn a living ; it would set their feet in that way where, if they continue to walk therein, they will reach true manhood and womanhood. It does not aim to turn out mechanics and cooks, mere bread winners and loaf dividers, but men and women, feeling sure that the nearer they attain to that full stature, that rounded character, the stronger will they be to meet the difiBculties of life, the more able to solve its prob- lems. It has refused to introduce the commercial spirit, the atmosphere of the workshop and the market, into the schoolroom. Remembering the words of Plato, it does not teach arithmetic with the purpose of a shop-keeper, but for its niental discipline. It does not teach geography to make commercial travelers of its pupils, but that they may look out on this world which God has made and crowned with beauty. It would link together physical and political geography and history not as being independent subjects, but parts no one of which can be understood except in its relation to the whole. It would teach history in the spirit of that father, who, presenting his boy a set of books, wrote this : ''To my son, this history of the world. May he never find it too large for him." I believe that there is a place for the library in this broader scheme. The public library system has shared the quickening impulses of the times and has made its greatest growth within the last twenty years. If the passage of the various public school library laws, beginning with that of New York in 1827, may be regarded as its genesis, its exodus may be dated from the centennial year. In that year was published the 694 THE NATIOXTAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. special report of the United States Commissioner of Education, which gave an account of the condition of the libraries of the country, with full statistics, a consideration of their various relations and apparatus. It gave to all the benefit of plans and ideas which a few progressive men had elaborated. To many it was a revelation and a release, breaking the cumbering fetters of antiquated methods, and leading them into broader fields of usefulness. In the same year, the American Library Association and the Library Journal were founded, which, in bringing librarians to- gether and furnishing a medium for communication and discussion, have materially aided further progress. The School of Library Economy, estab- lished in 1887, is teaching the science and art of librarianship, broadly and thoroughly, and its graduates are doing a missionary work throughout the country. The more recent appointment of its founder to the position of State Superintendent of Libraries for New York is a step from which great results maybe expected. The educational value of libraries has been substantially recognized in the willingness with which the people tax themselves for their support, and in. magnificent gifts for their foundation and enlargement. Within the past ten years, more than as many millions of dollars have been given in a few large sums, and the smaller benefac- tions have been numerous. According to the statistics of the Commissioner of Education, there were in 1876, in the public libraries of the country, in round numbers, twelve millions of volumes in twenty-five hundred libraries. In 1885, nine years later, there were twenty millions of volumes in five thousand libraries, an increase of fifty per cent, in libraries, and sixty-six per cent, in books. No later statistics have been published ; but the intervening years have been full of growth, and it is fair to assume a large additional increase. These statistics include college and other libraries, but the public libraries form a large part of the totals given. The important function of the library as an independent educational institution is to supply the means of self-culture. This includes the wide range from books suited to the smallest capacity and slightest attainment, to those which a liberally educated man may need in pursuing his studies in any field of thought or knowledge. Another is to furnish information on the practical arts. This ranges from a cook-book or a work-shop manual to text-books for advanced professional and technical studies. In this it resembles the American university with its college of the liberal arts, and group of professional and technical schools. The best equipped library does not give systematic instruction, nor prescribe a curriculum. It has no means of holding the sluggard to his work. It carries the elective plan to its last possible development. It is the work- shop of the earnest student. The proper administration of a library includes not only the selection and collection of its books, their arrangement and custody, but also their IIELATIONS OF TllE PUBLIC LtBUARY TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 695 distribution, and so far as may be helpful the direction of their reading. To extend the facilities for distribution, branch libraries and delivery stations are established in many of the larger cities. These are helpful, but not entirely adequate, and multitudes in our large cities are practically out of reach of the libraries, and the little help in the choice of books which can be given to any individual is often entirely insufficient. It is in these important functions of the distribution of its books and the direction of their reading, that the cooperation of the school is needed by the library. Since the organization of the American Library Association in 1876 no subject has been more frequently or earnestly discussed than that of read- ing for the young. Not merely to supply them with books, but to stimu- late reading and guide it to higher levels, to educate a discriminating judgment and to inspire with a love for reading, have been the recognized duties of the librarian. To secure definite information I addressed notes of inquiry as to theiT work with the schools to the librarians of all public libraries in the country which appeared to have more than 5,000 volumes. The replies were prompt, full, and interesting. As I have them tabu- lated, twenty-two States extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific are represented. The general tenor of the replies indicates that librarians throughout the country are alive to the importance of the work. A few only of the whole number report that they are doing nothing further than to promote the individual use of the library by teachers and pupils. Many buy books with especial reference to the needs of the school, and give personal direction to the pupils. Some devote particular hours of each week to the school children. In one library the entire time of an assistant librarian is given to this work. It is a position requiring a rare combination of information, tact, -and enthusiasm. This personal association is the most potent and valuable means of influenc- ing the reading of the child; but while the teacher has perhaps fifty children whom she meets daily, the librarian has many times that number whom she can only meet occasionally and irregularly. Their relative opportunities for influencing the child may be measured and the need of the teacher's cooperation emphasized by this comparison. Much help has been given to this work by the publication of lists of good books for young people. Some of these are general, others graded to meet the requirements of the successive classes in school. The superintendent of education in West Bay City, Mich., has prepared lists giving the names of from seventeen to twenty-five books suitable for each grade from the fifth to the twelfth inclusive. They begin with the " Eollo " books and em- brace a wide and progressive selection, until the list for the highest grade includes Draper's "Intellectual Development of Europe," Thoreau's "' \Yalden '^ and Emerson's " Conduct of Life." The reading of from two to five of these books is required each year, and a test of the thoroughness 696 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. with which they have been read is made a part of the examinations upon which promotions are based. The first recognition of the special needs of the teacher, and the first systematic attempt to make the library useful to him in his professional capacity, has been the issue of special cards allowing the drawing of additional books for use in the school. This plan has come into general use during the last few years. The number of additional books varies from two to six. In some libraries ten or more additional books are placed in a school for the use of the pupils. For these books the time of reten- tion is usually, but not invariably, extended. The library is also used as a reference and study room by teacher and pupil. Most libraries have, in addition to those reference books which are fundamental, various illustrated and other books which are of interest in connection with the school work. These are invariably placed at the service of the schools, and are largely used. In a few cases they are sent to the class-room when needed. In many libraries special rooms are pro- vided to which the teacher may bring a class for an illustrated lesson. The "Worcester, Mass., public library has been a pioneer. A record of its work would serve as an epitome of the best that has been done in the public libraries of the country, for the public schools. The present librarian, from the beginning of his twenty years' administration, established and has maintained the most intimate and cordial relations with both teachers and pupils. His office has ever been open, his time and that of his assistants at their disposal, and the whole library theirs to use. His next step, taken more than twelve years ago, was the issue of cards to teachers permitting them to draw six books for school use. This was followed a little later by a card on which twelve books could be drawn for the use of pupils — thus allowing each teacher eighteen books. In addition to this, small reference libraries were placed in some of the schools, and in 1886 collections of fifty books each were placed in four schools. This plan was successful and has been still further extended. Twenty-five or fifty copies of the same book have in some cases been fur- nished in order that an entire class might read it simultaneously. Dur- ing all this time a large individual use of the library by pupils has been encouraged, and the pupils made to realize that in its relations to them the public library was a department of the public school. Col. Higginson, speaking of the work of Mr. Green, says, ^* He has suc- ceeded in linking the schools and library so closely that he and the teach- ers, acting in concurrence, indirectly control the reading of the whole generation that is growing up in that city." I have thus fully described the work of the Worcester library as being especially noteworthy, both for the length of time during which it has been carried forward, for its thoroughness and efficiency, and as including RELATIONS OF THE PUBLIC LIBRARY TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 697 most of the plans for placing the library at the service of the schools, which are in use in any part of the country. In only a few places have any part of these plans been amplified or new features introduced. The Detroit Public Library has had since 1888 a contract with the Board of Education by which it furnishes collections of books of from thirty to fifty volumes each to the high and grammar schools. The Board of Education becomes responsible for the books, and transports them to and from the schools. They are sent out eight times annually. Collections of books were provided especially for this purpose. The Chicago Public Library is issuing books on a similar plan, and sends out 3,000 to 4,000 volumes per year. The St. Louis Public Library is working earnestly in the same direction, though seriously hampered by the fact that the library is not a free one. Membership cards have been issued to pupils at half price. In one colored school twenty boys, under the influence of an enthusiastic teacher, bought library cards with money earned by shoveling coal and doing errands. The Fletcher Free Library, of Burlington, Vt., has been issuing books to the schools since 1882, practically without any limit as to number of volumes or time retention. The Milwaukee Public Library is systematically issuing collections of books to schools of the fourth to eighth grades, inclusive. These books are issued to the teacher for two months at a time, and she may re-issue them to those pupils who have cards entitling them to draw books from the library. From December, 1890, to July, 1891, there were 4,096 books issued to the schools, which were again issued by the teachers to the pupils, 15,120 times. ''There are now" (I quote from a letter of February 8) "about fifty teachers issuing books to their classes, with an average of forty books to a class. These classes are distributed among nineteen schools. "Besides proving of inestimable value in the school work, we find the parents reading the books as well; a large proportion of the increased direct circulation being attributable to this method of circulation, through the school into the home. The books most called for are those of science and travel, with a sprinkling of wholesome fiction. Many of the schools have libraries of their own, and draw books from our library to supplant their own collections. For example, a teacher just taking up United States history sends to the library for twenty' or thirty books dealing with the early period. The same plan applies to the study of other subjects." This account is quoted from a letter written by the superintendent of this work in the Milwaukee library, who had formerly, as a teacher, been unusually successful in interesting her ptlpils in reading by the use of books drawn from the library. Dr. Linderfelt, the librarian, gave a circumstantial account of this work, speaking in the highest terms of its 698 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. value, and concluding with the remark that they would sooner think of giving up any other department of the library. The Cleveland Public Library has for the past seven years issued special cards to all school-teachers, permitting them to draw books, and in some cases to keep them for a longer time. It has also endeavored to give to the pupils of the schools every facility for reference, work, and study. A convenient room has been used by classes, both of the public and private schools, for studies in history, geography, and art. The library is also issuing books to the teachers for the use of their pupils, on a plan similar to the Milwaukee library. They are, however, issued for the entire year, with the privilege of exchanging any part, or the whole of them, at any time. Our last year's experience, however, was that a well-selected collection of fifty volumes will interest a school of about the same size during the entire year, and comparatively few exchanges were made. The assistant librarian, who has the school work in charge, aims to visit each school once each month, advising the teacher beforehand of the day and hour of her visit. She checks the books to see that they are all accounted for, examines their condition, and arranges for any exchanges that may be desired. This is as effective in protecting the library from the loss or improper usage of its books as a frequent return of the books to the library, is less expensive, and has a great additional advantage in that it does not interrupt, even for a day or two, the use of the books. The teacher is at liberty to issue these books to her pupils for home use at her own discretion, and without requiring them to be vouched for at the library and receive a card. The teacher is held responsible for their return to the library, and for reasonable care. The teachers have almost invariably issued the books freely for home use, and very few of the pupils drawing them were holders of library cards. This is the third year during which this plan has been in operation. During the last two, of which we have had over three thousand volumes in active use in the schools, we have thus far lost three volumes, and the books have received more careful usage than the average of those issued from the library in the regular way. This work in Cleveland was suggested by a conversa- tion several years ago with one of the supervising principals. She spoke of the marked superiority in general information shown by the pupils of a school situated near the library over those of another farther away — a superiority which could not be attributed to any home advantage, but which she believed was due to the fact that they were within easy reach of the library, and used it largely. As a fruit of this suggestion, the issue of a few books was begun to some more distant schools. The only object thought of at first was to place books within reach of pupils who were too remote from the library to conveniently reach it ; but in operation it has developed such additional advantages as to justify the opinion that it RELATIONS OF THE PUBLIC LIBRARY TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 699 would be a desirable method of placing books in the hands of the pupils, even if the schoolhouse stood next door to the library. At the present time we have books in use in one hundred and one schools, ,from the third to the eighth grades inclusive, distributed in thirty-one buildings. The collections vary in size from fifteen to fifty volumes, and average a little more than thirty ; all the books available for this purpose, a little more than three thousand, being in use. Many more could be used at once, as every teacher who has less than fifty books would be glad to have her collection made up to that number, and we have received additional applications which we are unable to fill. With a selected library of twelve or fifteen thousand volumes it would be possible to carry this plan not only through all the public schools from the third to the eighth grades, but through the parochial schools. The influence upon the community of such a work, carried forward intelligently and thoroughly for a series of years, is incalculable. The quality as well as the quantity of the books issued gauges the value of this work. Of the books in use at present 41 per cent., or something over twelve hundred volumes, are classed as juvenile stories. Among them are a large number of Miss Alcott's, Susan Coolidge's stories ; these, with Mrs. Burnett's "Lord Fauntleroy " and Mrs. Dodge's "Hans Brinker," are much sought after. There is 4 per cent, of fiction, in- cluding Cooper, Mrs. Stowe, and Mrs. Whitney ; 10 per cent, biography, 11 per cent, travels, 13 per cent, history, mostly of our own country, 9 per cent, literature make up the list. The opinions of librarians throughout the country, and the opinion of teachers as reflected by them, is almost unanimous as to the value of the books in the schools. I have little direct opinion of teachers, except of those in the Cleveland schools. I recently sent a circular of inquiry to those Cleveland teachers who had been using books long enough to enable them to form an opinion. I asked, among other things, whether any special means had been adopted to interest the children in the books and induce them to read. To this the reply of many was that no special means were necessary. One teacher says, almost pathetically : " They need no incentives. They prefer their books always to their school books. Their minds and hearts are set upon them." She is still using her books, however, and I imagine is able to keep the too intense interest of her pupils within reasonable bounds. Some read extracts from books, tell stories from them, refer to volumes of travels from the geography lesson, or to an author from an extract in the reader. One strikes the keynote when she says : " I am interested myself." I also asked whether any attempt was made to ascertain how carefully and understandiagly the books were read. To this I received a great variety of answers. Some talk with the pupils about the books, or encourage them to give oral or written accounts of 700 THE WATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. what they have read. Some reply that the pupils frequently make remarks upon subjects under discussion in the classes which show that they are reading intelligently. One teacher of the seventh grade has required from each pupil a written abstract of each book read. By some the books are grasped as a whole, and their salient points noted in a way that seems remarkable for children of that age. In reply to a question as to the favorite books, while there was a decided preponderance in favor of story books, still there was a surpris- ingly large number who preferred history, travel, biography, and natural history. American history with its stirring stories and travel, spiced with adventure, is a prime favorite with the boy, and a strong rival of the story book for his affections. There seems to be nothing which exactly takes this place for girls. To the inquiry as to whether books interfered in any way with the school work, the answer was an almost unanimous ''No," and in most cases an emphatic statement of their great helpfulness. Two teachers only out of the fifty thought the reading interfered with the work, and a very few mentioned cases of individual pupils in which it had been a hindrance, though in the main helpful. A number of teachers spoke of some boy, particularly difficult to manage, who had been transformed by becoming interested in books. Some teachers have made the use of par- ticular books as a reward for specially good work ; others have taught les- sons in neatness by refusing to let them be taken in dirty hands. Several speak of their influence in replacing trashy reading. Among the benefits most frequently mentioned were improvement in the use of language and broader information in history and geography. Thus far the questions concerned the direct effects of the books in the school. I was also informed that the books issued for home use were largely read by other members of the families, that they were in many cases going into homes where there was very little other reading matter, and that the parents and older brothers and sisters were greatly interested in them. Several instances came to the notice of teachers in which books had been bought as a result of the interest awakened by the library books. This may not seem of any special importance to the school, but it certainly does affect the pupil, as does anything which improves his home con- ditions. It has been said that if you wish to really educate a boy you must begin with his grandmother. In this way we can at least work back to the parents. In the language work of the Cleveland grammar schools for the present month there are not less than seven distinct subjects drawn from history, biography, travel, zoology, and manufactures, no one of which could be satisfactorily studied in any text-book used in those grades. This implies the accessibility, and compels the use, of a collection of books. BELATIONS OF THE PUBLIC LIBRARY TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 701 One of the subjects noted is amphibious animals. What a fund of entertainment and information any fairly stocked library contains on a single one of those animals, the beaver ! What a different thing will the page of the geography which gives an account of Chili be to a boy who has read the interesting descriptions of those "Yankees of South Amer- ica," and their country, given by Knox, or Ohilds, or Curtis ! Coffin's "Old Times in the Colonies," or Trving's "Washington," will illuminate the pages of his United States history for a boy. He will read between the lines a hundred interesting things which the boy beside him knows nothing about. These are only suggestions of the many ways in which the use of books will enlarge and enrich the school course, will transfigure the dull pages of the text- books with the glow of romance, and transform their dry leaves with warm pulses of life. But beyond and even more important than the assistance which reading may give to the other work of the school is the formation of the reading habit. If a boy can leave school acquainted with even a few good books, with a taste so discriminat- ing that he will hold his reading up to even a materially high standard, and above all a love for books, he has a precious possession, something that will be worth more to him than any study in the curriculum, some- thing that will not only help him in his daily work, but will throw a safe- guard about his leisure hours. I have thus indicated some of the advantages to the school work of the free use of books. It is too soon to express a decided opinion as to the best method of supplying books to the schools. The plan of placing collec- tions of books in the charge of each teacher for her own pupils has decided advantages. Such collections can be used effectively in all schools, from those primary grades which have acquired the mechanical art of reading, to the highest grammar schools ; that is, from the third to the eighth years, inclusive. The advantages of issuing them from a central library, whether it be the public library or a special one for the purpose, are great. It assists the teacher in the care of the books, and is a check on any negligence. It affords the advantage of greater variety, and an opportunity to exchange books when desired, and brings expert skill to the work of selecting and cataloguing. Collections of books would of course be progressively graded, and in some of the higher grades instruction might be given in the use of reference books. The pupil entering the high school needs and should be prepared to use a large library. A small collection of books will not meet his requirements. He must look either to the library of the school or the public library. The use of the library by the pupils of the high school is an important and desirable thing, but not difficult to secure. They gladly avail themselves of it, and only require the^ame measure of courtesy and attention which is due to all its users. The work in the lower grades is of vastly more importance. They contain that great majority who never 702 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. reach the high school, and include those whose opportunities are least and whose needs are greatest. In the grammar schools of Cleveland there are now about ten thousand pupils, and in the high schools less than two thousand. The figures read from this platform yesterday show a still greater dispro- portion in the country at large. This means, carried forward a little, that not one in five of the pupils in the grammar grades to-day will ever enter the high school. AYhatever is done for these boys and girls must be done for them now. Let the resources of our libraries be used to the utmost for their benefit. They cannot be used more worthily. Let the teacher and the librarian unite their best efforts to help these boys and girls to read and to enjoy reading. Then, though their school days must end so soon, their education will go on. Then will they never lack that stimulus and strength, that solace and comfort, which are the portion of those who truly love and rightly use good books. JOHN AMOS COMENIUS. 703 JOHN AMOS C0MENIU8, EXERCISES IN COMMEMORATION OP THE THREE HUNDREDTH ANNI- VERSARY OP HIS BIRTH, 1592-1893. I. His Pkivate Life ai^d Persois^al Characteristics. by john- max hark, d.d., of lan^caster, pennsylvania. On this occasion, when you are gathered together here, as representa- tives of the noble cause of popular education, to call to remembrance the services rendered that cause by one of its most heroic pioneers, it is but natural and altogether proper that most stress should be laid on Comenius the schoolman. Yet will it not be deemed improper, I trust, if I briefly speak of him simply as a man — the man whose intense patriotism and fervent piety, whose loyalty to his country and his God, were the very traits out of which grew all his educational work, and an acquaintance with which will help to make the latter more correctly and fully under- stood. There are several portraits of John Amos Comenius extant, all of which agree in representing him as a man of stately bearing, dignified and ven- erable ; with a face refined and eminently intellectual, crowned with a high forehead ; a heavy beard covers his long chin and partly hides a sen- sitive mouth, while the soft, gentle eyes are full of a profound sadness, that gives to the whole expression a sorrowful cast as pronounced as that on Banter's face ; but, in place of the settled gloom and sternness of the latter, there is markedly present a look of tender yearning, and even of confident hopefulness. Perhaps this latter, however, would not appear so plainly in his outward features did wo not know it to have been a leading feature of his soul. At all events, whether visible in the flesh or not, these characteristics were all present in his life. They are clearly revealed in all his works, and shine forth distinctly through all his history, which is preeminently that of one who, with Lowell, could say : '* *Tis sorrow builds the shininsr ladder up, Whose golden rounds are our calamities, Whereon our firm feet planting, nearer God The spirit mounts, and hath its eyes unsealed." 704 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, A less large-hearted man, one whose sympathies and interests had been narrower and less all-embracing, might perhaps, even in those terrible times in which Comenius lived, have been capable of some comfort, at least contentment, and even enjoyment. But not so he, whom Herder aptly describes as *'a noble priest of humanity," and one '^^ whose single end and aim in life was ever the same — the welfare of his brethren, i.e., of all mankind/' He was *'a man of sorrows and acquainted with grief," in the same sense as He whom the Hebrew prophet describes ; for he bore not only his own personal trials, but the burdens of all his people as well, because of the fervor of his patriotism and the depth of his devotion to liis brethren in the faith, and his ^* dear mother" the Church of the Unitas Fratrum. Well might his personal afflictions alone have crushed and overwhelmed his spirit had he been cast in a less heroic mold. Born at Niwnitz, a market-town in Moravia, on March 28, 1592, the cup of bitterness was offered him early to drink ; for when scarce ten years old he lost his father, and two years after his mother. His guardians, he tells us in his '^ Prodromus," neglected him, though he was sent to the schools of the Church of which his parents had been devout members, thence to the theological seminary in ]N"assau, and two years after to the University of Heidelberg. If he ever enjoyed a season of comparative freedom from care, it must have been during this period, and Avhen after graduation he traveled in Holland, and probably to England. Scarce was he settled as pastor at Fulneck and rector of its schools, a few years after, when the prolonged horrors of the Thirty Years" War began. Fulneck was sacked by Spanish mercenaries, Comenius's dwelling and school destroyed, and his entire library with all his manuscripts burned, while he himself had to hide, and finally flee for refuge to Brandeis on the Adler. Here, to add to his sorrows for his countrymen and brethren, his young wife and her babe both died that same year, leaving him homeless, childless, wife- less— desolate indeed, and well-nigh in despair. But the Divine Helper was at hand, to prove to him that — " Through the clouded glass Of our own bitter tears, we learn to look Undazzled on the kindness of God's face." The cellar of the house is still shown, and near it a stone memorial erected in 1865, where, one sleepless night, he sprang from his couch to find in the Word of God the comfort denied him of men. It came to him while prayerfully reading Isaiah's marvelous prophecies, and straightway seizing his pen he wrote for the help of others in like distress his spiritual experi- ences, his struggles in the slough of despond, and his final triumph through the manifestation in his heart of the Saviour himself, the Suffering One, revealing unto him the mysteries of joy in pain, and victory in defeat. JOHN AMOS COMENIUS. 705 Scarce was he married again when his refuge at Brandeis had to be abandoned, and he became an exile from his country and a pastor of the congregation of refugees at Lissa, in Poland, fulfilling in his own experi- ence what had been foretold the banished Florentine poet in such touch- ing words : " Thou shalt abandon everything beloved Most tenderly, and this the arrow is Which first the bow of banishment shoots forth. Thou shalt have proof how savoreth of salt The bread of others, and how hard a row The going down and up another's stairs." There, though he dwelt in outer security for about twenty-eight years, he lost his second wife, Bishop CyriFs daughter, after she had borne him one son and four daughters ; and later, in 1656, at the capture of Lissa from the Swedish invaders, went through the same bitter experience as at Fulneck, again losing his entire very valuable library with all his other property, and once more being forced to flee for safety to another land, finally settling at Amsterdam. Well might the aged man pathetically exclaim at the end of his career : ** My whole life was merely the visit of a guest ; I had no fatherland." Yet he never complains of his own troubles. His lamentations are all for his country and his Church, often coupled with stern reproof for their past sins and shortcomings. We can well believe that to such a man his own tribulations were the least part of his sufferings. His worst trial was to behold his beloved native land bleeding from many wounds, invaded, and trodden ruthlessly under foot by a foreign foe, until not one in three of its inhabitants was left ; and to see his dear Church persecuted, pursued, driven from her strongholds, her members killed or scattered, and she, a second Eachel, weeping for her children because they were not. Not his own, but the pain of others, pained him most. For his was a sensitive, profoundly sympathetic nature. He loved his country with a deep and true love, and was attached to his Church with the tender affection of a child for its parent. We have proof of this at the very beginning of his priesthood, when the intrigues, injustice, and cruel oppression of the Jesuits were forcing Bohemia and Moravia into revolt against their faithless sovereign, and at Fulneck he wrote his "Cry of the Oppressed Poor to Heaven," in which he passionately bewailed the lamentable condition of his people. We note it in his '^ Citadel of Secur- ity," composed during his enforced leisure at Brandeis, in which he tried to cheer and encourage them in their afflictions. His letters to Oxen- stiern, just before the treaty of Westphalia, when he learned how Sweden was about to break all her promises with regard to restoring the Moravian exiles and protecting them in their political and religious rights, show 706 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. how deeply pained he was at heart, at the saaie time that they are bold protests, and cutting reproofs of the wrong, full of the courage and devo- tion of a pure-minded patriot ; as are also his words on the same subject in his History. If it be true, as has been asserted, that Comenius aided and abetted the Swedes in their invasion of Poland and capture of Lissa, it is but evidence of the same sentiment. He still hoped that Sweden might restore his exiled people and Church to their homes. He hailed the invader because he looked upon him as a liberator of his native land. Nor did his sympathy and love grow cold when afterward, far away at Amsterdam, lie used his high position and influence to raise large sums of money for the exiles, to gain positions for hundreds in England and Sweden, and to make Amsterdam itself an asylum and headquarters for banished Moravian and Bohemian Protestants. Never was pastor more self-sacrificingly loyal to his flock than he, from the day of his ordination in 1616 to the end of his life. Even after the sack of Fulneck he continued visiting and secretly ministering to the members there from his hiding-place in the forest. Before finally leaving Bohemia, he had made a perilous journey in behalf of the Church to find an asylum in Poland or Hungary. Afterward, at Lissa, in Amsterdam, wherever he was and however busily engaged, he ceased not to pray and care for his brethren, remaining their true and faithful bishop to the end ; in pastoral letters, preached and printed sermons, and on frequent visitations, admonishing, instructing, cheering, and encouraging them as a friend and spiritual father and guide. Did his duty to his Church call, he was ready at any time to drop his school- work, as he did at Prerau, in order to obey what he deemed his highest call. For first and foremost he was and always remained a pastor, and a minister of the spiritual mysteries of God. An ardent patriot he was ; a famous educator, scholar, and author, whom princes loved to honor ; but before all else he was a Bishop of the Unitas Fratrum. Yet we should make a great mistake did we suppose that his restless zeal and untiring labors were prompted only by pity and the desire to afford tem- porary relief to the oppressed. His motive was a deeper, higher one, and sprang from the very distress and suffering of his own soul and of his dearly loved Church and country. Deeper than all his pain and anxiety, more basal and abiding than any mere emotion or occasional depression of spirit to which he was subject, was the firm, unwavering, ever-present hope, the truly prophetic conviction, that from the present death that was threaten- ing there would be a resurrection into a new and better life, when the scat- tered members should be gathered together from the four quarters of the earth, and the essential Unitas Fratrum should renew her youth as the eagle's. He mourned indeed and lamented at the evident signs of deca- dence and decay which his clear vision could not fail to see in the exiled Church, even in the midst of her outer security and seeming prosperity in JOHN AMOS COMENIUS. 707 Poland. He felt that she was slowly dying. But he knew that the good and true in her could never die. And this made him confident and strong. Sense and reason, looking only at the things which are seen and are corruptible, told him the end was drawing nigh. But faith and hope* with steadfast face beholding, assured him of things not seen and eternal. In the face of apparent defeat, destruction, and ruin for all that he loved best, the heroic man deliberately planned and persistently worked for a future that never seemed more distant, more chimerical, more utterly impossible than it did then ; namely, the restoration of his people to their native land, and of his Church to her original purity and strength. From this time forth to the end of his days, though the prospects grew darker and ever darker, he lived and labored in spem contra spent. How was this restoration to be accomplished ? He did not know. When would it be brought to pass ? He did not ask. All in Grod^s own time and way. Sufficient for him that it surely would be done. So that all his energies were bent to fit and prepare his people for the event when it should come. To this end, he reasoned, two things were essential : First, education, popular, universal ; the education of men for manhood, with all its rights and duties ; '^for all who have been born human beings,^' to use his own language, "general instruction to fit them for everything human. ^^ Sec- ondly, the maintenance of the old spiritual landmarks ; keeping in remembrance the original principles and ideals, and in order to this, as far as possible, the pure practices and discipline of the Church, so that among the exiles themselves there should be left a remnant at least, a "hidden seed,'' from which the new growth might spring up and mul- tiply. If the renewed Bohemia and Moravia were ever to become a permanent reality, it must be with a people renewed in intelligence and virtue. With the capture of Prague, a systematic crusade had begun against all institu- tions of higher and popular learning, and the destruction of everything lit- erary that was not distinctively Roman Catholic. Protestant and Catholic historians alike bear testimony to the consequent lamentable decay of all learning and literature. Says one of the latter : " I do not know of a single scholar, subsequent to the expulsion of the Protestants, who distin- guished himself by his learning. . . . Throughout the kingdom nearly all the schools were in the hands of the Jesuits or the ecclesiastical orders, and little more than bad Latin was taught." Under such circumstances, Comenius knew there could be no such thing as a permanent rejuvenation of his fatherland ; for a people's prosperity is dependent upon its intelli- gence, and a nation's stability upon the righteousness of its inhabitants. Hence, to prepare the rising generation for the new era that was to dawn, he set to work — in the language of the laiest historian of the Unitas — " to lay the foundation of an educational system, simple in its structure, suit- able to the minds of children, exercising their faculties, fitting them for 708 TBE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. the most important avocations of life, and preparing them for their eter- nal mission. . . . ' From the school there should proceed a new- people ; from the family, a new school.'" It was with this end in view that, soon after liis arrival at Lissa, and even before assuming the rectorship of the college there, he began his series of educational works on which his fame in the world at large is chiefly based, and whose value and importance are to be treated later in this evening's exercises by those more competent than I to speak authori- tatively on the subject. Nor need I dwell on how these writings at once attracted all the civilized world's attention, and made kings and par- liaments solicit his aid in reforming their systems of instruction ; how he went to England, Sweden, Holland, Transylvania, was wanted in France, and almost came over here to America, as Cotton Mather tells us, '* to Illuminate this Colledge and Country in the Quality of President " of Har- vard ; how his plans grew, and his purpose broadened, till it embraced all knowledge for all mankind — all this is well known to you. When we remember that all the time that he was engaged in this educational work he was also, since his consecration in 1632, bearing the responsibilities and faithfully performing the labors pertaining to the holy office of bishop, the general oversight of the scattered church, his immense official and private correspondence, attending synods and confer- ences, until his resignation in 1641 acting as rector of the college at Lissa, whose entire constitution and system of instruction he radically reformed ; and, finally, besides his sermons, also prepared and published, in accordance with his fixed general purpose of fitting his people for their final restoration, his edition of '^ Lasitius's History of Bohemia," wfth a lengthy introduction and conclusion of his own ; the very next year, 1650, wrote his pathetic and beautiful '^ Last Testament of the Dying Mother, the Brethren's Unity," instinct with faith and love and hope, and that broadly catholic spirit which so distinguished him ;. pub- lished a new edition of his translation of the *' Ratio Disciplinae," with a new dedication and exhortation, besides a *' Biblical Manual," and many other theological and devotional works — when we remember all this, I say, we cannot but be amazed both at the fertility of his mind and the stupendous energy and capacity for work of this wonderful man. Never was a fuller, more laborious life. His originality probably nowhere shines forth more clearly than in his educational work. Yet such was his humility that he did not undertake the promulgation of his ideas until he had reluctantly been forced to the conclusion that there was no system of education then extant which would fulfil the large purpose and noble end he had in view. He was a stranger to anything like selfish ambition, and could honestly affirm "that these forty years my aim has been simple and unpretending, indifferent whether I teach or be taught, admonish or be admonished, willing to act the part of JOHN AMOS COMENIUS. 109 a teacher of teachers, if in Anything it be permitted me to be so, and a disciple of disciples where progress may be possible." As characteristic as his humility was that eminently practical turn of mind — sound common sense we now would call it — which distinguishes his educational writings, though not more than his religious works and his offi- cial and private course of action everywhere. It was this that made him the thorough realist he was in all pertaining to the practical life of men ; and it is all the more marked because along with this trait there was also unmistakably present in his mind a decided vein of mysticism, which at one time led him temporarily astray in his theological views. Is this not often so, that mysticism and the most practical realism go together? Are they not perchance only two phases of one and the same fundamental character, and that, too, of the strongest, grandest, and best characters produced in our humanity ? They are the poet's distinction, the true poet, who is not less a *^ maker" because also a dreamer ; and the proph- ets as well, if indeed poet and prophet be not one and the same, whose *' Clearer eye should see, in all Earth's seeming woe, the seed of Heaven's flowers." And Comenius had a poet's spirit, as his exquisitely conceived and writ- ten ** Labyrinth of the World and Palace of the Heart" would alone be sufficient to prove — a prose poem written in his retreat at Brandeis, and still popularly read and prized as one of the gems of Bohemian classic liter- ature— every way worthy to be called the forerunner of Bunyan's some- what similar allegory. Certainly in Comenius the practical and the mystic were closely joined, the accompaniments, if not the result, of an unusually refined, gentle, sensitive nature. The latter's fate it always is to be most liable to be tossed between the extremes of hope and fear ; even as Comenius not sel- dom suffered from gloom and despondency, and then again rose to almost ecstatic heights of sanguine hope and expectation. Yet seldom did this really unbalance him. It went no deeper than his feelings. The sound, practical element invariably asserted itself, having the deeper hold on his nature, controlling his judgment and reason. While deeper even than this, enduring, persistent, unshaken by storms of circumstance or ebb and flow of passion, the prinium mobile of his being was his firm faith in God, and fixed confidence in the justice and truth of him who is the Eternal Love. It was this, rooted in his strong Czech character, that was the basis of that pertinacity of purpose and persevering hopefulness in the midst of defeat, disaster, and every opposition and contradiction, that gave him the clear gaze of a seer into the future, the firm utterance of a prophet of the Unitas Fratrum. When in midwinter of 1628, at the head of a band of refugees, he crossed the frontier mountains between iiis home and the 710 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. land of exile^ looking back for the lasfc time 'through his tears to behold his dear fatherland once more, he knelt down on the snow-covered moun- tain top and broke forth in this impassioned cry to his G-od : "Where- fore dost Thou forget us forever, and forsake us for so long a time ? Lead us back to Thee again, so that we may again return home. Eenew our days as of old ! " And ever after he trusted in the fulfillment of that petition ; he looked for it ; he relied on it with absolute confidence and faith. All his activity thenceforth was carried on in view of the accom- plishment of this prophetic hope. To this end his scholastic work was prosecuted ; to this end his History was written ; to this end his Church's '* Confession of Faith'' republished, and the ^'^ Biblical Manual," and the Bohemian and German "Hymnals," and the " Catechism for the Scat- tered Sheep of Christ ; " and to this end, finally, and most important and significant of all, his second edition, in 1660, of the " Ratio Disciplinas," with its strikingly prophetic dedication "To the Anglican Church, here- tofore driven about by manifold stormwinds, but now seeing before her a haven of rest." By these publications he meant to keep firm the prin- ciples of the scattered brethren, the hidden seed of the future, to stir up their zeal, strengthen them in their patient waiting, and keep pure their original doctrine and discipline ; and, on the other hand, he solemnly charged the Anglican Church tenderly to care for "our dear mother" the Unitas Fratrum, in her seemingly dying condition, until her restora- tion either in the home of her fathers or in some other land. " Whether God will deem her worthy to be revived in her native land," he writes, "or let her die there and resuscitate her elsewhere, in either case do you, in our stead, care for her. . . . You ought to love her, because in her life she has gone on before you, for more than two centuries, with examples of faith and patience. . . . We certainly ought to take care that such gifts may not perish with us, and that amidst disorder and con- fusion, as these now exist, the foundations of our Unity may not be so entirely ruined as to make it impossible for our posterity to find them." The whole work is aglow with a broad Christian charity and a catholicity far in advance of his times — scarce yet reached, alas ! in our own. He was indeed zealous for his Church, but not with the zeal of a bigot or sectary. In all his life and works he proved the sincerity of his noble words : "Let separate churches pass away, and ours with them, only let nothing that is good be lost, but rather be gathered into the common treasury of the Church universal." By word and example he labored for true Christian union everywhere. "Let all sects," he exclaims, "with their sympathizers and supporters go to nought. I have dedicated myself to Christ alone. ... He knows no sects, but hates them, and hath given peace and mutual love to his own as their inheritance." All this is in perfect keeping with those true and precious utterances wherewith he brought his literary labors to a dlo&e in his "Unum Neces- JOHN AMOS GOMENIUS. 'S'll sarium," which, he says, ^^ John Amos Comenius, a Sire, in his seventy- seventh year, exhausted by the Unnecessary Things of Earth, and striving for the One Thing Needful, sets forth for the Consideration of the World." Well has it been said of this: ^*He has left no richer legacy. It is a solemn farewell spoken to the world by a grand old man ; it is an aged saint's anticipation of coming glory.'' It is indeed the fit expression of a character such as is beautifully summed up by the histo- rian Palacky : ^^ In his intercourse with others Comenius was in an ex- traordinary degree friendly, conciliatory, and humble ; always ready to serve his neighbor and sacrifice himself. His writings as well as his walk and conversation show the depth of his feelings, his goodness, his uprightness, and fear of God. He never cast back upon his opponents what they meted out to him. He never condemned, no matter how great the injus- tice which he was made to suffer. At all times, with fullest resignation, whether joj or sorrow was his portion, he honored and praised the Lord." It is a satisfaction to know that the hopes and j^ro^hecies of this ser- vant of God were, partially at least, fulfilled not many years after he him- self had passed away, and that his own writings had so much to do with bringing that fulfillment about. Refugees from each of the eight congre- gations to whom his Catechism had been addressed by name helped to organize the Renewed Unitas Fratrum, soon after the beginning of Herrn- hut in 1722 ; while the very aim with which his "Ratio Disciplinse" had been republished was reached when Count Zinzendorf by reading it was constrained, as he himself tells us, to devote himself to the upbuilding of the Church on its original foundations. Moreover, through Bishop Jablonsky, Comenius's grandson, the last Bishop of the Ancient Church, whom he had helped to consecrate in 1662, the Episcopal succession was handed down to the Renewed Church, when he consecrated David Nitsch- man its first Bishop in 1735, but sixty-four years after the venerable saint had gone up higher, on November 15, 1670, in the seventy-ninth year of his pilgrimage, at Amsterdam. In the neighboring town of Naarden his dust lies buried, under the floor of the military barracks there, with no memorial of any kind, not even a tombstone to mark the spot — nor need of one — where lies he of whom we may as truly say as did Beu Jonson of Shakespeare, " Thou art a monument without a tomb, And art alive still, while thy work doth live, And we have wits to read, and praise to give." 712 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. II. The Text-books of Comenius. BY SUPT. WILLIAM H. MAXWELL, BROOKLYl?^, :N^. Y. "The special aims of pedagogy," says Oomparye, "are essentially related to the general aims of science. All progress in science has its corresponding effects on education. When an innovator has modified the laws for the discovery of truth, other innovators appear, who modify, in their turn, the rules for instruction." Comenius was such an innovator. Men had been studying words without meanings, propositions without contents, and abstractions without realities. Fraacis Bacon had turned their intellectual efforts in another direction, toward the observation of nature, the study of concrete things, the formulation of laws not deduced from barren abstractions, but generalized from, and verified by, experience. Comenius sought to apply the rules of the Baconian philosophy to educa- tion. What his system is, what are the principles of his educational phi- losophy, will be set forth by Dr. Butler. As a prelude to his address, I have the honor to invite your attention for a few minutes to the school text-books Comenius wrote and left behind as a monument to his genius and his industry. " Latin," says Comenius, " is the one language to be preferred to all others for schools, because it is the vehicle not only of Roman, but of all learning, and because it is the common language of the learned." But in what a deplorable condition was the teaching of Latin when Comenius first addressed himself to its reform ? In 1614 Eilhardus Lubinus, an eminent theologian who edited the Greek Testament in three languages, as quoted by Professor Laurie, says of the teaching of Latin in his day : " When considering this matter I have, to speak the truth, been often led to think that some wicked and malign spirit— an enemy of the human race — had, through the agency of some ill-omened monks, originally intro- duced the method of instruction. And with what result ? The produc- tion of Germanisms, barbarisms, solecisms, mere abortions of Latin, dis- honorings and defilements of the tongue." In his Novissima Linguarum Methodus Comenius enumerates the evils of existing methods of teaching Latin. It is taught abstractly without a prior knowledge of the things which the words denote ; Latin grammar is taught not only before a Latin vocabulary is acquired, but before the grammar of the vernacular is studied, and that, too, in the unknown Latin tongue ; and, lastly, boys are compelled to take impossible leaps, from a grammar whose rules are meaningless to a literature that is beyond their comprehension, instead of JOHN AMOS COMEJVIUS. 713 being carried forward step by step from the easy to the more difficult, from the simple to the complex. To remedy these evils Comenius projected, in 1628, a first Latin book in which, to quote his own words as given by Professor Laurie, " all things, the properties of things, and actions and passions of things, should be presented, and to each should be assigned its own proper word, believ- ing that in one and the same book the whole connected series of things might be surveyed historically, and the whole fabric of things and words reduced to one continuous context." While meditating on this project, there fell into his hands a book which, he tells us, made him leap for joy. It was the Janua Linguarum, written by William Bath, an Irishman, born in Dublin, who was educated at Bauvais and Padua, and who spent the greater part of his mature years as Spiritual Father to the Irish Jesuit College at Salamanca, in Spain. This book was an attempt to arrange in twelve hundred short sentences all the common root- words in the Latin language. No word was repeated, and the Latin was accompanied by a word-for-word Spanish translation. This work, however, upon examination, did not satisfy the Moravian scholar, as it did not even pretend to connect the study of words with the study of things. And so, in 1631, he published his Janua Lin- gum LatincB Reserata. The full title is : '* The Gate of Languages Unlocked ; or. The Seminary of all Languages and Sciences ;" that is, a compendious method of learning Latin, or any other tongue, along with the elements of all the sciences and arts, comprehended under a hundred chapter-headings and in a thousand sentences. The thousand sentences comprehended eight thousand different words, the Latin and the German equivalents being in parallel columns. The sentences are simple at first, but afterward complex and compound. The subjects treated range from herbs and shrubs to dialectic, rhetoric, and geometry. The book was immensely popular, and was soon translated into nearly all the European and some Asiatic tongues. The "Vesti- bulum," an easier book on the same plan, was published in 1632 as an introduction to the ** Janua." To the second edition of the latter work an easy grammar and an etymological lexicon were attached. The next book of the series, the '^ Atrium," in which the sentences are longer and more involved than in the "Janua" and " Vestibulum," is intended to serve as an introduction to the highest book of the series, the " Palatium ; or, Palace of Authors." Comenius not only wrote text-books, but he laid down strict rules for the method of study. I summarize the account of his method from Pro- fessor Laurie's exhaustive treatise on his life and writings. Each book was to be read ten times. At the secoi^ reading the whole should be written out, vernacular and Latin, and the teacher should begin to con- verse with his pupils in the Latin tongue. At the third reading the 714 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. teacher is to read the Latin aloud, and the pupil is to translate in the ver- nacular without seeing the printed page, and at the same time he is to copy out the syntactical grammar. At the fourth reading the remainder of the grammar is to be written out, and the words in the " Janua" are to be parsed. At the fifth reading special attention is to be given to the derivation of words. At the sixth reading synonyms and paronyms are to be explained. At the seventh reading the syntactical rules are to be writ- ten out once more, and examples under each rule collected from the text. At the eighth reading the pupils are to learn the text by heart. The ninth reading is to be devoted to a logical analysis of the subject-matter ; and the tenth perusal is to be conducted by the boys challenging one another to repeat portions of the text. All the while Latin compositions are to be written, '^the vernacular being constructed by the teacher (apologues, fables, etc.) out of the words in the ' Janua' and its lexicon, and translated into Latin by the pupils. The afternoon is always to be spent in writing out the morning's work," This method, it will be readily admitted, was sufficiently thorough. Indeed, it may well be questioned whether Comenius's plan of several read- ings, each with a distinct object in view, is not very much better than the system now in vogue — that of a single reading in which translation, com- position, syntax, meaning, and analysis are all attempted at the same time. In 1657, Comenius, probably finding his series too elaborate, published a simpler and better book than any of those mentioned. It is entitled Orhis Sensualium FictuSf '^A World of Things Obvious to the Senses, drawn in Pictures." The pictures were made by Michael Endter, of Nuremberg, and are rude and ungainly to the last degree. All the same, however, they made the '' Orbis " ^' the first children's picture-book," and for at least fifty years the most popular school-book in the world. From it mothers taught their children. From it schoolmasters taught not only Latin, but the vernacular of every language in Europe. From it many a boy gained his first general notions of the outside world, an acquaintance with things beyond the sphere of his daily life, strong impulses toward what is right and noble, and withal a mastery of the Latin language. "The ground of this business," says Comenius, as translated in 1658 by quaint Charles Hoole, a schoolmaster of London, "the ground of this business is that sensual objects may be rightly presented to the senses, for fear they may not be received. I say, and say it again aloud, that this last is the foundation of all the rest : because we can neither act nor speak wisely, unless we first rightly understand all the things which are to be done, and whereof we are to speak. Now, there is nothing in the under- standing which was not before in the sense. And therefore to exercise the senses well about the right perceiving the differences of things, will be to lay the ground for all wisdom, and all wise discourse, and all discreet actions in one's course of life." 1 JOHN AMOS COMENITIS. 715 Comenius's objects in this book may be summarized under three heads : First, to give an outline of all knowledge before anything is taught in detail ; second, to connect a knowledge of things with the words which stand for them, both in a vernacular tongue and in Latin ; and, third, to give a Latin vocabulary extensive enough for all the requirements of life. To serve these purposes, pictures alone, he is never tired of insisting, are not sufficient. The objects themselves must be closely examined ; while the pictures should be not only observed and talked about, but imitated in drawing. He has thus fairly earned the title of first of the sense real- ists. But I now propose to let the pictures speak for themselves. In Section L, labeled ^* Invitation," we are introduced to the boy, a plump but not a pleasing person, and to the master, a man "severe" and *^ stern to view," who has evidently all the frowns and none of the jokes of Goldsmith's schoolmaster. They are conversing on a barren plain, the only other living thing in sight being a wild animal apparently of some extinct species. In the background are a village ciiurch of the regulation pattern, the roofs of houses, and a couple of pyramids which are intended for mountains, but which look suspiciously like hayricks. The master invites the boy to " understand rightly, to do rightly, and to speak out rightly all things that are necessary." The boy answers, " See, here I am ; lead me in the name of God." And now we enter upon whab, were we to judge from the pictures alone, might well be regarded as an unknown land. Comenius's artist sticks at nothing. He is ready to give pictorial representation to anything in the heavens above, or in the earth beneath, or in the waters under the earth. So grotesque are the forms depicted that one could almost imag- ine them pictures of life in another strange land discovered in a fifth voyage by Gulliver. The gateway of this strange land is what Oomenius calls a lively and vocal alphabet. With each letter is given a drawing more or less — generally more — unlike some creature whose sounds are supposed to represent the sound of a letter. "The crow crieth " gives the sound oi a. " The lamb blaiteth" gives the sound of J. "The grasshopper chirpeth" gives the sound of c. The remaining sections of the " Orbis Pictus " — one hundred and fifty in number — are each and all arranged on the same plan. An illustration is placed at the head of the section. The subject matter is given in two parallel columns — in the original, Latin and German ; in the edition from which these pictures are taken, that published by Mr. 0. W. Bardeen, Latin and English. Each detail in the verbal description has a number, and the same number is attached to the corresponding part of the pictorial representation. In Section III., a representation of the world, we have a wood-cut show- ing an exceedingly ugly man and woman. One can fancy either one of 716 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. them saying, in the words of Touchstone : "A poor, ill-favored thing, sir, but mine own." The man sits on the edge of a boulder overlooking a sheet of water, on which are depicted a whale and a couple of seals. On the mudbank to the left are a horse, a bear, a lion, and a duck. Behind the mudbank rises a mountain covered with trees of the Noah's ark description ; while eleven stars, a bank of clouds, and nine birds, one of portentous size, diversify the heavens. Underneath the picture is the les- son : '^ The heaven, 1, hoih fire ox^^ stars. The clouds, 3, hang in the air. Birds, 3, fly under the clouds. Fishes, 4, swim in the water. The earth hath hills, 5, woods, 6, fields, 7, beasts, 8, and men, 9. Thus the greatest bodies of the world, the four elements, are full of their own inhabitants." After this bird^s-eye view, so to speak, of the world, Comenius passes to heaven, and then treats of fire, air, water, and clouds. In the section on air, however, he allows himself to depart so far from realism as to inform us gravely that "a wind under ground causeth an earthquake." So diflB- cult is it for even the professed realist to be always realistic. The next half dozen chapters are devoted to the fruits of the earth, which the artist makes anything but " pleasant to the eye." Out of grati- tude, doubtless, to the Dutch, among whom he had found an asylum from persecution, he says of the tulip that it is decus fiorum sed expers odoris. " It is the grace of flowers, but affordeth no smell." We now come to animals. A living creature Comenius defines thus : "A living creature liveth, perceiveth, moveth itself; is born, dieth ; is nourished and groweth ; standeth, or sitteth, or lieth, or goeth." The words of the definition are determined, you will observe, not more by the connotation of the term defined than by the necessity of introducing cer- tain new words in the Latin tongue. Our author tries to teach a knowl- edge of all things visible and invisible, and at the same time to impart a Latin vocabulary coextensive with this knowledge. Several sections are devoted to birds, upon some of which he is quite severe, as when he says : '* The owl is the most despicable ; the whoopoo is sordidissimus, the most nasty." In some cases his zoological scholar- ship is doubtful, as when he tells us that " the bittern putteth his bill in the water and belloweth like an ox ; " or that the wild goat hath " very little horns," ^' by which she hangeth herself on a rock." Eealist though he is, it seldom occurs to Comenius to question popular superstitions, for he tells us that *' the unicorn hath but one horn, but that a precious one ; " and that the dragon is *' a winged serpent which killeth with his breath." Nor did he hinder his artist from distorting the actual in order to present a more complete view, as when he represents fish as swimming on, never in, the water. Next we come to man. After an illustrated version of the story of Adam and Eve and the serpent and the forbidden tree, he gives, in Section JOHN AMOS C0MENIU8, 717 XXXVIL, a picture of ''the seven ages of man." We see the infant (1), the boy (2), the youth (3), a young man (4), a man (5), an elderly man (6), a decrepit old man (7). So, also, in the other sex, he continues : there are a girl (8), a damosel (9), a maid (10), a woman (11), an elderly woman (12), and a decrepit old woman (13). How faint an illusion on the mind would be produced by even a good picture of the seven ages when compared to that which flows from Jaques's noble speech in ''As You Like It." After all, there is no artist like the artist in words. The outward parts of a man, the head and the hands, the flesh and the bowels, the '' chanels " and the bones, are treated in as many lessons, in a manner not materially different from that in which they are presented in modern object lesson-books ; that is, in the true dry-as-dust style. But in Section XLII., '* The Outward and Inward Senses," we have a picture that shows no small amount of ingenuity. In the center is a human head with a portion of the skull removed so as to show the convolutions of the cerebrum. Surrounding the head are the organs of the special senses. '* The eye (1) seeth colors, what is white or black, green or blue, red or yellow." '' The ear (2) heareth sounds, both natural, voices and words, and artificial, musical tunes." "The nose (3) scenteth smells and stinks." "The tongue (4) with the roof of the mouth tastes savors, what is sweet or bitter, keen or biting, sour or harsh." "The hand (5), by touching, discerneth the quantity and quality of things, the hot and cold, the moist and dry, the hard and soft, the smooth and rough, the heavy and the light." The second part of this lesson, on the inward senses, is not farther removed from the comprehension of children than it is from our knowledge of the brain as developed by physiological psychology. ** The common sense " (7), he says, "under the forepart of the head, apprehendeth things taken from the outward senses. The phantasie (6), under the crown of the head, judgeth of those things, thinketh and dreameth. The memory (8), under the hinder part of the head, layeth up everything and fetcheth them out; it loseth some, and this is forgetfulness." The artist who made pictures for the "Orbis Pictus," as I have said, sticks at nothing. He has all the courage of Comenius's convictions. The last picture shows that he would leave nothing to the imagination of the child — that he would not have him learn the Latin for ear or tongue with- out a picture of the thing. He has his imitators in modern days among those who would not allow a child to learn to read the word "cat" without seeing a picture of that "necessary, harmless'' animal. But no modern "fad " has been carried so far as Comenius carries his in Section XLIIL, where he attempts the impossible, and presents us with a picture of " The Soul of Man." It is the outline of the human body thrown on a sheet. The first sentence of the text supplies a key to what at first sight seems inexplicable. " The soul," says Comenius, " is the life of the body. ?18 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION one in the whole.'^ Then he continues : " The soul is only vegetative in plants ; withal sensitive in animals ; and also rational in man. This con- sisteth in three things : In the understanding, whereby it judgeth and understandeth a thing good and evil, or true, or apparent. In the will, whereby it chooseth and desireth, or rejecteth, and mistaketh a thing unknown. ■ In the mind, whereby it pursueth the good chosen, or avoid- eth the evil rejected.^' Hence is hope and fear, love and joy, anger and grief. " The true judgment of a thing," he adds, *Ms knowledge; the false is error, opinion, and suspicion." In Section XLIV. attention is directed to " Deformed and Monstrous People." There is, as you see, a giant, a dwarf, and a two-bodied monster. In addition to these unhappy parsons, he enumerates among monstrosities ^'the jolt-headed, the great-nosed, the blubber-lipped, the blub-cheeked, the goggle-eyed, the wry-necked, the great- throated, the crump-backed, the crump-footed, the steeple-crowned," and, growing rather personal, "the bald-pated." Evidently he was very far from having reached the idea that the human animal, when it attains complete development, will be hairless. The remainder of the book is occupied chiefly with men's occupations. Like Juvenal, he makes quidquid agunt homines the chief theme of his book. The lesson on hunting. Section LIII., is very amusing. The hunter, venator, on horseback, is in the act of piercing a wild boar with a great spear. The boar is closely pursued by a beagle, while vertagus, the "tumbler or greyhound," gallops along in front, pursued rather than pursuing. A very melancholy bear, held fast by a dog, is belabored by a man with a huge club. The stag is making straight for the "toyls." A wolf (6) has fallen into a pit, while two nondescript animals, labeled ^^hare " and " fox," are making off over the hill ; and this leads our author to remark, somewhat after the manner of Dogberry, that "if anything get away, it escapeth." The time when mercy to the lower animals should be preached as a part of the moral law binding on all human kind had not yet arrived. Yet in our own day field sports are not a whit less cruel than in the days of Comenius. Of the lessons on particular trades. Section LXIV., that on the car- penter, will give a good idea. "We have seen man^s food and clothing," says Comenius, "now his dwelling followeth. At first they dwelt in caves (1), then in booths or huts (2), and then again in tents (3), at the last in houses. The woodman felleth and heweth down trees (5) with an ax (4), the boughs remaining. He cleareth knotty wood with a wedge, which he forceth in with a beetle (8), and maketh wood-stacks (9). The carpenter squareth timber with a chip-ax, whence chips (11) fall ; and saweth it with a saw (12), when the saw-dust falleth down. Afterwards he lifteth the beam upon tressels (14) by the help of a pulley (15), fast- JOHN AMOS COMENIUS. 710 eneth it with cramp-irons (16), and •marketh it out with a line (17). Thus he frameth the walls together, and fasteneth the great pieces with pins." In Section XCVIII. we have the picture of a school as it was in the first half of the seventeenth century. *^ A school," the ^* Orbis Pictus " tells us, *Ms a shop in which young wits are fashioned to vertue, and it is distin- guished into forms. The master sitteth in a chair ; the scholars, in forms. He teacheth, they learn. Some things are writ down before them with chalk on a table. Some sit at a table and write ; he mendeth their faults. Some stand and rehearse things committed to memory. Some talk together, and behave themselves wantonly and carelessly. These are chastened with a ferrula and a rod.^' The next picture might be taken for the original of Shakespeare^s '* lean and slipper'd pantaloon, With spectacles on nose, and pouch on side. His youthful hose, well sav'd, a world too wide For his shrunk shank." But it is only the student in his study. "He picketh all the best things out of books," says Comenius, "into his own manual, or marketh them in them with a dash, or a little star, in the margent. Being to sit up late, he setteth a candle on a candle-stick, which is snuff'd with snuff- ers. Before the candle he placeth a screen, which is green, that it may not hurt his eye-sight ; richer persons use a taper, for a tallow candle stinketh and smoaketh." In Section C. there are four female figures ; and I venture to say that no one who has not read the book will guess what they are intended to represent. The figure to the extreme left represents Grammar, which is "conversant about letters, of which it maketh words, and teacheth how to utter, write, put together and part them rightly " — an infinitely better definition than Lindley Murray's. The second figure is Rhetoric, which "doth as it were paint a rude form of speech with oratory flourishes." The third is Poetry, which "gathereth these flowers of speech and tieth them as it were into a little garland and so making of prose a poem." The fourth is Music, which "setteth tunes with pricks, to which it setteth words, and so singeth alone, or in consort, or by voice, or musical instru- ments." The lady is evidently performing a solo, to the great distress of Grammar, Rhetoric, and Poetry. After a lesson on musical instruments we are somewhat abruptly intro- duced, in Section CII., to Philosophy. In the in-door scene to the right there is a table with a heap of countermand a slate on which is written some kind of arithmetical problem ; just what it would bo difficult to say. Metaphysicus, the supernaturalist, who "searches out the causes and effects of things," is saluting Physicus, the natux'alist, who "vieweth all 720 TBE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. the works of God in the world. '^ Apparently Oomenius desired to impress upon his readers the superiority of Physicus over Metaphysicus. In Section GUI. we get the first glimpse of geometry. ^' A geometrician/' we are told, '^ measureth the height of a tower, or the distance of places, either with a quadrant or a JacoVs staff. He maketh out the figures of things with lines, angles, and circles, by a rule, a square, and a pair of compasses. Out of these arise an oval, a triangle, a quadrangle, and other figures." And so endeth the first lesson in geometry. To geography two sections are devoted, and they are chiefly valuable as showing the deplorable condition of geographical knowledge so late as the middle of the seventeenth century. The first gives us a map of the hemi- spheres, and in the attached lesson we are gravely informed that ^* The ocean compasseth the earth about, and five seas wash it, the Mediterranean Sea, the Baltic Sea, the Red Sea, the Persian Sea, and the Gaspian Sea. Besides," he adds, "the earth is divided into three continents, this of ours, which is subdivided into Europe, Asia, and Africa ; America, whose inhabitants are antipodes to us, and the South Land, yet unknown." To cap the climax, the lesson ends with the truly extraordinary statement, '* Infinite islands swim (natant) in the sea." With the change of a single inflection, he might have applied to his islands the words of Vergil describing ^neas's ship-wrecked sailors, rarce nantes in gurgite vasto. In the second lesson on geography. Section GVIII., we have a map of Europe, on which are depicted twenty-eight chief kingdoms. Unfor- tunately, the numbers by which these kingdoms are designated are now almost obliterated ; but I have read that, in an earlier edition than that from which this picture is taken, Finland was placed between Norway and Sweden, and the word Switzerland was printed in capitals across the Black Sea. From geography to moral philosophy is an abrupt transition ; but it is that which the student is next called upon to take. In Section GIX. he shows us an allegorical picture of life : on the left, the broad path that belongs to vice ; on the right, the narrow way that is the way of virtue. "Mind, young man," he exclaims, "imitate Hercules; leave the left hand way, turn from vice, the enterance is fair, but the end is ugly and steep down. Go on the right hand, though it be thorny, no way is im- passable to vertue, follow whither vertue leadeth through narrow places to stately palaces, to the tower of honour." But with characteristic caution he adds : "Take heed thou do not go too much on the right hand." Then follow the virtues, personated by most unprepossessing female fig- ures. Prudence, Section GVIII., like Janus, has two faces. With one she gazes in a looking-glass on things past. With the other, through a " per- spective glass," she watches things to come. " She watcheth opportunity (which, having a bushy forehead, and, moreover, having wings, doth quickly slip away) and catcheth it." JOHN AMOS COMENIUS. 721 Diligence is represented with a Tam-o-Shanter cap, a sickle in one hand and a rake in the other. Temperance, which "restraineth the desire as with a bridle," is appar- ently pouring liquor with no unstinted hand from a bottle into a bowl, while in the background are several intemperate persons who seem to be very sick indeed. Fortitude is a stalwart female, fully accoutered as a warrior, with a sword in one hand and a shield in the other. She leans against a pillar and seems to have just got the better of a lion, which is walking away with most dejected mien. Patience kneels, with a lamb on one side and an anchor on the other, in the attitude of prayer, while at a little distance one very impatient per- son tears his hair, and another kills himself by falling on his sword. Justice sits on a square stone, *^for she ought to be immovable, with hoodwinked eyes, that she may not respect persons, stopping the left ear to be reserved for the other party," and holding in her right hand a sword to punish, a bridle to restrain, and a pair of scales to weigh. The most amusing, however, of these allegorical representations is that of Humanity (Section CXV.). Two stout women, whom the artist makes more than usually repulsive, are embracing. Whichever is the uglier bids the other be " sweet and lovely in her countenance, gentle and civil in her behavior and manners. '' In the background are seen two pairs of " froward men," one pair wrestling, the other fighting a duel with swords. In the front two turtle-doves are billing and cooing, while in the extreme distance Envy, a miserable looking object, "pineth away herself." The remainder of the book is occupied with subjects of a miscellaneous character. There is a picture of a marriage ceremony, in which the bride has a face like a hatchet, and the groom is a simpering idiot. The various degrees of relationship are shown in a ^' tree of consanguinity." The course of a boy's life is shown from the cradle until, with a most mournful countenance, he is seen reading a good book, and laboring with his hands. Masters and servants, the parts of a city, a court of justice, and the tor- menting of malefactors — depicted with details too horrible for descrip- tion— are each treated in a separate section. A ghastly picture of a burial is succeeded somewhat incongruously in Section OXXX. by a stage play. The attention of the audience is divided between the return of the prodi- gal son and the clown who is performing his antics and cracking his jokes. Then come various sports, such as the fencing-school, tennis, " that is the sport of noblemen to stir their bodies," dice, cards, and chess, foot-racing, and all manner of children's sports, which differ but very slightly from those that may be seen every day on our 4^wn streets. Chapters on Warfare, that are illustrated with cuts fearfully and won- derfully made, are followed by one on Religion, which he divides into Gentileism, Judaism, Christianity, and Mohammedanism. 722 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. It is curious to observe, however, how far this good and highly intel- lectual man was from being able to divest himself of the superstitions of his time. In writing of God's providence, Section CXLIX., he says: *' Men's states are not to be attributed to fortune or chance, or the influence of the stars," and naively adds, ** comets, indeed, are wont to portend no good." In the picture a man is supposed to be giving his right hand to a good angel, while with his left he repels the devil, who is trying to put a noose around his neck. Behind is a witch who is drawing a circle around herself and calling upon the devil with charms. " Wo," exclaims Comenius, "to the mad wizzards and witches who give themselves to the devil ; they dally with him and fall from God; for they shall receive their reward with him." Comenius was once invited to become president of Harvard College. He had passed away, however, before the horrors of the witchcraft delusion fell on New England. After a truly shocking illustration of the Last Judgment we are again, in the last section, brought face to face with the same chubby schoolboy who started out on this strange journey through an unknown world, and the same stern schoolmaster who was his guide. ''Thus," says the schoolmaster, *' thou hast seen, in short, all things that can be shewed, and hast learned the chief words of the English and Latin tongue. Go on now and read other good books diligently, and thou shalt become learned, wise, and godly — doctus, sapiens, et pius." It would not be difficult to point out the faults of the ''Orbis Pictus." The vocabulary is as far beyond the child's powers of memory as are much of the subject-matter and many of the terms used beyond his comprehen- sion. In his old age Comenius himself admitted that he had attempted too much ; that it is better to know a few things well than many things poorly. From his face you may clearly judge that his whole life was an exemplification of Chaucer's noble line regarding the clerk of Oxford : " Gladly would he learn and gladly teach." We may smile at the rude pictures, we may deplore the attempt to give an outline of all knowledge and a complete vocabulary at a single dose in one book. But we may well ask how far we have advanced since his day. There are those among us, we must confess, who still believe that the vocabulary of our own language is to be learned through a book that has all of the defects and none of the merits of the '' Janua " or the "Orbis Pictus" — the modern spelling-book. We may laugh at the quaintness of many of his sentences, but let us not forget that we ourselves were required to translate into French sentences such as, " The old kitten of the young cat smiled pleasantly from the back fence of the house of the uncle of my mother's cousin." His text-books were a great advance on those he found in use. They were in advance because he followed the lead of the Bacon- ian logic. The evolution of text-books has progressed just in proportion JOHN AMOS COMENIUS. 723 as their writers have followed the laws of investigation in natural science. That such an evolution has progressed and is still progressing, there can be no doubt. The spelling-book and many other school books are but the reversions to primitive barbarism that accompany every form of evolution, whether physical, intellectual, or social. III. The Place of Comen'ius in the History of Educatiok. BY DR. N^ICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER, COLUMBIA COLLEGE, NEW YORK. Travelers in distant lands describe rivers which are seemingly absorbed by the sandy desert. They disappear and leave little or no trace behind them. After a time, perhaps many miles away, the stream reappears. It gathers force and volume with going, and lends its fertilizing power to the surrounding country. Even while hidden to view, it has not ceased to exist. Though the arid wastes have concealed its course, its effect has been felt beneath the surface, and here and there is a green oasis to mark its silent path. Human history is rich in analogies to this natural phenomenon, and in Comenius the history of education fur- nishes its example. In life he was persecuted for his religious con- victions, and sought after for his educational ideas. In death he was negldcted and forgotten by friends and foes alike. It could be said of him, as the Emperor Julian said of the Epicureans, he was so completely stamped out that even his books were scarce. But the great educational revival of our century, and particularly of our generation, has shed the bright light of scholarly investigation into all the dark places ; and to-day, at the three hundredth anniversary of his birth, the fine old Moravian bishop is being honored wherever teachers gather together, and wherever education is the theme. We have found in Comenius the source and the forecasting of much that inspires and directs our new education. It is difficult to project one's self back into a time when our present environment — social, political, material — was in its infancy, and when modern invention had annihilated neither time nor space. It is still more difficult to give due credit to one who at such a time saw visions and dreamed dreams that we have since realized to the full. What is com- monplace to-day was genius three hundred years ago. America was one hundred years old Tf4ien Comenius was born, but the wilderness of the New World was unbroken. Neither at Jamestown nor at Plymouth had a permanent settlement been established. The Spanish Armada had just been defeated, and the future of Great Britain made 724 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. secure. Shakespeare, Spenser, Johnson, and Hooker were making Eliza- bethan literature. Francis Bacon was growing in power and reputation, but the climax of his career was yet to come. Copernicus had done his work ; but Galileo, Kepler, and Harvey were still young men. Montaigne was dying, and Giordano Bruno was soon to be led to the stake. Luther had finished his fight, and the shock of the contest was felt in every cor- ner of Europe. The universities were growing in numbers and influence ; but Descartes and Newton, with the secrets of modern philosophy and modern science locked in their breasts, were yet unborn. It was an age of growth, of development, of rapid progress ; but what we know as modern ideas and institutions only existed in their beginnings. The education of the people, true to its conservative traditions, was still shackled. Sturm, the typical schoolmaster of partisan humanism, had endeavored to escape the unsatisfactory present by anchoring the school to the newly found past. Rabelais and Montaigne had scoffed and ridiculed in vain. Some- thing more systematic and constructive than mere literary criticism of the extravagances of humanism was necessary, if education was to be in touch with the time. The impetus to this constructive work, and many far- reaching suggestions concerning it, were given by Comenius. His own education was belated and deficient. Before it was concluded his reflective spirit was aroused, and Comenius conceived the idea of devoting his life to making the road to learning easier to travel for those who were to come after him. This. philanthropic enthusiasm was natural to him, and was fostered by the religious atmosphere in which he was born and brought up. It grew with years, and became the ruling pas- sion of his life. At the close of his work he could say, with dqepest feeling : '^ I can afiirm from the bottom of my heart that these forty years my aim has been simple and unpretending, indifferent whether I teach or be taught, admonish or be admonished, willing to act the part of a teacher of teachers, if in anything it may be permitted me to be so, and a disciple of disciples where progress may be possible. '' The intellectual development of Comenius bears traces, both in its char- acter and its direction, of the influence of five men. These are the Holstein educational reformer, Ratich or Ratke ; the Irish Jesuit, Bateus ; the Italian .Dominican, Campanella ; the Spaniard, Vives, the friend of Erasmus ; the Englishman, Francis Bacon. From Ratich he learned something of the way in which language-teaching, the whole cur- riculum of the time, might be reformed ; and from Bateus he derived both the title and the plan of his Janua. Campanella suggested to him the necessity for the direct interrogation of nature if knowledge was to pro- gress, and Vives emphasized for him from the same point of view the defects of contemporary school practice. But it was Bacon's Instauratio Magna that opened his eyes to the possibilities of our knowledge of nature and its place in the educational scheme. The combined influence of Cam- JOHN AMOS COMENIUS. TZh panelJa, Vives, and Bacon caused him to throw off the traditional scientific methods of scholastic Aristotelianism, and to cry out for the observation and induction that have served later generations so richl}'. *^ Do we not dwell in the garden of Nature as Avell as the ancients ? '^ he exclaims. *' Why should we not use our eyes, ears, and noses as well as they ? And why should we need other teachers than these our senses to learn to know the works of Nature ? Why, say I, should we not, instead of these dead books, lay open the living book of Nature, in which there is much more to con- template than any one can ever relate, and the contemplation of which brings much more of pleasure, as well as of profit ?'' These are the thoughts that underlie the text-books of Comenius and give them their value. The early part of the seventeenth century was not a period when an aggressive and enthusiastic reformer like Comenius could work in peace anywhere in Western Europe. On the Continent the Thirty Years' War was raging with all the bitterness and cruelty that a religious motive develops. In England the struggle between the Stuarts and the people was approaching its crisis, and the modern democratic spirit was crouch- ing for a spring. Comenius was himself a follower of John Huss, who had paid for his principles with his life, a century before. He himself and his beloved Church suffered grievously during the turmoil and anarchy of the long struggle. When Fulneck was taken by the Spaniards in 1621, Comenius lost all that was dear to him — his wife and children, his manu- scripts and his library. Henceforth he was an exile, wandering over the face of the earth preaching the gospel of education. In Michelet's signifi- cant phrase, he lost his country and found the world. Under the influence of Bacon, Comenius had advanced a stage beyond the mere desire to reform educational method and conceived a plan for a Pansophia, a vast encyclopaedia of all the world's learning — Bacon's own globus intellectualis. His aim in this ambitious work was rather practical than speculative. To be sure, he wished to show that all departments of knowledge could be organized systematically in accordance with the new principles of method; but he was particularly anxious to husband the labors of scientific investigators all over the world, by placing in their hands an account of all that was known, and so turn their attention and energy to new and unsolved problems. To obtain suggestions for this scheme and assistance in carrying it out, Comenius entered into an exten- sive correspondence with the leading men of science and patrons of learn- ing in every country of Europe. He regarded his educational method as part of the Pansophia and an introduction to it. With feverish enthusiasm he pressed his projects upon the attention of prominent men, and bectme widely celebrated for his zeal, his lofty motives, and his educational propaganda. He corresponded, among others, with that modern Maecenas, Samuel Hartlib, the friend of Milton. Together they planned for the establishment of an academy or 726 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. college to carry out the Pansophic idea and to be the center of the world's scientific advance in the future. In 1(341 Comenius journeyed to London, where he found that Hartlib had made him known to Parliament, and was in high hopes of securing from the government an endowment for the work. Hartlib had paved the way so cleverly that Comenius would prob- ably have succeeded in this, but for the political disturbances which were overshadowing everything else and rapidly plunging England into civil war. The Long Parliament had little time to think of education. Baffled at this point, Comenius grasped at the next straw, which was an invitation to visit Sweden in the interest of his projects. This invitation came from De Geer, a wealthy Dutchman resident in Sweden, who remained a steadfast friend and patron while he lived. In Sweden Come- nius was giveu a courteous and sympathetic hearing by Oxenstiem and the chancellor of the University of Upsala ; but as practical men they advised him to subordinate his Pansophia to the more pressing reforms of school instruction. He did this under protest and only after some friction, and a number of publications bearing on methods of teaching were the fruit of his labors for the next seven or eight years. Then in 1650 he transported himself to the recesses of Hungary, in response to a request of Prince Sigismund, and spent four years in writing and organizing schools there. Of the rest of his life the greater part was passed at Amsterdam, in comparative retirement, and he died there in 1671, at the advanced age of eighty. The Pansophia of Comenius need not be seriously considered. What- ever may have been the arguments in its favor two hundred and fifty years ago, it has no significance now. The printing press, the telegraph, the rapid and frequent communication between nations and peoples have made it unnecessary and impossible. An important scientific discovery is known in Tokio, Sydney, and Valparaiso as soon as it is announced in New York or London. The dream of Bacon and Comenius was a note- worthy one, but it is largely owing to their own influence that its fulfill- ment in just the form they planned it was forever postponed. The world of learning has become its own Pansophia. The verdict of the literary historian on Comenius, as voiced by Hallam, is that he was a man of '* much industry, some ingenuity, and little judg- ment." The student of education, however, must take another and much broader view. In tracing contemporary movements and ideas back to their sources, he finds that a surprisingly large number of them were absorbed from the progressive tendencies of the time and formulated for the school by Comenius. The' elementary school course must be shortened and enriched, we say ; the pupil is consuming his life in preparing for life, says Comenius. Eote-learning and mere memory-training are useless, we hear ; my fundamental principle is that the understanding and the tongue should advance in parallel lines always, says Comenius. Not enough time JOHN AMOS COMENIUS. ' 727 and care are devoted to the teaching of English, it is said ; instruction in tiie mother-tongue must lie at the basis of all else, says Oomenius. The list might be continued indefinitely. The infant school or kindergarten, female education, the incorporation of history and geography in the cur- riculum, the value of drawing and manual training, the fundamental importance of sense-training, the physical and the ethical elements in edu- cation, and, finally, that education is for all, and not for a favored few only, were all articles in the creed of Oomenius. Yet many of them are far from being universally adopted to-day. Surely this man was a prophet ! The robust and practical character of the proposals of Oomenius is most apparent when they are contrasted with the educational doctrines of those who have come after him, particularly Locke, Rousseau, Pestalozzi, and Froebel. Frail as the psychology of Oonienius was, it was truer than that of Locke. He knew that the human mind was an organism, an activity, a seed with wonderful potency of growth aud development, and not a mere sheet of wax, as the Englishman taught, on whose passive sur- face the environment merely leaves certain impressions or traces. Locke's thought was of the education of the gentleman ; Oomenius proclaimed that education was for the race. The single point in which Locke cor- rected Oomenius was in exalting character, rather than knowledge, as the chief aim in education. Of Rousseau one may say, with Mr. Quick: ''His writings and the results produced by them are among the strangest things in history ; and especially in matters of education it is more than doubtful if the wise man of the world Montaigne, the Ohristian philanthropist Oomenius, or that 'slave of truth and reason' Locke, had half as much influence as this depraved serving-man." Rousseau's enthusiasm took the form of theory run mad, and the practical impossibility of his educational plans was only exceeded by their philosophical unsoundness. Oomenius had been him- self a teacher and an organizer of schools. He knew the practical limita- tions under which any theory is put when reduced to practice. He asked of the school and the pupil nothing that was impossible. He accepted society as he found it, and would teach it to reform itself. Rousseau would blow it into a million atoms and deify each. There is 'nothing in the history of education so touching as the story of the life of Pestalozzi. His own immortal words, " I lived like a beggar to teach beggars to live like men," only half reveal the story of his unwearied patience, his intense suffering, his self-sacrifice for childhood. His life gave reality to his half-mystical principle that " the essential principle of education is not teaching ; it is love." Yet his thought is relatively unimportant. Pestalozzi gave himself to education, but few new principles. His theory of the value of intuition needs to be carefully supplemented, aud his insistence on the fact that education is develop- 728 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. ment, a drawing out and not a putting in, merely repeats the thought on which all of the work of Oomenius was based. Without that principle, which Oomenius had made familiar more than a century before, the work of Pestalozzi would have been of little importance in the history of educa- tion. Indeed, it would have been philanthropy merely, not education. Nor does it detract from the estimate to be put upon Froebel's teachings to say that in almost every important particular they were built upon foundations laid by the Moravian bishop. Froebel himself is strangely deficient in masculinity and in practical capacity. His exaggerated and absurd symbolism and his unbalanced religiosity give a certain curious interest and stimulus to his doctrines, but add nothing to their force or their permanent value. His seed-thought is again that of Comenius's — educate by developing the pupil's own activity. Out of it and its corol- laries the new education has grown. The place of Oomenius in the history of education, therefore, is one of commanding importance. He introduces and dominates the whole modern movement in the field of elementary and secondary education. His rela- tion to our present teaching is similar to that held by Copernicus and Newton toward modern science, and Bacon and Descartes toward modern philosophy. Yet he was not, in a high sense, an original mind. But his spirit was essentially modern and remarkably receptive. He assimilated the ideas that were inspiring the new civilization and applied them to the school. In an age of general ignorance Oomenius had an exaggerated, idea of the importance of mere knowledge. This is easily understood and readily excused. Most of his educational tenets, preached with all the fervor of a Peter the Hermit, and fought for with all the determination of a Ooeur de Lion, have become commonplaces. But such is their value that we do well to pause to honor the memory of him who made them so. REPORT ON SCHOOL STATISTICS. To the Department of Superintendence. Gentlemen:. Your committee, consisting of the undersigned and Messrs. James McAlister and George P. Brown, holding over from the last year, conclude their report * * PRELIMINARY REPORT, MADE IN FEBRUARY, 1891. Gentlemen : Your Committee, appointed at the last annual meeting for the purpose of considering and reporting on the subject of School Statistics, beg leave to offer the following preliminary report, set- ting forth the results of their studies on the subject, and postponing for another meeting, or for the work of another committee, if it be your pleasure, the completion of the details of a scheme of statistics which willaff )rd the data required for a comparative study of domestic and foreign educational systems. Your Committee would first call attention to the object and purpose of collection of statistics, which they conceive to be the following : Statistics reveal the nature and efficiency of the powers and forces involved in a process. Forces and powers are revealed in their results. Their results are of little moment, if dead results, except as they indicate what the living power has been and still is. In matters of education we inquire into the aims and purposes of the educative process, and learn this by a quantitative study of the means employed and the results obtained. It is evident, therefore, at the outset, that the quantities given by our statistical tables can have no significance except in connection with the qualitative elements involved. We pass over at once from the how many to the what kind. We seek, again, new quantitative data that may indi- cate the quality, but we never reach quantitative data that are significant in and for themselves. Your Committee would suggest as the four principal heads under which school statistics may be grouped : First, Attendance of Pupils. Second, Course of Study. 7%ird, Teaching Forces and Appliances. Fourth, Support— Revenue and Expenditures. Under these four heads they would group the following details : Statistics of attendance should answer questions like the following— (a) How many ? (6) How long? (c) Who ? That is to say: (1) How many pupils in the aggregate ? (2) How many relatively to the entire pop- ulation ? (3) How many relatively to the population of the school age, say 5 to 21, 6 to 14, or some other period agreed upon ? Then this item should be further defined in five items : (1) How many enrolled during the annual session of school ? (2) How many as average belonging ? (3) How many in actual average daily attendance ? (4) How many were dropped and afterward readmitted ? ^5) The numb^sr of cases of tardiness. Under the second item of attendance {/low long?) we wish the number of daily school sessions for the year, and the hours of a school session, the length and hour of recesses and intermissions. Under the third item of }Vho f we include such items as— (1) How many of each sex ? (2) How many at each year of age, and the average age ? (3) Race. (4) How many born in the town or State where the school is situated ? (5) How many born in other parts of the same nation ? 730 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. on Statistics by offering, first, a list of the items which, in their opinion, should be collected to show the workings of a school system. They have arranged these items in three classes. The first class includes the essential data which should be taken every year, and from ail schools. This first list contains the essential and indispensable items for every annual report. The second list contains the more important of what we may call occasional statis- (6) How many bom abroad ? (7) Occupations of parents. n. Under the second of our four chief heads we should ask for statistics regarding the course of study, and thus determine by this grade of schools as follows : (a) Kindergarten. (b) Primary and grammar school. (c) Secondary education. id) Higher education. We should ask very carefully as to the relations of these items to the first class of items, especially age, sex, and average attendance. The primary and grammar schools are to be distinguished from the secondary schools by the follow- ing tests : The introduction of algebra, or of an ancient or modern language, marks the beginning of the secondary course of study. The higher course of study should be marked by analytic mathematics, or by logical and philosophical studies, or by advanced language studies. III. The third general head, "The Teaching Forces and Appliances," includes— (1) Buildings and accommodations. (2) Size of schools under one principal teacher (or else number of pupils per teacher). (3) Number of teachers. (4) Supervision. (5) Means of training teachers. (6) Examinations of teachers. (7) Methods of discipline and instruction used by teachers. IV. The fourth general head, "The Support of Schools," includes— (1) Revenue. Items of. (a) Receipts from State and local taxation. (6) Receipts from funds or productive property. (c) Receipts, if any, from tuition. (2) Expenditures. (o) For teachers' salaries, including supervision. (6) Incidentals, including janitor hire, fuel, apparatus, and other current expenses. (c) Permanent investments, including building and repairs. Your Committee would call attention to the importance of a detailed discussion of the use to be made of these several items, in studying the effective forces of educational systems, and in compar- ing one with another. Such discussion is not here attempted, but is suggested as a proper subject of a supplementary report. Moreover, your Committee have observed the prime necessity for such a definition of the several items as to prevent misunders^tanding. A description of the best methods of keeping and tabulating the several items would also be a very useful addition to sucti a report. In dealing with reports, not merely reports from a foreign country, but with reports from difller- ent sections of the United States, your Committee has been impressed with the necessity of a gloss- ary of terms used in tabulating statistics. There should be a careful collation of all terms and desig- nations used here and abroad, and so minute a description given of the processes of ascertaining the data under the several heads, as to leave no doubt in the mind as to the exact meaning of each. Without this accurate information there can be no satisfactory comparative study of school systems. All of which is respectfully submitted. W. T. Harris. Jas. MacAlister. George P. Brown. APPENDIX I. 731 tics, and should not be expected every year, perhaps, nor from all schools. A State superintendent may, for example, collect statistics one year regarding the place of nativ- ity of pupils and parents, another year he may take occupations, and another year he may collect items regarding the preparation of the teaching force. In our third list we have included still less essential items, which may be collected at still rarer intervals. In the next place, we have given a tabular summary showing in detail the items actu- ally collected in the several States of the Union, and side by side with it an exhibit of the statistical items collected in the several countries of Europe. As these details can- not be read before an audience, your committee submit the same for printing in an appendix, hoping that they will be found useful to State officers in the preparation of their forms and blanks for collecting these returns. All of which is respectfully submitted. W. T. Habris, Chairman of Committee. APPENDIX I. SCHOOL STATISTICS. I. Fundamental Items. 1. Number of children of legal school age, classified by race and sex (school popidation). a. White males. b. White females. c. Colored males. d. Colored females. Note. — These letters, a, b, c, d, are used in these tables always to indicate race or sex as here indicated. 2. Number of pupils enrolled on the school registers (excluding duplicate registra- tions), classified by race and sex (a + b + c + d). Note. — The plus sign ( + ), when used, indicates that the items between which it is placed are taken separately. Thus, a -4- b means that the white males and white females are given separately. Where this plus sign is omitted, the items are not given sepa- rately in the reports. 3. Average daily attendance, classified by race and sex. 4. Average length of school year (days). , 5. Number of teachers, classified by race and sex. 6. Number of pupils receiving kindergarten instruction, classified by race and sex. 7. Number of pupils receiving elementary instruction (including kindergarten pupils), classified by race and sex. 8. Number of pupils receiving secondary instruction, classified by race and sex. 9. Number of students receiving higher instruction, including colleges, schools of medicine, theology, law, technology, classified by race and sex. 10 Number of students in special schools, classified by race and sex, including trade schools, evening schools of all kinds, manual training schools, schools for the defective and dependent classes, reform schools, commercial schools, and nurses' training schools. 11. Number of buildings used as schoolhouses^ 12. Total seating capacity of such buildings (number of pupils that can be accommo- diited). 13. Value of all property used for school purposes. 733 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. 14. Average monthly salaries of teachers classified by race and sex. 15. Total school revenue. (1) Income from productive funds and rents. (2) State school fund. (3) Local taxes. (4) Other sources. 16. Total expenditure. (1) Salaries of teachers (including supervision). (3) Other current expenses. (3) Permanent expenditure (for buildings, grounds, etc.). 17. Amount of permanent invested funds. II. Less Essential but Desirable Items. 18. Age classification of pupils enrolled. (1) Number of pupils under six. (2) Number of pupils between six and seven, etc. (11) Number of pupils between fifteen and sixteen. (12) Number of pupils over sixteen. 19. Number of cases of tardiness. 20. (1) Number of pupils born within the State. (2) " ♦' " ** in other States. (3) " " *' '* in foreign countries. 21. Occupations of parents. (1) Agents, (2) Bankers and brokers. (3) Clerks and salesmen. (4) Domestic servants and waiters. (5) Draymen and teamsters. (6) Farmers. (7) Factory and mill operatives. (8) Hotel and boarding-house keepers. (9) Laborers (unskilled). (10) Manufacturers. (11) Mariners and boatmen. (12) Mechanics and artisans. (13) Miners and quarrymen. (14)' Merchants, traders, and dealers. (15) Professionals. (16) Public officials and employes. (17) Eailroad employes. (18) Seamstresses. (19) Saloon-keepers and bartenders. (20) Unclassified. 22. Average number belonging, including temporary absentees, 23. Number of pupils in each branch of study. 24. (1) Average age of kindergarten pupils. (2) " " " elementary pupils. (3) " " •' secondary pupils. (4) *' '' " higher pupils. (5) '' '• « special pupils. APPENDIX II. 733 25. (1) Number of normal schools. (2) Enrollment in normal department. (3) Average attendance. (4) Number of teachers. (5) Expenses. III. Occasional Items. 26. (1) Number of teachers who have taught less than two years. (2) " from two to five years. (3) " over five years. 27. (1) Number of applicants for teachers' certificates. (2) *' who are certified. 28. (1) Number of teachers graduates of normal schools. (2) " ** " " " universities and colleges. (3) •' *' •' " " high schools, academies, etc. (4) " " *' who have received only an elementary education. 29. Number of pupils dropped and readmitted in the course of the year. 30. " " hours in each school session. 31. Length of recesses or intermissions, and time of beginning. 32. Number of cases of corporal punishment. 33. " " pupils promoted to next higher grade. APPENDIX II. An exhibit showing which of the essential items enumerated in Appendix I. are reported by the several States of the Union and by leading foreign nations. Note. — Acknowledgment is here made by the Committee to Mr. F. E. Upton, of the Bureau of Education, for valuable assistance in the compilation of this and the following appendices. — W. T. H. I. The United States. Alabama. — 1. ab + cd (enumeration made on alternate years). 2. ab + cd. 3. ab + cd. 4. ab-f-cd. 5. a + b + c+d. 14. ab + cd. 15. (1) f-(2) + (4) ; (3) is imperfectly given. 16. (1) and (3) are only reported in city districts. 23. 25. Arizona.— 1. ab. 2. a + b. 3. ab. 4. 5. a + b. 13. 14. a + b. 15. 16. 22. Arkansas. — 1. a + b + c + d. 2. a + b+c + d. 5. ac + bd. 11. 13. 14. ac + bd. 15. 16. California.— 1. a + b + c + d. 2. a + b. 3. ab. 4. 5. a + b. 7. 8. 11. 13. 15. 16. 22. 25. 27. 28. Colorado.— 1. a + b. 2. a + b. 3. ab. 4. 5. a + b. 7. 8. 11. 12. 13. 14. a-f-b. 15. 16. Connecticut.— 1. at. 2. ab. 3. ab. 4. 5. a + b. 6. 11. 12. 13. 14. a + b 15. 16. 26. Delaware.— 1. a + b. 2. a + b. 3. 4. 5. a + b. 13. 14. a + b. 15. 16. 23. ab. District op Columbia. — 2. a + b + c + d. 3. ab^cd. 4. 5. a + b + c + d. 6. 7. 8. 10. 14. ab + cd. 15. 16. 22. 25. (1) (2) (3) (4). Florida.— 2. a + b + c + d. 3. ab + cd. 4. 5. a + b + c + d. 11. 13. 14. 15. 16. 23. 734 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. Georgia.— 2. a + b + c + d. 3. ab + cd. 5. a + b + c + d. 7. 8. 15. 16. 23. Idaho. — 2. a + b. 4. 5. a + b. 15. 16. Illinois.— 1. a + b. 2. a + b. 3. ab. 4. 5. a + b. 8. a + b. 11. 13. 14. a + b. 15. 16. 17. 25. (1) (2) (3) (4) (5). 27. Indiana.— 1. a+b. 2. a + b. 3. ab. 4. 5. a + b. 11. 13. 14. a + b. 15. 16. 25. Iowa.— 1. a + b. 2. ab. 3. ab. 4. 5. a + b. 14. a + b. 15. 16. 26. (1) (2). 27. (1) (2). Kansas.— 1. ac + bd. 2. ac + bd. 3. ac + bd. 4. 5. a + b. 11. 13. 14. a + b. 15. 16. 27. Kentucky.— 1. a + b + c + d. 2. a + b + c + d. 3. a + b + c + d. 4. 5. a + b + c + d. 7. 8. 11. 13. 14. a-hb + c + d. 15. 16. 23. (1) (4). 25. 26.(1). 27. (1) (2). 28. (1). Louisiana.— 2. a + b + c + d. 3. ab + cd. 4. 5. a + b + c + d. 11. 14. a + b + c + d. 15. 16. Maine.— 1. ab. 2. ab. 3. ab. 4. 5. a + b. 11. 13. 14. a+b. 15. 16. 23. Maryland.— 2. a + b+c+d. 3. ab + cd. 4. 5. a + b + c + d. 11. 15. 16. 23. Massachusetts.— 1. ab. 2. ab. 3. ab. 4. 5. a+b. 8. 14. a + b. 15. 16. 22. 25. 28. (1). Michigan.- 1. a + b. 2. a + b. 4. 5. 11. 12. 13. 15. 16. Minnesota.— 1. ab. 2. ab. 3. ab. 4. 5. a + b. 11. 13. 14. a + b. 16. 28. (1) (2) (3). Mississippi.— 1. a + b + c + d. 2. a + b + c + d. 3. a + b+c + d. 4. 5. a + b + c + d. 11. 13. 14. a + b + c + d. 15. 16. 27. (1) (2). MissouBi.—l. a + b + c + d. 2. a + b+c+d. 3. 5. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 27. b. 28.(1). Montana.— 1. a + b. 2. ab 3. ab. 4. 5. a + b. 11. 13. 15. 16. 28.(1). Nebraska.— 1. ac + bd. 2. ac + bd. 3. abed. 4. 5. ac + bd. 7. 8. 11. 13. 15. 16. 18. 27. (1) (2). Nevada.— 1. ab + cd. 2. ac + bd. 3. a + b + c + d. 4. 5. a + b. 11. 13. 14. a + b. 15. 16. 22. 26. (1). New Hampshire.— 2. a + b. 3. 4. 5. a + b. 11. 13. 14. a + b. 15. 16. 22. 26. (1). New Jersey.— 1. abed. 2. abed. 3. abed. 4. 5. ac + bd. 11. 12. 13. 14. ac + bd. 15. 16. 18. 27. (1) (2). New Mexico. — 1. a + b. 2. a + b. 3. a + b. 4. 5. a + b. 15. 16. New York.— 1. ab. 2. ab. 3. ab. 4. 5. a + b. 11. 13. 14. 15. 16. 27. (1) (2). North Carolina.— 1. a + b + c + d. 2. a + b + c + d. 3. abed. 4. 5. abed. 15. 16. 23. North Dakota.— 1. a + b. 2. a + b. 3. ab. 4. 5. a + b. 7. 8. 11. 13. 14. a + b. 15. 16. 23. Ohio.— 1. a + b. 2. ac + bd. 3. ac+bd. 4. 5. a + b. 7. 8. 11. 13. 14. a + b. 15. 16. 23. Oregon.— 1. a + b. 2. a + b. 3. a + b. 4. 5. a + b. 11. 13. 14. a + b. 15. 16. 23. 27. (1) (2). Pennsylvania.- 1 ab. 2. a + b. 3. ab. 4. 5. a + b. 11. 12. 13. 14. a + b. 16. 26. (1)(4). 27. (1)(2). 28. (1) (2) (3). Rhode Island.— 1. ab. 2. a + b. 3. ab. 4. 5. a + b. 11. 13. 15. 16. 23. South Carolina.— 2. a + b + c + d. 3. a + b + c + d. 4. 5. a + b + c + d. 11. 13. 14. ac + bd. 15. 16. 23. South Dakota. — 1. a + b. 2. a + b. 3. ab. 4. 5. a + b. 11. 12. 13. 14. a + b. 15. 16. 28. 27. (1) (2). Tennessee. — 1. a + b+c + d. 2. a + b + c + d. 3. ac + bd. 4. 5. a + b + c + d. 11. 13. 14. a + b + c + d. 15. 16. 23. APPENDIX It 735 Texas.— 2. a + b + c + d. 4. 5. ac + bd. 11. 12. 13. 14. a + b + c + d. 15. 16. 17. 23. 28. (1) (2). Utah.— 1. a+b. 2. a+b. 3. ab. 4. 5. a + b. 13. 14. a+b. 15. 16. 23. Vermont.— 1. a+b. 2. afb. 4. 5. a+b. 7. 8. 13. 14. a + b. 15. 16. 18. 23. Virginia.— 1. a + b + c + d. 2. a + b + c + d. 3. a + b + c + d. 4. 5. a + b + c + d. 8. ab + cd. 11. 12. ab + cd. 13. 14. ac + bd. 15. 16. 18. 24. 25. 27. (1) (2). Washington.— 1. a + b. 2. a + b. 3. a + b. 4. 5. a + b. 7. 8. 11. 12. 13. 14. a + b. 15. 16. 27. (1) (2). West Virginia.— 2. a + b + c + d. 3. a + b + c + d. 4. 5. a + b + c + d. 11. 13. 15. 16. 23. 27. Wisconsin.— 1. a + b. 2. a + b. 4. 5. a + b. 11. 13. 13. 14. a + b. 15. 16. II. Foreign Countries. Canada — England. — 1. ab. 2. a+b. 3. a + b. 4. 5. a + b. 6. a + b. 7. a + b. 12. 14. a + b (yearly). 15. 16. 18. ab (a + b in some cities). 23. 25. 26 (in some cities). 27. 28. Scotland. — 1. ab. 2. a + b. 3. afb. 4. 5. a + b. 6. a + b. 7. a + b. 8. a + b. 12. 14. a + b (average annual salaryV 15. 16. 18. ab. 23. 25. 27. 28. France.— 1. a + b. 2. a + b. 4. 5. a + b. 6. a+b. 7. a + b. 8. a + b. 9. ab. 10. ab. 11. 14. 15. 16. 18. 21 (Paris). 25. 28. 30. 31. Italy. — 1. ab. 2. a + b. 4 (by months). 5. a + b. 6. ab (reports infant schools which include Froebelian methods and a few kindergartens in the largest cities). 7. a + b. 8. a + b. 9. ab. 10. a + b. 11. 14. a + b (reports maximum and mini- mum annual salary). 15. 16. 25, a + b. 27. a + b (reports numbers certified). 28. a + b (reports graduates of normals). 30. 31. Netherlands. — 1. ab. 2. a + b. 5. a + b. 7. a + b (kindergartens not included). 8. a + b. 9. a+b. 10. a + b. 11. 14. ab (reports maximum and minimum annual salary). 15. 16. 23. a + b. 25. a + b. 27. a + b. 28. a + b (reports graduates of normals). 83. ab. Spain. — 1. ab, 2. a + b. 3. a + b. 5. a + b. 7. a + b (kindergartens not included). 8. a + b. 9 (in part). 10 (in part). 11. 14. a + b (reports maximum and mini- mum annual salary). 15. 16. 25. a+b. 27. ab (reports numbers certified, and those certificated). 28. ab (reports graduates with normal certificates). 30. 31. Norway.— 1. ab. 2. a+b. 4 (reports number of weeks). 5. a + b. 7. a + b. (kin- dergartens not included). 8. a+-b. 9. ab. 15. 16. 25. ab. 28. ab (reports graduates of normal schools and academies). 30. 31. Sweden. — 1. ab. 2. a + b. 4 (by weeks). 5. a + b. 7. a+b. (kindergartens not included). 8. a + b. 9. ab. 10 a + b. 11. 14. a + b (reports maximum and minimum annual salary). 15. 16. 18. ab. 23. ab (reports per cent, of pupils in each branch in secondary schools). 25. a + b (reports separate schools for the sexes). 30. 31. 33. ab. Russia. — 1. ab. 2. a + b. 5. ab. 7. a + b (kindergartens not included). 8. a + b. 9. a + b. 10. a + b. 15. 16. 25. a + b. Prussia. — 1. a + b. 2. a + b (every third year). 4. 5. a + b. 7. a + b. 8. a + b. 9. ab. 11. 15. 16, 17 (every third year). 25. 27. 28. 30. Saxony.— 1. a + b. 2. a + b. 4. 5, a + b, 7. ^ + b. 8. a + b. 9. ab. 10. ab. 11. 15. 16. 17 (every third year). 25. 27. 28. 30. WiJRTEMBERG. — 1. a + b. 2. a + b. 4. 5. a + b. 7. a+b. 8. a + b. 9. ab. 10. ab. 11. 15. 16. 17 (only partially). 25. 27. 28. 30. 736 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Hamburg.— 1. afb. 2. a + b. 4. 5. a + b. 7. a + b. 8. a + b. 10. ab. 11. 15. 16. 17. 25. 27. 28. Bremen.— 1. a + b. 2. a + b. 4. 5. a + b. 7. a + b. 8. a + b. 10. ab, 11. 15. 16. 25. 27. 28. LuBECK.— 1. a + b. 2. a + b. 4. 5. a + b. 7. a + b. 8. a + b. 10. ab. 11. 15. 16. 25. 27. 28. Austria.— 1. a + b. 2. a + b. 4. 5. a + b. 7. a + b. 8. a + b. 9. ab. 10. 11. 25. 27. 28. 30. Hungary.— 1. a + b. 2. a + b. 4. 5. a + b. 6. a + b. 7. a + b. 8. a + b, 9. ab. 10. ab. 11. 15. 16. 17. 25. 27. 28. 30. Switzerland.— 1. a + b. 2. a + b. 4. 5. a + b. 7. a + b. 8. a + b. 9. a + b. 10. ab. 11. 15. 16. 25. 27. 28. 30. APPENDIX III. Giving the definitions of certain technical terms used in educational reports, together with their equivalents in certain foreign countries. Technical Terms Used in Education— Definitions and Foreign Equivalents. 1 (a). School age. — Age at which children are permitted free attendance at the pub- lic schools. This age varies in the different States, but 0 to 21 may be considered the representative school age in this country, being designed evidently to embrace all minors old enough to render school instruction advisable and profitable to them. The children of school age in each State, whatever that age may be, collectively constitute the school population of such State. Note. — There are, in the foreign countries considered in this vocabulary, no terms corresponding in significance to " school age " and " school population," as understood in the United States. In a popular sense, however, as used in literature everywhere, " school age " includes the period of life from the age of four or five years to adult age, as the epoch most suitable for schooling. 1 (b). Compulsory school age. — The age at which children are obliged by law to attend school in those States of the Union having compulsory school laws. This age also varies in the several States, but 8 to 14 may be considered as the representative. The children subject to a compulsory school law constitute the "compulsory school population " of a State. Eng. Age for school attendance. Ger. ScJiulpflichtige Alter. Fr. Age scolaire. It. ObUigo di frequentare la scuola. Sp. Edad escolar. Note. — The compulsory school age in the foreign countries considered above varies, but 6 to 13 may be regarded as typical. All the children subject to compulsory school laws in England and France, and the major part of those in Germany, are allowed free instruction at public schools. 1 (c). School population. See 1 (a) and note. 1 (d). Compulsory school population. For definition see 1 (b). Eng. Population of school age. Ger. Schulpfiichtige Kinder. Fr. Enfants d'dge scolaire; or, Nombre d^enfants a instruire. It. Popolazione da Q a 12 anni. APPENDIX Itl. 737 2. BiiTollmerht.—^\x.vc^iQr of different pupils enrolled (or entered) on the school regis- ters during any given year ; or, in other words, the entire number of different pupils who have attended at any time during the year. Eng. Number of children (or scJiolars) on registers. Ger. Zahl der Eingeachriebenen. Fr. Nombre des inscrits. It. Numero degli iscritti. Sp. Numero de niftos concurrentes (or inscriptos). 3 (a). Attendance. — Number of pupils present (on any given day or at any given time). Eng. Attendance. Ger. Frequenz, determined on two test-days (Stichtage) each year. Fr. Frequentation, or Eleves presents, determined as in Germany. Sp. Asistencia. 3 (b). Average attendance. — Average number of pupils attending each day or session. Eng. Average attendance. Sp. Asistencia media, 4 (a). School year. — (1) The year, or period of twelve months, for which school offi- cials are elected, appropriations of money made, teachers hired, school reports made, etc., though the annual epoch of some of these features sometimes dates from a dif- ferent day than that of others. In the United States the school year usually begins the first of July, or some other day during the summer vacation. The term is sometimes restricted to (2) that portion of the school year during which the schools are in actual session. Eng. School year. " A year or other period for which an annual parliament- ary grant is . . . paid or payable," It " is the year ending with the last day of the month preceding that fixed for the inspectors' annual visit." —Ed. Acts Man., 17 ed., p. 375, Ger. Schuljahr. Fr. Annie scolaire. It. Anno scolasiico. 4 (b). Length of school year. — The number of days, weeks, or months the schools were in actual session during the school year. The expressions "length of schools," "duration of schools," "length of school term," etc., are also used. The average length of the school year is the average of a group of schools in which the number of days of session varies. As in most foreign governmental school systems the number of days is nearly uniform, this latter term has little application outside the United States. Eng. Number of times school has kept. This must be divided by two to get the number of days. Ger. Bauer des Schuljahres. Fr. Duree de Vannee scolaire. 5. Teacher. — An instructor in an elementary or secondary school. Eng. Schoolmaster, schoolmistress, teach^. Ger. Lehrer, Lehrerin. Fr. MaXtre, maUresse, instituteur, iastitutrice. It. Insegndnte, maestro, maestra. Sp. Maestro, maestra. 738 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. 6. Kindergarten. — A school for young children, from about three to six years, con- ducted after the methods of Froebel. Eng. Infant school, or class. Ger. Kindergarten. Fr. Ecole maternelle. It. Asili d'infancia. 7. Elementary instruction. — Instruction in the first principles or rudiments of knowl- edge, including chiefly reading, writing, spelling, arithmetic, grammar, geography, United States history, and often the outlines of natural history and science, the pupil being prepared by this course to enter upon algebra and Latin or some modern language. Usually in the United States the first eight years of a fully graded public school course mark the period of elementary instruction, taking the child at the age of about 6 years. Elementary schools are schools in which elementary instruction is the sole or predominat- ing feature. These in a fully graded course may be subdivided into primary schools (first four years) and grammar (or intermediate) schools (second four years). Kinder- garten instruction is also classed as elementary. Eng. Elementary instruction. Ger. Elementar-Unterricht. Fr. Enseignement primaire (excluding the ^ ' primaire superieur "). It. Istruzione elementare. Sp. Enseftanza primaria. 8. Secondary instruction. — This is supposed to begin the ninth year of the course of study, and to take up algebra, geometry, natural philosophy, physical geography, Latin, Greek, French, and German, for some or all pupils, and for a whole or a part of the four years ; also an outline study of universal history, English literature, and some of the special natural sciences, as geology, human physiology, botany, etc. A second- ary school is a school whose ultimate object is to give a secondary education, and which may or may not have a preparatory course of elementary grade, or pupils pursuing elementary studies. Eng. Secondary (or intermediate) instruction. The term " secondary schools" in England is applied to certain groups of schools designed for the education of the upper and middle classes, including endowed grammar (i.e., classical) schools, endowed non-classical schools, private scJiools, and proprietary schools. These are also known as middle class schools. They receive pupils at about the age of 8, continue them in their elementary studies, and carry them along to an age varying from 14 to 19, giving them an education in some cases higher, in others— especially in the " private" schools — not so high as is indicated by the term secondary in the United States. The nine great public schools of England (Eton, Harrow, etc.), which are properly "inter- mediate" schools — i. e., standing between preparatory primary schools or private tutors, and the " Universities "—receive pupils from 10 to 15, and are of higher grade than most of the secondary schools of the United States. Higher hoard schools have developed in some of the large cities, and cor- respond nearly to our public secondary schools (high schools), giving to the children of their people an opportunity to continue their education beyond the elementary grade. About 80,000 pupils pursue high school subjects in elementary schools. Ger. Hohere Unterricht (i. e., higher than that given in the Volksschulen). Fr. Enseignement primaire superieur. The instruction given in the Division de grammaire of lycees and colleges communaux also belongs here. It. Istruzione secondaria. .^ APPENDIX III. 739 9. nigher (or superior) instruction. — This is supposed to take the fourth epoch of four years in a complete course of education, secondary taking the third four years, and elementary education the first eight years. By topics and methods, the higher educa- tion is distinguished by taking mathematics in those branches which succeed plane geometry and elementary algebra ; Latin and Greek writers that require more maturity of reflection to master, such as Horace, Livy, Tacitus, Juvenal, Cicero's moral essays, Homer, Demosthenes, Plato, ^schylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Aristotle ; physics treated by mathematics ; rhetoric ; mental philosophy ; the philosophy of history. In general, the studies of higher education are conducted on a comparative method — with the purpose of treating each theme in the light of all branches of knowledge. A higher institution of learning is one whose ultimate object is to give a higher education, and which therefore may or may not have a preparatory department in which instruction is given in secondary or even elementary branches. Eng. University instruction ; collegiate instruction. Ger. Hochschulunterricht. Fr. Enseignement superieur. The last three years of the enseignement secondaire is also of the higher grade according to the United States standard. It. Istruzione superiore. Sp. Enseflanza universitaria. 10 (a). Special schools. — Schools of elementary or secondary grade which (1) educate for some special trade, business, or occupation (e. g. , commercial colleges, art schools) ; or (2) educate some special class of persons {e. g., deaf-mutes, juvenile delinquents). 10 (b). Evening schools. — A class of special schools, generally public and located at the centers of population, designed to give evening instruction in elementary and some- times in secondary branches, general and technical, to persons whose occupation, age, or both, prevent them from attending the day schools. A special feature of evening schools in some cities of the United States is the instruction of foreigners in the English language. Eng. Evening schools. Fr. Classes d'adultes. (Held in the evening or on Sunday.) It. Scuole serali. 10 (c). Evening high schools. Continuation schools. — A class of evening schools designed more particularly to give some degree of secondary education to youths who are obliged to go to work after finishing their elementary education in the day schools. Ger. Forthildungsschulen. (Evenings or Sundays.) 11. Schoolhouse. — A building used for school purposes, one in which instruction is given. Eng. School building. Ger. Schulhaus. Fr. Maison d^ecole. It. Edificio-scolastico. Locale per le scuole. Sp. Casa ae escueia. 12. Number of sittings for study, excluding those used only for recitation purposes. Eng. Accommodation, number of seats. Includes all seats, being total seating capacity. 740 TBE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. 13. School property. — All property, real and personal, belonging to a school system {i. 6., not hired or rented), and designed to be used for school purposes, including school sites and buildings, furniture, libraries, apparatus, etc. Eug. ScTiool buildings, premises, and furnishing. Ger. Schul-Eigenihum. Fr. Bdtiments et materiaux scolaires. 14. Salary (or wages) of teachers. — The sum paid to teachers weekly, monthly, or annually, as compensation for their services. In computing the average monthly sala- ries of any group of teachers, weekly and annual salaries must be reduced to a monthly basis. Eng. Salary. Ger. Gehalt. Fr. Traitement. It. Onorario stii Sp. Sueldos. (a). Revenue (school).- Eng. Income. Ger. Einnahmen. Fr. Bessource. It. Rendita. Sp. Ingresos. -Money from any source received for school purposes. 15 (b). State (school) tax. — A uniform tax levied on all the property or polls of a State, the proceeds whereof is apportioned to the counties, towns, or school districts, generally according to school population or average attendance. Eng. Rates. Ger. Siaats-Steuern. 15 (c). Local (school) taxes.— Count j, town, and school-district taxes for school pur- poses. Eng. Rates. Ger. Oris- (or Municipal-) Steuern. Fr. Centimes additionels, or speciaux. It. Tasse communale e provinciate. Sp. Fondos provinciates, comunales, y municipales. 15. (d). Revenue from permanent funds. — The interest on invested funds, including rent of school lands, if any. Eng. Income from endowment. Ger. Interessen angelegter Fonds. Fr. Produit des legs et dons. Sp. Ingresos de los donativos y legados. -Money expended for school iDurDOses. 16 (a). Expenditure (school). Eng. Expenditure. Ger. Ausgaben. Fr. Depenses. It. Spese gen&raU* Sp. Gastos. APPENDIX III 741 16 (b). Amount paid to teachers (for salaries), including salaries of superintendents. Eng. Teachers' salaries. Ger. Ausgabcn fur Oehalte. Fr. Traitements. It. Stipendi ; rimunerazimii ed indemnita al personale. Sp. OUigaciones del personal. 16 (c). Other current expenditure in addition to amount paid to teachers ; i.e., incidental or miscellaneous expenditure for the maintenance of the schools and care of school buildings, including, among other things, fuel, lighting, janitors, incidental repairs, tree text books if any, and stationery, cost of administration, rent of hired buildings, etc. Foreign countries do not conform to this classification, but the analo- gous foreign terms are as follows : Eng. Miscellaneous expenditure. Ger. Andere Ausgaben, Fr. Depenses diverses. 16 (d). Permanent expenditure. — Expenditure for school buildings (including per- manent repairs), grounds, furniture, libraries, and lasting apparatus. Eng. Capital charges. Ger. Banhosten. Fr. Depenses de construction. It. Sussidi per construzione e riparazione di edifici scolastici. 17. Permanent funds.— YaXue of funds and other property yielding an annual revenue for school purposes. Eng. Endowment. Ger. Ponds. Fr. Dons et legs. Sp. Donativos, legados, y mandos. 19. Tardy. — Late in arriving at school. Eng. Not punctual. Ger. Zuspdikommend. Fr. En retard. 22. Average number belonging to a school, or system of schools, includes temporary absentees. Pupils absent for sickness or other cause, but with intention of returning to school, are considered as "belonging." This number differs from the number "en- rolled " (see 2), inasmuch as the latter contains all different pupils who have attended at any time during the year, some of whom may have been dropped from the roll of those " belonging," on account of death, removal from the district, protracted sickness, entrance on business, etc. 25. Normal school. — A school designed for the professional training of persons intending to become teachers, usually maintained by a State or city. Eng. Training college. Ger. Lehrer- Seminar. * Fr. £cole normale. It. Scuela normale. Sp. E scuela normals 742 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION 27. Certificate; license (to teach). — A formal testimony of ability to teach, or per- mission to teach, awarded as the result of satisfactory examination before an examining board, or after having successfully completed a certain prescribed course of study, or given other evidence of capacity to teach. Eng. Certificate. Ger. Zeugniss ; Reifezeugtiiss ; Licenz. Fr. Titre (or brevet) de capacite ; certificat cPaptitude pSdagogiqtte. It. Diploma d'abilitazione (or dHdoneita). Sp. Certificado de aptitud. 28 (a). Univerdty. — An institution for higher education, having as its nucleus a col- lege in which the so-called liberal arts are taught in a course of three or four years for the degree of A.B., and in addition one or more departments for the learned profes- sions, medicine, law, or divinity— or it may be for advanced or post-graduate work, along any lines of learning or investigation. In England the university unites several colleges. Eng. University. Ger. Universitdt. Fr. Faculte. Universite is the term very generally employed for the Paris "facultes." It. Universita. Sp. Universidad. 28 (b). College, — Strictly speaking, an institution of higher education, usually with a four years' course completing preparation for the degree of A.B. The word college is also used in connection with a descriptive word to designate other species of higher education, as, " Agricultural College," " Medical College." Eng, College. Ger. Gymnasium. Fr. Lycee ; college communal {de plein exercice) It. Oinnasio ; liceo. Sp. Instituto ; colegio. 28 (c). High school. — A public secondary school. Eng. Higher hoard school. Ger. Hohere Schule. Fr. ^cole primaire super ieure. 28 (d). Academy; institute; seminary. — Names given indifferently to private second- ary schools. '' Institute " is occasionally applied to schools of higher grade. Eng. Grammar school; high school; institute; public school, etc. Fr. £tablissement libre d'enseignement secondaire; etablissement la^ue; etablissement ecclesiastique ; petit seminaire. 30. Session. — A sitting of a school, or assembly of the pupils for recitations, exercises, and studies, continuing from the time the school is called to order until the pupils are dismissed beyond the teachers' jurisdiction. There are generally either one or two ses- sions each day. Eng. Meeting of the school, Ger. Schulstunde. APPENDIX III. 743 31. Recess; intermission. — Brief suspensions of school exercises, recurring periodi- cally each day, for recreation, meals, or some other purpose. In public elementary schools holding sessions from nine to twelve a.m., and from one to four p.ai., two recesses of fifteen minutes each take place, the first at or near the hour of 10,30 a.m., and the second at or near the hour of 2.30 p.m. The noon hour for dinner is not called a "recess," but usually an " intermission." Ger. Freiviertelstunde. Fr. B^crecUions ; sortie de midi. 33. Corporal punishment. — Punishment inflicted upon a pupil's person, generally with a rod, cane, or ruler, but including a variety of other punishments in which bodily pain is caused. Other punishments, to be discriminated from corporal, are such as are based on the sense of honor, such as deprivation from privileges of the school, confinement after school hours, requirement to sit or stand in some unusual place, enrollment on a list of disgraced pupils, etc. 33 (a). Promotion. — Advancement from any grade to the next higher. Eng. Advance to higher standard. Ger. Versetzung. Fr. Avancement ; moniee d'une classe. 33 (b). Grade ; class. — The body or group of pupils having the same degree of advancement, pursuing the same studies, etc. Eng. Standard. Ger. Klasse. Fr. Classe. It. Classe; grado. Sp. Celas; grado. PEOCEEDINGS OP THE Mtional council of Education. • National Council of education. OFFICERS FOR 1892-93. President— E. W. Coy, Cincinnati, 0. Vice-President — F. A. Fitzpatrick, Omaha, Neb. Secretary and Treasurer — Chas. De Garmo, Swarthmore, Pa. Executive Committee— The President, Vice-President, Secretary ; and E. E. White, Columbus, 0. ; D. L. Kiehle, St. Paul, Minn. ; N. M. Butler, New York, N. Y. ; J. Baldwin, Austin, Texas. MEMBERS. Note.— The letter " A " following a name denotes that the member is of the class elected by the Association ; the letter " C " by the Council. Term Expires. W. H. Bartholomew, Louisville, Ky A 1893 Frank A. Fitzpatrick, Omaha, Neb A 1893 Henry Sabin, Des Moines, la A 1893 E. 0. Lyte, Millersville, Pa A 1893 J. M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo. A 1893 Wm. A. Mowry, Salem, Mass C 1893 Selim H. Peabody, Chicago, III C 1893 Nathan C. Schaefifer, Kutztown, Pa C1893 David L. Kiehle, St. Paul, Minn . .C 1893 Mary E. Nicholson, Indianapolis, Ind C1893 C. C. Rounds, Plymouth, N. H. . . A 1894 H. S. Jones, Lincoln, Neb A 1894 Z. Richards, Washington, D. C. . .A 1894 James H. Baker, Boulder, Col. ... A 1894 John T. Prince, Boston, Mass A 1894 Aaron Gove, Denver, Col C 1894 Wm. E. Sheldon, Boston, Mass . . .C 1894 James H. Hoose, Cortland, N. Y.. .C 1894 Clara Conway, Memphis, Tenn. . . .C 1894 H. H. Seerley, Cedar Falls, Iowa..C 1894 Term Expires. R. W. Stevenson, Columbus. O. . .A 1895 John Eaton, Washington, D. C . . .A 1895 A. R. Taylor, Emporia, Kan A 1895 W. R. Garrett, Nashville, Tenn.. .A 1895 Jas. L. Hughes, Toronto, Can A 1895 Geo. P. Brown, Bloomington, 111. .C 1895 Bettie A. Dutton, Cleveland, 0. . . .C 1895 Henry M. James, Omaha, Neb C 1895 Delia L. Williams, Delaware, 0. . .C 1895 Wm. F. King, Mt. Vernon, Iowa. .C 1895 Edwin C. Hewett, Normal, 111 ... .A 1896 Andrew J. Rickoff, New York, N. Y A 1896 Euler B. Smith, La Grange, Ga. . . A 1896 George Howland, Chicago, 111 A 1896 John S. Irwin, Fort Wayne, Ind. .A 1896 John W. Dickinson, Boston, Mass.C 1896 H. S. Tarbell, Providence, R. I . . .C 1896 E. W. Coy, Cincinnati. Ohio C 1896 Ella C. Sabin, Fox Lake, Wis C 1896 John^. Cook, Normal, 111 C 1896 Wm. T. Harris, Washington, D. C. A 1897 D. Bemiss, Spokane Falls, Wash. .A 1897 748 NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION J. E. Bradley, Minneapolis, Minn. A 1897 Geo. T. Fairchild, Manhattan, Kan A 1897 Chas. W. Eliot, Cambridge, Mass. A 1897 Charles De Garmo, Swarthmore, Pa.C 1897 L. H. Jones, Indianapolis, Ind. . . .C 1897 C. M. Woodward, St. Louis, Mo . .C 1897 W. N. Plailmann, La Porte, Ind.. .C 1897 Nicholas Murray Butler, New York C1897 R. G. Boone, Bloomington, Ind. ,A 1898 P. Louis Soldan, St. Louis, Mo A 1898 N. A. Calkins, New York, N. Y.. .A 1898 Joseph Baldwin, Huntsville, Tex. .A 1898 Jas. H. Canfield, Lincoln, Neb A 1898 A. S. Draper, Albany, N. Y C 1898 Wm. H. Maxwell, Brooklyn, N. Y.C 1898 Emerson E. White, Cincinnati, 0 .C 1898 B. A. Hinsdale, Ann Arbor, Mich.C 1898 N. C. Dougherty, Peoria, 111 C 1898 HONORARY MEMBERS. Robert AUyn, Carbondale, 111. Israel W. Andrews,* 1888. Henry Barnard, Hartford, Ct. William N. Barringer, Newark, N. J. Newton Bateman, Galesburg, 111. Thomas W. Bicknell, Boston, Mass. Albert G. Boyden, Bridge water, Mass. Anna C. Brackett, New York, N. Y. Edward Brooks, Philadelphia, Pa, Matthew H. Buckham, Burlington, Vt. David M. Camp, New Britain, Conn. Aaron L. Chapin, Beloit, Wis. Matilda S. Cooper, Nyack, N. Y. William J. Corthell, Gorham, Maine, J, L. M. Curry, Richmond, Va. N. R. H. Dawson, Selma, Ala. V. C. Dibble, Charleston, S. C. Larkin Dunton, Boston, Mass. William W. Folwell, Minneapolis, Minn. Daniel C. Gil man, Baltimore, Md. Samuel S. Greene,* 1883, James C. Greenough, Westfield, Mass. John M. Gregory, Washington, D. C. Daniel B, Hagar, Salem, Mass. G. Stanley Hall, Worcester, Mass. William D. Henkle,* 1883. Elnathan E. Higbee,* 1889. Ira G. Hoitt, Sacramento, Cal. J. George Hodgins, Toronto, Can. George W. Howison, San Francisco, Cal. Thomas Hunter, New York, N. Y. Ellen Hyde, Framingham, Mass. E. S. Joynes, Knoxville, Tenn. Thomas Kirkland, Toronto, Can, Merrick Lyon,* 1888. James MacAlister, Philadelphia, Pa. Martin, Lillie J., San Francisco, Cal. Parker, Warren D., Madison, Wise. James McCosh, Princeton, N. J. Albert P. Marble, Worcester, Mass. Francis A. March, Easton, Pa, Thos. J. Morgan, Washington, D. C. Lemuel Moss, Minneapolis, Minn. M. A. Newell, Havre de Grace, Md. Birdseye G. Northrop, Clinton, Ct. Edward Olney,* 1886. John M. Ordway, New Orleans, La. Gustavus J. Orr,* 1888. Francis W, Parker, Chicago, 111. S, S. Parr, St. Cloud, Minn, W. H. Payne, Nashville, Tenn. John B. Peaslee, Cincinnati, Ohio. William F. Phelps, St. Paul, Minn, Joseph L. Pickard, Iowa City, Iowa. John D. Philbrick,* 1885. William H, Ruffner, Lexington, Ya. H, E. Shepard, Charleston, S. C. Edgar A. Singer, Philadelphia, Pa. James H. Smart, Lafayette, Ind. Homer B. Sprague, , Cal. J. W. Stearns, Madison, Wis. Thomas B. Stockwell, Providence, R. I. Grace Bibb Sudborough, Omaha, Neb. John Swett, San Francisco, Cal. Eli T, Tappan,* 1888. Charles 0, Thompson,* 1885. H. S. Thompson, Columbia, S, C, L. S. Thompson, Jersey City, N. J. S. R. Thompson, New Wilmington, Pa. Julia S. Tutweiler, Livingston, Ala. James P. Wickersham,* 1891. J. Ormond Wilson, Washington, D. C. John Hancock,* 1891. Thigpen, W. R,, Savannah, Ga. James, E. J., Philadelphia, Pa. * Deceased. STANDING COMMITTEES. 749 STANDING COMMITTEES. The committees from which reports are due in 1894 are Nos. IL, III., IV., VII., X., XII. The topics already reported on will be found in italics, with the year of the report in parentheses. The chairman of each of the above-named committees should communicate with the other members of his committee at once, select a subject, and notify the President, E. W. Coy, Cincinnati, Ohio. I. On State School Systems. —Sub-topics : (1) Organization (1883) ; (2) Supervision (1885) ; (3) Licensure of Teachers (1889) ; (4) School Revenues ; (5) Compulsory Education (1891) ; (6) Tenure of Office of Teachers (1887) ; (7) Supplying the schools with Text Books ; (8) State, County, City and District Su- pervision (1892). W. R. Garrett, Nashville, Tenn., C?iairman. A. S. Draper, Albany, N. Y. James H. Canfield, Lincoln, Neb. David L. Kiehle, St. Paul, Minn. George Ilowland, Chicago, 111. II. On City School Systems.— Sub-topics : (1) Organization ; (2) Super- vision (1884, 1890) ; (3) Superintendency ; (4) Qualification of Teachers ; (5) Classi- fication of Pupils (1886) ; (6) Ungraded Schools ; (7) Business Side of City School Systems (1888, 1889, 1890) ; (8) Promo- tions and Examinations ; (9) Evening Schools ; (10) Enriching the Course of Study below the High School. Frank A. Fitzpatrick, Omaha, Neb., Chairman. Aaron Gove, Denver, Col. N. C. Dougherty, Peoria, 111. John E. Bradley, Minneapolis, Minn. H. S. Tarbell, Providence, K. I. III. On Higher Education.— Sdb-topics : (1) Higher Institutions Re- quired (1885) ; (2) Harmonizing of Higher, Secondary, and Elementary Schools (1882); (3) Admission to College (1884) ; (4) Elec- tive System (1888) ; (5) College Govern- ment ; (6) What Should Precede the Uni- versity ? (7) The Seminary Method of In- struction. Nicholas Murray Butler, New York, N. r., Chairman. Charles W. Eliot, Cambridge, Mass. Wm. F. King, Mt. Vernon, la. John Eaton, Washington, D. C. B. A. Hinsdale, Ann Arbor, Mich. IV. On Secondary Education. —Sub-topics : (1) High Schools (1882) ; (2) Academies (1885) ; (3) Preparation for College (1884); (4) RelaHon of High Schools to Colleges (1887) ; (5) Opportuni- ties of the Rural Population for Secondary Education (1889) ; (6) Schools by Cor- respondence ; (7) Uniformity in Require- ments for Admission to College (1891) ; (8) Difference between College methods of Instruction and High-school methods. W. H. Bartholomew,' Louisville, Ky., Chairman. James H. Baker, Boulder, Col. F. Louis Soldan, St. Louis, Mo. H. H. Seerley, Cedar Falls, la. John S. Irwin, Ft. Wayne, Ind. V. On Elementary Education. —Sub-topics : (1) Course of Study (1882); (2) Oral Teaching (1884) ; (8) Text-Books (1886) ; (4) Waste in Elementary Educor tion (1888) ; (5) Kindergarten; (6) Lan- guage Lessons in Elementary Schools ; (7) Science Teaching in Lower Grades ; (8) Essentials in Elementary Education (1890) ; (9) The Uses of Literature in Elementary Education (1892). L. H. Jones, Indianapolis, Ind., Chairman. Ella C. Sabin, Fox Lake, Wis. Wm. E. Sheldon, Boston, Mass. H. S. Jones, Lincoln, Neb. Bettie A, Dutton, Cleveland, Ohio. YI. On Normal Education.— Sub-topics : (1) Kind of Normal Schools requirdi ; (2) Academical and Profes- sional Training (1883, 1889) ; (3) Practice Departments (1885) ; (4) City Normal Schools (1891) ; (5) Teachers' Institutes 750 NATIONAL GOUNGTL OF EDUCATION (1887) ; (6) The Relation of the Normal School to Other Institutions of Learning (1893) ; (7) Normal School Extension. C. C. Rounds, Plymouth, N. H., Chairman. Nathan C. Schaeffer, Kutztown, Pa. John W. Dickinson, Boston, Mass. A. R. Taylor, Emporia, Kansas. W. N. Hailman, La Porte, Ind. YII. On Technological Edu- cation.— Sub-topics : (1) Technical Training in Public Schools (1881) ; (2) Preparation for Institutes of Technology ; (3) Pedagogical Value of the School Work- shop (1886) ; (4) Agricultural Colleges (1888) ; (5) Summer Schools of Science ; (6) Relation of Technological to Liberal Education. C. M. Woodward, St, Louis, Mo., Chairman. George T. Fairchild, Manhattan, Kan. Henry M. James, Omaha, Neb, Selim H. Peabody, Chicago, 111. Euler B. Smith, La Grange, Ga. VIII. On Pedagogics. — Sub- topics : (I) Chairs of Pedagogy in Col- leges (1882) ; (2) Pedagogy as a Science (1884); (3) Pedagogical Inquiry; (4) Func- tion of Public Schools (1886, 1887) ; (5) Educational Value of Manual Training (1889 ) ; (6) Moral Education ; (7) Peda- gogical Terminology ; (8) The Education of the Will (1891) ; (9) Distinguishing Ideas in the Herbartian System of Pedagogy ; (10) Scope and Character of Pedagogical YiorTc in Universities (1892). Chas, De Garmo, Swarthmore, Pa., Chairman. John T. Prince, Newtonville, Mass. Geo. P. Brown, Bloomington, 111. Delia L. Williams, Delaware, Ohio. R. G. Boone, Bloomington, Ind. IX. On Moral Education.— [Changed from — " On the Education of Girls," 1891.] Sub-topics : (1) Co- education (1883, 1890) ; (2) Technical Training for Girls (1886) ; (3) What Edu- cation is Best (1888) ; (4) The Education of Girls (1891) ; (5) Practical Culture of the Moral Virtues (1892) ; (6) Direct and Indirect Moral Teaching. Joseph Baldwin, Austin, Tex., Chair- man. Mary E, Nicholson, Indianapolis, Ind. Z. Richards, Washington, D. C. E, E. White, Columbus, Ohio, Clara Conway, Memphis, Tenn. X. On School Sanitation, Hy- giene and Physical Training.— [Changed from — " On Hygiene in Edu- cation,'" 1891,] SuB-TOPics : (1) Sanitary Exercises and Appliances in Public Schools (1883) ; (2) Recesses (1884, 1885) ; (3) Re- lation of Mental Labor to Physical Health (1887) ; {^)Harmoniou8 Development (1889) ; (5) Physical Education (1891). James L, Hughes, Toronto, Canada, Chairman. Wm. A. Mowry, Salem, Mass. Henry Sabin, Des Moines, la, D. Bemiss, Spokane, Wash. R, W. Stevenson, Columbus, Ohio. XI. On Psychological In- quiry.— [Changed from — " On Educa- tional Literature," 1891.] Sub-topics : (1) School Reports (1885) ; (2) Books on Pedagogy (1888) ; (3) Use of General Libraries (1887) ; (4) Educational Litera- ture (1890) ; (5) Relation of Mnemonic Systems to the Cultivation of the Powers of Thought (1892). Wm, T. Harris, Washington, D. C, Chairman. E. 0, Lyte, Millersville, Pa, Edwin C. Hewitt, Normal, 111. N. A. Calkins, New York, N, Y, John W. Cook, Normal, 111. XII. On Educational Reports and Statistics.— [Changed from— ' ' On Education al Statistics, " 1 89 1 . ] Sub- topics : (1) Reforms in Statistics (1885, 1887) ; (2) What Statistics Should be Col- lected (1889, 1891). J. M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo., Chairman. Andrew J, Rickoff, New York, N, Y. Wm, H, Maxwell, Brooklyn, N, Y. James H. Hoose, Thousand Islands Park, N. Y. E. W. Coy, Cincinnati, Ohio. EEPOET OF SEOEETAET. OPENING SESSION. Saratoga Springs, N. Y., July 7, 1892. At 10 o'clock, President Baker in the chair, the Council was called to order. Prayer was offered by Dr. Baldwin. On motion it was agreed that the sessions open at 10 A. m. and at 3:30 p. m. Voted that the report on '* Practical Culture of the Moral Virtues " be postponed to the afternoon session. The following members were present : Baker, Baldwin, Coy, Dougherty, Miss B. A. Dutton, Dickinson, Fitzpatrick, De Garmo, Prince, Schaeffer, Sheldon, Stevenson, Honorary Member L. Dunton. Adjourned till 3:30 p. m. AFTERNOON SESSION-July 7, 1892. The Council met at 3:30 p. m. The report on '^Practical Culture of the Moral Virtues,'' postponed from the morning session, was read by Joseph Baldwin, chairman of the Committee on Moral Education. At the close of the report, the Committee introduced Larkin Dunton as a specialist, who spoke at length upon the theme of the paper and answered the questions of the members. The five minute rule was re-adopted by vote of the Council, to govern the length of the speeches in the discussions. The report was discussed by Messrs. De Garmo, Dougherty, Sheldon, Eichards, L. H. Jones, Prince, Dunton and Schaeffer. The discussion was closed by Mr. Baldwin. The report was, on motion, received and ordered to be printed in the proceedings. The Council then took a recess of five minutes. After the recess the report on ''The Uses of Literature in Elementary Education " was read by Mr. L. H. Jones, chairman of the Committee on Elementary Education, 753 NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION. The report was discussed by Messrs. De Garmo, Kiehle, Sheldon, Richards, Dunton, Prince, Mowry, Baldwin. The discussion was closed by L. H. Jones. The report was, on motion, received and ordered to be printed. Members present : Baker, Baldwin, Coy, Dougherty, Miss Button, Dickinson, Fitzpatrick, De Garmo, Kiehle, L. H. Jones, Prince, Eichard- son, Schaeffer, Sheldon, Stevenson, Mowry. Honorary members, David N. Camp, Larkin Dunton. Adjourned at 6:15 P. M. . SECOND DAY— July 8, 1892. Council met in the High School at 10 a. m. Prayer was offered by Mr. Schaeffer. The minutes of the First Day's Sessions were read and approved. The Council then adjourned to the rooms assigned to the several com- mittees for Round Table Conferences. AFTERNOON SESSION. Council met at 3 :30 p. m. J. W. Dickinson read his report of the discussion on '^ Practical Cul- ture of the Moral Virtues.^' The report was accepted. J. T. Prince read his report of the discussion on the " Uses of Litera- ture in Elementary Education." The report was accepted. A report on '^ Scope and Character of Pedagogical Work in Universi- ties" was read by Chas. De Garmo, chairman of the Committee on Peda- gogics. The Committee introduced Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler, of Columbia College, and Prof. S. G. Williams of Cornell University, who spoke at length upon the various points of the report. The report was further discussed by Messrs. L. H. Jones, Sheldon, Canfield and Prince. The discussion was closed by Mr. De Garmo. It was voted that the report be received and printed. J. H. Canfield received permission to read his report of the discussion. The report was accepted. The President announced the following Committees : Committee on membership : W. E. Sheldon, A. S. Draper, F. A. Fitz- patrick. Committee on nominations : N. C. Dougherty, J. Baldwin, J. Canfield. Auditing Committee : L. H. Jones, D. L. Kiehle, Z. Richards. REPORT OF SECRETARY. 753 The following members were present : Baker, Baldwin, Butler, Calkins, Canfield, Coy, Dickinson, Dougherty, Draper, Miss Dutton, Fitzpatrick, De Garmo, Rowland, L. H. Jones, Kiehle, King, Miss Nicholson, Prince, Richards, Hounds, Miss Sabin, Sheldon, Stevenson, Schaeffer. Honorary members, Larkin Dunton, David N. Camp, Albert Boyden, Wm. J. Cor- thell. Adjourned at 5 o'clock. THIRD DAY^S SESSIONS— July 9, 1892. Council met at 10 a. m. The meeting was opened with prayer by Mr. Baldwin. The minutes of the Second Day's Sessions were read and approved. The report on *'The Relation of the Normal School to other Institu- tions of Learning" was read by C. C. Rounds, chairman of the Com- mittee on Normal Education. The report was discussed by Messrs. Schaeffer, Dickinson, Harris, De Garmo, Greenwood, Boyden, Camp, Baldwin, Dunton, Richards. The discussion was closed by Mr. C. C. Rounds. It was voted that the report be received and printed. The report on State, County, City and District Supervision was on motion postponed to Monday afternoon. It was moved and seconded that the Council hold an Executive Session on Monday morning after the regular session. Voted that the motion be laid on the table. Voted to receive and hear a report of progress from the Committee of Conference between Colleges and Secondary Schools. Voted that a recess of five minutes be taken. After recess the Committee on Conference between Colleges and Second- ary Schools received permission to make a final report at the afternoon session. Voted that the Council go into Executive Session. On motion it was resolved that in the opinion of the Council absence from a meeting of the Council one year, followed by absence at the suc- Iceeding meeting up to the time of the report of the Committee on Mem- bership on the last day of the meeting, must be held to be a resignation of membership. The following members were present : Baker, Baldwin, Butler, Canfield, Dickinson, Dougherty, Draper, Miss Dutton, Fitzpatrick, De Garmo, Greenwood, Harris, Howland, L. H. Jones, Kiehle, W. F. King, Miss Nicholson, Prince, Richards, Rounds, Mffes Ella Sabin, Henry Sabin, Sheldon, Schaeffer, Tarbell. Honorary members : L. Dunton, David N. Camp, Albert G. Boyden, Wm. J. Corthell, Thos. B. Stockwell. Adjourned at 1:15 P. M. I 754 NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION AFTERNOON SESSION. Council met at 3 :30 p. m, W. T. Harris, chairman of the Committee on Psychological Inquiry, read a report on ^' The Kelation of Mnemonic Systems to the Cultivation of the Power of Thought." The Committee introduced the specialist, Prof. E. Pick of London, who addressed the Council and answered questions by the members. The report was discussed by Messrs. Greenwood, Sheldon, Harris and Schaeffer. The discussion was closed by Mr. Harris. The report was ordered to be received and printed. The report of the Committee of Conference between Colleges and Sec- ondary Schools was read by Mr. Butler, and, after discussion by the members, was amended and adopted in the following form : To the National Council of Education. In the opinion of the Conference of Representatives of Colleges and Secondary Schools, called by authority of the Council, certain conferences by departments of instruction, of teachers in colleges and secondary schools are desirable. We, therefore, recommend to the Council that the following ten persons, namely. President Chas. W. Eliot, of Harvard University, Dr. W. T. Harris, Commissioner of Education, President James B. Angel], of the University of Michigan, Mr. John Tetlow, Master of the Girls' High School, Boston, President James M. Taylor, of Vassar College, Mr. 0. D. Robinson, Principal of the Albany, N. Y., High School, President James H. Baker, of the Uni- versity of Colorado, President R, H, Jesse, of the University of Missouri, Mr. Jas. C. Mackenzie, Head Master of the Lawrenceville, N. J., School, and Professor Henry C. King, of Oberlin College, be designated as an Executive Committee, with full power to call and arrange for such conferences during the academic year 1892-3; that the results of the conferences be reported to said executive committee for such action as they may deem appropriate ; and that the executive committee be requested to report fully con- cerning tlieir action to the Council. We recommend, further, that the Council ask the Directors of the National Educa- tional Association to authorize the payment of the necessary expenses of the Conference, and that they set apart out of the income and current funds of the present year the sum of twenty-five hundred dollars, which sum shall be available so far as may be neces- sary to carry on the work of the committee, and shall be disbursed by the Trustees of the National Educational Association on vouchers signed by the Chairman of the Executive Committee herein recommended. Respectfully submitted on behalf of the Conference, Nicholas Murray Butler, Chairman of Committee. July 9, 1892. A committee of three, consisting of Messrs. Baker, Sheldon, and But- ler, was, by motion, appointed to present and press these recommenda- tions before the Board of Directors of tlie National Educational Associ- ation. REPORT OF SECRETARY. 755 The following members were present : Baker, Baldwin, Butler, Calkins, Canfield, Coy, Dickinson, Dougherty, Draper, Miss Dutton, Fitzpatrick, De Garmo, Greenwood, Harris, Howland, James, L. H. Jones, Klehle, King, Miss Nicholson, Prince, Richards, Rounds, Ella C. Sabin, Sheldon, Schaelfer, Henry Sabin, Tarbell. Honorary Members : L. Dunton, David N. Camp, Albert G. Boyden, Wm. J. Corthell, Grace C. Subborough. Adjourned at 6.15 p.m. FOURTH DAY'S SESSIONS— July 11, 1892. Council met at 10 a. m. Prayer was offered by Mr. E. E. White. The minutes were read, corrected, and adopted. The reading of the report of the discussion on the Relation of Normal Schools and other Institutions of Learning was, on motion, dispensed with, and ordered to be printed in the Proceedings. A similar motion was carried with reference to the report of the dis- cussion of the Relation of Mnemonic Systems to the Cultivation of the Power of Thought. In the absence of G. Stanley Hall, the report on State, County, City, and District Supervision was taken up and read by W. R. Garrett, Chair- man of the Committee on State School Systems. The Committee introduced Mr. George "Walton, as a specialist, who presented a paper on that portion of the report relating to ungraded schools. It was moved and seconded that the report be recommitted, with the request that it be returned to the Council at a subsequent session. Voted that this motion be laid on the table. The report was taken up seriatim ; the first five points were, on motion, passed over ; the sixth item, that the country school should be graded, was discussed by Messrs. Harris, Baldwin, Sabin, Richards, Greenwood, Harris, Dickinson, White, Kiehle, Brown. It was ordered that the report of Mr. Walton be printed. The motion to recommit the report of the Committee was taken up and passed. The following members were present : Baker, Baldwin, Brown, Butler, Canfield, Coy, Dickinson, Dougherty, Draper, Miss Dutton, Fitzpatrick, De Garmo, Gove, Garrett, Greenwood, Harris, Howland, James, L. H. Jones, Kiehle, King, Lyte, Miss Nicholson, Peabody, Richards, Rounds, Ella Sabin, Sheldon, Schaeffer, H. Sabin, I'Vtrbell, Mrs. Delia L. Williams, White. Honorary members : L. Dunton, David N. Camp, A. G. Boyden, W. J. Corthell, Grace C. Subborough, Thos. B. Stockwell. Adjourned at 12.45 p. M. 756 NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION. AFTERNOON SESSION. Council met at 3:30 P. M. The minutes of the morning session were read, amended and approved. It was voted that more time be allowed for the completion of Mr. Jameses report of the discussion on Ungraded Schools, and that in case it be unfinished at the close of this meeting, the report be referred to the Executive Committee and printed. N. C. Dougherty presented a report of the conference on City School systems. L. H. Jones presented a report of the conference on Elementary Edu- cation. C. C. Rounds made a report of the conference on Normal Education. Chas. De Garmo read a report of the conference on Pedagogics. ' The reports were on motion received, referred to the Executive Com- mittee, and ordered to be printed under the usual limitations. It was agreed that the reports of these Round Table Conferences be printed with the statement that they were not discussed in the regular meetings of the Council. A telegram was received from G. Stanley Hall, stating that he had been delayed. On motion it was resolved that the Council go into executive session. The report of the Auditing Committee upon the account of the Treas- urer was received and adopted. N. C. Sehaeffer, Treasurer, in account with National Cou7icil of Education. 1891. Receipts. July 14 — Received from D. L. Kiehle, former Treasurer 1892. July 9— Dues received from July 14, 1891, to July 9, 1893. . . Disbursements. 1891. Aug. 19— Express charges paid to Z. Richards , . . . Sept. 28 — Printing charges paid to G. P. Brown Oct. 24— Express charges and type- writing to S. H. Peabody. 1892. July 8 — Stationery " 8 — Express charges " 9 — Printing 750 copies, N. A. Calkins ' ' 9 — Express charges on same 9 — Balance on hand Dr. $97 53 142 00 Cr. $239 53 I $6 90 7 50 7 02 50 40 97 00 16 16 104 05 $239 53 To the National Council of Education : The undersigned, Auditing Committee, have examined the accounts of the Treasurer of this Council, Nathan C. Schaeffer, together with the vouchers accompanying said accounts, and find the whole correct. L. H, Jones, Chairman. Z. Richards. D. L. Keihle. REPORT OF SECRETARY. 757 The Committee on Membership made the following report, which was on motion received and adopted. Saratoga Springs, July 11, 1892. To the National Council of Education : Your Committee on Membership have at- tended to the work assigned to them, and respectfully submit the following report : The term of membership of five persons expires in 1892, viz. : Andrew S. Draper, Albany, N. Y. ; Emerson E. AVhite, Cincinnati, Ohio ; N, C. Dougherty, Peoria, 111. ; B. A. Hinsdale, Ann Arbor, Mich. ; and William H. Maxwell, Brooklyn, N. Y. Your Committee recommend that these gentlemen be respectively reelected for a term of six years— term to expire in 1898. The action of the Council, as embodied in the following resolution : '* Resolved, That in the opinion of the Council, absence from all the sessions of the Council for one year, followed by absence at the succeeding meeting up to the time of the report of the Committee on Membership, on the last day of the meeting, must be held to be a resig- nation of active membership," creates four vacancies on account of such absence. Your Committee recommend the following persons to fill these vacancies : 1. A. R. Taylor, of Emporia, Kansas, to fill the vacancy caused by the absence of Lillie J. Mai-tin ; term to expire in 1895. 2. John W. Cook, of Normal, 111., in place of Warren D. Parker ; term to expire in 1896. 3. Euler B. Smith, of La Grange, Ga., in place of W. R. Thigpen ; term to expire in 1896. 4. Charles W. Eliot, of Cambridge, Mass., in place of E. J. James ; term to expire in 1897. Respectfully submitted, William E. Sheldon, Fbank a. Fitzpatrtck, A. S. Draper. It was voted that the officers of the Council make arrangements with the officers of the National Educational Association to have the proceed- ings printed from the plates or type of the general volume. A letter was read from D. B. Hager, saying that when he was ready to start for the meeting of the Council his physician forbade his coming. The Committee on Nominations made the following report : President. — E. W. Coy. Vice-President. — F. A. Pitzpatrick. Secretary be 9 O 9 ^ d ^ rH C^l" « od, James B., White Plains. Lockwood, Mrs. Cora E., White Plains. Lockwood, Ruth F., Buffalo. Longstreet, Geo. B., Auburn. Longstrect, Edith, Auburn, 830 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. NEW YORK— Continued. Loomis, H. PI., Waterford. Lottridge, Silas A., New Berlin. Lounsberv, Louise A., Randall. Love, Win. H., Buffalo. Lovell, A., N. Y. Lovell, Thos. B., Attica. Loveridge, Ruth M., Cuba. Lukens, M. Frances, Lansingburg. Lummis, William, New York. Lyman, Mary, Hume. Lynch, Nellie A., Elmira. Lyon, Nettie, W. Troy. Macdonald, Mason A., New Brighton. Madden, M. L., Rochester. Magovere, Mary A., N. Y. Maguire, Edward, Rushford. Mainwaring, May, N. Y. Maitland, Susie F., Cohoes. Manderville, F. E., Oleon. Manro, W. D., Fairport. Marburg, Theodore, Saratoga. Massee, J. Edward, N. Y. Matteson, Florence M., Oneonta. Maxwell, F. B., Ithaca. Maxwell, Wm. H., Brooklyn. Mayhew, Caroline, Marcy. Mayhew, Laura F., Marcy. MciBride, Elizabeth, Geneseo. McClaskey, Alice G., Saratoga Springs. McDonald, E. F., Norwood. McFalls, Alida, Gouverneur. McFarland, Margaret, Salem. McHench, Mrs. J., Cobleskill. McKee, J. M. , Silver Creek. McKee, Jennie T. , Silver Creek. McKenna, Isabel, Buffalo. McLean, C. D., Broekport. McMillan, A., Utica. McMonagle, Carrie E., Montgomery. McMurray, J. B., Margaretville. McNeill, Sallie L., Montgomery. McRae, Mary S., Saratoga. Mead, Linda V., Oneonta. Meineke, Miss E. M., N. Y. Meredith, Kate, Vernon. Meredith, Frankie, Vernon. Miller, Chas. M., N. Y. Miller, Margaret, Montgomery. Miles, Helen A., Brooklyn. Miles, Ida L., Greenbush. Milliken, A. E., Port Henry. Milne, W. J., Albany. Milne, John M., Geneseo. Milne, James M., Oneonta. Miner, Sara B., Chazy. Mitchell, Mary, Adams. Mitchell, Mary A. G., New Rochelle. Mitchell, C. Estelle, North Bay. Monks, Elizabeth, Elmira. Montfort, R. V. K., Newburg. Mooney, Mrs. M. S., Albany. Moore, Mrs. Mary Davis, Oswego. Moore, Lucy P., Lansingburg. Moore, Clara L., Cobleskill. Moran, John J., Kingston. More, Frances C., Salem. Morehouse, H. L., N. Y. Morey, Clayton L., Greenwich. Morgan, May B., Avon. JMorgan, Ruth, Cuba. Morrissey, Sarah, Dunkirk. Moss, J. C., Buffalo. Moss, Mrs. J. C, Buffalo. Mumford, A. W., Utica. Mumford, Mrs. A. W., Utica. Myers, Ada, Adams. Napier, Mrs. C. F., Brooklyn. Nelson, Clara A., Auburn. Nelson, Lillian, Saratoga Springs. Newbury, M. Louise, Cropseyville. Newland, Libbie, Stillwater. Newman, Miss E. A., Buffalo. Newson, H. D., N. Y. Nichols, A. P., Adams Center. North, Edward, Clinton. North, Mary H., Clinton. Norton, A. W., Oswego. Norton, Carrie, Sandy Creek. Nostrand, N. M., Flushing. Oakley, Miss M. R., Buffalo. Oatman, Etta C, Adams. O'Brien, MissC. E., N. Y. O'Connor, Grace, Buffalo. Olcott, J. M., N. Y. Olmstead, E. G., Potsdam. O'Neil, Hugh P., N. Y. O'Neil, IlenryP.. N. Y. O'Neil, Rose M., N. Y. O'Neill, Kate M., N. Y. Orr, Miss M. E., N. Y. Osborn, A. S., Rochester. Osborn, Abbie, Oswego. Osborn, Abbie P., Saratoga Springs. O'Shea, M. V., Leroy. Osincup, Lena K., Vestal Center. Overacker, M. L., Syracuse. Owen, E. J., Ticonderoga. Packer, E. L., Albany. Packard, S. S., N. Y. Packard, Mrs. S. S., N. Y. Palmer, F. B., Fredonia. Palmer, Mrs. S. G., Fredonia. Palmerton, Wilhelmina S.. Maraaroneck Pardee, Sheldon J. , Long Island. Pardo, Carlos, N. Y. Parks, S. A., Glens Falls. Parsells, Isabelle, N. Y. Parsons, J. R., Albany. Pascal, Miss M., N. Y. Pateman, Edna E., Brooklvn. Patton, C. L., N. Y. Patton, Anna M., Troy. Payne, Emma H., Brooklyn. Peabody, Laura J., Holland Patent. Peabody, Elizabeth G., Palmyra. Peck, J. W., Fairport. ANNUAL MEMBERSHIP. 831 NEW YORK— Continued. Peckham, Miss J. E., Chittenango. Perry, Mrs. A. H., Chittenango. Perry, Louisa A., Elizabethtown. Perkins, A. D., Syracuse. Pierce, W. M., Mayvillc. Pierce, E. J., Saratoga. Pinks, M. E., Port Chester. Place, F. R., Caledonia. Plank, C. S., Waddington. Plimpton, George A., N. Y. Plough, M. C, North Cohocton. Pool, Adelaide, Adams. Post, A. E., Durhamville. Potter, Belle, Conklingvillo. Poulson, Elmer, Brooklyn. Powers, Elizabeth M. , Saratoga Springs. Powers, Gussie, Hudson. Pratt, William 0., Brooklyn. Price, Hattie E., Cornwall-on-the-Hudson. Prote, Anna M., Jones ville. Pulsifer, W. E., N. Y. Purdy, Henry S., Brewster. Purdy, Mattie E., Brewster. Pye, George W. , Palmyra. Quay, George H., Bath-on-the-Hudson. Radcliff, Emily H. , Oswego. Ranney, William C, Elbridge. Ranney, Mrs. W. C. , Elbridge. Reed, A., N. Y. Reed, Mrs. A., N. Y. Reese, Cora, Westmoreland. Reese, Lizzie A., Westmoreland. Reeve, Charlotte E., Greenport. Regan, Mrs. E., N. Y. Remmell, Mrs. G. L., Johnstown. Rennek, M. B., Geneva. Rice, J. M., N. Y. Rice, G. L., Buffalo. Rice, Emily A., N. Y. Rich, F. F., LeRoy. Richardbach, F. A., Rochester. Richardson, A. S., N. Y. Richardson, Ella, N. Y. Rickoff, Mrs. Rebecca D., N. Y. Ridell, R. R., Hamilton. Ridell, Mrs. R. R., Hamilton. Riggs, Miss R. J., Troy. Riggs, Edith T., Elmira. Ring, B., N. Y. Roberts, D., Greene. Roberts, H. H., Binghamton. Roberts, Louise, Syracuse. Robins, L. F., East Albany. Robinson, Miss S. C, N. Y. Robinson, Ella, Chittenango. Robinson, Ida L., South Glens Falls. Robinson, 0. D., Albany. Roblee, Marion, Canister. Roblee, Stella, Canister. Root, Jeanette, Schuylerville. Rorick, Lizzie M., Middleburg. Roth, Alice A., Buffalo. Round, R. J., Elmira. Rourk, Anna L., Albany. Rowley, Hattie E., Ketchum's Corners. Rusk, Rebecca, Marlborough. Russell, James E., Ithaca. Russell, Frank D., I lion. Russell, Theresa A., Belgium. Ryan, Fanny M., Fortsville. Ryan, Isabelle M., Buffalo. Ryon, Charles M., Kingston. Sage, A. H., Waterville. Sage, L. Belle, Norwich. Sagomarsino, C, N. Y. Sanders, Ardilla, Albany. Sandford, Jared, Albany. Sandford, Mrs. J., Albany. Salisbury, IMarv, Sandy Creek. Satterlee, E. E'., Elmira. Sawyer, G. F., Carthage. Sawyer, E. E., Saratoga. Sawyer, Mrs. E. E., Saratoga. Schiller, Lina, Flushing. Schiller, Bianca. Flushing. Schoonmaker, Kate, Kingston. Scott, M. W., Binghamton. Scribner, Julia, Fairport. Sears, Anna Bess, Montgomery. Seeley, Mrs. G. B., Rochester.* Seeley, Jessie A., Ballston Spa. Seely, Chas. D., Broclqport. Sexton, Chandler, N. Y. Shaffer, M. D., Albany. Shanley, Anna M., Camden. Shaw, W. B., Albany. Shear, S. R., Pulaski. Shearer, Flora A., N. Y. Sheldon, Helen M., Ft. Ann. Sheldon, E. A., Oswego. Sheldon, Frances A. B., Oswego. Sheldon, Laura A., Oswego. Sheldon, Dorliska E. , Oswego. Shepherd, Carrie, Saratoga. Shepherd, Jennie R., Saratoga. Sherley, Frederick, Albany. Shields, Nellie F., Rochester. Shotwell, W. J., Skaneateles. Slaught, Mrs. Beatrice H., Brooklyn. Smith, S. E., Sherrill. Smith, J. M., S. Glens Falls. Smith, A. W., Dolge ville. Smith, Frederick R., Norwood. Smith, F. E., Sandv Creek. Smith, H. P., Brooklyn. Smith, Edward, Syracuse. Smith, Chas. Sprague, N. Y. Smith, Ida M., S. Corinth. Smith, Esther J., Saratoga. Smith, Olive, Albany. Smith, S. Ellida, Verona. Smitl^ Margaret K., Oswego. Smyth, Marv Frances, Albany. Snyder, G. E., E. Carleton. Speare, Georgiua, Johnstown. Spence, Eliza, Saratoga Springs. 832 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. NEW YORK— Concluded. Spence, Annie M., Saratoga Springs. Spencer, H. A., N. Y. Spencer, Carrie, Ithaca. Spoonmaker, Mary, Newburgh. Spragiie, Josie, S. Butler. Sprague, Sarah E., Gouverneur. Sprole, S. E., Syracuse. Squire, Mary V., Buffalo. Stearns, W. E., Mohawk, Stearns, Mrs. W. E., Mohawk. Steffy, W. K., Elraira. Steffy, W. K., Elmira. Stephens, Esther, Mt. Vision. Stephens, Harriet E., Mt. Vision. Stetson, Arthur D., Brooklyn. Stevens, H. E., Bergen. Stevenson, M. C, N. Y. Stewart, Clara, Oneonta. Still, Mrs. M. C, Syracuse. Stockwell, A. P., Brooklyn. Stoddard. Ella M., Buffalo. Stout, I. H., Geneva. Stout, Mrs. I. H., Geneva. Stowell, T. B., Potsdam. Stowits, G. H., Buffalo. Strachan, Grace C, Buffalo. Stratton, Geo. H., Arcade. Stratton, Mrs. Geo. H., Arcade. S trout, Emma, Brooklyn. Strong, Otis, Auburn, Strong, Mrs. C. W., Oneonta. Strough, P. A., Lafargeville. Sullivan, Ellen, Albany. Swartwood, Elizabeth W., Elmira. Sweet, Mrs. N., Ballston. Svkes, E. Louise, Ballston. Taber, Miss S., Buffalo. Taft, G. A., Potsdam. Talcott, Ella J., Silver Creek. Tawson, Anna F., Montgomery. Taylor, H. L., Canandaigua. Taylor, Mrs. H. L., Canandaigua. Taylor, A. J., Rochester. Taylor, A. N., Westfield. Taylor, Musette, Adams. Tebbits, Nellie K., Camden. Thatcher, Eleanor T., E. Albany. Thayer, Minnie M., Burnsides. Thomas, Nancy R., Bath. Thompson, Sue, Elmira. Thomson, W. P., Auburn. Thurston, M. B. H., Buffalo. Tichenor, M. N., S. Lansing. Tierney, Agnes L., Sherwood. Tiffany, M. J., N. Cohocton. Tifft, W. C, Sandy Creek. Tilden, P. W., Albion. Todd, Augusta, Fairport. Tompkins, Mrs. C. P., Utica. Tompkins, Lily M., Sidney. Torrey, Mrs. E., N. Y. Tracy, Helen A., Elmira. Trainor, Mary A., W. Troy. Traut, Miss A. E., Buffalo. Tryon, H. I., Winthrop. Tucker, Ella, Stillwater. Turner, Geo. M., Auburn. Tusbrick, W. W., Buffalo, linger, Anna H., Greenbush. Van Akers, Mrs. G., N. Y. Van Allen, D. D., Camden. Van Ant weep, Syracuse. Van Norden, Ada, Waterford. Van Tuyle, C. H., Hamilton. Vanderpool, Edwin C, Newburgh. Valkenburg, I. D., W. Troy. Van Vorhes, Mrs. C. W., Saratoga. Van AVagener, Mary L., N. Y. Wagar, H. File, Brooklyn. Waglum, Sarah A., Oneida. Waite, Henry R., N. Y. Waite, Mrs. H. R., N. Y. Walker, Agnes M., Brooklyn. Walker, Mary E., Brooklyn. Walker, Elizabeth H., Saratoga. Walker, Ettie D., Saratoga. Warde, A. D., E. Syracuse. Weast, Jno. C, S. Schenectady. West, Geo. H., Galway. Weymeth, Grace M., Utica. Whalen, E. S., Rochester. Wheeler, Minnie P., Center Creek. Wheelock, Chas. F., Canajoharie. Whitcomb, J. A., Brooklyn. White, Andrew I)., Ithaca. White, Mrs. A. D., Ithaca. Whitney, Wm., Athens. Wilkins, A. E., Flushing. Wilkinson, Ara, Caledonia. Williams, L. L., Rochester. Williams, Mrs. Jno. F., Rome. Williams, Sherman, Glens Falls. Williams, C. L., N. Y. Williams, S. G., Ithaca. Williams, Cornelia, Ithaca. Wilson, W. S., Farmer. Winne, James, Poughkeepsie. Witherbee, G. P., Port Henry. Wood, Judson I., Ilion. Woodard, May, North Bay. Wright, A. M., Waterville. Wright, Jennie L., Baldwinsville. Wright, Grace, Grahamsville. Wright, Carrie, Grahamsville. Wright, Julia A., Oneonta. Wright, Abbie A., N. Y. Yager, Adele, Oneonta. Youmans, Lydia D., Winterford. Young, I. E., New Rochelle. Young, Miss Frank, Montgomery. Zuber, Paul, N. Y. —New York, 611. ANNUAL MEMBERSHIP, 833 NORTH CAROLINA. Alexander, Nannie L., Concord. Caldwell, A. E., Statesville. Chapman, S. E., Concord. Chapman, M. E. , Concord. Daney, Charlotte E., Tarborough. Davis, A. C, Winston. Farinholt, Mrs. L. A., Asheville. Foust, J. J., Wilson. Halyburton, Minnie, Asheville. Hanss, J. W., Statesville. Horner, J. M,, Oxford. Hume, Thos., Chapel Hill. Button, Belle, Greensborough, Long, Lorena, Graham. McArn, A. H., Wilson. Millard, Katie, Asheville. White, Annie, Greensborough. — North Carolina, 17. Barnum, Anna L., Mayville. Bemus, Carrie E., Mayville. Cathro, F. R., Bottineau. Cathro, F. W., Bismarck. Cathro, Mrs. F. W.. Bismarck. Davis, Mrs. Mattie M., Casselton Helfuty, Frances, EUendale. Helfuty, Grace, EUendale. NORTH DAKOTA. Kundson, R. S., Grand Forks. McMillan, Harlon, Milnor. McNaughton, James, Mayville. Milne, Jennie, Grand Forks. Phelps, H. W., Grafton. Phelps, Mrs. H. W., Grafton. Ruring, G., Durbin. Ruring, Mrs. G., Durbin. — North Dakota, 16, Abraham, V., Cincinnati. Andrews, Idelette, Dayton. Baker, J. H., Boulder. Baker, Lewis A., Fayette. Baker, Mrs. Mary, Fayette. Baldwin, N. Dora, Urbana. Beaver, Ida D., Cleveland. Belles, Eva, Cleveland. Beltz, W. H., Alliance. Bennett, C. W., Piqua. Bennett, Mrs. C. W., Piqua. Bennett, Frank, Piqua. Bennett, Mrs. F., New Lisbon. Bennett, B. S., Milford Center. Bennett, Orpha, Milford Center. Bennett, Harriet, Milford Center. Benson, Fannie B., Cleveland. Bonebrake, Lewis D., Mt. Vernon. Boyd, A. A., Cincinnati. Bradbury, E. P., Cleveland. Brennan, K. S., Cleveland. Brown, Frances, Cleveland. Buoton, Sarah, Chagrin Falls. Burns, J. J., Canton. Burns, Mrs. Kate E., Canton. Burns, Lizzie S. E., Toledo. Butler, Alice M., Columbus. Campion, Kate, Cleveland. Campton, H. W., Toledo. Campton, Mrs. H. W., Toledo. Cleveland, Charlotte, Washington. Corson, 0. T., Columbus. Cox, E. B., Xenia. Cox, Mrs. E. B., Xenia. Cox, C. B., Xenia. Cunningham, Susan, Columbus. Cunningham, Mary, Columbus. Dana, Mrs. H. C, Oberlin. Dana, Lucy H., Oberlin. Davis, Nellie, Norwalk. Deaver, Clara 0., Cleveland. Draper, Andrew S., Cleveland. 53 OHIO. Dutton, Kate E., Cleveland. Dutton, Bettie A., Cleveland. Dyer, Frank R., Salem. Dyke, F. L., Cleveland. Dyke, Mrs. F. L., Cleveland. Espleman, N. V., Cleveland. Foster, Mary V. A., Norwalk. Eraser, Helen, Columbus. Gantvoort, A. J., Piqua. Gerlaugh, J. A., Harshman. Gerlaugh, Mrs. Bertha, Harshman. Gerkins, Irma C. , Dayton. Gladding, Alfred E., E. Liverpool. Glover, N. L., Akron. Gotwald, Fred., Springfield. Gray, Jennie L., Wauseon. Gregg, F. M., Nevada. Griffith, J. W., Tiffin. Griffith, Rose, Tiffin. Haile, Jane T., Cincinnati. Hand, M. J., Xenia. Hanes, J. C, Mansfield. Harding, S. C, Oberlin. Harding, Mrs. S. C, Oberlin. Henderson, G. W., De Graff. Hickox, Chas., Cleveland. Hickox, Frank F., Cleveland. Hickox, Annie B., Cleveland. Hippard, Minette, Dayton. Horsley, Louise D.. Cincinnati. Howard, Mrs. T. F., Oberlin. Hubbell, G. A., Fairfield. Huddleston, Ida, St. Paris. Jacobs, Norma, Toledo. Jones, E. A., Massillon. Jones, A. O., Cincinnati. Kaedd, Jennie C, Canton. Kaedel, Clara E., Waynesburg. Kelley, Eva M., Cleveland. Kelley, Lucy X., Cleveland. Kelty, Cornelia, Youngstown. Kennan, Jairus R., Medina. 834 TBE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. OHIO — Concluded. Kennan, Cora E., Medina. Kimball, Mary L., Medina. King, H. C, Oberlin. Kuleman, Agnes, Akron. Lair, Mrs. L. B., Dayton. Laird, Mrs. Ida E., Cleveland. Lawrence, Edith, Akron. Laws, Annie, Cincinnati. Laws, Alice, Cincinnati. Leathly, Ella, St. Paris. Lee, S. J., Columbus. Lee, Jennie A., Columbus. Leiter, Mrs. Frances W., Mansfield. Lewis, Elizabeth, Urbana. Lofferty, L. L., Akron. Loomis, H. T., Cleveland. Loomis, Mrs. H. T., Cleveland. Lowes, Lottie, Dayton. Lowes, Blanche, Dayton. Marsh, Mrs. Geo. H., Van Wert. McClelland, R. 0., Austinburg. McFarland, Wm. H., Columbus. McGee, Mrs., Sandusky. McGraw, Mrs. A. H., Cleveland. McVance, W., Urbana. Meyer, Ida, Cleveland. Mever, Mrs. Viola, Tiffin. Miller, C. C, Hamilton. Miller, Mrs. C. C, Hamilton. Miller, Elizabeth, Columbus. Miller, Mary, Columbus. Mitchell, T. J., Cleveland. Morrey, W. T., Columbus. Morse, L. I., St. Paris. Morse, Mrs. L. I., St. Paris. Mosford, Curtis R., S. New Lyme. Mulford, J. M., Mechanicsburg. Mulford, Mrs. J. M., Mechanicsburg. Murray, Annie, Cincinnati. Myers, P. V., Cincinnati. Myers, Ida C, Cincinnati. Northrop, Calvin T., Garrettsville. Orth, Florae, Canton. Orton, Clara G., Columbus. Osgood, Anna M., Columbus. Patterson, C. C, Springfield. Pelton, Ella M., Cleveland. Boyd, D. R., Norman. Boyd, Mrs. D. R., Norman. Baird, Hester, Toronto. Baird. R. S., Toronto. Ballard, W. H., Hamilton. Bowron, Minnie, Toronto. Currie, Louise M., Toronto. Deawn, Geo., Toronto. Gallagher, R. E., Hamilton. Gray, Alice, Toronto. Grigg, Miss E. J., Toronto. Perteson, Mary L., Cleveland. Price, Nettie, Columbus. Rankin, Stanley, Columbus. Rankin, Belle, Columbus. Reveley, Ellen G., Cleveland. Richardson, Wm., Cleveland. Riordan, Anna E., Columbus. Scott, Jessie J., Canton. Shawan, J. A., Columbus. Sked, Miss C. P., Cleveland. Smalley, Elizabeth A. , Ashtabula Harbor. Snyder, Linda L., Columbus. Spooner, Mrs. Nora, Cincinnati. Stevenson, Mary H., Cincinnati. Stewart, N. Coe, Cleveland. Stone, F. S., Cleveland. Storrs, Mrs. E. A., Plainsville. Storrs, Hattie, Plainsville. Sullivan, Christine, Cincinnati. Supee, Chas. W., Athens. Tagg, Clara G., Cleveland. Terrel, Harriet E., Cleveland. Trendley, F., Youngstown. Turnbull, Lillie, Canton. TurnbuU, Mary, Canton. Umbstaetter, Clara M., Cleveland. Vance, Sophia, Van Wert. Vogel, Wm. H.. Cincinnati. Wade, Mrs. M. C, Dayton. Walke, Matilda L., Cincinnati. Walker, Mrs. A. B., Canton. Ward, A. L., Cleveland. Warner, Frank C, Plainsville. Warner, Mrs. F. G. L., Plainsville. White, E. E., Cincinnati. White, Mrs. E. E., Cincinnati. White, W. J., Dayton. White, Mrs. W. J., Dayton. White, Mira, Dayton. Williams, W. G. , Delaware. Williams, Mrs. D. L., Delaware. Wilmot, Julia, Cleveland. Wilson, Miss S. J., Chardon. Wilt, A. D., Dayton. Wood, Elizabeth A., Columbus. Wood, Linnie S. , Columbus. Yarnell, M. A., Sidney. —Ohio, 178. OKLAHOMA. Harvey, Flora E., Norman. Smoke, Delia M., Kingfisher. — Oklahoma, 4' ONTARIO. Grigg, May, Toronto. Harton, A. M., Toronto. Hogarth, E. S., Woodstock. Hogarth, Mrs., Woodstock. Holton, C, Toronto. Hughes, James L., Toronto. Hughes, Mrs. J. L., Toronto. Hughes, Helen M., Toronto. Hyves, James S., Toronto. ANNUAL MEMBERSHIP. 835 ONTARIO— Concluded. Johnston, Geo. L., Hamilton. Kerr, Chas. W., Toronto. Mackenzie, Grace, Stratford. McCabe, Wm., Toronto. McCabe, Clara, Toronto. Maunell, Lorena, Toronto. Newcoinb, Mrs. Leontine F., Hamilton, Ritchie, M. S., Brampton. Ritchie, Geo. M., Toronto. Sanderson, A. L., Toronto. Semple, Jessie, Toronto. Sinclair, S. B., Hamilton. Smith, Byron, Hamilton. Stoddard, A., Toronto. Stoddard, Miss E., Toronto. Taylor, Miss S. L., Toronto. Walker, Maggie, Toronto. Wilkinson, W. C., Toronto. Wilkinson, Ida, Toronto. Wilson, E. B., Harriston. Wylie, Mary J. B., Brantford. ■Ontario, 39. OREGON. Craine, Annie, Junction City. McElroy, E. B., Salem. McElroy, Mrs. E. B., Salem. Slatten, Lillian E., Portland. Wallace, Grace I., Portland. — Oregon, 5. PENNSYLVANIA. Albro, S. H., Mansfield. Amet, Mrs. R. W., Philadelphia. Anthony, Anna, Philadelphia. Baer, Samuel A., Reading. Behm, Mary E., Reading. Birdsall, W*^. W., Germantown. Bishop, Eliza A., Harrisburg. Boger, Cyrus, Lebanon. Boone, J. W., E. Downingtown. Boughton, Willis, Philadelphia. Braden, Ella S., Philadelphia. Bradshaw, Sarah B., Philadelphia. Brelsford, Chas. H., Philadelphia. Brooks, H. Maria, Philadelphia. Brooks, Edward, Philadelphia. Buchel, R. R., Lancaster. Burke, E., Philadelphia. Canning, Ella, Philadelphia. Cargo, R. M., Pittsburg. Cargo, Gertrude, Pittsburg. Chew, Miss S. H., Philadelphia. Cleaver, K., Hawley. Coburn, E. J., Erie. Cordery, Sara M., Philadelphia. Cornell, Watson, Philadelphia. Cornell, Mrs. W., Philadelphia. Dagers, M., Ambler. Dagers, Anna E., Ambler. Davis, Annie, Conshohocken. Deatrick, W. W., Kutztown. DeGarmo, Chas., Swarthmore. Deyoe, Mrs. R. E., South Oil City. Du Bois, W. P., Coudersport. Dunn, Miss M. B., Philadelphia. Dunne, Miss M. H., Philadelphia. Eagle, May, Bristol. Eckhardt, Miss A. R., Philadelphia. Elliott, Florence A., Philadelphia. Eugard, L., Philadelphia. Evans, Sarah A., Philadelphia. Fichthorn, Clara C, Reading. Fichthorn, Hannah E., Reading. Fisher, H. W., Pittsburg. Fisher, Mrs. H. W.. Pittsburg. Foster, Roland H., Chester. Foster, C. F., Chester. Fox, Miss H. A., Philadelphia. Gabrylwitz, M. M., Philadelphia. Garrett, Mrs. M., Philadelphia. Gibson, T. W., Philadelphia. Gressly, Mrs. S. S., McKeesport. Gross, H. L. W., Hartford. Gussly, S. S., McKeesport. Haggenbotham, Miss M., Philadelphia. Hayden, Anna F. , Wawa. Heerman, David A., Hazleton. Heins, Mary, Eshbach. Higham, I. W., Philadelphia. Houck, Henry, Harrisburg. Irwin, Sara M., Philadelphia. Jacob, Louisa M., West Grove. James, S. M., Philadelphia. Jardley, Chas., Reading. Johnson, Maria L., Philadelphia. Jones, M. G., Philadelphia. Jones, A. L., Philadelphia. Jones, Addison, West Chester. Jude, G. W. , Sugar Grove. Kinsman, Winnie, Sugar Grove. Kitner, Lotta, Wvalusing. Kleisz, C. v., Philadelphia. Kline, Jas. G., Philadelphia. Lamberton, Miss M. J., Philadelphia. Lewis, Lizzie J., Avondale. Lighty, W. H., Mulberry. Lipsett, J. W., Philadelphia. Lipsett, W. J., Philadelphia. Lipsett, Mrs. J. W,, Philadelphia. Lloyd, Elizabeth, Newtown Square. Lukens, Ella, Philadelphia. Lyte, E. 0., Millersville. MacAlister, James, Philadelphia. Mackenzie, Constance, Philadelphia. Mackenzie, Adelle, Philadelphia. Mackey, E., Butler. MdlCaskey, J. P., Lancaster. McFarland, Mary P., Linwood. Malin, Nettie S., Coatesville. Maltby, Albert E., Slippery Rock. Maris, Geo. L., Philadelphia. 836 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. PENNSYLVANIA— Concluded. Markley, Minerva, Schwenksville. Martin, Agnes, Philadelphia. Maxwell, Isabelle, Philadelphia. Maxwell, Mary, Philadelphia. Michener, J. H., Wissinoming, Phila. Michener, Alice B., Wissinoming, Phila. Mickleback, L., Philadelphia. Mickleback, Clara. Philadelphia. Miller, L. D., Philadelphia. Miller, Jno. M., Philadelphia. Miller, Mrs. J. A., Philadelphia. MofEett, Elizabeth N., Philadelphia. Moffett, Martha, Philadelphia, Morrison, Andrew J., Philadelphia. Moyer, Nora C, Reading. Nelson, Miss A. L. , Taylorsville. Neville, Margaret J., Philadelphia. Neville, Agnes G., Philadelphia. Noss, H. B., California. Nyce, Olivia, Norristown. Osier, Miriam R., Philadelphia. Osier, Mrs. L. A., Philadelphia. Parry, Kate, Philadelphia. Pasmore, Jno. A. M., Philadelphia. Passmore, Jno., Philadelphia. Passmore, Anna B., Philadelphia. Passmore, Edith D., Philadelphia. Patten, Simon N. , Philadelphia. Pepper, Wm., Philadelphia. Phillips, F. J., McKeesport. Phillips, Mrs. F. J., McKeesport. Phillips, G. W., Scranton. Pike, L. May, Linwood. Piper, Virginia C, Philadelphia. Prowell, Elizabeth, Yocumtown. Pyle, L. M., Philadelphia. Randall, Chas. A., Philadelphia. Randall, Elizabeth N., Philadelphia. Rementer, Katie L., Philadelphia. Roland, Lina M., Reading. Ross, Mattie A., Collamer. Rowell, F. C, Factory ville. Ryan, A. M., Philadelphia. Saidler, Mrs. E., Philadelphia. Schaeffer, N. C, Kutztown. Schaeffer, Mrs. N. C, Kutztown. Schmucker, S. C, Indiana. Seegmiller, Miss W., Alleghany. Silliraan, Phoebe C, Philadelphia. Silliman, Irene, Mt. Carmel. Smith, A. G. C, Media. Smith, Mrs. A. G. C, Media. Smithson, Edith, Pittsburg. Snyder, J. L., Alleghany. Snyder, Frank, Point Marion. Suyder, Happy L., Point Marion. Snyder, Clara M., Alleghany City. Spayd, H. H., Minersville. Spayd, Mrs. H. H., Minersville. Stephens, A. M., Philadelphia. Sterling, S. H., Philadelphia. Sterling, Mary, Philadelphia. Stewart, T. S., Philadelphia. Stewart, Mrs. T. S., Philadelphia. Stewart, Ralph C, Philadelphia. Stewart, Jno. L., Harrisburg. Stewart, Sarah A., Philadelphia. Stiles, Gertrude, Erie. Stiles, Netta, Erie. Stout, Geo. H., Philadelphia. Tadd, J. Liberty, Philadelphia. Talbot, Henry, Philadelphia. Thomas, E. L. G., Philadelpliia. Tilney, Mrs. Anna L., Philadelphia. Townsend, Geo. W., Philadelphia. Treanor, Anna B., Philadelphia. Twitmyer, Geo. W., Honesdale. Van Gunten, Mary, Philadelphia, Wallace, Ella J., Philadelphia. Waller, D. J., Bloomsburg. Waller, Mrs. D. J., Bloomsburg. Walton, R. S., Philadelphia, Walton, Joseph S, , Ercildoun. Welsh, J. P., Bloomsburg. Welsh, Mrs. J. P., Bloomsburg. Wilde, Sarah E., Chester. Wilkinson, Mary, Bristol. Williams, Anna W., Philadelphia, Williamson, L. J., Philadelphia. — Pennsylvania, 178. QUEBEC. Mitchell, S. A,, Sherbrooke. Murray, J. Clark, Montreal. Temple, E, M., Quebec. Rexford, E. I., Montreal. Baker, Benj., Newport. Barrows, A, C, Providence. Barrows, Ella, Providence. Bellows, Annie, Ashton. Bellows, Carrie, Ashton. Collins, Ada M., Warring. Fisher, G. C, Pawtucket. Guilbert, J. F., Providence. Hall, Mrs., Providence. Rexford, Mrs. E. I., Montreal. Rinfret, Raoul, St. Stanislas. Simpson, Mrs. Margaret, Montreal. Walbridge, Mabel, St. John's. — Quebec, 8. RHODE ISLAND. Hall, Amy, Providence, Harris, Miss E, G., Woonsocket. Kelliher, M. W., Pawtucket. Ketchura, Mrs, E., Providence. Littlefield, Geo. A., Providence. Marble, Sarah, Woonsocket. Matteson, Plortense A., Allenton. Matteson, Anna S., Allenton. Schaffer, Emma, Providence. ANNUAL MEMBERSEIP. 837 RHODE ISLAND— Concluded. Schaffer, Helena, Providence. Stockwell, T. B., Providence. Strout, Susan L., Wakefield. Brown, V. D., Anderson. Bulkley, W. L., Orangeburg. Cater, Miss L. C., Charleston. Gist, Maggie, Yorkville. Laniel, W. V., Brunson. Lucas, Rosa, Parksville. Lynch, A. W., Johnson. Dinsraore, R. M., Aberdeen. Duncan, T. A., Mitchell. Ericson, Sylvia A., Elk Point. Ericson, E. C, Elk Point. Free, A. T., Yankton. Jones, John, Chamberlain. King, C. L., Milbank. King, Mrs. C. L., Milbank. Lovejoy, E. M., Aberdeen. Mauck, J. W., Vermilion Bailey, Miss L. B., Jackson. Boone, J. L., Hartsville. Boower, Mrs. Z. H., Nashville. Boyd, Miss C. I., Nashville. Boyd, S. B., Nashville. Boyer, M. R., Nashville. Brandon, Geo. W., Nashville. Bush, Maggie, Chattanooga. Charaplin, H., Nashville. Childers, J. S., Pulaski. Childers, Mrs. J. S., Pulaski. Crosthwait, Eliza, Nashville. Davis, Miss R., Knoxville. Dick, Nellie H., Knoxville. Duncan, Callie, Nashville, Garrett, W. R., Nashville. Goodman, Frank, Nashville. Goodrich, Mary, Nashville. Goodrich, Belle, Nashville. Grant, S. L., Chattanooga. Havnes, Manda, Nashville. Hubbard, G. W., Nashville. Huffaker, H. D., Chattanooga. Johnson, Mrs. J. W., Franklin. Jones, W. S., Memphis. Jones, Mrs. C. S., Memphis. Kerley, T. A., Nashville. Lanter, Mrs. Sarah, Chattanooga. Lanter, Katie, Chattanooga. Baldwin, Joseph, Austin. Boyd, Miss M. V., Pearsall. Chrisman, Oscar, Gonzales. Halsted, Geo., Austin. Lacefield, W. R., Waco. Tarbell, H. S., Providence. Wilson, W. E., Providence. — Rhode Island, S3. SOUTH CAROLINA. McCants, Fannie C, Columbia. McCaslan, Eliza, Laurens. Roach, Emma, Rock Hill. Rowell, P. E., Lexington. Rowell, Mrs. P. E., Lexington. Stonley, J. C, Columbia. Stonley, Mrs. E. D., Columbia. — South Carolina, I4. SOUTH DAKOTA. Noble, Dell, Mitchell. Shuckman, P., Charleston. Shuckman, Mrs. P., Charleston. Spencer, C. A. M., Bismarck. Stay, J. D., Yankton. Talcott, J. S., Elk Point. Talcott, Mrs. Susan, Elk Point. Talcott, Will C, Elk Point. Thomas, Mrs. Lizzie, Sioux Falls. Whipple, H. J., Sioux Falls. —South Dakota, 20. TENNESSEE. Lichtenwanger, Minnie, Knoxville. Lichtenwanger, Anna, Knoxville. Litton, Mattie, Nashville. Manning, P. H., Nashville. McCallie, J. H., Knoxville. McCallie, J. M., Knoxville. March, Mariana, Jackson. Monroe, W. T., Nashville. Muse, W. A., Rutherford. Odell, Mary, Knoxville. Payne, W. H., Nashville. Pryor, J. C, Nashville. Randle, Lulu, Nashville. Reynolds, Pauline, Nashville. Sneed, J. R., Nashville. Sneed, Mrs. J. R., Nashville. Sneed, Mrs. E. G., Brentwood. Sneed, Annie L., Nashville. Spurlock, Sara, Nashville. Sullivan, Irene, Tracy City. Swift, Mrs,, Knoxville. Tate, James A., Fayetteville. Turner, Frank, Nashville. Wagner, Miss G. A. , Chattanooga. White, W. T., Knox^^lle. Winstead, Walter, Nashville. Winstead, Mrs. Walter, Nashville. Wyatt, H. D., Chattanooga. — Tennessee, 67. TEXAS. ^ Lipscomb, Maude, Luling. Maney, Bessie, Pearsall. Pritchett, H. C, Huntsville. Robinson, Maud, Gonzales. Texas, 9. 838 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. UTAH. Angsburg. R., Salt Lake City. Barton, W. W., Salt Lake City- Brown, Antoinette, Salt Lake City. Chadwiek, Blanche, Salt Lake City. Malone, W. R., Salt Lake City. Marlatt, Abby L. , Logan. Millspaugh, J. F., Salt Lake City. Work, Frank B., Salt Lake City. — Utah, VERMONT. Baker, Henry S., Danby. Beard, Geo. P., St. Albans. Camp, Ellen, South Barre. Campbell, John, Barre. Carpenter, Maude, North Benningtoi Cleveland, Sinnie, Ludlow. Cleveland, Carrie, Ludlow. Davis, Chas. S., Bennington. Ferrin, A. C, Manchester. Fisk, Amy B., Montpelier. Fisk, Hattie C, Montpelier. Gordon, Minerva, Grand Isle. Hazen, Irwing A., Windsor. Kamp, Don, Barry. Kennedy, G. W., Fair Haven. Rogers, Anna, Bennington. Rogers, Helen O., Bennington. Sibley, M. Blanche, Bennington. Waldleigh, Edna, Berkshire. Wheeler, Mary L., Fairfax. White, Julia A., Bennington. — Vermont, Farmer, Minnie, News Terry. Barnard, F. J., Seattle. VIRGINIA. Smithdeal, G. M., Richmond. — Virginia, 2. WASHINGTON. WEST VIRGINIA. Anderson, B. S., Wheeling. Anderson, W. H., Wheeling. Bullerman, Bird, Charles town. Campbell, C. N., Charlestown. Campbell, Miss F. S., Wheeling. Chaplin, Amy, Wheeling. Frasher, J. M., Wheeling. Gibson, Mrs. Geo. H., Wheeling. Hamilton, Mrs. M. V., Wheeling. Hamilton, Miss L. D., Wheeling. Bailey, F. J,, Janesville. Bailey, Mrs. F, J., Janesville. Barrett, Carrie F. , Milwaukee. Benton, W. W., Galesville. Bonfoey, Jennie, Milwaukee. Bryan, Alexander, Milwaukee. Bushnell, Nellie, Warsaw. Case, L., Prairie Du Chien. Case, Laura, Prairie Du Chien. Chapin, Ellen F. , Beloit. Chapin, R. C, Beloit. Christie, Jessie, Milwaukee. Colman, Mrs. Henry, Milwaukee. Colman, Anna L., Milwaukee. Comstock, Mrs. J. T., Milwaukee. Comstock, Jessie, Milwaukee. Cooley, Frank W., Janesville. Cunningham, M. A., Dayton. Davis, Nancy M., Oshkosh. Dopp, Cora, Warsaw. Felker, L. M., Oshkosh. Graham, Robert, Oshkosh. Graham, Adda, Milwaukee. Matthews, Mrs. Geo., Wheeling. Matthews, Edith, Wheeling. McCurdy, Martha, Wheeling. Norton, Virginia, Wheeling. Ogden, H. N,, Morgantown. Prillerman, Byrd, Charleston. Schmiedt, Oscar, Bethany. Shriver, N., Wheeling. Tucker, Mac C, Parkersburg. Turner, E. M., Morgantown. — West Virginia, SO. WISCONSIN. Hanson, Mary, Beloit. Hardy, Albert, Lacrosse. Hoyt, Judson E., Menomonee. Hoyt, Mrs. J. E., Menomonee. Hughes, Jennie, Cambria. Humphrey, J. N., Whitewater. Humphrey, Mrs. J. N., Whitewater. Kaunhenner, Wm., Milwaukee Kratsch, Wm., Milwaukee. Lammers, H. C., Milwaukee. Littell, Anna H., Milwaukee. Lloyd, Anna C, Milwaukee. Maloney, Alice M., Milwaukee. Mapell, J. J., Milwaukee. Marvin, Jennie G., Oshkosh. Mayer, Chas., Oshkosh. Olcott, Miss A., Oshkosh. Ostrom, Henry, Milwaukee. Ostrom, Mrs. H., Milwaukee. Passmore, Wm., Milwaukee. Passmore, Jane B., Milwaukee. Pease, Lynn S., Janesville. Pennell,Miss E. J., Milwaukee. ANNUAL MEMBERSHIP. 839 WISCONSIN— Concluded. Pierce, Marion, Milwaukee. Pringle, Tom, Milwaukee. Pringle, Mrs. Tom, Milwaukee. Radford, Elizabeth, Oshkosh. Read, Harriet A. M., Lake. Geneva. Roberts, Wm. P., Evansville. Rogers, A. J., Milwaukee. Sabin, Alice A. , Windham. Sabin, Miss E. C, Fox Lake. Salisbury, Albert, Whitewater. Sarles, Deborah. Racine. Sechler, Grace, Sechlerville. Sho waiter, Clyde R., Plattsville. Ingersol, Belle, Laramie. Marquardt, W., Laramie. Slightam, Geo., Janesville. Slightam, Mrs. Henrietta, Janesville. Smith, Hattie E., Milwaukee, Spencer, R. C, Milwaukee. Swart, Rose C, Oshkosh. Terry, H. L., Lake Mills. Terry, D. C, Lake Mills. Travers, Lewis C, Two Rivers. Travers, Mrs, L. C., Two Rivers. Trowbridge, Mrs. H. E., Milwaukee. Van Tassel, Mrs. J. E., Milwaukee, Wells, O. E., Madison. Wright, Janette, Milwaukee. — Wisconsin, 72. WYOMING. Whiting, Mrs. B., Laramie. Whiting, Mary A., Laramie. Wyoming, 4. INDEX. IITDEX. PAGE Addresses of Gteneral Association, 37 Welcome, E. N. Cook, 39 J-. F. Crooker, . . '. 45 Melvil Dewey, . . 48 A. S. Draper, • . . . 39 J. W. Houghton, 44 E, N. Jones, 50 Aim of Art Instruction, . . - " . . . . 499 American Education, Ttie Organization of, • .... 217 Americanism in tjje Public Schools, 61 Anderson, W. H., Discussion, 205 Annual Membeiship, .. •. 809 Apperception, Round Table Conference on, 805 Art Department, Minutes, 477 P{iper§ and Addresses, 479 ^ President's Address, 479 Art Instruction, Aim, of, 499 in Normal Schools 482 Artistic Simplicity 6f Child Work, ' .... 279 Ashley, Supt.; Discussion, 116 Baldwin, Dr., Discussion, ^ 788, 799 Beggs, R..H., Discussion 151 Bellamy, Francis, Americanism in the Public Schools, 61 Bennett, Charles A., Manual Training from Kindergarten to High School, 449 Board of Directors, Defined, 2 Meetings of, • • » 3 Minutes of Meetings, 80 Powers of, 2 Board of Trustees, Annual Report of, 16 Defined, 2 Powers of, ... ' 3 Bonney, C. C, The World's Congresses of 1898 ' 166, 380 Boj'den, Mr., Discussion, . , 786 Bradley, John E., Influence of Manual Training on Habits of Thought, 663 Brett, W. H., Relations of the Public Library to the Public Schools, 692 Bringing Pupils further on in their Studies before they leave School, 645 Brooks. Edward, In Memoriam— Dr. John Wickersham, 598 Brown, Mr., Discussion, 801 Brown, Elmer E., The University in its Relation to the People, 398 Bryant, Wm. M., The Freedom of the Will, , 652 Business Education : Its Place in the American Curriculum, 461 Butler, Nicholas Murray, Place of Comenius in History of Education, 723 Discussion, 780 By-Laws, 4 Calendar of Meetings, 5 Calkins, N. A., Response to Addresses of Welcome, 53 Camp, Mr., Discussion, 786 Canfield, James H., Ethical Culture in the College and University, 108 Discussion, __: . . 780 Children, Literature for, % 154 Child Work, Artistic Simplicity of, 279 844 TEE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. PAGE Citizenship, Education and, 394 City Scliools, Promotions in, 802 Closing Exercises of General Association, 240 College and the University, Ethical Culture in the, 108 Collins, Frank H., President's Address, Art Department, 479 Comenius, John Amos, 703, 712, 723 Committee on Resolutions, Report of, 245 Pedagogical Research, Report of, .... 250 Congresses, The World's, of 1893, 166, 380 Congress, The World's Educational, Report on, 117 Constitution, 1 Control and Spontaneity, Harmony between, . . . . . 187 Cook, E. H., Address of Welcome to President Harrison, 39 Address at Closing Meeting, 240 Response to Addresses of Welcome, 50 Coordination of Normal School and University in the Training of Teachers, 411 Cosmic Suicide, '. 556 Council of Education, . , 745 Officers, 1892-93, 747 Members, 747 Honorary, 748 Standing Committees, 749 Secretary's Report, 751 Country Schools, Grading in, 793 Criminal, The School and the, 208 Crooker, J. F., Address of Welcome, 45 Current Events, Teaching, in School, .142 Curricula, Relation of Undergraduate to Postgraduate, 67 Day, L. W., In Memoriam— Thomas W. Harvey, 600 De Garmo, Charles, Coordination of Normal School and University in Training Teachers, . . 411 Discussion, 780, 785, 787 Denfield, R. E., Discipline in the High School, 341 Departments, Named, 1 Officers of 2 Dewey, Melvil, Address of Welcome, 48 Dickinson, Mr., Discussion, 784, 800 Directors, Board of. Defined, 2 Meetings, 3 Minutes of Meetings, 30 Powers of, 2 Directorship, Perpetual, 10 Directors, Life, 10 Discipline in the High School, 341 Dominion Educational Association, Greeting from, 54 Draper, A. S., Address of Welcome to President Harrison, 39 Duty of State in Relation to the Kindergarten, .174 Drawing, The Study of, as Common School Work, 495 Dunton, Larkin, Discussion, 764, 787 Duty of State in Relation to the Kindergarten, 174 Economic Causes of Modern Progress, 415 Education, American, Organization of, 217 and Citizenship, 394 as Affected by Manual Training, 439 of Children between Ages of Three and Six, 626 Educational Equipoise, 127 Exhibit at the World's Columbian Exposition, . . . . . . . 583 Systems at the World's Columbian Exposition, 161 Edwards, Walter A., Chief Aim in the Study of History, 348 Elementary and Secondary Schools, Ethical Culture in, 101 Elementary Department, Minutes of, 307 Papers, 309 President's Address, 309 Elementary Education, History in, 310 INDEX. 845 PAGE Elementary Education, History in, Discussion, 316 Natural Sciences in, 323 Discussion, 331 Report of Committee on, 766 Uses of Literature in, 766 Elementary Schools, Moral Training in, 317 Eliot, Charles W., Shortening and Enriching the Grammar School Course, 617 Desirable and Undesirable Uniformity in Schools, 82 Equipoise, Educational, 127 Ethical Culture in the Kindergarten, 96 in Elementary and Secondary Schools, 101 in the College and University, 108 Events, Teaching Current, in School, 142 Exercises, Closing, of General Association, 29 Financial Reports, ...,"... 15 Fischer, H. A., Discussion, 115 Fisher, Miss Laura, Symbolic Education in the " Mutter und Kose Lieder," 260 Fitzpatrick, Frank A., Education of Children under School Age, 626 Frink, Henry AUyn, Rhetoric and Public Speaking in the American College, 883 Fullerton, Professor, How do Concepts Arise from Percepts, 545 Gantvoort, A. J., Music in the Public Schools, 524 Garrett, W. R., Response to Addresses of Welcome, 51 Diijcussion, 801 General Association, Addresses and Papers of, 37 Giddings, Miss, Influence of Expression on Thought, 298 Glover, N. L., Presidents Address, Music Department, 514 Gove, Aaron, The Study of Drawing as Common School Work, 495 Discussion, 636 Grading in Country Schools, 793 Grammar Grades, History and Literature in, 606 School Course, Shortening and Enriching the, 617 Greenwood, J. M., Response to Addresses of Welcome, 51 Discussion, 785,800 Hailmann, Mrs. E. L., Professional Training of Teachers, 272 Hall, G. Stanley, Health of Children as Affected by School Buildings, 682 Halloway, J. L., Interests of Secondary Schools at World's Fair 353 Hardy, George E., Literature for Children, 154 Hark, J. M., Private Life and Personal Characteristics of Comenius, 703 Harmony between Control and Spontaneity, 187 Harris, William T., Response to Addresses of Welcome, 54 Twenty Years' Progress in Education, 56 The World's Educational Congress, 591 Discussion, 785,799 Harrison, Hon. Benjamin, Address, 41 Harrison, Miss Elizabeth, Discussion, 640 Haven, Caroline T., Relation of Kindergarten to Manual Training 443 Hayden, Philip C. , Music in Public Education, 530 Health of Children as Affected by School Buildings, 682 Herbartian Pedagogy, Value of, for Normal Schools, 421 Higher Education, Department of, Minutes, 377 Papers and Addresses, 380 High School, Discipline in the, 341 Extension or Supplementary Work, 355 Hill, Chas. W., Bringing Pupils further on in their Studies before they leave School, ... 645 History and Literature in Grammar Grades, 606 Chief Aim in Study of, 348 in Elementary Education, 310 of Education, Place of Comenius in, 723 Hofer, Amalie, The Artistic Simplicity of Child Work, 279 Hoffman, Paul, Manual Training in New York City Scho<^, 471 Houghton, J. W., Address of Welcome, 44 How do Concepts Arise from Percepts, 545 Hughes, James L., Harmony between Control and Spontaneity, 187 846 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. PAGE Hughes, Mrs. J. L., Presidenfs Address, Kindergarten Department, 258 Hyde, William De Witt, Organization of American Education, 217 Inch, Hon. Dr., Greeting from Dominion Educational Association, 54 Individualization by Grouping 309 Influence of Expression on Thought, 298 In Memoriam— Dr. John Wickersham, 598 Thomas W. Harvey, 600 John Hancock, 602 Jepson, B., Methods and Devices in Teaching Public School Music, ....... 537 Jesse, Richard H., University Education, 120 Jones, E. N., Address of Welcome, 5o Jones, L. H., The School and the Criminal, 208 Kellogg, Brainerd, Usage the Authority in Language, ... - 357 Kiehle, Mr., Discussion, 801 Kindergarten Department, Minutes, 253 Papers and Addresses, 258 President's Address, ^ 258 Kindergarten, Duty of the State in Relation to the, 174 Ethical Culture in the, 96 Practical Psychology in, . . . .- 285 Relation to Manual Training, 443 Lane, Albert G., Address at Closing Meeting of General Association, 340 Educational Systems at World's Exposition, ........ 161 Language, Usage the Authority in 357 Larimer, H. G., Discussion, 215 Latin, Teaching, in Secondary Schools, Conference on, 373 Leipziger, Henry M., Education as Affected by Manual Training, 439 Leiter, Mrs. Frances W., Educational Equipoise, 127 Literature for Children, 154 for Teachers, 157 and History in Grammar Grades, 606 Uses in Elementary Education, 766, 804 Mabie, H. W., Literature for Teachers, 157 MacDonald, John, Discussion, ... - 582 Mackenzie, Constance, Practical Psychology in the Kindergarten, , . 285 Manual Training, 672 Department of. Minutes, 437 Papers, 439 Education as Affected by 439 From Kindergarten to High School, 449 Influence of, on Habits of Thought, 663 in New York City Schools, 471 Relation of Kindergarten to, .443 Marble, A. P., Discussion, . * 217, 690 Maxwell, Wm. H., Text Books of Comenius, 712 McMurray, Frank, Value of Herbartian Pedagogy for Normal Schools, 421 Membership, lO Life, . 11 Annual, 809 Methods and Devices in Teaching Public School Music, 537 Minutes of General Association, Official, 19 Mnemonic Systems, Relation of, to Cultivation of Power of Thought, 789 Moral Education, '''59 Training in Elementary Schools, 317 Virtues, Practical Culture of, 759 Morris, Miss, Discussion, 153 Morris, R. Anna, Physical Education in Our Schools, 366 Mn*ic Department, Minutes, 509 Papers and Addresses, 514 Presidenfs Address, 514 Mnsic as a Means of Discipline and Culture, 515 in the Public Schools, 524 in Public Education, 530 INDEX. 847 Music in Public School, Methods and Devices in Teaching, " Mutter und Kose Lieder," Symbolic Education in, Natural Sciences in Elementary Education, Newell, M. A., History in Elementary Education, . PAGE 537 323 310 New York City Schools, Manual Training in, 471 Nonnal Department, Minutes, 409 Papers, 411 Normal Education, 781 Schools, Art Instruction in, 482 Relation to other Institutions of Learning, 781 Officers for 1891-92 6,7 1893-94, 8,9 Organization of American Education, . ' 217 Packard, S. S., Business Education, Its Place in the American Curriculum, 461 Patten, Professor, Economic Causes of Modern Progress, 415 Peabody, Selim H., The Educational Exhibit of the World's Fair, .... . . 583 Pedagogical Research, Report of Committee on, 250 Work in Universities, 772 Pepper, William, Relation of Undergraduate to Postgraduate Curricula, 67 Percepts, How do Concepts Arise from, 545 Perry, Elizabeth H., Art Instruction in Normal Schools, 482 Phillips, J. H., History and Literature in Grammar Grades, 606 Philosophy, Round Tahle Conferences on, 543 Physical Culture, Scientific Value of 230 Education in our Schools, 366 Discussion, 372 Pick, Dr. E., Discussion, 791 Place of Business Education in American Curriculum, . . 461 Plummer, Frank E., President's Address, Secondary Department, 338 High School Extension, 355 Poland, A. B., Scientific Value of Physical Culture, 230 Poulsson, Emilie, Songs, Morning Talks, and Stories, 292 Powell, W. B., Manual Training, . , 672 Presbrey, O. F., Discussion, Preston, J. R., Discussion, Problem, The Rural School, Professional Training of Teachers, Progress in Education, Twenty Years', Promotions in City Schools, Psychological Inquiry, Report of Committee on, Psychology, Practical, in the Kindergarten, Public Library, Relations of the, to the Public Schools, .... School System : To What Extent Can it be Improved by Legislation Pulsifer, W. E., Discussion, Raab, Henry, The Rural School Problem, Raymond, President, Education and Citizenship, Relation of Undergraduate to Postgraduate Curricula, Relations of Public Library to Public Schools, Resolutions, Report of Committee on, Responses to Addresses of Welcome, N. A. Calkins, E. H. Cook, W. R. Garrett, J. M. Greenwood, .... W. T. Harris, Rt W. Stevenson, Rhetoric and Public Speaking in the American College, Richards, ^.,J)i8<»iv6>oD, ^v •.«•♦. J ;" '♦•,'*••• 1 ..J ^ai^ TYaiiricg fn l^eraenti*V'Sch»clsi; •., ^ • •• Ifemarte, •.''•*'?'•'. '. - Rounds. C. C, Discussion, »••.»•,. ^\ . •••.% •'• Round Table Conferences «n^Pl\i^>joll?V« **"•■ '• • Rural School Problem, J5he^ ••*. • '.*?'!'. Sabln, Supt., Discussion, 149 206 571 272 56 198 519 571 394 67 117, 787, 800 317 788 543 571 640,800 848 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. » PAGE ScliaeflEer, N. C, Discussion, 734^ 787 School Statistics, 739 School, The, and the Crimmal, 208 Scientific Value of Physical Culture, . 230 Seaver, Supt., Discussion, 638 Secondary Department, Minutes, 335 Papers and Addresses, 338 President's Address, 338 Secondary Schools, Interests of, at World's Fair, 353 Sheldon, W. E., In Memoriam— John Hancock, 602 Shepard, Irwin, Ethical Culture in the Kindergarten, 96 Shinn, J. H., Discussion, 658 Shortening and Enriching the Grammar School Course, 617 Sloyd as an Educational Subject, 455 Songs, Morning Talks, and Stories, 292 Spontaneity and Control, Harmony between, 187 State, in Relation to the Kindergarten, Duty of, 174 School Systems, Report of Committee on, 7§3 Statistics, School, Report on, 729 Sterrett, Professor, Cosmic Suicide, . 566 Stevenson, R. W., Response to Addresses of Welcome, 52 Study of Drawing as Common School Work, The, 495 Sullivan, Christine, The Aim of Art Instruction, 499 Superintendence, Department of. Minutes, 561 Papers and Discussions, 571 Symbolic Education in " Mutter und Kose Lieder," 260 Teachers, Literature for, 157 Professional Training of, 272 Thought, Influence of Expres=sion on, 298 Influence of Manual Training on Habits of, 663 Training of Teachers, Coordination of Normal School and Universiry in the, 411 Treasurer, Summary of Report for 1892, 18 Trustees, Board of, Sixth Annual Report, 16 Trybom, J. H., Sloyd as an Educational Subject, 455 Tutwiler, Miss Julia S., President's Address, Elementary Department, 309 Uniformity in Schools, Desirable and Undesirable, 82 University Education, 120 Ethical Culture in the, 108 The, in its Relation to the People, 398 Usage the Authority in Language, 357 Uses of Literature in Elementary Education, 766,804 Vaile, E. O., Teaching Current Events in School, 142 Discussion, 154 Value of Herbartian Pedagogy for Normal Schools, 421 Music as a Means of Discipline and Culture, 515 Waller, D. J., Jr., Discussion, 204 Walton, George A., Grading in Country Schools, 793 Wells, O. E., Discussion, 578 White, E. E., Discussion on Ethical Culture, 114 Discussion, 800 Will, The Freedom of the, Does it Concern Spontaneity or Choice ? 552 Williams, Mrs. D. L., Ethical Culture in Elementary and Secondary Schools, 101 Williams, S. G., Natural Sciences in Elementary Education, 323 Disciission, '*^ Wolfe, L. E., To What Extent can School Systems be Improved by Legislation ? .... 198 World's Congresses of 1893, . . .,„,.. 166, 380 Educational Congress, . . 1 '^ ^'*, ;• ^^^ Report on,r -^^ L ,, ^»' ;• ^^^ Exposition, Educational Systems at the, •' * • • ^^^ Young, George C, Value of Music as a Means of DisclpliteaJidCultiire,'. 515 I /■ L National Education Association 13 of the United States N3A13 Addresses and pro- 1892 ceedings... PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE CARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET