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About Google Book Search Google's mission is to organize the world's information and to make it universally accessible and useful. Google Book Search helps readers discover the world's books while helping authors and publishers reach new audiences. You can search through the full text of this book on the web at|http : //books . google . com/ HARVARD UNIVERSITY LIBRARY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION 1 x\ATI02fAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Journal of Proceedings, ADDRESSES. SESSION OF THE YEAR 1890, SAINT PAUL, MINNESOTA. PUBLISHED BY THE ASSOCIATION. TOPEKA. X4H8A8 POBLISRIHO HOU8B : OLIFFOBD O. BAKBB. 1890. Ji'N 29 1891 /-/3 ^j^0yi^TE SCHOOL Of »UCAT»K CONTENTS. CONBTITUTAON AND ACT 07 InGOBPOBATION, ...... 5 Cai^xndab or Mkktinob, .......... 9 Oftioxbs ¥0B 1889-90, 10 Opfiobbs fob 1890-91, 12 LiFB DiBXGTOBS, ........... 14 LiFS Mbmbbbs, ........... 15 MlMtnSB, OFTIOIAIi RbFOBTS, AMD RSPOBTS OF COMMITTBEB, ... 21 Addbksses, Papkbs, and DiacuasiOMB: General Sessions of the Association, ....... 76 Connoil, 289 Superintendence, .......... 867 Kindergarten, ........... 645 fUementary, 586 Secondary, ........... 615 Higher, 659 Normal, ............ 717 Industrial, and Manual Training, ....... 769 Art, 789 Mnsic, ............ 811 Elementary, Industrial, and Manual Training (joint session), . 827 List of Anmxtal Membxbs, 869 CONSTITUTION National Educational Association. PREAMBLE. To elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession of teaching, and to promote the cause of popular education in the United States, we, whose names are subjoined, agree to adopt the following C0N8TITUTI0X. ARTICLE I.- -NAME. This Association shall be styled the National Educational Association. ARTICLE II. DEPARTMENTS. Sbctiom 1. It shall consist of nine departments: The first, of School Superin- tendence; the second, of Normal Schools; the third, of Elementary Schools; the fourth, of Higher Instruction; the fifth, of Industrial Education; the sixth, of Art Education; the seventh, of Kindergarten Instruction; the eighth, of Music Educa- tion; the ninth, of Secondary Education; and a National Council of Education. Sec. 2. Other departments may be organized in the* manner prescribed in this Constitution. ARTICLE III.—MEMBERSHIP. SxGTiON 1. Any person in any way connected with the work of education, or any educational association, shall be eligible to membership. Such person or associa- tion may become a member of this Association by paying two dollars and signing this Constitution, and may continue a member by the payment of an annual fee of two dollars. On neglect to pay such fee, the membership will cease. Sec. 2. Each department may prescribe its own conditions of membership, pro- vided that no person be admitted to such membership who is not a member of the general Association. Sec. 3. Any person eligible to membership may become a life-member by paying at once twenty dollars. ARTICLE IV.— OFFICERS. Section 1. The officers of this Association shall be a President, twelve Vice-Pres- idents, a Secretary, a Treasurer, one Director for each State. District or Territory represented in the Association, and the presiding officers of the several departments THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, and a Board of Trustees to be constituted as hereinafter provided. Any friend of education may become a life-director by the donation of one hundred dollars to the Association at one time, either by himself or on his behalf; and any educational association may secure a perpetual directorship by a like donation of one hundred dollars, the director to be appointed annually or for life. Whenever a life-member desires to become a life-director, he shall be credited with the amount he has paid for his life-membership. Sec. 2. The President, Vice-Presidents, Secretary, Treasurer, Directors, Life- Directors, President of the Council, and presiding officers of their respective de- partments shall constitute the Board of Directors, and, as such, shall have power to appoint such committees from their own number as they shall deem expedient. Seo. 3. The elective officers of the Association shall be chosen by ballot, unless otherwise ordered, on the second day of each annual session, a majority of the votes cast being necessary for a choice. They shall continue in office until the close of the annual session subsequent to their election, and until their successors are chosen, except as hereinafter provided. Seo. 4. Each department shall be administered by a President, Vice-President, Secretary, and such other officers as it shall deem necessary to conduct its affairs ; but no person shall be elected to any office of any department, or of the Association, who is not, at the time of the election, a member of the Association. Seg. 5. The President shall preside at all meetings of the Association and of the Board of Directors, and shall perform the duties usually devolving upon a presiding officer. In his absence, the first Vice-President in order who is present shall preside; and in the absence of all Vice-Presidents, a jrro tempore chairman shall be appointed on nomination, the Secretary putting the question. Sec. 6. The Secretary shall keep a full and accurate report of the proceedings of the general meetings of the Association and all meetings of the Board of Directors, and shall conduct such correspondence as the Directors may assign, and shall have his records present at all meetings of the Association and of the Board of Directors. The Secretary of each department shall, in addition to performing the duties usually pertaining to his office, keep a list of the members of his department. Seo. 7. The Treasurer shall receive and under the direction of the Board of Trus- tees hold in safe keeping all moneys paid to the Association; shall expend the same only upon the order of said Board; shall keep an exact account of his receipts and expenditures, with vouchers for the latter, which accounts, ending the first day of July each year, he shall render to the Board of Trustees, and, when approved by said Board, he shall report the same to the Board of Directors. The Treasurer shall give such bond for the faithful discharge of his duties as may be required by the Board of Trustees; and he shall continue in office until the first meeting of the Board of Directors held prior to the annual meeting of the Association next suc- ceeding that for which he is elected. Sec. 8. The Board of Directors shall have power to fill all vacancies in their own body: shall have in charge the general interests of the Association, excepting those herein intrusted to the Board of Trustees; shall make all necessary arrangements for its meetings, and shall do all in its power to make it a useful and honorable in- stitution. Upon the written application of twenty members of the Association for permission to establish a new department, they may grant such permission. Such new department shall in all respects be entitled to the same rights and privileges as the others. The formation of such department shall in effect be a sufficient amend- ment to this Constitution for the insertion of its name in Article II, and the Secre- tary shall make the necessary alterations. Seo. 9. The Board of Trustees shall consist of four members, elected by the CONSTITUTIOy, Board of Directors for a term of four years, and the President of the Association, who shall be a member ex officio daring his term of office. At the election of the Trustees in 1886, one Trustee shall be elected for one year, one for two years, one for three years, and one for four years, and annually thereafter, at the first meeting of the Board of Directors held prior to-the annual meeting of the Association, one Trnstee shall be elected for the term of four years. All vacancies occurring in said Board of Trustees, whether by resignation or otherwise, shall be filled by the Board of Directors for the unexpired term; and the absence of a Trustee from two con- it ecntlTc annual meetings of the Board shall forfeit his membership therein. The Board of Trustees thus elected and constituted shall be the executive financial officers of this Association, as a body corporate, as conferred by the certificate of incorpo- ration under the provisions of the Act of General Incorporation, Class Third, of the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia, dated the twenty-fourth day of Feb- ruary, 1886, at Washington, D. C, and recorded in Liber No. 4, "Acts of Incorpora- tion for the District of Columbia." Skc. 10. It shall be the duty of the Board of Trustees to provide for safe keep- ing and investment of all funds which the Association may receive from life-direct- orships, or from donations; and the income of such invested funds shall be used exclusively in paying the cost of publishing the annual volume of Proceedings of the Association, excepting when donors shall specify otherwise. It shall also be the duty of the Board to issue orders on the Treasurer for the payment of all bills ap- proved by the Board of Directors, or by the President and Secretary of the Associ- ation acting under the authority of the Board of Directors; and, when practicable, the Trustees shall invest all surplus funds exceeding one hundred dollars, that may remain in the hands of the Treasurer after paying the expenses of the Association for the previous year. ARTICLE v.— MEETINGS. Skctiom 1. The Annual Meeting of the Association shall be held at such time and place as shall be determined by the Board of Directors. Seo. 2. Special meetings may be called by the President at the request of five Directors. Sec. 3. Any department of the Association may hold a special meeting at such time and place as by its own regulations it shall appoint. • Sec. 4. The Board of Directors shall hold their regular meetings at the place, and not less than two hours before the assembling of the Association. Sec. 5. Special meetings may be held at such other times and places as the Board or the President shall determine. Sec. 6. Each new Board shall organize at the session of its election. At its first meeting a Committee on Publication shall be appointed, which shall consist of the President and the Secretary of the Association for the previous year, and one mem- ber from each department. ARTICLE VI.— BY-LAWS. By-laws, not inconsistent with this Constitution, may be adopted by a two-thirds vote of the Association. ARTICLE VII.— AMENDMENTS. This Constitution may be altered or amended at a regular meeting by the unan- imous vote of the members present, or by a two-thirds vote of the members present, provided that the alteration or amendment has been substantially proposed in writ- ing at a previous meeting. THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. BY-LAWS. 1. At each regnlar meeting of the Association there shall be appointed a Com- mittee on Nominations, one on Honorary Members, and one on Resolutions. 2. The President and Secretary shall certify to the Biiard of Trustees all bills approved by the Board of Directors. 8. Each paying member of the Association shall be entitled to a copy of its Proceedings. 4. No paper, lecture, or address shall be read before the Association or any of its departments in the absence of its author, nor shall any such paper, lecture or Address, be published in the volume of Proceedings without the consent of the Asso- ciation, upon approval of the Executive Committee. 5. It shall be the duty of the President, Secretary and Treasurer of the Associa- tion, to appoint annually some competent person to examine the securities of the permanent fund held by the Board of Trustees, and his certificate showing the condition of the said fund shall be attached to the report of the Board of Trustees. ACT OF INCORPORATION. At a meeting of the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association, held at Saratoga Springs, New York, July 14, 1885, the fol- lowing resolution was passed: Resolved^ That a committee of three be appointed to secure articles of incorpo- ration for the National Educational Association, under United States or State laws, as speedily as may be. N. A. Calkins, of New York, Thomas W. Bicknell, of Massachusetts, and Eli T. Tappan, of Ohio, were appointed such committee. Under the authority of the resolution quoted above, and with the approval of the committee, and by competent legal advice, the chairman obtained a CERTIFICATE OF INCORPORATION. We, the undersigned, Norman A. Calkins, John Eaton, and Zalmon Richards, cit- izens of the United States, and two of them citizens of the District of Columbia, do hereby associate ourselves together, pursuant to the provisions of the Act of General Incorporation, Class Third, of the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia, under the name of the National Educational Association^ for the full period of twenty years, the purpose and objects of which are to elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession of teaching, and to promote the cause of popular edu- cation in the United States. . . . To secure the full benefit of said act, we do here execute this our Certificate of Incorporation as said act provides. In witness whereof, we severally set our hands and seals, this 24th day of Febru- ary, 1886, at Washington, D. C. Nobman A. Calkins, [l. s.] John Eaton. [l. b. ] ZAIiMON RiCHABDB. [l. R.] Duly acknowledged before Michael P. Callan, notary public in and for the District of Columbia, and recorded in Liber No. 4, Acts of Incorporation for the District of Columbia. CALENDAR OF MEETINGS. NATIONAL TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION, 1857 —PHILADELPHIA, PA. \ Organised. ) Jaiom L. Enok, Chairman. W. E. SHKLDozr, Secretary. 185a.— CINCINNATI, OHIO. Z. RicHAiu>«, Pre«)ident. J. W, Bmjci^T, Secretary. A. J. RxcKorr, Treasurer. 1859.— WASHINGTON, D. C. A. J. BiCKorr, President. J. W. BvucLXT, Secretary. C. S. Pxxnrxu^, Trea8urer. 1S60.~BUFFAIX), N. Y. J. W. B1JI.KIJET, President. Z. RicHABDa, Secretary. O. C. Wight, Treasurer. 1861, 1862.— No «ie{«f(lon. i863.-<:hicago, ill. John D. PHII3BXCK, President. Jamks Cbitrmhamk. Secretary. O. C. Wight, Treasurer. 1S64.— OGDENSBITRQ, N. Y. W. H. WixuB, President. DAvrD N. Camp, Secretary. Z. BicHAiu>a, Trea-turer. t 18».-HABRI8BURa, PA, S. S. Ohxsnx, President. W. E. SHXX.DON. Secretary. Z. RicHABDS, Treaiturer. I I860.— INDIANAPOLIS, IND. 1 J. P. WicKKBKHAM, PreHident. S. H. Whtts, Secretary. 8. P. Batb8, Treasurer. 1867. — No iie<««».- -ST. LOtriS, MO. J. L. PicKABU, President. W. E. CBOdBY, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. -BOSTON, MASS. E. E. White, President. S. H. White, Secretary. John Hancock, Trejisurer. -ELMIRA. N. Y. B. G. Nobthrop, Pre*ildent. S. H. White, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. -DETROIT, MICH. S. H. White, President. A. P. Marble. Secretiiry. John Hancock, Treasurer. -MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. W. T. HiRRis, President. W. It. Abbott, Secretary. A. P. Marble, Treasurer. -BALTIMORE, MD. W. F. Phelps, P^sident. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. A. P. Marble, Treasurer. -LOnSVILLE, KY. M. A. Newell, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. J. Obmond Wilson, Trea«»iirer. -No session. -PH1L.VDELPHIA, PA. John Hancock, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. J. Obmond Wilson, Treasurer. -CHAUTAUQUA, N. Y. J. Obmond Wilson, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. E. T. Tappan, Treasurer. 1881.— ATLANTA, GA. James H. Sm\rt, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. E. T. Tappan, Treasurer. 1882.- SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. G. J. Obr, President. W. E. Sheldon, Swretary. H. S. Tabbell, Treasurer. 1883.— SARATOCJA SPRINGS. N. Y. E. T. Tappan, Prescient. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. N. A. Calkins. Treasurer. 1884.— MADISON, ^ns. TiiuMis W. Bicknell, President. H. S. Tarbell, Secretary. N. A. Calkins, Trea-^urer. 1HH5. -SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. F. Lons SoLi>AN. Prc-ldent. W. K. Shi:li>()n. Secretary. N. A. Calkins, Trea>urer. 1886. - TOPEKA. KAS. N. A. Calkins. Presis Secretary 1301 Corcoran street, Washington, D; C. H. S. Tabbbll Providence, R, I Term expires July, 1893. Zalmon Rich abds Washington, D. C ** ^' " 1892. John Eaton Marietta, Ohio " '* " 1891. N. A. Calkins NewYork " " " 1890. Jaueb H. Canfield Lawrence, Kas Er officio. Board of Directors. Baldwin, Joseph, Huntsvllle, Texas. Babtinr, D. W., Teachers' Institute, Phlla., Pa, Babtholomxw, W. H., Louisville, Kentucky. Beabdsheab, W. M., Des Moines, Iowa. Bell, W. A., Indianapolis, Indiana. Blosh, J. M.. Topeka, Kansas. Bbown, Le Rot D., Reno, Nevada. Bbown, Jesse H., Indlanai>olis, Indiana. Canfieu), J. H., Lawrence, Kansas. Ghambebs, H. E., New Orleans, Louisiana. Chitbchill, J. O., Cheyenne, Wyoming. Claxton, p. p., AsheviUe, North Carolina. CoLTMAN, R. W., New Mexico. Cook, E. H., New Brunswick, New Jersey. Davidson, C. C, Alliance, Ohio. Davidson, J. C, Helena, Arkansas. Day, L. W., Cleveland, Ohio. DouGHEBTY, N. C, Peorla, Illinois. Dbafeb, a. S., Albany, New York. DuTTON, Bettik A., Cleveland, Ohio. DuTTON, S. T., New Haven, Connecticut. Faibchild, Oeoboe T., Manhattan, Kansas. Fox, W. F., Richmond, Virginia. FuTBALL, T. A., Marlanna, Arkansas. Oabbett, W. R.. Nashville, Tennessee. Gault, F. B.. Tacoma, Washington. Goodman, Fbank, Nashville, Tennessee. Gove, Aabon, Denver, Colorado. Gbat, T. J., St. Cloud, Minnesota. Gbesnwood, J. M., Kansas City, Mlssn. M. C. Febnald, Maine. Solomon Palmxb, Alabama. N. Board of Trustees. A. Calkins Chairman 134 Ea«t Elffhtieth street. New York. Zalmon Richabds Secretary. . N. A. Calkins New York H. S. Tabbell Providence, R. I Zalmon Riohabdh Washington, D. C. . . John Eaton Marietta, Ohio W. R. Gabbett Na«ihville, Tenn 1301 Corcoran street, Washington, D. C. Term expires July, 1804. '* 1893. " " " 1H92. *' " " 1891. Ex officio. " The Board of Trustees shall be the executive financial officers of this Association, as a body cor- porate."—^irf. /V, sees. 9 and 10^ of the Con»titutiofi. Board of Directors.* Albee, Geo. S., OshkoHh, Wiscfjnsin. Allenswobth, Allen, Fort Bayartl, Now Mexico. Andebson. W. H., Wheeling, West Virginia. Bakeb, J. H., Denver, Coloradf>. Beadle, W. H. H., Miullson, South Dakota. Beabdsheab, W. M., Des Moines, Iowa. Bell. W. A., Indianapolis, Indiana. Bingham, Robebt, Bingham P. O., North Carolina. Brown, Lkroy D., Los Angeles, California. Buchanan, John T., Kansas City, Missouri. Campbell, A. H., Vermoni. Caniteld, J. H.. Lawrence, Kan>«as. (*abteb, Hannah Johnson, New York city. Cbandlkb, J. W., Jordan, Now York. Clemmeb, C. II., Grand Fork»«, North Dakota. Cook, E. H., New Brunswick, New Jersey. Cox, EwwiN B., Chill lc<»the, Ohio. Coboeby, Dkbou'^h L., Philadelphia, Pa. Day, L. W.. Cleveland, Ohio. Dick, F.. Denver. Colorado. Douohebty, N. C, Peoria, Illinois. Downing, A. S., Newark, New Jersey. Drapeb, a. S., Albany, New York. Fairchtld, G. T., Toi>eka, Kansas. Febnald, M. T., Orono. Maine. FiTTBALL, T. A.. Martanna, Arkansas. Gabbett, W. R., Na'*hviUe, Tennessee. Gault, F. B., Tacoma, Wsishlngton. Goodman, F,. Nashville, Tennessee. Goodwin, A. ('., Owenslniro, Kentucky. Gove, Aabon, Denver. Colorado. Gbeenwood, J. M.. KansiVH City, Missouri. Griggs, U., Denver, Colorado. Hailmann. EvDr)RA L., La Porte, Indiana. Hall, Caleb G.. Now Berlin, New York. Hatch, W. H., Mollne, Illinois. Hinsdale, B. A., Ann Arlwr, Michigan. Hoitt, Iba G., Sacramento, California. Hornbergeb, G. A., Norfolk, Nebraska. HrNT. Maby H., Hyde Park, Massachusetts. Hubd, Gkoboe B., New Haven, Connecticut. Jewett, a. v., Abilene, Kansas. Jones, H. S., Erie, Penney ivania. Kendall, C. N., ELast Ssiginaw, Mlchigiin. Kebn. T. L., Lake City, Rorida. Kbatz, H. B., Vermillion. South Dakota. Larimbb, H. G., Topeka, Kansas. McElboy, E. B., Salem, Oregon. Marshall, T. Marcelluh, Chimlta, New Mexico. Mills, J. J., Richmond, Indiana. Newell, M. A., Baltimore, Maryland. Nicholson. Maby E., Indianajjolis, Indiana. Palmeb, S., Montg<»raery, Alabiima. Pabker. Chas. L., South Chicago, Illinois. Pabr, S. S., St. Cloud, Mlnneswn, Pennsylvania. Sheldon, W. E., Boston, Massachusetts. Smith, E. B., La Grange, Ge<»rgia. Stanford, Leland, San Francisco. California. Stratton, C. C, Mills Seminary, California. Sutton, W. S., Houston, Texas. Taylor, A. R., Emporia. Kansas. Thomas, A. M.. Houlton, Maine. Thompson, W. E., Little Rock. Arkan-as. Walkkr, Peleg R., Rockford, Illinois. Willi IMS, Delia L., I)r»laware, Ohio. Wiij^oN, W. E., Providence. Rhode Island. Wolfe, L. E., Moberly, Missouri. Wooftkr, T. J., West Point, Mississippi. ' "The President, Vlce-Presl«lent'*, Secretiiry, Trt^asurer, Director'*. Life-Directors, President »»f the Coxincil, and the presiding officers of the resi>ective departments, shall constitute the Board of Direct- ors."'—.irf. IV, Sec. S, uf the Conntitution. ll2» 0FFICEB8 OF THE ASSOCIATION. 13 NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION. *iELIM H. PEABODY President GEORGE HOWLAND Vice-PreHd^nt . D. L. KTEHLE Secretary Champaiffn, 111. Chicago, lU. St. Paul, Minn. DEPARTMENT OFFICERS. Kindererarten. EI7DORA L. HAILMANN President LUCY J. WHEZLOCK Vice-President . EHZA BLAKEB. Secretary Elementary- H. S. JONES President JITJA TTT^ITLER Vice-President . . ELLEN F. WHEATON Secretary Secondary. F. E, PLUMMER President S. W. LANDOX Vice-President . W. T- WHITE Secretary La Porte, Ind. Boston, Mai*fi. IndlanapolU, Ind. Erie, Ptt. LlYinKt^ton, Ala. St. Paul, Minn. De« Molne»«, Iowa. BurllnKton, Vt. KnoxvUle, Tenn. Hi«rber. J. J. MILLS Presitlent E. B. ANDREWS Vice-Pregident . C. A. BLANCUARD Secretary Richmond, Ind. Prrjvldence, R. I. Wheaton, III. Normal. B. A. HINSDALE President G. L. OSBORNE Vice-President . IS.VBELLA LAWRENCE Secretary Superintendence. Ann Arbor, Mich. , Mo. , Minn. A. S. DRAPER Presuient Albany, N. Y. J. A. B. LOVETT Fir»t Vue-PrtitUlent UuntHvUle, Ala. E. B. Mcelroy Sectmd Vk'e-PrtsUlent Sjilem, Ore. L. W. DAY Secretary Cleveland. Ohio. InduHtrial Education and Manual Trainlngr. lewis McLOUTH PrcsUirnt BrookInK>'. S. D. WILLIAM SAYRE Vii-t'-PrtsUlcnt Phlhult'lphiJi, Pa. GEORGE S. MILLS Secretary Toknlo, Ohio. Art. HANNAH JOHNSON CARTER PresMvnt New York, N. Y. LILIAN JACOBY Vice-President Rwkford, 111. FRANK H. COLLINS Seeretary Denver, Colo. Music. HERBERT GRIOOS Presiifent Denver, Colo. N. L. GLOVER Vice-President Akron, Ohio. F. E. MORSE Secretary Aubunulale, Ma.ss. NoTi.— Information relating to the volurae** «»f Proceeding of thlf AHHoclatlon for previous years may be obtained by addresning the Chairman or the Secretary « »f the B»>ar(l of Trur^tees. The Cii-todian, appriinted by the Board of TrunteetJ for the aire of the several volumes of Proceedings of the Association, Hi* well a« of the Council of Education, 1h Zalmon Klcharchj, 1301 Corcoran street, Wiu. Merrill, chairman of the T»cal Executive Conmiittee, The divine blessing was invoked by Rev. W. I>. Dawloy, of the Ninth Pre«byterian Church, Saint Paul. Addresses of welcome were delivered by the (iovenior of Minnesota, Hon. W. R. Merriam, on behalf of the State : by the State Su|)erintendent of Pub- lic Instruction, Hon. D. L. Kiehle, on behalf of the teachers of the State: by the President of the Council of St. Paul, Hon. O. O. Cullen, on behalf of the city: by President CyriLs Northrop, University of Minnesota; President Irwin Hhepard, State Normal School; Prof. L. C. Lord, President of the State Teachers' Association ; President J. W. Strong, Carleton College, on behalf of the educational interests of the State : and by Hon. D. D. Merrill, on be- half of the Local Executive Committee. Responses were made by the President, the Secretary, and the Treasurer, on behalf of the Association ; by Hon. Wm. T. Harris, United States Commis- sioner of Education, on behalf of the Union ; by Hon. E. B. McElroy, State Superintendent of Oregon, for the Pacific Coast ; by President F. Louis Sol- dan, St. Louis Normal and High School, for the Mississippi and Missouri val- leys ; by Mr. C. W. Bardeen, of Syracuse, New York, for the North Atlantic States; by Prof. E. P. Smith, of Georgia, for the South Atlantic States; by Prof. J. W. Johnson, of Mississippi, for the Gulf States ; by Prof W. J. Gran- nis, of Tennessee, for the Central Southern States ; and by Hon. John Han- cock, of Ohio, for the Central Northern States. President Homer B. Sprague, University of North Dakota, who represented the Northwest, w^as unavoidably absent. His written response was received and ordered to be printed. E. A. Winship, who was expected to resj)ond on the part of New England, being unavoidably absent, his written response wjis read by Dr. W. E. Shel- don. The assembly rising, then joined in singing, " ^ly Country, 'tis of Tliee." The Association then adjourned. -2 (21) 22 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. EVENING SESSION— JUI.T 8. The first regular meeting of the Association was held in The People's Church, Saint Paul, Minnesota, beginning at 8 o'clock, Tuesday evening, July 8, 1890. Divine blessing was invoked by Kt. Rev. M. N. Gilbert, of the Protestant Episcopal Church, Assistant Bishop of Minnesota. Superintendent Bradley, officially representing Minneapolis, extended to the members of the Association an invitation to visit that city. Superintendent L. E. Denfield, officially representing Duluth, invited the members of the Association to visit Duluth. The Secretary presented the greetings of Hon. Leon Trousdale, of Ten- nessee, congratulating the Association on its progress, and recalling his rem- iniscences of the meeting at Minneapolis in 1875. W. T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education, made a statement with reference to the Henry Barnard fiind. The President announced the following committees : On Nominations — J. L. Pickard, of Iowa, chairman; Solomon Palmer, of Alabama: T. A. Futrall, of Arkansas; Aaron Gove, of Colorado; D. W. Hnrd, of Connecticnt; C. H. Clemmer, of North Dakota; George A. McFarland, of South Dakota; Zalmon Richards, of District of Columbia; F. L. Kern, of Florida; E. B. Smith, of Georgia; John Cook, of Illinois; W. A. Bell, of Indiana; John MacDonald, of Kansas; M. H. Bartholomew, of Kentucky; G. J. Ramsey, of Louisiana; M. C. Fernald, of Maine; E. W. Jones, of Massachusetts: J. M. Wellington, of Michigan; H. P. Judson, of Minne- sota; Supt. J. R. Preston, of Mississippi; J. T. Buchanan, of Missouri; R. G. Young, of Montana; R. J. Barr, of Nebraska; C. C. Rounds, of New Hampshire; T. M. Mar- shall, of New Mexico; C. W. Bardeen, of New York; Supt. S. M. Finger, of North Carolina; John Hancock, of Ohio; C. B. McElroy, of Oregon; E. 0. Lyte, of Penn- sylvania; D. B. Johnson, of South Carolina; Frank Goodman, of Tennessee; Oscar Cooper, of Texas; Robert E. McKay, of Virginia; F. B. Gault, of Washington; Supt. Anderson, of West Virginia; J. W. Stearns, of Wisconsin. To report Thursday morning. On Necrology — Zalmon Richards, of Washington, D. C, chairman; N. A. Calkins, of New York; Joseph Baldwin, of Huntsville, Tex.; J. L. Pickard, of Iowa City. To report Friday morning. On Resolutions — James Baker of Colorado; F. B. Cooper, of Iowa; C. R. Skinner, of New York; W. R. Thigpen, of Georgia. To report Friday morning. On Exhibit — to report for the volume --Mary E. Nicholson, of Indiana, chairman; Henry Sabin, of Des Moines, to report on manual and industrial training; Hannah J. Carter, of New York, to report on arts (form and color) ; George P. Brown, of Bloomiugton, 111., to report on general school exhibits, public and private; Joseph- ine Locke, of Chicago, to report on kindergarten schools; Amelia Fruchte, of St. Louis, to report on drawing. On Honorary Members- -H. S. Jones, Pennsylvania, chairman; Clara Conway, Tennessee; Irwin Shepard, Minnesota; J. C. Gilchrist, Iowa. To report Thursday morning. JOUBNAL OF PROCEEDmaa. 23 B. L. Wiggins, of the University of the South, Sewanee/'^Tennessee, then delivered an address on : Forms of Discipline and Discipline of Forms, The eesBion then adjourned. SECOND DAY'S PROCEEDINGS. MORNING SESSION- Jui.t 9. The second regular session of the Association was oiiened in The People's Cliurch, Wednesday morning, July 9, 1890, at 9 o'clock; President Canfield in the chair. Prayer was offered by Rev. R. F. Maclaren, of the Central Presbyterijm Church, Saint Paul. The usual announcements were made by the Secretary'. Telegrams were read from the New York State Teachere' Association, and from the Maryland State Teachers' Association, conveying greetings to the National Association. Mr. Sheldon moved that the President and the Secretary be instructed to make suitable reply to all greetings. Mr. Hailmann entered a protest against the personnel of the Committee on Exhibits. M. C. Femald, State Agricultural College, Maine, offered a resolution favor- ing the passage by Congress of the Morrill College Aid bill. Referred to tlie Committee on Resolutions. Mr. Sheldon offered a resolution indorsing the plans of Commissioner Mor- gan, for the education of Indian youth in Government schools. Referred to the Committee on Resolutions. Mr. Sheldon read a letter from the American Humane Society, presenting to the Association a large number of the publications of the Society, and offered a resolution expressing sympathy with the work of the Society. The donation was accepted, and the resolution was referred to the Com- mittee on Resolutions. The report of the Committee on Psychological and Pedagogical Observa- tion was presented by the chairman, George P. Brown, of Bloomington, Illinois, and by W. T. Harris, U, S. Commissioner of Education. Charles De Garmo, Normal, Illinois, read a paper on : A Specific Inquiry on the Relation of Instnustion to Will- Training, Discussion followed, participated in by Joseph Baldwin, of Texas, and W. N. Hailmann, of Indiana. W. H. Maxwell, of Brooklyn, New York, read a paper on: Examinations as Tests for Promotion, Discussion of the paper was opened by G. S. Albee, Oshkosh, Wisconsin. 24 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. President Canfield withdrew, and Vice-President Alexander Hogg, of Texas, was called to the chair. The discussion of the paper was continued by E, E. White, of Ohio, and J. W. Johnson, University of Mississippi. The session then adjourned. EVENING SESSION— July 9. The third regular session of the Association convened at The People's Church, on Wednesday evening at 8 o'clock ; President Canfield in the chair. Prayer was offered by Rev. A. H. Heath, Plymouth Congregational Church, St. Paul. Ada M. McLaughlin, of St. Paul, read a paper on: The Moral Value of Art Education, The paper was discussed by Flora Pennell, Normal, Illinois; Hannah Johnson, Carter, New York; Christine Sullivan, Cincinnati, Ohio; Josephine C. Locke, Cook County Normal, Chicago ; and Mary Dana Hicks, Boston. The Association then arose, and sang, " Nearer, My Grod, to Thee." Miss Frances E. Willard, Evanston, Illinois, then addressed the Associa- tion on: The White -Cross Movement in Education, The Association arose, and sang, " Home, Sweet Home." The session then adjourned. THIRD DAY'S PROCEEDINGS. MORNING SESSION-nJuLT 10. The fourth regular session of the Association convened at The People's Church, Thursday morning, July 10, 1890, at 9 o'clock; President Canfield in the chair. Prayer was offered by Rev. W. H. Buttrick, First Baptist Church, Saint Paul. On motion, W. E. Sheldon was made Assistant Secretary. J. L. Pickard, of Iowa, chairman of the Committee on Nominations, made the following report : Your committee, in its session, came to the unanimous conclusion, and present that conclusion in a report this morning. One person named by the committee has withdrawn from the list of officers, and another has been substituted by such of the committee as we could get together this morning. We have unanimously named for the officers of the Association as follows: President— Yi. R. Garrett, Nashville, Tennessee. Vice-Presidents — James H. Canfield, Lawrence, Kansas; W. H. Beadle, Madison, South Dakota; Mrs. D. L. Williams, Delaware, Ohio; J. H. Baker, Denver, Colorado; T. A. Futrall, Marianna, Arkansas; John T. Buchanan, Kansas City, Missouri; H. S. Jones, Erie, Pennsylvania; Mary E. Nicholson, Indianapolis, Indiana; J. R. Preston, JOVRXAL OF PBOCEEDIXGS. 25 Jackson, Mississippi; £. B. McElroy, Salem, Orei^on: M. C. Fernald, Orono, Maine; Soiomon Palmer, Montgomery. Alabama. Secretary -^. H. Cook, New Brunswick. New Jersey. Treasurer — J. M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Missouri. The list of Directors we were not able to fill, as all the States were not represented npon the committee. Such as were represented are reported, and are as follows: Directors - -J , H. Phillips, Birmingham, Alabama; Wood E. Thompson, Little Rock, Arkansas; Ira G. Hoitt, Sacramento, California: Fred Dick, Denver. Colorado; F. L. Kern, Lake City, Florida; E. B. Smith, La Grange, Georgia; W. H. Hatch, Moline, Illinois; W. A. BeU, Indianapolis, Indiana; W. M. Beardshear, Des Moiues, Iowa; H. G. Larimer, Topeka. Kansas; A. C. Goodwin. Owensboro. Kentucky; George J.Ramsey, Clinton, Louisiana: A. M. Thomas, Houlton, Maine; C. N. Kendall. East Sa^aw. Michigan; T. J. Woofter. West Point, Mississippi; L. E. Wolfe, Moberly, Missouri; J. R. Russell, Butte. Montana; C. C. Rounds. Plymouth, New Hampshire; A. S. Downing. Newark, New Jersey; Allen Allensworth, Fort Bayard, New Mexico; C H. Clemmer, Grand Forks. North Dakota: Edwin B. Cox. Xenia. Ohio; Frank Rigler. Oregon City, Oregon; N. C. Schaeffer, Kutztown, Pennsylvania; H. E. Kratz, Vermillion, South Dakota; Frank Goodman, Nashville, Tennessee: W. S. Sutton, Houston, Texas; F. B. Gault, Tacoma, Washington; W. H. Anderson, Wheeling, West Virgmia; George S. Albee, Oshkosh, Wisconsin. I will further state that the secretary was authorized to insert the names of these States, or any State represented in the Association, but not represented upon the committee. These vacancies can be filled afterwards by the officers of the Associa- tion. D. L. Kiehle, of Minnesota, moved that the Assistant Secretary he author- ized to cast the ballot of the Association for the persons nominated in the report of the Nominating Committee, just read. The motion was seconded, and Mr. E. O. Vaile, of IllinoLs, moved to amend the report by substituting the name of E. C Hewett, of Illinois, for that of W. R. Garrett, of Tennessee, for President of the Association, and spoke in support of his motion. The motion to amend receiving no second, the motion of Mr. Kiehle was then put to the Association, and carried, though not unanimously. The Assistant Secretary then ca^st the ballot as directed, and declared the election of the officers mentioned in the report of the Committee on Nomina- tions. On motion of Mr. Richards, W. E. Sheldon, of Boston, was made Director for Massachusetts by vote of the Association. George P. Brown offered the folloAving resolution : Resolved, That it is the sense of this Association that a report should be prepared, annually, that shall give a summary account of the progress made in pedagogical inquiry and observation, during each year, which report shall be read at some gen- eral meeting of the National Educational Association. The resolution was secondeii by ^y. T. Harris, and was put to the Asso- ciation, and carried. Mr. Brewster, of Minnesota, on the part of the Minnesota State Teachers' Association, offered a series of resolutions with regard to spelling reform. Referred to the Committee on Resolutions. The Secretary made the usual announcements, and called for the report of the Committee on Honorary Members for Friday morning. 26 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. The Secretary also read the following communication : St. Paul, Minnesota, July 10, 1890. J. H, Canfield, President N E, A., St, Pmd, Minn. — Deab Sib: The citizens of St. Paul will give a farewell reception to the members of your Association, on Friday eyening, July 11th, from 8:30 to 11 o'clock. The reception will be held in the hall of the House of Representatives, at the State Capitol. Governor and Mrs. Merriam, and Mayor and Mrs. Smith, assisted by a committee of ladies and gentlemen composed of our most prominent citizens, will receive the guests. Yours, very respectfully, W. S. Mabtin, Chairman of Reception Committee. The President announced as the next topic, Compulsory I^aws and their Enforcement. Upon this topic, Archbishop John Ireland, of Saint Paul, read a prelimi- nary paper on: The State School and the Parish School — is union between them impossible f A paper was read on the general topic, CompuUory Laws, and their En- forcement, by Oscar H. Cooper, Austin, Texas. The subject was discussed by Aaron Gove, Denver, Colorado ; E. B. McEl- roy, Salem, Oregon ; Hon. James O. Pierce, Minneapolis ; and J. B. Thayer, Madison, Wisconsin. J. W. Steams, Madison, Wisconsin, read a paper on : The Correlation of Subjects Taught in Elementary Schools. The subject was discussed by F. Louis Soldan, St. Louis, Missouri ; Charles McMurray, Winona, Minnesota; J. L. Pickard, Iowa; I. M. Wellington, Muskegon, Michigan ; and N. C. Schaeffer, Kutztown, Pennsylvania. The session then adjourned. EVENING SESSION -July 10. The fifth regular session of the Association met at The People's Church, on the evening of July 10, Thursday, at 8 o'clock; President Canlield in the chair. Prayer was offered by Rabbi E. L. Hess, Saint Paul. D. L. Kiehle, of Minnesota, read a paper on : The Place and Function of the Agricultural College. Lewis McLouth, Brookings, South Dakota, read a paper on the same sub- ject. The subject was further discussed by M. C. Fernald, Orono, Maine. James L. Hughes, Toronto, Canada, delivered an address on : The Train- ing of the Executive Powers. The session then adjourned. JOUBN^iL OF PR0CEEDINi4a. 27 FOURTH DAY^S PROCEEDINOS. MORNING SESSION July 11. The sixth regular .session of the Association wiu* called to onler at The People's Church, on Friday niomiug, July 11, at J) o'clock; lVesie paid. Mr. Gray presented the report of the committee apjwinted July 8 to con- sider matters connected with the railroads. Mr. Hazzard, chairman of the Local Transjwrtation Committee, addressed the Board in explanation of railroad matters. A motion was made to adopt the report of the committee. After discus- sion by Messrs. Calkins, Dougherty, Sheldon, Greenwood, Richards, Rickofi* Marshall, Rounds, and Miss C^rdery, the motion to adopt was lost. Mr. Taylor moved that the Treasurer be authorized to stamp tickets, and to issue membership certificates, in all cases where he is satisfied that the person presenting the ticket has paid the membershij) fee ; and in all such cases he shall keep an accurate account of the same, and shall endeavor to collect the same from the railroads. Carried. On motion of Mr. Gove, it was ordered that the President and Seci-etary are authorized to approve all bills for the present meeting; and that the same officers, with the Treasurer, the First Vice-President and the chairman of the Board of Trustees, shall be the Executive Committee for the ensuing year. On motion, all invitations for the next meeting were referred to the new Board of Directors. Mr. Hewett presented the report of the Committee on Pennanent Seci-e- tary. On motion of Mr. Dougherty, the report was received, and ordered printed. The Board then adjourned. W. R. GARRETT, Secretary, MINUTES OF BOABD OF DIBECT0B8. 33 NEW BOARD OF DIRECTORS. The Board of Directors met at 12 o'clock, July 11, 1890, at the Chamber uf Commerce, St. Paul, Minnesota; President Garrett in the chair. W. E. Sheldon, of Ma^achusetts, was apjwinted Secretary /;ro tempore. The roll was called, and the following members were found present : Messrs. Albee, AUensworth, Anderson, Baker, Beardshear, Bell, Clemmer, Day, Dick, Feraald, Futrall, Gault, Goodman, Goodwin, Gove, Greenwood, Hatch, Hins- ^'d from Interept on permanent frmd 91,»2 % R«'d from sale of Toliunee of Proceeding 333 40 Total SDVMAKT OP TEAR'8 BUHINKSfl. T<>tal rtlnK $2,593 54 I DlRtrlbutinK Tolumodi to memb<'r(4, 34101 FreiKht and exprewH on volumeH ■ m. C.) 36 57 Secretary, clerk, and other ex- penneM In pre{>Hrinf{ and nuper- 6,365 00 YlHinK publication of PrtxrecMl- Ing** 181 56 ; - $8,180 67 I ExfienHei* of President in mttklnK I aminKementM for NanhviUe 1,575 66 meeting $530 50 Special expennen in carry inK out $7,963 78 proftnuD of NuKhvllle meetinK- . 150 00 I Stenographic re|)ort of PnHM!>eil- inffH of NuMhvtlle meeting 113 66 — - - 794 15 I Oeneral ex|>enf(eH of the AhmocIii- tion : Prlntlnnf membership cer- tificates, profcramn, ctrcularK, freight, expreHH, poHtage, insur- ance, etc $208 37 Expense of Secretary acc't Nash- ylUe meeting: PrintinR, post- age, teleKnims, clerks and sta- tionery, etenst», freight, express, (K>stag(% etc . . . 46 88 Chairman Board of Trustees, postage, telegrams, stiitlonery, etc... 32 23 200 11 Total disbursements $6,607 07 Amount transferrermanent fund 2,326 (N) Balance carried to account of 1890 31 .71 Total $7,963 78 _, I 36 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES. To the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association: Herewith the Board of Trustees present their fourth annual report, show- ing the financial condition of the permanent ftind of the National Educational Association at the close of the year ending June 30, 1890. At the close of the fiscal year ending June 30, 1889, the amount of the permanent fiind was twenty-five thousand dollars ($25,000). In the Treasurer's annual report for the same period there appeared the fol- lowing item: "Amount subject to transfer to the permanent fund, one thou- sand seven hundred and fifty dollars" ($1,750), which amount was then reserved by the Treasurer to meet any emergency that might arise during the early part of the succeeding year. Before the close of the laat calendar year it was found that from the amount reserved as above stated there could be transferred to the permanent fund the sum of sixteen hundred and seventy-five dollars ($1,675) from the receipts for 1888, thus making the amount of the permanent fund, in December, 1889, twenty-six thousand six hundred and seventy-five thousand dollars ($26,675). From the receipts of the meeting held at Nashville, Tenn., 1889, one hun- dred dollars has been added to the permanent fund by one life-directorship — the Board of Education of Nashville, Tenn. And the sum of two thousand two hundred and twenty-five dollars haa been transferred as per art. IV, sec 10 of the Constitution, to this ftind, from the receipts of 1889 ; thus making the total additions to the fund from the income of 1889 two thousand three hundred and twenty-five dollars ( $2,325). Amount of Permanent Fund, — The present amount of the permanent fiind is twenty-nine thousand dollars ($29,000). Of this amount the sum of twenty- six thousand five hundred and eighty-eight dollars is invested in securities as stated in the certificate hereunto attached. The remaining two thousand four hundred and twelve dollars, just transferred to this fund, will be duly invested at the earliest practicable opportunity. Income from Interest y etc, — ^The amount received by the Board of Trustees during the year ending June 30, 1890, as interest on the permanent fund was thirteen hundred fifty-two and twenty-five one-hundredths dollars. The sum received from the sale of volumes of Proceedings during the same period was two hundred and twenty-three and forty one-hundredths dollars — making a total of one thousand five hundred seventy-five and sixty-five one-hundredths dollars from these two sources, all of which is included in the Treasurer's re- port of receipts for this period. ANNUAL REPOUT OF THE BOAJSD OF TBUSTEES. 37 It may be added that the income from the i)ermanent ftiiid, as provided by art. IV, sec. 10 of the Constitution, "shall be used exclusively in paying the rtjrt of publishing the annual volume of Proceedings of the Association." Respectfully submitted. N. A. Calkinh, Z. RiCHARIVS, H. I. Tarbell, ^ Tnt^fees. John Eaton, Jami» H. C'anfieli), ex officio, c^p:rtificatk. This is to certify that I have examined the several bonds and securities of the "permanent ftind" belonging to the National Educational Association, now held by the Board of Trustees, and that I found the said securities to amsi^ of a first mortgage for three thousand dollars (83,000) on real estate in the city of Providence, Rhode *Mand, with a jH)licy of fire insurance for 63/)00 ; of a county refunding bond of Seward county, Kansas, for one thou- sand dollars ($1,000); also, of bai;rn3. These verbatim report^ made the colunuis of the Tribune very i>oi>- ular, and had a part in informing the great public of the argumeut** of these ls the noble institutions they are, and gave them a reputation that has elicited the admiration of all who ever knew him and learned his interest in public education and public prog- ress and improvement. As a worker in the State Teachers' Association he han had no superior. In 1><73 he read his first pa|xjr before that body, on the " Iowa High School." This paper was the paper of that session, and brought more good results than all others combined, since it was a critical j^riod in secondary educaticm, and this pa|)er was of the character and kind that enabled many communities to take its clear statements and apply them to the founding and develojnng of a high school for their children. There was no more ardent defender of the public high sch(M)l in the State of Iowa, and possibly no one ever did more to protect the infant institution or to further its interests. In 1879, at Inde- jK^ndence, he \\a» chosen president of the State Association, and at the coming session in Des Moines in 1880, he delivered the president's address, which was one of the ablest and most far-reaching paj)ei-s ever prepared for the As- sociation, and at that time were begun certain agencies that have greatly in- fluenced Iowa educationally and have had much to do with her present high standing. As a member of the Educational Council, as an institute instructor, and as 44 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. a man of affairs, Mr. Saimderson lias always been a leader. His leaderphip was 80 recognized in his home city, and his honorable dealing and faithfulness was so marked, that he never knew what it was to have serious opposition. His teachers were all strongly attached to him, and could call him "their friend, co-worker, and honored superintendent." They knew that he was the sincere friend of ever)' one of them, and they, as a mark of personal respect, attended his fimeral in a body. What a tribute to a man's memory and character to have eighty-eight associates, those that had worked for years under his guidance and with his sympathy, to go collectively to his ftmeral, genuine mourners of his untimely death, feeling that in his demise they had lost one of the best friends this world ever gave them, knowing that he did, during life, all that he possibly could to benefit them and further their inter- ests. In no other way could they have so strongly indicated their "high ap- preciation of the Christian character of their friend. He was one of nature's noblemen — noble because of the exalted purpose and principle which under- lay and permeated his every act." MISS MATILDA H. ROSS. Miss M. H. KoBS died in May, 1890, in the city of St. Paul. In years past, she was a very successful teacher in primary schools. She was engaged as an institute instructor in Ohio, and was called to take charge of the kindergarten schools in Chicago, under the care of the Kindergarten Asso- ciation. This position she filled with great efficiency. She finally resigned this position to enter upon institute work — her chief jmrpose being to intro- duce kindergarten methods into primaiy schools. At the time of her death she was principal of the Normal Department of Alma College, Michigan. She had been in poor health for over a year, and had sj)ent several months in St. Paul with the hope of recovering her usual physical vigor. She left in manuscript two bo much a hater of shams, too thorough and sinwre, to make it an institution to supj)ly the popular demand for cheap and superficial education ; so the venture proved a failure. In 1^62 as Captain of a company in the 96th Ohio Regiment he led twenty- tliree of the twenty-six boys then in his sch(K>l old enough to bear arms, into the sen'ice of their country. Hereafter he wa« kno>vn thnnighout Ohio as Captain Mitchell. In 1873 he abandoned school work and began the practice of law in Cleve- land ; but his predilection to educational work was irresistible, and he was often in the field a** institute instructor, and during the next ten years worked in most of the counties of the State in that capacity. He removed to Dakota in 1888, and st'ttled in Fargo in the pnictice of law. HL^ reputati(m as an educator followed him here. He was soon selected a member of the city school board, and till his death was president of that h(Kly. He frequently declined the ofiice of county suj)erintendent of schools in Cass county, the most imiK)rtant county in the Territory' ; but pennitted hinL^^eli* to do institute work in various parts of Noith Dakota. In 188(> he yielded to his inclination and wiu< elected to the office of county superintendent, and was reelected in 1888. In this new county, with more than one hundred and twenty schools under his su}wrvision, his work was very arduous, but his great organizing ability, togi^ther with his abundant common- Kiisc, soon placed the schools of the county in the front rank. In addition to hL? official duties at home, he wa< frequently called to other counties to aid in institute work. This work extended his accpiaintance to all ])arts of the j^tate. He it was who called the first mating of the North Dakota Educa- tional Association, and contributed largely to the success of that organization. When North Dakota became a State, in 1889, he wa< elected the fii*st State Su[)erinteudent. The new constitution provided that the first Legislature 46 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. should enact a new school law. Upon Superintendent Mitchell devolved the labor of preparation. He immediately located at Bismarck, and entered uix)n the work. There he spent the fall and winter. He was obliged to keep up his regular office work, and this, with consultation with members of the Legis- lature, and attendance upon the legislative committees on education, confer- ences with executive officers, attendance at institutes and the State educational meetings, correspondence with friends of education, both within and without the State, made a work too exacting for his nen^ous system. Toward the end of the legislative session he was worn out, and upon returning one night, he died suddenly of heart disease, in the early part of 1890, at the age of sixty-five. His was a busy life ; most of it given to the cause of education. He was a man of unyielding purpose. He knew human nature well, and knew the present educational needs of his State. His knowledge of law, and esi)ecially of school law and its application and administration, enabled him to draft a law for North Dakota, one of tlie best in the country. He was a man of clear, broad views, and was always strong in the defense of the right. Few can realize the magnitude of the work he accomplished, or the difficulties he overcame in his effort to give to the commonwealth of North Dakota a system of school laws that would aid, and not retard her educational progress. The school law of that State will stand as his most permanent and honorable monument. BDTVARD OLSON, A.M., Ph.D. [ PREPABED BY OEO. A. McFaBLANI). | Edward Gibson wtus born near Hamar, Norway, in Weldre, the annex t4> the [)arish of Ringsaker, on the 29th of August, 1847, and died at Minneajx^lis, in the Tribune-building fire, November 80, 1889. He was a direct desc^cndant of the ancient Vikings ; and their rugged force of character, boundless energy and strong body and brain were reproduced in him. He was a striking example of the stn)ng Scandinavian nature; nur- tunni in our free schools, and touched and modified by the spirit of American institutions and culture. The family consisted of 1\\e children, of which he Wits the youngest, his (mly ])rother being the Hon. S. E. Olson, of Miuneaj)- olis. His early life and school training were the same jus tluit of other Nor- wegian boys of the more comfortable rural cliisses. As a child, he was slow and dull rather than otherwise. His father was a contractor and builder, and a num of lil)eral thought. Accordingly, his mind tunied to America a** offering better ()j)portunities, mid in 1858 he emigrated with his family, settling in LaCrosse county, \Visc<)nsin. Here the boy worked upon the farm, and received such educational training a'* the country schools of those times attbrded. One winter, during a revival service in their vicinity, he was converted, and with the rei*t of the Olson family united with the Baptist church. His brother, who was now in busi- BEPOBT OF THE COMMITTEE ON NECROLOGY. 47 ne»s<, suggested the minif»tr}' as a life-work, and to thw end proposed to aid him in getting an education. The next autumn, at the age of eighteen, he entered the preparatory' department of Beloit College, where he remained three years. In 1H69 he entered the Frej, u|X)n the resignation of Dr. Boise. He became a profound and enthusiastic scholar in that de- I»artment, and a recognized authority among the scholars of this country. He also reached out to a comprehensive knowle*ter hand. He improved the course of study, raised the standard of rc(iuirement, reorganized and enlarged the faculty, and in two years and a half left an institution with an attendance above live hundred, with full classes from j>reparatory to senior, and a fine faculty of twenty-five membei-s ; a university in fact as well as in name, and in its standard of scholarship challenging comparison with any in the country. There is no instance in histor>' of such a remarkable upbuild- ing. So long as this institution shall endure it will stand as a splendid monu- ment to his genius, his character, his energy, and self-sacrifice. 48 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. Such is a hasty record of his life, which he briefly summarized to a friend, as follows : "At nine years of age I was a Norwegian boy ; at nineteen I was pre- paring for college in a Western State ; at twenty-nine I was a college professor ; at thirty-nine I was president of an American university." During his presidency, Dr. Olson gave instruction in philosophy. Splen- did as was his ■ success in organization and administration, teaching was his chosen work. Probably no teacher in this country, except Mark Hopkins, had a more beneficent influence upon the lives of his pupils. He won and held their esteem by his evident purpose to do them good. This thought was with him in every effort. "The youth of Dakota deserve the best," he wa,s always saying. His effort was for them, not for himself. He was in all re- spects a large man. As was fittingly said of Gen. Garfield, "He stood four square to every wind that blows." He was strong and imposing in presence. Once seen he was never forgotten. The strong lines of his face and somewhat stooped body told of the protracted hard work of the thinker. His mind wils large and strong and liberal. He wiis always philosophical and practical. He was larger than sect and party ; hence never partisan. He once said, "Now, partisanship, pure and simple, whether in church, or in politics, or in society, or in college, is puerile and absurd. Party shibboleths strike no re- sponsive chord in the man who is in earnest, and who has a work to do in the world." His greatness was always tempered by the charm of simplicity. Seldom is there such a blending of the finer traits. With great virtues there are often grievous faults. Not so with Dr. Olson. He was a symmetrical, fiill-rounded man. This was the realization of his own ambition. While a student at Beloit, one evening of the debating society was devoted to the ex- pression of a puri^)se in life. Each student named his chosen work and an- nounced what he hoped to accomplish. Olson's turn came at last, and he rose and simply said: "I intend to make a man of myself." This was the t€xt of his life. How splendidly he expounded it. (xreat as he was as scholar, teacher, preacher, and president, his real greatness lay in what he was and what he had lived ; he was greater in character than achievement. He be- lieved in study, in discipline, and in culture, and trusted nothing to luck or to genius. Through all his life breathes that strong Norse sentiment, "I will find a way or make it." The effort of his life and work was to imbue young men with the spirit of that sentiment, and to lift them above things low, sordid and materialistic. No man ever sacrificed more generously for the welfare of others. His help- ful hand was extended to every struggling young man, and his purse was always 0}x^n to the needy. Many a student was kept in school because Dr. Olson paid the bills, though often the student knew it not. The beneficence of his life was a holy inspiration. Much as he did for education, his own pure, unselfish. Christian manhood was his greatest gift to humanity. The strong elements of his character and work, and the high regard in which he is held in South Dakota, are briefly summarized in the following BEPOBT OF THE COMMITTEE ON NECROLOGY. 49 extract from resolutions adopted by the Board of Tnif»tee:^ on the occasion of his sudden death : "In the nntimely and sudden death of Dr. Edward Olson, President of the State Tniversity of South Dakota, the Board of Trustees realize that they have sustained an irreparable loss. Under his wise management the school has been thoroughly organized, a splendid faculty gathered, and the buildings filled to overflowing with earnest students, whose numbers are constantly increasing. As a teacher, he was without a superior in power to interest, instruct and inspire enthusiasm, so that the ■Ktudenfs life and work became a delight, and those who took their studies because they must, continued them from desire. In scholarship, accurate, thorough; yet his edocation was to him an atmosphere and not a burden. It was the spiritual essence of his being. In temperament he was genial, abounding in humor; in sensibilities. Christian. There were none whose sorrows he did not share: there were none whose troubles he did not make his own. Ambitious to be wise and useful, he was by na- ture and instinct the patron of every studious youth; many of whom have been gen- erously aided from his purse and encouraged by his experience. As a gentleman he was without a superior; as a Christian, humble, devout, spiritual, catholic. Words fail to express our personal loss, and we do not believe that his place can be fully filled." Z. Ri( HARI>H, Chairman, 50 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON PERMANENT SECRETARY. [Note. — This oommittee consisted of Edwin C. Hewett, chairman, A. P. Marble. W. E. Sheldon, J. M. Greenwood, and John Eaton. The written report was read be- fore the Board of Directors by the chairman, and was ordered to be printed in the volume of Proceedings. It never came into the possession of the secretary, and can- not now be found. The following synopsis of its contents is made by the chairman.] The following is the substance of the report of the Committee of Directors of the National Educational Association presented at St. Paul, concerniuor permanent location and permanent Secretary : 1st. That the sessions of the National Educational Association be not fixed in any one place for the present. 2d. That a Secretary be chosen for three years, subject to approval by the Board of Trustees ; that he receive a salary of $3,000 a year ; that he opeu a permanent ofiice in Washington, D. C, in close connection with the National Bureau of Education. The report was signed by all the members of the committee, with a quali- fication respecting the proposed salary on the part of Greneral Eaton. The Directors deferred aetion on the report for one year. Edw^ix C. Hew'ett, Chairman, BEPOBT OX THE HEyitY BASy.lBD Fl'ND. ol REPORT ON THE HENRY BARNARD FUND. Henry Barnard, turning his eightieth year, friend and co-laborer with Horace Mann, ranks next after Mann as the great reformer in our education. He did a great work for Rhode Island and Connecticut, in reforming the public schooK and then devoted his life and a considerable fortune to the task of providing acc^s to the great works on education in all languages, by translations into English. He printed and published thirty-one large vol- umes of nearly one thousand pages each, containing the choicest and most instructive parts of eer of .schools that made any display of work at the recent meeting of the National Educational Association in St. Paul, was small. Brooklyn, Indianapolis, Omaha, St. Louis, ^lemphis, Cincinnati, Hannibal, St. Paul, and Minnea}K)lis, were, practically, all the cities that showed any work done by pupils above the kindergarten ; and the kindergarten exhibits were from La Porte, Louis- ville, Chicago, Indianapolis Duluth, Winona, and Des Moines. There was very little in the entire exhibit, other than the work in drawing, that would not be classed as industrial. Scarcely any attempt was made to dis- play any results of the instruction in subjects of study common to all schools. The manual-training schools were well represented, and a sufficient exjiibit nf the work of the different grades in drawing was made to show the two extremes in the theory and practice in this subject in the schools of the dif- ferent cities. The manual-training exhibits were admirably arranged, and showed every step of the student's progress, from the simplest to the most comi)lex and diffi- cult constructions. Those of St. Ix)uis- and Minneapolis deserve special men- tion. These exhibits are interesting to persons who are not already familiar uith the different stages in this system of instruction and training; but the number of persons who found their way to the different buildings used for this exhibition was not large, and their study of the exhibit was not such as to indicate vital interest in what they saw, with a few exceptions. Manuscript evidence of the children's proficiency in their different studies was almost entirely wanting. It is probable that no more of that kind of school work will be shown hereafter. In fact, the nature of the work done in general school instniction is such as to forbid any display of such products to the senses. The children themselves are the products of these educational processes, and but little estimate can be made of the degree and nature of their education by school exhibits of any sort. But as regards the exhibits made of the various forms of handicraft, it is probable that as they become 56 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. an old story to the merely curious, they will become objects of increasing in- terest to the more studious and reflecting. There is, as yet, but little differentiation in the work of the different manual- training schools, and, therefore, but little of value can result from compara- tive study of what they construct. If this differentiation shall increase, these exhibits will be studied with greater diligence. It does not seem probable, however, that there will ever be any marked difference in the processes fol- lowed in manual-training schools. The range of ideas that constitute the educative element in this series of exercises is not large, and there can be no great variety of movements tending to the same end. . In drawing, the possi- ble ends are more numerous, and a much greater difference in methods of procedure is manifested. The drawing exhibit from Cincinnati was in marked contrast to that from Omaha, for example. To the student of drawing and of the education it gives, drawing exhibits from different citia**, where different immediate ends are sought, would be studied with great interest and profit. It may be that out of the great Columbian exhibit yet to be held, something of the nature of a permanent educational exhibit will grow, to which shall be contributed, systematically arranged products of the different educational pro- cesses in the various manual arts, which shall show the degree of education resulting from each. In so far as it shall be found practicable to show results of this kind, with the stej>s in the process, these exhibits will have a perma- nent educational value. At present, it is for the most part the unreflecting and emotional sight-seer that visits them. The student of education knows what is to be seen about a« well before he goes through a school exhibit as afterwards. It will be some years before what is of permanent value in these displays will be discovered and the exhibits will be valued at their real worth. Bloominoton, Illinois. GeoRGE P. BrOWN. REPORT ON MANUAL TRAINING, Miss Mary E. Nkhohon — Dear Madam : I offer the following report upon the manual-training exhibit at the meeting of the National Educational As- sjciation at St. Paul, 1890. Exhibits were made by the schools of Stillwater, Duluth, St. Paul, Minne- apolis, Minn. ; Springfield, Mass. ; Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y. ; Manual Training School, St. Louis, Mo. ; Omaha, Neb. ; Hillside Home School, Wis. ; one room was also devoted to slojd, in which models, tools, and benches, were on exhibition. It is not the purpose of this report to enter into any particulars, or to con- trast the work of one school with that of another. We wish to determine what progress, if any, manual training has made, and what the effect of this BEPORT ON MANUAL TBAINIXO. experiment upon the tone of school work eeems to he, in those places in which it has been attempted. 1. The exhibit showed very concluwvely that the trend of manual training at this time, is toward its successful introduction into the grades below the high school. This has been done in several places with comparatively little expense, and with an increasing interest on the part of the pupils. The 5th, 6th, 7th and 8th grades exhibited work which was very credita- ble, and to accomplish which must have required some degree of thought and carefiil study on the part of the pupil. The jackknife cannot be carefully guided, as it must have been in some of the work on exhil)ition, without a corresponding exercise of the brain. We cannot separate the hand from the brain without producing paralysis or death. The elb«, and in other places, the manual-training course takes its place alongside the English, Latin, and other courses. This seems to dispose of the claim of the advocates of manual training, that pupils 58 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. can devote a necessary amount of time to it, and keep their places in the reg- ular courses. It is a much more reasonable view, and enables those who wish, to make a choice of a new course, suited to their especial wants. 3. The exhibit of the work done at those schools which make a specialty of manual training was just what was to be expected from them, and it is not necessary to make any lengthy comment. When work is carried to such an extent as to require no conscious effort of the mind, it loses its educative form ; the laborer is only an automaton. It does not appear that this is the case in these schools, as the work was explained by those having exhibits in charge. There is enough variety as the work progresses from term to term and from year to year, to keep the mind on the alert, and to prevent intel- lectual stagnation, which comes from continually doing the same thing. This intellectual stagnation, which is something to be dreaded, is just as prevalent in schools which have not incorporated matiual training in their curriculum, as in those which have. As far as these schools, which are outside of the regular public-«chool sys- tem, are concerned, the St. Paul exhibit proves beyond a reasonable doubt that the manual-training school is to serve a very important and useiul pur- pose in the future in opening up new avenues of occupation to young men and young women who are thrown upon their own resources for support. The conclusions to which an examination of this exhibit leads us, are these: 1. There is more in manual training even in grades below the high school, than many educators are willing to allow ; and there is less in it as a purely educating power, even in the best schools, than its zealous advocates claim for it. 2. In the lower schools manual training to a limited extent may become of general application ; but in the higher schools it will only in time open up a new field to which minds of a certain class will naturally turn, and will thus serve a very useful purpose in preserving to society much intellectual power and force which has hitherto gone to waste, or been dwarfed at the best, through lack of opportunity. 3. Its economic as well as its educative value will, in the process of events, gain for it its right position in our school system. Henry Sabix. De8 Moines, Iowa. REPORT ON FORM AND COLOR. This reiK)rt concerns all the exhibits of Form and Color, shown at St. Paul, July, 1890, commencing with the primary, through the grade and technical schools. IndhfiapoiiMy Indiana — Training School for Teachers, — The form study in clay was very elaborate, and much of it colored. A restraint in the promis- BEPOBT Oy FORM AXD COLOR. 59 cuous use of color was vwiihle in the imper-work, a ^n^at dwil of such work l>ein^ done in blue and white. Ixi Porte, Imlifwa, — Mr. Hailmann mivh: "Analysis takers the lea^)lids. Color is used on the pai)er nioii, with some decoration. The result in representation wa^* evidently based ujwn fonn study, and was stnmger than the drawing in decoration. Mhtne*tjH>fi^, Minne^ofa. — The work in drawing began with slate work in the primary gnwles. The work consisted mainly of geometric figures and dif- ferent views of objects. The general exhibit through the higher grades dis- played much more work in representation than in either of the other subjects. The representation was mostly in light and shade, even in the work below the high school. In the high sch(Mjl the work in this subject wa^ excellent, and wa^ the culmination of the course. The free |)ersjK»ctive fn)m models and ob- jects, in the teachers' claims, was excellent. The illustrative work in the same grade seemed to be rather beyond the ability of the cla*4s. .SV. Pfiuf, Minnemtn. — Only a very small display of drawing wa.s made here in the lower grades, but it was excellent in regard to harmonious develoj)- ment of the three subjects. Each subject, Ccmstruction, Rei)resentation, and Decoration, had received its fair amount of attention. The tjuality of line was very good, and indicated free movement, which is so inqxirtant in drawing. There was much light and shade work from the high school shown here, which gave evidence of the careful study of models and casts. SiUlmtter, Minnemta, — The connection was here well kei)t between form s^tudy and drawing, and the three subjects, C onstniction, Representation, and Decoration, were also well represented. The construction and representation showeil the best development of the three subjects. Winona, Minne^oia, — But little constructive work was done here. The tendency of the work was toward representation and decoration, in which some very good work was shown, the re{)resentatiou being stronger, however, than the decoration. Hannibal, Mis:*OHn. — The exhibit here wjis very simple. It consisted of constniction and representation. The adherence to principles was evident, and the results promising. Omaha, XebraJ*ka, — ^The free movement in the primar}' work wa.s very noticeable here, and its excellent effect shown in the uj)per grades. There was very little constructive and not much decorative work in this display, the greater amount of this display being the rei)resentation of objects, largely in light and shade; evidently much careful and profitable study had been given to that phase of the subject. In the high-school work, constructive and rej)- resentative work were exhibited, but no decoration and no study of historic ornament. Cincinnaii, Ohio, — ^This exhibit was large, and ari*anged with taste. The work exhibited in the lower schools was mostly work in decoration ; here seem- ingly attention had been given to the development of originality or novelty, rather than to the unfolding of art sentiment. There was but little work in construction, and very little in representation of objects. In the high school 64 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. good work was shown from objects, and some interesting illustrative work in the teachers* class. The work as a whole was too much in one line, conse- quently the results were hardly commensurate with the importance given to the subject in the schools. Portland, Oregon. — Li this exhibit, the three subjects, Construction, Repre- sentation, and Decoration, were all represented, the instruction evidently having been given in the three lines of work. The quality of the line was very good» and showed ready and free movement. In the high school much attention was given to the work in representation. There was much work here in light and shade. Hillside, Wiscormn. — In the drawing of the Hillside Home School, the outline work showed strength in handling, and the light and shade seemed well regulated. Manual Training Schools, — In the exhibits from these schools, the con- structive work was of a very high order ; but there was almost no attention paid to the work in representation and decoration, which should find a legiti- mate place in such schools. Pratt InHtUute, Brooklyn, X, Y, — The work in drawing from this institute was of the highest character. The outline-work from objects, from the chil- dren's class, was admirable for good seeing and freedom of drawing, while at the same time it had that slight crudeness which should appear in the work of children, thereby expressing youth and freshness. The drawing of the Normal Class was admirable, showing great freedom in illustration, and at the same time knowledge of the educational principles that underlie the work. The representative work in outline was of a very high order, while the work in construction and decoration was excellent. In the departments given to constructive work, representative work, and decorative work, most admirable results were shown. In the light and shade there was found to an unusual degree both strength and delicacy, together with good handling; and where the subject required it, expression of fi-eedom and life. There was less draw- ing shown in the decorative work than in other subjects, as the decorative work shown was mostly in color. To this exhibit teachers turned, not only for the sake of the art lessons which it atfijrded, but also for the enjoyment of the beautiful which was there to be found, and which it seemed to be a main object of the instruction to develop. In si)eaking of the exhibit as a whole, it must be stated that the circular calling for the exhibits specified particularly "drawings in light and shade, and work in clay and color.'* Hence the exhibits from many towns showed no work in drawing below the high school, and the work from other towLS gave very little space to work below the high school. The general tendency of the work in drawing seemed rather toward representative work from ob- jects. There was also a markeossible that those not especially gifted could accomplish much in representative drawing. One important lesson of the exhibits u< that it pn)ves that this part of the work is not outside the range of public-school work. Probably the un^venness of the development in many of the sch(K)ls of the three subjects, Construction, Representation, and Decoration, which are of equal importance in education, is due to the fact that the teachers have just learned the possibilities of their pupils in re[>resentative work, and are carried away for a time with that work. It is important that the instruction in drawing should be equally divided between these three subjects. Each of these subjects affbnls a line of develop- ment through drawing that is not touchetl by any of the others. It is well understood that the value of form study and dra\nng lies in two directions : as a means of educational develo{)ment, and as a means of jesthetic culture. Neither of these directions should be lost sight of for a moment, and all the work given in the public schools should have l>oth the educational and the aesthetic bearing. The work should be from objects in constniction and repre- lientation; and in the subject of decoration, historic ornament should play an im[Mirtant part. Thus in all these subjects the obsen-ation of the pupil should be called into action first, and aflenvard the exercise of his creative ability. The subject of construction calls for the study of object* as to their facts, and also for the study of constructive design which leads to the study of beauty in the form of objects. The study of representation calls for the study of the appearance of object^*, and also for exercises in pictorial composition, which demand in the first place beauty in the objects which are selected for the subject of study, and in the second place for the consideration of beautiful effects in grouping. The study of the subject of decoration calls for the study of historic ornament, and also for the study of the principles of decoration, and for exercises in original design for decoration, so as to secure the most beautiful decorative effect. So it will be seen that each subject covers a par- ticular ground of its own, and that the development of one subject does not in imy way provide for the development to be secured in the study of the other subjects. It was pleasing to note in many of the exhibits a well-defined tendency to- ward what is understood as artistic rendering in the three subjects, although in many cases the aim seemed to be obstructed by the use of the hard, black, smooth line, which renders impossible any feeling in the drawings. All good work, in representation especially, requires a line which is susceptible of change, and which may be made expressive through its treatment. It is also neces- sary that the drawing should be free if the drawing in the public schools is to be of value. The constrained nature of much of the drawing which the 66 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. exhibit showed, will never serve the legitimate purpose of drawing, which is the free, ready, and beautiful expression of thought. The line in instiiimental work should be clear, sharp, and well defined, and the line in the representa- tive work should be open in texture, varying in lightness, and directness, in delicacy and strength as the subject demands. The line in decoration should be soft, but firm and even. The great lessons to be derived from this exhibit were these : 1. The necessity of form study from models and objects as the bai^is of drawing. 2. The need of making the pupiFs drawing the result of his own obsen^ation. 3. The value of freedom and readiness in drawing. 4. The equal development of the three subjects, Construction, Representa- tion, and Decoration. 5. The need of constant insistence in the instruction upon the element of beauty in all the work, from the beginning up, and its proper expression. The exhibit from the Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N, Y., in its arrangement of subjects, in the methods of instruction* pursued, and the evident attention paid in this instruction to the development of the artistic feeling throughout, as well as in the adaptation of the work to practical industries, and its inte- gration with general education, was an admirable object lesson as to what should be aimed for in the introduction of art education into public educsi- tion. In this respect this exhibit deserved the careful study of all those in- trusted with instruction in form and drawing in normal schools, and in manual-training schools, and in public day schools. In the opinion of your committee, the movement for art education, which for many years has been developing in public education, has never before had so complete an expres- sion as in this exhibit from the Pratt Institute ; and from the attention j)aid to this exhibit, it is believed that a marked influence for the broader develoj)- ment of the work in the public schools must be felt throughout the countr}-. Amelia C. Frcchte. REPORT ON KINDERGARTEN. Miss Nicholson y Chairman Committee on Educatimial Exhibits — Dear Madam : The following places were represented by distinctively kindergarten exhibits at the St. Paul meeting, in July last : Ijouistnlley Kyr. Free Kindergartens — Children's work only. Milwaukee, Wis.: Training Class Work — Representative modeling in sand. Indianapolis, Ltd,: Free Kindergartens — Children's and Teachers' work. St Paul, Minn.: Free Kindergartens — Teachers' and Children's work. La Porte, Ind.: Public School Kindergartens — Children's work. REPORT OX KINDEROARTEN. 07 Dtii Moine^j loun: Public School Kiiuiergartens — Children V work. ChiragOy III,: Free Kindergartens — Children V work. Chica^) Kinder- garten Training School — Teachers' work. Making a total of eight exhibits pur{)orting to be directly the work of kin- dei^rten teachers or pupibt. General education is to be congratulated that the principles of Fra»l)el an* ^^teadily demonstrating their right to be. At first re wived coldly and barely tolerateer of schools, nor by the constantly in- creasing enrollment of teachers and pupils, nor by the amount and extent of the instruction, nor by the quantity of material used, nor by the elocpient ex- planations and tireless persistency of its exjK>nentd — im(x)rtant and necessar>' as these are — yet not by any or all of them, should we estimate the educa- tional value of the kindergarten. Back of people and their workmanship stands eternal truth, forever seek- ing to express itself and work through them. It does not limit itself to this j*hibb<)leth or that, or to a choice few, and to certain conditions. No ! To the uise and the foolish, to child and man, to prince and |)easant, to the many it l)eckons, saying, "Prove me now, and use me." And those who obey, sud- denly spring to freedom and intelligence. Did the kindergarten not embrace the whole man as well as the whole child ; did it not include the individual, the family and the state, in an absolute unity ; did it not reach out above and beyond its most devoted disciples, the lines might be drawn and the boundaries of its habitation established. Then indeed between thumb and forefinger, subject to Arabic notation, one miglit j)er (»nt. its value, and by rule and pluml>-line determine its height and depth. feut the kindergarten is more than a fact — it is a heavenly influence; it is the embodiment of an eternal principle which is bound to work whether man will or not, and which will choose its own sweet way jus to how it shall work. Herein lies it« di vineness : it defies limitation ; it spurns tratlition^ No ip>*e dixit shall bind it, no Vaticanism monopolize it. Who but Frcel>el has boiled down a^s into a nutshell the condensed philos- ophy of all the ages, and made it possible for even children to gnusp? As is the inner, so is the outer; as is the small, so is the great. There is one law, and He that worketli is One — nothing wasted in the Divine economy. " Who readeth one of my meanings is master of all I am." To break the yoke of necessity, to leave the child free to be his highest and best, to declare there is no heredity in spirit, and to proclaim the eternal unity of God and man — are these truths to be limited to the experience of any half-dozen of individuals or to the span of any number of years? Cradled, as one might say, in a ten-acre lot, transplanted to American soil, it has swung itself with the royal gait of a Yankee, in the short space of thirty- five years, from seaboard to seaboard. In its seven-leagued boots, not only 68 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. has it traversed the width of the continent, but it has sounded the depths of the hearts and pockets of the people, and to-day — I say it with all calmness — it measures the possibilities of the Republic! Point me out any school leader, school measure, or school theory, any act of the legislature or the su- preme court, any missionar}' or philanthropic effort, that has preached more effectually the brotherhood of man and the fatherhood of God. Show me any influence that touches more nearly the right adjustment of labor and capital. Is there any course of study anywhere, Sunday-school or otherwise, that has demonstrated more fully the Christ doctrine concerning man and his infinite perfectibility? What scheme of liberty formulated by patriot compares with Froebel's? Talk of mental discipline and freedom of will — must not right choice dominate both ? ^nd only Froebel rings the sweet clear note of " never to present the negative"; only Froebel declares "the child need not know evil"; only Frcebel echoes the Christ-message, "The kingdom of God or good is within you," therefore, man's education is a growth into God*s like- ness, and schools are not shops to manufacture merchandise, but gardens to grow souls in. Great are Bacon and Montaigne, Rousseau and Comenius, but Froebel is greater than all because he nearest obeyed the Christ, he lived the life. With the instinct of seership, he estimated second only to Jesus, the true relation- ship of child and woman to human liberty and human happiness^ Measure the educational value of the kindergarten? Yes! this century will when it has measured the moral value of Christianity, for it and the genius of the kindergarten are one. But the criticism is made that the representatives of the kindergarten are not what they should be — not experienced enough, or educated enough, or liberal-minded enough; and a half smile flits over the face of the wise at the "untrained enthusiasm" of so many young women. To which I reply, with people we have nothing to do, with prificlple everything; eyes off" from the people, eyes on to the principle. If the principle is right, is one with absolute truth, it will transform the people. If one set of people will not be trans- formed, others will be found. If the principles represented by the kindergarten are true, it is bound to survive and override the infirmities of its exponents. Both liistorj' and race experience show conclusively an ounce of enthusiasm has again and again carried the day against pounds of discipline and school- learning. Joan of Arc never mastered reading and writing, yet she led the armies of France to victory. Jean Francois Millet could not have passed. a third-grade examination in arithmetic in any of our large cities, but L*Angelus commands the markets of the civilized world. Jesus had no school-learning. " Is not this the carpenter ? " was said in derision. His followers were un- learned, ignorant men, yet have they altered by their teachings the entire current of the stream of history. So it is no new thing for enthusiasm, bom of conviction and love of truth, to succeed, where scientific research and intel- lectual acumen have failed. REPORT ON KINDERGARTEN, 69 But the teachiugs of Froebel are not limited to the kindergarten proper. His work for mothers ha8 been as radical and far-reaching a** the work with the babies. Before yet any book had been written urging right maternity and the beauty of motherhood, Fnebel spoke and taught it. We are apt to for- get that he was the first to intnxluce woman 2^ the child*8 teacher, and by this one deed alone changed the whole movement of the schcM)! wt)rld. True, it needed not the kindergarten to bring Frcel)el to America; or ever he was bom he was here, from the moment when the Declaration of Inde|)endence proclaimed "the pursuit of life, liberty and happiness to Ik? the inalienable right of every citizen," the kindergarten was a declared factor s(M)ner or later among American institutions. Just as "waters know their own, and draw the brook that springs in yonder height,*' so has the spirit of America drawn the spirit FnBl)el, its own unto itself. It would seem as if a great thought-wave had suddenly struck theplanet, and Froebel first caught the message, and applied it to education./ He re- vived familiarity with the sights and sounds of Nature, teaching " Deep love lieth under their meanings sublime." He used the occupation of the parent as a means in developing the child. He thus gave the impetus to two of the ma^^t im[)ortant factors in mon child-labor by supplying a cut-and-dried bill of fare whose raison d^etre is its multiplication of human machines. Not inside the kindergarten, but outside of it, is one best able to judge of the breadth and sajpe of the movement. Did Frijebel's influence cease with the kindergarten, what a tempest in a teajx)t it would be ! But because his thought and genius are as universal in quality as one of the old pr()i)hets, or as a master in literature, the divine fire in him burns its own way through the trackless forest of petty traditions, and the devious wilds of the schools. What Luther did for the church, what Washington did for the world, Fne- bel has done for the child, and through the child for all humanity. To attempt to limit his teachings by pricking and sewing and weaving, l)y -0 70 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. net-work drawing, by painting on clay and deceiving into an imitation of na- ture, by an endless tawdriness of color and confused designing that is license to every barbaric thought, by the wasting of precious energy on the reproduc- tion of the ugly and the grotesque, by permitting him to wander ad libitum through the rubbish of the pa*st and the " Vemharras de^ richer " of the pres- ent, is sacrificing the spirit of Froebel to the letter. Such a course pursued in America, must end in the kindergartens falling from their high estate and degenerating, as they have done in many parts of Europe, into aimless play schools. No ; the salvation of the kindergarten consists in recognizing that — " Through the years one increasing purpose runs, And the thoughts of men are widened with the process of the suns.'*' For American thought to fulfill American conditions, lays tribute upon the thinking of individuals in every age and clime. American people are cancel- ing race exj)erience at an increasingly stupendous rate. We represent the highest high-water mark of the world's development, and it is not necessary our children should wander through the endless labyrinths by which people less favored have traveled. Their results are here, and we are to use them as stepping-stones to higher things ; by so doing we condense their experience into our own. The kindergarten cannot afford to separate itself from any of the educa- tional issues of the day, from the truths of science, from the principles of sound art instruction, from the best in music and song, from the influence of the technical school, and from sympathy with the latest in literature. It is ridiculous to suppose that the teachings of Wagner, Ruskin, Owen Jones, Paul Bert, Huxley, Frcebel, Emerson, or Delsarte, should contradict each other. Their command to us is, not to imitate them but to seek for truth, then will nomenclature and definition settle themselves. Now, for the first time in historj^ it is possible to present a totality of truth, united and related from kindergarten to university ; to present it with a difference of degree only, not of kind. General education, though its acknowledgment may be tardy, has not ig- nored the message. Since Froebel's time all instruction has becom'e less al>- stract and more concrete. Modem instruction in home and foreign languages has been revolutionized ; the conversation, the picture and the object, have sup- plemented dry technicalities of construction. Myth and fairy lore, story and legend now abound where was formerly empty reading. Geography has adopted the sand table. Drawing has transformed itself into a means of ex- pression for form study and into an outlet for free conceptional work. The recognition given to domestic economy, kitchen garden, sewing, and hand- craft of every kind ; the introduction of calisthenics, and later still, the suc- cess of the Delsarte system ; the cultivation of plants, and the desire to make the school-room attractive and pleasant; daily indulgence in music and song, — all prove that the development of the child through self-activity, through pre- sentation of the pleasing and the agreeable, appealing to the within, instead BEPOBT ON KINDERGABTEN. 71 «f compelling from without, is of universal significance, and is the true key- note to the education of the future^- Which is greater — "the temple, or he that dwells in it"? Does the school system exist for the children, or the children for the system — which? When as yet African slavery was practiced on American soil, Fnebel spoke the truth and held to it, "The tenant is greater than the house." Fathers and mothers, wake from your short-sighted policy, from your slavish supineness! What is your gold compared with your children ? Think of a primary teacher with her sixty or seventy pupils, and lift this crying shame from off the shoulders of our young women; make possible to them freer, healthier conditions — then will the prophecy made in Germany find its fulfillment in America. Is the Christ ideal exhausted? Has man demonstrated his highest and best ? Let the multitudes of beautiful, interej*ting, pmmwing children, and the crowds of foolish, commonplace men and women, prisoners to the flesh and the earth, reply. Not until gn>wn-up people are redeemed to the sweet- ness, trustfulness and the delight of living, will the kindergarten cease to up- lift and react on the social w hole. But perhaps the greatest change of all may l)e obsened in the teachers themselves. An absence of j)edantr>' ; a simpler manner ; a more mixing in and out with the children as one of them ; an eagerness to try new ways ; a charming child-likeness, and a desire to hold themselves o|)en to fresh truth, have supplanted much old stereoty[)ed school-marmness that wtu? as a stone wall to growth. We are learning the child is nearest to the light of heaven ; the old man too oft«n clogs adult years. "Heaven lies about us in onr infancy; Shades of the prison-house begin to close upon the growing boy, But he beholds the light and whence it flows- He sees it in his joy. The youth who daily from the east Must travel still his nature's priest, And by the vision splendid Is on his way attended; At length the man perceives it die away. And fade into the light of common day.'' No wonder education in the old way has been unsatisfactory and attended by much waste. How can he who has lost the " vision splendid '* undertake to guide the child who still is basking in the Divine radiance? Oh ! dear grown-up people, when shall we cease from our worldly wisdom and stilt-like lore, and listen to the voice of Froebel, ** Come, let us live with the children." Remember it is written, "A little child shall lead them." Josephine Carson Locke, -^ Cook County Normal School. ADDRESSES, PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS, GENERAL ASSOCIATION. GENERAL SESSIONS OF THE ASSOCIATION. ADDRESSES OF WELCOME, GOVERNOR W. R. MERRIAM. In the name of the people of the Commonwealth of Minnesota, it is with no ordinary pleasure that I extend to you, one and all, Mr. President, and ladies and gentlemen of the National Educational Association, a hearty greeting. We tender you our hospitality and good-will, and evidence our appreciation of your high calling by offering you, in the fullest sense, a warm welcome. From our sister States, north and south ; from the nigged shores of Maine to the Grolden Gate ; in a gathering magnificent and inspiring, you have come — thoughtful, thought-loving, and thought-teaching representatives of a pro- fession that controls in higher degree than aught else the destinies of the greatest nation upon the face of the earth. We are rejoiced to see you, and our greetings are meant to l>e so wami as to cause you to feel that they come from every fireside; from every place of business ; from every farm ; from the mighty mills, where is heard the hum of industr}' ; from the forest, where the wixnlman's ax is busy ; and from ever}' city and hamlet within our borders. May your sojourn be prolonged to the utmost, and may you be so impressed with your surroundings and our desire for your comfort and happiness that your departure will be accompanied by feelings of regret, but temj)ered with the hope, entertained by us, that you may be induced to again honor us with your presence. In the language of one of America's greatest statesmen, now gone fn)m scenes of earthly activity: "You find yourselves upon the highlands in the center of the continent of North America, equidistant from the waters of Hudson's Bay and the Gulf of Mexico, from the Atlantic Ocean to the ocean in which the sun sets." Upon this vast plateau, bounded on the ea««t by our great inland lakes, and stretching through an empire to the shores of the Pacific, wonderful in its re- sjurces, marvelous in its develo})ment, and unrivaled in its matchless climate, thoughtful persons have predicted that we may rightfully look, in the coming years, for a race of men unsurpassed in moral, mental, and i)hysical excellence. This great Northw^est counts among her citizens ver}* many thousands of adopted children, who have gathered here from all parts of the world, in search of a home where plenty abounds. From the land of the midnight (75) 76 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. sun to the shores lapped by the waters of the Mediterranean, from England and Ireland, from the German empire, from the cantons of Switzerland, and historic France, they have congregated — a mighty throng — attracted here by opportunities not vouchsafed them in their native lands ; and we rejoice that we have been able to offer them inducements, so many, and so great, for we can but hope that the fusion of the different elements, amid surroundings and under conditions that now prevail, and which the great educational forces, represented and propelled by you, are constantly lifting to a higher level, will result in a type of man higher and hardier than we have yet known, and in the development of the noblest specimens of the human kind that have thus far played a part in the great drama of civilization. An exhilarating climate and productive soil ; untold mineral awaiting but the energy of the miner to unfold its treasure to the vision ; vast forests ; in- land oceans and mighty rivers ; all elements productive either of physical or material well-being, and incentives to mental energy and growth ; a generous plan for encouragement of the arts and sciences, and of all those things inci- dental to a highly civilized community, coupled with a broad and liberal system of public learning, and the benign influences of a free government, are conditions and causes that, with the mingling of the best blood of all lands, should certainly be potent in producing happy results. Nations and communities thrive or decay as they are influenced for good or bad in physical, mental, and moral development, and the great work in which you are engaged is fundamental to all that we may hope for or expect. I am impressed, as I note this vast assembly, with the paramount imiwr- tance of your high profession ; that through you and your labors the charac- ter of the youth of our land is formed and developed ; and I also remember the close relationship that popular education bears to the present and future success and safety of our government. From the inception of a plan to found a republic, the necessity for a liberal system of public schools and universities had primal place in the minds of the framers of our constitution. Washington himself foresaw that true lil>erty nuist rest on the basis of popular education. He realized that the future of the young nation depended upon the intelligence of the people, and he upon many occasions championed the cause to which you are devoting your lives and energies. In a letter addressed to the President and Faculty of the Uni- versity of Pennsylvania, he says: "I am fully apprised of the influence which sound learning has on religion and manners, on government, liberty and laws. I conceive hopes, however, that we are on the eve of a very enlightened era. The same unremitting exertions which, under all the blasting storms of war, caused the arts and sciences to flourish in iVmerica, will doubtless bring them nearer to maturity when they shall have l>een sufficiently invigorated by the milder rays of peace." AVe have followed the advice of the fathers, and established in this country- a system of schools, and of institutions of learning, that are at once a glory ADDRESSES OF WELCOME. 77 and an honor to them and to iw. As Lowell well and truly Rays: "Knowl- etlge is not an alms to be dependent u\Hm the chance charity of private men, or the precarious pittance of a tnist fund, but a sacred duty which the c<3m- mon wealth owes to ever}' one of her children." Another element of the responsibility that rests u|)on you as educators, is the duty of teaching to the youth of our land devotion to countr}' and obedi- ence to its laws. Next to worship of the C*reator should come love for native land, and willingness to be sacriticed in its interest should occasion demand. All of you, I am sure, fully appreciate the im|K)rtance and necessity of in- titiUing into the minds of our youth the desire and purpose to become useful and loyal citizens, and of inspiring them with high and noble ideas of the obligations devolving up' felicitously welcomed to the whole State of Minnesota and to the city of St. Paul, and what more I am expected to welcome you to I cannpt perceive ; because what is there in Minnesota beyond St. Paul and Minnesota? As representing in some degree on this program the educational interests of the State, I will be expected to take a higher view than the ma- terial things discussed by the speakers who have preceded me. I welcome you to the bright Minnesota skies. We are supposed to be ethereal and heavenly in intellectual pursuits, and naturally lift our eyes to the bright skies characteristic of this land. I w^elcome you to the poetry and romance of life in the beautifiil Northwest, and trust that you will go home filled with it. There isn't a great deal of ro- mance in the life of a teacher, but there would be much more if you would only look for it. Xow, you are not going to get a great amount of good out of the speeches you will hear at these meetings, and you are not likely to go home filled with new ideas, because there are no new ideas. These men will get up, look wise and talk learnedly, but they will not say anything new. They will dress up the old things in new forms, and you may not recognize the hash, but it will be hash all the same. But you will get good from this gather- ing— the good derived from personal experiences and acquaintance with a new part of the world. Why, ladies and gentlemen, you are now^ in a part of the country which forty years ago was unknown to civilization, and which was practically unsettled. To-day it contains a civilization as virile and ftill of energy and progress as is that of any other part of the United States of America. I stand here to-day as a representative of the State University of Minnesota, which, through the generosity of the State, oflfers free education of the highest kind to every man and woman who can pass the preliminary examination, whether living in this State or outside. Where can you find any part of the land which provides more liberally for the education of its own sons and daughters, as well as those of other States ? I trust that you will visit us ; that you will come to our University and inspect its fine buildings and laboratories, and see if we are not keeping up with the spirit of the age in matters of edu- cation. There is one thing more on which I wish to say a few words before closing. ADDBESSES OF WELCOME. 79 I want you teachers to feel that you are not euga^red in work that is all in a rut — so much work for so much salary — that it is not the teaehin^^ of so much grammar and so much arithmetic that coantitutes the es^senee of life, but that you are the greatest factors in the development of what we nio^t need — American citizens capable of administering the affairs of this vast land when they are called upon to take our places. I want you to teach the boys and girls to honor this flag above all other flags, so that, no matter where their fathers came from, no matter whether they were Scandinavians, Germans, or French, they will grow up loyal and true to the American flag. By the de- velopment of the pupils* minds and thoughts you are helping on this grand work, preparing to make the rising generation more noble and mighty than the present. I join with the other speakers in heartily welcoming you to our midst. I want you to feel that in so doing we are unselfish ; that we ex[)ect no return but one thing, and that is when you get home and remember all the lovely sights you have seen, you will tell all your friends about this land, and then make your arrangements and return with them to remain here the re**t of your days. I trust your stay will be as pleasant and profitable as I am sure it will be delightful to us. PRESIDENT IRWIN SHEPARD, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, WINONA. When a year ago you were invited to come to Minnesota, you were prom- ised the earth and as much of heaven as this saintly city of St. Paul had to give. It is therefore appropriate that this meeting of welcome should be held where, in the rights of possession, you can stand ui>on the one under the fair canopy of the other, and where you may breathe an air which, in the past weeks, has been washed and purified for your special comfort and benefit. Our fair ^tate, from the Red River of the North to where the great finger of destiny points; from the course of the majestic Father of Waters on the east, acn)ss three himdred miles of beautiful prairies U) the west, has bedecked herself in her greenest and fairest robes of joyous hoj)e and j)romise in honor of your coming. I am reminded that it is just fifteen years since this Association honored our State with its presence. The memliership of the Association was about 360, of whom two hundred came from outside of the State. To-day you have come again, with numbers increased ten, twenty and even fifty fold, and we are happy that we are able, in the wealth of our material and social and educa- tional prosperity and growth, to extend to you a correspondingly large and cordial welcome. It was fitting, at that meeting, in the center of this great empire of indus- trial promise, that discerning the signs of the times you should have added to this Association the Industrial section. We now invite you to look over our prairies and behold the near promise of the most abundant harvest that even our great Northwest has ever seen. Visit our granaries, our workshops, our 80 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. factories, our mines, our mills, our warehouses ; ride over our countless high- ways and byways of busy commerce ; look over the industrial exhibits of the schools of these two great cities and of the State at large, and tell if we have not proved ourselves worthy of our honor as the birthplace of the Industrial section of this great Educational Association. We cannot speak of our history, educational or otherwise. We are too young to have a history. The men who made this State are for the most part living and present to-day. I would like, however, to remind you that forty- three years ago there was not an English school in all this country. In 1847 the missionar}', Williamson, apjiealed to the Popular Educational Society of New England for a lady teacher, saying: "I suppose that a good lady teacher can do more to promote the cause of education and true religion than a man;" and adding: "The teacher coming should bring books with her suffi- cient to begin a school, for there is no book-store within 300 miles." In answer to this res|X)nse, Miss H. E. Bishop came forward and opened the first school for whites in a log hut, on the present site of the First Presbyterian Church. Two years later, in this same school-house, the public-school system of the Territory' was organized. From these humble beginnings, less than half a century ago, has risen a system of public schools, whose growth has kept even pace with the marvelous material prosperity, the evidences of which are so abundant about you. Among the first acts of the Legislature of this State thirty-two years ago, and but eleven years after the opening of Miss Bishop's school, was one creating the first State nonnal school established w^est of the Mississippi. Other normal schools socm followed, until now the appropria- tions granted to the four State schools for the training of teachers is greater in proportion to the number of pupils enrolled than in any other State in the Union. The percentage of normal-trained teachers in the common schools of our State is greater than in New York, the same as in Pennsylvania, with it8 normal schools, and exceeded only in the States of Massachusetts and (>ali- fornia. While we sj)eak with pride of the State whom you have honored the second time with your presence, we remember that every State in the I^nion has contributed of its best life, it<< best blood, its best thought to the enrich- ing of our social, material and educational prosix^rity, and we therefore wel- come you. PRIXIDENT LORD, HTATE TEAf^HEIts' A88t)01ATION. I had j>repared a speech in which I had welcomed you to our air and skies ; but it is not necessary to do that now, lus the ground has been well covered. However, I'll welc(mie you to Summit avenue, the handsomest residence street in the world ! The heartiest welcome given you here to-day ought to be sec- onded by **all sorts and cimditions" of men. But if any members of certain learned professions seem inclined to give you the cold shoulder, it is not be- cause of any lack of respect, but l)ecause of a |3ossible exaggeration of the teacher's power and influence. The doctors of medicine have long held us ADDBE88E8 OF WELCOME. 81 respoutdble for many of the ills of children and yi)Uth, an a mind. Their talk has l)egiin to tell, and btcause we are beginning to be alive to the importance of scIuh)! sanitation and physical training, these M. I)j* fear that if we do our work it* they have insisted we shall, that aches luid pains will cease and the d(K»tor's servicers l>e dispensed with. The doctors of the law maintain that the schools shall in- still the principles of mine and thine, that patience and forlH»anuice shall be taught and practical. We an* taking their advice, and sm the doctors, lawyers and clergy- men that are an honor to this great State, and every man, woman and child between the valley of the Mississippi and the Red River of the North is jrlad you have come. Get up in the morning and drive through Summit avenue, the finest residence street in America; visit a score of our 10,000 lakes; stay till the loth of August and we will take you chicken-sh(K)ting ; then wait till the ducks and geese come in the fall ; and while you are about it, stay all winter and see more sunshine than you ever saw in any ten winters of your life. In fact, we want to give you such a welcome that you will stay always. PRESIDENT J. W. STRONG, CARLtrFON COLLEGE, NORTHFIELI). After these words fn)m the honored officials of the State and State institu- tions, you must feel assured that you are welcome to the Northwest, to the State, and to this city. But the reception committee recognizes the fact that Minnesota has other educational interests than those under immediate State wntrol, and it is as representing these other interests that I have the privi- lege and the honor of adding words of cordial greeting and of welcome. Our private schools and seminaries of learning, our Christian academies and col- leges, although not technically a part of our public system of instruction, are not an unim}X)rtant part of our educational facilities. They do not oi)pose that public system, nor do they undervalue the work it does. In no sense and in no degree are they antagonistic to any mental culture afforded by the State; but they aim at what is beyond the province of public education, and what the State can never consistently give — a religious training, essential both to a complete education and a symmetrical development of character. 82 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. It is one of the chief glories of our republic that in this land there is relig- ious liberty as well as political freedom, and that the conscience \s bound by no law save the law of God and the law of equal rights. To Minnesota have come from all lands those w^ho believe in this personal liberty, and they have brought hither the same religious convictions, the same love of liberty, the same devotion to education which wrought so mightily in the founders of this nation; and here they are building upon a Christian basis institutions of learning avowedly religious in their spirit and their aim. The permanence of the State, as all must admit, de|)ends upon morality, but philosophically and practically the only enduring basis of momlity is found in the sanctions of religion ; hence as patriots no less than as Christians, we must provide an education which does not divorce the heart from the head, but recognizes the moral and spiritual as well as the intellectual, and aims to secure through the culture of the whole man all that is involved in a Christian civilization. We do not ask the State to teach religion — not at all; but we hold that for her own sake she must, in the 8i)here of education no less than in the sphere of w^orship, guard well religious liberty. In this there is no union of church and State, but there is a natural cooperation prejudicial to neither, and absolutely essential to the highest interests of both. In behalf of those who hold these views — and they are many — I welcome you all here to-day, trusting that there will be freedom to discuss any question legitimately involved in education, both public and private. We need light and we need to learn the truth, for it is the truth that makes and kee[)e us free. May we find, according to the scriptural saying, that in this "multitude of counselors there is safety," and may we all gain a measure of that wisdom w^hich is " profitable to direct." D. D. MERRILL, CHAIRMAN OF THE LOCAL EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. We gladly welcome you to our city, as you gather here this day for your thirty-fourth annual convention. There is a special fitness in your holding your session with us as you come to "The Great Northwest," for this is the pioneer place in the interest of education, as well as in all other departments of our modem civilization in this vast region of country. It is fittiag that I give you a short snatch from the history of the early educational beginnings : The true historian must go down to the bed-rock of the historic mine for incipient facts and events — even to the undefined forces of influence which brought the first teacher to Minnesota, the first professing Christian to St. Paul. In 184^3 the "Board of National Popular Education" was organized in New England; its object "to supply the new settlements of the West with competent female Christian teachers" — all evangelical denominations unit- ing in the movement with ex-Gov. Slade, of Vermont, its general manager and corresponding secretary. In May, 1847, the first class of thirty-three teachers was convened at Albany, N. Y., for general instruction and indi- ADDRESSES OF WELCOME. 83 vidual destination. Here a letter was received, addreftseil to a member of the Board, more than three months previous, from Rev. Thomas S. Williamson, niiA»ionary at Little CrowV Village, now South St. Paul, a few miles below the bluff where our city now sttuuls. I (juote from his letter: '' . . . My present residence is on the utmost verge of civilization in the north- weiitem part of the United States, within a few miles of the principal village of white men in the Territory that, we suppose, will bear the name of Minnesota, which some would render ^clear-water,* though strictly, it signifies slightly turbid or whitish. "The village referred to has grown up within a few years, in a romantic situation on a high bluff of the Mississippi, and has been baptized by the Roman Catholics by the name of St. PauL They have erected in it a small chapel, and constitute much the larger portion of the inhabitants. The Dakotas call it Im-mi-ja-ska (white rock), from the color of the sandstone which forms the bluff on which the village stands. This village has five stores, as they call them, at all of which intoxicating liquors constitute a part, and I suppose the principal part, of what they sell. I would sup- pose the village contains a dozen or twenty families living near enough to send to school. Since I came to this neighborhood I have had frequent occasion to visit the village, and have been grieved to see so many children growing up entirely ignorant. Unless your society can send them a teacher, there seems little prospect of their having one for several years. A few days ago I went to the place for the purpose of making inquiries in reference to the prospects of a school. I visited seven families, in which there were twenty-three children of proper age to attend school, and was told of five more, in which were thirteen more that it is supposed might attend, making thirty-six in twelve families. I suppose more than half of the parents of these chil- dren are unable to read themselves, and care but little about having their children taught. ... I suppose a good female teacher can do more to promote the cause of education and true religion than a man. The natural politeness of the French (who constitute more than half the population) would cause them to be kind and courteous to a female. ... I suppose she might have twelve or fifteen scholars to begin with, and if she should have a good talent for winning the affections of children, (and one who has not should not come,) after a few months she would have as many a^ she could attend to. "One woman told me she had four children she wished to send to school, and that she would give board and room in her house to a good female teacher, for the tuition of her children.'" (This lady is still one of our respected citizens.) "'A teacher for this place should love the Saviour, and for His sake be willing to forego, not only many of the religious privileges and elegances of a New England home, but some of the neatness also. She should be entirely free from prejudice on account of color, for among her scholars she might find, not only English, French, and Swiss, but Sioux and Chippewas, and some bearing kindred to the African stock. "A teacher coming should bring books with her sufficient to begin a school, as there is no bookstore within three hundred miles.-' This letter, as the Divine mind guided, was handed to Miss Harriet E. Bishop, one of the members of the "first class of thirty-three," with the re- quest that she would aid in the selection of a teacher for this point, if in her 84 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. judgment it were best that the request should be complied with. As to the result, I quote from her own records : " Pending several days' delay, thought was busy, prayers went up to the Throne. The Holy Ghost whispered to the heart, " Go." The life desire for the foreign had but recently given place and preference for the home-mission field. It was God's will ! When the opinion, touching the appointment of a teacher for the locality, wa.s called for, it was answered. "ss-fertilization " you have enriched your inheritance so that New England is busy to-day in pruning that which progressive America has outgrown, engrailing the larger, more luscious, more profitable variations that Chicago and Denver, St. Louis and St. Paul, Cali- fornia and Minnesota are giving us. New England is no longer in the little northeast comer of thL«» mighty re- public. She is taking gold and silver from your mountains, wheat from your prairies, timber from your forests, fortunes from your railways, power from your rivers. She is in your school-houses, your churches, and your courts ; she is in your banking-houses, and your halls of legislation. Her blood tingles in every artery of every State and city in this broad land. In the name of all that she has been, and all that through you she hopes to be. New England at home and abroad greets every son and daughter of America, through their representatives in the National Educational Associa- tion of 1890, and promises to know no North, no South, no East, no West, while we confer together as to the best way of securing the best methods of reaching the best results through the training of the boys and girls who are to make the America of to-morrow as much grander than the America of to- day, as the St. Paul of to-day is grander than she was before the blood of New England mingled with that of her founders. C. W. BARDEEN, OF HYRACl'HE, NEW YORK. I bring you good tidings. Speaking for New York and of the movement that extends beyond her borders, I have to report a recent progress almost incredible in American educational history. If one were asked to point out a period in American educational history' of the greatest awakening, some would claim the work of Horace Mann of fifty years ago. Knowing that work, and weighing my words, I believe that more than Horace Maim did for Mtif^achusetts in twelve years, Andrew S. Draper has done for New York in five. Five years ago New York appropriated for schools fifteen millions of dollars; to-day it is twenty millions of dollars. Five years ago New York J^chool taxes were so divided as to favor the city ; to-day it is divideund and say, you had but 41,000 population then, and no more. We appreciate the welcome that you have extended to us, and if you sliould ever come to our section of the South we will give you a Georgia welcome. If in future you may meet in California, or in Washington, or in Maine, or Canada, the South Atlantic States will meet you at Philippi. J. W. JOHNSON, OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MIK«5I8SIPPI. The Gulf States are proud to respond to this cordial welcome and fraternal greeting iix)m Minnesota's hospitable citizens. We bring with us a warm heart and an impulsive nature from our far-off Southern land, and are filled with enthusiasm on this our national jubilee. We believe that this imposing demonstration on the part of St. Paul's citizens is the natural outburst of earnest and honest hearts. Our geographies have told us that Minnesota is a cold, frigid country: had we found the people characterized by similar traits, we would have thought they were simply consistent with their climate. But our eyes and ears and hearts tell us a different story to-night. We find a climate almost as warm as our own sunny Southland; and the j^eople as cordial and demonstrative as real Southern kinsmen. For a long time navigators considered the gulf stream as an insignificant ocean current, not supposing for a minute that it aftected any coast or clime l)eyond a ver>' narrow compass encircling its ancient home in the mighty (Julf of Mexico. But now it is known to temper the climate for hundreds of leagues along the coast lines beyond the turbulent Atlantic's waves, and to afteet the destiny of millions of the most industrious people of the globe. So it seemed for a long time that the Gulf States were but an inferior group compared to the many larger and wealthier groups of our glorious commonwealtli. But the time is coming, if not already present, when the influence of the Gulf States will be felt throughout the length and breadth of this mighty union of States. The cattle of Texas, the sugar of Louisiana, the timber of Mississippi and Alabama, the oranges of Florida, and the grandest staple of the world, cotton, which is common to all these States, are too large and imi)ortant fac- tors in the make-up of our industry and wealth to ever become insignificant. Minnesota and the great Northwest, with their thrift and enterprise, their cereal products and their factories, are the counterpart of the Gulf States, and both sections need the help of the other. Education advances the commercial prosperity of any people, and we are here, Mr. President, to join with the teachers of Minnesota, and in fact of all the States, in devising tlie best modes of educating and developing the minds of the rising generation so as best to enjoy these grand opportunities given us by a merciful Providence. We re- gard Minnesota as a young, though brilliant and wortliy sister. We have 94 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, heard of her virtue and her bewitching influence, of her energy, industry, and wealth. We have heard of her queenly position in the center of the grandest republic the world ever saw, crowned by nature as the majestic umpire of three of the world's greatest river systems, destined, in the words of Mr. Sew- ard, to become "the ultimate seat of government of this grand continent." And so we come, Mr. President, to see her exposition of school-work, to listen to her wise suggestions as to improvement, to visit her spacious homes, see her lovely lakes, productive soil, fine thoroughbreds, and magnificent machinery. We come to give her that fond fraternal embrace which Southern hearts can enjoy more than human tongues can describe. W. T. GRANNIS, OF CUMBERLAND UNIVERSITY, TENNESSEE. This seems to be a day of substitutes. Dr. Sheldon is a substitute for a young man, and I am here as a substitute for a young man. How the times have changed ! The world is full of mistakes. The first mistake I made was to stand here in front where our worthy Secretary saw me; the second mis- take was made when he called on me to say a few words for the Central States — because I am not a talker, and never belonged to the class of talkers. But I am very glad to meet you all under these bright skies with this genial breeze. We are glad to meet you ; we are a united band in the South, work- ing heart and hand. Our idea is that the rising generation shall be taught that there is no North, no South, no East, no W^est, one country — one and undivided. We were proud to welcome you last summer under our bright skies in what is called the University City of the South : we are more glad to welcome you here, and we feel that we have a hearty welcome from your hearts. JOHN HANCOCK, OF OHIO. I am the last victim of this very happy occasion. We have been grandly welcomed, and I think we may say on the part of the Association that we tender you our extreme gratitude for this heartiness. Those who have pre- ceded me have had a little more time in which to prepare their extemporaneous speeches than I have had. We have heard the great Northwest lauded, and she deserves it ; but there has an impression gone abroad in regard to Ohio that is entirely erroneous. We are supposed to be magnifying, a good part of our time, the greatness of the State and the people thereof, and have noth- ing else to do ; but this is far from the truth. We are supjwsed to be after offices: why, it is the most difficult thing in the world to get an Ohio man to take hold and hold onto a good office — in Ohio! The fact Is Ohio's striking characteristic is her extreme modesty. But Ohio — all you who have read hL-^tory know that she is the first-born out of a great Territory Northwest of the river Ohio. And you all know that when she came into the Union those three angelic witnesses, Religion, Morality, and Education, stood by her when slie was baptized. I wish to tell you, fellow-citizens, that Ohio leads in those three things yet. SESPOXSES. 59 When I was in New Orleans at the great Exp(»8ition a few yeare ago, when I ^ looked on the magnificent exhibition of the product** of the great Northwest, not only her com and her wheat, but alao her intellectual product^, I said to myself, the heart of empire for. the Ignited States lies in the broad acre^ of the Northwest. And then I took a sort of consolation in this : I remembered that I was a teacher in Ohio; I remembered that Michigan is largely the daughter of Ohio, Indiana is her sister, and we have gone on until Kansas is again the daughter of Ohio, and up here in the Northwest we have our chil- dren. Why, if you meet the people coming on the great highway I traveled over and ask them where they came from, every second man will answer, "From Ohio." And it is not because they want to get away from Ohio, but because they think they bear good tidings, and that with strong arms and a fidr average brain they are to build up this great Northwest. Ohio is not jealous of these, her daughters. She is perfectly well satisfied to have them laiger, more beautiAil, more cultivated and more generous than she is herself. She takes pride in them all ; and to-day we are here, glad to see them gathered together. The Northwest will be a mighty nation in itself in a few years — and Ohio is the mother of it all. 96 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. FORMS OF DISCIPLINE AND DISCIPLINE OF FORMS, B. L. WIGGINS, UNIVERSITY OF THE SOUTH, TENNERw^EE. That I have been invited to address you is my sole apolog}^ for appearing before you this evening, although I shall not attempt to supply the place of the Bishop of Tennessee, who had hoped to meet with you on this occasion. A further apology may seem necessary, when I announce as my subject, " Forms of Discipline and Discipline of Forms." As I look upon this large gathering of men and women who have devoted their lives to the honorable labors of their profession, I am constrained to feel that there are many present who could with better right treat the subject of this address. Permit me to apolo- gize, also, if I shall appear to follow too closely in the footsteps of my predeces- sors. If I have done so, it is quite unwittingly, for I only received a copy of the proceedings of this Association some few weeks ago, and have not had an opportunity of doing more than read the subjects of the several addresses. What I shall say must be accepted as the result of a limited experience, of ex- tended ()bser\^ation, and of much careful reading. I do not, however, claim the smallest right tth first and second hand, is quite cs^^ential. Say?* Mr. Farrar, "Experentin docet^* — "Experience," to re})eat the venerable joke of my old Cambridge tutor, "does it." '^Usiis magider eM optimuj*,'' says Cicero. Ye«, experience is the best, if also the sternest, of all instructors, and we cannot liLjpense with her lessons, however painful they may Ik?. But exj^erience will remit the pain of some at least of her lessons to those who w ill heed her voice and not des^pise the application of truths because they are known to he so very true. When we consider the various and delicate subjects with which teachers have to deal, is it not curious that teaching was for many - vowels that had flitted into the nowhere seemed to be the lost soul of Roman life, and the Latin language, Roman lit- erature and Roman history were clothed with a new meaning. In nine cases out of ten when your class become restless and yawn and lounge throughout the recitation, you may blame yourself, not them. Consider- able progress has been made during recent years in the methods of imparting knowledge, and we should study them carefully. Much has been accomplished by illustration — illustration in its widest sense — that is, by throwing light upon your subject in every possible way. Many of our large schools are splendidly equipped with books, and coins, and medals, and busts, and pictures, and inscriptions, and relics. They do much to awaken the interest and im- press the memory, and place you in touch with the antique customs, life and manners which they represent. I feel, however, that this method of illus- tration may be carried too far, and that it must always be regarded as a sup- plement, and not as a substitute. There is danger that the student will not be required to cultivate his imagination and make sufficient eff()rt of mind. AVe often hear much sympathy expressed for our ancestors, who quietly sub- mitted to the more mechanical methods in education ; and yet in what way and to what extent were their methods mechanical ? Stimulus could not have l)een wholly wanting when a young student on one occasion, as we read, said the whole of the Agamemnon through, choruses and all, to Dr. Butler as a part of his voluntary work in the holidays; that another did hundreds of Greek iambics, and under no pressure. How many students in the present day would study by moonlight, because they could not afford a j)enny to buy a torch, as Erasmus of old ? I must not conclude the discussion of " Forms of Discipline " without re- ferring to the question of punishments. Unfortunately, we have not found it possible to maintain discipline without some form of punishment; although 106 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. we must realize that in proportion as we find it necessary to multiply rules and punishments, there is an indication of weakness in discipline. The most important principle in school discipline is to observe at all times a distinction between what we may call ceremonial offenses and moral offenses, and then there should be determined, with careful equity, scrupulously graduated pun- ishments to meet the several ofienses. It is important that the boy should re- spect the law from a recognition of its justice. "In the good old days," says Mr. Sidgwick, "discipline was marked with a fine indiscriminateness ; the boy that offended in the least thing was guilty of all. You caned him when you were sufficiently vexed ; that was the simple criterion, and nobody ever thought of complaining." Flogging was therefore not an uncommon event in former days. If you visit Winchester College you will find, upon the western wall of the old school-room, an inscription with appropriate emblems, firstly, a mitre and crozier, as the expected rewards of learning ; secondly, an ink-horn and sword, the emblems of the civil and military professions ; thirdly, a scourge. The inscription contains this quaint monition in Latin: ^^A\d Dwce*' '^Atd Discedey' "Manet sars tertia CcedL** In other words, the scholars are warned "Either learn" — "Or depart hence" — "Or remain and be chastised." But the question of corporal punishment would in itself require another paper. I can only say that personally I am not in favor of its abolition, and that I cannot but feel that there is a great deal of unnecessary sentimentalism in- volved in the matter. However, I am not unconscious of the ill effects and dangers that attend its abuse, and would urge that such punishment be in- flicted under the most careful restrictions, and only where the degradation of the offense overshadows any degradation that may be supjx)sed to attend its use. When a boy proves hopelessly incorrigible it is necessary that he should be made to withdraw, not only for his own sake, but for the welfare of the school. I fear that in many cases we are tempted to act from expediency rather than upon principle. Listen to Dr. Arnold when, on one occasion, in consequence of a disturbance, he had been obliged to send away several boys, and when, in the midst of the general spirit of discontent which this excited, he stood in his place before the assembled school and said: "It is not neces- sary that this should be a school of three hundred, or one hundred, or of fifty boys ; but it is necessary that it should be a school of Christian gentlemen." And now I must hasten to a close. After all that has been said, I can say but little more in regard to the " Discipline of Forms." That difference must be made in the treatment of the older and younger boys, is manifest. You can- not manage them in the same way. While kindness and consideration should be shown even the younger boys, still they must be made to realize that dis- cipline for them is necessarily of a stricter type, and that they are to yield unquestioning obedience. In the case of the older boys, appeals may be made to their reason and self-respect, and their rising feelings of reliance and self-dependence. There are few things that call for a greater display of tact than the management of a class or set of boys at the top of a large school. F0BM8 OF DISCIPLINE AND DISCIPLINE OF FORMS. 107 Sympathy is the first essential, hut there must he couj)led with it a high moral tone and firmness when necessary. Let the young men feel that you kH)k to them to establish the tone of the school, and that they are exi)ected to keep you in touch with the school. The most cordial relations should be encouragen less lucrative, but there is none more honorable, none of more absorbing in- terest. The results of ban! and conscientious labor will always make themselves felt, and the gratitude of posterity will cheer and reward those who honestly endeavor to do their duty. Of all i^eople in the world, teachers are the most grateful for gratitude; and "it is the spirit of love to learning and love to the learner, which once kindled passes on from teacher to pupil, onward to the end of time." 108 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. PEDAGOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL OBSERVATION. REPORT OF SPECIAL COMMITTEE, 1. The scope aiid method of inquir}' into what experience and reflection can be made to reveal of both the theory and practice of school-teaching has been a topic of study in some department of tliis Association for a number of years. No one questions the practical value of such study when pursued by the l(K)kcd for from our eflTorts at discovery. Nothing is more common than the statement that the function of education is the development of character, but we have not agreed upon the meaning of the word character. The conception of it varies from tliat of a bundle of habits acquired by chance or by instruction, and by methods the most various, to that of conscious self-activity disciplined, thnnigh knowledge and obedience, to choose the rational in preference to the irrational. With the one class will and freedom are terms of uncertain meaning — phenomena that may be merely appearance ; but whether they are or not can never be known. With another class will and freedom are eternal verities that lie at the heart of things. The difference between these views is the dif- ference between a machine and a being potentially a deity, aipable of realiz- ing the injunction to be perfect even as the Father who is in Heaven is perfect. And the lines of pedagogical inquiry pursued by these two classes will differ as widely. 2. A distinction needs to be made between pedagogy and education. The range of pedagogical inquiry is not coextensive with that of education in its more comprehensive meaning. Educational inquiry would extend to all the agencies consciously and unconsciously employed that influence the life of man. Pedagogical inquiry' is limited to the study of those agencies that are employed by the teacher with the conscious intention of stimulating and di- recting the growth of the individual. The institution that groups and directs these agencies we call the school. PEDAGOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL OBSEHVATIOy. 109 But it would be irrational to ignore the educational influences external to the school in any intelligent inquiry into the scope and function and method of school education. The school is merely auxiliary to the other great insti- tutions of the social world, beginning its work upon a foundation of training which the pupil has already received from them, lemiing the pupil along lines parallel to them for a period of his life, and ending by being dissolved again iuto this ever-enduring institutional life from which it sj)rings. To ignore the education of the family, the state, the business world, or the church, in any system of pedagogical inquiry, would be to study a part without any refertnice to the whole. Fruitful pedagogical inquir>' demands, then, as one of it** con- ditions, an intelligent estimate of the educational agencies and results exter- nal to the school. 8. Another condition precedent to any valuable results from investigations of this nature is, that the investigator shall have a knowledge of mind in so far as a study of his own mind will reveal this to him. If we hold with Em- erpottj that there is one mind common to all individual men, then it must fol- low that such a knowledge of one s own mind as introsjx^ction reveals must iumwh the basis upon which all observation of the characteristics of the minds of pupils shall rest. To "learn to observe children by observing them/' does not seem to be an injunction that will result in much that is valuable, unless one has made such a preparatory study of self as shall give him the ability to interpret the meaning of what he observes. The method of the student of natural science is better. It requires that the discoverer shall first learn what has been found out in the field of his inquiry, and that from this he advance to new discoveries by supposing certain things to be true and proceeding to test the truth of the hypothesis. The attitude of some persons who are influential in determining public opin- ion, toward the study of psychology', is not helpful. They see young and in- experienced people approach this study as though it were something external, and finally obtain as the result of their eflbrt^ a ma'« of definitions that de- fine nothing, and a system of classification of so-called mental faculties that is little more than words, and a mass of opinions of other }ieople about the nuiid that they vainly strive to carry in their memory. This travesty upon a knowledge of mind is named psychology- or metaphysics by those who do not know the one from the other, and they condemn it as worthless, and very properly, too. But their mistake is in naming this sterile result ixsycholog\\ A real study of mind by the only process by which mind can be known, which is by the process of introspection, instead of by the process of observation, or by the study of texts, must funiLsh the key to the interpretation of all obser- vations of children. The method of all observation is from hypothesis to its verification. The larger the range of knowledge, the greater the probability that the hypothesis made can be verified. Any pedagogical inquiry that is made in response to the injunction to observe children and report the results, must be sterile unless these observations are directed by generalizations that 110 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. a study of self and of the discoveries of others has suggested. Groping about, picking up whatever comes to hand and throwing all together into a cement foreign to each, may form a sort of pedagogical "pudding-stone," but what is it good for when made? The writer was recently informed by a gentleman of acknowledged authority in his own department of study, that there are many great things in this world that have no idea in them. I imagine that this method of pedagogical iuquir}% diligently pursued, would result in a thing of this class. 4. Another condition of any valuable results from any system of pedagog- ical inquiry is, that there shall be some common conclusion as to the ftinction of the school. There is no wide difference among educationists in the words employed to name the product which the school should send forth. But a careftil study of the different processes advocated, and of the descriptions made of this product, leads the student to the conclusion that the things that have a common name are not common in their nature. 5. These conditions being realized in some measure, one may proceed to de- termine the field of inquiry that seems to promise the best returns for the labor bestowed. One question that suggests it^«elf is, what is the course of in- struction that will lead most directly and certainly to the end for which the school is established ? The answer to this question demands an analysis of the physical and mind activities stimulated by each subject that is a candi- date for admission into this curriculum. Education, in so far as it is deter- mined by the school, is the result of the activities of mind and body stimulated by the school. Here we see the necessity of detennining as definitely as may be the function of the school before entering upon the study of a course of instruction. This has l)een called the study of educational values, and is necessary in order that we may know what results to expect from each study in the course, and that we may be able to avoid unnecessary repetition of ex- ercises under another name that are already sufficiently provided for. There is need, too, that our pedagogical inquirer make a careful study of what for want of a better name we may caII mental chemism. The claim is set up, especially by those who emphasize the importance of manual training, that shop-work combined with Latin and history, when all are in a nascent state, so to speak, make an educational compound essentially different from and greatly superior to the aggregate of the resultants of these studies when pursued at different j)eriods. If this be true in respect to the ingredient shop- work, it must be true of ever}' other ingredient, and the notion that a boy can be adequately educated by pursuing one subject of study at a time must be abandoned. It has generally been held that it is economical to teach several subjects at the same time, for the reason that one serves as a rest for another. But here is a demand for a variety of studies at one time, based upon psycho- logical grounds of quite a different character, the validity of which must be determined by a course of inquiry involving both reflection and observation. A similar investigation must be made of modes of discipline and methods of PEDAGOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL OBSEBVATION. Ill instruction that would find a place in this educational environment we call the schooL 6. We now come to a consideration of the method.s by which a valuable })edagogical ob8er\^ation can be made, supposing that the conditions are real- ized, and a general survey has been made of the field. I repeat that the ob- ser\er must come equipped with a knowledge of his own mind, acquired by a process of persistent and intelligent intnisjiection. This must ser^'e him as a ha^i:* of experience by which he is to interpret the signs which his pupils make of their experience. The completer one's knowledge of himself, the irreater will be his ability to pn>j)erly interpret what he observes. His skill in making these obser\'ations will grow with practice. It is through practice that he becomes "a good judge of human nature," which seems to me another farm of the statement that skill is acquired in judging of others by explain- ing their acts by our own experiences. This is a case where (me must know how it is himself if he would know how it is with others. This essential con- dition being realized, the investigation must follow the meth(xl of scientific inquiry. That is, the obser\'er needs first to know what has already been dis- covered. It is by standing on the shoulders of observers that have preceded him that he can hope to see further than they. This L? all evident enough ; and that it is often disregarded can be explained by the enthusiasm for discovery that sometimes impels zealous young persons to earn anew their in- heritance of scientific knowledge by the self-same process that the race first acquired it. It is true, that what is lent from our fathers' heritage miwt be earned anew if it shall be really ours ; but our process of reeaming it ought to be an improvement upon the original process of acquisition. Their numer- ous surveys resulted in the final discovery of a route which if they had known at the start, would have saved them much time and energy. Standing upon the tentative generalizations which he has inherited and come into possession of, he proceeds to test the validity of these by applying them to newly-discov- ered facts, and to modify or discard them, as these new facts shall demand. This is the process we call observation, and must ever be the process by which our knowledge is extended in all cases where the facts are not all in, and the field is that of experience. The results of observation in the field of pedagog}' are neither so definitely known nor so easily verified as in the physical sciences. This fact demands that they be made with much more care. It is not reasonable to suppose that young, inexperienced, or ignorant persons can make pedagogical observations that will be of great value to education ; and whether they shall be of value to those who make them, depends upon the degree of their experience and knowledge. Pedagogical inquiry is a promising field for the specialist in education, if he shall prepare himself to enter' it. Natural science, history, art, mathe- matics, literature, manual training, each produces results in education pecul- iar to itself. Nothing could be more interesting and profitable than the 112 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. recorded observation of specialists in these subjects, that should exhibit the stages of growth of the young mind as shown by their progress in oomingr into a mastery of these subjects. There are now recognized effects of education discernible at the end of loiig^ epochs, changing the inability to combine the most closely related ideas, iuto the power of logical and continuous thought ; changing the stolid countenance into one illuminated by intelligence ; transforming the weak, flabby will into a will dominated by a high moral purpose; and developing an aesthetic nature responsive only to the crudest forms of beauty into a taste true to the canons of art. We have all seen these changes take place in a human soul as the results of education. It is not unreasonable to conclude that if the eye of the teacher is sharpened by reflection and observation he may be able to measure in some degree this progress from year to year, and determine in a measure the influence of the different studies in producing these results. 7. To whom may we look for obsen^ations of permanent value to the science of teaching ? The answer is suggested by what has been already said. This is an insight that comes only with fasting and prayer. It comes, too, only to those who are oi)en and hospitable to new impressions. The method of study is from hypothesis to verification, but the observer must not forget that it is only an hypothesis, and that it must be verified. 8. In conclusion let it be remarked that a pedagogical inquiry that promises an}'thing of value to education, is not to be looked for from those who enter upon it without due preparation, unless they pursue it long and persistently under competent leadership. Normal and other teachers* schools could do much to direct the attention of capable young teachers to lines of study and observation that shall open to them the children's minds, and enable them to see more clearly the effect of their instruction. The young teacher like the young naturalist, must be taught to obser\^e through being led to reflect and observe under competent direction. But it is a mistake to suppose that there is a large field of unexplored territory lying at the door of every teacher, filled with pedagogical riches which even the blind can discover. This is a time of wonderful activity in the discover}^ of new sources and new applications of physical force. But it will be well to remember that mind and education are much older subjects of study in the race than na- ture. He who would make anew revelation in mathematics must first travel a long road before he has reached the boundary' of human knowledge upon that subject. So it is with mind and education. In natural science the way is short to this boundary, and the line of fnmtage is a long one. It can be attacked anywhere and some new thing revealed. It may be, too, that in- ventories made by competent specialists of what has found lodgment in chil- dren's minds in the city and in the countr}% in America and in the Fiji Islands, will contribute to our advancement of knowledge of teaching. So a record of the |)ersistence of the activity of the different instincts of children, to the exact number of postage stamps, or buttons, or marbles, or bits of col- PEDAGOGICAL AXD PSYCHOLOGICAL OBSEBVATIOy. 113 or«l fabric collected, may point out the way of salvation for them ; and even a carefiilly kept record of the variation in the phenomena manifest (kI in the knee-jerk may indicate to some the shortest and 8urej«t n)ad to the realization of manhood and good-citizenship. The proverb that "All roads lead to Rome," is as true in the realm of spirit as in the realm of matter. The ctm- fiition is that you keep that road, and do not mistake s, The Knickerbocker Press. 1889. 114 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. The first two essays of the book deal with the details of the author's experi- ment on a young child (her daughter?) with a view to inducing from the first a scientific cast of mind. In her own words (p. 37 ) : "The mental edu- cation of even a very young child may be imbued with the scientific methods, and even ideas which should furnish suitable preparation for advanced scien- tific studies"; and she adds: "It cannot be a matter of indifference that such habits of mind are acquired from the beginning, or only after much previous faulty training." For this purpose a cultivation of the habit of mathematical accuracy is the first requisite. The technical terms and definitions of geometry were ac- cordingly taught the child in its fourth and fifth years. It learned to analyze and describe all the forms that it saw around it in the world with accuracy, using such words as equilateral, isosceles, right-angled and scalene, trapezium, trapezoid, jjentagon, hexagon, semi-circle, ovum, ovoid, etc. "She did not merely know the names of these things, but to her eye the whole j)erceptible universe aiTanged itself spontaneously into these fundamental forms" (p. 12 ). At the age of five and a half years, ideas of geometric necessity began to be taught. The next step after this training in accuracy was the study of cosmical phenomena, such as the rainbow-, the points of the compass, sunrise and sun- set, and experiments with the ruler, spirit level, pulley, wedge, and balance, care being taken to teach the metric system of w^eights and measures. Next followed the notion of perspective and the art of drawing, and after this the study of geographical maps, and relief globes. In learning the technical terms above mentioned the child was taught the meaning of the syllables gon, hedron, tri, tetra, penta, hexa, etc., and of course learned to count. It is difficult therefore to understand what is meant by the statement on page 27, that arithmetic was begun several months after the first studies of form and outline, inasmuch as geometric figures cannot he described or even distinguished one from another without the mental capacity to recognize number. Of course only elementary operations of arithmetic are required in defining the figures, but the highest operations, such as deal with ratio and the squaring of numbers, are demanded before the completion of the first book of geometry. The science of geometry aims first to find a state- ment of the fundamental relation of spacial form in terms of number, and it accomplishes this in the famous Pythagorean proposition, which gives the ratio of the sides of the simplest form of the triangle (the right-angled) in terms of the second power. After this, geometry has nothing to do except to explain all other figures by the triangle and measure them. The child studied the growth of some beans planted in cotton-wool, describ- ing a catastrophe in the biology of one of them in the following language : "The episperm on the under surface is all black, and has split, leaving a space the shape of an equilateral triangle with the apex pointing to the convex edge of the cotyledons" (p. 33). PEDAGOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL OBSERVATION. 115 At the age of ^ve and one-half yeare the child was taught to read, but it seeing that it had learned the alphabet some time before in the kindergarten (at four years of age), " where she taught herself by incessantly copying the letters, until she was familiar with them** (pp. 35, 18). We are surprised at this early mastery of the arts of reading and writing, the child being "allowed to follow her own inclination" in the matter; for the authorspeaksstrongly of the "glaring crudity of the educational methodj* which persist in beginning mental training with a forced drill in these com- plex processes of gj'mnastics," referring to the pathological discoveries made by studying the brain-lesions connected with aphasia and writer*s cramp, which "have revealed a hitherto unsuspected complexity in the muscular movements involved in writing, and of mental processes necessary to language." The knowledge of this complexity of brain structure seems to have led her a priori to the conclusion that the school should not begin with teaching read- ing and writing. But the school usually does this for children only in their seventh, eighth, or ninth year; while Mrs. Jacobi's child mastered these com- plex movements and brain processes in her fifth and sixth years without any outside suggestion. These notes regarding early scientific training cease when the child attains the age of six and one-half years. Now follows the more remarkable part of the book, the part treating of the place for the study of language. There is, however, a chapter by way of ap- pendix to the first part, in which Mrs. Jacobi answers (and I think success- fully) the strictures made by Miss Youmans on the course adopted in the child's study of plants — the flower being preferred to the leaf for first analysis by the former; while Miss Youmans thinks the leaf should be the first study on the ground of the educational maxim, so often juggled with, that the simple should come before the complex, leaving out of mind apparently another maxim (still oftener misunderstood), that intellectual education should be begun by vivid sense-impressions. This latter maxim justifies IVIrs. Jacobi's method of procedure. " It is unphilosophical to study the flower containing the corolla just merely because it is more showy," says Miss Youmans. But the showiness of it strongly appeals to the senses and therefore especially fits it for first study. This language essay seems to have been written some years later than the essay on the science-experiment, and its value consists in the circumstance that its author has followed out in the meantime to their logical conclusion the physiological premises which had been misinterpreted by other observers, and at first even by Mrs. Jacobi herself. I must pause here to commend the noble spirit of the author, who is inter- ested solely in setting down an accurate record of her experiments and infer- ences, and is not swayed by any false pride to prefer the appearance of self-consistency to a true statement of all the actual details of the growth of her present convictions. 116 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. She undertakes to discuss the problems of language-study — whether it ex- ercises a different effect upon mental development from the study of physical science, or mathematics, or history ; whether the modem or the classic lan- guages are best, also the amount of such study, the best period for it, and the devices or methods to be followed. Starting with the proposition that language is "the highest physiological acquisition that distinguishes the human race from the lower animals," the author proceeds to consider the recent theories of brain action in local cen- ters, and, comparing the number of centers involved in the use of language, comes to infer "That to learn the name of a thing and to learn how to use this name involves much more mental action than is required simply to ac- quire sense-perceptions about it" (p. 73). This is inferred from the structure of the nervous tissue of the brain, "composed of an immense quantity of microscopic cells, traversed by delicate fibers, connected with each other by fine fiber-like prolongations of their own substance." She sums up the phys- iological discussion thus: "The acquisition of foreign languages in addition to the native tongue multiplies the number of verbal signs which the mind habitually couples with visible impressions." More brain-cells and more of the interconnecting filaments are brought into action. Hence, by learning foreign languages, " Impressions are immensely multiplied and the mind be- comes accustomed to take cognizance of such subtle differentiations that its delicacy of perception is indefinitely increased. The capacity to appreciate subtle distinctions, more subtle than those in existing nature outside of the mind, is essential to scientific work " (p. 83). Here is stated the surprising result that language-study is necessary in order to train the mind for truly scientific obser\'ation. Mathematical processes she finds to be less fitted for scientific preparation, for. good physiological reasons : " The more concrete and sensuous character of verbal signs is as- sociated with an incalculable multiplicity and qualitative variety of interre- lation ; hence they bring the mind much nearer to the infinite variety of nature than does mathematics" (p. 85). Considering the two parts of physical science — 1st, tlie acquisition of sense- impressions; 2d, the classification of these and the discovery of their laws — the author points out that the second step corresponds to the mental activity that reacts upon its sense-impressions, generates words, and thus creates lan- guage. " Words are the first products of the action of the mind upon nature, as science is the latest and most complex expression of tlie same action. Thus language is the earliest and most jierfect type of science." To this unexpected but incontestable conclusion, Mrs. Jacobi has been led by a more carefid scrutiny of the logical inferences to be drawn from the data of physiological psychology. She next proceeds to weigh the resj)ective values of the three parts of language-study, to wit: of words, of grammar, and of literature. The capacity to use words of general or abstract meaning is essential to all PEDAGOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL OBSERVATION. 117 thought about our perceptions, and "essential al^) to all jxireeiitions theuLselves if they are beyond the simplest and most obvious ; far the larj^r part of what the mind perceives is what the mind brinp^ to the object fn>m ite previous store of knowledge and reflection. Every word is a condensed generalization of experiences or of observations/' This is a profound and altogether imjwr- tant principle, and the entire question of language-study hinges on it. Grammar study is shown to lie a still "higher training in the mental pro- cesses involved in scientific study, ... for it calls into play more promi- nently the concept centers of the brain, as compared with the sensory centers ; and it emphasizes the excitation of the connecting fibers of the brain rather than that of the ganglion cell-areas which they connect" ( p. 92). Literature is still more important as preparatory training for scientific ob- servation. Literature mirrors the thought and life of mankind. " In words and grammar are already found outlined and reflected the history and phi- losophy of European nations" (p. 93). The functional grouping of brain regions must be changed in the jirocess of acquiring a new language. This causes a consciousness of diflference of point of Wew. " The physical basis of this consciousness is the space occupied by the nerve-fibers of the brain, which propagate vibrations from one convo- lution to another. ^ When an English-speaking person projects his conscious- ness into the form of language-construction peculiar either to Latin or Greek, he seems to traverse a much wider space than if he simply pass from English to French, or even to Grerman. The rearrangement of direction for the intra- cerebral propagation of vibrations or excitations must therefore be more ex- tensive for the ancient languages than for the modem. Hence the mental development or stimulus derived must be much greater." Another physiological suggestion might be added to those of Mrs. Jacobi. The inheritance of culture from the Greeks and the Romans has certainly had its eflfect on our Teutonic brain-cells and interlacing fibers, so far as to express the results of those civilizations. Now to study their language and literature Is to excite into activity other bndn-cells and filaments, which are so connected with the former that they facilitate their action, inasmuch as they were the original cells and fibers out of which grew in a normal manner the derivative cells expressing the logical conclusions and results of the primitive views of the world formed by those people. For we are told (p. 103) that "Any kind of knowledge is only thoroughly grasped and digested when all parts of the brain tissue impressed by it vibrate easily and harmoniously upon its sugges- tion." If this be so, it follows that the brain-cells that stand for original acquisi- tion should "vibrate" together with the brain-cells and fillers that stand for systems of theory and rules of practice built up from those original acquisitions as a foundation. Hen(« whatever a nation presupposes as the origin of its culture should belong to its education as an object of study. It will aid its comprehension of its own methods of thought and practice, and we suppose -8 118 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. the physiological equivalent of this to be "easier and more harmonious vibra- tion of the brain tissue." "The construction of the Latin language as a whole compels the translation of the modern mind into a form of consciousness sufficiently remote from its own to necessitate a great change in the general synthesis of cerebral activity. The same is true of Greek" (p. 116). The study of Latin and Greek is in fact the study of the embryology (»f our civilization, and necessary for gaining an insight into our modes of thought and forms of social action, political and legal usages. " Language, which alone perfectly expresses all internal thought," says the author in concluding her treatise, "also mirrors all external things that have ever been impressed on the mind of man." Hence the inference which is stated at the beginuino: of her essay, that the physical sciences failed to develop until after the re- naissance of classical learning, for the reason that "the human brain could not advance in analysis of the external world until it had been disciplined and developed in its internal activity by training in language." For those who are looking for the Messiah of psychology in education, here at least is a psychological John the Baptist, of far more significance to educa- tion than all that has hitherto proceeded from the school of Wundt, ^leynert, Hitzig, Exner, Ferrier, and the professors of La Salpetri^. We may safely say this, because Mrs. Jacobi alone has had the enterprise to fully elaborate the physiological influences, and lead them up to the ethical and spiritual in- fluences heretofore recognized. W. T. Harris. RELATION OF INSTRUCTION TO WILL-TRAINING. CHARLES DEOARMO, NORMAL, ILLINOIS. By will-training Ls usually meant the enforcement of moral or religiou.s maxims by the discipline of external authority in the family and school. It is by no means the ])urpose of the present paper to deny the validity of this kind of training, for no rational man can fail to see the beneficent effects of rigorous family and school discipline, when it is directed by wisdom and ad- ministered in love. But there can be no independent character until the ex- ternal direction of authority gives place to internal contrt)l. The \nll niu««t be trained into intelligent, consistent and vigorous self-activity. But to act intelligently and consistently, the mind must have an insight of its own. Its maxims of conduct should not ultimately depend upon the dogmatic dictum of the outside world, however needful this may be at first. The present in- (juiry, therefore, while in no wise attempting to deny the validity of the means at present most relied upon to form character, pix)poses to lay the basis for a fundamental investigation of the bearing which school instruction in the WILL' TBA INIXii. 1 1 9 common branches of arithmetic, ^n^mmar, geography and the like, can and j'hould have in the training of the will ; in other wordn, to discover the reflex action of a proper training of the nnderstanding u|Km the will-activity of the pupiL This inquiry has assumed a new imi)ortance thmugh the ri^e and develop- ment of the public school, for the old-time direct religious instruction has been, or in the nature of the case soon must l>e, banished from the scher of a comj)lex civil- ization, in which the destiny of each is detennine- position, or ratwiml psychology, and that of inductive reasoning from observed facts of consciousness to general laws of mental activity, or emptrieal jjsy- cholog}'. We may dismiss with a word all that large class of text-books on psy- chology, which, while proclaiming the unity of mind, really follow the anti* quated doctrine of independent, or only externally related, faculties. In these books the will is not shown to have any vital relation to understanding ; so that, according to them, an inquiry like the present would be an idle one. Psycho-physics has hardly claimed jurisdiction in such an investigation as the present. Its eiforts have been confined mostly to the investigation of im- mediate mental response to sense stimuli, and but little to the subtler opera- tions and relations of thought and volition ; consequently, for a long time to come, these mental processes must remain the province of the tnuned special- ist, so far as observation and experiment are concerned. Two methods of studying the psychology of the will remain — that of ra- tional and that of empirical psychology. The first is a priori and deductive, the second a posteriori and inductive. Both must acknowledge the validity of psychical law, both must deal with the facts of consciousness. Rational psy- chology reasons from the laws whose existence is seen to be logically neces- sary ; empirical psychology reasons to these laws, beginning with the observed facts of consciousness, and not attempting to demonstrate their a priori neces- sity. Which of these methods is the better? That depends upon the maturity and mental bent of the student. Every teacher of psychology should see clearly the logical presuppositions of his subject, just as the teacher of arithmetic should see the truths of algebra and geometry ; but it does not seem to me that he is forced in either case to deny the validity of his rational principles in order to teach his subject con- cretely and inductively. But whatever method of study one employs, it is plain that he must arrive at some self-consistent theory of the relations of thought and volition. Such questions as the following must be answered: Is the mind a self-active, self-developing whole? What influence has the environment in and out of school upon its content ? Does rational desire arise from the insight given by knowledge? What bearing has education on true rational freedom ? Does intellectual and moral desire have its origin and center in concepts? What role does understanding play in the actualization of desire in action and deed? What is the function of judgment in enabling the self to realize itself in volition? How can the reason enable the mind to subordinate means to ends, and lower ends to liigher ones ? Our inquiry in- volves the answering of all these queries ; for we know that instruction can awaken, foster and develop rational desires ; it can train the judgment to the discernment of the possibility of the attainment of desire and of the l>est means of realization ; and it can furnish an insight into moral relations which WILL-TRAINING, 121 will enable the mind to Huhordinate the lower to the higher, to determine when the end justifies the means. It is also especially needful to inquire what bear- iug an enduring and growing interest may have upon the will. We should f€e that such interest stands in the middle l>etween knowledge and d(*sire, and forms the bridge between them ; that like knowledge, it is a present jK)ssi»ssion, and like desire, it demands a future satisfaction. We need to see with Herbart, that "The interest of the school-room is only a manifestation of our whole interest for the world and man, and that instruction gathers all the objects of this interest into the lap of youth, which is the lap of the ftiture." The most immediate question of the teacher should be: How can I arouse and keep the interest of my pupils ? Not that interest which is like the spark struck from the flint — bright, indeed, but leaving only coldness behind it — but interest whose similitude is rather the northward-moving sun ; the interest that warms, that inspires, that grows by what it feeds up(m, until the whole mind L« aroused into productive self-activity by its influence. If, upon deliberation, it shall appear that there is a road to rational and effective volition through the thought and feeling aroused by instruction, then the second phase of the inquiry may be taken up, — What is there in the common-school studies capable of aflecting the will in its various flelds of activity? To an external view, it might appear that our daily school-room studies have little direct reference to the ends for which men strive in the outside world, and hence have but little influence upon our volitional life. Yet, if school instruction has any vital relation to the content of our will-activity, there must be something in these studies capable of annising strong and abid- ing interest in them. Dr. Harris has given us an analysis which may serve as a guide to our inquiry. Our chief interests, and hence our chief will-activities, may be cla.<58ified as practieal, intellectual^ and nwniL In our modem economic life, division of labor is a fact not confined to the employ^ of a factory, but it is a principle that holds for different neighbor- hoods and sections of the country, and, to some extent at least, of different countri^. There is, then, an ever-increasing reciprocity between the people of different places. Under the conditions of modem economic life, all live for each and each lives for all. Two cents invested in a postage stamp will buy for us the service of a railroad train, of hundreds of men, thousands of miles of iron road, and an invested capital of hundreds of millions of dollars. Combination, cooperation, recipn)cal service, are the nding idci^s of the mod- em conmiercial world. The great world without constantly reflects itself in the individual, if he has intelligence enough to receive the image. What ?tudy opens the eyes to a view of the commercial world, and warms the heart for its practical interests ? It is geogmphy. This study shows the pupil his place relations to the remainder of the world ; it reveals to him the possibili- ties of his commercial interaction with the rest of his race. It exhibits the 122 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. commercial aspects of botany and zoology, and the conditions and advantages of intercommunication and reciprocity. But distance and obstructions separate places, and time is an important element in the utilization of many products. Rapid transportation and inter- communication are necessary to the highest and most profitable commercial ex- change ; most raw products demand a transformation before they can be used ; man must be protected from the rigors of climate. To meet all these needs, external nature must be mastered in its quantitative aspects, resistance and the needed force to overcome it must be measured. Arithmetic is the school study that lies at the basis of this mastery of nature. With its aid, man har- nesses up the primal forces of nature in his service, so that the railroad, the steamship, the telegraph, the electric light, become a possibility. This study, in short, lies at the ba«?i8 of the physical and chemical sciences. The ideas introduced by geography and arithmetic are developed and intensified by the various departments of natural science. Arithmetic and geography, then, are the studies which are preeminent in making possible the practical ends of modern economic life. The more clearly the teacher sees the functions of these studies the more powerful will become his hold over the mind of the pupil, the more immediate will be the influence of his instruction, in these studies, upon the pupil's volitional activity. Turning now to the inner world, we find that language and grammar, in conjunction with the more abstract phases of mathematics, open up to the child the possibility of understanding his own thought and that of others, for in a concrete way they study thinking by studying the expression of thought. Grammar is thus the introduction to the higher disciplines of logic, psy- chology, and philosophy. More than any other study it lays a foundation for the purely intellectual interests and activities of man. Drawing and belles- lettres awaken aesthetic interests, w^hile history and dramatic literature reveal man in action. They, above all other studies, have the most intimate relation to the will-activity of the pupil ; for in them, as in a mirror, he sees a pattern for his own deeds. He reads the story of liberty in history, and gets a revela- tion of the cost and the value of freedom ; in the drama he ideally sees him- self in conflict with the institutions of his race, and learns that only through the mediation of re[)entance and restitution can he escaj)e the return of his deed upon his head. In this way he absorbs ideally the experience of the race, hut escapas the pain which has led to freedom. It is in these subjects more than in all others that the puj)il can be taught to form the habit of making and establishing correct moral judgments; to develop love and in- terest for noble deeds and high ideals. Reading and wanting are the possi- bilities of the other studies. We find, then, in the common-school studies the concrete basis and antecedent condition of all the subsecjuent practical, intel- lectual, jBsthetic, and moral interests of mankind, and hence the root of all rational volition. An analysis of will shows that it may l>e trained through the appeal that WILL- TRAINING, 1 23 instruction makes to the mind. An analyni^ of the c»ourse of study reveals the fact that the common-school branches involve the ^nus of the practical, iiudlectiial, and moral interests and aims of mankind. But wnmg methods of t4^achin- ening insight may result from skillfully arranged questions. As a suggestion of the simple and yet valuable lines of observation open to the teacher in apperception as a condition of interest, I shall briefly describe a few of the experiments recently performed in our school at Normal. The first was the apperception or apprehension of a sense object. It was a hollow cylindrical box, seven inches long and one inch in diameter, orna- mented on the outside. When the top or cover was removed, another hollow cylinder, fitted with a thimble-like cap, and turned into bobbins, was found on the inside. This could be taken out of the main cylinder. The implement was first taken apart and shown to a class of forty adults, who were asked to write what they conceived the article to be. Sixteen difierent answers were given, three of which were correct. The bobbins were for thread, the hollow inside of the inner cylinder for needles, and the cap for a thimble. Some thought the article a toy, some a snuflf-box, some a perfumery case, some a match-box, a medicine case, an ink-well, etc. I then told the class that I would give them a remote suggestion as to the purpose of the article by nam- ing a small flower — Bachelor's Button. Five persons now declared the article to be a needle case ; one, a needle, thimble and thread case ; seven, a button box, though there was no place for buttons to be found ; while seven thought the case must be designed for bachelors. I then wrote the name of a poem — The Song of the Shirty and finally the term Implements for Se%dng. The total result of the answers was as follows : Needle case, 26 ; needle and thread, 15; needle, thread, and thimble (the right answer), 18; needles and buttons, 3 ; needle and thimble, 5 ; needles and pins, 3 ; thread and thimble, 1 ; other scattering answers, 51. The same experiment, but with planer suggestions, was made in a primary class. The results were surprisingly dififerent. Three experiments were tried with a grammar-school arithmetic cla^, only one of which can be described. The problem and apperceiving questions were as follows : One-fifth of a pole is in the ground, six feet are in the water, and one-half the whole is above water ; how long is the pole ? One minute for so- lution, without suggestion. ^ 1. What part of the pole is not in the water? One minute to solve. 2. The sum of what two fractions expresses the part of the pole not in the water? What is this sum ? One minute to solve the problem. 3. If seven-tenths are not in water, how many tenths are in the water? One minute to solve. Most of the pupils laughed when the last question was given. The follow- ing is the result : Correct answer without question, 6 ; after first question, 6 ; after second question, 1 ; after third question, 9. Eight pupils gave wrong answers, and two failed to answer at all. One pupil gave the correct answer at first, but wrong answers after the first and third questions. Another set of experiments was conducted, for the purpose of discovering Dli^crsSKtN. 125 the pupils' rauge of thiukiiig. Only the general outlines of the plan can be described at present: A phrase from the FMolm of Life waf» chosen, viz.: Art is long. The pupils were first a?ked to give the meaning when connidered in connection with the remainder of the iefore a conveution of profeseiional teachers. It Is fortunate, first, because my mind has not yet reached conviction on many of the questions involved, and you a** experts will appreciate the difficulties of one who is still in the stage of experiment- making. It is fortunate, in the second plaw, l>ecause it is im])ossihle within the Iimit<$ of time allowed, to discuss with anything like fullness of detail the many important questions which the subject suggests. All I can hope to do is to raise the leading points at issue, to state briefly some of the arguments pro and con, and leave to you the tae employed by a teacher, a principal, or a superintendent, to discover whether a pupil has c<:)rapleted with a sufficient degree of efficiency the work of the lower graegin the work of a higher grade. To ejrnmine means literally to "weigh carefully,'* hence to test, to try. When we examine a child, we simply te^ whether he has accomplished certain work, and whether he is ready to proceed with certain other work. Examinations under some conditicms are legitimate ; under other conditions are illegitimate. How shall the legitimacy be determined? Dr. W^hite distinguishes between examination as an element of teaching and examination as a test for pn)motion, and seems to regard the fonner as not only legitimate, but necessary, and the latter as not only unnecessary, but il- legitimate. I cannot admit Dr. White's distinction. All examinations are elements of teaching. Whether they are made for the purpose of testing a pupil's knowledge, or of determining his fitness for promotion, they arc equally elements of teaching. They are teaching him either something go(Kl or some- thing bad. They are training him in a right direction or in a wrong direc- tion. Everything done in a school-mom is an element of teaching ; and it is our business to see that each thing done is an element in teaching what is g»XKL Here, then, we have found a criterion by which to determine the legitimacy or illegitimacy of any form of test or examination. Is it an element in teach- 128 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. ing what is good ? If it is, let us use it. If it is not, let us not touch the unclean thing. But in order to apply this criterion, we must claiisify examinations. They may be classified according to the immediate object for which they are con- ducted, as daily examinations, review examinations, and comprehensive or stated examinations. By daily examinations I m^an the sharp, rapid cross-questioning to which every skillful teacher subjects his pupils. The questions may test the connec- tion between the lesson in hand and one that has gone before, or they may test knowledge of the subject under consideration, or they may be used to dispel illusions, or they may suggest and elicit a new train of thought that flows from the lesson like a brooklet from a spring ; but in all cases, they have quite as good a right to the title of examination as either the review or the stated examination. Socrates was the first great examiner whose examination questions are still extant, and those who believe in examination have no need to be ashamed of the inventor of the system. Review examinations, generally written, are given primarily for the pur- pose of testing whether the knowledge imparted is retained with sufficient ac- curacy and clearness. They are sometimes given at stated intervals, though the more progressive among teachers now adopt the plan of giving a review examination whenever the study of some natural division of a subject, as dec- imal fractions in arithmetic, or one of the grand divisions in geography, is completed. Comprehensive, or stated, examinations are intended or should be intended to test whether students have a comprehensive grasp, not of petty details, but of the general outlines of a subject, whether they know the relations of the various parts to one another and to the whole. These three different kinds of examination, the daily examination, the review examination, and the comprehensive examination, exhaust all possible kinds of examination. The inquiry is now pertinent as to how far and under what conditions they are elements in teaching what is good. But first, what is teaching? Dr. White defines teaching as "the applying of means to the pupil's mind in such manner as to occasion those mental ac- tivities that result in knowledge, power, and skill." Teaching, according to this definition, in which as far as it goes I heartily concur, includes both in- struction and training — instruction being that part of teaching which results in knowledge, and training that part which results in |x)wer or skill. The question then resolves itself into this : Is examination one of the means that occasion those mental activities which result in knowledge, power, and skill ? The reply must be in the affirmative. Certainly it will be so with regard to the daily and review examinations ; and, rightly considered, it can hardly fail to be so also with regard to the comprehensive, or stated examination. The ground is exactly the same in all three cases. Knowledge is not knowl- edge when it has been merely taken in. It is not knowledge until it has EXAMIXATIOSS AS TESTS FOR PIU^MOTIOX. 129 jcif^ through the mind and come out a^rain in words or acti<»n9 of our own. I'litil this ii« done we cannot be sure even that we j)t>ss<^s knowled^\ Even- tin »rrmgh-g<>in^ student has been at some time or other, when ctmfronted with i'xaniination questions, amazed at his own ignoranct* of subjects with which he t'oQdJy imagined he was thonnighly familiar. There is j)robably no better test **i a teacher's ability than his power to determine, during the giving of a lesson or after it hai* been given, whether it has been mastered by his |)U])ils. And m I have frequently seen teachers of great ability a^^tonished at their pupils* ijriioranoe of subjects which they, the teachers, thought haeen converted into faculty. The very act of reproducing knowleeen reproduced. All this is necessarj', but it is not enough. It is but a means to an end, and the end is the comprehension of a subject as a whole, and the comprehensicm of the relations of the various parts to one another and to the whole. This aim should be held steadily in view by every teacher, no nuitter how small a portion of a subject may fall to his lot to teach in a particular grade. I can conceive it possible that where one teacher, as sometimes happens in a college or university, begins and ends the teaching of a single subject, the compre- hensive examinations might be abandoned without serious injur}'. But in a system of graded schools, in which each teacher teaches only a small fraction of a subject, in which the teachers differ so largely, as they inevitably must, in ability, in manner, and in method, there is absolutely no other way by which to test whether pupils have attained a comprehensive knowledge of a subject ; there is absolutely no other way by which to enforce due attention on the part of both teachers and pupils to this all-irafwrtant part of their work. Nor is even this all. The process of learning is not complete until the pupil can apply his knowledge in some practical way. The learning of a principle or rule in arithmetic is useless, until the pupil can apply it to the solution of problems. The study of the facts of form is of comparatively little value, unless the scholar can give them concrete expression with his own hands. The memorizing of the rules and definitions of grammar is so much time almost wasted, unless the scholar can apply them in the criticism of his own language, both oral and written, and in the elucidation of difficult and obscure passages in what he reads. These are elementary truths which I should have to apologize for stating were it not for their bearing uj^m this discussion. Exanunation consists not merely in reproducing knowledge im- parted or acquired, but in making practical application of knowledge, in test- ing power and skill. And hence on this ground also — the ground of practical application as well as that of reproduction — examination, seeing that it is not only a test of application and reproduction, but an exercise in application 130 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. and a means of the development of power and skill, must be regarded as an element of teaching what is good. And if it is an element of teaching what is good, it has a right to its legitimate place and function in any and every system of education. In the words of Mr. Fitch, " Examining is a part of teaching, and is indispensable to it." Examination is not merely a test of knowledge, power, and skill: it is a means of ac^^uiring knowledge, power, and skill. Examinations, however, when w^isely used may be made to serve other pur- poses than those of exercise in reproducing knowledge and of testing and ac- quiring power and skill. They may serv^e also as both a standard and a stimulus. Particularly is this true of the comprehensive or stated examina- tion. Such an examination is the surest preventive of that loose and desultory teaching which is sure to demoralize the intellectual habits of the average student. The habit of mind we should aim to cultivate is that which in the affairs of life enables a man to see clearly the end to be accomplished, and to take with honesty and firnmess of purjjose the path that leads most directly to its accomplishment. In every branch of study the cultivation of this habit is a thing to be kept ever in view. Every time the teacher wanders, or allows his pupils to wander, from the straight path that must be pursued to master a subject, he fosters the formation of habits of fickleness in purpose and de- sultoriness in action, he dulls the power of steady intellectual vision. Now it is only teachers of the highest order, of whom in the nature of things there can be but few, who can, without adventitious pressure, curb this propensity to wander; and, as the comprehensive examination, when properly conducted and given in its proper place, is the most pow^erful of all adventitious in- fluences, it follows that its use as a standard in a system of graded schools is indispensable. Even by teachers of the highest order, the influence of the comprehensive examination is not to be despised, especially when it is conducted by an ex- ternal authority. Even that ram auw, the born teacher, will work all the better if he is enabled, or compelled, to compare his own with another ideal. Mr. Fitch has put this phase of the argument so well that I feel constrained to adopt his language as my own : " The teacher knows well enough how nearly his ideal has been reached ; but he does not know, and cannot know, whether that ideal is the highest attainable, and how it compares with that which is attained by other teachers and under other conditions. There is an inevitable narrowness of vision produced by daily observation of the same little group of minds. Details are seen in more or less false i)ersi)ective. The progress of to-day is compared with that of yesterday, and the larger view of the progress that ought to be made, and which might be made, from year to year, becomes more and more difficult in proportion to the very zeal and ear- nestness with which the teacher watches the every-day work of his scholars. He cannot put himself into the position of complete detachment. He want*? to see his work as others see it. He wants an honest comparison to be made EXAMINATIONS AS TESTS FOB PROMOTION. 131 of hu? own performances with thone of others, and to be ai!»ured. The comprehensive examination, when conducted by one who is not imme- diately engaged in the work of class-teaching, and who is resjwnsible to the State alone, is the best means of informing the public how far the work of the teacher is honest and successfiil. All examinations, then, but particularly the comprehensive examinations, may be regarded as establishing a standard at which both teacher and pupil may aim, and a standard by which the public may judge of both teacher's and pupil's work. But again, all examination, and particularly the comprehensive examina- tion, is useful not only as an exercise, as a test, and as a standard, but also as a stimulus. Competition has been one of the mightiest forces in the evolution of civilization. In one form or another it is competition, under (xod's laws, that has raised man from being a little higher than the brutes to being a little lower than the angels. Many forms of com})etition that once played a promi- nent part in determining what tyjies were fittest to survive, have now disap- p)eared, or are disappearing from among civilized men. Among them, let us hope, is that form which leads a student to work only that he may surpass others — a form which leads to envy, malice, dishonesty, and distrust. But there is still room, and, so long as men are im})erfect, there will always be room, for that form of competition which leads each to strive, not to suq)ass others, but to equal the best and highest. Equality in excellence, not sujie- riority, is a healthy motive for endeavor, and if examinations when pro])erly conducted can be made to serve as a stinuilus to this motive, their existence is amply justified. It may be objected that knowledge and culture should be pursued for their 132 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION own sakes. This is very true. They should be so pursued. But then they are not. With the great majority of men and women the love of scientific knowledge and of culture is an acquired taste. Those who proclaim most loudly the doctrine of the self-sufficiency of education, both as an object and as a stimulus, forget that if their contentions were founded upon fact, the ar- gument for the maintenance of a State system of education would be robbed of its validity. (Why does the State maintain public schools? Because the desire for education, a thing necessary to the very existence of free govern- ment, does not exist originally in the majority of minds. If it did exist, uni- versally, as, for instance, the craving for food exists, there would be no more excuse for the State providing education for the masses than there is now for the State providing food for the masses. Our whole public-school system is predicated on the assumption that the desire for education is not universally present. The necessity for the stimulus afforded by examination is demon- strated by the very same reasoning. The desire for training is not indi- genous. It is an exotic as well as a plant of slow growth. The necessarj- mental habit is formed only, except in rare exceptions, under the influence of various stimuli, one of the most potential of which is examinations Let us now consider some of the objections of those who are opposed to ex- amination. Parenthetically, it may be said that these objections are urged chiefly, if not exclusively, against the comprehensive, or stated examination. It would be well, however, for the objectors to remember that their objections apply with equal force to the review examinations, though the propriety of the latter is doubted by none. The first objection is that the highest kind of teaching defies all test. As President Adams puts it : "Above all things it [education] means the awak- ening and developing of certain desires that will go well with the pupil as a kind of perpetual inspiration through life." To test this higher kind of teach- ing, examination utterly fails. But, though it fails at this point, is that any reason why it should not be used for the purpose for which it is preeminently fitted, namely, to test the acquisition of knowledge and the development of power and skill? We might as well say that we should not use oross-exam- ination in a court of law to test the veracity of a witness because it may not reveal whether a man is a poet or a philosopher. Again, examinations, it is said, lead to cramming with all its attendant evils. The case against examinations from this point of view, has never been more strongly stated than by President Adams : "A bird put into a dark room and stuffed with food by main force, will at once develop enormous digestive organs, and take on fat at an uniuiturally rapid rate. But it can hardly be claimed that this is a process of healthy growth. It is abnormal, and it tends to weakness rather than strength ; but it is entirely analogous to the processes of cramming for examinations that sometimes prevail. The one case is a gorging of the mind for the purpose of getting it into a certain condition for the emer- gency of an examination, much as the other is a gorging of the body in order EXAMINATIONS AS TESTS FOB PROMOTION 133 to bring it ill to a certain condition, let up say for a Chriser are the pro- cesses that must be employed in the cla8s-n)om. The fact that a process is sometimes injurious is an argument only in favor of excepting from the opera- tion those to whom it is found to be injurious. Then, again, the word cram is ambiguous. If it means simply learning words by rote, in the hope of passing an examination, the effect is undoubt- edly evil. But if it means the rapid review before an examination of a sub- ject already studied, if it means even the rapid study of a subject, entirely new, provided the study is done intelligently, the practice is not objectionable. Indeed, the power of getting ready quickly, of summoning all one's resources, at a time not of one's choosing, is an admirable and a necessary preparation for life. The lawyer is obliged to " cram " for the trial of a case ; the clergy- man, for his sermon ; even the college professor, for his lecture. That there is cramming, in the worst sense of the word, in many schools and classic, no one est of teachers alike need a standard toward which to work. Even Dr. White ad- mits that there is nothing like a good, square written examination to rouse some schools and teachers from the Rip Van Winkle sleep into which they are prone to fall. And, provided it is properly conducted, there is nothing like a good, square written examination to keep them from falling into such a sleep again. But examination is an edged tool. It must be carefully handled. Its un- skillAil employment has introduced untold evil into schooWork. It has fostered cramming of the worst kind ; it has injured the nervous systems of thousands of children ; it has robbed teachers of their individuality, and it has produced teaching that is formal, mechanical, and lifeless. The indictment is a heavy one. And yet I am firmly convinced that all three kinds of examination — the daily examination, the review examination, and the stated examination — are necessary, not only as elements of teaching, but also to determine promotions. Children, if they are to learn in any proper sense of the term, must apprehend details and principles, they must apply their knowledge practically, and they must, before they get through with a subject, comprehend it as a whole with the relations of all its parts. In a system of graded schools all three ways of learning must be tested or ex- amined in order to determine promotion. But how can this be done without involving the evils which I have enumerated ? Apprehension 'and applica- tion are to be tested by the daily examination tmd the review. And yet I have known many instances where the worst evils of examination — the press- ure on the uer\'ous system, cramming, and mechanical teaching — have been generated and fostered by both the daily recitation and the weekly or monthly review\ In the cjise of the daily examination the fact was due almost entirely to the plan of marking the answer to each question. In the first place, the plan is preeminently unjust. In a large class each pupil may be given but a single question. He may get the only question the answer to which he knows, EXAMINATIONS AS TESTS FOB PROMOTION. 185 and so receive a perfect mark when he really desen-es zero. Another may get the only question the answer to wliich he does not know, and so receive a mark of failure where he really deserved a very high mark. In the second place, marking and teaching at the same time are incompatible. If a teacher gives his whole mind to the work in hand, he has no thought to spare for marking. If he subtracts from the sum-total of his mental energy the amount needed to form, during the lesson, a judgment on the work of each individual pupil, the value of his teaching is by so nuich diminishen the matter I think it was eminently proper. If examinations had descended to the plane of being counted as mere test**, settling the question of promotion, that question above all others needs discussion. Very ably has this subject been handled by the paper that has just been read, and so we scarcely do more than stAte the points, without discussing them, bearing upon this ])ha.se of the question. Nothing is probably better for the soul of man, than pulling oneself together; but the distinction between pulling oneself together and pulling a carefully wrapped napkin out of some pocket of the mind, handling over the one talent untarnished and untouched, is as wide as the difference between the poles. This is too often the character of the so-called examina- tions; and wretched teaching has led to this supposed need of the pseudo ex- amination. The trite simile of pulling the seed up to see how it is getting along must come in again for illustration. Poor teaching, like poor planting, will bear plain leaves only, and we need to pull it up to see how the embryo plant is getting along. We feel the need of pulling it up to see whether the root process has begun, whether it is prospering or not. It is like the careless farmer who would need uproot his plants daily, or weekly, or monthly, or watch them during the entire season, to find out how the stock is coming out. Yet, we farmers of the mind, of the mental soil, adopt that plan every ti^iie in these rigid examinations. I know this simile is faulty to some extent as carried out, yet it has strong points of resemblance. To the great mass of the teachers who have not got beyond the period of examination, this is al- ma«t necessarily the length, the breadth, the height and depth of the thought in the examinations. It seems to me these are a few of the abuses aimed at in the excellent paper read by Superintendent Maxwell. He has si)oken of the comprehensive examination. That is scarcely known to the average ex- aminer. The "comprehensive" is almost too comprehensive to be grasped by the ordinary teacher. We all recognize the wonderful educative influence of this; but, as I understand that question of the educative influence, the exam- 138 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. ination is ruled out in our copy. The average examination, as conducted, is simply a test for the most recently acquired knowledge. What has the pupil mastered ? What has he done this past term this last year in that last grade ? How well has he kept up that particular study, or kept hold of this, so that he can be retained ? Has he received them without putting them out to usury ? This tendency has its influence. In the hands of philosophers, or the wisest of our principals, it might produce good effects ; but it certainly tends to the exercise of the memory chiefly, and in its worst form, that of the use of memory under the stress of anxiety. Memory determined to hold at all hazards this thing that was intrusted to it. Memory rendered so anxious that it puts a stop on these rootlets of the mind that would tend to exercise this characteristic that was mentioned by Professor DeGarmo this morning. I think the system causes the pupil to regard knowledge as a thing which must be retained and held ready for use, but whether it contains a proper normal operation of the mind, I must leave without further discussion. It therefore educates, as it seems to me, the formulative action of the mind, which must go on largely in unconscious stimulating of our self-consciousness. It develops knowledge, it seems to me, which has not been brought out by natural processes ; knowledge which has been retained for this particular use frequently, in a vast majority of cases, by the children, as at present tested. Notwithstanding all of thi?, I must concede that there must be some good in examinations, jis is proved by their existence with us still. E. E. White, of Cincinnati : I should greatly prefer to be silent on this question. I am so unfortunate as to have opinions on it, and I think where a man has very positive opinions, the best course for him to pursue is to let others express themselves. But inasmuch as I cannot be released, I will say a few words. And, in the first place, as to the honor which the writer of the paper has given me, in quoting me as the preliminary step in his discu&sion. It may be true that every examination is a teaching process in one sense, but in all classifications that are truthful and helpful in school-work, you must determine the chief end. And so we have, I think, a proper classification of examinations: those that are conducted for teaching purposes, and those that are introduced to determine whether pu])ils are prepared for })romoti(m. Now, on the (luestion as to the value of the examination for j^romotion, inasmuch as there is no difference of opinion in respect to the examination that is intro- duced for teaching j)urposes, the whole discussion, of course, would center and press around the former — the examination introduced to determine whether pupils an» prej)ared for promotion. Now, on this subject I am no extremist, and I really concede that if you do not know when pupils are prepared for promotion ; if tlie teachers who have taught them are ignorant of their real standing; if the principals who have directed the work and the superintend- ents who have had them in charge are ignorant respecting the actual attain- ments of these pupils after all these tests, right through the yeat, daily, monthly, and otherwise, for teaching purjwses — if these are necessary to de- Discrssioy. 139 tennine what pupils are prepared for promotion, I think they are legitimate. I have not raided the question of the pro|)er place for 8uch an examination, and so the whole question ceuten*, it Heem;:^ to me, on this : Are 8tateariug the managers of the schools to determine what pupils are prejMured to do successfully the work of the higher gnule? If they are essential, use them. If they are not essential, then we have a (piestion as to whether it is worth the while to introduce them. As I have bt»en studying with some care the development of our city scIkkiI system, from the time in which there was not any school system in the country, up to the prescMit time, when nearly ever)' system of schools is placed under such suj)er\usion, I have seen, I think, with increasing clearness, that there are three grt»at j)rohlems involved in the management of the city system, or tlie gix»att*st system of schools. Three great problems ! The first of thest; is how to subject teachers to an authoritative super\*ision and not reduce them to oiK»rativc*s. I do not think we have solved that questiim practically in all our cities, in all our graded systems. I think the authority or sujier\'b*ion is a wcaknc^ss that has to be guarded against, in putting teachers in the j)osition of operatives, work- ing at prescribed times and fonus, to dole out their instruction in pn\mprehen8ive examination. The paper in chief very well, I think, described tlie jK)int in regard to cram- ming for examinations. I do not think that anything more need be said on that point We know very well that it is necessary sometimes for teachers to cram in order to make even a five-minutes si)eech. It is necessary for a lawyer to cram, and a minister. The object of all examinations and all edu- cation is, to fit the pupil for the exercise of those faculties which will give him success in the ordinary- business pursuits of life. THE MORAL VALUE OF ART EDUCATION. ADA M. I.AUGHL1N, ST. PAUL, MINN. Nothing is more vital to a nation's life than the education of ifc? children. What to teach and how best to teach it, for centuries has agitated the best minds, and will continue to furnish the impulse for their most thoughtful activity. America, in its vigorous youth, is recognized by its elders as a present and rapidly increasing power. To sustain and strengthen its national character, to broaden and solidify its foundations, demands wise planning for the train- ing and developing of its future voters. To the thoughtful, the incompetency and degeneration of so large a |)er- oentage of our American youth, as well as the lack of enthusiasm that the average citizen exhibits in public affiiirs, present a problem that merits the most judicious handling. From the discussions of able thinkers and writers, the gems for this mosaic have been gathered, as the experience of the aga** is none too profound to aid our inexperience in the study of art education. " Education, according to the true view of it, is like religion. It seeks the individual that it may bestow upon him in himself, the fullness of its blessing. It strives to perfect the world, by making perfect the individuals who form the world. It strives, therefore, regarding this as its first and foremost work, to give completeness to each one whom it approaches." To whom should be intrusted the guidance of our youth ? It is difficult to state with brevity the value of candor and innate truthful- 142 TBE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. ness in those who teach at all; of so absolute a genuineness of conviction and devotion, that one cannot help putting one's whole strength into the work. When to these characteristics is added that robustness of mental power which saves from self-deception — such an one's teaching is sure to be healthy, orig- inal and satisfactory to the pertinacious thoroughness of children's desire to know. Such a teacher will fail to sympathize with the veneering process, which gives little happiness to oneself or help to others. We are told that " Enthusiasm is the active and impelling force in study, which imparts to it its happiest life. Enthusiasm creates time. It quickens every energy and power of the mind. It makes work a thing of life, not of necessity, and there- fore easily accomplished. It gives continual inspiration and hope and vic- tory." But our learning and skill are of no avail if we lack faith, if we do not truly worship the themes we interpret. We must believe in what we do, or no one will believe in us. If we are filled with love for our vocation we have naught to fear. Since it is healthy growth and development that we seek rather than re- sults, we must lead children to use their own minds, to externalize their own thoughts, to harmonize thinking and doing, to discover and to create, to recog- nize in nature the workshop of God. In the public schools of our country to-day, courses of study are beginning to include instruction in form study and drawing. Children learn the facts of form by handling and observing simple solids and common objects, and exi)ress their ideas of these facts by modeling in clay, by language, and making in paj)er or some other material the forms studied. They recognize the changes that take place in the apj)earance of objects as they look at them in different iK)sitions, and leani how to ex])ress them by drawing; also, how t<^ appreciate what is beautiful in nature and in ornament, and the princij)les that govern the i)r(>duction of beauty in decorative design. By the use of colored paper and the paint box the color-sense and taste are cultivated. The great delight in color, which is not only conspicuous in children, but persists in most persons throughout life, should be continuously employed as the natural stimulus to tlie ma.^tory of correct form. In the early days of art, the most bewilderingly brilliant colors plea^wl barbarous eyes, and in later times there exist those who make similar choice. The nations of Europe are awai*e that in some resj)ects our opjH>rtunities for development exceed theii*s, and are looking to us for help. Only recently a Swedish lady came to New York at the exi)ense of tlie government, to look into American educational meth(Kls, and retpiested an exhibit in form study and drawing from the College for the Trahiing of Teachers, to be used at a amvention to be held this month at (-oiK^nhagen, where will be present the leading educat-ors of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark. Siie stated at the same time to the president of the college that in all Europe no such educational work could be found. THE MORAL VALUE OF ART EDUCATIOy. 143 From Switzerland comes the able and critical review of Dr. Dodel, for twenty years professor of botany in the University of Zurich, which says: " Will not the whole body of Eun)pean teachers* unite and strive for some- thing similar to that which America i*? doing in drawing in her public schools which is, in fact, a step in practical pedagogics surpas«»ing anything which ' has been done in this direction in Eurojje ? " Only last week the Manches- ter Guardian urged upon the English educational authoriti(*s the necessity for adopting similar methods of instruction for their elementary schcxjls. There are many who would throw the educational and endless impn)vement schemes overboard at once, and secure their enjoyment in stagnation, though we all know that the very pond is kept pure by giving out through a stream at one end, what it receives through a stream at the other. And the stream from which it receives is a ty{)e of God himself, and the stream to which it gives is a type of the human race. Tho^e who receive from the fountain, without giving to the stream, work eijually against the laws of Nature and of God. America stands midway between these streams, the receiving fn)ra the past, the giving to all the future. Froebel, in the work which he has done for the kindergarten, recognized the principle that the brain and the muscular sense must work together, if correct thinking result — and the bands of hap[)y, intelligent workei-s under MX years of age, all over the land, bear witness to the truth of his idea. These are the beginners in manual training, whose interest in study wanes as they reach the intermediate and grammar grades, when no equivalent is pro- vided for the systematic hand-training which should complement and suj)ple- ment book-training. If the cha^sm between the kindergarten and the manual-training school were bridged in such a maimer iL*< to safely carry tlie workers over, with minds, hands, and hearts eciually well nourished, and without tiie loss of spontaneous feeling and physical activity, a puzzling pn)l)lein would be solved; for the time ha.«5come when the influences surrounding public child-education demand iv< much consideration and wise provision as the subject-matter taught. In Sweden, Ilerr Abrahamson ha^ for the i)iL^t eighteen yeai*s been working out a hannonious scheme for the instruction of children, to the conij)letion of which the greatest educators have urged as necesstirv a gradeurce of inspiration. Education, in its correct appreciation, is the training which best establishes that equipoise of powder and feeling in man which most ac€t>rds with divinity. Our happiness depends on our nearness to Him. The Greek as well as the Christian understood this truth ; but the differ- ence between the character of the two sprang from their varied obligation to duty, founded upon their respective conceptions of God. All true art can have but a common aim — through beauty to educate man to a better under- standing and more perfect love of the Creator. Until art has exhausted God, it may not complmn of wanting a future. Let us go forward with the elastic determination which comes like inspira- tion to a good cause, singing the Heaven-taught music of contentment with the hour that now is, believing that with simplicity and purity of aim, with unwavering faith and zeal, the greatest good to the many will he secured through increased power and success. The art-life, which is to be the result of this new industrial activity, will come from the sure and gradual elevation that is the necessary outgrowth of universal purity of thought and action, since "all art is the history of man's growth in God's likeness." Inspired by the purpose to educate and thus redeem the masses ; to aw aken and stimulate an appreciation of nature as the extemalizatiou of God's thought, dominated by the Christian idea, the leavening of the entire lump, the nation's aim shall be — not the development of intellect for intellect's sake, nor science for science's sake, nor art for art's sake, but everything for humanity's sake, to make humanity God-like. —10 150 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. DISCUSSION. Flora Pennell, Normal, Illinois : Is it true that an art education really has a moral value? Some are inclined to say, as they say of intellectual training, that it has no such utility ; that no amount of intellectual or esthetic culture can make a man moral. While all must agree that morality can have no foundation but itself; while the basis of a moral character must invariably be in the right ; while the cultivation of taste can never produce morals, yet it may be shown that intellectual development, and, in certain ways, aesthetic education, preeminently contribute to moral progress. Only the free man — the man who from inward desire habitually acts in obedience to all just law, who obeys not because a restriction has been placer. ... I rea'^vhe^e and under all conditions. A glass l)ead, or a bit of colored pajier, may stand in the one case as ecjually l)eautiful \nth the ex<|uisitely modeled statue, or the architectural triumj)h of a master. History tells us that a country is in danger when most prosi)erous, and when class distinctions are most strongly markeverty and miser}', or tuni aside and aj>()eaj«e their wrath at the conditions which, unaided, they are unable to change ? AVe have triels are provided ? And yet look at the money squandered in high places — '* Water, water everywhere, and not a drop to drink." The kindergarten has begun the noble work of regeneration by acting on the supjwsition that all things are i>ossible if we start with the children, and tiie amount of g(X)d that has gone into wretched homes from this source can hardly he estimated. The training to self-dej)endence, self-control, and unselfishness l)egins in the kindergarten, and we may continue it beyond if we build on the same ground. The love of beauty must be encouraged whether it be in the direct line of art-training, or the love of books and reading, music, science, or any depai-tment of education which elevates and insj)ires; but we, as art specialists must always struggle with nuich against us, if we do not have the encouragement and supiM)rt of not only the prominent edu- cators of the country, but also the regular teachers. Indeed, the present growth in this subject is largely due to the co6jx?ration of the grade teacher. Drawing is no longer looked u[>on in the best sections of our country as a superfluous accomplishment to be allowed or tolerated if time can be found to give to it, and the first study to be set aside when other subjects press hard. Form-study and drawing takes its place where it shouhl, as an imp<^rtant edu- 154 THE NATIOXAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. cational factor. There is no royal road to excellence, for there must be hard work and the drudgery of constant effort and practice in the same way as with music. The ideal must be kept before the child, and artistic quality recognized as necessary to be obtained though the growth must needs be slow. People with little practical knowledge of this subject are often carried away with the re- markable performances sometimes executed by the teachers upon the black- board. An expert knows at a glance that this work, however paiaftilly and faithfully done, is out of drawing, or glaring and unpleasant in color. The teachers say, " But the children like it." Undoubtedly ; so do they like fire- works, the circus, or an}'thing involving sensation^ Why not present some- thing simple and true, or, better still, encourage the children to see and do for themselves? In all our large cities — and indeed our small ones — the power of carrying to good results the moral uplifting of the children, whether through art or in other school studies, is greatly with the regular teacher. The spe- cial instructor may help and encourage, but she too needs the hearty cooi^ra- tion of the regular teacher, who knows them individually, and in many cases stands as the highest ideal of beauty and goodness in the child's mind. Hon- est endeavor encouraged from the very first, observation leading to the ex- pressed thought, will, I apprehend, elevate the art sentiment of this country through its children. Technical excellence will surely come if we work in the right spirit and direction, and all pull together. When sincere and truth- ful efR)rt is always appreciated and demanded, we shall see that art may be a wonderful force in uplifting the moral tone of our j^eople. Christine Sullivan, of Cincinnati, Ohio : The lady who has so ably pre- sented "The Moral Value of Art Education," has quoted with telling efteet, the follo\nng: "The art sense Is an illumination and an exaltation of the mind." What is art ? I would say that it is that human activity which seeks to give sensible expression to thought, and by that exi)i-ession to give thought its vital force, and put it in human relation. I use the word art to designate wbat is more specifically termed fine art — being opposed to the useful arts or the industrial operations for supplying the common necessities of life. A work of art is great in j)roportion to the greatness of the thought or feeling to which it gives expression, and its meaning is revealed to the obser\'er to the extent to which he is recei)tive of that meaning. A New-Zealander gazing on Michael Angel o's Prophets and Sybils in the Slstine Cha})el, could sum up all his impi-essions in this thought : " Those fig- ures are uncomfortably situated on that ceiling." And I venture to say man}- of our compatriots might look on these same grandest works of art unmoved to any thought or expression save those conventional rhapsodies suggested hy the guide-book. In short, nature and art are speaking to us as we are pre- pared to understand. They bring to each of us such messages from the in- DISCCSSIOX. 155 finite, from the unsouiulecl dee])s of life as we by our nature and eecause, &« a medium for the expression of the truths of nature and life, art oftei-s almost unlimiteint<, see other horizons. Sympathetically we live the lives of others, lx»C(mi- iiiiT wider in our experience, knowledge, conclusions. It is the mission of art to inform and to enlarge our natures to this end. Shelley, the jKiet, said: "The true secret of morals is imagination." And sui-ely this is true, for how can we l>e just, how can we judge fairly and fully unless we have the power to go outside ourselves and inuigine the virtues and failings, and neeoi-tant to US' is, what means shall we of the public schools employ, in order to secure to our pupils the elements of this culture ? Everv effort to feel, in picture, song, or story, the full meaning it was de- signed to express; every effort to give expression to a beautiful or nol)le tliought ; every recognition of the beautiful in nature ; every effort, to realize in sensible form the impressions of beauty that have come in form, sound, or color — each is a progressive step toward the goal. Surely this culture is pos- sible, in even the humblest school. No masterpieces in music, painting, or literature are necessary. Indeed, 156 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. the beautiful of the highest forms of art might appeal to the children in vain, something humbler being better fitted to meet their childish needs. Their little efforts at expression may be in themselves utterly worthless, pathetically poor, still they are not to be despised ; they are the expression of so much de- veloped po\ver. A sketch in cnidest English may give evidence of a sensi- tiveness to beauty or a love of noble deeds. A little song feelingly sung, or a simple design intrinsically worthless, but still showing an appreciation of the beauty of curves and the harmonious arrangement of forms — each is an ex- pression and the promise of a further growth of power. While ministering so largely to the moral growth, art-culture has a value that must gain the approval of the most pronounced utilitarian. It enables the artisan to introduce into his work the artistic element, thus adding greatly to the value of his labor. A nation should aim to excel in artistic manufac- tures. They are the source of great wealth, and demand a higher grade of intelligence in the workman. And, as the sj^eaker of this evening ha*? «3 truly stated, the development of material resources, industrial and artistic, is the great force of a nation, and the education of this nation must begin with its children in its public schools. Josephine C. Locke, Chicago: Mahomet said, "If he had only two loaves he would sell one and buy hyacinths, for therewith he should feed his soul." As a result, Saracenic civilization enriched the world by a legacy of art ut- terly unlike any other. Even the arithmetic you so fondly love is an inher- itance from them. One cannot read the ordinar^^ magazine literatui'e without recognizing that the practical value of buying hyacinths is now being driven home to the American conscience. I quote from a recent article : " Romanti- cism and Idealism must be the watchword of the future, in art, literature and science, in business and social life. The sturdy character of the soil is at bust making itself felt, and is pushing from its stool the tea-cup realism of the la^st twenty-five years." Tolstoi in Russia, Bjornsen in Norway, preached this doctrine: Not the bare actualities of life as it is, but the glories of life as it might be ; not the domination of fact, but of right feeling. The cry of the stage Ls for Romanticism ; the cry of literature is for Ro- manticism ; the cry of science is for Romanticism. The world feels the same want it has always felt. It wants to be lifted up, to be inspired, to be thrilled, and be shown what brave things human nature is capable of at its best. Realists are all unbelievers — unbelievers in God, in man, or in both. The Idealist is a believer in God, a believer in man, and a believer in the Divine justice wherein the world was founded. Never was the enthusiasm for humanity as great as it is now. 3Ien are saying everywhere that the discovery of the age is to be the discovery of nuui to himself. I tell you frankly, I believe poet, artist, and genius to l)e the normal man, and drudge and vagabcmd the abnormal. I can no other if I believe in Christ. We must be idealists to fulfill the duties of our own Discvssioy. 157 time and place. Selection, Miss* Laughlin says, is the iniix^rtant business for us. I want to emphasize it — selection, selection, selection. That we should -[)end from eight to twelve years of the best days of life, hour in, hour out, «»u reading, writing, and arithmetic, with the bare bones of history' and gei»graphy, ie» pure foolishness. Do ye know ye are angels in disgiiise ? Let me entreat of you to find your wings. Where are our wings? A short cut must be found. Love, and n«)t reasoning power is the fulfillment of the law, and love is the basis of all idealism, so the selection that is rootee rooted in love. Here we stand, the piling up of all ages and countries flung at our d(K)i-s. T^M) rapid and intense is American life to digest it all ; nor is it necessar}'. The child of to-day should cancel the barbaric j)eriml of life in a tenth of the time of a child of fifty years ago. Nine cases out of ten, architects of our own fortunes, the allurements of the dollar, are fascinating l)ey(md recall. It remains to purify the tliirst after gold into a thirst after righteousness, so that men shall not be less rich, but more God-like. The education that terminates in Jake Shaqis, Ferdinand Wards, and Tammany, you agree with me, is a great failure. I pn)pose (will you second nie ?) that we sell one loai* and buy some hyacinths for the children. Mary Dana Hicks, Boston: One of the notes that rings most clearly from Miss Laughlin's paj^r is this : AVorks of art are materially things of skill — sjiiritually they are iutei'preters of the mind. In a work of true art, we have, then, the whole man exemplified in his l)est asi)ect, his highest skill of hand iised to express his highest thought. Art arises from the need man has to act and express himself. The end of man, as Carlyle says, is an action and not a thought, though it were the noblest. That is to say, the noblest thought will fail of its effect if it is not ultinuited in action or expression. Now, how have the noblest thought^ of the world been expressed? This is a question most pertinent to the subject, and I ivi>eat it: How have the noblest thoughts of the world l)een expixvsed ? Through art always — art being the veiy sublimation of nol)le thought — whether through the grand epics of the ancients, the dramas of a Shakspeare, the cadenced vei-se of a Tennyson, a symph(my of Beethoven, a sublime trilogy of Wagner, the sculpture of Phidias and the Peridean age, a Venus of ^lilo, a Hermes of Praxiteles ; whether in the 8istine Madonna of a Kaphael, the Angelus of a Millet, or the Joan of Arc of a Bastien I^e Page; whether in the calm beauty of a Greek Parthenon, or the religious aspiration of a Gothic cathedral. These are great expressions of noble thcmghts. Art, then, is an expression of the gi-eatest power and thought of man in the noblest way. What must art education then be? The cultivation of the power to know on the one hand, to appreciate and to enjoy these great expressions of noble thought on the other hand; the |7ower to express one's own highest thoughts in the most i)erfect way. Art is constantly an aspiration, and the purpose of 158 THE NATIOXAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. true art education must be development and elevation, physical, mental, moral, and spintual. It would be a great mistake, however, to suppose that because the greatest works of art are the culmination of all attainments, that art education should be left to supplement other education — that it should be an appendage to education. It should rather begin, as has been said, with the first education of the child ; should grow with his growth and strengthen with his strength. And in its outset its foundation should be truth and the ideal. Therefore, we should begin as in the kindergarten, with the ideal. The study of form being the first step, the type form must come first — the perfect sphere, the perfect cube, })erfect form. The i^erfect type form is a truth of form and a form of tnith. The perfect tyj^e form is also a form of beauty. So from the ver}' fii-st, through all art education, truth and beauty must go hand in hand. Every step should lead to something higher. Can you imagine any work of art that does not tell the truth to have any value? So tell the truth in all art- work frcmi the beginning. But do not mistake exact imitation color for the truth. If you can manipulate the clay into an object, an apple or a lemon, that the observer learns. Do not aim, then, for imitation to deceive: aim fi)r such in- terpretation of nature as will lead the one who looks to see still more than ever, the life, the growth, the beauty of life. Do not forget beauty from the first. Manual training will not fulfill its great mission of development unless it carry with it the seeking for beauty, as well as obser^'ation, honesty, and skill. As I close, I wish that I might bring close to you the words of two great leaders. First the serenity of Plato, the ancient Greek ; now the more impas- sioned words of our modern interpreter and apostle of art, Ruskin : ^' And uow. in writing beneath the cloudless peace of the snows of Chamonni, what mast be the really final words of the book which their beauty inspired and their strength guided, I am able, with yet happier and calmer heart than heretofore, to enforce its simplest assurance of faith, that the knowledge of what is beautiful leads on, and is the first step, to the knowledge of the things which are lovely and of good report: and that the laws, the life, and the joy of beauty in the material word of God are as eternal and sacred parts of His creation as in the world of spirits, virtue; and in the world of angels, praise." THE WHITE'CBOSS MOVEMENT IX EDICATIOX. 159 THE WHITE-CROSS MOVEMENT IN EDUCATION. FRANCES E, WILLARD, EVAXSTOX, ILLIXOW. " Keep me, my God, for my boat w so small and the ocean is s«, of sweethearts shot, and murdered wives, if you have ever fancied marriage to be the un- e([ual thing that such phrasing indicates. Xay, it is the sum of earthly weal or woe to both. Doubtless there are in this modern land and age almost as many noble men unmated because they had to be, as there are women. Be- cause of a memory cherished, an enstrangement unexplained, an ideal unreal- ized, a duty bravely met, many of the best men living go their way through life 160 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. alone. Sometimes I think that of the two, it is man who loves home ])est ; for while woman is hedged into it by a thousand considerations of ex|)ediency and prejudice, he, " With all the world before him where to choose," still chooses home freely and royally for her sake who is to him the world's supreme attraction. The past has bequeathed us no records more sublime than the heart histories of Dante, of Petrarch, of Michael Angelo, and in our own time, of Wa:«hing- ton Irving, Henry Martyn, and others whom we dare not name. It was a chief among our own ix)ets who said : "I look upon the stormy wild — I have no wife, I have no child; For me there gleams no household hearth - I've none to love me on the earth." We know that "he who wrote home's sweetest song ne'er had one of his own," and our gracious Will Carleton sang concerning John Howard Payne : "Sure when thy gentle spirit fled To lands beyond the azure dome. With arms outstretched God's angels said, * Welcome to Heaven's home, sweet home.' " There are men and women — some of them famous, s(mie unknown — the exphmation of whose uncompanioned lives may be found in the principle that underlies those memorable words applied to Washington : " Heaven left him childless that a nation might call him father." In such considerations as I have here urged, and in this noblest side of human nature, a constant factor always to be counted on, I found my faith in the response of the people to the work of promoting social purity. "iSweet bells janglebiem of all time. The true relations of that complex l>eing whom (iod created by uttering the mystic thought that had in it the potency of Paradise, **In our own image let us make man, anecame to her a snare and dan- ger. But, while all this heritage of a less-developed past has wn)ught such anguish and injustice upon woman as she is to-day, it has been even more harmfid to man, for it is always worse for character to be sinning than to l>e sinned against. Our laws and social customs make it too easy for men to do wrong. They are not sufficiently protected by the strong hand of penalty, from themselves, from the sins that do most easily beset them, and from the mad temptations that clutch at them on ever}' side. Suppose the outragers of women, whose unutterable abominations crowd the criminal columns (»f our newspapers each day, knew that life-long imprisonment might be the jKnialty, would not the list of their victims rapidly diminish ? The Woman's Chris- tian Temperance Union has taken up this sacred cause of protection for the home, and we shall never cease our efforts until women have all the help that law can furnish them throughout America. We ask for heavier i)enalties, and that the age of consent be raised to eighteen years ; we ask for the total prohibition of the liquor traffic, which is leagued with every crime that is i^r- petrated against the physically weaker sex, and we ask for the ballot, that law and law-maker may be directly influenced by our instincts of self-protection and home-protection. We hear much of physical culture for l)oys, but it is girls that need this most. We hear much of manual-training schools, to furnish every boy at school wdth a bread-winning weapon ; but, in the interest of boys and girls alike, girls need this most. The follow^ing petition has been circulated, and its plea, already partially responded to in several States, has been nobly en- acted into law by the United States Congress : '^The increasing and alarming frequency of assaults upon women, and the frightful indignities to which even little girls are subject, have become the shame of our boasted civilization. A study of the statutes has revealed their utter failure to meet the demand^ of that newly-awakened public sentiment which requires better lej^al protection for womanhood and girlhood. Therefore we do most earnestly appeal to you to enact such statutes as shall provide for the adequate punishment of crimes against women and girls.-* But, as I have said, we are not working for ourselves alone in this great cause of social purity. As an impartial friend to the whole human race in both its fractions, man and woman, I, for one, am not more in earnest for this great advance because of the good it brings to the gentler than because of the blessing that it prophesies for the stronger sex. I have long believed 164 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. that when that greatest of all questions, the question of a life-companionship, shall be decided on its merits, pure and simple, and not complicated with the other questions, "Did she get a good home?" "Is he a generous provider?" "Will she have plenty of money?" then will come the first fair chance ever enjoyed by young manhood for the building-up of genuine character and con- duct. For it is an immense temptation to the "sowing of wild oats," when the average youth knows that the smiles he covets most will be his all the same, no matter whether he smokes, swears, drinks beer and leads an impure life, or not. The knowledge on his part that the girls of his village or "set " have no way out of dependence, reproach, or oddity, except to say " yes " when he chooses to " propose " ; that they dare not frown on his lower mode of life ; that the world is indeed all before him where to choose ; that not one girl in one hundred is endowed with the talent and pluck that make her independ- ent of him and his ilk — all this gives him a sense of freedom to do wrong, which, added to inherited appetite and outward temptation, is impelling to ruin the youth of our day with a force strong as gravitation and relentless as fate. Beside all this, the utterly false sense of his own value and importance which "Young America" acquires from seeing the sweetest and most attract- ive beings on earth thus \irtually subject to him, often develops a lordliness of manner which is ridiculous to contemplate in boys who otherwise would be modest, sensible and brotherly young fellows such as we are most of all likely to find in coeducational schools, where girls take their full share of prizes, and w here many young women have in mind a European trip with some girl friend, or mayhap "a cai-eer." Multiplied forces in law and gospel are to-day conspiring for the deliver- ance of our young men from the snares of the present artificial environment and estimate of their own value ; but the elevation of their sisters to the plane of perfect financial and legal independence, from which the girls can dictate the equitable temis, " You must be as pure and true as you require me to ])e, ere I give you my hand," is the brightest hoj)e that gleams in the sky of modern civilization for our brothers ; and the greater freedom of women to make of marriage an affair of the heart and not of the purse, is the supreme result of Christianity, up to this hour. There is no man whom women honor so deeply and sincerely as the man of chaste life ; the man who breasts the bufifeting of temptation's swelling waves, like some strong swimmer in his agonj^, and makes the port of perfect self- control. Women have a thousand guamnties and safeguards for their purity of life. "Abandon ho|)e, all ye who enter hei-e," is written in letters of fire for them above the haunt of infamy, while men may come and go, and are yet smilingly received in the most elegant homes. But in spite of all this ac- cursed latitude, how many men are pure and true ! It is said that when darkness settles on the Adriatic sea, and fishennen are far from land, their wives and daughtei-s, just before putting out the lights in their humble cottages, go down by the shore, and, in their clear, sweet voices, THE WHITE-CROSS MOVEMENT IX EDUCATION , 165 sing the first lines of the Ave Maria. Then they lijpy. To my thought, all the teaching in our public schools, while wholly unK?ctarian, Ls notably religious. Never let it be said that our school?' are godless while they teach health, which is physical holiness ; while the ever-present burning Sinai of God's "Thou ahalt," "Thou shalt not," sounds its decalogue in chil- dren's ears. "Thus saith nature, thus saith reason, thus saith the law." These clarion voices of physiolog}' and hygiene, declaring the sacred laws written in our members, never resounded in so many ears as in these ver^' days. Some say our schools are "gcxlless," but we teach astronomy, and "the undevout astronomer is mad." We teach chemistry, which is Goore him. The first White-C'rose pledge ever offered was sent by me to a bright young ft^low of sixteen, an athlete on the college caini)us of our university at Evan- ston, and a chief student in the classics. When his mother handed him the pledge on my behalf he read it carefully and said : ** Well, that's what I call hard sense. This town is Evanston, and we Methodists like to call it Heav- enston, but I doubt if there is a boy here, eight years old, who h{u*«n't plenty of weeds sown in his heart. Fm glad the white-riblwn women propose to plaat some lilies there." I was heljxMl by thtwe frank words. I understood the situation better and believed more in the work. A young minister wrote a prize essay for the work on the White Cross. He said that until ten years of age he never went frem the home where he waa most carefully nursed by his widowed mother. On the first day in public school he heard such language at recess as outraged hL« sense of purity, and rushing home he poured out his heart to the dear mother whose name stood fir?t on his calendar of saints. But to his a^^tonishment she turned away from him with indignation, saying: "Charlie, never come to me again repeating what the boys have said, for I won't hear it." As she thus s|X)ke it seemed to him that the hand he trusted most was roughly snatched from the helm of his life barque, and he thrust out to sea without a guide, nor did he regain the port of purity until after a storm of sin that la^sted many years. In happy contrast to this experience is that of many a white-ribbon mother who has said to me: "My boy often comes home from school saying, * Mother, they tried to make me laugh at some of their vulgar words, but I wouldn't listen to them after the way that you and I have talked ; ' " for the mother's gentle lips had keyed the boy's thought of things forever sacred, to the heights of holinc^^. But here comes in the motto, ''Noblesse ohlifjer For all mothers are not what we could wish. The average teacher Ls greatly suj)erior in character and culture to the average parents whose children are placed under her care. She knows far better what to say and how to say it. Every school-house has three classes of children — those from homes celestial, terrestrial, and diabolical. It is so much easier to sink than climb, that, in seeking an equilibrium, the low- est minds spread their contagion widest ; and the tendency is to keep time at 174 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. the slowest step in the last battalion of the "little soldiers newly mustered iu to this army of temptation and of sin." How early shall we teach ? The age w^ill vary, but be sure to let purity have the first word. The child will ask questions early; let not the coarse reply get in its work before the chaste one comes. Science is like fire; it burns away dross ; tell him what science says. God's law^s are all equally clean and holy ; tell him of the laws of God. But, in w^hat way shall we teach ? According to the truth of things. The bird in its nest, the flower on its stalk, the mineral in its crystals, all show forth one law. The sanctities of parentage might best be the key-note. As a rule, no one is reverenced and beloved by the child like the mother who bore him. Teach a little boy to revera and protect all women for her sake, and teach the little girl to shield as the "emi- nent jewel of her soul," the potentiality of motherh(K>d. A noble young woman of my acquaintance, teacher in a country school, wrote me that she saw such impurity carried on before her very eyes in her little school-house that she could not forbear speaking with her pupils one by one ; and noticing how they gathered in groups at recess in a mysterious fashion, she went out with them to their plays. Would it not be better to abolish recess altogether, and let gymnastic exer- cises, under the teacher's su|)ervision, take its place ? This seems to be one of the best practical means to a higher civilization in our public schools. Such is the opinion of experts in education with whom I very generally con- sulted l)efore preparing my addi-ess. A distinguished high-school principal sent me these hopeful lines : " The public school is a composite of lawn and back alley, parlor and saloon, hovel and home. But its atmosphere is sweeter, both indoors and out, than in my boy- hood days, and this has come through the inheritance of better traits of character, the introduction of better methods of discipline, the abolition of the promiscuous outdoor recess, the control of children's reading, the giving of fewer children to each teacher, and by a higher moral ideal among young teachers themselves.'" Some educators think that the power of hypnotism may yet play no small part in mortgaging children to a good life. A recent writer in the Nineteenth Century gives "instances to show the jjersistent efficacy of suggestions of alv stinence fnwu i)ernicious indulgence. The j)edagogical section of the French Association for the Advancement of Science hi\s gone so far as to pass a reso- lution recommending that experiments should be made on some of the most notoriously incorrigible {x^ople, with a view to determine the moral value of hypnotism in education." But the best magnet for our hearts is God, and the best force is what great Horace Bushnell called " the expulsive power of a new affection" — even for Him who is the "chief among ten thousand, al- together lovely." Ives.s should be made of selfhood and more of otherhood, in these days. The sanctities of i)arentage should outrank the pleasures of indulgence. Now, self is at the fore, and not the wonderful child. No mar- riui^ ceremony ever includes that mystical oncomer from worlds invisible. Most churches have dropped the word "obey" out of the marriage service. THE WmTB'CBOSe MOVEMENT IX EDUCATION. 175 I am grateAil to belong to one that did m by general conference action in the centennial year. Some day I hope the solemn wns^e of obligation to the little lives they dared invoke by marriage tie** may find expresj^ion in that service. Thus shall chastity and continence gain their nio8t sacred meanings, and thus «»iiee more "a little child shall lead them." William T. Stead thn)ws a flood of light on this position in his letter to the National W. C. T. U. at its last meeting. He speaks of the immense reinforcement to our cause that " science brings in its demonstration of the working of the law of heredity,'* and adds: "We have taught men to be brave, and women to be chaste. Bnt the child of the cowardly woman and the immoral man starts afresh at the bottom of the ladder with ites full share of the inherited cowardice of the one, and the vicious propensities of the other. And then we marvel at the slowness of the progress of the race! How is it possible for progress to be more rapid when each sex is taught that it is a matter of no consequence whether or not it neutralizes in posterity the virtues of the other? " I believe the day will come when boys, as well as girls*, will play with dolls. It was thoughtlessly said that I opposed this best beloved of toys ; but that was a mistake. What I did say was, that the much-l)efrilled and l)efrizzled French dolls trained little girls in love of dress. A Parisian friend wrote me recently that doll babies, and not doll "grown-ui3s," are now the fashion there, whereof I am glad. And I did say that boys should be taught to play with dolls, because whatever developed the sense of jx)tential fatherhood, with its sheltering strength and care, was a protection to them in the l)ewildered years • of the first decade. (If this be treason, make the mo!*t of it, my brothers of the journalistic quill. ) My mother began to teach in 1820, at fifteen years of age, and kept it up in the large district schools of western New York for eleven summers and five winters. Her experience was invaluable to me when, at eighteen years of age, I taught my first district school on the banks of Rock river, Wisconsin. Mother had said to me an hundred times, in her sententious nuinner, *' I know all the big boys felt that they were sworn in to keep the peace, because they were my secret police to make the little boys behave. I told them tme by one, and confidentially, that they and I together could cause our school to be the best in the whole country ; the most scholarly and well behaved.'* Now look over this throng. Two-thirds, if not three-fourths, of our public- school teachers are women. As I have watchee bad example for the smaller pupils. Add to this the concept, emph&sized by White-Cross teaching, in the minds of boys, both large and small, that in every woman they behold the sacred sex to which each boy's mother and sister belong, and a great gain will have been made. The Arabs have a choice phrase that they apply to the noblest young man of the tribe, saying that he i.s "a brother of girls." This ideal is the true one for the teacher to set forth. "My Little Sister" is a lovely leaflet on this subject, which teachers would do well to circulate. This White-Cross work is chiefly carried on by means of literature, of which the Woman's Publishing House, 161 La Lalle street, Chicago, publishes a great variety. Millions of pages have been ordered in the five years since the department of work for the promotion of social purity was organized and placed in my care. Mrs. Alice M. Guernsey, our editor of publications, (formerly a Massachusetts teacher,) is here with our speci- mens of literature, and I hope you may all patronize the table she has set. ^ The White-Cross pledge is based on the belief that you cannot in mature \ years get out of a character what was not built into it when the youthful nature was like "clay in the hands of the potter" ; that the arrest of thought must be secured by mother, minister and teacher, before the common talk of street and play-ground has wrenched that thought away from the white line of purity and truth. Innocence may be foimded on i^orance, but virtue is evermore based uix)n knowledge. In the presence of temptation one is a roj)e of sand, and the other a keen Damascus blade. To be forewarned Is the only way to be forearmed. A precipice lies before every boy and girl when they emerge beyond the sheltering fortress of their home, but a safe, sure path leads around it; we must gently warn them of the one — we must tenderly point them to the other. The White-Cross department of the W. C. T. V, contemplates suggesting a form of a pledge which shall be the same for both sexes. It is as follows : "I, , solemnly promise, by the help of God. to hold the law of purity ap equally binding upon men and women, and to use my utmost efforts to obey the command *Keep thyself pure;* to discountenance aU coarse language and impurity in dress, in literature, and art: to lend a helping hand alike to men and women, giving the peni- tent of both sexes an equal chance to reform, so far as my assistance and influence can do this." I need hardly say that the offering of any pledge in schools should l>e a personal matter, not involving publicity, and that the sexes should be wholly separate in the instruction given. The affirmative teaching of purity is what we want, not the negative teaching of impurity. The pupil's life should l>e lifted toward the heights, not lowered to the slums. If our educational jour- nals would have a department of the "White Cross and Healthful Habits,'' through which teachers could obtain help in these high duties, a great impetus would be given to this reform. It has been thought that the White-Cross pledge should not be oflfered to boys under sixteen, but surely its lessons should be much earlier taught and its literature circulated. The White Cross Maiuuil THE WHITE'CBOSS MOVEMENT IN EDUCATION. 177 price three cents) with fiill instruct ious for teachers, parents, orfriendi?, can be ha4l by sending to the W.T. P. A.. 1(>1 La Salle street, Chicago. We send missionaries to the FijLs, but we leave the play-ground of our com- mon schools practically in the hands of a pagan influence, and doom little children out of sheltered homes to the malaria of astsociatioui^ as harmful to ihem spiritually and physically as the small-|)ox would be. We turn them <»ut to take their chances with the rest. We know the imitative faculty of the child naturally takes hold of what is easiest imitated ; that impure literature i> circulated freely, and marks that are the insignia of baseness are often on the walls. What we must have in all large schools is a guardian of the play-ground ; a moral horticulturist whose specialty is physical ethics ; an apostle of health whose gospel outranks that of head or hand, for without it the head is apt to swim, the hand to tremble, and the heart to be a cage of unclean birds. I know a town wherein a moral horticulturist works in the public schools, ♦^he is called the " Teacher of Gymnastics," and tells her young i)eople the theory and practice of the physical wholesomeness that is akin to holiness. She makes common cause with them on the play-ground; turns their plays into potencies of grace and beauty ; elevates exercise to the level of elegance ; makes of bathing a bodily exercise that profiteth ; drills them into devotion to Doctors Dress and Diet, as the best physicians; reforms their modes of mo- tion, and educates them in the idea that to be sick is to have sinned. The best that Turner and Lyng, Dr. Sargent of Harvard and the great Delsarte have given us, she teaches to little ones and older ones alike, according to their power to learn. She is the wiser mother whose gospel of soap and evangel of expression gird up body and soul together. With this good fair}' of a woman I advised as to the feasibility of teaching j)ersoual purity, and she gave me to imderstand that, as in every other new departure, the only courage needed was that of which the Balaklava soldier told, "the courage of having done the thing." Indeed she had already begun this teaching by privately appointing committees of the older l>oy8 and girls to report to her any markings about the school buildings that were an affront to eyes polite. In contemplation of my present golden opportunity of speech I have writ- ten to capable teachers whose names were given me by leaders of the host, and have two sentences to quote in this connection : '* I take it for granted that you know, even to the extent of being heart-sick over it, the frightful condition of most schools in respect to impurity in language, actions, and defacement of school buildings and grounds. Rural schools are usually worse than those of cities and towns — for I really believe that rural life tends to be more depraved in this respect than it is possible for the life of a busy city to become." Another leader contrasts the condition of things in an ordinary town with one where women are on the school board and give careful attention to the condition of the school buildings in this regard. Sixteen States have now 178 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. given women power to be school officers, and in the name of health and holi- ness let them be up and doing as house-cleaners for the commonwealth. Finally, let us, one and all, be strong in the Lord and in the power of His might. Let us keep our hearts with all diligence, for out of the heart are tlie issues of life. In pioneering such a work for tempted childhood and be- wildered boyhood, contradiction will low us, perhaps, and criticisms notfol easy for gentle hearts to bear. But the discords and jargon of the shore are well-nigh silenced to the ear of him who hears the solemn anthem of the sea ; and with eternity so near us, its waves rolling at our very feet, its breath upon our foreheads, let us not be disconcerted, knowing that if bad men curse and vilify our names, good men will defend and bless them; knowing that our good work shall gladden hearts and homes now sorrowful and dark ; knowing that God is with us, and w hen we go fon\'ard with the patient courage He im- parts, " all discords, met by harmonies, die in the large and charitable air.'' STATE SCHOOLS AND PABISII SCHOOLS. 179 STATE SCHOOLS AND PARISH SCHOOLS— IS UXION BE- TWEEN THEM Uf POSSIBLE* ARCHBISHOP JOHN IRELAND, MINNKHOTA. I will hefr leave to make at once my profession of faith. I declare most unbounded loyalty to the constituticm of my country. I desire no favors. I claim no rights that are not in consonance with ifc< letter and itsi spirit. T!ie rights which the constitution allows I do claim, and in doing so I am but the truer and more loyal American. In what I may say to this distinguished au- dience, the principles of our common American citizenship shall inspire my words. I beg that you listen to me and discuss my argument^ in the light of those principles. I am the friend and the advocate of the state sch(M)l. In the circumstances of the present time I uphold the parish school. 1 do sincerely wish that the need of it did not exist. I would have all schools for the children of the people state schools. The accusation has gone abroad that (Catholics are bent on destroying the state school. Never was there an accusation more unfounded. I will sum- marize the articles of my school creed ; they follow all the lines upon which the state school is built. The right of the state school to exist, I consider, is a matter beyond the stage of discussion. I most fiilly concede it. To the child must be imparted instruction in no mean degree, that the man may earn for himself an honest competence, and acquit himself of the duties which society exacts from him for its own prosperity and life. This proposition, true in any country of mod- em times, is peculiarly true in America, The imparting of this instruction is primarily the ftinction of the child's parent. The family is prior to the state. The appointment of Providence is that under the care and direction of the parent, the child shall grow both in body and in mind. The state in- ter\Tnes whenever the family cannot or will not do the work that is needed. The state's place in the function of instruction is loco pa rent ij*. As things are, tens of thousands of children will not be instructed if parents remain polely in charge of the duty. The state must come forward as an agent of in- struction; else ignorance will prevail. Indeed, in the absence of state action, there never was that universal instruction which we have so nearly attained and which we deem necessary. In the absence of state action I believe uni- versal instruction would never, in any country, have been iK)ssible. State action in favor of instruction implies free schools in which knowledge ia conditioned in the asking ; in no other manner can we bring instruction within the reach of all children. Free schools ! Blest indeed is the nation 180 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. whose vales and hillsides they adorn, and blest the generations upon whose souls are poured their treasure I No tax is more legitimate than that which is levied for the dispelling of mental darkness, and the building-up within a nation's bosom of intelligent manhood and womanhood. The question may not be raised: how much good accrues to the individual tax-payer; the general welfare is richly served, and this suflSces. It is scarcely necessary to add that the money paid in school tax is the money of the state, and is to be disbursed solely by the officials of the state, and solely for the specific purposes in view of which it was collected. I unreservedly favor state laws making instruction compulsory. Instruc- tion is so much needed by each citizen for his own sake and for that of society that the father who neglects to provide for his child's instruction sins against the child and against society, and it behooves the state to punish him. Of course, first principles must not be forgotten, and since instruction is primarily the function of the parent, the state entering into action loco parentis, the parent enjoys the right to educate his child in the manner suitable to himself; pro- vided always that the education given in this manner suffices for the ulterior duties of the child toward himself and society. Compulsory education im- plies attendance in schools maintained and controlled by the state only when there is no attendance in other schools known to be competent to impart in- struction in the required degree. The compulsory laws recently enacted in certain States of the Union are, to my judging, objectionable in a few of their incidental clauses. These, I am confident, will readily be altered in approach- ing legislative sessions. With the body of the laws, and their general intent in the direction of hastening among us universal instruction, I am in most hearty accord. It were idle for me to praise the work of the state school of America in the imparting of secular instruction. We all confess its value. It is our pride and our glory. The republic of the United States has solemnly affirmed its resolve that within its borders no clouds of ignorance shall settle upon the minds of the children of its people. To reach this result its generosity knows no limit. The free school of America — withered be the hand raised in sign of its destruction ! Can I be suspected of enmity to the state school because I fain would widen the expanse of its wings until all the children of the jHiople find shelter be- neath their cover, because I tell of defects which for very love of the state school I seek to remedy ? I turn to the parish school. It exists. I repeat my regret that there is the necessity for its existence. In behalf of the state school I call upon my fellow- Americans to aid in the removal of this necessity. Catholics are foremost in establishing parish schools. Seven hundred and fifty thousand children, it is estimated, are educated in their parish schools. A lack of material meaiLS prevents them from housing their full number of children. Lutherans exhibit great zeal in favor of parish schools. Many STATE SCHOOLS AXD PABISH SCHOOLS. iHl EpLsition tt) the exclusion of Scripture-reading and other devotional exercises from the >ohool-nMjm. There is dissatisfaction with the state school, as at present organized. The jitate school, it u* said, tends to the elimination of religion fn)m the minds and hearts of the youth of the country. This is my grievance against the state school of to-m. I am a Catholic, of course, to the tiniest fil)er of my heart, unflinch- ing and uncompromising in my faith. But Gml forbid that I desire to see in America, the ground which Protestantism (wcupies ex{x>8ed to the chilling and devastating blast of unbelief. Let me be your ally in stemming the swell- in>r tide of irreligion, the death-knell of Christian life and of Christian civili- zation» the fatal foe of souls and of country. This is what we have to fear — the materialism which sees not beyond the universe a living, i)ersonal God, or the agnosticism which reduces him to an indescribable j)erhaixs. The evil is abroad, scorning salvation through the teachings and graces of Christ Jesus, sneering at the Biblical page, warring upon the sacredness of the Christian Sabbath and the music of it** church-bells, telling of Heaven and of the hopes of immortal souls. Let us be on our guard. In our jealousies lest Pn)testants gain some advantage over Catholics, or Catholics over Protestants, we i)lay into the hands of unbelievers and secularists. We have given over to them the school, the nurser}' of thought. Are we not securing to them the mastery of the future ? The state school is non-religious. It ignores religion. There is and there can be no positive religious teaching where the princij)le of non-sectarianism ndes. What follows? The school deals with immature, childish minds, ujxm which silent facts and examples make deepest impression. The school claims nearly all the time remaining to pupils outside of rest and recreation ; to tlie schfjol they will perforce amid the struggles of later life look back for inspira- tion. It treats of land and sea, but not of Heaven ; it si)eaks of statesmen and warriors, but is silent on God and Christ ; it tells how to attain success in this world, but says nothing as to the world l)eyond the grave. The pupil eees and listens; the conclusion is inevitable, that religion is of minor im- pcjrtance. Religious indifference will be bis creed ; his manhood will l)e, as bis childhood in the school, estranged fmm God and the {positive influences of religion. The brief and hurried lessons of the family fireside and the Sunday school will not avail. At best, the time is too short for that most difficult of lessons, religion. The child is tired from the exacting drill of the school- —12 182 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. room, and will not relish an extra task, of the necessity of which the teacher, in whom he confides most trustingly, has said nothing. The great mass of children receive no fireside lessons, and attend no Sunday school, and the great mass of the children of America are growing up without religion. Away with theories and dreams: let us read the facts. In ten thousand homes of the land the father hastens to his work in the early dawn before his children have risen from their slumbers, and in the evening an exhausted frame bids him seek at once repose, with scarcely time allowed to kiss his little ones. The mother toils from morning to night, that they may eat and be clothed ; it is mockery to ask her to be their teacher. What may you ex- pect from the Sunday school ? An hour in the week to learn religion is as nothing, and only the small number will be present during that hour. The churches are open and teachers are at hand, but the non-religious school has claimed the attention and the hard work of the child during five days of the week ; he is unwilling to submit to the drudgery of a further hour's work on Sunday. Accidentally, and unintentionally, it may be, but, in fact, most certainly, the state school crowds out the work of the church, and takes fit)m it the opportunities to secure a hearing. The state need not teach religion ; but for the sake of its people, and for its own sake, it should permit and fa- cilitate the action of the church. It hinders and prevents this action. The children of the masses are learning no religion. The religion of thousands, who are supposed to be religious, is the merest veneering of mind and heart. Its doctrines are vaguest and most chaotic notions as to what God is, and what our relations to Him are. Very often it is mere sentimentality, and its pre- cepts are the decorous rulings of natural culture and natural policy. This is not the religion that built up in the past our Christian civilization, and that will maintain it in the ftiture. This is not the religion that will subjugate passion and repress vice. It is not the religion that will guard the family and save society. Let the state look to itself. The mind which it polishes is a two-edged sword — an instrument for good or an instrument for evil. It were fatal to polish it without the assurance tliat in all likelihood it shall be an instrument for good. I am not questioning how far wc may lay at the door of the non- religious school the breaking-up of Christian creeds, the gro\vth of agnosti- cism and unbelief, the weakening of public and private morals, and the almost complete estrangement of the poor and the w orking classes from church organizations. But I do submit that these dreaded evils of our day should awaken us from our lethargy, and compel us to bestow more than the ordinary care upon the religious instruction of the children of the land, that they may have the strength to withstand the fierce temptations surrounding them, and not, rather, by their precipitation into the maelstrom, intensify the evils. Do not say that the f?tate school teaches morals. Christians demand relig- ion. Morals, without the positive principles of religion giving to them root and sap, do not exist. What seems to be morals without religion are the bios- STATE SCHOOLS AND PARISH SCHOOLS. 183 somings of fortunate and kindly di8|)osed natiirei^, or habits fashioned u{)on Christian traditions that grow weaker 9a the traditions become remote. To the American people at large — religious-minded and God-fearing as I know them to be — I put the question: Ought we not to have in connection with the school, religious instruction ? That there are serious difficulties in the way, I confess. But are we to stop at difficulties, when it is incumbent upon us to reach the goal ? I do not mistrust the reply. Secularists and unbelievers will interpose their rights. I allow them their rights. I will not impose upon them my religion, which Is Christianity. But let them not impose upon me and my fellow-Christians their religion, which is secularism. Secularism is a religion of its kind, and usually a very loud- spoken and intolerant religion. And when non-sectarianism is intended, the secularist sect must not claim for itself the field which it refuses to others. I am taking my stand upon our common American citizenship. The liberty I claim, that I grant. I come to the chief difficulty in the premises. The American people at large are Christians ; but they are divided among themselves. Yes, they are divided. Not to speak of other differences, there is a radical and vital one between Protestantism of all forms and Catholicism. I am not arguing. I am relating facts. Well-meaning and well-deserving men have proposed as a remedy in this instance, that there be taught in connection with the schools a oonmion Christianity. This will not do. Catholics in fidelity to their prin- ciples cannot accept a common Christianity. What comes to them not bear- ing on its face the stamp of Catholicity, is Protestant in form and in implication, even if it be Catholic in substance. This being the settled fact, American Catholics will not, of course, inflict Catholicism upon non-Catholic or Protest- ant children, and with similar fair-mindedness American Protestants will not mfiict Protestantism upon Catholic children. Some compromise becomes nec- essary. Is it not ten thousand times better that we make the compromise rather than allow secularism to triumph and own the country ? I turn to all Americans — secularists as well as Christian believers — and I address them in the name of American citizenship. We are a practical peo- ple, and when we find facts before us, whether we like or dislike them, we deal with them with an eye to the general good. Dissatisfaction does exist with the state school because of its exclusion of religion. The dissatisfaction will exist so long as no change is made. It is founded on conscience. Is not the fact of this dissatisfaction sufficient that Americans set to work earnestly and with a good will to remove its cause? The welfare of the country demands peace and harmony among citizens. Let us put an end to the constant murmurings and bitter recriminations with which our school war fills the air. Since we are proud of our state school and prize its advantages, let us make an effort that all the children of the people enjoy those advan- tages. If there be a public institution, as the state school, supiwrted by all the people, avowedly for the benefit of all the people, let it be such that aH 184 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. may use it. Be there no taxation without representation in the enjoyment of the benefits thereof. Let us most studiously avoid raising barriers to the use of those benefits, and, in a most especial manner, such barriers that the opposi- tion to them comes in the name of conscience. I invoke the spirit of American liberty and American institutions. Our views, perhaps, differ diametrically from those of others of our fellow-citizens ; we may deem their views utterly wrong. Still, is not the duty of Americans that of peace and concession, so that others be as undisturbed in their con- science as we are in ours ? Does it matter that we happen to be in the ma- jority? Brute numerical force may be legal; it is not justice, it is not the spirit of America. Minorities have rights, and as si)eedily aa it is possible with the public weal should the majority recognize them. It is no honor to America that ten millions or more be comi^elled by law to pay taxes for the support of schools to which their conscience forbids access, and to be further- more, in order to be conscientious, compelled by their zeal for the instruction of their children, >to build school-houses of their own, and pay their own teachers. It is no honor for the remaining fifty millions to profit for them- selves of the taxes paid by the ten millions. The cry that the state schools are open to them, if they silence their consciences, is not a defense that will hold before the bar of justice. The aspect of the case is the more serious when we consider that those ten millions are largely among the poorer classes of the population, and that they are sincerely and loyally desirous to obtain the benefits of the state school, if only the obstacles be removed. It is no honor to the American republic that she be more than any other nation foremost in efforts t<3 divorce religion from the schools. No count rj' goes in this direction so far as ours. We have entered upon a terrible exper- iment ; the very life of our civilization and of our country is at stake. I know not how to account for this condition of things, passing strange in America. Neither the genius of our country nor its history gives countenance to it. The American people are naturally reverent and religious. Their laws and public observancas breathe forth the i)erfume of religion. The American school, as it first reared its log walls amid the villages of New England, was religious through and through. The present favor to a non-religious school is, I verily believe, the thoughtlessness of a moment, and it will not last. I solve the difficulty by submitting it to the calm judgment of the country. No question is insoluble to Americans which tnith and justice press home to them. Other countries, whose civilization we do not despise, have found a solution. I instance but England and Prussia. We are not inferior to them in practical legislation and the spirit of peaceful compromise. Suggestions of mine must be necessarily crude in form, and local and temporary in applica- tion. I will, however, speak them. I would permeate the regular state school with the religion of the majority of the children of the land, be it as Protest- ant as Protestantism can be, and I would, as they do in England, pay for the secular instruction given in denominational schools according to results ; STATE SCHOOLS AND PARISH SCHOOLS. 185 that is, each pupil pa*^ing the examination l)efore j^tate officials, and in full accordance with the state program, would secure to his schl the cost (»f the tuition of a pupil in the state school. This is not paying for the religious in- struction given t^) the pupil, hut for the secular instruction deraande-7. In the report for this year the number of pupils enrolled to every one hun- dred children between the ages of six and fourteen shows a marked decrease for the decade in the North Atlantic, the North Central and Western divi- VOMPCLSORY LAWS AND THEIR EXFORCEMEXT. IH\} sions of the United States, in which eonipulsorv-attentlanw laws? are ^^enerally in force; while in the South Atlantic and South Central e real- ized in the concrete?" The explanation given of the decrease in the enrollment by the Secretary of the Board of Education of the State of Con- necticut, Hon. C. D. Hine, seems to me conclusive. "It is pn)bable,'' he says, •'that the compulsory law itself has contributed to this result. Under its pro- visions those over fourteen were legally exempt and felt that they were mor- ally relieved from school obligations. Those under eight were also little pressed, and there was no forced regularity. The large cla^s l>etween eight and fourteen, which is the projier and promising school age, found that the St=ate permitted absence for six of the nine school months. With this high sanction, if there was no desire to attend or no home imimlse, the State limit became the standard, and convenience or necessity regulated attendance." Compulsory education was once the law of my own State, but no senous effort was made to enforce it. The law was so uni)opular that it contributed to a reaction in public sentiment against the whole ])ublic-sch()ol system which re- tarded its progress and impaired its eflficiency. Texas lost ten yeai-s in the progress of its public schools on account of this reaction. Who can estimate the evils that follow to the whole social fabric from the non-enforcement of a law? A law unenforced does not lessen the evil which the law wa< intended to remedy, but degrades law itself and increas(»s the evil. If such laws a^ have been put in o|)eration to compel attendance on the schools in those States in which public-school sentiment is strongest, and in which, consecpiently, public opinion might be expected to be most [>owerful in their support, have been ineffective, what result can we exjxict if we enact more stringent laws to secure the same result? Are we not working in the wrong direction when we seek to accomplish by the strong arm of the law results which can only be attained by an uplifting of the social forces by strengthening and purifying public opinion? I hold compulsory-education laws to be unnecessary, if not i)ernici()us. The American public-school system has been built up without the aid of such laws, and the public school has become a vital institution to the whole i)eo- ple. It has reached more effectively the masses of the people than any t)ther system in any great nation. Exi)erts from the Old World who have vij«ited our shores and studied our institutions, have borne emphatic testimony to the superiority of our people in regard to general intelligence and morality. Tlie latest testimony from a competent critic is that of James Bryce, whose pro- found and comprehensive study of American institutions marks an epoch in the history of political literature. "Americans," he says, "are an educated 190 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. people compared with the whole mass of the population in any European country except Switzerland, parts of Germany, Norway, Iceland, and Scotland ; that is to say, the average knowledge is higher, the habit of reading and think- ing more generally difiused than in any other country." He says further: "They are a moral and well-conducted people. . . . The average of tem- perance, chastity, truthfulness and general probity is somewhat higher than in any of the great nations of Europe. . . . Christianity influences con- duct, not indeed one-half as much as in theory it ought, but probably more than in any other modem country, and far more than it did in the so-called * ages of faith.' " No authority can be higher and no testimony more emphatic than that borne by Mr. Bryce. To these results I doubt not the American public school has contributed most largely. Some of the advocates of com- pulsory education, while they concede that it is unnecessary for our native white population, maintain that it is needed to Americanize the foreign ele- ment by which our population is annually increased, and especially to raise to fitness for citizenship the descendents of African slaves, who constitute a large element of the population in several of our Southern States. Doubtless much inconvenience is experienced in many States from the presence of an unassimilated foreign element who have brought to this country traditions and usages which are not in accord with our American institutions; and it cannot be questioned that republican institutions are imperiled, or have been imperiled, in several Southern States by the infiision into the body of voters of a vast number of people who had no preparation, either by educa- tion or tradition, for the duties of fireemen. So far as the Southern States are concerned, I think I may say confidently that the danger-point for them has been passed. These States have met bravely, heroically, the necessities of the situation, and have made such provision for the education of the negro, as well as of the white population, as their means would justify. No people in any age of the world have made so much progress in popular education, in the same period, as the Southern States have made during the past fifteen years. This progress has been made without the aid of compulsory-education laws, and the progress made during this period is but a promise and pledge of still fiirther progress as the means of the people increase and the work of the pub- lic school is more thoroughly understood. The experiment of compulsory education in these States would be perilous to the cause of the public schools, and would probably produce a reaction against public schools which would stop their growth and impair immeasurably their efficiency. The great need of the South — and may I not say of the whole country? — is not more strin- gent laws requiring children to attend the schools, but better schools, better equipment of the schools, more and better school-houses, and above all, bet- ter teachers. The many agencies which make public opinion are enlisted on the side of the public school. Our press is friendly ; the various religious de- nominations, with perhaps a single exception, have not only grounded their arms as against the public schools, but their leaders are aiding in improving DISCUSSION. 191 public sentiment fixr better achools. The wisest leaders see in the public school a solution of the so-called race question. As the negro becomes fitted for citizenship, he becomes more conservative, and as he is pressed by industrial necessities and trained to habits of right-thinking, he ceases to antagoniae blindly the interests of property-owneis, and of those who do now and will always control the destinies of this country. Compulsory-education laws would arouse all the latent opposition to the public-school system, and unless their effects should differ from their effects in other States in which they have been tried, under more favorable conditions, they would not lessen — rather increase — the evils of illiteracy. The relation of the question to the foreign element, which constitutes so large a part of the population of some the Northern States, I am unable to dis- cuss at first hand ; but I venture to suggest that our ancestors were all foreign- ers, and that the time-spirit in this great country of ours will conquer even the most obstinate part of this foreign element, and harmonize it with our in- stitutions. In conclusion, let us all unite in the great work of improving the &cilities ofi^red by our public schools ; let us strive to raise teaching to the rank of a learned profession ; let us bring the public school to the door of every family in the land ; but as we build up the public school to the highest standard of possible power, let us not seek to invade the province of other vital and more fundamental institutions. Let us leave to public opinion, the most potent agency in this free republic, to parental affection, to social forces, to industrial necessities, the work of getting the children into the schools. Let us remember that it is the duty of the Grovemment to provide the schools, and the privilege of the citizen to avail himself of their blessings. Let us make the schools so good, so bright, so winning, that the children will love the schools, so that each child will be a missionary in the cause of education ; and let us never for- get that the spirit of education is the twin sister of the spirit of freedom. DISCUSSION, Aaron Gove, of Colorado: Those who have been interested in school- work in this country during the last twenty years have on their list a score of names of eminent men, whose hearts and heads have ever been largely in- terested in solving the educational problems of the times. Among that score of men is one who can be numbered among the prominent Roman Catholic prelates, eminent for goodness, for virtue, and for power; one who has ever been beloved by me and by thousands of our profession as the warmest and truest friend of American institutions, among them all. When he comes be- fore us with a masterly paper and presents it with a magnetism and power which leaves him standing alone, almost, in ability to handle the subject, it 192 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. is well for us to note and to comment upon the act, and to rememl)er that when the Right Reverend Bishop Ireland stands before us, the man from Minnesota — that true-hearted and patriotic American to whom so many of us have been looking for help and assistance, the utterances emanate from an exceedingly high source. I do not regret the expressions to which we have just listened ; I would not have them recalled, if I could. But I shall be much disappointed if, sometime in the near future, our deai* friend shall not conclude that it will not be wise nor well to urge ujwn the countr}-, even in a general way, anything that tends toward a union of church and state. While no opportunity can be had at this session to reply to the venerable prelate, we must remember that when we present this to the world in the cold type, cold type will be presented to us again. I^t us not forget that column ujxni column is to be printed on this subject, presenting both sides; when the Amer- ican people will arrive at such conclusions as their birth, breeding, and educa- tion shall dictate. Compulsory education is a measure that is popular in this country. Not a legislature has met for the past few years but that a bill has been introduced favoring compulsory educational measures. We now have uixm the statute books of the States some twenty-five laws of this character, differing one from the other only in particular. These laws are generally ineffective, because of lack of power to execute them. We have the anomaly before us of an ex- pressed desire of the j^eople to enact laws comj>elling children to attend school, and an unwillingness on the part of the same people to eomi)ly with such laws. A pertinent question is, Ought the making of such laws to be discontinued? It is not likely that agitation in this direction will cease. Notwithstanding the apparent discouraging results, some progress is evident. Even if such legislation be un-American, as it has often been temied, it will grow in favor. If the citizen on the one side must be taxed to sup|K)rt the school for his neighbor, that neighbor, in the interest of the State, must be com])elled to use the school. Neighborhood relations interfere with the en- forcement of compulsory school law. The president of the school board, the justice of the peace, or even the superintendent of schools, living in an Amer- ican community, hesitates to call upon the might of the law to coerce a neigh- bor in other than criminal offenses. Hence the laws of this sort remain alive only in the letter. James O. Pierce, of Minneapolis, Minnesota; In the interesting j)aix»r to which we have listened this morning, the ])rojK)sition is advanced that the primary right of education belongs to the family, and that the state is to take up the work of education only when the family shall fail. Historically this proposition is correct. The family precedes the state in the life of society, and thus the family must enter upon its natural work, as a duty, l>efore so- ciety shall be ready to take it up. But have we not observed, in the i>ro.le to the provisions of this act. "Seo. 73. Any parent, guardian, or other person having control or charge of any child or children, failing to comply with the provisions of this act shaU be liable to a fine of not less than five dollars nor more than twenty-five dollars for the first of- fense, nor less than twenty-five dollars nor more than fifty dollars for the second and each subsequent offense, besides the cost of the prosecution. " Sec. 74. It shall be the duty of the directors and clerk of each school district to make diligent effort to see that this law is enforced in their respective districts. "Sec. 75. Justices of the peace shall have concurrent jurisdiction with the circuit court in all prosecutions under this act.^' niscussioy. 195 It may be stated here that there have already been some few failures to ob- serve this law : First, it will be observed that the law itself is not sufficiently comprehen- sive, for it applies to children between the ages of eight and fourteen years only; and of the 100,000 children of school age now in our State, it practi- cally aflects 36,000 only, as follows: 1. In all school districts levying local taxes for general 3ch(x>l purposes, the legal school age for admission to school is fixed at six to twenty-one years. 2. In all other districts, the period of admission is practically from four to twenty years; for, all public moneys being distributed on this b&ois, all chil- dren from four to twenty years of age making application to enter school can- not be debarred under other privileges of our school laws, and therefore may be legally enrolled. 3. It will be seen, therefore, that the law does not concern children of the following ages : 4 to 6 years ; 6 to 8 years ; 14 to 20 years ; 20 to 21 years. 4. Having made a careAil examination of this question, it is found that the law fails to reach 64,000 out of the present 100,000 children who may be legally enrolled in our schools, as follows : Children 4 to 6 years 18,000 " 6 " 8 " 16,000 ** 14 " 20 " 25,000 " 20 " 21 " 5,000 64,000 5. The law is applicable to 36,000, and not to all of ihe^ ; for it is further provided that, "in case a public school shall not be taught for the jx^riod of twelve weeks, or any part thereof, during the year, within two miles by the nearest traveled road of the residence of any i)ers()U within the school dis- trict, he or she shall not be liable to the provisions of this act." 6. Again, additional opportunities for excuse are afforded in this law, all of which tend to render the same void, but which are minor in importance and need not be mentioned here. It appears, therefore, that the Oregon compulsory law, like most other laws enacted for the same purposes by sister States, contains weak and insufficient provisions, which make the law generally nugatory. So far^ very few cases of appeal have reached the central office under the new law, but it is worthy of mention that, in every one of these cases, the two- mile excuse has been presented by the derelict parents. The compulsory law seeks to advance and develop popular and general ed- ucation, but such results are rarely, if ever, reached in this way. The annual enrollment and average attendance in the public schools of Oregon have been very largely increased during the past year, but we under- take to say that no important part of this increase has been due to the com- pulsory law. Other agencies more effectual and powerful have been at work to secure these important ends. One of the most efficient of these may be mentioned here : Prior to the last session of the Legislature, school districts 196 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. (in order to draw public-school moneys) were required to have a three-months ijchool withiu each calendar year only ; and this without any provision or reg- ulation. This law has been amended, so that the entire school funds received annually from the State and county must be expended within and during the year for ^vhich such apiX)rtionments are made; and furthermore, that all such funds must be exj)ended for school purposes only. This law has done more to increase the enrollment, average attendance, and general efficiency of our public schools, than all other agencies combined. The ends ordinarily sought by the enactment of compulsory school laws cannot, in our opinion, be reached in this way. The very name, "com|)ul- sory, " is ofiensive to the people of the State, and it is possibly due to this fact that legislators generally have so far been exceedingly guarded and discreet in the composition of such laws, for when we come to study and analyze those already in use, we usually find some weak provision which will justify the people in their non-observance. The results sought by the compulsory laws in this country are good, and deserving of attention ; but they may be reached by other methods, more po|>- «lar and therefore more practical. J. B. Thayer, Madison, Wisconsin : I am impressed by this discussion with the fact that a condition and not a theorj^ confrohts uS. When it was announced that Archbishop Ireland would present at this meeting a paper of his own selection on the allied question of the state school and the parish school, I had no misgivings as to the spirit and general tone of his utterances. I have lived in the Northwest for fifteen years, in a city not far from St. Paul ; and, knowing well the sentiments he has expressed on memorial days and national holidays, I had no fear as to the character of his utterances here to-day. His paper has complicated the question somewhat, though it has revealed the prac- tical and inherent difficulties involved. The fact must not be lost sight of that there are three agencies that have to do with education : the family, the church, and the state. By an imperative law of nature, the family must he intrusted with early and infant education ; by the potency of religious life and sentiment, the church must be intrusted ynth strictly religious or sectarian in- struction ; by the inherent principles of a government of the people and by the people, that education which relates primarily to the rights, duties and needs of sovereign citizens must be intrusted to the state. To admit the first two of these principles is to admit the third, and to deny the third is to ab- rogate the principles upon which our civil government rests. No discussion of compulsory laws and their enforcement as mere abstrac- tions will avail. The real question is a practical one of adjustment of educa- tional agencies. The question is not whether the state has a right to enact compulsory-attendance or compulsory-education laws. We have passed that point. The question now is. What education may the state prescribe, and in what manner and by what means shall it enforce the instruction prescribed? This is the question that is up for discussion ; not only here by this Associa- DISCUSSION. 197 lion, but is up for discuasion by the American people. The question is not answered nor put aside by the assertion that public schools have been estab- lished and maintained without the aid of compulsory laws, and that their results justify their existence ; nor by asserting that compulsory laws are un- American, and consequently remain dead letters u}X)n the statute books. 8uch assertions are neither pertinent nor true. State public schools are not established and maintained by voluntary, charitable, or philanthropic effort. They exist by force, law, backed by enlightened public opinion. Public schools came into existence in response to a conviction in the minds of the fathers of the republic of the necessity of a safeguard for political and religious liberty. This conviction was emphasized by the pioneers of Westeni States, and provisions making a public school mandatory were incorporated into the constitutions which they adopted. Public schools exist to-day by the force of laws as hateiiil to the enemies of free schools when they were enacted as are now the recent compulsory laws of Wisconsin and Illinois. It is no more hateful, nor tyrannical, nor un- American to compel a citizen to educate his own child than to compel him to pay a tax to educate his neighbor's child. To hold that compulsory school laws are un-American is to ignore the his- tory of our free-school system, and remain ignorant of the spirit and purpose of past and present opposition to the establishment of free state schools. It occurs to me that that opposition to free schools, that opposition to compulsory education (and the latter includes the former), is decidedly un-American. Recent events in my own State have confirmed me in this conviction. I have a suspicion that the ultra element in the opiJosition to our free-school system have a purpose that is not in harmony with the principles of our Government. When the German Catholic bishops, the German Catholic priests, and the German Lutheran clergy of Wisconsin unite in a political organization to secure the unconditional repeal of a compulsory law, which has for its sole purpose instruction of all children of the State in the language and history of this their adopted country, I have a right to suspect that there is some- thing in the movement that is not exactly American, nor in harmony with the principles laid down by the fathers of this republic. This ecclesiastical opposition is significant, and gives color to the suspicion in the minds of many that the Ultramontane, Jesuitical element of the Roman Catholics in America, with its ancient enemy for allies, deems itself sufficiently strong in the republic to adopt a more ag<^reAe through a careful and philo- sophical study of the interrelations of the subjects to be taught, with a view to adjusting the programs to the natural development and furnishing of the minds of young persons. In existing programs a single pedagogical principle seems to dominate, the principle of division, which has been formulated in the maxim, "Teach one thing at a time." Like most maxims, this is capable of several interpretations, but is best restated in the form, " Make your point before passing to another." It is thus a declaration against confusion, and confusion is fatal to sound in- struction. It is therefore a principle of very great importance. But, «ns has been said, it is the principle of division, and its application leads to the dis- int^ration of the matter taught and the isolation of its elements. Manifestly 202 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. these must be reintegrated to constitute knowledge; and the result of ex- elusive attention to the principle of division is that our programs and our work are weak precisely in the matter of reintegration. The maxim of di- vision must be offset and limited by the maxim of unity, which may be stated in Jacotot's formula, "All is in all " ; or in the Herbartian "concentric instruc- tion." Unless thus limited the maxim of division is mischievous, as is seen in those distinctions of the matter of instruction which we call branches of study. Experience shows that when a "branch" is created and assigned a place in the program it tends to assume an independent life, so that it is pur- sued for its own sake, and not for its relations. It ceases to be a branch, and becomes a tree. Thus it occupies a definite time in the program, as for ex- ample, penmanship or reading, and is made to fill the time assigned with little regard to needs or relations. It would be easy to specify branches which extend through the program like the long man in Grimm's tale of the Prince's Servants ; and when challenged, like him they each reply : " Oh, this is noth- ing ; if I should stretch myself clear out I should be three thousand times as long!" The second mischievous result of this exclusive devotion to the principle of division is, that by obscuring in the minds of teachers and pupils the unity of the work it makes the school a machine for teaching branches. Each of these, geography for example, is pursued for itself It means the somewhat miscellaneous information contained in a text-book, or perhaps in a text supplemented by an encyclopaedia. Of geography as the space element of knowledge, begun in school but growing with subsequent acquisitions, some- what to be acquired as a basis and more incidentally and by virtue of right habits — of all this little heed is taken. It is just geography — that's all! Thus instruction is mechanicalized. The reason for the study and the use of it are obscured in the minds of both teachers and pupils. For the lively motive of a felt need is thereby substituted the torpid one of external constraint ; the powerful assimilative effect of the appetencies is lost, and the eager self- education of the pupil ceases. He does tasks. Thus to the soul-disintegrat- ing tendencies of numerous studies is added another — the paralyzing of the appetencies. Fortunately, the pupil is not wholly in our hands, and life re- gains its sanity outside the school. How shall we escape these disintegrating results of the maxim of division ? By insisting upon the need of unity. We must steadily aim to form and fur- nish a mind, and dwelling less on the artificial distinctions of branches of study, seek how knowledge may be made to integrate itself in the soul of the learner. The management of the appetencies will then assume greater im- portance in our eyes, and the matter of instruction will seem to us interrelated in all its parts. AV^e have then to seek the principle of this interrelation, and afterwards to study its relation to the principle of division. In the first place, we must integrate exercises; for the pupil needs to learn the elements not only separately, but afterwards — what is much more diflS- COBBELATION OF SUBJECTS IN ELEMENTABY PROGRAMS. 203 cult — ill combination. Hence it follows that an exercise is more valuable which subserves several useful purposes at once; and this we may call the principle of combination. Further, it is evident that combination is practi- cable by seeking to turn even' acquisition to its proper use as far and as fast as possible. To this use [)erfection is not necessary, since use is a means to perfection. This may be called the princij)le of utilization. The two princi- ples thus reached — the principle of combination and the principle of utiliza- tion— may be combined in a single statement, which, for convenience, may \ye called the principle of integration, viz. : that what has l)een partially atv quired may be perfected through use in connection with other undertakings. We affirm then that education is a vital process, and that the secret of it is not alone in division and suppression, but also and even more in integration and spontaneity. Penmanship, for example, is not a branch to be pursued in- definitely for itself until an ideal jierfection is attained. It is a means for recording thought, and after its initial difficulties are surmounted, improve- ment is to be sought chiefly in its use for the purpose intended. Reading is a means of getting thought, and after its initial difficulties are overcome, im- provement is to be sought chiefly in the eflbrt to get thought by this means, and not in reading to read. Exi)erience is continually thrusting this truth upon our attention. The boy who reads for his own pleasure learns to read, not the one who depends for his progress on the reading-class. The pupil learns geography who rea'ing unity of instruction a little too far. I could see much better why there is some educational element in having a number of studies. A short time ago, in speaking to one of my friends, the head of a large manufacturing establishment, he said he did not think he cared to employ high-school boys in his business. I asked him why it was — we were talking about education spoiling a boy for business. He said, " Well, if a boy does not know anything outside of the three R's when I put him to work, the chances are, nine out of ten, that he gives his mind to the job which he has to attend to, and carries nothing else in his mind." I said, " My dear sir, you do not know what education accomplishes; giving his mind to his job is just what education accomplishes. We teach our boys and girls when a new subject comes in at the end of each forty minutes, to give their whole attention to it, and to learn that one subject and to think of nothing else. If instruction does not give the power of concentration, if it does not result in a speedy and deep attention, giving the whole attention to a new subject, caus- ing the pupil to forget everything else while at work upon that one thing — then instruction has no value." That is one of the uses of a program which has a number of studies. Another point occurs to me; the opportunity for ixjst in changing. ITnless you secure enough change in your program by having a fixed order of in- struction, by disintegrating your work, you will find that some kind of work will go too slow. This is l)ecause as teachers are constituted they have pref- erences ; we like one study better than the other ; we have better results in one than the other. For the benefit both of the teacher and the pupil, we want a disintegration in regard to the time and the brder of the work. One limitation, however, I believe the author expi-essed very well — a lim- itation on the number of studies. There is a tendency, and that tendency has existed always, of urging the claims of new studies, of new specialties, on the class. Who does not know in ever}- high school in the country the pretense 208 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. made of teaching a dozen things which we cannot teach at present ? A limi- tation in regard to the number of studies is necessary for one chief reason : if your school-work is simply the practice of reciting the context of a text-book, you have no time for what is more important, namely, thought and work with those facts which the child has committed. The parent at home, when he talks about a new fact which he reads in the newspaper, is satisfied with simply stating that fact. But there is a faculty in the child which can teach him to tell something about what he thinks, and which encourages him in expressing some thought ; so that the teacher should find time enough in this program to allow him to talk with the child and the child to talk with him about the matter which he studies. If there are so many studies in your school pro- gram that all instruction becomes a race over the pages of the text-book, there may be schooling, but there is not education. Charles McMurray, of Winona, Minnesota : Less than fifty years ago that whole region of country which we call the Rocky Mountain system was an unknown land unexplored, a vast field for future exploration and work. The subject of concentration or co-relation of studies in its relation to the present theory of education occupies such a position as is indicated by Professor Steams. The two words, concentration and co-relation of studies, are in- definite and uncertain in the minds of most of us. We cannot do more in a few minutes than glance over this field to see what we mean by the title. Concentration or co-relation of studies means among other things that when the child's school course is finished up to the end of the eighth grade, he shall not have a collection of sundry, isolated, unconnected facts in his mind, but that all these facts and the different studies shall be bound together and woven together into such length, breadth and combination that the mind is ready to forcibly and effectively use the knowledge which the student has gained. It is evident from certain deductions of Professor Stearns that he feels that the result of our present education is scattering, instead of concentrating; that it is left to the world, after the child leaves the school, to concentrate or co- relate the learning, to make use of his knowledge. The purpose of the school, then, is, among other things — and that is a new problem in educational his- tory— to co-relate and bind together. Now the thought is by no means new to us that there is a relation between certain studies, and a necessary, useful relation, which needs emphasis in the school-work. There Ls a relation between histoiy and geography. We all agree that without geography, history is not what it should be. We agree likewise, that while the main purpose of arithmetic is to train the mind and to prepare the student for practical life, there is an incidental advantage, we will say, in compounding numbere where the units of measure, for instance, for words and for other things, are not only developed, but are practiced upon. All those things have a practical bearing upon the thing which we ordinarily call a lesson. We learn arithmetic, and among other things we leani inci- DI8CV88I0N. 209 dentally how to look at this world and measure it in the direction of practical affairs. In discussing the point which we have under consideration to-day, I wish to devote most of my time to illustrations taken fipom the work of one of the Normal Schools in this State. From this you may understand what we mean by co-relation ; that is, the association of studies, the binding together of all the parts. Now in geography we take with the children, in imagination, a voyage fipom Winona to St. Paul, or to any other point on the Mississippi river. We propose in the course of that trip to make as concrete as possible the great Mississippi valley, with its tributary streams, with its commerce, with the whole field pictured before us in the mind ; the great river system, considered structurally and commercially. Suppose we have a picture taken ^m our geography : we have also a pioneer story, and we can bring in as parallel with this the story of Hennepin, who was captured by the Indians, with his companions, and carried up the Mississippi river to the very landing- place where St. Paul now stands. In this way we can carry along a variety of studies, each of which serves to fix the other more firmly upon the mind of the scholar. Not only is the story a preparation for future history, the laying- in of stores of facts, which plant themselves upon the mind by reason of the adventure, but it furnishes in other words the best possible link for connect- ing the histor}^ and retaining it in the mind ; if such a scheme can be system- atically carrried out. I shall not dwell upon that longer, but it serves to illustrate what has been done in establishing the relation between geography and history. We are also trying to follow out this line in arithmetic, which I would explain if I had time. Just one more thought: Professor Stearns hints that we should establish one general line of study in the grade, and that all others should be in har- mony. Professor Steams has indicated what he meant by concentration of the subject of study. We shall find that all other grades shall be arranged to work in harmony together. Ex-President J. L. Pickard, of Iowa: To me it makes very little dif- ference what I eat, if it has in it the elements of bone-building and blood- making. A Scotchman once informed an Englishman that the Scotch were given to eating oatmeal ; and the Englishman said, " Why, we feed oats to our horses." "Very well," said the Scotchman; "where will you find better horses than you have in England, or better men than we have in Scotland ? " It is what the child takes into the stomach and digests and assimilates, rather than what is placed before him for study, it seems to me, that we should con- sider in this matter. There is a misconception in regard to the use of the school program. We have gone upon the theory that we must accumulate knowledge — children must accumulate knowledge. I want simply to say that in my view of this work there are three lines along which the teacher must proceed who is brought face to face with the program. No matter what he studies, he must consider, What has this child seen ? how has he seen it ? 210 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. Second, What does the child see, and how does he see it ? Third, What has the child found within himself, and how is he ihaking himself felt upon others? Now a teacher comes face to face with a program laid down in the studies. I care not how many there are ; I care not if there be fourteen or forty studies upon the program, if the teacher has the true spirit, so that when the child comes before her, or him, the child is led to show how much he has seen, what he has seen, and to have the irregular side, the defective side, corrected by the teacher. If the child is able to see what he has thought within himself as dis- tinguished from what he has seen, and the teacher has looked after the meth- ods of that expression, then if the child goes out into the world with a char- acter fully developed it will make that child a power in his influence over others — if the school work is all thoroughly done. There is a radical mis- take in this idea that we must go thoroughly through all the branches of study so as to be tested by an examination. These examinations are the soul-disintegrating and soul-killing processes in our schools. What has the child seen, and has he seen it correctly ? What can the child see, and can he see it forcibly ? What does the child feel, and does he feel it in a way that will make him a power for good over others ? There we have the units ; and that is all I care to say. N. C. ScHAEFFER, of Kutztowu, Pennsylvania: I came over a thousand miles to put in a word for my child and for yours, and therefore may I beg you to hear me for five or six minutes, in spite of the fact that the dinner- hour is at hand ? Dr. Steams has pointed out an abuse in our school pro- grams that should be corrected. Not only has the maxim, "One thing at a time," led to a division of knowledge into too many branches, but also to a division of the branches, so that in our graded schools a teacher is limited to a small portion of each branch. What is the effect ? In a State contiguous to mine, a lady succeeded in fitting at least fifty pupils out of fifty-three for promotion. She was lauded as the best teacher in the city. The superintend- ent of public instruction noticed that her brightest pupils studied for three months ; the remainder of the year was spent upon reviews, and in drilling the class upon all the questions that could possibly be asked at the examina- tion. It was a clear case of thoroughness secured at the expense of all correct habits of study. The maxim of division, as applied in the elementar}' schools, should differ from its application in the university. The professor is exj^ected to know and to impart all that can be known about a given subject. It is not the mission of the public-school teacher to impart all that can be known about the branches. The child is not to be treated as if its mind were a receptacle for all the information that is in the possession of the race on a given topic. The mental needs of the child are to be the teacher's guide; and the program should be so flexible that it can be made to conform to these needs. The Jesuits proved the value of a fixed course of studies in their schools. Before one generation had passed away, they saw their pupils on regal thrones. DISCUSSION. 211 wearing the cardinal's purple, and filling the most important chairs in the universities. But their program of studies was inflexible ; the influence of their schools waned ; and it was a pope himself who abolished the order. An inflexible program presupposes that human nature is the same in all respects the world over. It is a sad mistake to proceed upon such an assump- tion. What claim has man to immortality above that of a horse ? We can find match horses, but not match human beings. Even where matches are made, the nature of one supplements and completes that of the other. Every human being is a. distinct setting forth of the divine image in human being. In every individual there is something worthy of presentation throughout the ceaseless ages of eternity. Hence no program can Ihj made that is jierfectly adapted to the ever-varying needs of the children ; the child should never be treated as if it were the means and knowledge the end, but rather as if the branches of study were for its growth and benefit ; and all maxims of teach- ing should in their application be subordinated to the common-sense and good judgment of the teacher, who is in duty bound to be cognizant of the indi- vidual needs of each pupil. First study the child, then apply the maxim. I. M. Wellington, of Muskegon, Michigan: Time was, when for the same pupil there were only three subjects on an elementar}' school program. Xow, the same pupil is almost daily taken along several times a« many lines of thought and work. Time was, when the same workman made an entire shoe. Xow, under the principle of division of labor — not its multiplimtion — sev- eral workmen are needed to make a shoe. On the same principle for the same end — better work — we now have the special teacher of kindergar- ten, of writing, of music, of drawing, of physical training, of elementary sciences, of manual training, etc., etc. Reversing this principle, in the case of the teacher in charge of a room, and for inmiatiire children, we give them a multiplicity and variety of thought- work and labor that is a spice ©f life that kills, not upbuilds. How ftilly and sadly we school-men forget the children, for whom, and for whom only, the school exists. All clear-headed, earnest teachers feel that this multiplicity of school work and thought for children is l>ecoming so great that, when each day's work IB done, little lasting impression is left on the child. All interested in the children feel that this principle of division, scattering, and destroying, should be replaced by one of concentration, energizing, and upbuilding of mind, brain power, and broad intelligence. There can be but little doubt that in elementary programs, and, what is far more to the point, in the work done under these programs, there is a fear^l lack of correlation. The statements of the paper under discussion are true. But analytic statements of the facts, no matter how clear, true, strong, and needful, are far ftom the grand thing needed. A physician, after his diag- nosis, must (wrf if he would save his patient. Then, the main thing wanted is. 212 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. working-plans, models, illustrations, and then hard and indefatigable work upon them. Great men, great associations of men, have ever been not only peroeivers of pressing needs, but actors in meeting those needs. Said Longfellow in the sublime close of one of his poems : "We know what master laid thy keel, What workmen turought thy ribs of steel. Who made each mast and sail and rope, What anvils rang, what hammers beat. In what a forge and what a heat Were shaped the anchors of thy hope." These masters had only advisory power, but throughout our colonial and confederate history they wrought singly and collectively till the ship of state became a vital unit in construction, purpose, and action. Said Lincoln, at Gettysburg: "The world will little note nor long remem- ber what we say here, but it will ever remember what they [the defenders of this same shijp of state] did here." Hence, the pith of one suggestive point lies in the familiar saying of a witty English divine to his church wardens met to talk ways and means for paving their church-yard with cobble-stones — "Gentlemen, we have but to lay our heads together and the thing is done." If this National Educational Associ- ation has any representative or advisory influence in this land, it should not only state the great educational needs of the hour, but adopt remedial plans, and by all means see that these reach the fountain-heads of all remedial action in school matters. And to you, fellow-teachers of this nation, a wo^d. Two bright lads had a train seat behind a woman whose hair the poets describe as auburn, but its color suggested something else to the boys. Thrusting, partly in metaphor, two fingers into the glowing mass, and using his knee for an anvil, one lad began to hammer and weld his fingers. The whole being of the other lad shook with sympathetic aid. We, fellow-teachers, are the welders; our patrons and the press, the sympathizing boy. Let us thrust our hands, rough or del- icate, into the hottest fire of our earnest, loving brains and hearts, and weld these school subjects, and esjjecially our school work, into a vital unit, for the sake of the children, the children, the children ! PLACE AND FUXCTION OF THE AORICULTVRAL COLLEGE. 213 THE PLACE AND FUNCTION OF THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. D. L. KIEHLE, .STATE SUPERINTENDENT, MINNESOTA. The history of education has run parallel with, and has been analogous to, the hist^^ry of government. Order and progress were first under monarchical or aristocratic forms, which means that the intelligence and influence necessarj' to the care and j)rotection e allowed in the outset that no work in the soil can be done in the winter. Boys cannot be taught how to plow or reap, except in the summer. But what farmer believes that any school could take his son, with one or two more, and teach them general farming? There is no farm large enough, no faculty numerous enough, and no season long enough. This remark does not apply to horticulture ; for, so far as this industiy is concenied, a very valuable instruction may be given to a large numlier of boys at modemte ex])en9e of PLACE AXD FUXCTION OF THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. 217 land and instructors. But, returning to the demands of general farm life, I re- ply to objections urged : ( 1 ) The young men who attend this school have been from their youth fa- miliar with the ordinary exercises of the farm, such as plowing, reaping, hay- ing, and the care of cattle. They bring all their experience to the schw)! as a basis of study and investigation. (2) Beyond this work of sowing and reaping there is nothing in the whole range of agricultural industrj' which may not be as conveniently and as prac- tically pursued during the winter months as any other part of the year ; for example: Stock, its care, breeding and feeding, dairying, veterinary, the chem- istry of soil, food products, milk and butter, and, with the aid of the green- house, botany is pursued in its relations to agriculture. Also, the elements of carpentry and iron are taught as far as the farmer is interested in them. All this is to be studied after a method thoroughly objective; but, in addition, having students who have a stock of general experience acquired on the farm, we have a basis for the discussion of general theories and principles of agri- cultural labor, as fencing, drainage, plowing, rotation of crojis, farm hygiene, buildings, etc., just as is now done at every farmers* institute. And finally, with all the rest, is a review and application of the common branches in the interest of farm life, such as business composition, business arithmetic and ac- counts, elements of natural philosophy, common laws governing farmers' in- terests, etc. Now, to summarize the work and its results, let me describe in a word the young man as he is fitted by this two-years course for his farm life. In his business life he can write intelligently and with reasonable correctness; he can make his own computation of values and keep an intelligent record of his business. He knows the characteristics of good and poor animals, and the general principles observed in their care. He knows enough of the anatomy and physiology of animals to meet the ordinary ailments of his stock. He has had enough laboratory practice to know and test the constituents of milk and food, grains, soil, and fertilizers. He has looked carefully at plants, and knows something of their structure and habits ; at bugs and insects, and can distinguish between friends and foes of the farmer. And withal, he is a fair carj)enter, able to make a box, build a shed, or repair a gate. He can work a little in in)n, so that he can take oflT a shoe, and perhaps put it on, mend a chain, or forge a bolt. If we follow him through the year on his farm, we shall expect to see him intelligently industrious and observant during the busy months of the year. During the leisure of rainy days in summer and of stormy days in winter, we shall find him busy and happy in his shop, repairing and making some- thing that he will soon need, or at his fireside, with books and papers for the increase of his knowledge from the wisdom of others. These young men strengthen the ranks of intelligent agriculture. They are the supportei-s of farmers' institutes, and appreciative readers of agricultural journals. Having 218 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION learned to observe with some accuracy, they are also able to give intelligent reasons for their own conclusions. They become the friends of agricultural education. This school has just completed its second year, with an attendance of seventy-nine, and has graduated its first class of fourteen young farmers, all of whom are now upon farms or in dairy industr}% and several of whom will continue their studies in the College of Agriculture. Their education has cost the time of two seasons — from the middle of October to the middle of April. The dormitory and the dining-hall being provided by the State, the exj)en8e of board, fuel, washing and lodging has been but 875 for each sea- sou, leaving them the entire summer for the profit and experience of the farm. The success of this school has been assured in its thoroughly agricultural loca- tion and surroundings; the thorough mastery of subjects by instructors, and the entire sympathy of all with the purpose of the school. As an evidence of the confidence it has established, I may say it has been visited critically by the incredulous, and by those who have never been satisfied with what our educational system has hitherto done for agriculture, by committees of legis- lature, and farmers' organizations ; and by all it has been unqualifiedly in- dorsed and commended as meeting the demands of secondary agricultural education. This secondary education being now liberally provided for the large class of young farmers, the college itself is free to do its own higher work for the select few who have the ability and ambition to continue their studies in si)ecial professional lines, as of agricultural chemistry, veterinary, botany, and entomology. The men who leave the College of Agriculture will be our teachers and writers, superintendents of great agricultural enterprises, original investigators, and leaders in thought and inquiry among the patrons of this great industry. 80 much for secondary and higher agricultural education. There yet remains to be made a great advance in the conduct of elementary' education in our country schools, adapting their courses of instruction to the demands of agricultural life. Now, the study is quite exclusively confined to books, and the material of instruction is taken largely from the literature of social life in town and city. Without taking the time of this audience to detail a course of common- school instruction, I will only say that having introduced better methods of teaching, we will have much time now given to elaborate courses in geography and grammar that may be given to object lessons in natural history, which will interest children in the study of plants and animals and such reading as will be in harmony with this same end. It would be no difficult thing for a competent teacher to encourage the children of an average country school to make collections of plants, of varieties of wood, of seeds, and of soils and stones. Such a school-house would l)e a miniature agricultural museum, cultivat- ing the taste and training the obser\'ation of children, and laving a good founda- tion for future study. PLACE AXD Fl'yCTION OF THE AGBICl'LTUSAL COLLEGE. 219 THE PLACE AXD FUXCTIOX OF THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. LEWIS m'LOUTH, BROWKISUM, SOl'Tir DAKOTA. On the 2(1 of July, 1862, President Lincoln approved the college land-grant law. This law gave to each State then in the Union, and by subsequent amendment provided for the giving to each Territory afterwards to be admitted a« a State, an amount of public land etjual to 80,000 acres for each represent- ative of that State in the Senate and lower house of the United States Con- gress. Thb* grant was " for the endowment, supjx)rt, and maintenance of at least one college " (in each State), " where the leading object shall be, without ex- chiding other scientific and classical studies, and including militar}' tactics, to teach such branches of learning a.^ are relative to agriculture and the mechanic arts, in such manner as the Legislatures of the States may respectively pre- scribe, in order to promote the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes, in the several pursuits and profa<»sions of life.'' This law, as is readily seen, is verj' broad and liberal in its tenns. Indeed, it Ls questionable whether the makers had any very definite intent beyond the general one of providing an endowment for a class of schools whose function should be preparation for the industrial trades and vocations somewhat more direct than the cla^ical colleges of thirty years ago were believed to be able to furnish. Under such circumstances, and the latitude of the Congressional grant, it is not surprising that in different States institutions were founded, and have l)een maintained, which differ among themselves very widely in their purposes and in their work. Classifying them coarsely, we find they are of two kinds: Firsts those which have been organized in connection with the State universi- ties, where literature, language, mathematics, and pure science are the dominant characteristics; and Second f those which have l)een organized as separate and independent in- stitutions in which the manual industries and science, as applied to them, are ^ven a distinguishing prominence. Those States whose Legislature added their agricultural college land grants to their university grants have built up institutions of the first kind, while those States that have kept their college and university land grants separate have built up colleges more nearly of the second class. In the institutions of the first class or the combined institutions, where the agricultural college has been made a department of the university, owing to the action of forces that are very aj)parent in their tendencies, but which were not foreseen, the distinctive agricultural features have gradually disap- peared, and at last, in some cases, the very name itself has almost vanished. 220 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. The old college traditions were against the new courses of study. Farmer? have been peasants and college-men were gentlemen's sons. The faLsehoiwl was half believed by the college-men themselves, that a university is a j)lace where anything can be learned except that which is useful. The word ufUi- tarian was under the ban. Boxing, boating and ball-playing might he en- couraged, but the more useful manual exercises would displace too much of the Greek, the Latin, or the metaphysics. Farmers needed no education, and for the most part, had none. There was thought to be no need of education in so humble a calling as tilling the soil. College-bred men were to l>ecome lawyers, doctors, clergymen, editors, and literary men, or nothing; and a.s many of them could not become any of the former, they were comi)elled to content themselves with being only the last. By the combined organization great and beneficent centers of learning have grown, whose utility for general training cannot be questioned. It is indeed since 1862 that the State universi- ties proper have had their phenomenal growth, and in many cases the foun- dation which has nourished and supported this growth has been laid in the munificent land grants that the law of 18()2 provided, and which declared that the institutions thus founded should teach "such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts in order to promote the liberal and practical education of the indnstruU cloMses.^' My theme. The Place and Function of the Agricultural College, does not permit any discussion of the question whether these institutions of learning, in which the highest facilities are oflfered for the pursuit of literature, history, mathematics, language, science, law and medicine, are not of greater general value to the people than if they were restricted, as the law seemed to intend, to the "liberal and practical education of the industrial classes." Neither does it concern this present writing wliether, in the building-up of these great institutions of learning upon this land-grant foundation, the purposes of the enactment have been best and most justly accomplished. In those States where the law has lieen more literally interpreted, the funds derived from these land grants have been devoted, as the act declared, to the "endowment, supi)ort and maintenance" of institutions "where the leading object" has been "to teach such branches of learning as are related to agri- culture and the mechanic arts." These more distinctively agricultural and mechanical, or industrial colleges, having new lines of work to mark out for themselves, having in a considerable measure to stem the current of college traditions, and having in some cases to meet and overcome the prejudices of the very classes they were founded to benefit, under the difficulties of later establishment and organization and under the impediment of untried courses of study, have not, as yet, attracted such numbers of students, nor risen to such prominence as their elder sisters, the State universities. They have, however, been gaining in public esteem and favor, until now the agiicultural and mechanical colleges of Michigan, of Maine, Iowa, Kansas, and of many other States, are acknowledged to have as distinct and definite a field of work PLACE AND FUXCTJOX OF THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. 221 as the law schools and medical colleges ; and the many hundreds of students attending them are sufficient evidence that the public has at last come to un- derstand and value their work. These, and such as they, are preeminently the agricultural colleges. Prac- tical agriculture, the history and the science of agriculture, made a prominent feature of their work. The application of the laws of heredity to stock-breeding, the application of the laws of animal physiology and hygiene to the care of stock, the appli- cation of the principles of botany and of chemistry to the growth of crops, are distinctive and obligatory parts of their courses of study. In most of these schools, too, extended and practical courses in mechanic arts are offered and largely taken by the students ; and in many of them such manual labor in the fields, gardens and shops as is needed for personal skill in farming and the mechanic trades is required. In addition to these studies and exercises, their courses cover the ordinary branches of a good general English education, including the physical and DHtural sciences that underlie agriculture and the mechanic trades, mathe- matics, history, literature, grammar, composition, and rhetoric. So far these institutions are, and on account of their surroundings most probably for a long time will continue to be, mixed in their character and purposes, partly doing the work of general education, and partly doing a specifically technical or professional work. In the countries of Euro|)e, and wherever the lines between classes and oc- cupations are distinct and seldom crossed, where farmers' 8(ms are all to be fanners, and where other tradesmen's sons are almost certain to follow the occupations of their ancestors, purely trades and technical schools are neces- sary and possible. And accordingly we find the agricultural schools of England and the Continent are purely agricultural, teaching little beyond the various branches of the sciences that pertain to the art of agriculture. There the academic instructicm is for the most part given in the general Kchools, and the technical schools are relieved of all but the purely pro- fessional. That our social ccmdition makes a diflferent course necessary, is certainly not altogether an unmixed evil ; for it is doubtless true that a stu- dent pursuing elementary chemistry and botany and zoology and entomology, and even physics, mathematics, and histor\% with a constant eye fi^r their bearing upon and helpfiilness in the practical operations of agriculture, will be the gainer as a farmer rather than the loser, over one who first does his academic work without any views as to specific application. The spirit of a school where "the leading object" is agriculture, or the other mechanical and manual industries, is certainly helpflil toward interest, skill and efl^ciency in those industries and professions. The fact seems to be that these institutions which have been organized as agricultural colleges have been able to give, year by year, an increasing amount of instruction in agriculture and the sciences pertaining to it, and 222 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, are being sought by an increasing number of students who expect to make some branch of farming their life-work, and who desire to prepare themselves in the best possible manner for that work ; while in those institutions which only offer a course of lectures in agriculture, among a great number of other courses in science, literature and art, it is being discovered that their other and more popular studies first crowd out the students in agriculture and then crowd out the subject itself This tendency has been so strong and so certain that it has become apparent that the courses in agriculture, except perhaps the higher branches of applied science that have but a remote bearing upon practical agriculture, can hardly be maintained by the side of pure science, literature, and language. Students seeking these institutions for the sake of agricultural study have in most cases soon been diverted into the more attractive general courses. This tendency has been so constant that some of the universities, which are richly and almost exclusively endowed and maintained by the agricultural college land grant of 1862, will show upon their rolls of a thousand or more students hardly a score in distinctively agricultural studies. The reason for this is obvious and insuperable. The occupation of the farmer, though of late com- ing more and more to be regarded as requiring science and knowledge as well as manual skill, has hardly yet ceased to be looked upon as a menial pursuit. It has not yet risen to the dignity of a genteel profession. It has seemed not to offer scoj^e for the highest intelligence. It has been in the public estimate lower in dignity and less promising in its rewards than the practice of law, journalism, teaching, medicine, or the various branches of engineering art. In consequence of these more or less fallacious opinions, students of agriculture have been laughed from the lecture-rooms, the libraries, and the laboratories of the schools, which were mostly preparing for more pretentious pursuits. The student whose studies led him to stock barns and to the fields has too soon felt the ridicule of his associates, who were only employed with pens, diction- aries, and polished philosophical apparatus. Soon he was as ill at ease as a raw country lad in the drawing-room of a city mansion. He might blister his hands with a bat or an oar, but not with a hoe-handle. Spirited youths would not long bear such ignominy ; and so both students and subject have been laughed out of the college. Some of these institutions have made honest and even desperate attempts to popularize their agricultural courses, and draw and retain students in agricul- ture. But for the most part these efforts have been unavailing, and from a cause that is inseparable from the mixed organization of these schools. The time may come when things will be different ; but at present there seems to be such rank incompatibility between those studies and exercises that pertain to agriculture and the mechanic arts and those that fit for the more honored careers of literature and the learned professions, that the two cannot remain long together. The student at the forge, the lathe, the plow, and the reaper, especially if he is seeking skill that may earn him his bread, soon finds it un- PLACE AND FrXCTIOX OF THE AGBICCLTUBAL COLLEGE. 223 comfortable in aii institution whose tendencies, whose spirit, whose traditions are intensely anti-utilitarian. But the world needs the service of skilled hand-lal)orers whose work is di- rected by trained and well-infomied brains, as well as the ser\'ice of exclusive brain- workers ; and a wise statesmanship must provide the means for this training. This training is best secured in separate establishments. These establishments may be of humbler pretension, and may do a humbler work, but it is a work the world needs and must have — it is a work the world will have. Those youths whose genius is manifestly for pure brain-work will nat- urally go from the public schools to the literar}', scientific and linguistic cen- ters of learning ; those youths whose genius is for mechanism, for the socalled utilitarian or industrial pursuits, will as naturally be attracted to those schools where their aptitudes are most encouraged and assisted ; and tha<^ schools are in the future likely to be those founded upon the land grants of 18H2, and which hold closely to the plain purpose of thase grants, " the liberal and prac- tical education of the industrial classes in the several pursuits and profesvsions of life." Just what these schools are ultimately to become can only be known after the evolutions of the future are accomplished. The plan to be briefly out- HikhI in the few remaining pages of this paper, is built uj)on the writer's own slight modifications of the w>urses of study and the work of our best, and, in the writer's opinion, most successful agricultural and mechanical college. In arranging a curriculum of studies it is always to be borne in mind that the first and important work is discipline and development ; the making as much of all the human powers as possible. The courses proposed, then, for the American agricultural college must be two-fold : First, a course for the discipline and furnishing of the mind ; and in this, as far as possible, let us use those studies which have a helpfiil and direct bear- ing upon the industrial occupations. 1. These disciplinary studies should include mathematics as far as is neces- sar}' for ordinary' business computation, for land surveying, and general mensuration. 2. It should cover such a course in the English language and literature as will insure reasonable skill and accuracy in speaking and writing the mother- tongue, a taste for reading, and a knowledge of the use of books as tools. This part of the course is of prime importance. 3. This disciplinary course should cover the outlines of general history, and the history of our own country. It should include ethics, the United States Constitution, business methods, forms, and law. 4. It should cover strong courses in physics and chemistry, with special stress laid upon laborator}-^ work. 5. The course should cover extended instruction m botany, zoology, human and comparative physiology, and hygiene. 6. For general hand- and eye-culture, drawing, coloring, wood-car\ang, etc., should be given. 224 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. Second, technical and professional occupations and studies, including — 1. The history and literature of agriculture. 2. General agricultural economy. 8. Stock breeding. 4. Feeding, care, and management of domestic animals. 5. Veterinary science and art. 6. Dairying. 7. Agricultural chemistry. 8. Horticulture and fruit-growing. 9. Forestr}'' and economic botany. 10. Landscape gardening. 11. Shop practice in wood and iron, and the mechanics of farm machinery. 12. Drainage, irrigation, and road-building. This in rough outline should be the Course in Agriculture. As the work of these colleges Ls to reach the " industrial classes '* generally, there must be offered in addition, for the advantage of those young men who have tastes and aptitudes for the mechanical industries, courses similar to the above in disciplinary features, but covering more mathematics and physics, and whose professional or technical studies and occupations shall be draught- ing, shop-work in wood and metals, and the applications of mathematical anns. The world needs more trained and skilled hand-workers than teachers, rlootors, editors, lawyers, ministers and law-makers together, and the State, if it would preserve itself against anarchists ami the demagogues who delude and lead them, must see that means for their training Is supi)lied. DISCUSSION, M. C. Ferxald, Orono, Maine: After the clear and succinct presentation of this subject by the able paj^ers to which we have listened, it will l)e my ef- fort simply to present a single line of thought. Under an act of Congress establishing the so-called agricultural college, the meaning of this title is clearly defined as single and not as having a two-fold application. Its mission is to teach those branches which underlie and which relate to the art of agri- culture, and those branches which underlie and relate to the mechanical arts. For clearness of discussion it may be necessary for us to determine whether this subject shall be treated in the one or in the two phases. In the State of Massachusetts, the fund derived from the sale of land by the National Government was divided, two-thirds being given to the Agricul- tural College for purely agricultural work, and one-third to the Institute of Technology, in Boston, to provide for instruction in the mechanical arts. In the State of Michigan, in the State of Kansas, and in other States that we could name, the principal business of the college is agriculture, the mechan- ical arts being of secondary consideration. In many of the States, as we have learned here to-night, the agricultural college is but a department in the uni- versity. In some of the States, as in the one which it is my honor to repre- sent, the college is for the agricultural and mechanical arts pure and simple ; the two departments being coordinate. Now^ what is the fiinction of the ag- ricultural college and what is its utility ? If we can determine what the function is, we can determine what the place should be. It matters not which order we adopt, whether w^e determine in the first place the function and after- wards its place, or the reverse. In the scheme which wjis presented in the first paper, it clearly appears that the place of the agricultural college is at the head of a system of agricultural education, whatever that system may be. In the State of Minnesota you are fortunate enough to have not only the college as a department in the univei-sity, but you have the secondary school, a state- ment of which has been so fully elaborated and presented here to-night, carry- 226 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. • ing agricultural education down to the farmer*s boy who is to prepare himself for more effective work in the line of his calling. I am not aware that that system obtains very largely in many of the States. I know there are agri- cultural schools established in some of the States, as in the State of Connecti- cut ; but in the main it is not the case. The agricultural college must suffice for the present for the work in this line. In a system of education relating to agriculture the college must stand at the head, though it may be supple- mented by the secondary schools, as has been intimated here to-night, by car- rying the work down even to the lower grades of the school. The function of the college primarily is to teach, and I wish that idea might be enforced. I wish it could be understood by every farmer who sends his boy to college. The time was, as many of you before me will remember, when if an agricultural college was established in any State there were hundreds and thousands who thought that at once the soil would become more produc- tive ; that two blades of grass would grow where but one grew before f and that all drudgery of farm life would be done away with. When these antici- pations were not realized, there came a feeling of distrust in these things ; and it was regarded by some that they were not fulfilling their mission in doing the work which they were sent to do. There was evidently a misconception of the work which the college is designed to do, a misconception of the func- tion of the college. It is not the function of the school to teach the old men and old w^omen of a community how they can better perform the offices of life : they have had their day. It is the function of the school to teach those of the rising generation, and prepare them for the industries, the responsibili- ties and the work of life. That institution of learning only does its work well, which equips the boy and the girl for the work which the demands of the fliture shall make upon them. There has been very much distrust arising from a misconception of the functions of the agricultural college. The function of the college is simply to teach. The question as to whether experimentation or investigation or re- search is primarily the function of the college, valuable as all this is, has not been explained. The act of Congress supplementing the original endowment makes provision, in these colleges, for the establishment of agricultural exj>er- iment stations wherein this work of investigaticm shall be carried on. These colleges are worthy to be intrusted with this hitherto neglected portion of their work, and are all the better able to attend to the primary function, that of instruction in those branches which relate to agriculture and the mechanical arts. It should not be forgotten, moreover, that it is the function of the col- lege also to train for citizenship. A higher obligation rests ujwn them to train up true manhood and womanhood than to train up a farmer or to train up a civil or mechanical engineer. I must keep in the p<^sition that it is the function of the college to teach, and primarily to teach those branches which relate to agriculture, even if we neglect the other phases of the subject, those which relate to the mechanical arts. DISCUSSION. 227 The next question that arises is, "How shall it teach — in what way shall its work be done ? " Here comes in the distinctive feature of the new education. I remember well that when in college, studying 8ur\'eying, our class made a daily recitation of an hour for a term of thirteen weeks ; but we did not see a chain, or a level, or a compass, or anything with which the work of the sur- veyor could be carried on. How is the surveyor taught to-day ? Not only by an hour in the classroom in the morning, but by two hours in the field in the afternoon, with a chain and with a compa^^s, and with all the instruments necessary for practical surveying. 80 when a pupil has completed his course he is a practical surveyor. That is the principal distinguishing characteristic of what is called the new education — practical, training for the practical in- dustries of life. It brings the student not only in contact with his bcK)ks, but it brings the student in contact with all phases of his subject with which he is to toil. It sends him into the laboratory', into the shops, into the field. The agricultural college and the mechanical college only do their work effi- ciently when they thus fit the student for the practical industries of life. That college does its work best which most fully and methodically and successfiilly trains its pupils so that they shall be ready to respond to the de- mands which practical life shall make upon them. It was thought these col- leges might make a return for the money invested in them, in practical farm work ; but this is rarely the case. When the college in Maine, twenty years ago, was training a young man, who in later years, in a subordinate jx)sition in the Department of Agriculture, investigated the fungoid dbeases of plants, and published his investigation and published the remedies by which those diseases could be overcome, that college at that time was doing an hundred fold more valuable service for the State and for the Nation and for the world, than if it had turned out a score of young men to respond to the ordinary' requirements of farm life. That is the way in which the return comes, directly and indi- rectly ; every student well trained for scientific investigation, well trained to teach the principles of agriculture, well trained as an investigator. The insti- tution that is doing this w^ork is better subserving and fulfilling the functions for which these colleges were established, than any other. 228 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. ORGANIZATION AND SYSTEM VS. ORIGINALITY AND INDI- VIDUALITY ON THE PART OF TEACHER AND PUPIL, HENRY SABIN, STATE SUPERINTENDENT, IOWA. I desire to enter a plea for the child ; to recall the almost forgotten fact that the supreme object of the child's education is the child himself. Organ- ization and system are but means to an end. They form the machinery for running the schools, and within proper limits are a necessity. We are willing to concede to them all they can claim, when viewed from a business standpoint. " What is the machine good for ? " finds its answer in the value of the product. The school must be organized on business principles, as a man organizes the forces in his store or his factory, in order that the labors of the teacher may be as productive as ix)ssible. In every school there must be a right order of studies, an orderly succession of steps in each study, and a rigid economy of time. In addition, it must be granted that organization and system are very im- portant aids in the formation of correct and exact habit of action, which Is one of the main objects to be kept in mind, during the child's life at school. To l)e accustomed to follow a daily routine of work ; to do certain things at fixed times ; to \ye guided by the hands of the clock ; to be trained to regu- larity and promptness; to allow neither time nor energy to run to waste through misdirected efforts, tends to fit the child for the struggles of business life. The odds and ends, the products of the child's whims and notions, which are often woven together, or carefully tied up in a bundle, and labeled educa- tion, form no substantial foundation upon which to build a noble character. There must be direction, order, system, force, during the formative period of the child's life, if we exj^ect them to appear in hLs mature years. But organization and system have their limitations. The extremes of or- ganization are seen in the school in one direction, when there is a conspicuous absence of any plan or method of procedure; and in the other direction, when the martinet predominates, and the children are robbed of their right to be children. The extremes of system are seen in the schools, in one direc- tion, when a weak, uncertain, vacillating hand fails to control, or when a dull, plodding, sluggish brain fails to inspire and stimulate. In such conditions, laziness cloaks itself under the name of con3er\'atism, and indolence clings to that which is old, simply because it has not life enough in its dry bones to in- vestigate the claims of the new. The extreme of system is seen in the other direction, when one mind dom- inates everything, traces every line, marks out every rut, and points out every OBGANIZATION VS. OBIOINALITY. 229 step. So many pages and no more, ^'must be done" this week; such expla- nations must be given at this step, and woe be to the teacher who gives any other. In such a system the three R*s are no longer "Reading, 'Ritin' and 'Rithmetic," but Rules, Regulations, and Reports. No account is taken of the personal element in teaching. The right to assert oneself is denied both teacher and pupil. The whole process becomes simply a repetition of the children's game, "Follow your leader." The examination is made the line which separates the sheep from the goats; and the nervous, anxious child views its approach with about as much fear and trembling as one would the approach of the day of judgment. The results of the examination determine the character of the teacher, and the standing of the scholar. There is no appeal allowed from that tribunal. The despotism of " per cent." allows no rival. This extreme elaboration of system gives us symmetry and uniformity, but it is at the expense of strength and growth. It promotes smoothness, pre- vents friction, attains exactness of detail, but it crushes out all life, energy, freshness and enthusiasm, and exalts itself to the chief place in the school. The child is absolutely forgotten in the worship and homage which is paid to the system. The present tendency is in two directions. In our larger cities, where the press of public opinion is most felt, there is a very decided disposition to de- throne the system, and enthrone the school. In methods of instruction and discipline the teacher is accorded greater freedom of choice, and there is a corresponding increase in the respect which is due the individual rights of the pupil. On the other hand, I regret to say, in our smaller towns the machine seems to have taken a fresh lease of life; so that a school which has but six rooms wiU have as many grades, the same attenuated course of study, and as much machinery, as the schools of a large city. It is not to be inferred by any means that organization and system are of necessity destructive of individuality on the part of teacher or pupil. This happens only when they pass beyond their true limitations. It is not freedom to teach, as much as it is freedom to grow ; not freedom from restraint, but liberty to develop into a skilled workman through the inspiration of thought, which we desire for the teacher. If to attain it we must destroy some one's pet system, then let the system perish. In the midst of the responsibilities which the public are throwing upon the school, we are beginning to see the great need of having teachers who possess brains. But the machine has no conception of the need of brains. The system does not permit the use of brains. A brainy teacher is apt to make trouble for the system. The think- ing, the planning is all done before the work comes to the teacher's hands. He must not question, he must acquiesce. We are often told that we must put the whole boy at school. The whole boy will not stay in school, unless he finds the whole teacher there to instruct him. The noblest tyi)e of Ameri- can teacher, the only type worth having, is the teacher with brains. —15 230 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. While a little cjompany of mourners were standing about the grave of Lucretia Mott, in solemn silence, as is the Quaker custom, a voice said: "Will no one say anything?" And another answered: "Who can speak? The preacher is dead." There waa a whole sermon in those words. That which made her a power among men, which enabled her to sway the great audience by her simple words, as the grain is moved by the breeze, passed out of the world when she died. Beyond and separate from this body, which is animate to-day and inani- mate to-morrow, there is an energy, self-active, persistent, self-directive ; an individuality through which man identifies himself; a force through which he approaches his ideal ; a self-consciousness through which he comes ultimately to grasp his relations to himself, his fellow-man, and his Creator. It is in- separable from the man. It is the mystery of existence, the essence of im- mortality, the riddle of the soul. We come into the world alone, we dwell in it alone, we go out of it alone. Not until we face death can we comprehend what we mean by individuality. This individuality which is bom with the child, which embraces not only the power to know, but the capability to feel and to will, which attends every step of his physical, mental, and moral growth, which is seen in every action, heard in every word, and felt in every heart-throb, is the one thing which we ought to respect in the child^s educa- tion. It dawns upon the child first as existence, then as power, then as duty^ then as determination. Some one expresses it: "I am, I can, I ought, I will" — the four most expressive words in the language. It is the key-note to the child's character. The scheme of education which does not take it into account is absolutely worthless. Originality is of a lower degree than individuality. It is a coin which has its value, but it is of baser metal. Originality marks a man as peculiar in action, speech, or thought. It is not always a commendable trait in a teacher or pupil, and often needs to be rigidly restrained. There is nothing more domineering than originality in some of its forms. It is often only the outer manifestation of an inherited propensity. In the school-room, if it is ac- companied with profound thought, it is a help ; if it is only a personal eccen- tricity, it is a hinderance. A man of intense individuality is usually a man of strong convictions; he is tenacious of purpose ; his ideas are clear and sharp ; his expressions leave no doubt as to his meaning. The character within looks out of the eyes, speaks in the voice, and manifests its strength and purpose in the whole bear- ing of the person. Thought is the only thing which makes a man self-reliant. The great teachers of the world have been thinkers. We cannot test their work by any system of examinations however skillfully devised ; we cannot ascertain its true worth by apparent results. Results are exceedingly de- ceptive. We must know how they have been attained ; how much time has been wasted; how much energy and strength have been dissipated; what faulty processes of instruction are covered up under the beautiful finish of the exterior, before we pronounce the results satisfactory. OMGANIZATION VS. OBIOINALITT. 231 It is one of the tricks of the system to throw the untrained teacher upon his own resources, and leave him to stand or fall by the results of his work as tested by the examination of his pupils. I hold that no teacher is fit for his place who is not fit to examine his own pupils, and to pass upon the character of his own work. But I wish not to be misunderstood. Freedom is not license, originality is not eccentricity. Organization may be so wisely directed, and system built upon so broad a basis, as to be a help and not a hinderance. Rules and reg- ulations may be so framed as to aid the teacher in his work. It is right that the teacher should know the wishes of those in authority, who are directly re- sponsible to the people for the welfare of the schools. It Ls only when the rules and regulations leave nothing to the judgment of the teacher, and hold him responsible only along these narrow limits, that they are burdensome as fetters. The sptem, as generally administered, takes no notice of environment, and yet the teacher who is alive to his work considers the environment, not of the school but of the individual scholar. "How came that boy here?" asked a city superintendent of a teacher; "I suspended him yesterday." "I know it," she answered ; " and I took him back this morning." " But that is against the rules." "I know that, but last night I visited his home, and I pity him more than I blame him. If you want to suspend him again you can, but I won't" The superintendent was wise enough to suspend the rules instead of the boy. Originality, to be a help, must be original, natural. Originality which is studied, which degenerates into oddities, which is made a matter of pride, is only a hinderance to the teacher. It is conta^ous, and great harm comes to the pupil through imitation. A man cannot safely make a fool of himself before children. The same is true of his individuality: it may be a source of irretrievable injury to the school. Unless there is behind it, and shining through it, a moral earnestness, an undisguised honesty of purpose, an open uprightness of action, a man of strong individuality is the most dangerous man whom we can put in charge of a school. We have already said that the welfare, the growth, the development of the child is the object of the school. The process of education is very largely the action of mind upon mind ; the influence of the superior upon the in- ferior ; of an intellect mature and strong upon one immature and weak. The individuality of the teacher seeks to know, to permeate, to encompass the in- dividuality of the pupil. Whatever comes between the teacher and the pu- pil, whatever tends to thwart, to divert, to limit this exchange of thought, works an injury beyond remedy. When mind acts upon mind, then education ren- ders education necessary. Entire, absolute, essential freedom in thinking, in choosing, in acting, is necessary to success in teaching. But this freedom embraces the taught as well as the teacher. The teacher must not deny to his pupil that freedom 232 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. which he claims for himself. He must be a master of principles, and not of methods only, so that his individuality may not overshadow, but rather stimu- late, the individuality of the child. A man should always claim the right to interpret his own thoughts, motives, and purposes. He should allow no one to do it for him. The child must be encouraged to attempt the same thing ; this alone will awaken in him a consciousness of his own resources. Life forces knowledge upon every man. The idiot is the only ignorant man. It is an error in the system that it takes note, to so large a degree, of book knowledge in its courses of study. Knowledge derived from books is of great value ; but it must be made subordinate to that fuller knowledge, which is written in a book of which each day is a page, every year a chapter, and life itself the complete volume. The educating power of life is always at our dis- We sometimes speak of teaching the child to think. It is as natural for a child to think as it is for a tree to grow. It is not the part of the teacher to wake up mind, but to avoid putting it to sleep ; it is not to administer stimu- lants, but to avoid administering narcotics. Give the child the same freedom to think and observe that the street Arab has in his games, only guide him with skill ; throw off the swaddling-bands in which the system would swathe him; take advantage of his curiosity and wonder; take advantage also of what he already knows, and do not attempt to teach over again what he has already learned without your aid, and he will startle you by his progress, and by the readiness with which he will profit under your instruction. There is no place in which the individuality of the teaching can so make itself felt, and in which the individuality of the child is so thoroughly alive, as in the primary room. And yet the first thing the primary teacher is re- quired to do in many schools is to crush the individuality of the child ; to put him into a strait-jacket which the system has provided. The teacher is not to blame — the child's individuality is in the way; to strengthen it forms no part of the criterion by which her work is to be judged; it is useless as long as it cannot be graded by a certain per cent. The system should be broad enough to let the individuality of the teacher act through the individuality of the child, to develop moral intuitions; to cultivate the virtues ; to strengthen the will ; to render him strong and vigor- ous in thought, noble in purpose, hardy in action, and ready — when school- life is finished — to begin the work of educating himself. Again, the system places too much stress upon examinations as showing the literary qualifications of the teacher, and his consequent fitness for his work. It is necessary that the teacher possess knowledge of the branches which he is to teach ; but our schools are filled with teachers whose only qualification is knowledge. The examination tests knowledge, and having attained a certain per cent., the teacher considers his calling and election sure. Consequently, candidates burden themselves with facts ; they know certain things, but they have no conception of the truths which have their roots in things. Facts may OSOANIZATION V8. OBWINALITY. 233 be buried under such a mass of rubbish as to lose their germinating power. I believe that persistent study and mastery of one branch will fit a person to teach any branch in which he would take the pains to prepare his work. These are some of the things which we ought to know regarding a candidate : "Under whose care have you studied?" "What books are your favorites?" "Can you express yourself in clear, vigorous language?" "Can you govern by force of will?" "Can you awaken enthusiasm in the school?" "Can you inspire the pupils with the determination to do right, to lead virtuous lives, to be honest, God-fearing citizens?" "Can you make the individuality of yourself, of the pupils, a power in your school?" The tendency of the system to ignore such questions, and to be guided entirely by the number of questions answered correctly in each branch, and to repeat the operation year after year, relentlessly, and without mercy, is evil and only evil continually. The technical examination rej>eated again and again, degrades teaching to the level of a trade, and helps the ignorant teacher to conceal his ignorance. I do not object to the rigid examination in the case of young teachers. But when that is once passed, the only conditions imposed upon the teacher should be enthusiasm, life, and growth. When these are absent, the teacher is dead. In the anti-slavery days, when Dr. Bailey was establishing the National Era, Chief Justice Chase, then a young man, wrote to him proposing to join the little band of Abolitionists in Washington. Bailey replied to him : " Bring freedom with you ; we want individualism." So I would say to every young teacher, as you enter your work : " Bring more than knowledge ; bring free- dom with you — we want individualism in the school-room." The system greatly errs in that it takes cognizance of that which can be seen and heard, but not of that which can be felt. As flesh and blood cannot inherit the kingdom of God, so the mere possession of knowledge does not entitle one to any part in the inheritance of noble teachers. Scholarly teachers ought to be the most successfiil ; they always are, when scholarship leads onward and upward. But height of intellectual stature alone does not enable a teacher to walk as Saul among his brethren. Knowledge, to be of any value to the teacher, must become a permanent, increasing, living force in his work and character. Knowledge which is non- productive is dead. It has neither comeliness nor beauty that men should de- sire it. Knowledge which is alive, which strengthens the memory, which guides the judgment, which enlightens the reason, which fortifies the will — this is the knowledge which, acting through his individuality, makes the teacher a power in the school. The most practical thing in life is intense action. The most practical edu- cation is that which awakens the latent forces ; which brings out that which is within ; which puts the child in complete possession of himself, and gives him such mastery of his own powers and faculties, that whether he holds the plow, or shoves the plane, or smites the anvil, or wields the pen, he shall feel that there is no impassable barrier between him and the highest work which 234 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. he knows he is capable of doing. The oak and the elm grow side by side ; they derive their nourishment from the same soil ; they are warmed by the same sunshine, the same dew and rain fall upon each alike ; yet the elm re- joices in its beauty, and the oak is proud of its strength. The individuality of the one in no way detracts from the individuality of the other. There is the same perpetual difference between children. One is gifted in one direction, and one in another; one has the voice of the singer, another the eye of the painter, and another the touch of the sculptor. Nature has endowed one with the taste of the student; another has in embryo the habits of the business man. It is the law of inheritance — "that which is bom of the flesh is flesh, and that which is bom of the spirit is spirit." There must be law and system; but law must be administered in the interests of freedom, and system must be reduced to the position of a servant, whose purpose is to develop the individuality of the child, "each after its own kind." As long as the world lasts ; as long as there are those who teach and those who are taught ; as long as there is anything to learn, there will be one im- mutable law for all times and conditions. The Creator has given to every mind its own model, aAer the likeness of which it must be left free to develop. Ruskin says : " God has made every man fit for his place. Neither the artist nor the student, so far from being able to do the other's work, can even com- prehend the way in which it is done." The highest work of the teacher is to aid the pupil in his attempts to build for himself; to aid him as he tries to make the rough places smooth, the crooked places straight ; to aid him in his efforts to throw up a highway, whereon the youth may march to that royalty of manhood to which he was ordained of God when he was bom into the flesh. DISCUSSION, Charles W. Bardeen, of Syracuse, New York : I cannot quarrel with my friend Mr. Sabin. I have known him longer than I have known any other person is this Association. My chum in college knew him, and thought he was the best teacher he ever knew. As I have followed his work out West, I have come to the conclusion that when he expresses an opinion it is safer to follow it than to fight it. And so, as I cannot quarrel with him, I will quarrel with his title. It is Organization and System versus Originality, It reminds me of the old question : " Will you have meat, or bread ? " But why bread or meat ? Why not bread and meat ? What we need most is system a7id individuality. Not quite so much individuality as Mr. Sabin wants. Our schools are for the bestowal of the greatest good to the greatest number; and that can exist only when there is harmony throughout. If, as superin- tendent of a school, I had suspended a boy, and if, without consulting me, the teacher had assumed to restore him, that teacher would go, or I would. No Discussioy. 235 benefit to the individual pupil would atone for the injury to the school from such a conflict of authority. When I am about half through with what I want to say, your President will strike his gavel and I shall have to sit down. You will be great losers. It would be better in my case if no time had been fixed, I know. But from what a flood of oratory that gavel has saved you in the case of these other fellows I Therefore I must rejoice that our individuality is subordinate to a system. Take the pupil's work : In what kind of w^ork is individuality most impor- tant ? Beyond any question, in literary work. The style is the smack of individuality in the writer, the difierence between the way he says a thing and the way somebody else would say it. And it is about all there is of lit- erary work. Shall there then be no system in teaching literary work ? 8hall we teach a child not to express himself oddly but to express himself first as truly, then as clearly and then as strongly as possible ? Truth first, then clearness, then strength ; these are the ideals. The pupil is to be encouraged in his particular expression only when his particular expression is the best. Now to know which is the best, he must be instructed in a system of literary work that has come down to us from Aristotle and Cicero, rules of rhetoric which are as sound to-day as when they were written. If then he can render himself in the flow of his fancy so as to give it vividness and originality, he will enjoy that freedom which rests upon proficiency. There is a freedom based on ignorance, too indolent to become proficient, too stupid to desire pro- ficiency. If the young teacher should come to me and complain that her in- vell do you do the little you are required to do under the present amdition?" In my experience it is the unsuccessful teacher that complains of environments. There are thou- sands of teachers in this country, perha|)8 especially in this great West, ca- pable of living and acting beyond their work, and hundreds of thase teachers are ever}' year promoted to higher work. They have demonstrated their fitness by doing their low-grade work well, not by complaining that nobody could do it well. Twenty years ago teachers were urged by noble self-sacrifice to do their duty under the thought that their profession was second only to that of the college instructor. To-day, backed by some educational journals, they are ex- horted not to work too hard — to go fishing, go on vacations, and not allow anxiety for their work to overcome them ; they are to take things easy. You know the story of the woman who took her son to a man who had advertised for an errand-boy. After some questions he said, "Well, Patsey, the trouble I have had with errand-boys was that they did not attend to business. Do you suppose if I send you a mile on an errand you will go straight there and 236 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. straight back and bring me an answer within an hour ? " Here the mother in- terfered: "Come on, Patsey," she said; "he don't want an errand-boy: he wants a cherubim." When I read some of these articles in some of the edu- cational journals I begin to think that if you ask a teacher to do honest work and reasonable service, he will think you are looking for a cherubim. I know that it is not so generally ; I know there is no better work done anywhere than by the American teachers; but the tendency of thought sometimes is that way, and I should like to see it in the other direction. Two years ago the Emperor of Germany and the King of Saxony were present when the public-school teachers and children were drawn up in two lines. As I looked at those German teachers, paid officials in the government, office-holders, subordinates, in jiositions fixed for life, in a line where promo- tion was slow and jwssibilities narrow, I realized as I had never realized before, the advantages which the American teachers enjoy and should appre- ciate. Individuality hampered ? Why, this Association is hungry for a new thought whenever it may be advanced by any American teacher. Originality is given the widest scope in every city and every State. Superintendents are traveling over the land to find teachers with ideas of their own. Possibilities limited ? There never w^as so little limit to possibilities and to positions and to responsibilities and to salaries for teachers who have demonstrated their fitness for the high position which they are called upon to fill. I wish to say to complaining teachers, put your heart and soul and mind and strength into your work as it is ; and if it is too narrow for you, be ver\' sure that a broader road will open up soon. John T. Buciunan, Kansas City, Missouri: There is really no contrast between organization and system on the one side, and originality and individ- uality on the other ; for originality and individuality are properties ; organi- zation and system are actions, or the results of action, and therefore are little subject to comparison or contrast, as any other two things that are of unlike natures. In fact, the ideal teacher must possess originality and individuality,, otherwise he m\\ belong to that class whose members are satisfied to remain forever in the state of mediocrity, and to follow those whose original and in- dividual eflTorts place them in the fore-front of their profession. At the same time the ideal teacher tnust begin his work with organization, and carry it forw^ard with system, in order to attain the best results. This assertion seems almost trite, since the meanings of the words themselves indicate that they are essential for the highest efficiency, not only in educational work but in every line of human effort. One might as well attempt to cut down a tree by applying the ax to every jwint in the whol^ tree, as attempt to conduct a school without organization and system. I infer from the form in which the subject is put, that probably the abuse of organization and system V)<. the abuse of originality and individuality is meant. And the abuses in both ca^^es would do irreparable injury in the management of a school. If by organization and system is meant that cer- DISCUSSION^. 237 tain severe lines are laid down, which are as inviolable as the law^a of the Medee and Persians ; that it is prescribed to the teacher accurately how much and what he shall teach of any given subject, regardless of the number, age, character, and previous experience of the taught ; and what method he shall use in teaching that subject, regardless of the individuality of the teacher and pupil, regardless of the direction of his greatest strength in imparting in- formation and instruction, and arousing his pupils to independent thought and original investigation — such organization and system is an abuse. I am almost inclined to believe that no teacher, or principal, or superin- tendent, can determine accurately what method or system another shall use in presenting any branch of study to his pupils. Every thoughtful, progress- ive teacher will make his own method, although it goes without saying, that in forming his method he will be aided materially by observing the methods of others, and by recognizing those principles of education that have been found true by the eminent practical educators, and not by mere theorists. On the other hand, it would be an abuse of what is called individuality to close his eyes persistently against that which is good and effective in the methods used by others. I l^elieve the impression is erroneous that normal and other truning schools can furnish teachers with set methods and systems, to which they should adhere during their professional experience. All that normal schools can do — all they ought to do — is to enable the teacher to form his own methods intelligently, taking into consideration all the elements by which such methods should be modified. After all, the teaching talent is one that resides in the person, and cannot be given by any amount of normal training. Normal training can only stimulate and develop that talent. Some of the results of a cast-iron system are as follows : Work is very often slighted ; pupils are hurried over the ground in pernicious haste in order to keep up with the course laid out ; quality is subordinated to quan- tity; not sufficient time is given to develop the power of thinking, and thereby memory-work is substituted for real mind-work ; and all this results in superficiality, which by the critics of our public-school system is called a curse. The effect of this tendency upon the general public has been, that schools, especially those of secondary and higher education, are judged, not by the thoroughness of the work done ; not by the power to think and do, given to the students ; not by the character developed ; but by the number of the 'osifies and 'ologies that appear in the prospectuses of those institutions, and by the amount of territory that the students, according to these pros- pectuses, nominally travel over. On the other hand, an excess of abuse or originality and individuality may be of as evil consequences as that of organization and system. Very often the teacher who boasts of his originality or individuality will take up new methods of his own conception, simply because they are new and original, and, perhaps, startling, and not because they are founded on sound principles and may be expected to furnish good results, and regardless of the question 238 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, whether the work of such teachers will fit in with the work of teachers of other departments in the same school. Such teachers are an evil to any school, and need repression on the part of the principal or superintendent So-called original teachers are responsible for a great many of those educational fads to which the high-sounding name " New methods " is given, and which appear on the educational horizon like a meteor on a dark night, which sweeps across the heavens suddenly and with great brilliancy, is very much admired for the time being, and disappears just as quickly, and is consigned to oblivion, where it belongs. Very often after a time such educational fads are resurrected by other " original " teachers, who are very proud of having made original discoveries, forgetting, as Ben-Akiba says : There is nothing new under the sun. As il- lustrations of such fads, there might be named that of moral suasion, that which put workshops in the basement of high schools and sewing- and cook- ing-rooms in the attic of the same, ten or a dozen years ago ; and the Pollard Synthetic System of Reading, which is now heralded as a great original in- vention, and that bugbear which arouses the enthusiasm of the progressive, original teacher, which is called English — which does not seem to mean any- thing in particular but everything in general, which takes in its octopean arms everything from the namby-pamby love stories of Howells to the bitter sarcasms and cynicism of Carlisle, which seems to begin nowhere and end nowhere, and so gives the aforesaid adherent an opportunity to spread him- self, very thinly indeed, over the whole of intellectual creation. Both of these were discussed at the meeting of the National Teachers' As- sociation of Greece and the Greek colonies at Alexandria, in the third cen- tury B. C. On which occasion Prof. Archimedes, of Syracuse, advocated these methods as being original, and calculated to develop the minds of the students ; while Prof. Euclid, principal of the high school at Alexandria, maintained that they were chestnuts, and had been used by Superintendent Pythagoras of Samos, in the sixth century B. C, and were now reproduced a^ the conven- tion at Alexandria under new names. I do not know what impressions these results of my historical researches into the hoary past make upon you and these ladies and gentlemen before me, but I must admit that it fills me with great satisfaction to know that we, the representatives of the nineteenth century — that century which is the fru- ition of all lands and tongues of the past — discuss, wrangle, criticise, claim all as original, just the same old way as they did at the Alexandria meeting, in the third century B. C. W. H. Andersok, Wheeling, West Virginia: There are certainly two great essential elements of success which should be |x>ssessed by every one who be- comes distinguished as a teacher, or succeeds as a teacher without special distinction : Fii-st, well-defined and well-organized systematic method ; second, an originality which is peculiar to each individual teacher. The subject of the excellent paper to which we have just listened, places Discvssioy. 239 the first versus the second. It is true that in some instances the one may antagonize the other, or the one may be magnified until the other is lost sight of; but they really supplement each other, the one being the auxiliary of the other, as has been ably set forth in the paper just read, and in the discussion we have just heard A question, however, does arise, and continue to stand before us. It is this: Is there not danger of too much system, and of following too servilely a round of machine-made forms, and thus leaving the natural forces of head and heart uncalled for, uncultivated, and inoperative ? Still another question, equally as conspicuous, presents itself before our mental vision: Is there not great danger that the teacher will almost, if not altogether, ignore all systematic methods, although they have been the result of thought, and experience, and genius, together with long years of patient labor and investigation ? While we have something to fear from too much restraint upon teacher and pupil, and too little of originality, I think we have more to fear from total disr^ard for the thought, the experience, and the deductions of others. If a teacher, though a genius, would attempt to "prove all things and hold fast to that which is good," he would keep on all through life proving things and would have no time to " hold fast." That kind of native genius which will enable its possessor to rise to dis- tinction, independent of the aid of others, can rarely be found — in fact, can never be found. On the other hand, organization and system form the very base on which genius must be built. The inventor is led to new ideas by thor- oughly understanding what others have found out, and by knowledge of the very foundation principles that underlie the inventions already made. "Nature does not move by leaps ; " neither does the general march of improvement go by leaps, or even long strides. It is a steady march upward, each step being but little higher than the one which precedes it. Throughout the whole course originality and individuality will assert them- selves, for where they exist in any degree they cannot be hidden any more than can the glowing light of the towering volcano. To illustrate this : In a whole city or even a state the pupils are taught to imitate, the same printed copies in their writing-lessons ; to sit in the same position and to hold their pens in the same manner. One might suppose that the handwriting of all would be the same, and the individuality of each taken away. The final result is, that the individuality of each will be stamped on his handwriting to such a degree that it is evidence in any court of justice, and distinguishes each from the others as people are distinguished by their very features. Yet these instructions in writing are all proper, and ought not to be neglected. In the same way, there is much that is old and con- ventional and systematic, but is entirely psychological, and therefore ought not to be omitted nor neglected. The great danger is that the teacher will be too much of the go-as-you- please order, and if let alone will disregard all precedent, and all authority? 240 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION and even undertake to revise the whole course of study made and provided for the school, and give no attention to the way in which it is to be applied. Every superintendent and every principal of schools has had such teachers to deal with and to restrain. There is a natural tendency in every person to depart from prescribed forms and time-honored methods and customs, and to do things in some other way, a way original with himself. Every foreman, every farmer, every parent, can testify to the truth of this proposition. Children show this tendency con- tinually, and parents and teachers must continually resist it, and sometimes it causes no little annoyance. Not long since a superintendent requested a lady teacher to let him see her pupils' copy-books. She replied that they were not using copy-books, but instead of them were copying the whole lesson in geog- raphy every day. On examination of the work of so much copying it was found to be done in a most hurried and careless manner, being valueless a^ a means of improvement in geography, and ruinous to their handwriting. There is a great distinction between organized, systematic method and the "machine.'* While the machine is usually only a myth, it may be found in some schools ; but even there it is not such an " infernal machine " as so many suppose. This is a sample of the working of a real machine : It is said that one of the most successful merchants who was ever in New York City required his clerks to make a certain studied speech with each article offered for sale — to say these identical words — no more, no less. Some of the publishing houses and manufacturers that sell books and de- vices through canvassers, require these canvassers to drill for several weeks, that they may learn to say the very words which will most likely effect a sale. Such system as this, if it can be called system, is incompatible with the varied work of the teacher. The teacher who would follow any set form of words, and the superintendent or principal who would require such servility, would tend to make a school distasteful and irksome to every sensible pupil. While little or nothing can be accomplished by routine work, it is syste- matic work that always brings a sure result. There is now standing, in Brooke county. West Virginia, an apple tree which is more than three-fourths of a century old. It has long been distin- guished for the excellence of its fruit. This tree is a seedling, and for a long time its fruit has been propagated in a systematic manner, until now the Grimes's Golden is offered for sale by all of the nurserymen in the country, and is highly prized all over the land. The original fruit, though fit)m a seedling tree, is excellent ; but thousands of other seedlings bear fruit that is knotty, sour, and worthless. In the same way, among a thousand teachers and pupils who are original and would not be restrained by any method or system, one might be found worthy of our attention and worthy of imitation, while all the rest fail to do what they could have done had they not relied so much on native genius, hut followed well-defined and well-established systematic methods. DISCUSSION. 241 The teachers who especially distinguished themselves among the ancients ne by lawful means and by forces that are acknowledged to be in every way legitimate and in harmony with the humane spirit of our times. Dr. T. T. Eaton, writing on the Southern problem, in the Chrvdian Union, June 5, says : ** It er cent, of the colored vote in the South is illiterate, and thirty ]>er cent, of the white vote is in the same condition, it is not difficult for one to discern that education of the blacks and whites, as well, is not only necessary for the solution of the race problem and for good government, but for the progresi^ and prosi)erity of that section where such illiteracy obtains. For the safety of the republic, the perpetuity of its glory and the stability of its institutions are commensurate, and only com- mensurate, with the intelligence and morality of its citizens, whetlier tliey be white men or black men. THE POVERTY OF THE NEGRO. The poverty of the negro is another stubborn element in the problem. It is urged that the wealth and intelligence of the South must not suffer a man, if he is poor and black, to exercise the prerogatives of American citizenship. Strange doctrine, this, in a rej)ublic which is a refuge for the oppressed from all lands under the sun, and the so-called land of the free ! But will educa- tion help to remove this objectionable element in the negro ? It is the object of all education to aid man in becoming a producer as well as a consumer. To enable men and women to make their way in life and contribute to the material wealth of their community or country, to develop the resources of their laud, is the mainspring in the work of all our schools and public or pri- vate systems of training. From a material point of view we find that one of the great differences — in fact, contrasts — between the North and the South, is a difference of widespread intelligence. Labor, skilled or intelligent, coupled with the impetus arising from capital, will touch the South as with a magnetic hand, and that region with marvelous resources and immeas- urable capabilities will blossom as the rose. It is a matter of observation and history that a section or country that seeks to keep its labor-producing class ignorant, keeps itself poor ; and the nation or state that fails to provide for the education of its whole people, esi)ecially its industrial forces, is consid- ered wofully lacking in statesmanship and devoid of the essential elements in THE MACE PROBLEM. 273 material progress and prosperity. To this general rule the negro is no excep- tion. To educate him, then, makes him an industrial factor of the state, and argues his own changed condition from repubive jwverty to more acceptable a)nditions of wealth. Whatever strengthens the negro of the South adds to the strength and wealth of that section ; and nothing militates against the ne- gro but militates against the South as well. Even in his j)resent condition of illiteracy, the negro is evidently the backbone of the labor element of the South. He is, therefore, a wealth-producer now. Whether he reajis all the benefit of his labor or not, it is clear that he is the prime element in its grow- ing and boasted prosperity. The late Henry W. Grady said, just before his death, that the negroes in his State (Georgia) paid taxes on twenty million dollars* worth of property, and that the negroes in the South contribute a billion dollars' worth of products every year to the material prosi)erity of that section. The Atlanta Constitution , speaking of the negroes in Texas, jjaid recently that they own a million acres of land and pay taxes on twenty million dollars' worth of property, have two thousand churches, two thousand benevolent associations, ten high schools, three thousand teachers, twenty-three doctors, fifteen lawyers, one hundred merchants, five hundred mechanics, fifteen newspapers, hundreds of farmers and stockmen, and several invent- ors. Now these two States are but samples of the wealth-producing results of twenty-five years' labor. If this has been their progress when it is admitted they have been under the hampering and retarding influence of ignorance, not to speak of other disadvantages, it is fair to assume that under the stim- ulus of intelligence they will do a hundred-fold more, and year by year and decade by decade change their poverty-stricken state, and thus remove another element in the problem, and thereby hasten its solution. But it is not necessary for me to stand in this intelligent and representa- tive presence and argue the advantagas of education to alter the material condition of countries or races. Intelligence and industry have always de- manded the respectful consideration of men, no matter how intense their opinions to the contrary ; and it has lieen their universal opinion that these forces have been the leverage to lift their less-fortunate fellows to their proper place on the plane of political and civil equality. These industrial forces are the things that must enter as a key into the solution of the problem. It will be as impossible to deny to a people thus gifted with intelligence and exercising it in wise and consistent efforts in the accumulation of wealth, their inalienable and constitutional rights, as it is to keep back the sweep of the cyclone with a wave of the hand, or hinder the swell of the sea by stamp- ing on its shore. THE MORAL CONDITION OF THE RACE. But it is further argued that the negro is not entitled to his rights in the human brotherhood, and under the constitution of his country, because his standard of morality is low. Now the question that at once presents itself, is this: Does education help to improve the moral condition of a people? If 274 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. this be granted, it is not hard to conclude that such a means will be a long step toward the removal of this element of the problem. We will not assume, however, that education is a synonym for morality, for it is clear that many persons and some races claiming a superiority of intelligence are not alwaysi models of moral purity. But, while this is true, it is an unusual position for one to hold that intelligence is a hinderance to the development of virtuous tendencies. It is, rather, conceded that ignorance is a great source of im- morality ; and this is made emphatic when we take into consideration the fact that conscience, enlightened or unenlightened, determines to a large degree the moral acts of men. It cannot be denierise is that there is so much virtue and purity among them." . . . "Above all things," says Dr. Hay- good, "/cf the white people set them better examples" Since progress has already been made in this direction, we are permitted to hope that education THE BACE PROBLEM. 275 will continue its beneficent work in this moral reformation of the people. Education will certainly afibrd a better knowledge of the duties of the home, a keener appreciation of the obligations of the marriage state, a more con- sistent regard for the rights and the property of others, and a clearer concep- tion of what virtue in womanhood signifies, and, therefore, a more determined purpose and means of defending that honor from the aseaults of any man, even at the very risk of their lives. THE GREAT WORK TO BE DONE. The great work of education among negroes consists in leading them out of the errors which centuries of a debiu*iug servitude fastened on them; but even when this is done, the negro will not be an embodiment of every moral excellence, but he will stand at le&^t on the same plane of morals with the other representatives of our common and fallen humanity, and whatever is the possibility and hope of one will be the possibility and hope of the other, so far as education is concerned; for under it, we believe that the negro can be and do what any other race can do, from the tickling of the soil with his hoe and plow, to make it burst forth into life-giving fniitage, to the lifting of world upon world upon the lever of his thought, that they may instruct and entertain him as they pass his vision in grandeur in the heavens. But do we find in the negro exclusively all the immorality involved in the solution of the race problem ? Not by any means. Afl«r the necessary evi- dence is given which entitles a man to the recognition of his rights, and these rights are still denied, then the one denying them becomes the moral law- breaker ; for morality, according to a scholarly authority (and he is not writing on the race problem in America), may be defined as a law of mutual resi)ect for the general and private equal rights of man for the purpose of securing general human happiness. Everything that injures or undermines this happi- ness and this respect, is evil; everything that advances them, is good. "The greatest sinners, therefore," says this authority, "are egotists, or those who place their own / higher than the interests and the lives of the common weal, and endeavor to satisfy it at the cost and to the injury of those possessing equal rights." CHRISTIAN EDUCATION. We have said nothing of Christian education ; but it is reasonable to con- clude that white or black men, under the influence of Christian intelligence, are prepared to solve all the problems peculiar to our earthly state, for Christianity levels all the distinctions of race. It is this spirit that struck the conceit of the Jew and broke down the middle wall of cruel separation be- tween him and the Gentile world. It taught the Greek that humanity was a term for the wide brotherhood of all races, which he did not realize before ; for all other races were regarded and despised as barbarians by him until Paul, from Mars Hill, thundered in the eager eyes and anxious ears of the Athenian the new doctrine that God had made of one blood all nations of men to dwell on all the face of the earth. The Roman, according to Geike, considered all 276 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. who did not belong to his own state, as hastes or enemies, and held that the only law between them and those who were not Romans was that of the strong to subjugate such races, if they could, plunder their possessions, and make the l)eople slaves. " It was left to Christ," says this authority, " to proclaim the brotherhood of all nations by revealing God as their common Father in Heaven." If Christian education or a full knowledge of the principles of Christianity will not solve our relations with men, we are seriously at fault in our professed religion, and deplorable in our spiritual condition. For a peo])le imbued with the spirit of the Christ idea cannot defraud a brother of a penny, nor rob him of his labor, nor deny him the rights which he has in common with other men ; for by these principles we are taught to "Evince your ardent love for God By the kind deeds ye do for men." Dr. Chapin well says: "The great doctrine of human brotherhood, of the worth of a man, that he is not to be trod upon as a footstool or dashed in pieces as a worthless vessel, and the doctrines of popular liberty, education, and reform — all these have become active and every-day truths under the influence of Christianity." If Christian education is not to produce these results, the country and the race have a dark and uninviting future, for one has truly said, " There are mysteries which, if not solved by the truths of Christianity, darken the universe." But I do not despair of the solution of the problem under Christian intel- ligence, as it radiates from the. indiscriminating Cross of Calvary. For the principles of this grand system, both in the hearts and in the dominions of men, are all-conquering, either 8ound character. It presents for solution not only the question of the conditions and relations between two different races living ujjon the same soil, but also of different grades of civilization living under the same form of government; and that form of government the highest known, rtHjuiring the most advanced develop- ment of the individual or unit of .society for its success and permanence. ^ Not read, because of the unavoidable absence of the author. Ordered printed bj the Dlrecfeoni. THE MACS PBOBLEM. 211 The difficulty is not that which would be presented if the white and black races in our country were both of a low and like grade of civilization ; for in that case it is probable that both would fall under the control of a govern- ment of force, and not one of liberal laws — a government in which the sub- stantial slavery of the whole would abolish the antipathies and antagonisms of individuals in the bonds, if not the sympathies, of one common oppression. From this low estate they would probably struggle upward together, if the means which would improve the condition of either were common to both. It would by no means follow that the races would amalgamate, or even interblend socially. Fred. Douglass has said that President Lincoln was the only white man with whom he ever associated in this country who did not make him feel that he was colored and a supposed inferior, and that only in England and on the Continent among Caucasians had he been permitted to realize that he was a man and an equal. What is the lesson to be drawn from this fact ? Does it indicate that the soul is not only of no sex, but of no race ? and that as the moral and intel- lectual are developed in all men, the distinctions of color and the prejudices of condition, which serve to keep separate those who ought not physically to unite, disappear in a democracy which is only possible in that highest plane of civilization and refinement of which individuals of different races or of the same race are capable ? We should never forget that while there is a Caucasian race and a Negro race, a Mongolian race, a Malay race, and an Indian race, that there is also a human race. There is good authority for the doctrine that God has made of one blood all the nations of the earth. It does not follow that individuals of the great subdivisions of the human family should intermarry, any more than that there should be no such thing as choice between individuals of the same race. However this matter may be, it is likely to settle itself, and, in our country, is settling itself, by developing a more exacting conformity to race affinity in domestic relations, just as marriage becomes a recognized institution, which has only been since slavery was abolished by war. In other words, just in proportion as the colored people have been made free indeed — after the gos- pel idea of freedom — they have inclined to preserve the purity of their race blood. And so among the white people by whom they are surrounded. The higher the colored man rises in the scale of being, the closer does the Cauca- sian race adhere to itself; while in those communities where both races are the most advanced in conditions, there is at the same time the most blood and social separation, combined with the most political harmony and legal ecjuality. There seems to be quite as strong an affinity for their own race develoj)ed among the colored people, as a result of the improvement in their condition, —18 278 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. as among the whites. This improvement of both implies purity of race blood, combined with the recognition of legal and political equality. This is manifest, not in the domestic relations alone, but in almost every- thing. Probably it would be found quite as difficult to bring the colored people to consent to the substitution of mixed for separate churches and schools in the South, as to reconcile the other race to the change. Whether this inclination will be permanent or will disappear under the pressure of the increased burden of expense which it imposes as both races aj)- proach one common and higher standard, remains to be seen. No such tenn that nature the same effects. If this be so, it further follows that if we would reproduce or induce given conditions and results, we must use the means which have produced them in other cashes, or discover new means and methods having the same effect. More or leas may be necessary, but we may be sure that like will produce like, if there be proper adaptation of the means to the end. Whatever will not yield to the transforming power of that which is shown to have changed one people from the savage to the civilized state, if that power be properly applied to it, is either more or less than human. If failure follows, then the fault is not in the means, but in the subject to which they are applied. If we find a class of beings or creatures who do not respond to that which from savages has produced Ethiopians, Egyptians, Grecians, Romans, Germans, Englishmen, and Americans, we may be sure that we are not dealing with members of the human race. It does not follow that everything which can stand upright, and which goes upon two legs, is human. But the conceded classification of the negro among human beings is an admission that he is subject to the same influences, Ls capable of the same transformation under the pressure of the same means and surroundings wliich have been witnessed in other human beings, in kind, if not in d^ree. That is to say, the same means which have improved the conditions of other branches of the human family will improve that of the negro, and must be employed to that end if we would better his condition here. But now once more arises the question : What really is the problem which we desire to solve ? Is the problem simply how to improve the negro and his condition, or does it also include the rest of us in its scope ? If it includes all, then we are met by the incjuiry. Is that which improves the condition of the negro best for the whole country ? In answering this question we can deal only with the possible* We must assume that the deportation of our colored brethrefi Ls not conceivable ; be- cause, although a few might be transported to Africa or scattered elsewhere, THE RACE PROBLEM. 281 vet reproduction will increase their numbers in spite of such trifling methods, and our only way to be rid of their presence in the country is to kill them — which would be difficult, for many of them already have guns. If they are to remain here, and are not to be remanded to slavery, and are not to continue to be half slave and half free ; if we are to be a democracy or a republic, or if under any form of government the negro is to continue to be a component part of the American people ; and if it be true that we are to apply to the American people generally hereafter, as heretofore, the means which improve their mental, moral and physical nature, in order to secure their happiness, can it be possible that the negro is to be improved in any other manner, or that his happiness or the general welfare can be secured in any other way, than by treating the negro in all respects as the white man is or ought to be treated? Can there be two rules of action for the same human race, in the same country, under the same conditions and the same fundamental laws both of nature and of the state ? Not so long as the protest of the Jew remains a record of the imperishable nature of man : "Hath not a Jew eyes? Hath not a Jew hands, organs, dimensions, senses, passions ; fed with the same food, hurt with the same weapons, warmed and cooled by the same winter and summer as a Christian is ? If you prick us do we not bleed ? If you tickle us do we not laugh ? If you poison us do we not die ? — and if you wrong us shall we not revenge ? The villainy you teach me I will execute ; and it shall go hard, but I will better the instruction." We may well let Shy lock retain his money ; nay, we might give him his drop of blood in return for this impassioned synopsis of the philosophy of humanity. It is useless to endeavor to evade responsibility. Cain was his brother*s keeper, and his experience ought to instruct us that a breach of trust is not an escape from penalty any more than it is a discharge of duty. All this leads to the simple conclusion that our hope is in treating the negro as we do the white man, the negro child as we do the white child, and both with justice. Whatsoever is justice for any is justice for all. Whatever improves the inward or outward condition of any improves the whole. And the general welfare will be produced by a justice which is the highest form of duty, and which, while it can see the right with the glance of an eagle, is yet color-blind. The truth is that human nature is a ray of light from the great central orb of the Divinity. When God said, " Let there be light," there was light, and every- thing throughout the universe was adapted to light in the form and the con- dition in which He made it. But our race philosophers continually look upon this divine ray through the spectrum. They think there is no light, because of the mystery of refrac- tion. But God did not create the eye to be a si)ectrum to distort the light ; but the eye was made for the light, and the light for the eye, and both in order that the soul might see. 282 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. Now these philosophers are wiser than God, and so they have set spectrums in their eyes, and when they look at human nature they see nothing but colors. Cure your eyes, gentlemen, and you will see through the surface to the di- vinity within. Then shall you comprehend that ever}' human form is filled with the light which l)eams from the eye of the All-seeing, and that these colored rays retain their inherent nature. It is no business of ours that God put His light into the negro form. The negro may be Grod's dark lantern ; but He has use for dark lanterns in His universe or He would not have made them. Let us be careful, or when we least expect it He will turn the light upon us to our discomfiture. God keeps books, and He will make our accounts balance in the end. He gives no discharge in bankruptcy. Looking then at the South as we should, we see no reason for the use of other or different means and methods for the improvement of society than are necessary and appropriate at the North and everywhere else. The Southern problem, or the race problem of the South, is no Southern any more than it is a Northern mystery. It is merely a problem in human nature. Its solution depends upon the proper use of the same means which have improved the condition of men everywhere, regardless of race or color. " The same light lighteth ever}' man that cometh into the world." Education is the solution of the Southern problem. Education is the solution of the Northern problem. Education is the solution of the problem of all human advancement. Right education of the physical, mental and spiritual powers of each individual will |)erfect society, and nothing else will do it. Five hundred thousand teachers, who constitute the great profession in our country, are solving the difficulties which environ the nation. Tnie, there be other agencies: the church, the press, and the influence of the daily contact of life. But the work of the teacher is iiindamental and is necessary, in order that intelligence may criticise creed and prevent religion from degenerating into suj^rstition ; in order that the press may perform its work at all, and that daily contact with others may not simply reproduce in coming generations the imperfect environment of the present. The public-school system is the only hope, in the sense that it is the great creative and saving institution of the republic. The general difilision of knowledge, intelligence and virtue made us a republic. Education was that diffusion. The common school was the chief agency. Just in proportion to the influence of the common school has been the perfec- tion of the process. As it has been, so it now is, and so it will he. The edu- cation of a free people can never l)e accomplished othenvise than by universal education in common knowledge at the public exj)ense. Private schools may do something, denominational schools may do much. THE BACE PBOBLEM. 283 and higher education possibly may better depend upon individual or cor- porate endowment; although I doubt it. But all these agencies combined will leave us with an imperfect, unrepublican educaticm for our people. They will never reach one-half of our children. The property, the whole property of the country must educate the children of the country. As children exist for the common good, and are the nation in the process of perpetuation, so does property exist merely for the common good, and sub- ject to the promotion of the general welfare. Some individuals produce chil- dren, some produce property, some produce both ; each has a primary care of that w^hich he has by his own effort brought into existence, or preserved. But society can destroy even life, in battle, and property, by taxation, for the general welfare. The public-school system is the army which wages everlasting war upon ignorance, and all whose victories are peace. Taxation by the public must be for the general good, and of necessity results in the public school, without which at least one-half of the property of the country would escape its just contribution to the education of the people, and not less than one-half the children would grow up in ignorance, by reason of the poverty of those who, while they have produced life, may not have made money. Who has done the most for the country — the mere millionaire, or the hard- working mother of ten healthy children ? Your great profession was established to wait upon the one at the expense of the other ; such is the public school. Long life to other educational institutions, whether private or parochial, whether sectarian or agnostic, which do not assail it ; but death to its enemies ! Let us alone, for the republic will defend its life. One lesson is apparent from this, and that is the duty of the nation which is itself a republic, and which has pledged itself that every state shall be a republic also, that whenever for any cause, wherever local effort fails, the prop- erty of the nation shall educate the children of the nation. This may better be done, where help is necessary, through state systems and under local administration. But should states and parents persistently fail, the work to be done, which is the preservation of the existence of both nation and states, must not fail. That work must be done, and will be done. Let no one fear that the cause of national aid to education, for which this mighty Association has labored and petitioned for many years, is dead. That cause is stronger than ever. Time but the impression stronger makes. The waters of intelligence will overwhelm the cess-pools of ignorance, and fill the land with sweeter life. This as yet untried power — national aid to common-school education — would solve the Southern problem in ten years. I believe that it would remove the peculiar dangers which assail the public- 284 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. school system in the great cities and in rising States of the North ; while by uplifting the children of the masses of the conservative South, that great and patriotic section would in the future become the most powerful and reliable upholder of the institutions of the republic. Educate fully and impartially the children of both races in the South, and I believe the safety of the future will come from that very section, which, under conditions which education alone can fully destroy, assailed the nation's life. Justice, patriotism, brotherhood, and even enlightened selfishness, all de- mand national aid to education. There is no other help adequate to the great work. With it the work may be done in ten years which cannot be done in fifty years without. Not done when it shoidd be done, that work may fail. In some States, and in many large sections, illiteracy of the voter is increas- ing. In one, at least, those who have a right to cast a majority of the ballots cannot read them. Under such conditions at least another fourth are so igno- rant that they know nothing of the issues which they decide. The suffrage of the country has not as a whole improved in intelligence since 1880, and is not more capable of self-government now than it was then. The last reports of the Commissioner of Education show that the public- school system has not increased relatively with the population, while in many cases it has declined. There is a congressional district in Virginia, where the colored population is large, in which the wages of colored teachers have de- clined fifty per cent, since 1885. So I am informed by one of the teachers themselves. Since 1880, twenty-five millions of babies have been bom in this country, every one of them an ignoramus. Millions of foreigners have sought our shores. There has been an actual growth of fift;een millions, of itself a nation as large as Spain, and five times the number with whom we defeated the British empire a century ago in the first revolution. Nearly or quite one-third of the existing body of intelligence has died within ten years, and the teaching power of the country has not more than kept pace with all this, whereas the safety of society requires that the standard of intelligence should have been greatly raised. This country is not yet out of the woods. The wise and sleepless opposition to the public-school system knows its time and improves its opportunity. Its opponents are to be commended for their sagacity and the vigor with which they devote themselves to their mighty work of overthrowing the public-school system of the whole United States. If its defenders would but imitate their consecration, far more would be accomplished than by denunciation. They give us an example from, which we may learn much, and by imitating which we might organize victory. This great Association has never failed to encom- pass the whole country in its patriotic vision. It is itself national. During all these years of struggle your annual trumpet tone has reverberated through- out the land, calling for national aid to education. THE BAGS FBOBLEM. 285 The victory ia not yet won, but with peneverance it is sure. The evil re- mains, and until the evil is removed, the absolute necessity for national aid will continue. Illiteracy is the disease of the nation, and it will not yield to the puny foree of mere local remedy. Individuals may fail and disappear in the ocean of oblivion, but the cause will survive. Education is the hope of the world. Its never-ending processes are the work of eternity. ^^^Membtn of tht AM9oeiation tettl notice with regret that the addreee by Inapeetor Jamee L, Hughea^ of Toronto, Ontario^ on ^^'The Training of the Executive Powere^'*'* doet not appear in thia voiume. The mantucript was to$t in Sf. Paul^ and eo never reached the editor. PROCEEDINGS TENTH ANNUAL MEETING NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION. National Council of Education. CONSTITUTION. Pbeambi^s. The National Conncil of Education shall have for its object the consideration and discussion of educational questions of general interest and public importance, and the presentation, through printed reports, of the substance of the discussions, and the conclusions formulated. It shall be its object to reach and disseminate correct thinking on educational questions; and, for this purpose, it shall be the aim of the Council, in conducting its discussions, to define and state with accuracy the different views and theories on the subject under consideration, and, secondly, to discover and represent fairly the grounds and reasons for each theory or view, so far as to show, as completely as possible, the genesis of opinion on the subject. It shall be the duty of the Council, in pursuance of this object, to encourage from all its members the most careful statement of differences in opinion, together with the completest statement of grounds for the same. It shall further require from the chairmen of its committees the careful preservation and presentation of the indi- vidual differences of opinion whenever grounds have been furnished for the same by members of their committees. It shall invite the freest discussion of the reports of its committees, and, whenever said reports are not so amended as to embody the new suggestions developed by such discussion, any member making such suggestion or objection may put in writing his view and the grounds therefor, and furnish the same to the Secretary for the records of the Council. It shall prepare, through its president, with the aid of the chairmen of the several committees, an annual report to the National Association, setting forth the questions considered by the Council during the previous year, and placing before the Association, in succinct form, the work accomplished. It shall embody in this report a survey of those educational topics which seem to call for any action on the part of the Association. The Coun- cil shall appoint, out of its own number, committees representing the several depart- ments of education, and thereby facilitate the exchange of opinion among its members on such special topics as demand the attention of the profession or of the public. Abticle I. — Membebship. 1. The National Council of Education shall consist of sixty members, selected out of the membership of the National Educational Association. Any member of the Association identified with educational work is eligible to membership in the Conncil, and after the first election such membership shall continue for six years, except as hereinafter provided. 2. In the year 1885 the Board of Directors shall elect eight members — four mem- bers for six years, two for four years, and two for two years; and the Council shall (289) 290 NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION, elect eight members — five members for six years, two for four years, and one for two years; and annually thereafter the Board of Directors shall elect five members and the Council five members, each member, with the exceptions hereinafter pro- vided for (section 5), to serve six years, or until his successor is elected. 8. The annual election of members of the Council shall be held in connection with the annual meetings of the Association. If the Board of Directors shall fail, for any reason, to fill its quota of members annually, the vacancy or vacancies shall be filled by the Council. 4. The term of service of the several members of the Council, chosen at the first election, shall be arranged by the Executive Committee of the Council. 5. The absence of a member from two consecutive annual meetings of the Coun- cil shall be considered equivalent to resignation of membership, and the Council shall fill vacancies caused, by absence from the Council as herein defined, as well as vacancies caused by death or resignation, for the unexpired term. All persons who have belonged to the Council shall, on the expiration of their membership, become honorary members, with the privilege of attending its regular sessions, and partici- pating in its discussions. No State shall be represented in the Council by more than eight members. Abticle II. — Fees. There shall be no fee for membership in the Council of Education, but each mem- ber of it shall secure a membership in the National Educational Association by be- coming a life member of the same, or by paying to the Treasurer of the Association the annual membership fee of two dollars. Abtiole III. —Meetings. There shall be a regular annual meeting of the Council held at the same place as the meeting of the National Association, and at least two days previous to this meeting. There may be special meetings of the Council, subject to the call of the Executive Committee, but the attendance at these meetings shaU be entirely volun- tary. The regular meeting of the committees shall take place on the days provided for the annual meeting of the Council. Meetings of committees may be called at any time by the chairmen of the respective committees, but attendance at such special meetings shall be entirely voluntary. A majority of the Council shall con- stitute a quorum for the transaction of business at any meeting, whether regular or called: but any less number, exceeding eight members, may constitute a quorum for the transaction of business at the regular annual meeting, as defined in this article. Abticle IV. — Committees. The general management of the affairs of the Council shall be vested in an Ex- ecutive Committee, composed of the President, Vice-President, and Secretary of the Council, and four other members, all of whom are to be elected by the Council at its annual meeting. There shall be twelve standing committees, each consisting of five members. They shall be appointed by the Executive Committee, and be named as follows: 1. Committee on State School Systems. 2. Committee on City School Systems. 3. Committee on Higher Education. 4. Committee on Secondary Education. 5. Committee on Elementary Education. 6. Committse on Normal Education. 7. Committee on Technological Education. CONSTITUTION. 291 8. Committee on Pedagogicn. 9. Committee on Education of Oirls. 10. Committee on Hygiene in Education. 11. Committee on Educational Literature. 12. Committee on Educational Stati»tic8. ABTICXiB V.--DUT»8 OF COMMITTSBS. The Committees of the Council shall consider the topics assigned to them, and report on the same ; they may select for their deliberations such other questions be- longing to their departments as they deem proper to discuss. Whenever called upon, the committees shall continue the deliberative work of the Association on topics assigned to them, or prepare questions to be submitted to that body. Abticle VI. — DuTiBS OF Mbmbbbs of the Committbbs. The members of the Council shall render active service and assistance in the work of the Committee to which they have been assigned, and further the general work of the Council as much as is in their power. They shall give their attention to the questions submitted to them, and communicate their conclusions In writing to the Chairman of the Committee. ABTIOIiB VII. — DUTIBS OF THE ChAIBMEM OF COMiaTTBBS. The Chairman of each Committee shall communicate the questions which are to be discussed to each of the members of his Committc^e, and send them such other communications as may assist them in their work. He shall arrange a suitable plan for an exchange of opinion, and embody the conclusions arrived at in a brief report. He shall, from time to time, inform the Secretary of the Coxmcil of the progress made by his Committee. He shall, with the consent of the other members of his Committee, arrange special meetings at a convenient time and place. He shall see that the communications, sent in turn to each member of his Committee, are promptly forwarded. He shall state distinctly ( in the form of questions, when fea- sible) the topics on which he desires to have a brief expression of opinion from the members of his Committee, and embody the substance of their answers in his report. AsTiciiE VIII. — The Wobk of the Coiocittees. The work of the Committees of the Council shall be carried on in the regular meetings, provided for above, and in such special meetings as can be arranged from time to time, according to the pleasure of the Committee, and principally in writing, by an exchange of briefly-expressed opinions. It shall be the duty of each Chairman to devise a plan for the latter. Each member may be required to report on a part of the subject; or the whole topic may be submitted to each member, together with the opinion of the other members that have considered the topic before. Abtiole IX. — Duties of the Counoii,. It shall be the duty of the Council to further the objects of the National Associa- tion, and to use its best efforts to promote the cause of education in general. The Council shall assign work to each committee, and receive a report on the same; it shall cause to be published such reports of Committees, or parts of the same, as in its judgment should be brought to general notice; it shall present, through the Pres- ident of the Council, an annual report of its work to the National Educational Asso- ciation. 292 NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION, Abtiole X. — Amendmbntb. This Constitution may be altered or amended, at a regular meeting of the Coun- oil, by a two-thirds yote of the members present, and any provision may be waived at any regular meeting, by unanimous consent. By-laws, not in violation of this Constitution, may be adopted by a two-thirds vote of the Council. BY-LAWS. 1. Each active member of the Council shall pay annually two dollars, to defray the expenses of the Council. 2. The Secretary shall act as Treasurer of the Council. OFFICERS FOR 1890-91. President — Selim H. Peabodt, Champaign, 111. Vice-President — Andrew J. Rickoff, New York, N. Y. Secretary and IVoiwirer— David L. Kiehle, St. Paul, Minn. EzeeiUive Oommittee — The President, Vice-President, Secretary; and Chas. C Rounds, Plymouth, N. H.; Joseph Baldwin, Hantsville, Tex.; Lillie J. Martin, San Francisco, Gal. ; Henry M. James, Omaha, Neb. MEMBERS. Note.— The letter "A" following a name denotes that the member is of the class elected by the Association; the letter "C/' by the Council. Tbrm expires. Term expire*. Wm. T.Harris, Washington,D.C.. . . A 1891 N. C. Dougherty, Peoria, 111 C 1892 S. S. Parr, St. Cloud, Minn A 1891 J. E. Bradley, Minneapolis, Minn... A 1891 W. H. Bartholomew, Loubville, Ky., A 1893 Geo. T. Fairchild, Manhattan, Kan. .A 1891 Frank A. Fitzpatrick, Leavenworth, Robert Allyn, Carbondale, 111 A 1891 Kan A 1893 J. L. Pickard, Iowa City, la. C 1891 Henry Sabin, Des Moines, la. A 1893 L. H. Jones, Indianapolis, Ind. . . . . C 1891 E. O. Lyte, Millersville, Pa. A 1893 C. M. Woodward, St. Louis, Mo C 1891 J. M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo.. A 1893 N. R. H. Dawson, Selma, Ala. C 1891 Wm. A. Mowry, Boston, Mass. C 1893 W. N. Hailmann, La Porte, Ind.. . .C 1891 Selim H. Peabody, Champaign, III..C 1893 Nathan C. Schaeffer, Kutztown, Pa..C 1893 John Hancock, Columbus, O A 1892 David L. Kiehle, St. Paul, Minn. . .C 1893 F. Louis Soldan, St. Louis, Mo. .. . A 1892 Mary E. Nicholson, Indianapolis, Ind.C 1893 N. A- Calkins, New York, N. Y. . . A 1892 Joseph Baldwin, HunUville, Tex. . . A 1892 C. C. Rounds, Plymouth, N. H A 1894 Jas. H. Canfield, Lawrence, Kan. . .A 1892 H. S. Jones, Lincoln, Neb.. A 1894 A. S. Draper, Albany, N. Y C 1892 Z. Richards, Washington, D. C. . . . . A 1S94 Ira G. Hoitt, Sacramento, Cal. . . ; . . C 1892 James H. Baker, Denver, Col A 1894 Emerson K White, Cincinnati, 0...C 1892 Thos. J. Morgan, Washington, D. C . A 1894 R A. Hinsdale, Ann Arbor, Mich. . .C 1892 Aaron Gove, Denver, Col C 1894 HONOBABY MEMBEBS. 298 \Vm. E. Sheldon, Boston, Mass. . . . . C 1894 James H. Hooae, Cortland, N. Y.. . .C 1894 CUra Conway, Memphis, Tenn C 1894 H. B. Spragiie, Grand Forks, N. D..C 1894 R .W. Stevenson, Wichita, Kan .... A 1895 John Eaton, Marietta, Ohio A 189^ LilUe J. Martin, San Francisco, Cal . A 1895 W. R. Garrett, Nashville, Tenn.. . .A 1895 h. S. Thompson, Jersey City, N. J.. A 1895 Geo. P. Brown, Bloomington, III. . .C 1895 Wm. II. Payne, Nashville, Tenn. . .C 1895 Henry M. James, Omaha, Neb C 1895 Delia L. Williams, Delaware, O . . . . C 1895 Wm. F. King, Mt. Vernon, Iowa. . .C 1895 Edwin a Hewett, Normal, 111 A 1896 Andrew J. Rickoff, New York, N.Y .A 1896 W. R. Thigpen, Savannah, Ga A 1896 George Howland, Chicago, III A 1896 John S. Irwin, Fort Wayne, Ind. . . A 1896 Daniel B. Hagar, Salem, Mass. C 1896 H. S. Tarbell, Providence, R. I C 1896 E. W. Coy, Cincinnati, Ohio C 1896 Ella C. Sabin, Portland, Oregon . . . . C 1896 Warren D. Parker, Madison, Wis.. .C 1896 HONORARY MEMBERS. Israel W. Andrews,* 1888. Henry Barnard, Hartford, CL William N. Barringer, Newark, N.J. Newton Bateman, Galesburg, 111. Thomas W. Bicknell, Boston, Mass. Albert G. Boyden, Bridgewater, Mass. Anna C. Brackett, New York, N. Y. Edward Brooks, Philadelphia, Pa. Matthew H. Backham, Burlington, Vt David M. Camp, New Britain, Conn. Aaron L. Chapin, Beloit, Wis. Matilda a Cooper, Nyack, N. Y. William J. Corthell, Gorham, Maine. J. L. M. Curry, Richmond, Va. V. C. Dibble, Charleston, S. C. John W. Dickinson, Boston, Mass. Larkin Dun ton, Boston, Mass. William W. Folwell, Minneapolis, Minn. Daniel C. Oilman, Baltimore, Md. Samuel 8. Greene,* 1883. James C, Greenough, Westfield, Mass. John M. Gregory, Washington, D. C. G. Stanley Hall, Worcester, Mass. William D. Ilenkel * 1882. Klnathan E. Higbee,* 1889. George W. Howison, San Francisco, Cal. Thomas Hunter, New York, N. Y. Ellen Hyde, Framingham, Mass. E. J. James, Philadelphia, Pa. E. S. Joynes, Knoxville, Tenn. Merrick Lyon,* 1888. James Mac A lister, Philadelphia, Pa. James McCosh, Princeton, N. J. Albert P. Marble, Worcester, Mass. Francis A. March, Easton, Pa. Lemuel Moss, Minneapolis, Minn. M. A. Newell, Baltimore, Md. Birdseye G. Northrop, Clinton, Ct Edward Olney,* 1886. John M. Ordway, New Orleans, La. Gustevus J. Orr,* 1888. Francis W. Parker, Normalville, 111. John B. Peaslee, Cincinnati, Ohio. William F. Phelps, St. Paul, Minn. John D. Philbrick,* 1885. William H. RuflTner, Lexington, Ya. H. E. Shepard, Charleston, S. C. Edgar A. Singer, Philadelphia, Pa. James H. Smart, Lafayette, Ind. J. W. Stearns, Madison, Wis. Thomas B. Stockwell, Providence, R. I. Grace C. Sudborough, Omaha, Neb. John Swett, San Francisco, Cal. Eli T. Tappan,* 1888. Charles O. Thompson,* 1885. H. S. Thompson, Columbia, S. C. S. R. Thompson, New Wilmington, Pa. Julia S. Tutweiler, Livingston, Ala. James P. Wickersliam, Lancaster, Pa. J. Ormond Wilson, Washington, D. C. •Deceaied. —19 294 NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION. STANDING COMMITTEES. The Committees from which reports are due in 1891 are Nos. I, IV, VI, VIII, X, XII. The topics already reported on will be found in italics, with the year of the re- port in parentheses. The Chairman of each of the above-named Committees should organize his Com- mittee at once« select a subject, and notify the President, S. H. Peabody, Champaign, III., as early as February 1st, 1891. The Council has ordered that "a place be given in the next year's program for vol- unteer contributions from members of the Council, outside of the regular committee work, under the following conditions: (a) Papers must not exceed fifteen minutes each in time for reading; (6) no paper will be placed on the volunteer program which has not been presented to the Executive Committee three months previous to the time of the meeting of the Council, and which has not received the approval of said committee." I. On State School Systems.— Sub- topics: (1) Organization (1883); (2) ^i*- perviaion (1886); (3) Licensure of Teachers (1889) ; (4) School Revenues; (5) Compul- sory Education ; (6) Tenure of Office of Teach- ers (1887). D. L. Kiehle, St. Paul, Minn., Chair'ni J. L. Pickard, Iowa City, Iowa. J. H. Canfield, Lawrence, Kan. Ira G. Hoitt, Sacramento, Cal. W. D. Parker, Madison, Wis. II. On Oity School Systems.— Sub- topics: (1) Organization; (2) Supervision (1884, 1890); (3) Superintendency; (4) Qualification of Teachers; (5) Classification of Pupils (1886); (6) Ungraded Schools; (7) Business Side of City School Systems (1888, 1889, 1890). Aaron Gove, Denver, Col., Chairman, George Rowland, Chicago, 111. N. C. Dougherty, Peoria, 111. B. A. Hinsdale, Ann Arbor, Mich. E. E. White, Cincinnati, Ohio. III. On Hlgrher Education.— Sub- topics: (1) Higher Institutions Required (1885); (2) Harmonizing of Higher, Second- ary ^ and FAementary Schools (1882) ; (3) Ad- miasUm to College (1884) ; (4) Elective System (1888); (5) College Government; (6) What Should Precede the University ? Wm.II. King, Mt. Vernon, la., Chair^n. C. M. Woodward, St. Louis, Mo. N. C. Schaeffer, Kutstown, Pa. J. E. Bradley, Minneapolis, Minn. H. B. Sprague, Grand Forks, Dak. IV. On Secondary Education.— Sub-topics: (1) High Schools (1882); (2) Academies (1885); (3) Preparatory SckooU (1884, 1887); (4) The Opportunities of the Rural Population for Secondary Education (1889); (5) Schools by Correspondence; (6) Rational Selection and Order of Studies with Reference to Admission to College. J. H. Baker, Denver, CoU Chairman, W. A. Mowry, Boston, Mass. Lillie J. Martin, San Francisco, Cal. H. S. Tarbell, Providence, R. I. E. W. Coy, Cincinnati, Ohio. V. On Blementary ESduoation.— Sub-Topics: (1) Courses of Study (1882); (2) Oral Teaching (1884); (3) TaU-Books (1886) ; (4) WasU in Elementary Education (1888); (5) Length of Sessions; (6) Man- ual Training; (7) Kindergarten ; (8) Essen- tials in Elementary Education (1890). C. C. Rounds, Plymouth, N. H., CAatVn. R. W. Stevenson, Wichita, Kan. A. J. RickofF, New York, N. Y. Z. Richards, Washington, D. C. N. A. Calkins, New York, N. Y. VI. On Normal Education.— Sub- topics: (1) Kind of Normal Schools Re- quired; (2) Acculemicat and Professional Training (1883, 1889); (3) Practice Depart- ments {ISS^); (4) City Normal Schools; (o) Teachers' Institutes {1SS7); (6) Chaireof Ped- agogics in Colleges. A. S. Draper, Albany, N. Y., Chairman. D. B. Hagar, Salem, Mass. S. S. Parr, St. Cloud, Minn. Ella C. Sabin, Portland, Oregon. L. H. Jones, Indianapolis, Ind. VII. On Technolosrioal Educa. tion. — Sub-topics: (1) Technieal Draining STANDING COMMITTEES. 295 in PMit Schools (\9»l)\ (2) Preparation for I X. On Hyfiriene in Bduoation.— Institutes of Technology; (3) Pedagogical Sub-topics: (\) Sanitary ExereUet and Ap- Valu£<^ the School TToribAop (1886); (4) Pro- plianen in Puhlui Schools {1%%Z)\ (2) Reecncs fesBional Function of Polytechnic Schools; (1884, 1885); (3) Indoor Exercises; (4) (5) AgrieuHurol OoUcges (1888); (6) Summer Heating and Ventilation ; (5) Lighting; (6) Schools of Science. ' Relation cf Mental Labor to Physical Health L. a Thompson, Jersey City, N.J,, CA'n. (1887) ; (7) Harmonious Development (1889). Geo. T. Fairchild, Manhattan, Kan. Clara Conway, Memphis, Tenn., Ch*n, John £aton, Marietta, Ohio. J. M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo. H. M. James, Omaha, Neb. H. S. Jones, Lincoln, Neb. T. J. Morgan, Washington, D. C. J. S. Irwin, Fort Wayne, Ind. _.,_ _ _ , . ^ Henry Sabin, Des Moines, Iowa. Vm. On Pedagrofirios.— Sub-topics: * (1) Chairs of Pedagogy in Colleges ( 1882); (2) XL On Educational Literature.— Pedagogy as a Science (1884); (3) Pedagog- , Sub-topics: (1) School Reports {ISSb) ; (2) ical Inquiry; (4) Function (^ Public Schools i Books on Pedagogy (1888); (3) Periodical (1886,1887); (b) Educational Value of Man- ! Literature; (4) Use of Reference Libraries; fud Training (1889); (6) Moral Education; (5) Use of Qeneral LibrarUs {ISS7) ; (6) Ed- (7) Pedagogical Terminology. ' ueational LUeraiure (1890) ; (7) Study of Geo. P. Brown, Bloomington, 111., CKn, Literature in Schools. Edwin C. Hewett, Normal, 111. i W. H. Payne, Nashville, Tenn., Ch'n, James H. Hoose, Cortland, N. Y. Delia L. Williams, Delaware, Ohio. W. N. Hailmann, La Porte, Ind. W. R. Garrett, Nashville, Tenn. E. O. Lyte, Millersville, Pa. F. Louis Soldan, St. Louis, Mo. IX. On the Education of Qirla.- ^^* ^' ^**"**^^°' ^^^°» ^^ Sub-topics: (1) Qhcducation (1883, 1890); ' XII. On Bduoational Statistios.— (2) Mixed Elementary and Secondary i Sub-topics: (1) i2^orm< m iSihi/M/ies (1885, Schools; (3) Colleges for Women ; (4) Tech- 1887) ; (2) What J^atistics ShoM be CoUecUd nical Training for Girls (1886); (5) Profes- ' (1889); (3) Uniformity in Nomenclature; sional Life for Women; (6) Training for ' (4) International Comparisons; (5) School Domestic Life; (7) What Education is Best i Age— Can Uniformity be Secured ; (6) U. S. (1888). Census of Educational Statistics. Mary S. Nicholson, Indianapolis, Ind., CVn. j W. T. Harris, Washington, D. C, CA'ti. Robert Allyn, Carbondale, 111. N. B. H. Dawson, Selma, Ala. Joseph Baldwin, Huntsville, Tex. F. A. Fitzpatrick, Leavenworth, Kan. W. H. Bartholomew, Louisville, Ky. W. B. Thigpen, Savannah, Ga.^ John Hancock, Oilumbus, Ohio. | S. H. Peabody, Champaign, III. 296 NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION. REPORT OF SECRETARY. St. Paul, Minx., July 4, 1890. OPENING SESSION. At 9:30 o'clock, Pres. Peabody in the chair, the Council was called to order. Prayer was offered by Dr. Pickard. Roll was called, and the following persons were found present: Messrs. AUyn, Baker, Brown, Canfield, Dougherty, Fitzpatrick, Garrett, Gove, Green- wood, Harris, Hewett, Hinsdale, James, Kiehle, Peabody, Pickard, Rounds, Sheldon, Soldan, Stevenson, Thigpen, White, and Misses Conway, Martin, and Nicholson. A welcome was extended to the Council by the city of St. Paul through Mr. D. D. Merrill, chairman of the Executive Committee, which was appropri- ately responded to by the President of the Council. Voted, that the President be requested to appoint the usual committees. Voted, that by-law No. 1, which provides for raising money to defray the expenses of the Council, be amended by substituting two dollars for three dollars. The report of the Committee on City School Systems was presented by E. E White, chairman. Mr. G. P. Brown was appointed to report the discussion of this report The report was considered in discussion by the following: Messrs. Gt)ve, Hinsdale, Harris, Fitzpatrick, Soldan, Greenwood, Sheldon, Garrett, and Miss Martin. Voted, that the report be received and ordered printed. The Council received an invitation from the Great Northern Railroad, through Mr. Currj-, chairman of Committee on Excursions, to visit Lake Minnetonka, and hold its Saturday afternoon session at Hotel Lafayette. Voted, to accept the invitation with thanks ; and that the afternoon session of Saturday be held at that place. The following committees were appointed and announced : Committee on Nomination of Members — Messrs. White, Pickard, Rounds. Committee on Nomination of Officers — Mr. AUyn, Miss Conway, Mr. Baker. Committee on Auditing Accounts — Messrs. Hinsdale, Stevenson, James. Recess taken until 3 p. m. AFTERNOON SESSION. Council met at 3 o'clock p. m. The minutes of the morning session were read and approved. The report of the Committee on Educational Literature was presented by W. E. Sheldon, chairman. REPOBT OF SECRET ABY. 297 The report was discuased by Messrs. Brown, Greenwood, Harris, Soldan, White, Hinsdale, Grarrett, Baker, Aliss Williams, and Mr. Sheldon closing. Voted, that the report be received, and ordered printed. Voted, that the morning session open at 9 o'clock. The following persons were present at this session : Messrs. Allyn, Baker, Brown, Canfield, Dougherty, Fitzpatrick, Garrett, Greenwood, Hewett, Hins- dale, James, Kiehle, Peabody, Pickard, Richards, Rounds, Sheldon, Soldan, Stevenson, Thigpen, White, Woodward, Misses Conway, Martin, Nicholson, and Mrs. Williams. Adjourned. SECOND DAY.— July 5, 1890. MORNING SESSION. Council met at 9 A. m. Prayer was offered by Mr. Allyn. The minutes of the previous session were read and approved. The following was offered by Mr. Hinsdale : Resolvedj That the President of the Conncil be instructed to set apart a half -day's session at next yearns meeting for the reading and discussion of volunteer papers. Voted, to refer to a committee of five, to report at the Tuesday morning session. The committee appointed was as follows : Messrs. Pickard, Hinsdale, White, Soldan, and Brown. Ordered, that the roll be called at the close of each half-day session. Report was made by Mr. Brown of the discussion of the first day. Approved, and ordered printed. Supt. J. H. Bradley, on behalf of the Board of Education of Minneapolis, extended an invitation to the Council to visit Minneapolis on a train to be provided by the Board, to dine at the West Hotel, and return in time for the evening session. The invitation was accepted, with thanks. Voted, that in the absence of Mr. Thompson, chairman of the Committee on Technical Education, the report of Committee on Education of Girls be now presented. This was then presented by Mr. John Hancock, chairman. Voted, that each speaker be notified when he has spoken five minutes. • The report was discussed by Miss Nicholson, Messrs. Allyn, Hinsdale, Rounds, Harris, Baldwin, Brown, White, Phelps, Gove, Hinsdale, Soldan, and Miss Conway. Voted, that the report be received and ordered printed. Notice was given that the Monday session would be held at the Assembly Chamber, in the Capitol. There were present at this session ; Messrs. Allyn, Baker, Baldwin, Brown, 298 NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION. Canfield, Dougherty, Fitzpatrick, Garrett, Gove, Greenwood, Hancock, Har- ris, Hewett, Hinsdale, James, Kiehle, Parr, Peabody, Pickard, Richards, Rounds, Sabin, Schaeffer, Sheldon, Boldan, Stevenson, Thigpen, White, Wood- ward, Misses Conway, Martin, Nicholson, and Mrs. Williams. Recess taken, to meet at Minnetonka at 3 p. m. AFTERNOON SESSION. Council met at 3 p. m., at Hotel Lafayette, The following was presented by Mr. Woodward, and adopted ; Resolved^ That the Preeident of the Gouncil be requested to make arrangements for printing the reports of standing committees beforehand, so that, on slips, or otherwise, the reports may be presented to the members at the beginning of the ses- sions at which they are to be read; provided the Directors of the Association make due appropriation for the printing. The following was presented by Mr. Phelps, and adopted : Resolved, That the thanks of this Council and the officers of the National Educa- tional Association are due and are hereby gratefully tendered to Mr. F. S. Whitney, General Passenger Agent of the Great Northern Railroad, for the tender of a special train for this excursion to the shores of Minnetonka, and for the courtesies extended to us during the trip. Resolved^ That we tender the assurance of our grateful appreciation to the pro- prietor of Hotel Lafayette for the use of the spacious hall, in which to hold the after- noon session of the Council. Those present were as follows: Messrs. Allyn, Baker, Baldwin, Brown, Dougherty, Fitzpatrick, Garrett, Gove, Greenwood, Hancock, Harris, Hewett, Hinsdale, James, Kiehle, Parr, Peabody, Pickard, Richards, Rounds, Sabin, Schaeffer, Sheldon, Soldan, Stevenson, Thigpen, White, Woodward, Misses Conway, Martin, Nicholson, and Mrs. Williams. THIRD DAY.— July 7, 1890. MORNING SESSION. Council met at 9 a. m. Minutes of the second day's session were read and approved. Communications were received from the following, expressing regret at their inability to be present at this meeting of the Council: Messrs. Coy, Irwin, Draper, Morgan, Hoose, Sprague, King. The report by Mr. Dougherty, of the discussion of the report on Educa- tional Literature, was presented, approved, and ordered printed. The report of the Committee on Elementary Education, upon Essentials in Elementary Education, was presented by Mr. N. A. Calkins, chairman. The report was discussed by Messra. Brown, Sheldon, Harris, Richards, Hailmann, Hinsdale, Greenwood, Fitzpatrick, Allyn, Hancock, White, Pick- ard, Rounds, and Calkins closing. Voted, that the report be received, and ordered printed. BEPOBT OF SECRETAST. 299 The following persons were present at this meeting: Messrs. Allyn, Baker, Baldwin, Brown, Calkins, Canfield, Dougherty, Fitzpatriek, Garrett, Gove, Greenwood, Hancock, Harris, Hewett, Hailmann, Hinsdale, James, Jones, Kiehle, Parr, Peabody, Pickard, Richards, Rounds, Rickoff, Sabiu, Schaeffer, Sheldon, Soldan, Stevenson, White, Woodward, Misses Conway, Martin, Nich- olson, and Mrs. Williams. Recess until 3 p. m. AI-TERXOON SESSION. The Council met at 3 p. m. jSfinutes of the morning session were read and approved. A supplementary report on City School Systems waa presented by Mr. Hinsdale. Mr. Parr was appointed to report the discussion. The report was discussed by Messrs. Richards, Harris, White, Hancock, Woodward, Greenwood, Brown, Folwell, Grove, Sheldon, and Hinsdale. Voted, that the report be received, and ordered printed. The following persons were present : Messrs. Allyn, Baker, Baldwin, Brown, Calkins, Canfield, Dougherty, Fitzpatriek, Garrett, Gove, Greenwood, Han- cock, Harris, Hewett, Hailmann, Hinsdale, James, Jones, Kiehle, Parr, Pea- body, Pickard, Richards, Rounds, Rickoff, Sabin, Schaeffer, Sheldon, Soldan, Stevenson, Thigpen, White, Woodward, Misses Conway, Martin, Nicholson, and Mrs. Williams. Adjourned till 9:30 Tuesday. FOURTH DAY.— July 8. MORNING SESSION. Session opened with prayer by Mr. SchaefTer. Proceedings of the afternoon of July 7th were read and approved. Report of a part of the discussion of Mr. Calkins's paper on " Essentials in Elementary Education " was read by Mr. Gove, who asked further time to complete the report. It was determined that the report be referred to Mr. Gove to be edited and prepared for publication. Report of the discussion of Mr. Hinsdale's paper on "City School Systems" was read by Mr. Parr. It was voted to approve, and the report was ordered printed. The address in memory of Elnathan Elisha Higbee, late State Superin- tendent of Public Instruction for Pennsylvania, was read by N. C. Schaeffer, of Pennsylvania. Supplementary remarks were made by Messrs. Peabody, Hancock, White, Jones of Pennsylvania, Hinsdale, Greenwood, Harris, and Richards. On motion of Mr. White, the address of Mr. Schaeffer was approved, and ordered printed. 300 NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION EXECUTIVE SESSION. Report of committee on Mr. Hinsdale's resolution to make provision for the reading of volunteer papers was made by Mr. White, as follows : Your committee, to whom was referred the subject of providing a place on the Conncil program for the presentation of volunteer papets, has had the same under careful advisement, and reports as follows: 1. The proposition strikes your committee as one worthy of more mature consid- eration than can be given it at this session, if it is to become the settled policy of the Council. Your committee therefore recommends the appointment of a com- mittee to consider and report next year what changes, if any, should be made in the plan of organization of committees and of work of the Council, to the end of in- creasing the usefulness and the power of the Council as an educational force. 2. As a year's trial will aid materially in the settlement of the question which has called for the appointment of your committee, we recommend that a place be given in next year's program for voluntary contributions from members of the Council outside of the regular committee work, under the following conditions: (a) Papers must not exceed fifteen minutes each in time for reading. ( 6) No paper will be placed on the volunteer program, which has not been presented to the Executive Committee one month previous to the time of meeting of the Council, and which has not received the approval of said committee, (c) No paper thus approved and read will be printed in the volume of Proceedings of the Council, except by vote of the Council after the paper has been read, {d) This recommendation, if adopted^ is to be of force only for and during the next meeting of the Council. 3. Your committee suggests that the last morning session of the Council be as- signed to the reading of such volunteer papers as may have been approved by the Executive Committee as above provided. Respectfully submitted. J. L. PiGKABD, B. A. Hinsdale, E. E. White, G. P. Bbown, F. L. SOLDAN, Committee, The report was discussed by Messrs. White, Brown, Sheldon, King, Hins- dale, Soldan, and Harris. Mr. Harris moved that the word " last " (section 8 of the report) be stricken out, and "first" inserted. Mr. Harrris modified his motion to leave the time of presenting the papers to the President. Carried. Mr. Harris further moved that instead of one month (section 2, condition [6] of the report), three months be substituted. Carried. The report, as amended, was adopted, and the President was instructed to appoint a committee of five, as recommended in the report, to consider and report what changes, if any, should be made in the organization and methods of the Council. The President appointed Messrs. Sheldon, Brown, Calkins, Soldan and White, as this committee. Mr. Rounds offered the following resolution, which was adopted : Resolved^ That at the next meeting of the Council the reports presented be dis- cussed, point by point, in the order of presentation, before the subject be treated in general debate. BSPOST OF SECRETARY. 301 Mr. Hinsdale, firom the Committee on Accounts, made the report found in Treasurer's book, page 31. Mr. White moved that the Treasurer be instructed to make a detailed report for the volume of Proceedings, which report shall be first submitted to the Auditing Committee for report to the President. Mr. White, on behalf of the Committee on Membership, presented the fol- lowing report, which was adopted : To the Cowneil of EduecUion — Yonr committee appointed to nominate memberB to fill yacancies begs leave to submit the following report : The terms of the following members expire by limitation at the close of this meeting: 1. Members appointed by the Association : Edwin C. Hewett, Illinois ; Andrew J. Rickoff, New York ; W. R. Thigpen, Georgia ; Oeorge Howland, Illinois ; John S. Irwin, Indiana. 2. Members appointed by Council : Daniel B. Hagar, Massachusetts ; H. S. Tar- bell, Rhode Island ; E. W. Coy, Ohio ; John Swett, California ; J. W. Stearns, Wis- consin. Mr. Swett has been absent from two meetings, including the present, and Mr. Steams from three meetings, including the present. 3. It is recommended that the following persons be appointed to fill the last five yacancies, terms to expire in 1896 : Daniel B. Hagar, Massachusetts ; H. S. Tarbell, Rhode Island ; E. W. Coy, Ohio ; Ella C. Sabin, Oregon ; W. D. Parker, Wisconsin. The following members, having been absent two meetings prior to the present meeting, and also this meeting, in accordance with article II, section 5, are placed in the list of Honorary Members, to wit : Thos. W. Bicknell, Massachusetts, 1893 ; David N. Camp, Connecticut, 1891 ; John W. Dickinson, Massachusetts, 1891. It is recommended that their places be filled by the appointment of \y. H. Bar- tholomew, (A) Louisville, Ky., term expiring in 1893; J. E. Bradley, Minneapolis, Minn., term expiring in 1891; Lewis H. Jones, Indianapolis, term expiring in 1891. It is further recommended that the vacancy caused by the death of Dr. E. E. Higbee, of Pennsylvania, be filled by the appointment of E. 0. Lyte, principal of the State Normal School, Millersville, Penn., term to expire in 1893. Respectfully submitted. E. E. White, J. L. PlOKABD, C. C. Rounds, Committee. Mr. Allen presented the report of the Committee on Nomination of Officers, which was adopted. The report is as follows : To the National Council of Education — The undersigned, the Committee on the Nomi- nation of Officers for the ensuing year, beg leave respectfully to report the following names of persons to be elected to the offices, as follows: For President, Selim H. Peabody, of Illinois. For Vice President, Andrew J. Rickoff, of New York. For Secretary and Treasurer, David L. Kiehle, of Minnesota. For Executive Committee: Charles C. Rounds of New Hampshire, Joseph Bald- win of Texas, Lillie J. Martin of California, Henry M. James of Nebraska. With respect submitted. Robt. AiiiiXN, Claba Conwax, James H. Bakeb, Committee. 302 NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION. The Secretary, on order of the Council, cast the ballot of the members for the officers named in the report, and declared them elected. The President was empowered to employ a stenographer to report the pro- ceedings of the next meeting. Mr. Rickoff moved that the custodian of the published proceedings of the National Educational Association be made the custodian of the published proceedings of this Council, and that he be and is hereby instructed to pre- serve twenty-five copies of said proceedings for each annual session. Carried. Mr. White moved that the Council proceedings be published as to form, as in former years. D. L. KIEHLE, Secretary. REPOBT OF SECRETARY, 303 REPORT OF ATTENDANCE. Presence at one or more of the daily sessions of the annual meetings for 1889 and 1890 is indicated by a p. Names. Xamea. \ R. Mljn i p. J. H. Baker J. Baldwin p. G. P. Brown p. N. A. CalklnB ' p. J. H. Canlleld p. Clara Conway \ p. E. W. Coy I p. N. C. Dougherty p. J. Eaton , p. F. A. Rtzpatrlck A- Qove , p. W.R. Garrett ' J. M. Greenwood p. W. N. HaUmann p. W. T. Harris ■ p. J. Hancock | p. B. A. Hinsdale p. E. C. Hewett , p. J. H. Hooee p. O. Howland ( p. H. M. James. p. p. p. p. p. p. p. p. P- p. p. p. p. p. p. p. S. Jonee p. D. L. Klehlf p. W. F. KlHK p. LlUie J. Martin p. W. A. Mowrj- I p. Mary E. Nicholson ' p. S. S. Parr , p. S. H. Peabody p. J.L.Plckard p. A. J. RIckoff p. Z. Rlchardi* p. C. C. Ronnds W. E. Sheldon p. R. W. Stevenson F. L. Soldan N. C. Schaeffer H. Sabln L. S. Thomp(v)n p. H. S. Tarbell p. W. R. ThlKpen ' Delia L. Wllllamn E. E. M*hlte I p. C. M. Woodward p. p. p. p. P- p. P- p. p. p. P- p. P- P- P- p. New members elected: J. £. Bradley, £. O. Lyte, W. H. Bartholomew, Ella C. 8abin, Ii- H. Jones, W. D. Parker. St. Paul, Minn., July 7, 1890. D. L. KIEHLE, TREASURER, IN ACCOUNT WITH NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION. July 19.... 1890. July 1.... 1880. July 19.... Sept. a.... Nov. 2.... Nov. 14... Nov. 36... Nov. 27.... July 7.... To balance received from Mlm M. E. Nicholson . To dues received for 1889-90 DIBBUB8KMSNT8. By paid express charges By paid express charges By dues returned to T. W. Blcknell . . . By dues returned to J. M. Ordway By paid J. H. Canfleld, printing By paid express charges By paid S. H. Peabody, printing, etc.. By balance on hand Totals. 11143 87 102 00 to 75 75 200 2 00 76 03 1 06 11 00 152 28 |t245 87 $245 87 St. Paul, July 7, 1890. The nndersifirned haire audited the above account of the Treasurer of the National Council of Education, and find the same correct. Respectfully submitted. B. N. HiNSDALK, R. M. Ststenbon, H. M. Jambs, Committee, 304 NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION. %n M^moiriam* ELNATHAN ELISHA HIGBEE. NATHAX C. SCHAEFFER. During the past year the National Council of Education, as well as the profession of teaching, lost one of its brightest ornaments, in the death of Rev. E. E. Higbee, D.D., LL.D. He was bom March 27, 1830, about six miles from Burlington, Vermont. His father was a man of note, fond of good literature, especially of Burke's Orations, and a staunch defender of the agricultural interests of the Green Mountain State. As a member of the State Legislature, whilst that body was considering a measure which threatened the farmers with increased taxes, he is said to have exclaimed: "There are, Mr. Chairman, some members of this body who seem to think that farmers are horses, and lawyers knights bom with spurs on their heels and commissioned by the powers above to ride the farmers to death." The talent, the literary taste, the power of clear, incisive statement, and the fearless devotion to what he believed to be right, which characterized the father, were inherited by the son, and more fully developed by carefiil education, and by a very varied career in life. Having been graduated with honor by the University of Vermont, at the age of 19, he went to Maryland to teach school. Diverted from the study of law by certain articles in the Mercers burg Revietv, and through the influence of his sister and brother-in-law, he joined the Reformed Church, entered the Theological Seminary at Mercers- burg, Pennsylvania, where he enjoyed the tuition of Drs. Nevin and Schaff, and in 1854 was licensed to preach the Gospel by Maryland Classis. For a time he taught in the high school at Lancaster, Pennsylvania, and then ac- cepted a call to the Congregational Church at Bethel, Vermont. Returning, after a few years, to the church of his first love, he preached for a time at Emmitsburg, Maryland, where he had formerly been private tutor in the family of Hon. Joshua Motter, among whose daughters he found his noble and ambitious helpmate through life. In 1859 he accepted a call to Tiffin, Ohio, where he became pastor of the First Reformed Church and professor of Latin and Greek in Heidelberg College. In 1862 he went to Pittsburgh, as pastor of Grace Church, and in 1 864, at the age of 34, he was called to Mer- m ^EMORIAM. 305 cersburg, to succeed Dr. Schaff in the department of Church Histor}' and Exegesis. It was at Mercereburg that the writer first learned to know him. He as- tonished the students in various ways. While suffering from hay-fever he frequently occupied himself in tracing mathematical curves of the higher or- ders, or in talking of the beauties of the Greek verb. Full of eccentricities, he never tried to hide his faults or his sufferings, and yet his lectures were a well-spring of inspiration for his auditors. They abounded not only in all kinds of learning, but also in seed-thoughts that afterwards sprouted and grew into sermons. Daily the students came away from him with new impulses to study and investigation. His influence widened their reading, deei)ened their thinking, increased their zeal in studying the Scriptures, and stimulated their desire to preach Christ and Him crucified. Subsequent study abroad con- vinced the writer that the universities of Berlin, Leijisic, and Tubingen, while they could boast of more thorough specialists, did not ix)ssess his supe- rior as a lecturer and inspirer of young men. When the Theological Seminary was removed to Lancaster — a measure to which he was opposed — he resigned his professorship in the seminary and ac- cepted a chair in the college at a lower salary. As President of this strug- gling institution, he was obliged to teach in different departments, and, in fact, to review his whole college course. This widened his scholarship, and gave him almost unlimited power over the young men whom he trained. No head of a large institution can hope to exert such a moulding influence upon the students intrusted to his care. For the most part Dr. Higbee was idolized by his students ; his kindness and frankness won their hearts ; they listened with rapture to his discourses ; he was the oracle whose utterances were never ques- tioned. In their eyes he was a linguist, a mathematician, a scientist, a phi- losopher, a theologian, a historian, an orator, and a poet — all combined in one. Had his magnificent powers been concentrated upon a single specialty, he might have rendered therein services that would have been acknowledged in every clime and tongue. Great honor is accorded to the man who concen- trates his time and talent to the work of extending the boundaries of human knowledge in some special direction, but greater honor is due to the man who devotes equally brilliant talents to the training and development of immortal minds. Schleiermacher says, in his address on Frederic the Great, that men are great in the degree and to the extent that they exert a moulding influ- ence upon their fellow-men. In this respect Dr. Higbee was greater at Mer- cersburg than Arnold was at Rugby. It was during his residence at Mercersburg that Dr. Higbee became one of a committee of three to prepare a book of "Hymns for the Reformed Church." The book in its present form would have been an impossibility, had he not first made such a thorough study of the pericopes, and of the theory and construction of the church year upon which the collection was to be based. It contains several hymns of his own composition. By thus ftimishing the 306 NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION. materials for the devotions of his fellow-Christians, he is exerting an influence that may well excite the envy of the most successfiil compiler of text-books. The character of man is developed and perfected through trials, conflicts, and disappointments. The college that had been founded on faith, rather than on cash, ultimately went down, in spite of Dr. Higbee's herculean efforts. There were periods in his life when he ate his bread in tears, and when there was no meat in the house. But he never lost his trust in Providence. In one of the darkest hours he said: "Something is coming; I feel it; God will not forsake us." Something did come. Governor Ho3rt selected him to be State Superintendent of Public Instruction. In ways that were marvelous and altogether unforeseen, Providence had prepared him for a new^ and wider field of usefulness. When he entered upon his duties as State Superintendent, one of his Mends expressed to him the fear that a man "troubled with ideas" might not suc- ceed in mastering the details of a great school system, and thus be too prone to inaugurate changes. Leaving details to hb subordinates, he studied the salient features of the system until he became exceedingly conservative in all the changes he recommended. At Mercersburg he sometimes condemned the public-school system in the severest terms ; but as he grew more familiar with its workings and results, he discovered that its merits were greater than its defects, and at last no one was a more eloquent advocate of the Pennsylvania system of public instruction, although he never ceased to call the attention of teachers and directors to their shortcomings and failures. By his eloquent addresses at teachers* institutes all over the State, and by his incessant labors, in season and out of season, he brought about the building of better school- houses, the planting of many thousands of shade trees, the lengthening of the school term, and an increase of the school appropriation from the general treasury of the commonwealth to two millions of dollars. It was his ambi- tion to have this amount increased to three millions, and if he had lived, he would in no long time have achieved this result. It is to be regretted that he never put into book form his ideas on the mutual relations of pupil and teacher. For him the aim of true education was to unsense the mind and to utiself the uilL On the last day on which he was conscious, he spoke of a book which he contemplated writing on this subject — a book that would have set "concrete" teaching in its true light, and saved our younger teachers from a multitude of errors. As editor of the Penrmfl- vania School Journal, he wrote a good deal. One obstacle to the productivity of his j)en, however, was that he saw on all sides problems requiring solution, and generally felt satisfied if he had a solution for himself He seldom stopped to formulate and mediate such solutions for the benefit of others, because he was continually lured to new fields of investigation. The crusade which was inaugurated against him during his second terra made him a hero and a martyr. Of the merits and demerits of the agitation which sprang up in connection with the Soldiers' Orphan Schools, this is IX MEMOBIAM, 307 neither the time nor the place to speak. Through the influence of one of the larger Philadelphia dailies, the press and the Governor were arrayed against him. For a time he was made to suffer intensely for the sins of others. His vindication came in due time. The storm of persecution which had darkened the air, gradually spent its force, and men began to see things in a clearer light. The commissioners appointed by the Legislature voiced the convictions of the teachers generally when they stated that as Superintendent of the Soldiers* Orphan Schools, "he was honest, capable, and untiring in his efforts in the interest of the children," and that "with motives pure, and conscience void of offense, he. performed his duties in connection therewith." With the change of administration a gentleman of maturer years became the chief executive. Governor Beaver, aft^r a careful survey of the educational in- terests so dear to his heart, came to the conclusion that he could not serve the children of the commonwealth better than by reappointing Dr. Higbee for a third term as Superintendent of Public Instruction. The anxieties, the perse- cutions, the slanders which he had endured with the courage of a martyr, had sapped his strength and broken his health. The cheerfulness of former days never returned, although he entered upon his new term with all the vigor that his resolute soul could summon for the work. He labored at his mission while consciousness lasted. His last working-day was spent at Mifflintowu, where he lectured with his usual fire, and eloquently advocated the establish- ment of school libraries. At high noon of that day he woke as from a reverie, exclaiming, "Thank the Lord, I am getting stronger." How little man knows himself. That evening while waiting for the train, he had a stroke of paraly- sis, fiiom which he never recovered. He was taken to the home of his son-in- law. Prof. G. F. Mull, at Lancaster, where he died on Friday, December 13, 1889, at 1 A.M.; although practically dead fifty-six hours before the heart finally ceased to beat — a most impressive example of the protest of nature against dissolution. His last act was to urge a boy to learn a trade and develop the skill of the hand. It was a fitting close to a life devoted to the education of the young. In all ages men have erected monuments to great soldiers. The children of Pennsylvania are now engaged in erecting a monument in honor of their great teacher. Is it not a significant fact that the world is beginning to honor those who train for life as much Jis those who take life ? Monuments decay and crumble to dust; the human spirit never. Impressions made here are like stones' thrown into the stream of time, the waves of which will still be visible in the great ocean of eternity. The chief glory of Dr. Higbee lies not in the fact that he was a professor, or a State Superintendent, but in the fact that he walked in the footsteps of the Great Teacher, and like him, sj^ent his days in doing good unto others. Gifted with extraordinary talents which were never employed for purposes of self-aggrandizement, willing to lend his brains where others reaped the gains, prepared to suffer injustice for the sake of those who had befriended him, spending the strength of his ripest years in dr}nng 308 NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION, the tears of children and in adding to their comforts, able to appreciate the best qualities of the various nationalities that have rooted themselves in the Keystone State, ready to accept truth and to combat error whenever he found it, versed in the best lore of the age yet humble as a child, never making a display of his piety yet never professing his religious faith in uncertain ac- cents, growing in Christian charity through the persecutions he endured until he finally reached that stage of sainthood in which not an unkind word dropped from his lips against those who had so deeply wronged him, pleading with all the eloquence of the early church fathers in behalf of the rising gen- eration, until paralysis ended his career, he will ever stand before the minds of his pupils and fellow-teachers as a personality unique among the school of- ficials of this land, and as a Christian saint whose faith we will strive to fol- low until, with him and the whole glorious company of the redeemed, we shall i-each one common consummation of redemption and bliss in the glorious res- urrection of the last day. SCHOOL SUPEBINTEyDEXCE IX CITIES, 309 REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS. SCHOOL SUPERINTENDENCE IN CITIES. A careful study of the development of iiistitutions discloses the presence of two apparently diverse processes: a combination and unification for gen- eral purposes, and a division or differentiation for special ends. These two processes are evident in the development of all the institutions and enter- prises of modem civilization. Herbert Spencer confidently afHrms that the second of these processes, which he characterizes as ''a differentiation of struct- ure and a specialization of function," is the law of all growth and progress. The first of these processes is clearly seen in the progress of civil govern- ment from the patriarchal to the tribal with its chief, and then to the nation with its monarch, and finally to the representative or republican form, which embodies and unifies the will of the people. The second process is seen in the differentiation of representative government into three distinct depart- ments— legislative, executive, and judicial — each with a special function, and the continued division and specialization of function in each of these depart- ments. The same law is observed in the growth of industrial enterprises of all kinds. In the primitive condition of labor, one man took the raw material and performed all the processes required to reach the finished, though rude, product. But industrial development has been attended not only by combina- tion and organization, but more specially by a division of labor under them. The marvelous industrial progress of the present century has been charac- terized by division and specialization of function. The specialist is the most characteristic product of modem civilization. DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. This principle has been present, though less prominently, in the develop- ment and progress of our modem systems of education. In its primitive con- dition education was an individual or family affair, but in the increase of population and the progress of society the principle of combination appears, and the result was the school — the one-teacher school, the representative of the family, and modeled after it. The next step in this development, or evolution ( if the term be preferred ), was the organization of schools for different classes of pupils, as the college for more advanced pupils; the academy as a preparatory or fitting- school, and numerous local elementary schools, with one teacher, all private and in- dependent. At last came in the principle of integration and unification, and —20 310 NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION. the State assumed the function of public education, and the State school sys- tem was the grand and beneficent result. In the development and perfection of the State school system the principle of differentiation and specialization has been more or less active. It wns first manifested in the organization of the different communities for school pur- poses, but more strikingly in the constitution of education as a separate and special department of State government, under officers chosen for this special purpose. The next step was the creation of special agencies for special ftinc- tions, as normal schools and institutes for the training of teachers, examiners for the licensure of persons found qualified to teach, etc. In this progressive development of the State school system there has been a constant recognition of its unity and integrity. The school systems of cities are not municipal organizations, deriving their authority from the municipal- ity, but parts of the State system. Every school officer, whether in city or country, is an agent of the State, and all of his official authority is derived from the State — a fact too little understood. While the integrity of the sys- tem has been thus maintained, there has been an increasing division of func- tions and a multiplication of agencies for special ends. Whatever progress has been made in school administration has been along these lines. ORGANIZATION OF CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS. We are now^ prepared to consider intelligently the organization of school systems in our cities. At the first the administration of public schools in cities was intrusted to boards of education, and, under the authority and limitations of State law, these boards were gradually invested with all needed functions, legislative, executive, and judicial. These fiinctions included the levying of taxes for school purposes, the building and fiimishing of school- houses, the purchase of supplies, the employment of teachers, the arranging of courses of study, the selection of text-books, the classification and promo- tion of pupils, and the authoritative supervision of all instruction and disci- pline— duties requiring, for their proper discharge, a practical, not to say scientific, knowledge of the ends of education, and also of the means by which these ends can best be reached. How far has school administration in our cities departed from this primitive organization — an organization in which, as Supt. Maxwell strongly puts it, " the board of education serves several purposes and performs none of them well" ? In Dr. Hinsdale's very able paper read before this Council in 1888 (and assigned for further discussion at this meeting), it b said that "School administration in cities is still organized essentially as it was when the cities were villages." So far as legal organization is concerned this statement is true, with very few exceptions, and this primitive organization has been con- tinued notwithstanding its known failure to give cities, and especially large cities, an effective school administration. It is confidently asserted that there SCHOOL Sl^EmXTEyfDENCE IN CITIES, 311 is not a progressive and advanced system of city schools in the country which has been immediately administered by a boanl of education.* This failure of the primitive organization is attested by the actual admin- istration of public schools in cities. Boards of education have increasingly realized that they are not competent to })erform wisely all of the duties imposed upon them by the law, and especially that they are not comjx^tent for the efficient discharge of those executive functions which are connected with school instruction and discipline, including the selection and assignment of teachers, the preparation of courses of study, the selection of text-books, the promotion and classification of pupils, and the immediate direction of methods of teaching and discipline. It may be true that the great majority of school boards have not a very lively appreciation of their incompetency in these directions ; but the encour- aging fact is, that an increasing number of boards are committing these supervisory and executive duties to superintendents and principals, and this delegation of administrative duties is now authorized in several States, and in at least one instance is required by State law. The office of superintend- ent of schools now exists in nearly all of our cities, and the superintendent has generally the oversight, if not direction, of school instruction and disci- pline. In many cities his advice at least is sought with reference to proposed changes in the course of study or text-books, the grading of pupils, the selection and assignment of teachers, etc. ; and, in a few of the more progressive cities, the superintendent really determines all of these matters. It is true that this is usually done under the cover of a committee — a convenient hiding-place from criticism, and an easy escape from responsibility. But the promising fact is, that a few superintendents are such de facto, if not de jure, and the schools under them have the full benefit of their experience and skill. The success of such real supervision will be questioned by no one familiar with school progress. The most notable examples of marked progress in city schools have been due to the wise commitment of their management to a superintend- ent selected because of his known ability, not merely "to run schools," but to devise, organize, direct, and make successful a rational system of instruction. The naming of half a dozen cities would not only make clear our meaning, but it would establish the truth of our position. The reason for this fact is plain. Education as an art is based primarily on the educable nature of the child, and hence the determining and direction of courses and methods of instruction and discipline require an intimate knowledge of the ends, means, and conditions of child-training. The time is clearly past when men who have no special knowledge of the science or art of education can be wisely intrusted with the difficult duties involved in the *There Is noUiln^ In this statement that questions the Intelligence or character of the members of school boards in cities. If the members of this Council were organized as a board of education, they would not be able to administer efficiently a system of city schools. They would be obliged to commit executive and supervisory duties to a superintendent, and, if as wise as they are believed to be, they would also commit corresponding executive powers. 312 NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION. development and direction of a system of schools ; and this fact is more and more clearly recognized by the public, and especially by school patrons. While the progress made in these directions may be small, the encouraging fact is that few steps backward have been taken. SUPERVISORY DUTIES WITHOUT AUTHORITY. It is true that the internal history of school progress shows that, so far, boards of education have been more willing and ready to impose executive duties on superintendents than to delegate to them corresponding authority ; and this remark brings us directly to the special weakness of school supervi- sion in many, if not in most, of American cities. While the superintendent is nominally intrusted with the running of the schools, he is required to do this "under the direction of the board," or what is more common in practice, under the direction, often the instruction, of its several committees. Instead of determining as an expert what is best to be done in his department, and then doing it in the most efficient manner possi- ble, he is required to submit his plans to those who may have neither the training nor the experience requisite to judge of their value; and this neces- sitates the neglect of administrative duties to inform and manage committees. As the list of non-approved recommendations increases, the professional zeal of the superintendent diminishes. It is not surprising that so many really capable superintendents settle down to the running of the school machine as it is. The actual situation in many cities is so admirably sketched by Superin- tendent W. H. Maxwell, of Brooklyn, New York, in a paper read before the National Department of Superintendents, at the meeting in New York City, in February last, that we quote his words, as follows : "An objector may reply, *■ Does not the board of education employ school officers — a superintendent, a clerk, principals of schools, and the like — to whom it commits, in a greater or less degree, the duties with which it is legally charged?* Quite true; but it is a principle of human nature that performance without responsibility is not equal to performance with responsibility. The functions of these school officers are at best but advisory. Their best efforts may be nullified by those who hold the reins of authority. Under such a system the strongest and wisest of superintendents may well grow weary of well-doing, and, instead of leading the vanguard of progress, content himself with trying to avert the dangers that continually threaten our public schools. Under such a system the strongest and wisest of educators may be pardoned if he degenerates into a not ignoble specimen of arrested development." It certainly would not be difficult to select from the hundreds of cities in the country a somewhat imposing exhibit of these "specimens." THE NEEDED REFORM YS SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. It is the belief of your committee that the experience of the cities of the country now affords a sufficient basis for the wise application of Mr. Spencer*s vital law of progress to school administration ; that the time has fully come for the differentiation of the department of school supervision and its organiza- SCHOOL SUPEHINTENDEyCE IN CITIES. 313 tion with well-defined functions and powers. Here is the opportunity and the promise of a much-needed reform in school organization. The more-important duties which have been increasingly committed to superintendents, directly or indirectly, are the direction and improvement of school instruction and dis- cipline; and, to this end, the training and stimulating of principals and teachers, the arranging and perfection of courses of study, the selection of text-books and teaching appliances, the promotion and classification of pupils, and last, but not least, the selection and assignment of teachers. Ab already shown, there are scores of city superintendents who, with the help and counsel of their assistants, are now performing more or less fully these duties. What is now needed is the adding of respotmhility to duty, the s{)ecialization and authorization of these supervisory functions by law. The details of such legislation cannot be wisely settled in this paper, since the same details in all cities are not possible, even if desirable. Successful methods of school administration have not only a vital principle, but usually a historic root. The essential condition of progress is the successful grafting of the former upon the latter. The vital principle in this much-needed reform in school administration, for which your committee pleads, is that the superintendent of schools be clothed wiih initiatory poiver in each of the above- named executive functions. He must not only be permitted to make sugges- tions and recommendations, but the responsibility of school progress must be laid squarely upon him. It must be made his recognized duty to train teach- ers and inspire them with high ideals ; to revise the course of study when new light shows that improvement is i)08sible ; to see that pupils and teachers are supplied with needed appliances for the best possible work ; to devise rational and helpful methods of promoting pupils, thus protecting teachers and pupils from the narrowing, grooving, and otherwise vicious influence of the "stated examination grind " ; and especially, as essential to the highest success, to see that the schools are in the hands of the best available teachers. Whether or not his work as an exj)ert in these executive directions is to be subject to the approval of the board of education is not so imiwrtaut as the one essential condition of progress, to wit, that the taking of the initiative be his right and duty. He should no longer be required or permitted to hide behind school committees. His work as superintendent should bear the light, and he should be responsible for it. Responsibility and duty should be fully conjoined in the supervisory office. S£V£RAL PLANS FOR APPOINTING TEACIIERH. Take as an illustration the several plans by which the superintendent may become primarily responsible for the selection and a«.er- intendent's selection, if any, to be considered privately, and it also gives time for inquiry, if any be desired.* 3. A more radical plan is the vesting of the selection and appointment of teachers wholly in the sujwrintendent, the same not being subject to the for- mal approval of the board. Tliis is the plan embodied in the late Ohio bill for the better government of the city of Cleveland — a bill approved by hun- dreds of its best citizens. But even under this plan the board fixes and pays the sahiries of teachers, and this virtually gives the board a veto power. It is to be f)bserved that no one of these plans, the third possibly excepted, gives the superintendent the power to employ teachers. He enters into no contract, and he neither fixes nor pays salaries. His functions are untiative, not final and binding. It ha^ been suggested that a better initiative function for the superintend- ent is the examining and licensing of all persons who may be appointed teachers. It is claimed that this gives the superintendent all necessary con- trol of appointments. This may be true in rural districts, where the schools • are all of the same grade, but it is not true in cities, where the essential con- dition of a wise appointment is the teacher's fitness for the position to be filled. The necessary initiative act must include both selection and assign- ment, and this cannot be determined by a teacher's certificate. The most successful superintendents in the country have not only corresponded widely, but have visited schools and even distant cities to find teachers qualified for special positions. The skillful work done by a few distant teachers, thus selected, has often changed for the better the instruction of an entire city. THE SUPERINTENDENT AS AN EXAMINER. It is to be noted that the examination and licensure of teachers is not enumerated in this pajier among the sj)ecial functions of a school sujjerin- • Thlrt iH esseiiUally the Cincinnati plan. The siiperlntendent'B appointments are subject to the tti>- proval of the board, ami, by a standing rule, all appointments are referred to the commltt4*e on teach- ers and salarlen, and rei)orted back at the next meeting. The fiuperintendent or the bi>ard may remove a teacher for catine. SCHOOL SVPEBIXTENDENCE IX CITIES, 31.") teiulent. It may be wisely e, a score or more of si)ecialist< whom no general scholar, with discretion, would care to examine. Besides, the licensing of teachers is one of those special functions of school administration which should be under the direction of the State Department of Public Education. The (jualification of all applicants for the teacher's high office should l>e determined by a board of expert*^, at least three in number, and acting directly as agents of the State. The su])erintendent of .schools may very properly be made a member of this board, with the s}>ecial duty of determining the pn)fessiosition ; and his tenure of office should be made sufficiently secure to enable him to serve the schools and the public in accordance with his best judgment and power — and, to these ends, his appointment and continuance in office should, in some practical way, be placed beyond the control of the ward politician whose self-assumed func- tion is to attend to other jieople's business in jmblic affiiirs. Resi)ectfully submitted. E. E. White, Chairman, B. A. Hinsdale, J. C. DorCillERTY, Committee, 316 NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION. DISCUSSION. [Rkpobtsd bt Okobos p. Bbovn.J Mr. Gove, a member of the committee, said : The report puts the superin- tendent in the jx)sition of a dictator. He is to be absolute as to the initiative in the pedagogical part of the duties. I concede that often he is best able to assume that initiative, but not always. With a reasonable inference from the paper, that boards of education as a class are incompetent to perform these duties, I beg to disagree. It should be remembered that cities of from 25,000 to 100,000 people should be the object- ive in these discussions, rather than the fifteen great cities of the oountiy. To my mind the salient error of the report lies in this : That the writer assumes two distinct, separate, and somewhat independent powers in the administration of city schools — the board and the superintendent. The fact is that in the well-managed cities, the board and superintendent are inseparable — it must be so. The power and its executive can well be distinct, when each has been placed in position by different methods or at different times ; but where one is the creature and the other the creator, combined results must be produced by a single force. The element of expediency seems to have little place in the paper ; the superintendent is presumed to be able competently to fulfill certain duties (an assumption not true as I believe), and expected to perform those duties whether with the approval or disapproval of the board. It is harmful to consider board and superintendent as any but a unit of effort outside of the board meeting. No single performance connected with the schools, whether pedagogical, financial, commercial, or constructive, can be undertaken where the opinion, advice and cooperation of superintendent and board are unnecessary ; whether it be a sanitary measure in construction, an insurance problem for the buildings, the purchase or sale of real estate, or the engagement of teachers — in all measures the counsel of all should assist in arriving at a conclusion. Because the measure under discussion is but little understood by superintendent or a board member, is no reason for their failure to participate. Probably the board of education of the city of the present, remembering my limitation as to size of cities, is quite as generally competent in all school duties as is the su|)eriutendent of the present. I make the statement with thoughtful care. The superintendent excels in special knowledge, a board member excels in special knowledge ; both are needed in the solution of each problem. The paper proposes State establishment for city schools. So far as practi- cable this condition already obtains in most new States. But many relations, such as the control of health measures, }X)lice regulations, etc., can be prop- erly committed only to the municipality to which boards of education and their appointees must be subservient. I know of no outcome, the character DISCUSSION. 317 of which we ail agree In seeking, that I can expect from a more independent position of the city superintendent that cannot more certainly he obtained by a unified body of board and superintendent without further State interference. Our communities are near to the schools; they intend to remain there ; they ought to do so. Each year they are able to modify the administration, and in a series of years can radically change it. The changes are not always help- ful, but the people are their own managers. Interference by State will arouse local antagonism. I object to the expression " hiding behind committees," as being oflensive and misleading. It is a comment upon the profession, as I believe, unde- served. The reference of a contemplated measure to a committee is, without exception, proper, and ought to be obligatory. The decision of that commit- tee, when approved by the board, should be announced as the action of the corporation, and not as that of an individual. Every measure is proposed by some one man, either the superintendent or board member. Once announced, it ceases to belong to the introducer, and becomes the action of a united whole. Impersonality has from the beginning been the key to success in America. Great enterprises, like newspapers, are impersonal when great. A school system is the greatest enterprise of the present, and is to be per- manently prosperous and efficient to that degree to which men remain hidden, and measures, actions, and results are moved to the front. Mr. White: I am sorry that Mr. Gove was not able to reach St. Paul in time to attend the meeting of the committee called for last evening. I am confident that a careful reading of the report in committee would have given him a better understanding of its recommendations. There is not a statement in the report that even suggests that the superintendent should usurp or as- sume powers or duties ; that he should in any sense be a dictator. On the contrar>% the report clearly recommends that the powers to be exercised by the superintendent should be expressly delegated to him; that he should not . be left to assume power, as is now so frequently the case, but that he should be legally vested with all needed executive and supervisory authority. The re- port does not even contain a hint that the superintendent should usurp the authority of the board of education. The writer of the report is not responsi- ble for what anyone may put into it, and he hopes that its several recommen- dations may be taken up in their order and fiiUy considered. Mr. Hinsdale said that the status of the city superintendent should be defined by the school law of the State. The time has arrived when cities of over 200,000 population should conduct their school aifairs in a way different from what they did when they were villages. The State Legislature should give the city superintendent a status in the State system of schools. He held that city school affairs needed at least three departments for their projxjr ad- ministration, viz.: 1. A Department of Finance and Accounts. 318 XATIOXAL COUNCIL OF EDVCATIOX. 2. Of Construction, Repairs, and Supplies. 8. Of Instruction and Discipline. Referring to the remarks of Mr. Gove, he said that it was yet an undeter- mined matter what are the superintendent's powei's and duties. These wlty in different places from those of a building and supply agent to the functions of an expert in school management and instruction. The (juestion that he wished to leave with the Council to consider was: Hais not the time come for State legislation to give the city superintendent a status? Mr. Harris said that the lower the stage of development of any organ- ization, the greater the range of duties the organization attempts to perform as a whole. The paper has laid down the method or process by which insti- tutions develop, which is stated by St)encer to be that of differentiation of structure and specialization of function. Our school administration is not perfect, but arbitrary authority of the superintendent is not the best method to improve it. The politician is generally held in low es^timation, but he thought that our efforts should be directed toward making good educational politicians. In this country we build from l)elow. The problem is how to develop from the low and crude conceptions a high ideal of government. How shall we mediate between individuals and the social whole ? A school board elected by the people directly, or appointed by the mayor or common council, is one method of mediation. The board that is nearest to the people is on the whole the best board. However elected, there must be one who will serve as the unifHnug center of all the educational forces. This is the super- intendent. The school board of a large city will be composed of three classes of men : 1 . The intelligent business man, or man of affairs. 2. The educational cranks, who are well-meaning men, but are mounted u|X)n some hobby. 3. The rogues who are in the board for what they can get out of it. The 3ui)erintendent must unify them and make them useful. He must unite the reliable, good business men, the strong element in the board, and the hobby-ridei-s, by making a careful study of the hobbies of one class, and inducing the business element to concede to them when concession vi\]\ work no serious hann. Otherwise the rogues will form a union with them and ruin the schools. The newspaper, too, must be taken care of. He thought that differentiation did not imply one-man ix)wer in any other sense than that in- tellectual force shall control by the convictions it creates. One recommenda- tion of the present helter-skelter method of choosing a sui)erintendent is, that it gives the school teacher a chance to be superintendent. A State enactment making city superintendents State officers tends to the choice of superintend- ents from among other cla.sses of citizens than teachere. Mr. White thought that Mr. Harris put too large a generalization into the paj)er. It does not j)ut the city sujierintendent above the school l)oani. DISCUSSION. 319 It demands that the State shall make a legal reco^ition of the city superin- tendent, as it does now of the county 3U{)eriutendent. Mr. Fitzpatrick said that the time for speeializati(m l)y legislative enact- ment, to the extent suggested in the report, has not yet arrived. We must grow toward this by the slow process of development now going on. Mr. S)ldan thought that it wa.^ not easy to reconcile the general proposi- tions of philosophy with the hanl fai'fc* of life. The i)uriK)se of this report is to secure a more certain tenure of the office of sujMjrintendent. But there is no part of the school administraticm in which there is more fricticm than in the appointment of teachers and other officers. If the suj)erintendent makes these apjKuntments, his tenure will be diminished. The recommendations in the report would tend to prevent the realization of the main purjK>se of the report. Mr. Greenwood was of the opinion that there was no reason for stopping the demands for State recognition with the city superintendent. Why not extend it to the teachers and lower officials a< well ? Better trust to evolu- tion than to State legislation. AIr. Pickard asked why the reix)rt limits its recommendation to giving the sui)erintendent the initiative in all matters of appointment. ]Mr. White replied that it was so limited because he knew the Council to be too conservative to go further than this at this time. But he thought the initiative was the vital thing. Mis^s Martin described the method of control followed in the schools of California, by which the University committee, through their jwwer to com- mission high schools as preparatory schools of the State University, really determine the continuance or dismissal of teachers from the high schools. Mr. Sheldon remarked that Boston pursued substantially the same plan as that described by Miss Martin. Mr. Garrett was of the opinion that the city 8U})erintendent was fortu- nate in that he was free from the trammels that would be imposed by State legislation. Mr. White, referring to the statement that the public did not look with favor upon autocratic power on the part of the superintendent, said that the school board's authority over the schools was questioned and resisted by in- dividual patrons until recently. The idea of control by the board has been gradually growing in favor, until now it is universally approved. The people want the best thing for their children, and will choose it when they know what it is. What the city systems need is a strong, devoted, controlling mind to direct the school instruction and put unity and purix)se into the work of the schools. It is a harsh statement to say that the city sui)erintendent hides behind the committee of the board, but it is a true statement. Give him the resjK)nsibility and the jwwer of the initiative in all matters of vital imix)r- 320 NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION. tance to the schools, and he will refrain from some evil practices that he is now guilty of, but which the committee is held responsible for. The purpose of the school is to be realized only by putting at the head of each school system a strong, competent superintendent, who has power and is held to strict re- sponsibility. EDVCATIOXAL LITER ATUBE. 321 REPORT OF COMMIHEE ON EDUCATIONAL LITERATURE. EDUCATIONAL LITERATURE. The general topic assigned to the committee was Educational Literature. In considering the subject it was deemed best to make the following divisions : 1. A definition of '^ Educational Literature," or what is properly compre- hended by that term. 2. The value of educational literature to the student of education, and to the professional teacher. 3. The direct and indirect influence of educational literature, as defined, upon the American systems of education which have for their primary aim the training of good citizens, in the republic. 4. The mission of reading-circles, as a means of disseminating correct prin- ciples of education — and also as a means of creating public sentiment in favor of universal culture. In accordance with the above plan, one of the above topics was assigned to an individual member of the committee, and the results of the considera- tion, secured by this action, have been combined into the following individual reports: 1. William E. Sheldon; 2. W. R. Garrett; 3. Mrs. D. L. Williams; 4. W. H. Payne; 5. F. Louis Soldan. I. THE VALUE OF EDUCATIONAL LITERATURE TO THE STUDENT OF EDUCATION, AND TO THE PROFESSIONAL TEACHER. BT WILLIAM B. SHEIiBON. 1. Every student of education and every professional teacher should possess what Carlyle aptly characterizes as "a true university" — a librtuy of care- fully chosen educational books. 2. The basis of such a library should be works of standard value, relating to psychology and pedagogy. It is principally through educational works on elementary mental science, that the student and professional teacher are able to become familiar with the facts and laws of the mind which are essential for them to know. Such books have a special value, for the reason that professional educational work seeks to regulate, strengthen, and facilitate the action of the mental powers of those to be taught. 3. A scientific knowledge of the mind, combined with native instinct and tact, will enable the professional teacher to do the right thing at the right 322 XATIOXAL COUXCIL OF EDUCATIOX, time, aiid make his work more effective than it could possibly be without this knowledge. 4. The literature which gives to the student and teacher a knowledge of tlie science of education is of supreme value, because by the aid of this knowledge he becomes fully conscious of the application of means to an end. A knowledge of the science of education will guide and direct students and teachers to right methods of instruction. It presents clearly the aims and ends of it, and the best means to be employed for the accomplishment of these ends. It unfolds to view the nature of the being to be educated, suggests the proper subjects of study to be pursued, and indicates the qualifications of those who undertake the work of educating. Joseph Payne, the eminent English writer on pedagogy, defines "intel- lectual education" as being the development and training of the learner's native powers, by means of instruction, which is carried on through the con- scious and persistent agency of the professionally trained educator; and the results of such training, he says, depend "upon the established connection between the world without and the world within the mind — between the ob- jective and the subjective." The literature of the most value in this department of preparator}' work for teaching, and that which should be first read and studied, is undoubtedly that of facts, and well-established fundamental principles, relating mainly to the concrete rather than to the abstract. Later on, the more abstruse truths and principles of the science and philosophy of education may be profitably and wisely read and studied. 5. The need of our time is for more scientific and philosophic teachers who are thoroughly and broadly trained in mental science, and are conversant with the literature of psychology and pedagogy — men and women who can grasp the wide range of educational problems as they present themselves to- day, and apply such intelligent and practical methods in their solution as will lift the teaching profession out of mechanical routine, and abolish superficial methods. These results can only be obtained by being in touch with the foremost in- vestigators and abreast of modeni thought in the science and philosophy of education, which is embodied in the best educational literature of our times. The questions why, whence and whither cannot be successftiUy answered unless the new and progressive thought that has been evolved by the recent careftil study of the great problems in process of solution is comprehended and applied to an extent that will enable the intelligent teacher to test its value in practical work. It is no longer possible, either in philosophy or science, to take things for granted ; there must be a comprehensive and critical scholarship that will en- able teachers to understand and apply new methods of work, and to enable them to give sound reasons for their action. Science simply informs us what a thing is, and why it is; and art derives EDUCATIONAL LITERATUHE. 323 its rules from this knowledge of the thing, and of its laws of action. Thus Bacon eiaid, "Art is Nature with the addition of man"; '^Ars eM homo adilitu^ 6. The student of education, and the professional teacher, should include in his library of educational literature, for reading and study, not only works on the science, philosophy and history of education, but they should be in possession of the best books relating to school economy, including school su- per\'i8ion, discipline and management, manuals of methods, containing the results of long experience of the most eminent and successful teachers. They should also read and study the reports of the Commissioner of Edu- cation, superintendents of State, city and town schools, which embody the re- sults of actual experience made in every department of school-work ; and also such educational periodicals as will bring to them the fieshest thought and the latest experiments in methods, made under varied systems of educational work, throughout the world. 7. Books relating to moral education and the best means of building the individual character of the taught, and also works on the civic duties of good citizenship, should be regarded as of the highest educational value. The State and Nation should find in the professional teacher their most effective ally. The training of the schools should prepare the taught for the performance of life's duties with intelligence and with strict integrity. 8. Every teacher's library should contain the best works of reference, en- cyclopedias, dictionaries, and the latest and best school text-books; also, stand- ard works on literature, history, biography, and science, as essential helps in the preparation of a well-equipped professional educator for the actual work of the present day. IL THE VALUE OF *' EDUCATIONAL LITERATURE," AND ITS DIRECT AND INDIRECT INFLUENCE UPON AMERICAN SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. BY W. B. GABBETT. A foreigner would be struck with the similarity between the forty-two independent State systems of education in the United States. At first, he would suppose them to be the creations of a central authority. Closer ex- amination would disclose distinctive features, and would reveal the marks of separate origin and growth, but would still show a strong family likeness. Looking backward to the beginning of the present century, he would find that the systems of 1800 bore little resemblance to those of the present day, and that fifty years ago the systems of the several States differed widely from each other. He is led to inquire, " Whence comes this assimilating force ? " He would find the solution of the problem, not in the laws of chance, nor in the stat- utes of a central power, but in the working of popular educational agencies. Prominent among these agencies is our ''educational literature." It is a 324 NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION. peculiar literature, and bears strongly marked American features. To esti- mate its power, the observer must comprehend our political institutions. Inspecting these, he finds the same remarkable similarity and the same characteristic differences in the structure of our State governments. Here he can trace the influence of a central power. Yet the few constitutional re- strictions are not sufficient to account for the many points of similarity. He finds that all our institutions rest upon this clearly-defined principle. We have always had faith in the strong common-sense of the American people, and have always accepted the public judgment as more sound and reliable than that of its individual factors, whether those indi\aduals be philosophers or law-makers. Just as the good people of North Carolina rejected the code of the great philosopher, and preferred to make their own laws, so the peo- ple of every State have founded their institutions upon public sentiment. In gathering and reflecting this public sentiment, literature has found in America a new and useful office. Thus, in our early history, the thoughts of our people were absorbed in formulating the principles of political liberty. Our literature followed the trend of the public mind. The most valuable lit- erature of the period was political, and reached a sublimity which political literature had never before attained. During that period of our educational history which has been aptly styled "the American Renaissance," a literature was developed which has since grown into immense proportions. Springing into life spontaneously in all portions of the United States, this suggestive, animated, and popular current educational literature is not an emanation from a few leading minds. It is an outburst of public sentiment. It serves the office of a medium of communication for the interchange of thought, rather than that of a text for instruction. Broad in its scope, it deals with all the departments and interests of education, yet it rivets attention upon the common schools as the foundation upon which edu- cation must rest. Such a literature is sometimes under-valued, and is classed as crude and ephemeral. It is in reality effective and useful. It is valuable as a witness, testifying that the public mind is active, and the people are thinking on the problems of education. It is the best medium for sifting out all that is valuable in the standard educational literature, and difliising it widely. It furnishes in miscellaneous form, but forcibly and practically, the materials which permanent literature formulates and records. This spontaneous current literature; the more accurate and mature, but less popular standard literature; the official literature, embracing reports, statistics, circulars of information, etc. ; the text-book and children's litera- ture, which have done much to improve methods of instruction — all these branches, constituting the body of educational literature, have exerted an in- fluence which caimot be measured. United with the other potent and well-known educational agencies exert- ing a direct influence upon educators, and an indirect influence upon educa- tion by moulding public sentiment, they have been the guide and companion EDUCATIONAL LITEBATUBE. 325 of the political agencies in formulating educational svstemB, and have fur- nished the assimilating force which has made our several State s^'stems so closely to resemble each other. This resemblance has been effected by holding them constantly before the public gaze for comparing and selecting the best elements of each. They have grown to their present stage of progress, like the coral reefe, by the ag- gregate deposits of small particles from many laborers. The agencies which have built them have yet much work to perform in perfecting their methods of instruction, and in bringing the various depart- ments of education into sympathy and symmetry. in. THE TEACHERS' READING-CIRCLE IN EDUCATION. BT MBS. D. liATHBOP WIIiLIAMS. The teachers' reading-circle can be successfully used as a means to two distinct ends in the training of teachers. First: It may be made to direct a course of study for young teachers who cannot avail themselves of the advantages of a normal school. Some locali- ties are not provided with normal schools within a convenient distance ; some young teachers are not so situated that they can leave home to attend school. The reading-circle comes to such persons with a course of study carefully selected, with the ofifer of text-books at the lowest price, and with the promise of suitable recognition when the work is accomplished. This gives to teachers who must support themselves while they study, an opportunity to do so, and encourages all who are not too remote from each other to join themselves in groups, so as to gain what comes from contact and fellowship in study, besides the stimulus which comes from examinations at regular intervals, and credit for the work done. There is no educational need so pressing as that of better preparation of the country teachers. We have excellent city schools, but I fear we do not excel in our country schools. If our country teachers could be induced, or compelled, to begin and continue a course of study, a change would be mani- fest in a short time. As a rule the country teachers educate the country teacher, and he begets his like in matter and method. An uplift of a genera- tion of teachers would make itself felt through every successive generation. No one would claim that a course of reading, though conducted as carefully as possible, would be equal to a course of study in a normal school ; but it would constitute a great advance over the preparation which the common dis- trict school now gives to its pupils. Such a course should l)e a review of subjects, not iext-boohy in a good Eng- lish course, and some simple professional reading, including both the science and the methods of education. Such a course of study would necessarily tend to a brotherhood of teachers, —21 326 NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION, for each State Teachers* Association having it in charge would welcome to its membership all who had received its honors, and such persons would be bound by peculiar ties to the body of teachers which had conferred these honors. The dangers are, first, that so much work will be given that teachers will not have time to complete it in its allotted period ; and second, that the work will be superficially done. The means of avoiding both these dangers are in the hands of the managers of the circles. Second : The reading-circle can be made a means of growth to teachers who have completed a course of study before entering upon their professional duties. Few teachers have that (juickening faith which is the evidence of things not seen. The laborious and wearisome discipline and instruction in a badly- heated and a badly-ventilated school-room leave them too infirm of will to com- |)el themselves to study ; and so time slips away in valueless conversation or convenient amusement. But if a course of reading have been decided upon, and a book be at hand, and a certain portion must be read to-day, the teacher compels himself to begin ; and soon the mental stimulus makes him forget his weariness, duty becomes a recreation, and recreation a re-creation. The demands of our courses of study are so imperative upon pupils in school and college that they have very little time for general reading, and there is danger that they may never read enough to learn to love books. When they leave school they do not know just what to read, and time and opportunity go by and record no progress either in mental power or furnishings. The reading-course can furnish both direction and stimulus to such persons. The course for the graduated teacher should consist largely of the best lit- erature— culture books, history and philosoj)hy, essay and biography, poetry and fiction. Whatever informs, broadens, ix)lishes, and spiritualizes the man, whatever makes him a more harmonious, better poised, or purer man, by so much makes him a better teacher; for, after all, our power is measured more by what we are than by what we know. Add to this some well-chosen books uiK)n the j)hilo8ophy and the history of education, that he may be always ready to give a reason for his educational faith and practice, and you have all the requisite material for ])rofes8ional growth. Teachers who are growing by reading will unconsciously inspire their pupils to read. This leads to a third use of the reading-circle, which is that it offers an oj)- portunity for the public discussion of educational topics so that ))ersons out- side the profession may become interested in educational questions. Teachers? in schools remote from cities and towns, where there are few attractions for young people, can readily associate with themselves their older pupils and their most intelligent patrons, in reading and discussion. No man can do more for another, educationally, than to teach him to read; that is, to develop in him a love of good reading and an instinct to find it. Once, great men got their furnishing from Plutarch's Lives, Shakespeare, Milton, and the English Bible, and had no lack. Then men knew how to EDUCATIONAL LITERATURE. 327 read; now pupils study, study, study, text-book uix)n text-book, and an the mental grip grows weaker books are made thinner, till, in too many by far, thought-inspiring passages are as "two grains of wheat hid in two bushels of chaff, which you shall seek all day ere you find them." Happy the teacher who knows how to read, and who can inspire his pupils with a love of reading. IV. DEFINITION OF EDUCATIONAL LITERATURE. BT W. H. PAYNB, LI^.D. The question to be determined at the outset, is, what is it proper to include under the designation, Educational Literature f As guides towards the de- termination of this question, the following are Submitted : 1. It may be assumed that educational literature is not to include all educational writings; but that some principle must be found by which to determine a line of exclusion and inclusion. 2. Granting that such a principle may be found, its use is still subject to human opinion, so that the dividing-line can never be drawn with rigorous exactness. The question will always be an open one, and consequently, one on which men of equal knowledge, intelligence and honesty, may differ in opinion. 3. It may be assumed that educational writings, and writings in general, are divisible on cognate principles ; that educational literature will have the same general marks as literature proper. 4. The principle proposed by De Quincey for determining the field of literature proper is here commended for the division of educational literature. Its statement is as follows : 1. Li terse Humaniores: the Literature of Power; Literature proper. 2. Literae Didactecae : the Literature of Knowledge ; Anti-Literature. Extreme types best illustrate this principle. A cook-book, a city directory, a gazetteer, or a railway guide, is to be included in the literature of knowl- edge; while " Thanatopsis," "The Excursion," Emerson's "Essays," and " Hard Times," belong to the literature of power. 5. This principle of division cannot be applied as rigorously to educational literature as to general literature, for by its very name and nature educational literature is professional, and therefore implies, to a much greater degree than in the other case, the idea of practical utility. 6. In both cases there will be instances of mixed types, which can be class- ified only with difficulty. In such instances, and they are numerous, the classification must be determined by the prevailing spirit. 7. If a definition of educational literature is to serve any valuable purpose for guidance, it is better to make this definition too narrow than too wide ; it is wiser to include too little than too much. 8. As a general thing, books of method will fall outside the pale of edu- 328 NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION. cational literature. If, however, the practical treatment is relieved by a background of luminous philosophy or illustrative history, so that the whole treatment is inspiring and suggestive, then such books become members of the Liter® Humaniores. 9. Educational magazines and journals Tsill follow the general rule indi- cated. If the treatment in the main is empirical or matter-of-fact, the maga- zine or journal will fall into the lower class along with the ordinary newspaper. 10. The term "Educational Classics" may serve to illustrate De Quinoey's distinction, and thus to facilitate the classification of educational writings. An educational classic has this connotation : (1) It deals with principles rather than with facts. (2) It is intensely* persuasive. (3) It is epoch-making and reproductive. 11. It facilitates classification to include under the term minor classics, books which have the qualities above named in a somewhat lower degree. 12. In illustration of the distinctions now made, the following list of authors is presented, whose writings may be included under educational literature proper: (1) Major Classics: Xenophon (^Memorabilia); Plato (Republic and Laws) ; Aristotle (Ethics and Politics) ; Quintilian (Instittdes of Oratory) ; Plutarch (Moralia); Ascham (Schoolmaster); Locke (Thoughts); Spencer (Edtteaiion) ; Rabelais ( Oargantua) ; Montaigne (Essays) ; Rousseau (Emile) ; Madame Necker (Progressive Edivcation) ; Comenius ( Orhis Pictiis, Didaetiea Magna, and Janua) ; Pestalozzi (How Gertrude teaches her Children, and Letters); Richter (Levana); Rosenkranz (Science of Education); Froebel (Education of Man); Mann (Lectures); Page (Theory and Practice). (2) Minor English Classics: Mulcaater (Positions) ; Bain (Education €is a Science) ; Hamilton (Discussions) ; Edgeworth (Practical Edtication) ; Taylor (Home Education); Martineau (Household Education); Quick (Essays); WheweU ( University Education). V. THE VALUE OF EDUCATIONAL LITERATURE TO TEACHER AND STUDENT. F. LOUIS BOLDAN, ST. LOUIS. I. The Content of Educational Literature. — Educational litera- ture includes those writings which treat directly of the nurture, training, and teaching of youths, and of the conditions involved therein. Our term ex- cludes writings that have but an indirect bearing on education, no matter how useful their reading may be to the teacher. II. Classes of Educational Literature. — 1. Education may he dis- cussed in its principles derived from nature and thought, or in regard to the application of these principles in school and home ; it may be spoken of as a EDUCATIONAL LITEBATrHE. 329 sdenoe, or an art. Educational writings may be record? of what is known, or instruct in what to do. There is a close relationship between science and art: education as a science is knowledge that is to be practically applied, and it is an art only when practice is based on knowledge. Science and art there- fore intermingle in educational writings, and the classification of any special work must be made according to its predominant feature. 2. Science may either turn to the world without and record its facts, or it may turn within and formulate the truths of reason. There are, therefore, the following three divisions of educational literature : 1. The Literature of Facts, or Educational Observation, 2. The Literature of Thought, or Educational Speculation, 3. The Literature of Educational Practice. II L The Value of Educational Literature to the Student. — 1. Human civilization rests on the fact that experience is transmissible. All progress is due to cumulative experience. 2. A countless number of scholars, thinkers and teachers have left records of their obser\'ations, speculation, and practice, concerning the education of the young. This transmitted, cu- mulative exj)erience is of value to the student, because it supplements his own experience, corrects his thoughts and guides his actions. 1. Value of the Literature of Educational Observation, To this class belong, in the first place, writings on the natural conditions of child-life and growth, (such as Preyer's "The Soul of the Child,") and, in the second place, records of the development and training of individual children (for instance, Egger: "Sur le Developpement de r Intelligence chez les Enfans;" Darwin: "Bi- ographical Sketch of an Infant," etc.) The value of this class of educational literature lies in the fact that it transmits to the student data of knowledge by far richer than any single individual experience can gather. These data re- veal many of the conditions which nature imposes on the training of child- hood. 2. Value of the Literature of Educational Speculation, The literature of pedagogic philosophy or speculation includes works on the science of educa- tion, such as Ilosenkranz*s. Not a few of the imjiortant works of this division are written in the form of fiction, as for instance, Rousseau's "p]mile," and Pe8talozzi*8 " Lienhard." In these works, si>eculation exhibits educational thought in its universal aspect. It presents it as a system in its dependence on ethical and spiritual verities, and traces the correlation of educational processes. The value of writings of this class is that they train the student's judgment by evolving the universal principles which should govern educational practice. They enrich his mind by enabling him to make the wisest thoughts on edu- cation his own; he looks at educational pn)blems through eyes which are keener than his. The Value of Elucationnl Speculation as a (ruide in Practice, All rational activity requires a plan, a consciousness of the end that is to be accomplished. 330 NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION. Only when the student has looked upon education as a speculative system can he realize the ends at which his work aims, and form a consistent and rational plan of training and teaching. Value of Educatwnal Philosophy as a Preventive and Corrective, To be able to look upon education as a whole, serves to keep the student's judgment clear, and helps him to assign to the local and ephemeral demands for new devices and practices their true place in regard to the eternal and universal postulates of education. The practical teacher is constantly exposed to the danger of losing himself in the mazes of scholastic detail, and he needs the corrective of universal thought. Inspiration and Suggestiveness of Educational Speculation, The monot*>- nous rhythm of every-day school-work has the tendency to dull the interest and to lead to mechanical routine. Not a few books in the literature of edu- cational speculation are so suggestive and inspiring as to call forth new in- terest and rekindle an enthusiasm which elevates the humblest task of the school-room by investing it with universal significance. III. Value of the Literature of Educational Practice. — This class includes writings on school-keeping and school appliances; also, works on methods of teaching and discipline. The value of part of the literature of this class is self-evident. It need not be shown that a knowledge of the school law of his State, the regulations and the course of study adopted for his school, the subject-matter of the studies which he is to teach, is of value to the teacher. Books on instruction and discipline are useful because they supplement the individual experience in the daily work of teaching by supplying information concerning the experience of other successful and thinking educators. The value of books on methods of teaching is not infrequently made the sub- ject of controversy. It is underrated by some, and overestimated by otheK^. On tlie one hand, some assert that, since by method is meant the presen- tation of a study in accordance with the mental constitution of the learner, there is no generally valid statement of a method possible, because no two human minds are exactly alike. This might be answered by reference to man's physical constitution. Not two individuals are exactly alike, and yet there is a general science of physiology possible, because there is agreement in the general structure. ^lethods of teaching, in so far as they are the ad- justment of the character of the subject of instruction to the universal laws of the mind, contain two permanent factors and have general validity. There are, on the other hand, those teachers who look upon statements of methods and devices as the most important part of educational literature. The difficulties which the teacher has to face in the school-room every day make him search in professsional literature for advice that will aid him in the given case, and he is likely to e^steem the direct help of some practical sug- gestion or device more highly than a general principle whose application re- quires discernment and skill. Hence the frequent call for practical literatiire. DISCUSSION. 381 and the interest taken in it by many. . . . The more specialized such statements of modes of teaching become, the more limited is their value, be- cause then the variable factors (the conditions and circumstances of the special lesson which is described) predominate. The usefulness of this kind of pi-actical literature is, that it ser%'es to show how a general method may be applied to special topics. IV. A CorRsE OF Professional Reading. — A course of professional reading would include typical works of each of the following classes : 1. Educational Observation. Anthropology^ : Natural Conditions of Education : Physiology, especially that of the nerve-system. Reconi^ of the etlucation of individual children : Empirical Psychology. 2. Educational Si)eculation. Ethics. Rational Psychology. Theor}' of Education, or Pedagogics. History of Educational Theoiies. 3. Educational Practice. School-keei>ing : School laws. School hygiene. Instruction : Course of Study. Methods of Teaching. Methods of Discipline. Devices and Apparatus. Historv of Educational Practice. DISCUSSIOX. \ Reported by N. C. Dougherty, Illinois.] Mr. Sheldon wished the discussion to make clear the distinction in Dr. Payne's pa{)er between the literature of power and the literature of knowl- edge. Mr. Brown, of Illinois, said that by educational literature Dr. Payne evi- tlently meant those writings that treat of i)rinciples of instruction, or methods, rather than of devices. The one is |)ennanent and enduring, the other is transitor\'. Dr. Payne would therefore expunge from educational Hteniture all bo.<- sessing any remarkable educational value, rather than hundreds of other works, he ( Mr. Greenwood ) was at a loss to understand. He regretted that Dr. Payne was not present, that he might have the advantage of his own in- terpretation of himself. CoMMiHSiONER H ARRIS, of Washington, D. C, said the expression used in Mr. Payne's paper, " Literature of Power," described very well what teachers ought to read. Works that make an epoch in education, works that deepen the thought or amuse people to beneficent activity, are the most profitable ones to read. The reason that Mr. Payne's paper excluded works on method, he thought was this: it has reference to the prolific literature which deals with special cases of discipline and instruction ; the cases of bad behavior on the part of John or James, and the methods the teacher adopted to overcome the perverse will of the pupil. Such literature is indeed ephemeral, and does not belong to the literature of power. Dr. White, of Cincinnati, called attention to the second paper present' light. Our tendency has been to make them too difficult for our readers. We have tried the experiment of DISCUSSION. 337 elective courses to reach a variety of readers, but have not found it altogether satisfactory. Our literary course has been the most popular. We have read part of the works of Longfellow, Lowell, Bryant, Emerson, Irving, Hawthorne, Scott, and always something from Shakespeare, the father of literature. I am per- suaded that we cannot do more for a young teacher, for anyone, than to teach him to read, and to love reading, and to choose spontaneously the most exceUent in professional and general literature. 338 NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION, REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS. CO-EDUCATION OF THE SEXES, Perhaps on no other subject agitated in recent times has so great a change in public opinion taken place as on that in regard to the co-education of the sexes, particularly in higher institutions of learning. In the United States this change has been most striking, though the European nations are following our lead, more slowly, but surely — England first, France next, and then Germany. It is within the recollection of people not yet old, when the instruction of boys and girls in the same classes in high schools, was an innovation looked on with great disfavor, and the seating of the two sexes in the same room was regarded as little less than a defiance of the eternal verities. And even yet in certain great cities, such as New York, Philadelphia, and Boston, the old conservative feeling still prevails to the extent that separate high schools are maintained for girls and boys. Indeed, it has not been more than twenty years since in the first named of these cities a full high-school course for girls was provided at all. Other cities are still stopping at the half-way house, allowing the sexes to recite together, but having them seated in separate rooms for study. But in the smaller cities and towns, the custom, so far as the com- mittee is informed, for the sexes to occupy the same rooms in the 8ch(K)l building for study as well as to recite in the same class, is well-nigh universal. And we believe that those who have had experience both in the way of edu- cating boys and girls apart and of educating them together, will, with the rarest exceptions, unhasitatingly bear testimony to the superiority of the latter. Dr. Harris, our present U. S. School Commissioner, in his report as Su- jierintendent of the schools of St. Louis, for the year 1869-70, set forth the advantages of co-education in all the grades of the public schools, particularly of the high school, in such a masterly way as to attract the thoughtful atten- tion of educators not only throughout our own country, but in Europe as well. The positions taken in this report have been summarized as follows: "(1) Im- provement in discipline — the self-will, violence, and rudeness of the boys being restrained by the presence of the girls; while the girls' manners are i-endered more easy and self-possessed by daily school association with the other sex; (2) Improvement in instruction and study — the diversities of the sexes preventing extreme methods, and exclusive, one-sided training and study. Thus, it is said, that the tastes of the boys for severer studies, such as mathe- matics, are corrected by the inclination of the girls for the lighter and more sentimental studies, general literature, poetry, etc." ; (3) A more sound and healthy development of both sexes ; in support of which it is asserted that COEBICATION OF THE SEXES. 339 "schook kept exclusively for girls or boys require a much more strict surveil- lance on the part of teachers. The girL*, confined by themselves, develop the sexual tension much earlier, their imagination being the reigning faculty, and not bridled by intercourse in its normal form. So it is with the boys, on the other hand. Daily association in the class-room prevents this tension and supplies its place by indifference. Each sex testing its strength with the other, on an intellectual plane, in the presence of the teacher — each one see- ing the weakness and strength of the other, learns to esteem what is essential at its true value. That the sexual tension be developed as late as i)ossible, and that all early love affairs be avoided, is the dei*iileratum ; and experience has shown that association of the sexes, on the plane of intellectual contest, is the safest course to secure this end." It is not meant in this reference to Dr. Harris's report to assert that he was the first in the field in this discussion. That noble and fruitful tree of knowledge, planted in a wilderness, in 1833, Oberlin College, received within its hospitable walls every true seeker afler truth, without distinction as to sex, race, or condition. And then, too, Antioch College, established through the efforts of Horace Mann and those who sympathized with his lofty ideal of education, twenty years afler, was conducted on the same liberal ba.<5is. In consequence of a departure so startling from long-established custom, these two institutions l)ecame centers of widesprea\ While during this period of instruction but little attention need be paid to dates, subse(|uent lessons in history should locate the time of events as well as the place. ESSENTIALS ly ELEMENTABY EDUCATION. 851 AAer the elementar}' instruction has been p^iven in geography, very inter- er^ting cxeroiaes may be had by means of map sketches, showing the relations of historj^ to the civil geography of our country. In arithmetic it is essential to a dear understanding of number, that the pupil shall learn through the use of objects what number is; and how num- bers may be represented by figures. And great care should be taken that the pupil be made to recognize the decimal arrangement of numbers at each stage of his progress; and that he shall intimately associate the representative figures with the number of objects represented. These and similar steps are essential, not only in dealing with integers, but with fractions, Iwth common and decimal. The value of form and dmtving is now becoming justly appreciated for its training value in forming habits of accuracy in seeing, of correctness of repre- sentation ; and this subject may be regarded as an essential in education. The course in form and drawing prepares for and leads to further development of the pupils through manual-training exercises, giving such dexterity as is useful to all, and as will enable the pupil to acquire readily the skill needed in all lines of construction, and in useful arts. Geometry should be taught in the elementary' school, beginning with les- sons in form, and progressing through a course of instruction which will furnish the graduate of the common school with such geometrical concepts and facts as are needed by all. The course should be one of observation, a>nstruction, and representation, rather than of demonstration; yet the pro- cesses of training in logical thought and expression through form, will lead to practical demonstration. A knowledge of the elements of natural history and of physical science should be assured to all who complete the common-school course. The in- struction should begin in the lower grades, through a series of object lessons, and gradually pass from the study of things and their qualities to a study of phenomena, and of the transformations of matter, and follow in lines of sci- entific clarification. No course of instruction is complete which does not provide for moral train- ing. In the earlier years this training will make use of conversations, stories, with attention to simple ideas of the right and the WTong in the actions of others, illustrated by school incidents in which the pupils may be led to de- cide on the right. Indications of character should be studied in the pupils, and these indications duly considered in devising means for developing in them habits of right thinking and of right actions. In later years lessons in morals should be drawn from incidents in life, from history, and fit)m literature. Faults must be overcome by developing good qualities. The discipline of the school should be made, in all stages, a means of moral education. The moral sense and judgment of the pupil should be cultivated by leading him to judge of his own conduct, as well as of the conduct of others. In the later years of the elementary course, moral 352 NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION. instruction should take on more systematic forms, and treat of the duties of the child toward the family, the school, the community, and his country. It should lead the pupil to consider duties toward himself — his body, his char- acter, his mind ; and also his duties in providing for his own needs in life ; his duties toward men and toward God. In this course of training it should he made an aim, without entering upon any metaphysical discussion, to clearly show ; 1. The difference between duty and interest. 2. The distinctions between the statute law and the moral law ; the one fix- ing the minimum of prescription which society imposes upon all its members, the other imposing upon the conscience of each one a duty which no one forces him to fulfill, but which he cannot neglect without feeling himself culpable before God. In the treatment of this subject we have given more attention to matters pertaining to the early stages of elementary education — the first five years — than to those of its later stages, partly because we believe that the more general practice and the present conditions of our schools render it es.sential that better work should be done here, and partly because the early work, if rightly done, will lead to better treatment of the subjects considered in the advanced stages of elementary education. If the pupiPs steps be properly led during the first years of school life, and correct habits of learn- ing formed, all needed knowledge may be acquired thereafter. During the period of elementary education the chief inquiry as to what subject should be taught ought not to be merely what knowledge will be most valuable to the pupils in after life, but chiefly what line of subjects and what methods of training will become most useful to them as self-helps in the up- building of the individual, with strong, well-developed mental powers, with a character that will maintain the right in principles, and act the right in the duties of life, and in the development of bodies capable of enduring the struggles necessary to win success in the chosen vocation. Herein lie essen- tials of elementary education. In conclusion, if we would find an embodiment of the ways and means for providing all the essentials in elementary education, we must seek for a teacher who possesses the following qualifications : A clear knowledge of the subjects to be taught; personal habits that illustrate good character; tact in man- agement and discipline that will secure the willing cooperation of the pupils ; ability to awaken attention and to concentrate it upon the particular subjwt before the class ; readiness in discovering the mental conditions of each pupil, and facility in sup})lying the needed guidance ; skill in training the mind in correct habits of learning; and the magnetism of kindness and justice that shall develop noble traits of character. DISCUSSION. 353 DISCUSSIOX. [RKFOBTSD 8T AaBOM tiOVX, COLOEADO.] Mr. Brown : Language-teaching is necessarily grammar-teaching. When a child has learned, by the proper use of language, that there are certain laws, he can make the generalization. There can be no teaching except technical teaching; pupils in elementary schools must use technical terms. The distinc- tion between what is technical and what is not, is difficult for me to determine. Mr. Sheldon : Lest this discussion may drift into the hands of the meta- physicians, I wish to call attention to the early part of the report in reference to physical training. I hope the discussion on physical training, which is of the greatest importance, will indicate to us some of the systems by the use of which we can increase the vigor of our schools. Mr. Harris : Horseback-riding developes the vital organs ; it reinforces the lungs and promotes exercise, which takes the blood from the head and carries it to the vital organs and builds them up ; it promotes the involuntary workings of these organs. The will-power should not be cultivated so that one can control the heart action, or the breathing; it has been done, but it is dangerous. The tendency is to carry the voluntary power into the sphere where the involuntary power ought to prevail. The investigation of the whole matter is at present largely in the hands of physiological cranks. Mr. Rk^hards : I do not depreciate the remarks on physical training, but I wish we would put in practice certain other principles. I would exercise and train the muscles of the mouth and tongue. Children are not taught to . enunciate distinctly. Mr. Harris : I am in hearty sympathy with the gentleman from Massa- chusetts when he has little patience with physiological cranks, and believe in putting this matter in the hands of investigators who will observe as to dif- ferent kinds of exercises, and those that develop vital organs as contrasted with those that develop will-power and which lead to nervous prostration. The free recess, where pupils talk and shout as they please, frees them from the cramp of the will. Harm is done by teachers preventing the free use of their voices at recess-time. Base-ball is apt to develop will-power. Free running about and doing whatever comes first, relieves from the constraint of the will. The Ling system has perhaps gone further than others in solving the difficulty, yet it tends somewhat towards the old channel. Mr. Greenwood : The primary object of education is the training of the child, intellectually and physically, under control of the will. I understand from the remarks made that the American pupil is not well built. Peda- gogues here are not well formed. Children should be taught to stand and sit naturally. For five or six years I examined, weighed, and measured 3,000 to 4,000 children, to compare them with the standard for children in Europe ; 354 NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION. this year I have carried the investigation further; the children of Kansas City weigh more than do those of Europe. I do not advocate the physical training our girls are receiving in high schools — just enough to make them sore — but regular, systematic, daily exercise. It is in the line of this educa- tion to teach the child how to stand, to sit, to carry himself, to keep his body under controlof the will; he grows according to the law of his being. All this can be taught in any school-room without apparatus. Mr. Fitzpatrick : Much of this call for physical training is an echo from the 14th centur)', when it was feared that the civilization of those days would relapse into barbarism unless a race of men were trained to maintain great physical strength. Carlyle said, " The invention of gunpowder made all men alike tall " : the little man had an advantage when he could pull a trigger quicker. Now unless one desires to compete with Sullivan, little is gained ; physical training tends more to the acquisition of a reasonable physique and to the development of nerve. Nobody has yet evolved the right idea. Much damage results from teachers teaching physiology who themselves know little of the subject in hand. The civilized man of to-day is superior in strength and endurance to the savage. In the late war, city regiments had more en- durance than those from the country. Of 40,000 suits of armour collected by antiquarians, very few indeed will fit the present man weighing 175 pound:?, or standing five feet ten inches. I am satisfied that the men of this country and of this age are superior to any who have lived before. The more spontaneity, the better the various purposes of the child. Mr, Hailmann : There is a clear distinction between language and gram- mar. Language cares for the logical, grammar for the technical. Grammar is satisfied with a sentence which may be nonsense ; language means expression of thought. Language must be used in intercourse ; grammar may be studied in the closet. There must be conversation between teacher and pupil to de- velop language-power. Mr. Allyn : The school that does not in some way bring in moral training, fails in its highest purpose; moral training must come in early. I have been dealing with children for more than fifty years. We need to put more empha- sis on moral training. We have been neglecting this subject. Mr. Hanc(X^k: I have a high regard for the previous speaker. In regard to spontaneity in physical exercise, we get that sjwntaneous exercise very largely t»very where, !)ut this sort of exercise docs not develop a broad chest — tliere is a large deficiency that must be supplemented by exercise that is scientific. We can have no moral educati(m without strength of will accom- })anying it. Tlie discussion ought to take this direction. We must begin with some system of exercise — any system that is not too violent Ls good. We must knit it into our system of education. This is just as valuable a^ daily lessons in arithmetic or grammar. Physicians complain that our school children are over-worked, and are being killed by over-study. The instructiim DISCUSSION. 355 given at West Point is thorough, and accomplishes great results in a short time ; boys will accomplish in four years as much as lx)ys in our schools will accomplish in eight yeare. Mr. White: I think the report might emphasize more fully the purpose of reading. As I view it our school courses are more radically deficient in training in language than other branches. The chief end of elementary train- ing is power. Training in language should give the child power to express his own knowledge, whatever that may be, in clear, accurate and forcible, if not elegant language; the power to grasp thought when symbolized in written or printed language. How can you give a child the power of speech clear and accurate ? It is a familiar law that every power is strengthened through exercise. Speech is sjTithetic. The child must be trained in this synthetic power. I arraign this whole system of grammar ; this twisting of sentences. I would give more for a boy who should act as a reporter for a newspaper for one year than for eight years of this system. We are using analytical processes to attain synthetic ends. Mr. Hailmann : I would like to see something introduced into our schools — something between the chaos of the "recess" and the machine exercises. With regard to the strain of the will, I believe that the child is not so anxious to get rid of his own will-power as he is anxious to get rid of the will-power of his teacher. The coordinating of the will of the child with the will of the teacher ; the business of the recess ought to be the cultivation of this free native force of the child. It is not necessary that the school should be or- ganized in the machine way. Can we not modify the school instead of modi- fying the child ? Mr. Rounds : With regard to some points in the report, as to whether the elements of science shall be taught in elementary schools, and whether it shall be made compulsory; also, as to whether there shall be a course of ethics — not an occasional goody-goody talk, but a course in morals. Is it time for the Council to assert that moral instruction shall come in in some way as a regular part of the school work ? It is not in our schools now. The charge Ls made that our schools are immoral. Have our schools a function and a duty in this matter ? Mr. Hinsdale : I have given some tliought in the past few years to this subject. In relation to moral instruction in the schools, the subject is handled in a very vague, general, and indefinite way. It is like much of the moral instruction that comes from the pulpit — there is no point to it. AVith regard to the academical and the normal-school course, our teachers have a certain academical training which is sufficient. Her mind and conscience have been awakened in regard to the matter of ethical instruction. She has read a good deal and heard a good deal in relation to this topic, and yet there is no important subject in regard to which our average public-school teachers are 80 poorly equipped as in this very matter. The difficulties of moral educa- 356 NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION. tion transcend the difficulties of intellectual education. We can never elimi- nate the intrinsic difficulties of the subject ; but what I especially object to is the vagueness and indefiniteness of the instruction given to the teachers- I have known girls well instructed, beautiful in spirit, anxious to do their duty, and workers in the Sunday school, who have no other purpose than to do their duty. In school they have Swede, Danish, Bohemian and Polish children. The teacher knows that it is her duty to give moral instruction, but she does not know where to begin. I do not lay down any program, but I have one that I use in my own lecture-room. I think that the time has come when this whole subject of moral education ought to be taken up by our men and women who have some observation, experience and reflection, and whether we cannot furnish the teachers of the country with rubrics, and with a program to give them more definite ideas than those they now have in regard to the matter. I hope something may be done in a formal way by the Council. Mr, Harris: I have heard the protest that we are neglecting moral educa- tion in the schools. I think there is confusion here between moral philosophy and moral education. We pretend to try to teach the intellect and endeavor to secure good behavior, and not moral education. We hear a good deal about morals not being taught in the schools. Is there a school that does not teach good behavior ? This is considered the baais of all things. Order is Heaven's first law. Now every teacher teaches exercise, punctuality, self- restraint, regularity, and industry, in order that the whole may produce some- thing. The fourth pillar is industry, on which good behavior rests. There is an additional restraint — the pupil is met with the arm of the teacher. In Germany you find more freedom and less restraint on the part of the teacher; the schools are less moral; they do not give attention to the punctillios. What are the facts in regard to this charge ? There is a falsification of the figures; they give numerators and take no account of the denominators- General Eaton, in his report for 1870, gives 11,000 as the number of prisoners in prisons and jails, and that the illiterates furnish eight times their quota- In an article in " Popular Science " the charge is made that the increase in crime is chiefly among the educated chesses. In Michigan 70 per cent, of the j>risoners in jail could read and write. In the 25th report of the Detroit House of Correction, out of 40,000 commitments 70 per cent, could read and write — 30 per cent, could not. In Michigan the percentage that can read and write is 95 — less than five per cent, were illiterate. Ninety-five per cent. of the population furnish 70 i)er cent, of the prison population, and less than five per cent, of the population furnish 30 per cent.; the ratio being one to -eight. Last year statistics from twenty-four States were collected regarding thirty penitentiaries. It is well known that penitentiary offenses are different from those of jails. The illiterates do not cut so large a figure. These |)eniten- tiarics furnish three and one-fourth times their quota. With regard to this DISCUSSION. 357 ciy about the increase in crime. There are crimes against the property, and against the person. Drunkenness is now considered a crime, owing to the awakening of the consciences of the people making it a crime instead of an offense. Now these statistics count in drunkenness along with crimes against the person and property ; the consequence is a swelling of the statistics of cnme. Take the State of Massachusetts: in 1850 it sent 3,000 persons to jail for intemperance; in 1885 it sent 18,000 to jail for drunkenness, or six times the number, although the population had only increased 30 per cent. In Massachusetts crimes against the person and against property had abso- lutely decreased 44 per cent, thus showing that persons and property were safer. Mr. Calkixs : I am gratified that the previous speakers have so thoroughly discussed the subject in all its bearings that it will relieve me from going over the same ground. In many parts of the country we have schools where large numbers of the pupils have to be put through the most elementary exercises in mental development. They hardly know how to hear. They do not even have thoughts to express in language or in sentences. The teacher has first to ascertain the mental condition of the pupil before he knows how to set about reaching his intellect K the subject be language, and the pupil has no thoughts, or thoughts that can be represented by only very few words, the teacher must first train them to know the symbols of these things. It is like a person trying to pump water from a dry well. The pupil must be trained in such a way that the mind must first be furnished with thoughts, and then with language to express these thoughts. The teachers tell us, ''We have not time for all this ; you are adding to our burdens." In order, however, to be trained successfully in this direction, the pupil must be supplied with the thoughts and the words to express them. He must also be led and encouraged to use words in expressing his own thoughts. I have to apologize for dealing so much with elementary forms. In regard to the matter of moral training, we must look at conditions as they are. What can we do where 95 per cent, of the pupils are composed of the very lowest orders of society and unable to speak the English language? As, for example, in one school where 90 per cent, of the pupils are from Italy, and have been in this country only a few months. In the teacher's conduct there should exist the elements of moral training. The children should be led to love right actions. They should be trained to distinguish between right and wrong; to distinguish the difference between their own acts and those of other pupils. It need not be made a special sub- ject of instruction. —28 358 NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION. SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON SCHOOL SYSTEMS. In 1888, at the request of Superintendent Tarbell, then its chairman, I prepared for the Council the Report of the Committee on City School Sys- tems, taking for a subject, "The Business Side of City School Systems." The discussion of that reix)rt has twice been adjourned by special vote of the Council. Aa a consequence, its substance is no doubt nearly or quite forgot- ten. At the request of Dr. White, the present chairman of the committ(»e, I submit a resume of said report, with some further views believed to be ger- mane to the subject. Two or three pages of the document are devoted to the relations of the public to the public schools. The schools considered as organizations of instruction are declared superior to the schools as organizations of business. Teachers are said to be in advance of average public sentiment and of average board administration ; and the obser\'ation is ventured that such a state of things cannot permanently continue. The public and the board will overtake the schools, or the schools will ultimately fall back to the line of the public and the board. The rej)ort then deals with the three main branches of the subject, in order : 1. The Comf Hut ion nnd Powers of School Boardx, — It is said: "The powers of the board, from the very nature of the case, must be partly legislative, as in the adoj)ti()n of studies, books, and rules ; j)artly executive, as in the aj)- j)ointment of teachers; and partly judicial, as in handling cases of disci- pline." The j)r()iH^r size of a board dei^ends ujwn various circumstances, that need not be recajntulated. 2. The Select ion of Board Members, — Dr. Philbrick is (juoted : "Without doubt, this is the supreme educational problem which n»mains for our eetter method of choosing members of school boards than by popular election. Mr. Greenwood: School boards are generally men of integrity, industry, and prudence. Boards are better on the whole than superintendents. They are often more j)ractical, and know better what the schools and the commu- nity need. In the city where he resides no party would put up political schemei's for school officers. At the hist election both party conventions in- dorsed, by resolution, two candidates who represented the best interests of the schools. AVhatever the form of choice for officers, Mr. Greenwood believes that they should be held accountable to the popular voice. Mr. Brown: Public opinion must control school matters. There are two kinds of public ojnnion. One is the enlightened view of those who know DISCUSSION. 363 the facts about which they are concerned; the other, the more general opinion of those who are not so well acquainted with the facts, but mean well. It is the duty of school people to educate public opinion. To this extent teachers must become politicians. Mr. Folwell called attention to the mode of proposing candidates for election to the school board in Minneapolis. They are selected and offered by a committee composed of persons belonging to both political parties. This plan has worked well. The schools of Minneapolis have always had a clean, efficient administration. Mr. Woodward : In St. Louis better results were reached by enlarging the election districts, and thus reducing the number of politicians who could actively participate in the canvass. Mr. Gove: Cities below 75,000 to 100,000, compared with cities over these numbers, should be allowed a system different from the larger places. A few cities have been constantly held before tlie Council as examples. There is nothing more in their administration and history to call for the special prominence accorded them, than in other cities of like size and conditions. The perpetual reference to these ])articular places is misleading. Cities below 100,000 need attention more than those over that number. It is to be es- I)ecially remarked, that the differentiation of departments contemplated in Mr. HinsdaleV paper could not hold in them so fully as in larger cities. Mr. Sheldon: School affairs must hold close to the people. The New England cities trusted enlightened public opinion. It does not appear that school boards should be apjx)inted. Political trading cannot yet be abolished. And yet such men as Horace Mann, Barnes Sears, George S. Boutwell, and John W. Dickinson were products of the aj)pointive system. But, while the system of appointments has given such men as these, our safest principle is that of the old New England town meeting. Mr. Hinsdale: Interminable voting is to be deprecated. We have too many elections. The purpose of the report is not to impeach democracy, but if we are to have the principle of democracy in its fullness, why not elect teachers and superintendents by popular vote ? Why not elect our postmas- ters and census-takers ? It is a question of limitation. The superintendent is not an evolution from tlie teaching-body, but from the board. The history of the Cleveland schools shows this. At the incep- tion of the schools, the common council hired teachers and conducted the schools. This authority was later delegated to a committee, which was finally called the school board. This body was an administrative one, and had the power of advising legislation by the council. The chairman of this commit- tee became superintendent of the schools, and at first received a salarj- of S300 per year. He had many duties. He was called acting manager. Fi- 364 NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION. nally, the matter was taken out of the haads of the ooundly and put into the control of a separate body. The moet important thought in all this is that of putting settled oondusians beyond popular caprioe. This may be done by embodying them in general legislation. Whenever a measure is generally accepted and conclusively proven, it should be given the form of general statutory enactment, which, under our institutions, is the mode of rendering it efficient and permanent. PROCEEDINGS OF THB DEPARTMIENT or SCHOOL SUPERINTENDENCE. Department of Superintendence. SECRETARY'S MINUTES. FIRST DAY.— F()REX(H)x Session. New York, Feb. IM, 1890, The Department of Superintendence of the National Educational Associa- tion met at 10 o'clock, February 18, 1890, in the Hall of the College for the Training of Teachers, No. 9, University Place, New York CHty. The meeting was called to order by the President, Andrew S. Draper, State Superintendent of New York. The President stated that for reasons which seemed amply sufficient, the usual welcoming and inaugural addresses would be omitted. A communication was received fnmi Richard T. Auchmuty, inviting the Department to visit the New York trade schools ; also one from E. Richard, of the New York Turn Bezirk, inviting the Department to witness their ex- ercises. Both invitations were accepted with thanks. Regrets were received from James H. Canfield, Lawrence, Kansas, Presi- ople of the South, addressed the Department briefly upon the same subject. Superintendent W. II. Maxwell, of Brooklyn, N. Y., then read a paper on "City School Systems: What is the best plan of Organization ? " The discussion of the subject was continued by H. S. Tarbell, S. T. Dutton, BEPOBT OF 8ECBETABY. 371 L. W. Day, Aaron Gove, John E. Bradley, H. S. Jones, E. E. White, A. S. Draper (John Hancock, of Ohio, having been called to the chair), W. H. Bartholomew, R. K. Buehrle, and Henry A. Wise. The President resumed the chair, and asked the pleasure of the Department as to the afternoon meetings. It was decided to follow the program, which called for separate meetings of State Superintendents, City Superintendents, and County Superintendents. The President announced a meeting of the State Superintendents at the Grand Central Hotel at 3 o'clock p. m. The Committee on Nomination of Officers was announced, as follows : Aaron Gove, C. W. Cole, A. P. Marble, John Hancock, W. B. Powell. President Draper was, at his own urgent request, excused from service on the Committee on Bureau of Education, and Mr. Bradley was appointed in his stead. Dr. Butler extended a very cordial invitation to the members of the De- partment to attend a recejrtiou tendered by the trustees and officers of the College for the Training of Teachers, at the close of the evening session. EVENING HEasiON. The Department reassembled at 8 o'clock. A paper was read by Merrill E. Gates, President of Rutgers College, on " Popular Criticisms and Suggestions concerning the Work of the Schools : How far should this influence extend ? " The subject was discussed by Joseph Estabrook, State Superintendent of Michigan, and by Jerome Allen and John Kraus, of New York. A communication from Charles J. Majory, C()rres{K)nding Secretary of the New York Association of Normal School Graduates, was received, and refer- red to the Committee on liesolutions. THIRD DAY.— February 20. MORNINCf HICSHION. The Department reassembled at 10 o'clock ; President Draper in the chair. W. A. ^rowry moved that the Executive Committee of the National Asso- ciation be asked, for this year at least, to restore the former time of meeting if practicable, making the date from July 15 to July 18, instead of that now announced. The above resolution was discussed by John MacDonald, of Toj^eka, Kan.; Mr. Mowry, Mr. White of Ohio, and President Draper. The resolution was adopted. H. S. Tarbell introduced a resolution indorsing the plans of the (lovern- ment for the education of the Indian. Referred to the Committee on Resohi- tions. W. E. Sheldon offered a series of resolutions in relation to the importance 372 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. of the public school as means for the teaching of patriotism, etc. Beferred to the Committee on Resolutions. The Committee on Bureau of Education made a partial report on general matters, and asked further time, which was granted. The same committee made the following report on Educational Exhibits (Mr. Cook's motion): Your committee charged with the duty of reporting recommendations respecting the Edncational Exhibit in the proposed Centennial Exposition of 1892, submits the following, to wit: 1. That there be provided for the Educational Exhibit a separate building, ample in size and suitably arranged for the purpose, and that the building be early pro- vided for by those who may be intrusted with the management of the Exposition; provided that the plan of separate buildings for the leading departments be adopted. 2. That the organization and immediate direction of the Educational Exhibit be intrusted to the United States Commissioner of Education, assisted by several asso- ciate commissioners, wisely selected, and each having the more special charge of a department of the exhibit; and that the head of the department of each State be made an advisory committee for said State. 8. That in the organization of the exhibit, provision be made for representation of the public-school system of each State, the Territories, and the District of Colum- bia, and also the schools supported by the GFeneral Qovernment; and that, for the purposes of intelligent comparison and study, the exhibits of the several States, in their most important features, be prepared on a uniform plan prescribed by the Commissioner of Education. In addition to the exhibits of the several States, pro- vision should be made for the representation of the educational work of the country as a whole; and if possible, this exhibit should include every grade of school for gen- eral education, from the kindergarten to the university, and also of all classes of institutions for special education. 4. It is further recommended that a committee be appointed by this department to bring this subject before the National Educational Association at the coming meeting in St. Paul, to the end that the educators of the country may be early en- listed in this important enterprise. Respectfully submitted. E. E. White. M. A. Newsi.i«. A. S. Dbapxb. A. P. Mabbt.k. John E. Bbadi^xt. After some discussion, this report was laid on the table, to hear the paper of Dr. Harris on "The General Government and Public Education Through- out the Country." The discussion of this subject was carried by the following gentlemen : J. W. Dickinson, Thomas J. Morgan, M. A. Newell, E. E. White, John Eaton, Henry A. Wise, Andrew J. Rickoff, J. A. B. Lovett, and James MacAlister. On motion of Mr. Hancock, a committee was appointed to prepare and sub- mit suitable resolutions on the death of Hon. E. E. Higbee, late State Super- intendent of Pennsylvania. The committee was as follows : Messrs. Hancock, LaFollette, Wise, Buehrle, and Jones. James M. King, Secretary of the National League for the Protection of American Institutions, addressed the Department, briefly explaining the urns and objects of the League. BEPOJRT OF SECRETARY. 373 AFTERNOON SESSION. The Department reassembled at 2:30 o'clock. A communication was received from Arthur McMuUen, Clerk of the Board of Education, City of New York, inclosing the following resolution, which had been unanimously adopted by the Board : In the Boabd of Education, Feb. 19, 1890. Resolved, That delegates present in the city at the convention of Superintendents of State Education, and others interested in education, be invited by this Board to visit the schools of our system; and that the Clerk of this Board be requested to for- ward this invitation, immediately, to the convention. The invitation was accepted, and the resolution ordered upon the records of the Department. Seth Low, President of Columbia College, New York, was introduced, and extended an invitation to the Department to visit the college on the fol- lowing day, expressing his deep interest in all educational work. W. E. Sheldon spoke briefly of methods of increasing the influence and usefulness of the Department by publishing some of the more valuable papers promptly for wide distribution, and moved the appointment of a committee to consider the matter and report at the evening session. Adopted, and the following committee appointed : W. E. Sheldon, J. A. B. Lovett, H. S. Tarbell, Aaron Gove, A. J. Rickofl; J. M. Greenwood, E. C. Hewett. J. A. B. Lovett then read a paper on "The Education of the Negro in the South." The discussion was opened by W. B. Powell, and continued by Messrs. Bartholomew, Jones, White, Greenwood, and MacAlister, and Mrs. R. D. Rickoff, of New York. EVENING 8E88ION. The Department reassembled at 8 o'clock. The committee on the death of E. E. Higbee submitted the following report: Resolved, That in the death of Dr. E. E. Higbee, late State Superintendent of Instruc- tion of Pennsylvania, the Department of Superintendence of the National Educational Association recognizes the loss of one of its ablest members and foremost thinkers and most genial associates, and the loss to the nation of an educator in the full and best sense of that word, second to none in the country, whose sad and sudden re- moval from the position he so efficiently filled we deeply and sincerely lament. John Hancock, H. M. LAFOLIiKTTE, H. A. Wise, R. K. BUBHBIiE, H. S. Jones, Committee. In the same connect i m Mr. Buehrle submitted the following: It was my groat good-fcrtune to meet Dr. Higbee in 1881. shortly after his appoint- ment as State Superintendent of Pennsylvania, at a literary and social gathering of —24 374 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. the elite of the city of Lancaster, who had assembled to do him honor. He at once impressed me as a man of keen, logical acumen, and remarkable depth of insight. From that time forth we were friends until the time of his departure to the better, the silent land. It is a comfort to me now to know that in the days of hia severest trial as well as unjust persecution it was in my power to encourage and stand by him, and to see him subsequently in the unmolested enjoyment of his position, pressing forward in his work, surrounded by friends many and loving, who rejoiced in his success. The Blue Mountains of Pennsylvania owe a debt of gratitude to the Qreen Moun- tains of Vermont for the gift of Dr. Higbee. A living embodiment of the best rei>ults of the New England college system of instruction, he came to the Keystone State to bless it with his varied activity. He discoursed with energy, his look inspired veneration, and his diction was elegant. All that he did, he did with an ease that rendered every movement graceful; for while others, though great, seemed to strug- gle beneath their argument, he, descending from above, stooped to touch the loftiesJt thought, ''then turned, and with the grasshopper who sang his evening song beneath his feet conversed." A comparative stranger to the school-men and the school system of the State. ( having exchanged the retirement of a college in a secluded town for the foremost educational position in a great State,) he mastered the latter and captivated all hearts of the former. The poet but expressed the language of Dr. Higbee*s heart when he sang — ''Delightful thought, to rear the tender thought, To teach the young Idea how to shoot. To pour the tre«h Instruction o'er the mind, To breathe the enlivening spirit, and to fix The generous purpose in the glowing breast." Yet withal, "He sat diligently at his work and hummed a pious tune,'' and then again " Went out singing Into the meadows so gaily that those who had seen him from afar might well have thought It was a youth gathering flowers for his beloved." With an insight rare in natures so exquisitely and even poetically attuned as was his, he seized upon the work for him to do, with marvelous correctness. He was profoundly convinced that the foundations of the system had been well laid before his advent to oflBce. Others had constructed; he gloried in supplying the power, to inspire the heart to noble purposes. He took the body, breathed his euthusia^im into it, and it became a living soul. He had a sublime contempt for methods, but spoke with impassioned eloquence for principles. Others had looked to and were looking to present needs; his exalted view took in the future. Others might provide for the temporal, and cleave to the seen and the material; he cared for the spiritual, and secured the unseen and the eternal. The resolution was adopted. The report of the Committee on Bureau of Education was taken from the table, and after discussion was adopted. Mr. White was appointed a commit- tee of one to present the matter to the National Educational Association at the St. Paul meeting. The committee apj^ointed to consider the matter of early publication of im- portant paj)ers, reported as follow^s : Resolved, That we recommend the immediate preparation for publication of the complete proceedings of the meeting of this Department by its secretary, and that REPORT OF SECRETARY. 375 a committee be appointed with authority to make arrangement with the Executive Committee of the National Educational AsRociation for immediate publication of 5(X) copies for the use of the Department, and 5.00() copies in monogram of Commis- sioner Harris's paper to be distributed by the Secretary of this Department. For the Committee : W. E. Sheldon, CAaiVmaH. Resolution adopted, and the following committee appointed : Messi'8. Sliel* don, Day, and ('alkins. Mr. White asked further time for the Committee on Manual Training to make a report. (Mr. Anderson's motion, Washington meeting, 1889.) Mr. Sheldon asked further time to report on Mr. Maxwell's resolution. (Washing- ton meeting, 1889.) On motion of Mr. Cook, these committees were requested to report at the next meeting of this Department, one year hence. President C. W. Eliot, of Harvard College, then read a paper on "The Relation of Colleges and Secondar}' Schools : How can it be strengthened ? " This subject was discussed by Messrs. Dougherty, Bradley, Buehrle, Pat- terson, Kiehle, Dewey, Webster, and Morgan. J. W. Johnson, University of Mississippi, sent his paper, which was ordered printed. The Committee on Resolutions submitted the following report : Resolved, That our cordial thanks be tendered to the President and Trustees of the New York College for the Training of Teachers, and to their representative. Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler, for their very generous and thoughtful hospitality in pro- viding rooms for our meeting, and in promoting every way the comfort, pleasure, and convenience of our members. Resolved^ That our thanks are due to the Grand Central Hotel for their liberality; to many railroads for generous concessions; and especially to the daily newspapers of New York City for their very full and satisfactory reports of our papers and discussions. Resolved, That we record our hearty appreciation of the wise and vigorous measures adopted and carried out by our President, Hon. A. S. Draper, of New York, and the other officers of this Department, whereby the great success of this New York meet- ing has been secured. Resolved, That we cordially approve of the plans of the United States Government for the education of all the Indian children as outlined by the Commissioner of In- dian Affairs; and we respectfully urge Congress to make the needful appropriations. Resolved^ That in view of the continued illiteracy of large numbers of American citizens, and the inadequacy of local means and instrumentalities to educate their youth for the responsibilities before them, we renew and emphasize and appeal to Congress for the speedy passage of some fit and adequate measure of national aid to common schools. Resolved, That the Department of Superintendence hereby expresses its continued appreciation of the great usefulness of the Bureau of Education; and also its hearty approval of the excellent appointment of Dr. W. T. Harris, of Massachusetts, as Com- missioner, and its consequent high expectation of the increasing efficiency and suc- cess of the Bureau. Resolved, That this Department most earnestly urges upon Congress the making 376 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. of an adequate and liberal appropriation for the support of the Bnrean. to the end that the important work now in progress may be successfully carried forward. Resolved, That we regard the American common school as established by our fathers* to be the chief source of our civilization, and the strong bulwark of religious and civil freedom; we therefore pledge ourselves to do all in our power to aid in promot- ing the firm and permanent establishment of the common-school system in all parts of the republic, with a view to overcome the evils of illiteracy, and make loyalty and intelligence universal among the people of all races and conditions. Resolved, That we can but meet the hostile criticisms openly made against the public schools of the country by making these schools so true to their high purpose that they shall become the potent allies of the best home culture, and sources of the most wholesome moral influence, without at all interfering with religious denomina- tional differences. Resolved, That we heartily commend recent efforts, made in many sections of the country, to place over every school-house the American flag; and also recommend the study of the Declaration of Independence, and of other great historical docu- ments of American civil liberty, in the public schools, as a means of stimulating true patriotism and of promoting enlightened citizenship. Resolved, That we recommend that every State normal school provide a definite course of instruction in the History of Education, Psychology, and Methods of Teaching and School Administration; and for every permanent License issued by the State superintendent of schools, or State board of examiners, examination shall be required in these three divisions of pedagogical science. Resolved, That in our judgment the diploma of any State normal school, or the permanent license issued by the State school authorities, should be a sufficient evi- dence of the proficiency of its holder to teach in the public schools of any district, town, or city in the State, and no further examination of such holder should be required by any board of school officers. Resolved, That the United States Bureau of Education be respectfully requested to communicate with State school authorities of each State, and endeavor to bring about an understanding between as many States as possible, whereby teachers* cer- tificates of high grade, including normal-school diplomas, granted in one State, may become valid in other States, and that said Bureau be requested to advise State superintendents what States will enter into such plan, and also upon what basis cer- tificates and normal-school diplomas are issued in such States. The Committee on Nomination of Officere for the ensuing year reported, recommending the reelection of the present officei's. President Draper earnestly urged that another be chosen to that jwsition, but the report was approved, and the following officers were unanimously reelected : President —A. S. Draper, Albany, N. Y. First Vice-President -J. A. B. Lovett, Huntsville. Ala. Second Vice-President --1^. B. McElroy, Salem. Oregon. Secretary — L. W. Day, Cleveland, Ohio. Philadelphia was selected as the next place of meeting. All necessary business ap})ertaining to the session having been completed, the Department adjourned. L. W. DAY, Secretary, SCHOOL STATISTICS. 377 PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS. SCHOOL STATISTICS AS THE BASIS OF LEGISLATIVE OR OFFICIAL ACTION,— WHAT SHOULD BE COLLECTED, AXD HOWf HARVEY M. LAFOLLETTE, STATE SI PERIXTENDENT OF INDIANA. All legislative or official action having for its pur|K)se the improvement of our public-school systems must, if wise, be based upon exj)erience and the past observation and study of actual conditions. These conditions and re- sults can only be definitely and analytically canvassed tuid studied through the medium of reliable statistics. Facts that are counted and classified form the natural, though numerical, basis for the study and interpretation of educational growth and progress, and, with the essential explanatory and de- scriptive text, make up the only rational guide for such action. The value of such statistics is determined by their accuracy, the practical purpose kept in view in their collection and arrangement, and their universal- ity or community of origin, forms and terms. The careless collecting of so-called "statistics" that are largely estimates, and the irregular recording and reporting of them to central authorities, can only ser\'e to supply false bases, unwarranted conclusions, and, by consequence, injurious theories and acts. Each class of statistics must be collected, re- corded and reported for some sj)ecific purpose, and such aim be kept clearly in view by every one concerned, to be of the greatest value. If statbtics of attendance, for example, be recorded not in their true significance as the exposition of the actual return made for means expended, and as the reliable suggestion of the movement and growth of general education — but rather as a neighborhood comparison between adjoining schools and communities, and a measure of the personal interest of teachers and pupils — the real purpose will be lost sight of and the statistia-^ be so warped as to be of little value. The more universal statistics are, the more valuable they become. If it were possible to secure, not only a national but an international basis of educational statistics, it would be the greatest jwssible step toward a rational and universal basis for wise school legislation, and would afford to every cen- tral authority the opportunity to profit by every improvement in organiza- tion, method, and administration ; but it is an error to substitute generality for universality, and so to kill the definite character and immediate or even local application of educational statistics in the attempt to render them universal. While the possibilities of universal school statistics are great, yet 878 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. in the United States there must be, for long years to come, at least, as wide differences in many facts and figures to be collected and classified, as there* are different State constitutions and different policies and theories back of them. To secure the highest and best good from school statistics as a basis of legis- lative or official action, as well as from a general historical and sociological standpoint, the statistics of education must be taken as complementary to other social statistics, as those of illiteracy, crime, morals, wealth, etc., and all these factors be duly considered in determining the course and purpose of such action. The determination of the educational conditions and needs of the State in the aggregate is an absolute essential to wise legislation. By these conditions and needs the law-makers should be guided in determining the character of general organization of school systems, the limitations of local powers, the establishment and maintenance of library systems, the regulation and requirement of attendance, the basis of apportionment of State school revenues, as well as many other important conditions of social and of criminal legislation. The proper study of such facts and their adoption as a basis for legislation have invariably resulted in the complete divorce of school organiza- tion from other systems of civil organization, and the establishment of a system controlled by school officers whose duties do not extend beyond the discharge of the functions of the schools. The value of such separation of the school interests from other local interests, such as highways, bridges, and ditches, the care of the poor, etc., is of itself a very great gain. It has resulted, too, in the greatest possible simplicity of organization, which, while observing all proper limitations of local powers in the levying of taxes and similar functions, yet places the powers attendant upon such administration in the hands of a single individual, where the weight of responsibility may also fall, and thus secures an intelligent, responsible, and directive administration. It has secured and must ever secure a realization of the fact that for a commonw^ealth to expend several millions of dollars annually for the education of her school children and yet fail to require their attendance upon such or similar schools, is an act of folly, both educationally and commercially, and without rational justifica- tion. Perhaps the failure of many of our States to appreciate the lessons of their statistics in this particular, and the indifference in other commonwealths as to the strict enforcement of attendance laws already in existence, are largely explained by the fact that we have drifted into methods of keeping school records and reporting the alleged conclusions therefrom to school authorities, that are based, not upon a btisis of perfect attendance, but upon membership only. In other words, in the great majority of States the school statistics are based, not upon the actual attendance based upon the number of pupils en- rolled, each pupil being charged with attendance for the full number of days that such school is oi)en, but only for the time that such pupil is a "member'* thereof. All the time lost by pupils who should be in the public schools from SCHOOL STATISTICS. 379 the beginning of the school term, but who do not enter until the term is far advanced, in many cases until one-half thereof is gone, b not included in »»uch reports of time lost; and in the great majority of ca^es, perhaps, the time lost by pupils after three days of successive al)seuee is not recorded or included in the school registers and re)X)rts of attendance, but after such an absence of three days such pupils are drop{)ed from the rolls and are no longer recorded as members of the school. And further, while i)erhap8 in the majority of schools a i)upil who has lost his meml)ership, on returning to school is only " reinstated " and the accounting of his attendance resumed from that time forward ; in a vast number of schools such a pupil upon his return Ls enrolled as a new pu[)il, and so the per cent, of the enrollment ujwn the enumeration as returned in the annual reports is greatly increased. Moreover, the methods of keeping school records that have long obtained in the public schools, baned upon the percentage system, lead in many cases to an- nual summaries that are very erroneous and misleading. Thus, for example, in a school of six months there might be enrolled for the first month twenty-four pupils, the average daily attendance therein, as based upon membership, showing an average of eighteen, or, as recorded at the close of the month, 75 per cent. ; for the second month, an enrollment of thirty-five and an average attendance upon the membership of twenty-eight, or 80 per cent. ; an enrollment for the third month of forty and an average attendance of twenty-eight, or 70 per cent. If in the following three months the ratio of membership decrease in like proportion, we will have as a final summary and average attendance for school term, by months, 75 per cent. Now it is probable that in such school there may have been enrolled within such school term forty-eight different pupils. In the annual report of the teacher to the trustee there is included a complete list of such pupils by name and their class-standing in the matter of scholarship. In making his verified annual report of attendance within such school corporation, the trustee includes from such school, as the average attendance, 75 per cent, of the total enrollment, namely, 48, or 36 pupils as the actual number that have been in daily attendance upon such school throughout the term of six months. Now as a matter of fact the average attendance as based upon meml>ership in such school has been but 24 ; and if, instead of basing such average attendance ui)on membership, it were based upon theoretical attendance by every pupil for the full number of days of such school, the actual average attendance would in many cases prove to be not much over one-half the average membershii) of 24. The significance of these figures may be best emphasized, i)erhaj)S, by a brief summary of them for one year. Thus, in the State of Indiana, for the year 1888, the enumeration of school population was 756,989; the enrollment for the same year, 514,463; average daily attendance, 408,775. The total revenue expended within that year amounted to the sum of $5,235,031. In other words, the average daily attendance was apparently 54 per cent, of the enumeration and 79 per cent, of the enrollment, and the enrollment was 380 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. apparently 68 per cent, of the enumeration. But, as a matter of fact, inves- tigation would seem to lead to the conclusion that the average daily at- tendance, if based upon a theoretical attendance, would show an average of not much more than 25 per cent, of the enumeration and 50 per cent, of the enrollment; and that the enrollment was very considerably exaggerated by the double enrollment of a great many pupils. A careful investigation of the methods of enumeration of children of school age — from 6 to 21 — in Indiana, however, has led us to believe that the actual enrollment in the public schools of the State is really much more than (yS per cent, of the real school popula- tion of the State. And here enters a factor of injustice to a large number of the school children and tax-payers of the commonwealth that is worthy of careful notice in this connection. In Indiana, as in most of the States of the Union, the law provides that the school revenues of the State shall be appor- tioned to the several counties and corporations according to the last enumera- tion therein of children of school age. The manifest purpose of this provision is to make an equitable distribution of such revenues among the communities of the State, so as to secure, as far as possible, a uniform system of common schools, as provided for in the State constitution, including free tuition and terms of equal length throughout the State. Local school authorities may extend the length of their schools by means of local tuition taxes, but it is the purpose of the State that the general apportionment shall be equally made, subject only to such variation as the variety of school needs demand, without injustice to anyone. If the enumeration of children of school age were in each case fairly and conscientiously taken, and its results were not affected by local and improper causes, it might be a reasonably just basis for the apportionment of school revenues ; but under the systems followed in most of our States, we question whether it is a proper basis for such distribution. The present tendency of our methods of distribution is to destroy the uni- formity of the school system by building up city schools at the expense of the country. While the aggregate attendance in the country schools is better than that of the city schools, and while upon the other hand the city schools possess many economical advantages in matters of organization, yet it is a fact that universally the country-school term is much shorter than that of the cities, while the school taxes of the country are greatly in excess of those in the cities. By the present system of apjwrtionment of school funds made in the ma- jority of our States, a bid is made for the fraudulent enumerating of children, in order to lighten the burdens of local taxation. This is generally accom- plished by the employment of some one to take the enumeration and the pay- ment per capita for the total number enumerated. The enumeration of one of the larger cities in Indiana was recently ordered to be retaken, and a most careful reenumeration resulted in a shortage of nearly five thousand in the aggregate number reported, Thb makes a difference of more than $16,000 in the amount of State school revenue received annually by such city. Per- SCHOOL STATISTICS. 381 hap6 no more striking evidence of the inequality of school enumeration can be given than the contrasting of cities with the surrounding country. Thus the city of Vincennes, Indiana, has 196 days of school, pays her teachers an average of 84.17 a day, and has accumulated a surplus of $50,000 school tuition fund — and yet has never paid any local tuition tax. In the townships of the same county the schools run 88 days less than in the city ; the average price paid to teachers is $2.03, and an annual local tuition tax of $•),! 26 is paid. The city of LaFayette has 190 days of school, pays an average of $3.19 per day to teachers, and pays no local tuition tax. The townships of Tippecanoe county have but an average of 1 25 days of school, pay an average of 82.27 a day to teachers, and pay $18,950 local tuition tax annually. In some county seats in the State, the State revenue received exceeds $8.50 per capita for the number of pupils enrolled, while in the surrounding townships the average amount is but $3.90 for each pupil enrolled. In the 6o chief cities of Indiana but 19 per cent, of their school revenues is obtained by local tax, while the rest of the State collects 36 per cent, of its school revenues by local taxation. The enumeration of children of school age in these sixty- five cities, as based upon estimated populations that are, in all probability, judging from past experience, far in excess of the real populations of those cities, is over 36 per cent, of such estimated population ; while in the State as a whole, including even these cities, the enumeration, as based upon the population at the time of the decennial taking of the census of the United States, has been barely 30 per cent. Again, the enumeration of the school children in these cities is about 29 per cent, of the aggregate enumeration of the entire State, while their estimated aggregate population is not over 20 per cent, of the population of the State. In Indiana, as in most States, poll tax is levied upon all male citizens between the ages of 21 and 50 years. An exact and perfect record of these polls is made and reported to State authorities. The census statistics show that the number of polls is 24 per cent, of the whole population, while the number of children of school age is 30 per cent, of the population ; or, in other words, that the number of school children is one-third greater than the number of polls. Applying this standard to the State of Indiana to-day, it will show that the enumeration of school children in the State is at least 50,000 more than it ought to be. In explanation of the dis- crepancy, a single example will suffice. In Clark county, exclusive of Jeifer- sonville, the county seat, the enumeration is 135 per cent, of the poll; while in the city of Jefferson ville the enumeration is 193 per cent, of the poll. In Marion county, within which the capital city of the State is situate, the enumeration, exclusive of Indianapolis, is 138 per cent, of the poll; while in Indianapolis the enumeration is 223 per cent, of the number of polls. Care- ful investigation leads us to believe that in almost every State having any con- siderable State school revenue, quite as remarkable discrepancies will be found as we have cited in Indiana. In the consideration of this point it must not be lost sight of that the child 382 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION in the city, being in school a longer time than the child in the country, will have completed the common-school course of study long before the latter will have finished it. This in a sense places a greater burden upon the city than is placed upon the country, and yet the compensating benefits are, it seems to us, fully equal to the disadvantages incurred thereby. Not only is the city the center of the accumulation of property, where taxes fall lightest, but the advantage of consolidation and classification of the schools and the maintenance of fewer buildings in proportion, do, in our judgment, fully offeet the burden we have alluded to. We question whether any system of enumer- ation of children for school purposes, without reference to the actual enroll- ment and attendance of the children upon the public schools, can form a just measure of the school needs of the community. If such basis be adopted, it should certainly include fewer years and only those that measure the bulk of attendance upon the public schools — from six to seventeen, for example. It is our earnest conviction, however, that the only proper statistical basis for such apportionment of school funds is a basis of average attendance within a common period of time, just alike to city and country, and, approximately at least, a true measure of the school needs of the various communities of the State, ('ertainly, the reports properly verified by the teacher who has no di- rect financial interest in any reckless or false compilation of such statistics, and by those that are purely school officials, will aflTord a more reliable basis than reports made by officials whose chief duties, in many instances, have to do with other concerns than those of the schools, and who, in a large number of cases, have their work done by proxy, and by methods which offer a pre- mium upon dishonesty. The examples given of the importance of perfect and uniform statistics, and the vital injury that may be inflicted upon a large pro- portion of the people of a commonwealth by the perversion or falsification of such statistics, will serve to emphasize the necessity of a reliable system of collecting, recording, and reporting the school statistics of a community. Such statistics should include not only complete statistics of the elementary, second- ary, and high schools, and all financial aggregates, but also special analytic4il reports of city schools, special schools (including art, manual, and other train- ing schools, kindergartens, etc.), and other schools maintained by the State as a part of the public-school system, supplemented by those of all State collies, scientific and professional schools — but should likewise include complete sta- tistics of all private schools of any and every grade. They should include, too, the statistics of educational organizations, teachers* institutes and associ- ations, teachers' and pupils' reading-circles, and all other public menus of ed- ucation that are allied with the public schools: statistics of school and ])ublic libraries, museums, art galleries, including the number and character of vol- umes used annually, proportion of pupils using the same, etc. ; statistics show- ing the facts and relations of separate and co-education of the twoisexes: statistics of benevolent, reformatory, and penal institutions, and concomitant SCHOOL STATISTICS. 8H8 with these the general statisttic? of crime, illiteracy, the ratios of illiteracy, foreign births, American education, etc. In view of the fact that one of the greatest problems with which our public schools have to struggle is that of assimilating and Americanizing the foreign elements with which we have to deal, the imjwrtance of the statit^tics of im- migration and race elements as factors in our school population should not l)e lost sight of. In addition to these statistics — which are, we take it, direct and absolute essentials to pro[)er and intelligent discharge of legislative and official duty in the perfecting of our public-school systems — there are many other lines of statistical information that are im|>ortant essentials in the solu- tion of many of the educational problems of the day, and with which every student of education should be familiar. Statistics of population, of health, of wealth, and material development, all have much to do with the conditions and progress of public education, and he who does not consider the influences that are springing from these sources, and which largely control the develop- ment of our schools, cannot intelligently deal wdth the problems before him. It is not our hope in this brief paper, or upon any other occasion, to suggest any perfect method of collecting, recording, and reporting school statistics. We take it that the first essential is the collection and recording of these facts by those who are in a position to be directly cognizant thereof, and who are honest, devoted, and competent; or, as a rule, by teachers and purely school ofBciab. Such records, to be of the highest value, should be in pre- scribed forms universally used, and including suflicient graphic explanation to insure general uniformity. Fidelity in keeping such records can only be secured by frequent inspection, or systematic rejwrting. In the State of In- diana the universal system of township institutes and the summarized monthly reports, made from the records of the schools at those institutes, have been means of immeasurably improving the school records of the village and country schools, and lending additional value to the aggregates reported to the State department. Not only should all forms of re|X)rts used by the various officials be prescribed by the highest State educational authority, with full power to alter or amend such forms at any time, but there should be in every case some legal method whereby such reports may be promptly exacted, and the failure to make the same be foUow^ed by a sufficient penalty to prevent its repetition. The requirement by the National Bureau of Education of a fairly complete detailed report of all general statistics of each State from the highest State school authority (which would be cheerfully furnished, we are f*ure), and the comparative publication of such reports, would do much to initiate the development of a universal system in the various States. Any system of voluntary reporting, or anything, in short, except a systematic, legalized method of obtaining school statistics, must necessarily be faulty and unreliable, and will usually be found to be grossly exaggerated in many mat- tei-s, through the influence of local pride, and the mistaken idea so widely obtaining, that the primary value of such statistics is a comparison between 384 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. neighboring and rival schools, teachers, and communities. Records thus col- lected, recorded, and reported, should be published by the State department of public instruction, in such form that, if not properly and honestly made, it would be subject to exposure and correction. In other words, the publication of school statistics by school corporations, and not by county or other sum- maries, not only gives in permanent form a valuable historical record of the schools of every community, but it affords the benefits of comparison with similar communities, and insures, in a large degree, the carefiil and honest collection, and reporting of the facts contained therein. In thus emphasizing the necessity of a legalized system of reports, we would not have one depre- ciate the value of the cooperation of State and general educational associa- tions and organizations. In many States the initiative in the best legislation that has been obtained, and in the organization of many of the most influ- ential instruments of improvement in the hands of the teachers of the State, have been secured by the voluntary work of such associations ; and the edu- cative influence of such association, more than all things else, must be de- pended upon to overcome the local emphasis, that is so generally mis]>laced, upon the purpose and value of universal school statistics. Nor is it to be overlooked that in the praiseworthy attempt to secure the most perfect pos- sible system of school statistics, we necessarily border upon the dangerous condition that so frequently obtains where the real welfare of school and pupils is sacrificed to the exactions of a red-tape system of school records and statistics. Perhaps the greatest im])ediment to the rational growth of the public school to-day is the bloodless system of per cents and records that are so often made the end instead of the means. The value of school statistics cannot be overestimated, but we again repeat that they are only valuable in that they aim directly toward a rational purpose, having ever in view the betterment of the school as a whole, and the child as an individual. Much has been done by the National Bureau of Education, since the issue of it« first report in 1870, toward the establishment of a national system of school statistics. Too much praise cannot be bestowed upon the efforts which have been made in this direction. They have indirectly resulted in great improve- ments in the forms and methods of collecting public-school and social statistici^ throughout the Union ; and we can confidently believe that through this means we shall be able, more and more, to approximate a condition where the statistics of each State will be so prepared as to be of the greatest possible local and general value within that particular commonwealth, and yet be founded upon such a basis as to enter into a general system as an equal factor, that may be proj>erly and justly comj)ared with the statistics of similar work in other States ; and with the latter go to make up a rational and invaluabit> aggregate that will show approximately the development of the public sch(.K)l>, and their most important operation and influence in all that pertains to human progress. DISCUSSION. 385 DISCUSSION. Fred Dick, State Superintendent of Colorado, opened the discussion, in substance as follows: We want correct statistics, whether for legislative or official action. The statistics prepared by the National Bureau of Education are in a degree unreliable and misleading. For instance : the last report of the department shows that the number of school buildings increased but 64 in the five yeare from 1884 to 1889. There is something wrong there, because to my personal knowledge five new buildings were erected during that time in two commissioners' districts of Erie county. From 1887 to 1888 we learn from the same source that there was a decrease in the number of school build- ings in a few of the States, as follows: New York, 1; West Virginia, 20; North Carolina, 115; Indiana, 260. Connecticut is represented as having increased her number by 5, and decreased the number of sittings by 164. I can conceive of no intelligent explanation of this showing. The conditions peculiar to each State should be known by a brief expla- nation, so that the figures will indicate the true facts. We learn that New Hampshire had 138 fewer school-houses in 1889 than in 1888. Vermont employed 203 fewer teachers in 1888 than in 1887 ; while it is estimated that the number in Mississippi decreased 862. You and I know that if these rep- resentations are true, there are certain peculiar conditions existing in those States, which need a word of explanation before we can accept the abstract statement. Our statistics would be much more reliable were there some com- pulsion placed upon the proper parties to have the reports made to the depart- ment regularly, promptly, and correctly. Private schools should be compelled by law to report to State authorities. If the State assumes the right to educate its subjects at public expense, then it certainly should assume the authority to ascertain to what extent its !^ubject8 are improving the opportunities afibrded of becoming intelligent citi- zens. It is authentically stated that there was a decrease last year in enroll- ment of pupils in the public schools of Maine, 9.3 per cent.; Vermont, 4.13 per cent. ; New York, 4.4 per cent. ; Indiana, 6.9 per cent. ; Iowa, 2.27 per cent. This is attributed to the increased enrollment in private schools. We should have statistics from these institutions, to show the true facts as they exist. Statistics for official action should cover every possible want. Some States are striving to accomplish one thing, some another. High schools are receiving special attention in certain States, the question of compulsory education in another, free text-books in others, normal training in others. For such special cases a certain cliuxs of statistics is needed ; but the desired information can always be obtained if they are made complete and comprehensive. A. E. WiNSHip, of Boston : In no one thing is America more deficient, 386 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. educationally, than in reliable statistics. We have too many facts that are both incomplete and undigested. There is no American public-school system: there is an American public- school w/c«. The mission of the present generation is to etnhody thiJi idea hi a system. The idea stands for something quite different in different sections of the country, and will till it materializes in a system. The idea can rest upon sentiment ; the system cannot. Beneath the latter there must be an American philosophy based upon facts in American life. The principles crystallized by this philosophy, in order to be effective in the development of a system, must be practically axiomatic, so clear and forcible that they can be seen and felt by our citizens regardless of culture or preju- dice. Statistics without brains cumber the ground, but with brains they fertilize American life as they do the life of no other nation. Except for convenience for ready reference and verification, he who collects and publishes brainless statistics is of little service to mankind; while he who furnishes thought-inspiring statistics is one of the benefactors of the nation. It must be understood that the question under discussion is not that of sta- tistics for ready reference, but rather of statistics as the basis of legislative or official action. The great question as it appears on the program of the De- partment says, *' School Statistics as the Basis of Action." The evident in- tent of the question is, " Statistics as the Basis of Legislative or Official School Action." Statisties for convenience are valuable in their way, and the States and the Nation can well afford with our flowing treasuries to furnish such in- formation as every editor, author, and publisher needs for the sending out of advertising material, verifying lists of names, etc. But these are of no avail as a basis of legislative action. The records needed for such action are quit* other than school statistics. I^egislative educational action in this country needs to be influenced by both absolute and relative facts and figures. The argument for such actions must be based upon a philosophy which rests upon the easily demonstrated necessities of the people industrially, socially, and morally. There is greater need of studying the homes from which school children come, and the condition of these children out of school, than of the mere facts that so many children in a State attend school, and that such per- centage can neither read nor write. If there is any nonsense greater than all other senseless things, it is the basing of legislative action, State or National, upon the number of peoj)le who can or cannot read or write. The educa- tion involved in being able to write one's own name, or read a few sentences, is of no great intellectual, industrial, or moral advantage. A very general inability to do either, indicates an absence of all that may be attained through reading and writing; but the ability to do these things of itself signifies little. Colonel Carroll D. Wright, Commissioner of Labor, has revolutionized in Massachusetts and is revolutionizing in the United States the whole statistical system. He places almost no dependence upon wholesale figures, but sends experts into a city like Fall River to learn precisely what the j^eople eat, drink. DISCUSSION. 387 and wear; how they live and sleep; what they say and do. From their reports he philosophizes skillfully upon what is harmful in the present condi- tions, and what would be beneficial in changed conditions. He has alniont never made a suggestion, based u]X)n such investigation, that hv^ not met with universal popular approval and been s|)eedily embodied in legislative action. His statistics are always focused by the intellect He never collects figures or makes investigations to prove a theory ; never allows himself to express an opinion upon any subject till an expert investigation has been made. His instructions are to go to the bottom, regardless of the bearing of the figures secured, and in every case by the time bottom facts are reached the philosophy has developed itself. Intellect focused in exjKjrt special statis- tics will work out its own philosophy every time. The trouble with educators thus far has been that they have generally started with theories. We have more theories to the square inch than any other class in the community. We thn)W out our banner, commit ourselves to our idea, and then pick up such and so many statistics as will enable us to make a skillful argument. The result is that no class in the community is so powerless to secure desired professional legislation. It is so evident that he who runs may read, that teachers, superintendents, and boards of education are not influential with Congress, and only when the individual is something other than an educator does he run with State Legislatures, when it is for any- one's interest to oppose the desired legislation. In conclusion : The statistics needed relate, first, to the effect upon the home, industrial, social, and moral life of a community of the absence of such privileges ; the neglect of such privileges ; and the withdrawal from school of children at different ages. Second : Of the home, industrial, social, and moral effect of mere ability to read, write, and cipher crudely ; of thorough instruction and training between the years of seven and fourteen ; of the most skillful kindergarten training ; of high-school education ; of conservative methods along the old lines ; of modem methods; of school support by local taxation; wholly by State taxa- tion ; partly by State taxation. Thirdly: Incidentally there needs to be a study of all these influences upon the temperance, divorce, insane, and labor problems. These statistics need not be, should not be universal, but rather a complete, vigorous, expert study of specific localities. What Colonel Wright has done by singling out representative centers, and studying every conceivable detail of the life in those places, should be repeated in statistical researches and in- vestigations for the working out of a philosophy upon which to base an em- bodiment of the American school idea in a system. L. R. Klemm, of Cincinnati: Though a centralized school government like that of France or Prussia, which rules within a compass of enormous extent, from principles of education down to the number of verses to be mem- orized and recited, may at times be the dream of ultra nationalists, it is to be 388 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. hoped that, as heretofore, education will in this country remain a matter of State concern, for very obvious reasons, chief among which is the healthy competition it engenders among the different States. But in one point cen- tralization, or, to be more specific, uniformity, is devoutly to be wished. The statistics of public and private education of all the States should be available to the nation and to the whole world. This is not the case, owing to the want of uniformity ; and that want is owing to the want of stability in the office of the inspectors and supervisors, to use generic terms. Every new officer thinks he must improve upon the methods employed by his predecessor. The speaker who so ably introduced the subject of statistics has urged upon you, gentle- men, his conviction that without proper statistics the law-making branch of our Government can only act by fits and starts. He has also stated what in his opinion should be recorded, and how the statistics should be collected. Permit me to add a suggestion concerning the way they should be presented. I have recently dived into statistics more than was good for my night's rest, and sometimes I was on the point of denouncing school statistics as a sham and a fraud, until I came to the millions in footing up. Then, and not till then, I saw the truth of the remark of Prof. Engel, the great Russian statisti- cian, namely, that "Statistics is the science of large numbers, and of those only." The smaller the numbers the more erroneous the conclusions to which they lead. For instance, a small school system in a well-regulated country town of 15,000 inhabitants shows 200 high-school pupils, and a city of 300,- 000 inhabitants only 1,350 (whereas it should have 4,000, at the ratio of 200 to 15,000) : it would seem as though either the small town was a veritable Mecca of education and the big town a depraved hole, or the conditions for admission to the high school are too stringent in the city and too lenient in the country town. But, whatever the causes,' it will not do to compare the two. When, however, you find among 12,000,000 pupils in the United States 3 per cent, between 14 and 20 years, while in Prussia, among 5,500,000 pupils, only 1.25 per cent, of the same age, that is, attending secondary schools, then you are ready to argue, for then you have a firm basis of comparison. Hence my desire for uniformity in taking statistics, and the further desire for central- izing the efforts in behalf of statistics. While I willingly grant that our National Bureau of Education has fur- nished us, and the world, with statistical material most valuable for legisla- tion or quiet study, it has hitherto refrained from working this raw material up into comparative statistics, which might be of much more value. The Bureau has accomplished an immense work; it has done what not even a centralized government, such as Prussia, has been able to do. Despite all odds, despite opposition high and low, despite the indolence of superintendents, and disinclination of Congress, it has gathered up the facts, and by means of skillful estimates has filled out hiatuses, so that its annual reports are modeb^ of diligent, faithful bureau-work. But it seems to me a time has come when the gathered facts might be brought to a focus, so as to enable us to compare DISCUSSION. 389 ours with those of other nations. How that is to be done I am unable to say, for want of time. One thing I will say, though : the long rows of figures, which are so repellent to the average reader, should be accompanied by graphic presentations. Don't, please, tell me what a mathematical genius said to me the other day : "Sir, all graphic presentation of statistics is a sop for the ignorant — for the great body of the unwashed." In a democratic country we must make an impression upon the majority, and if that majority is ignorant, we must fashion our means accordingly. This is a period where all works of reference, dic- tionaries, cyclopedias, histories, even magazines, have brought the art of pictorial illustration to its highest point. Webster and Worcester have alike adopted it, and statistical reports are to be works of reference. I only need to mention Edward Atkinson. Why is he so successful in his work ? Be- cause he resorts to colored charts, curves, and diagrams. His works make an impression — and that is exactly what we must do. I present to your thought- ful consideration a few modes of presenting statistical facts, which do not lay claim to perfection.* They are simply i*oine modes of presenting facts. It was fourteen years ago that I presented for the Philadelphia Exposition some charts of the school statistics of Cleveland, Ohio. These graphic charts were copied by the Frenchmen. In this country they were not copied. Though our American school statistics are incomparably more minute than European (in fact, too minute), and are offered — your grumbling about the tardiness of the Bureau of Education, gentlemen, notwithstanding — a year in advance of those of any of the great nations of Europe, I say while I ad- mit all that, there is one vital omission in them. They fail to state what schools are graded. I take a lesson from the big volume recently issued by the famous statistical bureau of Berlin, in which the schools are thus classified : (1 ) schools with one teacher — ungraded ; (2 ) schools with two or three teachers — partially graded; (3) schools with four or more teachers — entirely graded. I do not discuss the value of grading, gentlemen ; I only call for a statement of facts, and that seems to me as simple a way of stating the facts as can well be found. While the paper read before emphasized wimt facU should be collected, I thought it due the subject of the day to mention the manner in which they might best be presented. John Hancock inquired of Superintendent Dick whether he regarded the fact that the statistics of certain States showed a falling-off in the number of school districts as reflecting on educational progress in those States. For his own part, he should be glad to be able to report next year a falling-off of one thousand in the number of districts in Ohio, and that this might continue for several years. In Ohio there are many districts that do not average ten pupils in daily attendance, and in some the average is not more than four or five. *The speaker exhibited fieyeral colored charts. —26 390 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. For such districts it is almost impossible to obtain good teachers, and among- their pupils there can be no enthusiasm nor life. In fact, the money expended upon them is largely thrown away. He was sure, therefore, that the number of schools in his State could be greatly decreased with advantage to the sj's- tem of schools therein. J. H. HoosE : I wish to emphasize the suggestion that was made about a digest of the detailed matter that reaches the Bureau. If all this educational material can be summarized, under the direction of the Commissioner, the digest will be of incalculable value to the normal schools of the United States. It will enable these schools to inform their students of the tendencies of educational progress as no other course will, for the summary will be the history of the day. S. A. Ellis, of Rochester, N. Y. : I think the superintendents present will agree with me that no more important question than the one now under dis- cussion will come before this meeting. It is a commonly accepted notion, I know, that statistics are dry and uninteresting. The uncommon interest shown in this discussion, however, wholly disproves such an idea. If we are to have what it is claimed we have not yet attained to, a dis- tinctly American system of public schools, there must be, first of all, a body of reliable and trustworthy statistics as the basis of legislative action in the different States of the Union. No superintendent who has had occasion to go in search of reliable school statistics but has bewailed the absence, to a greater or less extent, of what he sought. Much, it will be conceded, has already been done in different States and cities of the country, and particularly by the Bureau of Education, toward providing such statistics as is contemplated in the paper just read. The large body of statistics given us in the annual reports of the Commissioner of Ed- ucation, incomplete in some respects as it will be admitted they are, and inac- curate in some particulars aa Superintendent Dick has proved them to be, is nevertheless a lasting monument to the self-sacrificing labor and untiring en- ergy of the first Commissioner of Education, Gen. Eaton. To the Bureau of Education, it seems to me, we must look for the correction and completion of these statistics. Fortunately, the President has put at the head of that Bureau one of the first educators of this land, or of all lands ; a man whom we delight to honor. Now let the Bureau be furnished with ample means by Congress, and none of us doubts for a moment but Dr. Harris will give us all that could be desired in the way of reliable statistics as the "basis for legisla- tive action." H. A. Wise, of Baltimore: It is impossible to see how statistics proposed by the Bureau of Education can furnish data for the legislation of the Gren- eral Government in regard to schools, in so much as it has nothing to do with legislating for the schools under State control. THE AMERICAN EDUCATIONAL EXHIBIT OF 1892. 391 If the statistics furnished in the report of the Commissioner of Education have been incomplete because many of the blank forms sent out by the Bu- reau to superintendents and others of the country have not been filled up and returned as requested, how can any change in the form of the report to be made to the Bureau mend the matter ? The form sent from the Bureau, it «rinciples are applied in practice by the teachere. The showing of results in the pupils can be only partial and imperfect ; they are indices rather than conclusive tests. L A school or system of schools should be exhibited by a brief and com- prehensive statement of the purposes of the school, and how it \& sought to realize these purposes ; and by a description of the results in the individuals and in the mass of pupils. For example, the Worcester Polytechnic Insti- tute has worked on a certain line for twenty years. That line can be easily and definitely marked out. The tests applied to students while in the school and the kind of work they have to do, and the tests at graduation, may be shown. To this may be added the statistics of the work these students have done in the larger field of life ; for the facts have been collected. To this may be added an exposition of material showing the work done in the school, in drawing, in theses on the various topias of study, in the work of the ma- cliine-shop, the product of the lathe, and the constructions in wood. But these last, though the most striking to display, would be of very slight value as showing the real progress of the school. The best display of this kind might come from the poorest school. From any shop, indeed, where skilled workmen are employed, a better product might be shown than the best school could produce. A journeyman might do this kind of work ; the school aims rather, or should aim, at directive jwwer in the students, rather than at these material results. 398 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. In kind, though not in degree, a similar statement of purposes and results may be made for any institution or system of schools. II. Scholars* work may be shown in the exposition of a school ; but this is^ open to such variations in practice that its value, for comparison between dif- ferent schools and different systems, is very little. If pupils* work an draw- ing is to be shown, then the question is open whether it is the work of all the members of a class, or of only a few of the best ; whether the copy is the first draught, or the best from numerous trials ; whether it is the unaided work of the pupil, or done with the teacher's assistance ; and whether the particular class is the best in the city, or an average class; and lastly, whether the terms of the competition have been strictly complied with. The ambition to make a good showing is a severe strain upon the honesty of people generally ; and not all teachers are wholly exempt. If test exercises to show the ability of pupils are written, the questions submitted or the work to be done should first be stated, and then the unaided work of all the pupils, good and bad, should appear. Failures and errors galore will be seen ; they are inevitable in men's work of all sorts, and they are to be expected in that of children. If they do not appear, then the inference is inevitable, either that the exercise has been anticipated and prepared for — cut and dried — or else that the work of the pupils has been corrected and rewritten. In the Centennial exhibit of 1876, much of the pupils' work bore evidence of having been "doctored" in one or the other of these two ways. The most genuine was the best, though having many errors. For this kind of display the work of the grade of school should be set forth ; the age of the pupils, individually, should be given ; and the exercises sub- mitted to the class should be described. And a written statement should be signed by the teacher that the exercise displayed is the unaided work of the pupils ; the first draft ; and that there had been no previous drill upon the particular exercise. The teacher should expect that after the work is sub- mitted, the same pupils might be required to perform a similar exercise, under like conditions, prepared by some disinterested party. No pupils' work should be displayed which is not, without a i)eradventure, the result of their own unaided effort. If the work is, and purjwrts to be, the best work of the best pupil in the best class with all the aids that can be had, then, though honest, it would have but little value, except in such an exercise, for example, as penmanship or drawing from a copy. III. Theses, or original compositions, are another feature of school-work that is capable of exhibition. But the opportunity for outside assistance in this exercise is so great, that such displays have but little value. The only test of a pupil in this respect, is a series of exercises under the same teacher, who can thus become as familiar with the literary style as with the face of his pupil. Similar to this test is the display of botanical or mineralogical specimens, THE AMEBIC AN EDUCATIONAL EXHIBIT OF 1892, 399 their naming and classification by pupils. These and other like exhibits, as jihowing an interest in the study, are quite usefnl. IV. The last kind of display which I will mention is the product of tool- work in technical schools, industrial schools, and special schools. As showing ^kill, this, kind of work stands on a par with any other shop-work. To the nuiltitude of spectators it Is indeed the most fascinating and attractive. There i^ a charm about machinery and the product of sho[)8, which is strong in pro- |H»rtion to its novelty to the spectator; and the things which can be seen and handled are far easier to contemplate by the average American citizen who n^ams about an exhibition building, than are any of the more occult evidences of mental growth and progress. But though these displays are thus useAil and interesting, it should be understood that they are not by any means the be^ product of school-work, even of the schools in which this kind of work is done. The product of the school is in the increased capacity of its pupils ; and this is not surely indicated even by the things which these pupils have niade ; the pupil who has made the most progress may not have constructed the best object for display. V. The obvious display of school appliances — apparatus, globes, maps, text-hooks — I leave others to describe. Improvements in the tools for school- work have been many ; and they are easily exhibited. By the enterprise of publishers, the improvements in school-books have advanced common-school education and educational methods greatly for the last fifty years. Furni- ture, school-houses, the means of heating, ventilation, and sanitation, and the control of light, have advanced greatly within ten years. And all this will make a valuable part of the exposition. This part of the subject will be treated by others. WOBCXSTXB, MA88. BY AARON GOVE. So far as I know, no adequate general exhibition of the condition of edu- cational efforts and results of our country has been made. I am not sure that any exposition can be made to approach such complete- ness that the investigator, having spent the requisite time, may retire with assurance that the whole field has been sur\^eyed. Instruction, not entertain- ment, is the purpose of the enterprise. The object of tlie coming exposition will be to enable ourselves and our visitors to leani of the application and ^cope of the educational (using the word in its limited sense) facilities of the American people with the smallest output of investigating force. The preparation for such an exposition requires time ; two years is quite too little, and will suflfice for excellent results only when accompanied by carefiilly- matured and well-executed plans. In reviewing the reports of the educational exhibits at Vienna in 1878, and at Paris in 1878, one finds how meager and discouraging was the display. The late Dr. Philbrick, to whose execution, supported and encouraged by 400 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, Commissioner Eaton, we owe what we gained at Paris, emphasized the loesj* and embarraasment caused by delay in preparation, and consequent delay in execution. I have often heard Dr. Philbrick urge his friends to assist in be- ginning in time any similar enterprise that might be undertaken in this coun- try. Our own Centennial was to our profession not satisfactorily complete. I therefore congratulate this department upon its prompt attention to the great closing enterprise of the century. The great mass of schooling occurs in this country between the ages of *> and 21 years. I submit the following scheme : The main exhibit to be divided into groups made upon the ba«is of time in the pupil's life. 1st. 3 to 5 years of age, Kindergarten. 2d. 6 to . 9 ^ " " Primary. 3d. 10 to 13 " " Grammar or Intermediate. 4th. 14 to 17 " " High or Preparatory. 5th. 18 to 21 " " College or Professional. In each department to be gathered and arranged all instruments, apparatus, books, manuscripts, school-house plans, and other accessories, including furui- ture, and every aid used by the schools of this country, either public, privat<\ or church, pertaining to that period in the school life of the pupil. This would in some instances compel the duplication of a small part of the exhibit, but with ample space at hand, no serious objection could obtain to the dupli- cating. For many minds, the consideration of a short term of four years taken as a unit of observation, presented in compact form without relation to other })eriods in the pupil's life, is within easy grasp; besides, such a classification would enable the student to concentrate at once his study upon that part of the exhibit in which he may be especially interested, and not force him to select his material from a common mass arranged upon the customary b&^L«. While this scheme disposes of the body of pupils and students in our schools, there yet remain important educational forces and demands that must form a very considerable part of the exhibit. The professional schools, including Law, Theology, Medicine, and Pedagog}*, with their various imjwrtant subdivisions, should be assigned a distinct and l)rominent place, and the material of the professions be displayed always in connection with the subject under immediate consideration. The schools for the unfortunate, including those for the mute, blind, and feeble-minded, to have projier attention under able expert supervision. Libraries and museums, other important factors in education, to have ample J )ro vision. Representations of the indujftrial features of our education, includini: mechanic-art schools, tra^les schools, and such technical instruction as cannot properly be classified under the fourth or fifth heads, or from the ages of four- teen to twenty-one years, to be grouped in an apartment where applied jwwer THE AMERICAN EDUCATIONAL EXHIBIT OF 1892, 401 is abundant and convenient, and where students shall be regularly and illus- tratively at work. The educational exhibit from foreign countries to be each in its own sepa- rate space, but classified as has been indicated as to time in school life, separated ^m other exhibits from the same country that are not educational. The executive department for the enterprise to be something like the fol- lowing : 1 . One general manager. 2. One first assistant (to provide for casualty). 3. Five expert professional school-masters to take charge of the five divi- sions named. I would have these appointees, men or women, of ripe age, established executive ability, with a life behind them of active participation in that line of school-work, the exhibit of which they are called to superN'ise. 4. One supervisor for the professions. 5- One for the blind, mute, and feeble-minded. 6. One for museums and libraries. 7. One for the industrial department. 8. One for the foreign exhibits, each of which to be in direct charge of a representative from the country whence the exhibit comes. This gives an executive board of twelve, with one director. I would have the organization military, and the government absolute in the general manager. I would have these officers appointed at once and enter upon their duties immediately after the general organization of the grand Exposition proper, and devote their time continuously until the close of the Exposition to the respective interests they consent to serve. It being understood that each member of the board shall, without interference, name his assistant^. I would have the educational building separate and apart from all othei*?, and permit no strictly educational material to be displayed, as at Philadel- phia, in connection with industrial or other matter. Objections to this plan occur to me, replies to which I am not permitted time to make here, while some occur to which I have no competent reply. I trust that with the presentation of this and other papers on the same subject to the department, opportunity will be given for the several authors and other members further to elaborate a plan which the educational men of the coun- try can proceed at once to execute. DzNTKB, Colo. BY E. E. HIGBEE.* Some German philosopher has, with thoughtfril brevity, divided the estates of a commonwealth into the Nahr-stand ( having to do with production), the Wehr-staiid (having to do with protection), and the Lehr-stand (having to do with education). This last is at least coordinate in importance with the others; and no proper exhibit of the character and resources of a people is •Written by Dr. Hlgbee on Monday, Dec. 9, 18»9, the day before he was suddenly stricken with par- alysis. He died Dec. 18, 1889. It was his last work In his office. 402 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. possible without taking this into consideration, for it is perhaps the most sig- nificant exponent of the character of a people's civilization. Therefore, if there is to be an exhibit of what this country now is, four hundred years aft^r its discovery by Columbus, the state of its whole educational work must be brought into as full and clear vision as possible. The suggestions herein made refer exclusively to the contemplated exhibit of the public schools of the country, including, of course, the State normal schools. No doubt our colleges and professional schools of every characti)eaii countries during the past twenty years. I venture to suggest in this connection, that the admirable Rapport sur U Iiistrud,ion Primaire a V Exposition Uni- verselle de PhihideJphie en 1876, by M. Buisson, and the Special Report on the Educational Exhibit at Philadelphia^ in 1876, made by Dr. Hodgins to the Minister of Education, Ontario, will be found invaluable for the informa- tion and discussions they contain upon nearly all the questions that will be raised at the present time. 1. An educational exhibit should be directed to setting forth everything pertaining to the organization, administration, and instruction of the school system represented. In the present instance the first question to be decided is, whether the exhibit should aim to represent in unified form the general features of the public education of the entire country, the educational system of the States as units, or whether each locality, that is to say, city, town, or county, should be permitted to present its own features independently. The first of these plans would of course be the most desirable, but the lack of any national direction of public education renders it impossible. The second plan, in some cases, could be practically realized. But it seems to me, from past experience in connection with American and European exhibitions, that the best way to interest school officers and teachers, and secure a full representa- THE AMERICAN EDl'CATIONAL EXHIBIT OF 1892. 407 tion of all the features of our public education, would be to leave each locality free to present independently the work done in its schools. 2. It is to be understomf, however, that a general scheme for the Educational Department of the exhibition should be formulated by some authoritative body. If the Department of Sujierintendence in connection with the Bureau of Education could come to some agreement on the subject, the plan adopted would have a national character, and could be made authoritative in organ- izing and directing the exhibit. 3. The direction of the Educational Department should he thoroughly or- ganized. The United States Commissioner of Education should be made the chief, and an executive board, made up of representatives, from all the States and Territories, might be selected to c()6[)erate with him in carrying into effect the authorized plan of the exhibit. 4. There are three ways in which the exhibit could be arranged: (1) The grouping of the exhibit under the several branches of instruction, regardless of locality. (2) The arrangement of the exhibit by localities, upon the general plan liiid down by the board of dirt»ction. (8) It is possible, however, to combine these two schemes in such a way as to display in one systematic view the character and quality of the work done in each department of instruction throughout the entire country. 5. Graphic and tabular statements of such features of public education as can be presented in this form is the best way to secure attention and furnish the information most desired. These statements should be in the form of wall-charts, and it is very desirable that they should be constructed upon some general plan authorized by the direction of the exhibit. I desire to emphasize the importance of these wall exhibits. While teachers and school officers will be interested in, and take pains to examine, the work contained in bound volumes and portfolios, the great mass of visitors will get their im- pressions from what is displayed upon the walls. (>. It would be very desirable also if summaries of information respecting American education could be printed in pamphlet form for general distribu- tion, as follows: (1) By the Bureau of Education, for the nation at large; (2) by each of the separate States; (3) by the larger cities. 7. The most imjwrtant, and the most difficult, part of the exhibit to deal with will be that relating to pupils' work. This should be organized in ac- cordance with some uniform plan, and pains should be taken to make it a perfectly fair exhibit of the work actually done in the schools. For large centers of population, anything more than a selective exhibit would very likely be impossible. In every case, however, a certificate should be required stating just what the exhibit of a class or school covers — whether it contains all the branches of instruction, and the work of all the pupils, or represents a selection of either. The display of pupils' work will appear in various forms: (1) Written examinations, classified by subjects and grades, in 408 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. bound volumes and portfolios ; ( 2 ) Framed or mounted wall exhibits ; e, 7., •drawing, penmanship, charts, etc.; (8) Hand-work (paper-cutting, card- board work), clay-modeling, wood-work (cutting, lilting and carving), sewing. 8. The exhibit of pupils* work should be classified as follows : (1) Kindergartens. (2) Elementary (primary and grammar) schools. ( 8 ) Secondary ( high ) schools. ( 4 ) Normal schools. (5) Manual-training schools. The following facts should also he set forth relative to the pupils whose work is exhibited : ( 1 ) Number and sex of pupils in the respective grades represented, ( 2 ) Number and sex of pupils examined. ( 3 ) Average age of pupils examined. ( 4) Number of months pupils have been in the classes represented. 9. It is very important that the work of every kind now done in the school? should be fully brought out. This implies the utmost liberality in exhibiting even tendencies which are seeking for recognition, as educational reforms. There are some new and special features of public-school work which should not be omitted, viz. : models of the kindergarten, the school kitchen, and the manual-training laboratory ; and these could be included under the general plan, or arranged separately. 10. The external features of the school system should be represented by models, pictures and photographs of school buildings, architectural plans and projections, views of the interior of school-rooms, and of pupils engaged in the various kinds of school work. 11. The hbtorical aspects of American education, if properly presented, would prove a most interesting and instructive feature of the exhibit School- rooms could be fitted up to represent the arrangements for public-school edu- cation at successive periods in the history of the country. For example, the school-room of to-day should be exhibited with the most advanced plans of constniction and arrangement, and a complete outfit of furniture, blackboard?^, maps, charts, globes, pictures, and every kind of apparatus and appliance in use in the best schools. 12. A feature of educational exhibitions which is always attractive, and capable of yielding important instruction, is the presentation of cla.sses at work. This, of course, is impossible upon any extended scale, but there are certain features, which can be practically shown better in this way than in any other. These are the kindergarten, and some forms of art, manual and in- dustrial training which have now become established in the public-school syv«r tem. If a certain day in each week were set apart for the exhibition of classes at work, information concerning these kinds of school-training and instruc- tion could be furnished in the most satisfactory form. The kindergarten which was conducted as a part of the educational exhibit at the Centennial THE AMERICAN EDUCATIONAL EXHIBIT OF 1S92, 409 Exhibition in Philadelphia, in 187H, was largely instrumental in promoting an interest in kindergarten training and securing the establishment of kinder- gartens throughout the countr}\ 13. The more important descriptive signs and labels should be printed in at least French, German, and Italian, besides English. 14. The exhibits of private sch(K)ls of every kind would, of course, be or- ganized u[)on the same general plan as that of the public schools ; but these should be kept separate from the public-school exhibit. 15. x\mple provision should l)e made for the exhibition of text-books, schix>l appliances and apparatus, and school furniture produced in the United States. 16. I have confined myself above to outlining a scheme for an exhibit of the public schools, supposing that the Department of Superintendence would give special attention to that question. The scheme for the exhibit, however, j»hould make fiiU provision for presenting the other features and de{)artments of education in the United States, viz.: Colleges and universities, })rofes- sional, technical, and commercial schools, academies, schools for the blind, for deaf-mutes, for weak-minded children, and reformatory schools. Institutions such as the New York College for the Training of Teachers, the Pratt Insti- tute, and the Cooper Union, should be allowed opportunity for exhibiting their special character, objects, and results. The plan of exhibiting schools of this kind is, however, a much sim[)ler problem, and more easily provided for. They should be arranged in groups, and each institution should l>e left free to make its own exhibit in confonnity with the general scheme prescribed. 17. The Bureau of Education should make a full exhibit of its functions, history, administration, publications, and collections. 18. A full display of the educational literature of the United States (con- fined to original works and translations produced in this country) should be made. This would exclude text-books, which would form a separate group, but would include works in every department of pedagogy, periodicals (both past and present), reports, documents, etc. 19. The United States has made great progress in art education since 1876. In addition to the display of the work done in the elementary, secondary and technical schools, an effort should be made to secure a full exhibit of the organization, methods and results of the schools devoted to the higher forms of professional art instruction which have become so important an element in the culture of the American peo})le. These should form a separate group, 20. It would prove highly instructive if a systematic presentation of the public libraries, museums and art galleries, regarded as educational institu- tions, could be made in the educational department. These institutions will uo doubt be represented in some fonn in the other department^, but if a gen- eral conspectujs of them were made in an appropriate form, upon a large scale, as a part of the educational exhibit, great influence might be exerted in call- *i^g attention to their importance and promoting their multiplication as edu- cational aofencies. 410 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION 21. Every effort should be made to bring all the educational exhibit^ together under one comprehensive scheme. If the plan adopted is large and liberal enough, there need be no difficulty in accomplishing this end. The education of the United States, from the primary school to the univerpity and professional school, should be presented as a whole, uniting many diversifieeals to the eye; and what can we present of the teacher's influence upon the mind, the heart, the character of the child, that which i^ THE AMEBICAN EDUCATIONAL EXHIBIT OF 1S92. 411 the distingui.«(liing difference between the successful and the unsuccessful teacher ? We can present specimens of })enmanship, of drawing, of graphic illustra* tion in the various branches of study, and we can send in written examination pa})era upon the different subjects taught, and show creditable result* ; but as a presentation showing in what manner the work was done, how the results were obtained, and what the work has done for the pupils' growth and char- acter, what is it all worth ? But in a world's exposition the schools are not to be left out. What de- partment can be nearer and dearer to the heart of all who are interested in the welfare and progress of mankind than that which pertains to the right ed- ucation and real advancement of our children in the ways of intelligence, honesty, honor, and efficiency ? First comes the graphic, the drawing, which should have a fair show in its various phases of technical, illustration, construction, free-hand and mechan- ical drawing. A selection fmm written answers to questions in the different branches of study may be offered. Exhibits of mechanical work, where such is done, will ever awaken inter- est, and from the suggestions of these exhibits may fairly be inferred the general quality of our school work ; but there is still wanting the correct pre- sentation of the purpose and plan of the school's end and aim. But, perhaps, before the World's Fair shall materialize, the phonograph in its perfection may enable us to present to the eager sjwctator, or listener, the grave, wise tones of the superintendent, the inspiring notes of the teacher, and the babble of the babies gradually expanding in the higher grades into pleas- ing speech and thoughtful utterances. The enthusiast, too, may present the jack-plane in its influence on morals, and the work of the blacksmith's hammer in promoting keenness of intellect and ready wit. In short, he may give the seeking and admiring visitors an exhibit in wood and stone of all the visible elements of the coming millennium. Chioaoo, 111. BY C. W. BARDEEN. The chief criticism I should pass upon the exhibit of education at the late Paris Exposition would be that there wasn't any. Glimpses of education there were here and there, hints of some of its departments. But exhibit, in the sense that wine-making and watch-making and the uses of electricity were exhibited, there was none. Contrast, for instance, the treatment of art. As one entered the Champ de Mars he saw on the left the Palace of Art, on the right the Palace of Liberal Arts. If he entered the former he could walk for miles between rows of pictures and statues. If he entered the latter he found that the department of technical education soon ran into surgical in- struments ; the bound volumes that represented the work of the French schools soon developed into stationery and book-making and photography. When he 412 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. finally allowed himself to be persuaded that the American display could he so far isolated from the rest as he was told, he made his way by a stylographic pen and a Russian cure for deafness into a gallery beyond the piano hall, where a few charts on the wall, a few books on shelves near the floor, and a dark little corner-room marked " Boston," comprised the exhibit. I speak, of course, as an outsider. Your Hoyts and Chamberlsuns and Harrises, like pedagogical Agassizes, may be able from a page in a little girl's copy-book to evolve a whole municipal system crowned by a superintendent in a silk hat. But I speak for the crowd that goes to exhibitions to be enter- tained, and that remembers the Eiffel tower because it is taller than anything else. We are not going to spend our time poring over collections of children's exercises, to look through which at Philadelphia Dr. Gregory says would have taken eight years. If anything gets our attention it will be because we can't help ourselves; because it stands out bold and prominent, so that he who walks by will have to read. It is not a high standard of investigation, but it is the standard that will prevail among nineteen-twentieths of all that visit a world's fair. And I suppose it is because I do represent these outsiders that I am admitted to this conference, a single Philistine among professionals. As a Philistine, then, the first point I make is that the exhibit should BE COLLECTIVE. There is nothing original in this suggestion: it has been the aim in planning all the great world's fairs. But I want to emphasize that the difl[iculties which have hitherto been allowed to prevent a collective exhibit should be foreseen and obviated. Bound volumes of pupils' work here, statistical maps there, photographs and models scattered through the various local exhibits, will get no attention at all from the crowd, and will make comparison difficult and imperfect among students. In this matter of the assembling of exhibits, progress seems to have been backward. Commissioner Hoyt thought in 1867, that " the group itself could have no definite assignment of space, owing to the diverse nature of the objects exhibited." But in 1878, Austria, Germany and Sweden assembled their exhibits in buildings constructed for the purpose, and though the United States did not carry out its original plan of showing its entire educational exhibit in the school-house it erected, it was because of the tardiness and meagemess of the Government appropriation. At Philadelphia we all remem- ber how scattered the exhibits of the different States and countries were, but as a rule the educational exhibits of each were together. It was some dis- tance from the exhibit of Pennsylvania to that of Massachusetts, but we could sec the whole of either in one place. In 1878, the United States exhibit was assembled, but in such restricted space that not a tenth of the maps and charts were unrolled. Last year not even the French exhibit was continuous, the model school-house being a good two miles from the Palace of Liberal Arts. A fairly rej)resentative exhibit of education at Paris, last year — an exhibit that compared, for instance, with that of dwellings and domestic life, would THE AMEBIC AN EDUCATIONAL EXHIBIT OF 1892. 413 have occupied the entire northern half of the Palace of Liberal Arts. And by education I mean in this ease ** the organized system of instruction in the different countries of the world"* — not anthropology, not theatrical customs, not musical instruments. I am not even particularly concerned about s})eoial education, as of the deaf and blind. Institutions for the latter, usually de- pendent on charity or on annual appropriations, are accustomed to display themselves, and are usually ready enough to make an exhibit. But what we have to concern ourselves with is the instruction of public-school children, in primary, grammar and high schools. This alone should have occupied the space I have named at Paris, and I hojKJ corresj^nding provision will l)e made for it in 1892. Now what should be shown? In the first place, not too Mrcii pipii^s' WORK. "Its profusion was rather a defect than a s]3ecial excellence," said Dr. Hodgins,t in reporting the exhibit at Philadelphia. M. Buisson, though he published samples of it in a volume of 508 pages, was of like opinion, say- ing: "It is not easy to form an exact idea of the value of the [pupils'] work shown. . . . The ratio of the number of contestants in proportion to the whole number of pupils in the class constantly varied. Here the ratio was ten per cent., there fifty per cent. ; in Xew Jersey it reached ninety-six per cent, of the pupils of the entire State. In this la^^t case one could only be struck by the general Jeebtenean of the apeciniensy New York State was rep- resented only by Syracuse, and Syracuse only by pupils' work, and this pupils' work the French commission pronounced " very mediocre." J Now there may have been a certain historical advantage in gathering in our Centennial year as complete an exhibit as possible of just what our schol- ars were doing, 14,000 from New Jersey alone. I sincerely hope the same thing will be done in 1976 — and not before. If a man wants me to listen to him, I expect him to talk as well as he can ; if he invites me to dinner, I ex- pect him to give me his best ; if he shows me his library, I exi)ect him to point out his choice volumes — his Webster's Dictionary and Globe edition of Dickens I can take for granted. So when we ask the world to examine the work actually done in our public schools, we want to show them our best work — freely stating that it is our best work, and above the average — but genuine, and our best. For this pur- pose I should like to see shown the complete work of one class in each grade and each system of schools represented, selected by competition, and prepared as recommended by Messrs. Rikoff, Pickard, and Smart, in l87o — but with the additional requirement of a photograph of each such class, with its teacher, at work in its room, the pai)ers so arranged that each pupil can be rec-ognized in the photograph. These interior photographs, as shown in some of the South American ex- '^CommiHBloner J. R. Chumberlaln, 1878, p. 184. + Special report, Toronto, 1877, p. 57. t Rapport 8ur rinntructlon Primalre, Paris, 1878, pp. 336, 341. 414 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. hibits at Paris, gave me a clearer idea of the actual work of the schook than all the rest of the exhibit made. So much, and only so much, for the pupils' regular work. As for the draw- ing and manual-training exhibits, they may be tnisted to occupy a dozen timas the space and the attention that their relative importance demands, and will need to be restricted rather than restrained. But, as one of the British jurors* at Vienna well said, "An educational exhibition is for the most part rather an exhibition of appliances and instru- ments than of accomplished results." Now w'hat are the appliances AXD INSTRUMENTS THAT SHOULD BE SHOWN? Commissioner Hoyt thought the Boston exhibit at Vienna was the most satisfactory from any one city. It comprised the 118 text-books employed; the 108 books of reference, and the 65 pieces of physical apparatus supplied to every school ; independent apparatus, drawing-models, music charts, ter- restrial and celestial globes, wall-maps, twelve specimen school desks, a statis- tical chart, photographic views of school buildings, specimens of clai»-work, and 800 primary slates. To my mind the list he thus catalogues omits the most important element of a city exhibit — a model school-house, such as Washington showed at this same exposition, and afterward at Philadelphia and at Paris. This model of the Franklin school building was made by the city archi- tect, and cost 81,000. The stories could be lifted off, one by one, so that all the interior details could be examined. It stood on a table four feet square ; and with all the pupils' regular work I have mentioned ; with all the text- books used ; with photographs of other school buildings, and, what is more important, with architects' plans and detailed statements of their cost ; and with a large proportion of all else that it is desirable to exhibit, would occupy only sixteen feet of floor space. Now I do not suppose that every city will expend $1,000 upon a model school-house, which to many boards of education would seem a sort of Noah's Ark for bigger children to play with ; though it is possible some of our man- ual-training classes might be comjietent to construct such a model of their own building, and it is doubtful whether they could have a more practical task. But of this I am convinced, that an exhibit of the developed school-building idea of each city and rural section of our country would be as valuable as it would be original. Every superintendent of a growing city is. wrestling with this problem, how to get the most for his money in new buildings. A great many of them are not getting the most for the money. I rode from one to another of his schools, a few years ago, with a superintendent who said with confidence: "Yes, we have worked out a plan of a school-house here that is exactly adapted to our system, and all our new buildings will be put up on this model." It so happened that the very next time a new building was called for a new member of the board insisted uix)n advertising for plans. • Rev. Mr. FuHsell. THE AMERICAN EDVCATIONAL EXHIBIT OF MOJ. 415 The rest absented merely as a matter of form, but the architect of a neighbor- ing city sent in a plan so demonstrably suix^rior that it was adopted and has .since been followed ; and yet it was radically different from the other. Man- ifestly this city would have profited by an interchange of ideas. To quote M. Buisson and the French Commission.* They visited the [)rincipal cities of the country in 1876, and compared the tyj)es of school build- ings. The New York model they disapproved of altogether, the Boston idea was much better, but the Cleveland plan was incontestably the best of all. Now they may have been mistaken. Perhaps the Cleveland plan was not the best, or would not be for another city. But it is to be ol)served that they found there was a developed and recognized plan of school building for each city, that each was radically different from the others, and that the plans could l>e compared only by visiting the three cities. Suppose we could have fhese typical plans of all our cities shown side by side at our next world's fair, the model in each case being an exact represen- tation of an actual building, but accompanied by a pamphlet explaining why each distinctive feature was adopted, and pointing out further improvements which experience had shown to be desirable. Suppose each State sent similar models with similar pamphlets for schools of one, two, three, four, six, eight rooms, the State Superintendent selecting those that represent the most ad- vanced ideas in different sections of the State, something as suggested by General Eaton in 1884.t My word for it, every man that saw such a collec- tion would be amazed to find what diverging lines our school architects are following; and if there be any principles on which school architecture de- pends, some cities and some sections of the country would learn that they are expending a great deal of money unwisely. The fact is, since Dr. Barnard's "School Architecture" of 1844, we have had no published authority of much value. That book, it has been well said, .saved this country millions of dollars by wisely directing its school building. But it gives the experience of fifty years ago, and we have nothing that cor- responds with it for the present time. The lack of distinct and progressive ideas of school architecture is well shown in our New York competitive book of two years ago, where the first- prize $600 school-house has the stove in the comer opposite the windows, lest it should by any chance interrupt the cold draughts. There is only one fact more melancholy than that the State of New York got only this book for its §'^,000, and that is, that the Bureau of Education is going to reprint it. That so much honest effort should have such meager results shows plainly enough what a demand thure is for more light on this subject. In 1867 Commissioner Freese thought America had nothing to learn in school architecture, specifying of our school-houses that "the large windows upon either side and at the end afford an abundance of light." J But in 1873 * Rapport sur rinstructlon Primalre, Parts*, 1878, p. 187. + Circulation of Information, No. 5, pp. 15, 16. ^Report of U. S. Commlxtilonersi, vol. 6. 416 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION it was what he saw at Vienna that converted Superintendent Philbrick to one-side lighting of school-rooms, and that gave him the plans for the Latin High School building. "I reckon/' he said, "that the State of Massachusetts will get paid for the cost of sending me to Vienna a hundred times over, by the benefit derived from the knowledge of the idea of a school-room (Grerman and Swedish) which I brought home with me." In speaking of the exhibit that might be made at the world's fair, I have used the term "models," having in mind that of the Franklin school-house; but it would of course be well if some of the smaller types could be erected near by in full size and equipment, like the Illinois school-house of 18f>7, 32x50x12, for 50 pupils, and at the same exposition the Swedish, 18x24x10; the Prussian, 80x20x10; the Saxon, 28x28x12. At Vienna, the Austrian school-house for GO pupils was complete, with outbuildings and laid-out grounds, costing $7,000, and there was shown also, besides our poor little Massachusetts school-house, the same model of a Swedish building that was afterward ex- hibited at Philadelphia. Several such buildings there should be in 1892. And they should be completely equipj)ed, with furniture, blackboards, ma{>s, globes, apparatus, text-books, copy-books, slates, writing-pads, even the pencils and pens in actual use. M. Buisson complained of the American school-hou^e at Vienna, that its equipment gave little notion of school life. It contained furniture and a harmonium, but the maps and pictures indicated "abundance of pedagogical appliances, rather than a regular method under a definite plan of education."* The equipment of these school-houses should bear the impress of actual use. Take a single point, for instance. The French commissioners at Philadelphia agreed that of all subjects the results in penmanship were the least satisfactor}' in American schools, and attributed it to continued use of slates, instead of pen and ink ( pp. 203, 254, 850). Now let our exhibit show to what extent slates are used, and to what extent they have been discarded ; some cities now using pen ^nd ink from the first. A serious question just now is that of blackboard work. Thousands of pupils will never again know what healthy vision is, because injudicious teachers have required them to copy from the blackboard matter that was actually found in books they had purchased. Let our exhibit show to what extent the blackboard is used. In other words, let the school-house as shown be the school-house just as the pupils enter it in the middle of a term. Whether it is possible to go further, and show actual teaching, is a more difficult que^stion. The French commissioners thought Miss Burritt's kinder- garten work at Philadelphia less a class-exercise than a performance; in fact, that she could not be expected in Fairmount Park, before the frivolous public of the Exposition, to give simple and profitable lessons (p. 217). I am not so sure of this. Children soon become accustomed to new sur- roundings, and it seems to me that a cla^s of children brought in daily, as • Rjipport »iu* rin»ri Prlmalre, Paris, 1875, y. 15. THE AMERICAN EDUCATIONAL EXHIBIT OF 1892. 417 there, from some institution, might be carried through regular claas-work, under a mcee^ion of teachers from different parts of the country. If this is practicable, it would be a feature unequaled in attractiveness. We have all seen a Broadway crowd pass by the elegant shop displays to stop for minutes before a window where some bit of a child was playing with a baby-jumper. In the pitiful little building at Paris which 8er\'ed as the only model school- house — a school-house where you had to go out-doors to get up-stairs — the single school-room was crowded a dozen deep whenever a class-exercise was given. If a building something like that erected by Pennsylvania in Fair- mount Park could be provided with a class-room fitted up in the usual way in the center, and with seats for spectators, rising as they receded on all sides, I think many parents who never entered the building where their own children were instructed would sit for hours to see orphans taught by modem methods. Finally, whatever is shown, let it be thoroughly catalogued. I re- gard this as exceeding important. When I reached Paris in October, last year, the catalogues of the French works on pedagogy exhibited were abso- lutely unattainable. The custodian showed me a single copy they had left, but actually refused a napoleon for it — the highest bribe I ever offered in Europe, and the only one that was ever rejected. I do not think complete catalogues should be free. Those who really want to use them will be willing to pay a small price for them, and will value them more because they have paid for them. But they should be purchasable in any quantity desired, and should give all needed information as to the exhibit. The most satisfactory example I have seen is that of the Belgium display at the London Exposition of Hygiene and of Education in 1884, a little 16mo of 99 pages, that sold for 10 cents. The contents are as follows : I. Introductory. (1) Organization. — ^Constitutional provisions, decrees, etc. (2) Teachers, how certified and paid. (8) Supervisory officers and provisions for inspection. (4) ^^Conseil de Perfectminemeut" (5) Teachers' institutes. (6) Financial provisions. (7) Primary normal schools. (8) Statistics to December, 1883. II. Catalogue. (1) Official reports. A. Health of the school-room. * (2) Plans of school-houses. (8) Heating, ventilation, and lighting. (4) Hygienic and medical service, including the " boite de secours" placed in every primary school. 418 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. (5) Gymnastic photographs and apparatus. (6) Publications on the subject. B. Appliances for instruction. (7) Kindergartens. (8) Primary schools. Furniture, blackboards, busts, portraits, abacus, weights and measures, geometric forms, surveyor s implements, globes, majis, relief-maps, charts, scientific collections by pupils and teachers, skeleton and other zoological illustrations, industrial exhibits by charts and specimens, as of the manufacture of leather, wool, silk, and so on of other industries, including chaiivre, linen, cotton, straw, paper, caoutchouc, beer, sugar, herbariums collected by pupils, agricultural implements, collection of grains and woods, etc., etc. (9) Domestic economy and needlework. (10) Manual training. (11) Means of improvement — associations, institutes, etc. (12) Pedagogical publications. A catalogue like this should accompany each State exhibit ; but besides this there should be distributed gratuitously something pretty enough to be kept, and complete enough to give a fair idea of the exhibit. Indiana's " BirdV- eye View " of 1876 is as near what I have in mind as anything I have ever seen, but I should prefer for each State a uniform manilla card about three inches by six, giving at the top an outline map, showing the location of aU the cities and schools making exhibit, with such uniform statistics as will make comparison of essentials easy, and, besides, some such condensed statement of the school system as Superintendent Smart so admirably prepared for Indiana, a few suggestions as to what parts of the exhibit best illustrate the distinctive features of that State. All this will cost something, both in time and in money, and must he un- dertaken early. But it will be worth while. Imperfect as their representation has been, our schools have been our most creditable showing at all the great exhibitions. The Illinois school-house attracted such favorable attention in 1H67 that an American was made president of the educational jury in 187^^. At Vienna, the educational exhibit took sixty-two per cent, of all the awards given the United States. In 1876, through M. Buisson's report, all educa- tional Europe turned its eyes this way. In 1878 our exhibit stood second in awards only to France, and in 1889 it secured half of all the prizes awarded in its group. Give us in 1893 an exhibit that is adequate, and we shall have something t^ be proud of In fact, it is our strong point for that world's fair. Nobody who visited the Exposition of last year believes that we can equal it in extent or in brilliancy. But by giving education its proper place, we can surpass it in symmetry, and set an example that other nations must follow. Sybagube, N. Y. THE AMEBIC AX EDUCATIONAL EXHIBIT OF 1892. 419 BY C. WELLMAN PARKS. In a paper of the length that this must necessarily be, we cannot hope to discuss thoroughly the organization of such a great event as we expect to make the next exhibition ; but I will try, in a few words, to give some of the ideas that occurred to me in Paris during the past summer. As United States Superintendent of group 2, and as a member of the International Jury of Awards, it was my duty and pleasure to examine quite thoroughly the ed- ucational exhibits made by most of the principal nations of the earth, and by some less important ones that I was surprised to find had made such progress in the matter of popular education. I assume that there will be no other great international exhibition held l)e- fore our own, which we are now considering; so the standard of comparison will be the recent exposition held in Paris in 1889, and we shall be exi)ected to surpass that exposition in variety and in merit as mucii as it has excelled the Paris Exposition of 1878. The question is, the plan by which this can be accomplished in the short time at our disposal ; and a rather difficult one I am afraid the student will find it, for we have not the machinery by means of which the French have built up their great educational exhibition. In France, we find the authority centralized, and in America we find it localized. For the ordinary and prin- cipal purposes of educational direction, I will not say whether our plan is better than theirs, or not ; but I can safely say that we find ourselves at a dis- advantage when, as a nation, we wish to make an exhibition to compare with those of France. According fb my idea, the most important thing that we have to do is to combine these different heads into one harmonious committee under the chair- manship of our very able Commissioner of Education. After such thought as I have given the matter during the last few months, I would suggest that this general committee should consist of the Conunissioner of Education, all of the State superintendents, a county or town superintendent from each State, a professor from one of the incorporated higher educational institutions of each State, and an engineer or director of the working staff. From this general committee should be made up all special committees and educational juries, as well as the lists of officers for the congresses, and the engineer should be a member of all committees having to do with the collec- tion, preparation, installation, care, and disposition of exhibits. I believe that the county and town superintendents and professors should be selected by their fellows in each State, and if it shall become desirable to make such a selection, I shall be pleased to explain a plan by means of which it can be accomplished quickly and at small expense. I am afraid to say anything about it in this paper, because the few words for which there is space might lead to a misunderstanding. If a moment's thought is given the matter, we must see that the proposed committee is made up of the busiest men in the country, and that their regu- 420 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. lar duties are of far greater importance to them than any exhibition can pos- sibly be. This condition of affairs makes them very desirable for originators of plans, and counselors, but it necessitates a staff* to carry out their ideas ; so I have proposed an engineer as a member of the general committee, who should be required to see that the work progresses in a satisfactory manner, and that the ideas of the committees are carried out. I have also said that he should be a member of certain special committees, that time may not be wasted in useless discussion. The meetings of special committees should be so arranged that the engineer can attend all of them and he should be required to do so. If we can solve the problem of organization of the general committee early and satisfactorily, we shall have accomplished much the hardest part of our work, and I urge the necessity of losing no time in this matter. I think that such a committee as I have proposed will be found to repre- sent all of the educational interests of the country, both public and private, and when we remember that we must beg for our exhibits and cannot demand them, we see the necessity of thorough representation. I believe that the following sub-committees should be appointed by the chairman : 1. Committee on classification. 6. Committee on jurors. 2. Committee on finance. 7. Committee on congresses. 3. Committee on building. 8. Committee on excursions. 4. Committee on installation. 9. Committee on disposition of exhibits. 5. Committee on collection of exhibits. 10. Committee on rules and regulations. The committee on classification should do its work as early as possible, as upon the classification depends, to a great extent, the organization of the engineer's staff. I do not favor the classification used by the French in their last exhibition, and feel sure that we are able to improve upon it. The committee on collection should now prepare its plans and determine about how much they will be able to get, and give this information to the committees on installation and building, who can then meet to determine upon the best plan for a building. Upon the shape and arrangement and method of lighting the building depends the ease or difficulty with which the installation will be accomplished, which shows the necessity of the two committees acting together in choosing the plans. For the educational exhibition it is not necessary to have everything on one floor, and four or five can be used to advantage if the stories are not too high, say not more than twelve or thirteen feet, for it is cheaper to run two or three large elevators for six months than to pay for the extra roof and grad- ing, to say nothing about the probability of better ventilation and increased comfort to both visitors and attendants. I should recommend three flooR. I should recommend the erection for this purpose of a shell that can be easily finished into a permanent building for some educational purpose after the close of the exhibition ; and we must remember that there are no months to spare before we begin the preparation of the plans of this structure. THE AMERICAN EDVCATIOyAL EXHIBIT OF 1892, 421 The engineer should soon have the force well at work in pushing the build- ing and in arranging for exhibits ; and it is a fact that the number of good exhibitors will not depend upon the number of circulars sent out, but upon the personal work of the staff. We have two years in which to collect the exhibits, and that is sufficient, if properly employed, to produce the best edu- cational exhibition that the world has ever seen ; at the same time, we have no time to spare if we wish to have the exhibition open by May, 1893. The tendency in exhibitions is to show a few samples of the work of the best scholars of the school, without gi\'ing any information. The necessity of in- formation should be impressed upon the exhibitors, for without it the people and jurors cannot judge properly. An exhibit would be of more value if all the work of, say, ten scholars for two years could be shown ; and I think that this can be done if we start now to prepare the work, and appropriate some money for cash premiums to be given to those who comply with the require- ments to the greatest extent and send the best work. If the engineer has been working steadily, by the Ist of April, 1893, there will be a building ready for installation, and enough good material at hand to fill every square inch of space ; and it will then be time for the committee on installation to do their thankless task of inspecting the exhibits and allot- ting space, and I would urge the necessity of seeing each exhibit before it is given a space. All of our text-book publishers, educational journals and manufacturers of educational aids should exhibit, as well as the manufacturers of heating and ventilating apparatus, furniture and supplies. Our universities should fit up rooms representative of the various labora- tories of the institutions, and the industrial schools should arrange working- models of their shops. The committee on jurors has a chance to do some good work in making up a list for each class of such men as are thoroughly familiar with their duties and are willing to devote the necessary time to the work. We have heard of jurors who wanted the honor of the appointment, but none of the work, and the principal duty of this committee is to find out who these men are, to keep them out of the jury, and to be sure that every man appointed will work, whether he shall be chosen for an oflicer or not. I also urge the necessity of having as many teachers as possible for attend- ants. The committee on excursions should arrange for the children of the vicinity and as many teachers as possible to visit the exhibition. The committees should arrange for assemblies to be held for the discussion of literar\% scientific, and all educational matters. I will say little about cost, as that depends upon the generosity of Congress. Of course there is a minimum cost, below which a proper national exhibition caimot be produced. I will not say off-hand what that limit is, but I will say that we should have $500,000 for all expenses, including cost of building. —27 422 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. The all-important thing is to have a live working staff under the charge of a reBponsihle head, with power enough to demand thorough attention to the work of making the exhibition better than any of its predecessors, and a rep- resentative committee which has the confidence of the people. With this and a proj^er appropriation, we can, without fear for the result, leave the details to be arranged by those who are to do the work. Tboy, N. Y. BY W. E. SHELDON. As the proposed Exposition is to be international in character, the educa- tional exhibit should show the salient and essential features of the American systems, relating primarily to the preparation for enlightened and good citi- zenship under our distinctively republican form of government It should present to students of other nations full information and complete data for a comparison of our systems with their own ; and a comprehensive and detailed presentation should be made of the origin, history, and practical results of our educational work, which has for its highest object the best possible preparation of American children and youth for the responsibilities?, duties, and privileges of citizenship in the republic. It should exhibit in de- tail the actual processes of instruction employed in every grade of school, from the kindergarten to the completion of the university course of training and culture. It should furnish an accurate transcript of all National, State, Territorial, and municipal provisions made for the fostering and promotion of education, which are embodied in the laws of the country, showing the origin, history, purpose, and methods of distribution of all permanent school funds, the meth- ods of raising the money required for the support and maintenance of all grades of public schools, and the history and operation of our endowed in- stitutions. It should show the special provisions made by the General Government to aid and sustain agricultural colleges, Indian schools, military and naval acad- emies, the educational requirements for civil service, and the aid given by National, State, and municipal governments for the supix)rt of public libra- ries and museums of natural science, and also the provisions made for char- itable and reformatory institutions, truant schools, and a complete history of education in its relation to vice and crime. It should exhibit the courses of study adopted for the elementary and see- ondar}' schools, and for all classes of higher institutions, showing the methods of examining and testing the results of training required by the several cur- riculums. It should clearly indicate the application of psychological and pedagogical principles and the practical methods deduced ftx)m them in the training of the children and youth in all grades of educational institutions. It should show the provisions made in all the States, Territories, and municipalities for the training of professional teachers through the instnimen- THM AMEBIC AN EDUCATIONAL EXHIBIT OF 1892. 423 tality of model, training, and normal schools, and also in colleges and univer- sities by means of chairs of pedagogics, etc. It should give the history, and show, by a comparison of facts, the improvement secured in methods of in- struction by the employment of professionally trained teachers, giving the number of such actually employed in each State. The following important subjects should be clearly explained : The history of our system of graded schools, and the means employed to secure the best results in the ungraded country schools ; the history and plans of supervision adopted for all kinds of schools, graded and ungraded, by States, counties, districts, and municipalities; the methods of examining, certificating, and licensing of teachers ; the salaries paid to the several grades of teachers in the different States and municipalities, including the compensation given to in- structors of colleges, universities, and technological institutions ; the tenure of office of teachers and school officials ; the extent to which education is made compulsory by law, in the several States ; the relation of acadamies, seminar ries, colleges, universities, and other higher institutions to the public-school systems; the mission of the teachers' institutes, summer schools, of public libraries, of evening schools, of reading-circles, of the lyceum, and other means of promoting education among the people, beyond the ordinary school period, should be fully presented. It should exhibit carefully-prepared outlines and specimens of the work re- quired and performed in the schools, showing, as far as possible, the actual results obtained in all grades of educational institutions. It should exhibit the distinctive work performed in the kindergarten, primary, grammar, and high schools. The entire work of what is known as the " public- school system " should be illustrated, if practicable, by actual class-work, con- ducted during the exposition by expert teachers in each grade. There should be illustrated the methods of physical training by the Ling and other systems of gymnastics and calisthenics of drawing and manual training and "Slojd," showing the methods employed for training the eye and the hand, and the re- sults of experiments made in the public and private schools to introduce the teaching of sewing, of cooking, and of the use of tools as a means of prepar- ing pupils for the industries of life. The methods of teaching music and the elements of art-culture should be illustrated, showing the results secured. Business and commercial colleges, and special schools of industrial education, and of the sciences, should show their methods of work and exhibit the prac- tical results. There should be an exhibit of school and college text-books, old and new, reference books, materials and devices for illustrating methods of instruction ; educational literature, including works on psychology and pedagogy, works on history, philosophy, and science of education, manuals of methods, educa- tional journals, complete reports and circulars of information that have em- anated from the Bureau of Education, reports and proceedings of educational associations, reports of boards of education and school committees, reports of 424 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. superintendents of schools, of States, of counties, and of municipalities; cata- logues and reports of universities, colleges, and other educational institutions. Pamphlets and fugitive papers on education should be garnered, and shown as a part of the exhibit. In fine, everything that will present to the foreign visitor and student a clear idea of the American systems of education and their work, should be found in the exhibit. The purpose and mission of the National Bureau of Education should be fiiUy explained in every department of its work. The history and influence of educational associations and teachers' clubs, of teachers' institutes, and the notable work done by individual American educators of the past, in promot- ing education, etc., should be outlined for study. There should be a department devoted to the exhibition of architectual de- signs for educational buildings of every grade, showing the means of lighting, heating and ventilation of the same, as well as the internal arrangement for practical uses. Plans of museums of science and art, libraries, laboratories, etc., should be exhibited in this department. HOW SHALL THE EDUCATIONAL EXHIBIT BE MANAGED? We are aware of the difficulty there is in answering this question satisfac- torily. We submit the following as suggestions : The educational exhibit should be organized, arranged and managed by a general committee, to consist of the Commissioner of Education of the United States as chairman ex officio, and the superintendents of public instruction of the several States, Territories, and the District of Columbia, making a com- mittee of forty-eight members. This general committee should appoint an executive committee. of seven members from its own body, of which the Commissioner of Education should be chairman ex officio, to carry out the plans of the general committee, and have the supervision of the details of the exhibit. The general committee should prepare in outline a complete plan of the exhibit. All the general and strictly national subjects of investigation should be made by experts employed by the executive committee, under the direction of the general committee. The superintendent of public instruction of each State and Territory and of the District of Columbia should be the chairman of his State or Terri- torial committee, which should consist of seven members, to be appointed by the respective State boards of education, one member of which committee should represent the interests of the universities, colleges, and higher institu- tions of learning ; one the secondary and normal schools ; one the school su- perintendents and other school officials ; and one the high, grammar, primary, and kindergarten schools ; and three at large, who, together with the repre- sentative of the general committee, acting as chairman, should constitute the executive board of each State. This committee should have the arrangement and supervision of all purely State and Territorial exhibits, subject to the ap- proval of the general committee. Various special and sub-committees, and / THE AMEBIC AK EDUCATIONAL EXHIBIT OF 1892. 425 individual experts, will undoubtedly be needed, and their selection and ap- pointment should be made by the general committee. Without going further into detail, it will be seen that by the above general plan of the management of the exhibit, it is placed in the hands of those immediately connected with education. This will tend to keep the exhibit free from all political and sectarian control, as might not be the case if the appointment of the managers was to be made by National or State officers. HOW SHALL THE MONEY REQUIRED BE OBTAINED? This question opens the door for much discussion and careful deliberation. We think that the Congress of the United States should place not less than half a million of dollars in the hands of a commission composed of three per- jsons, appointed by the President of the United States and confirmed by the Senate, who should approve of all the plans of the general committee which may require the expenditure of money, prior to their being adopted and carried into effect by the executive committee. The accounts should be vouched for, audited, and approved, by an officer appointed by the United States Commission. The money required for the exclusively State and local exhibits should be appropriated by the States and municipalities, and be expended under con- ditions that will make certain an honest and economical use of the money. We make these general suggestions in regard to the funds needed, with the conviction that a fair compensation should be given experts and those who devote their time and talent to preparing the exhibit, so as to present to the world the educational work done in this country in as complete and unified a form as is possible. We cannot afford, as Americans, to be behind France or any other nation of the world in the excellence and influence of our educa- tional agencies in the preparation of citizens who shall be imbued with a spirit of patriotism and an intelligent loyalty that shall make certain the preserva- tion and perpetuity of a government devoted to liberty and equality of rights, duties, and privileges for all its citizens. Boston, Masb. BY NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER. It is now well understood that the great international expovsitions do not serve material purposes alone. Since 1853, when the Prince Consort bent all his energies to make successful the London Exposition of that year, these monster world's fairs have succeeded each other with increasing frequency. Their value has increased as their sc()i)e has broadened. They are now great object lessons in civilization. Therefore, when the triumphs of invention and the fruits of industrious skill are exposed side by side for comparison and study, when the products of the forge, the bench, and the loom are displayed to excite our admiration and inform our intelligence, a place must also be found for the symbols of that higher progress without which commerce and shipping, manufactures and agriculture, can bring to nations no prosperity 426 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION that is permanent and enduring. Too often do we ourselves dwell with in- creasing emphasis on our material growth as a nation, half forgetful of the fact that there is something higher, something better, something nobler than the mere accumulation of wealth and the multiplication of productive capac- ity. Much as we esteem these as evidences of an ability and an energy of which we shall never cease to be proud, yet no exhibit of a nation's condition is a tnie one which fails to reveal the extent and the influence of the forces that are at work in the diflfusion of popular intelligence and the formation of national character. Of these forces in a country like ours, the system of pub- lic education is the chief. All this was perfectly well understood by that marvelous nation which, in less than a score of years after an exhausting and disastrous war, and amid grave political disturbance, organized alone and unaided the most remarkable exposition that has yet been seen. Excelling, as they do, all modems in ad- ministrative talent, in organizing capacity and in aesthetic taste, the French made the exposition commemorating the centenary of the fall of the Ancien Regime a success, just because they recognized in it those elements of pros- perity and greatness which are not to be measured by the metre nor weigheil by the kilo. On every hand were to be seen exhibits of what the Third Republic is doing to cultivate and refine the taste as well as to inform and develop the intelligence of its citizens. With this wonderful Paris Exposition of 1889 just behind them, the peo- ple of the United States are preparing to hold another on their own soil two years hence, to celebrate the four-hundredth anniversar)' of the discovery of the continent. Passing by all other considerations that are urged regarding the desirability of holding an American Exix)sition in 1892, we may cordially agree with those who assert that such an exposition is necessary, if only to re- habilitate ourselves in the eyes of the world. This consideration should appeal with peculiar force to this body, repre- senting as no other gathering could hope to do, the American system of com- mon schools. For if, with one or two notable exceptions, the American exhibit at Paris in 1889 was scanty and poor, that portion of it which pur- ported to picture the organization, the magnitude, and the results of our national system of education was nothing more nor less than a pitiable trav- esty on American institutions. I do not pause to discuss this fact, nor to make any attempt to discover where the responsibility for so egregious a bhinder should lie. We may, however, at least learn by experience; and if the Exix)sition of 1889 brought us anything but credit, it at least taught us what to avoid. In the Exposition of 1893, whether it be held on the At- lantic slope or in one of the great centers of population in the Mississippi valley, our schools, and such of the evidences of their work as are visible, should occupy a prominent place. Education should not be content with a few thoiLsand square feet of floor area nor a few dozen yards of wall- space, but it should have a building designed and erected solely for iU THE AMEBIC AN EDUCATIONAL EXHIBIT OF 1892. 427 use. How to acoomplish this without undue expense or waste of space will not seem difficult to any who were so fortunate as to see the ex- ([uisite structures which the city of Paris provided for its municipal ex- hibit in 1889. This building should be large enough and so arranged as to enable us to display in it representative features of ever}' grade of our educational activity. Typical school buildings and school fur- niture should be there in reduced models, constructed so as not to hide nor hjse the salient characteristics of the originals. The best devices for heating, lighting and ventilating the school should be shown — and shown at work. A few of the most general facts of our school organization and the statistics on important points, should be shown by graphic illustrations that would tell the whole story at a glance. Long rows of frowning catalogues and valuable statistical informattion hidden away in a thousand tables, should be denied admission. Special attention ought to be paid to the statistics which tell, not only of the facts of our school organization, but also of their processes, methods, and results. That this may readily be done, foreign nations bear us witness, and our own Bureau of Education is now about to undertake just such work. Nor should it be forgotten that this proposed exhibition of our educa- tional work is not for foreign visitors alone. It is for our own eyes ; and its significance and value for our own people, in bringing them to an apprecia- tion of what they are accomplishing, as well as to a consciousness of their shortcomings and failures, are almost beyond computation. At Philadelphia, at New Orleans, and at Chicago we have seen more or less complete exhibits of educational work, but nothing that can compare for a moment with what that of 1893 should be, has ever been undertaken in this country. As we hope to be ourselves informed and instructed by this exhibit, it must be honest and truthful. It must be really representative. It should show just what exists — the good, the bad, the indifferent alike. In fact, in resi)ect to some things at least, it would be of inestimable value to display the worst that we are doing. That national conceit and overweening pride, which to-day is holding back our educational development because it will not admit that foreign nations can teach us anything, should on this occasion at least be rele- giited to the background where it belongs. A word as to the arrangement of all this. It should be consecutive and orderly. What we are doing in the kindergarten and sub-primary schools should precede in space-order the exhibit relating to our elementary schools and to our high schools ; and then should follow our institutions of suj^erior instruction, our professional and special schools. It should be iwssible both for ourselves and our visitors who care to make a thorough investigation of our educational condition, to follow this exhibit as one would follow a child through his school life. Watch him placed in the kindergarten, see what the kindergarten is, how it is managed, how long he stays there, and what it does for him. Similarly with the elementary, and tlien with the secondary and superior schools. 428 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. I have reserved until the last the point on which, most of all, the success of the proposed exhibit depends. It must be organized and guided by some one individual, and if a mistake is made in his selection, failure will certainly be the result. He should be a broad-minded man, a man of executive ability, a man of affairs as well as one thoroughly informed as to our educational work. He must command the confidence and respect not only of the teaching pro- fession, but of the community at large. He must be free from educational quackery and educational isms. He must not look upon this exposition a*s affording an opportunity for a propaganda of anything, however good it may intrinsically be. He must be controlled solely by a sense of duty and justice, and keep himself aloof from personal and political alliances and antagonisms. Placed in the hands of Such a man, our educational exhibit in 1893 will be a success. Confided to any hands less competent or less representative, it will be a disastrous and humiliating failure. There are such men as I have indi- cated. It is the glory of our profession that such may be found in its ranks. New Yobk City. BY THOMAS B. STOCKWELL, of Rhode Island. This is to be a national exhibition, not an occasion for local display. What- ever else it may be made, whatever other features it may manifest, it must not lose for one moment its national characteristics. Local features and products are all to be subordinated to their proper place as elements of the national idea. This national idea needs to be emphasized and impressed both upon our- selves and the world at large. We have grown so fast and so much in these later years, that but few, as it were, fully realize the extent or the nature of the nation's power and greatness. We need to be brought face to face with the indubitable evidences of our national life ; to look upon the material wit- nesses to her existence ; to be impressed anew with those characteristics that make us, one and all, Americans, whatever may be the special antecedents of race, or training, or sectional location. The unity of the nation should stand out clearly in the minds of those hav- ing this exposition in charge as the one vital thought in the whole scheme ; it should be the golden thread that shall bind together all of its different part.s, and make of them one perfect and harmonious whole. Among the many features of our national life and power, there is no one more worthy of presentation for our own inspection or for that of our foreign friends than our educational work. I make this statement broadly and in the face of the fact that we have no elaborate system of education, for I am persuaded that the world has reached that ix)int where it is ready to judge of an institution rather by what it ac- complishes, than by the perfection of its organization. This is an age of re- sults, not of theories. THE AMEBIC AN EDUCATIONAL EXHIBIT OF 1892. 429 But we have a Bystem of education. Cavil and criticism cannot do away with the splendid fact that each successive generation has stepped forth to its place of labor and conflict, better prepared in knowledge, culture, and train- ing than its predecessor. A nation of 60,000,000 of people has not grown up in a night, nor developed out of chaos. There must have been a power co- extensive with the people operated upon, and everywhere informed by certain fundamental ideas or principles which looked to a certain definite end. Difficult as it may be to outline this system, and impossible as it undoubt- edly is to point to it in a fully embodied form in any one spot, still it exists, and we are conscious of its existence. It should be then the purpose of the educational exhibit in 1893 to clothe this idea in visible form ; to give it a body that may be seen and studied. A secondary, though hardly less important, service to be rendered by this exposition should be the authoritative determination of the various grades of our educational work. We cover the entire ground, from the kindergarten to the university, or professional school, but what amount or character of culture and training each stands for is altogether a variable quantity. The latitude or longitude of the school is often as necessary an element in forming a judgment in such matters as a knowledge of the grade or class of instruc- tion given. Yet in spite of all these differences, I believe there exists a general notion respecting each step of the work that may be set forth and presented as the true type. To the great majority of our own educators I believe such a clear and definite presentation would be of very great value. For many it would give at once a positive standard of api)eal ; to others, it would serve con- tinually as the goal of their efforts. Especially will this phase of the exhibit be of value when we come to compare our own system with that of other nations. To accomplish these purposes we must work from and under one head. To secure unity in the result, we must have but one center of direction and au- thority. For this work we have an agency ready at our hands — the Bureau of Education ; more than that, it is the only conceivable means for accomplish- ing such a purpose. Whatever is to be done in this direction must be the re- j'ult of purely voluntary action on the part of all participants. The legal status of all departments of our educational work is such that no absolute authority can be exerted for the carrying out of any scheme that may be de- cided upon. There is, however, such a universal loyalty among all educators to the Bureau of Education that they will, I believe, heartily cooperate with it in making this exhibition a brilliant success. Most providentially for this occasion, the present head of the Bureau is, of all Americans, the one preeminently qualified for the position of leader in this movement. No one will for a moment challenge his fitness for the task ; and when it shall become known, as I tnist it soon may be, that he is to take sole 430 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, charge of the educational exhibit, all minds will at once rest assured that it will be a success. But to render this result secure against all possible failure, each State, city, town, and educational institution throughout the country must heartily pledge ever}' possible effort to respond to his calls and to second his suggestions. All . considerations or thoughts of local superiority or personal glory must be sub- ordinated to the higher and nobler thought of the national welfare. For years this Association, in common with kindred organizations thn>ugh- out the land, has striven to secure a fitting place in our system of govern- ment for the Bureau of Education, the due recognition of its true function?;, and corresponding facilities for the proper discharge of its duties. This expo- sition oiTers the opportunity for it to demonstrate its claims to the recognition and support both of Congress and the nation. BY JOHN HANCOCK, of Ohio. If the International Educational Exhibit was to be a success, it must un- doubtedly come from one head ; and there was, he was sure, no head better fitted to direct it than that of the Commissioner of Education — and in him the fiill authority should be vested. The educational exhibit at the New Or- leans Exposition far surpassed that of the Centennial Exposition at Philadel- phia. The French exhibit at the former was marvelous for its scope and excellence in all its departments. But the exhibit of our own country, fine as it was, might have been made more striking and useful, if Greneral Eaton, United States Commissioner of Education, in whose hands the arrangement of the exhibit was ostensibly placed, had been clothed with the power to say that the exhibits of all the States should be grouped together. As it was, while a majority of the State exhibits were thus grouped, a number of States placed their school-work in the exhibit of the products of agriculture, manu- facturing, mining, etc., where it was measurably lost sight of. He agreecl that the separate States must be allowed to maintain their autonomy in their education exhibit, since our school system is not national, but one of States. He believed, however, that if full power were given into the hands of the Commissioners of Education, it w-ould not be difficult to combine the exhibit by States and by subjects into one connected and systematic view. BY T. J. MORGAN, Commibsiomeb or Indian Affaibs. I think, Mr. Chairman, that we are all substantially agreed that the educa- tional exhibit should be under the control of the Bureau of Education ; that it should be so arranged as to give a fair idea of our system of education : and that it should be on a scale commensurate with the importance and dig- I THE AMERICAN EDUCATIONAL EXHIBIT OF 1892. 431 iiity of the work of education in its relation to the prosperity of the republic. I may be over-sanguine, but I think proper efforts will secure fix)m Congress an adecjuate appropriation. The point which I desire especially to emphasize is, that the exhibit should be a permanent and valuable addition to our educational forces. It should be the occasion of enlarging the scope and influence of the Bureau of Edu- cation ; should secure to us a permanent building in the city«of Washington for the use of the Bureau, in which can be arranged a lasting educational museum. The educational exhibit should not only set forth adequately what we have already accomplished, but should, so far as possible, present the idea towards which we are striving, and should thus mark the beginning of a new era in our educational development. The public-school system of America is its pride, its support, and its hope. Commissioner Mor(jan asked President Eliot whether he did not think the colleges had in part lost their hold upon the public schools by failing to provide pedagogical instruction for teachers, thus sending out their graduates poorly prepared to compete with normal-school graduates with less scholar- ship but more professional training. Is it not also a mistake which many of the older colleges are making in not providing for the education of women, seeing that the great army of common-school teachers is constantly recruited from their ranks ? If the colleges make no provision for their education, they can be exjiected to have no sympathy for the colleges. BY G. STANLEY HALL, of Massacbusktts. AVe ought to have conferences in the English language between representa- tive educators of this country and representative delegates from abroad, es- pecially Europe, interested in the same lines and grades of work. The several scientific conferences held at the late Exposition, with minute and prearranged programs, on topics carefully selected and assigned, were to my mind far more instructive to scientific men than the exhibition of scientific apparatus. Such conferences which might afford us opportunities to meet men like Buillon, Egger, and eminent specialist^* in the different grades and lines of education, would be an almost eix)ch-making thing if it could be arranged. To question and to be questioned face to face with foreign co-workers would also enable u? to see where we stand. 432 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. STATE SUPERVISION: WHAT FLAN OF ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION IS MOST EFFECTIVE f J. W. PATTERSON, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. History has dfetablished the affirmation of political philosophy that general education is indispensable to popular self-government, and that any other fonn of government, over a people properly educated, is impossible. Arbitrary nile by church or state cannot survive in a nation disciplined in a system of pub- lic schools organized to develop independent mental activity, if efficiently ad- ministered. Civil and religious institutions must then be based on i^eason^ not on authority, or they will not stand. These are statements which have passed beyond argument into the realm of established facts. It follows as a necessary corollary, that it is the right and duty of the Government to educate its children, and that a denial of such right is disloyalty to the State, demanding instant and unmeasured rebuke. The denial of the right of public education is treason to liberty, for it strikes at the foundation of the republic. There is no higher law for the State than the right of self-preservation involved in the education of its sons and daugh- ters according to the spirit and purpose of its founders. The assertion that any other organization has a "divine right" to subordi- nate the supremacy of the Government and override its authority in these matters of supreme importance is repudiated by the highest intelligence of this Christian age, at home and abroad. Let the sleepers of Ephesus, who would set up such a claim, bring their credentials into court and authenticat'C their validity. We deny it, and, moreover, assert that the public schools pro- duce as great purity and nobility of character, and types of womanhood and manhood as strong, self-sacrificing and de\' out as the private. This is a question to be settled by facts, not arrogant assumptions. We yield to no man in loyalty to divine authority, but we would " render therefore unto Caesar the things which are Ciesar^s, and unto God the things that are God's." The Government assumes the work of education as a jkh litical necessity. Its controlling purpose is to maintain the conditions of poj)- ular self-government, and to promote the general welfare of all classes. Teaching in State scliools should always be moral and religious, but not sectarian. On this ground only can general taxation for the supix)rt of schools be defended. When any ecclesiastical organization claims the right to control this or any other purely political function, involving, though remotely, the life and peace of the republic, it is time it should learn that its kingdom is not of this world, and that it should be relegated to its legitimate religious duties. A State su{)erintendent should foster with a broad, catholic spirit all forms in which the religious life of society finds expression, but it is his supreme STATE SUPEBVISIOX. 433 duty to guard against invasion from any and all quarters the inalienable ri^ht of the State to control the education of its children. This is the citadel of our liberties, and when this is surrendered all is lost. Again, modern warfare, especially the results of Sedan and the Franco- IVussian war, awakened at last the dull apprehension of even crowned heads to the value of knowledge in the rank and file of armies as a means of mili- tary success. It has been found that victory is likely to follow the banner of the most intelligent rather than of the heaviest battalions. It has l)een made equally evident, by a comparative study of the material products, business capacity, and general enterprise, of different peoples, made ix>ssible in our time by international expositions and the rapid exchanges of commerce, that the schools of a nation measure approximately the skill, thrift and national achievements of its citizens. The ablest statecraft abroad, studying the lessons of national experience for the last half-century, has seen such significance in these facts as to lead to a complete revolution in the policy of European govemnunts. Here we find the reason for their immense expenditures for popular education since 1870, and for their extensive and enlightened provision in the way of professional schools and colleges for the training of teachers. Some of these governments, in which popular education is less vital than with us, have emphasized the importance which they attach to the control of this interest, by placing its directors among the chief ministers of state. European states rarely defeat a vital interest of the nation by half-measures, as we are liable to do. The rule of trained and responsible statesmen is not only wiser but less timid than the makeshift policy of extemporized politicians who sometimes wriggle into trusts which they are consciously unfit to administer, and yet are too proud to ask the advice which wise mem would unhesitatingly seek. \Ve may yet be compelled, even in the study of public education, to admit that the strong government urged by Hamilton would have been a surer de- fense of liberty than that advocated by his more democratic but not more patriotic friend from Virginia, We do not claim that our public schools pro- duce statesmen of the order of AVebster and Calhoun, or lawyers of the type of Chancellor Kent or Rufus Choate ; but we urge that a knowledge of the law^s of business, and skill in the conduct of affairs, rather than profound legal lore and the mastery of a powerful oratory, are now the qualities largely de- manded in public life and in professional services, and these are preeminently the products of our best public schools. But back of such obvious considerations lies the necessity of general educa- ation as the matrix of all social and political virtues. We must reap as we sow. Popular intelligence is the source and strength of law. Here the func- tions and responsibilities of citizenship have their birth. In this are the springs of national character. In this, divine truth takes root and gives the fruitage of pure and noble living. The schools of our fathers, though defect- 434 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. ively organized, have made the American people progressive without madness, and conservative without mental stagnation. But a better organization is now demanded, to meet the changed conditions of national life. A department of government so fundamental and far-reaching, so abso- lutely essential to the peace and prosperity of society, should not be left to drift as has been the practice in our earlier history. It must have the direction and supervision of the ablest and most unselfish intelligence at the command of the State. At no period since the establishment of the republic has the importance of popular education been so absolutely the paramount duty of government as to-day, for never before has it had antagonists so subtle, plausible, and thoroughly organized. Never before has it demanded such expense and effort to maintain the degree of popular intelligence and morality necessary for the perpetuity and success of our social and political system. Democratic institutions, and the opportunities here opening to individual ambition and enterprise, have drawn to our shores ever-increasing waves of the ignorant and dangerous populations of the Old World. For a generation and more they have swept into our country like an angry sea, threatening to swamp the descend- ants of the early settlers, with all their habits, customs, and institutions. Con- quest by invasion is now easy, since there is no national isolation. In the earlier ages, a special type of civilization was developed by each distinctive people, and added slowly to the general inheritance of ideas and modes of life. The world advanced by relays of national progress. As one people fell ex- hausted in the race, the next in order kindled its torch at the dying embei^ of the last, and moved on into the future. The colors changed, but the lights of civilization, like the vestal fires, never went out. But all has changed. Every invention and ev^ery product of the human intellect is now flashed round the world and enters at once into the capital of civilization. Science and Christianity are forced to grapple with ignorance and diabolism and fight for the victory in every quarter of the globe. Intel- ligence and freedom are testing their strength with superstition and bigot r}' along the whole line of battle. But for obvious reasons, the chiefs of spiritual absolutism and of civil anarchy are likely to make this the field for their subtlest and fiercest struggle for the overthrow of popular enlightenment, fi^edom of faith, and the sway of impartial law. In this encounter the genius of government and the spirit of untrammeled thought will find their chief resource and strength in the schools of the people, for there the power to obsen''e and think independently is awakened, and the faculties disciplined into self- reliance and self-directive force. In view of such considerations, it must be obvious to the dullest apprehen- sion, that the most sacred and indispensable duty of government is to secure the education, intellectual and moral, of the successive generations of its STATE SUPERVISIOy. 435 youth, and to make it impoesibte to frustrate this ^udamental work on any pretext whatever. The duty of self-preservation and self-improvement cannot be delegated, abrogated, or vacated. At the same time the w^ork is beset with so many diiRculties, has such wide and varied relations to business, society, sects, and government, that it should be organized with the deftest skill, and admin- istered impartially and with consunmiate wisdom. The conduct of systematic education in this country has to overcome obstacles not encountered in most others. A government of concentrated powers, when once it has aw^akened to the necessity and utility of general instruction, can carry easily and quickly into the system such improvements as may be dictated by the most advanced scholarship. But here where abuses have to be eradicated and improvements carried by a popular vote, against prejudice, ignorance, and selfishness, we realize that "battles are the steps of progress." We are in danger of being outstripped in the march of intelligence by the conservative nations of Europe, which have adopted our educational policy. K these things are true ; if it is an established fact that free institutions are only possible or desirable where a large majority of the people are edu- cated ; that the ingenuity, skill, enterprise, business capacity, and mental and moral power of a nation are measured by its intelligence ; that freedom from crime, the elevation of social and domestic life, and the influence of law and revelation are promoted by the schools, it follows that the educational oppor- tunities of the States must keep pace with their educational necessities. In view of such considerations, drawn from the accepted principia of social science, it would be as great folly to leave our public schools, ramifying as they do into every township and neighborhood, and touching the vital interests of every citizen, without a well-devised and efficient system of supervision, as to leave the railroads and factories of the country to run themselves without in- telligent and responsible boards of control. It may be best to vary the machinery of supervision in different States ac- cording to the existing conditions, but in principle the organization should l)e this : In each town there should be a school board ; in each county a su- pervisor, and in each State a superintendent of public instruction, who should be the president of a board of education composed of the county supervisors and himself, or of himself and a special commission of the most scholarly, judicious, and influential men of the State, appointed by the Governor and Council. Most town committees are sufficiently intelligent to discharge the prudential duties of their office, but as they come into daily contact with the teachers and the schools of their respective localities, they should be well educated, pure minded, and devoted to their work, and so be able to direct as to disci- pline and methods of teaching, and to impart something of enthusiasm to the routine of daily exercises. Our best committees are able to do this. But many of them have neither the scholarship, the experience nor the taste for 436 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, such duties. It often happens, even when they have the knowledge requisite for the supen^ision of teachers and schools, that their time is so absorbed in private business, or that they have so little interest in the cause, that they are absolutely unfitted to discharge the directive functions of a supervisor of schools. The man who has no enthusiasm himself cau inspire none in others. That the education of children may not suffer and school funds be spent in vain, the work of the town committees should be supplemented by that of a county supervisor. The practice which prevails in my Statue and in some others^ of confining the examination of teachers to town boards, necessarily results in the employ- ment of many persons intellectually and morally incompetent, and in conse- quent failure in the education of children committed to their misdirection. A thorough and exhaustive examination of all candidates for teaching should be made the paramount duty of county supervisors. The following is a partial syllabus of what, in my judgment, should be the fnnctions of the county super\'i8or: 1. It should be his duty to examine, by the aid of such experienced and learned persons as he may call to his assistance, all applicants for a certificate to teach in his county. 2. It should be his duty to inspect the schools of the county and direct as to their management, discipline, and methods of instruction. It should aL<ower in all State educational institutions, and should possess sufficient intelligence and weight of character to justify such law. He and his board should be the final authority in the settlement of disputes growing out of the management or mismanagement of schools, except in doubtful cases of law, which would go to the courts. He should be ree nominated by the State superintendent, or by some other party not the slave of politics, and the State superintendents should be selected solely for their in- tellectual and moral qualities and for their directive abilities. Their legally- established terms of office should be of sufficient length to enable them to develop and establish, as far as possible, an educational policy which will be uniform, harmonious, and strong, and have in it the possibility of growth. Under the old law, happily on the decline, in which each school is an iso- lated unit, having no organic connection with others, there can be but little hope of improvement, aa there is no channel through which vital influences can descend from above. But when each school is made a part of an articu- lated scheme under the powerful agency of a thoroughly adjusted system of State supervision, in which provision is made for a graded plan of examina- tions running up to the superintendent, whose certificates would be good for a limited period in all parts of the State, and providing also for teachers' con- ventions, educational addresses, and school inspection, we have the conditions' of a gradual and continuous improvement. This, I have heard it asserted, is a limitation of the rights of the people. I answer. No ; for schools do not originate in natural right, but in law. They are the necessar}'^ precursors of the intelligence in which popular rights have their birth, and should be so organized as best to secure the object for which they were created. I yield to no man in my devotion to popular rights, but I do not hesitate to predict that a system of schools left without protest to the unreflecting selfishness of the average tax-payer, will fail to meet the future necessities of the republic. An adequate scheme of public instruction can- not be the birth of ignorance, but the mental culture that will be adequate to the necessities of the republic must be the offspring of an adequate system of public schools. Improvement in this, as in all other lines of progress, must be inaugurated and pushed to consummation by those who realize its necessity, and not by cowardly self-seekers, who, like barnyard fowls, always run with the storm or lie in cover till it is over. If we would avoid national hazard and degeneracy, from the increase of il- literacy ; if we would reach the splendid possibilities }x)tential in an efficient system of public instruction ; if we would possess the primacy of civil power, and achieve success in the rivalries of business ; if we would perpetuate sta- bility and enterprise of national character; if we would make for ourselvft^ an honored place in the intellectual history of mankind, and insure the fame of being a just and virtuous people, we must be more anxious to secure knowl- edge than money, character than place, mental faculty than purchased honors. It is not the material achievements, but the literature of Greece, that is im- mortal. It is not the wealth, but the civil law of Rome, that survives. So it must be with us. It will be the immaterial products of our national life that will be most substantial and enduring, and if in tliis we would be strong and DISCUSSION. 439 productive, we must habilitate the schools of our fathers with such forms of law and such changes of method and control as will give them power to edu- cate and assimilate the medley of nationalities that now flood us, and to un- ilerlay our life and history as a people, with such intelligence, thoughtfulness, and virtue, as to make the future of the republic secure and glorious. In 1838, Edward Everett said at an educational cx)nvention in Massachu- setts, speaking of the elective franchise: '*This duty cannot be discharged with rectitude, unless it be discharged with intelligence." Calling to mind the multitude and the magnitude of complex questions that have here been the issues in the political struggles of the last fifty years, and reflecting that each voter who has not the power, I do not say to analyze and discuss, but to form an independent judgment upon these matters, is a blind slave of party, and may become a dangerous tool in the hands of him who has the means to purchase or the skill to control him ; reflecting that the most stolid ignorance may be selected to testify or sit in judgment upon the most valued rights of life or property ; that the incompetent and the vicious may be called by an ignorant ballot to administer the highest and most sacred trusts of govern- ment, and then casting our eyes abroad and numbering the illiterates of the country, we have occasion for serious meditation, if we allow the lights of history to fall upon these themes of thought. In view of such considerations, the time may come when it will be found both convenient and necessary to make a more intimate and absolute legal connection between our systems of State supervision and the national com- missionership of education, so that States afflicted with incurable ignorance may feel the healing touch of a central power. In closing, I desire to revert for emphasis to a remark made earlier in this paper. While I repudiate the asserted right of ecclesiastical interference with the public schools, I insist that their teaching shall be religious. " Despotism," says De Tocqueville, "may govern without religious faith, but liberty cannot." Arbitrary power may enforce obedience in the absence of faith, but in a free State, when the citizen ceases to recognize an unchanging principle of right in the law, and loses his sense of responsibility to a supreme will, statutes are the dictates of policy, and selfishness and passion become the controlling forces of government. Anarchy and desix)tism are the political sequels to a loss of national faith. The great spiritual interests of our immortal natures transcend the value of Kold or political power, and both national well-being and the interests of the soul demand that the teaching of our public schools should be religious. DISCUSSIOX. John Hancock, of Ohio : Shakespeare has warned us of the vanity of at- tempting to gild refined gold, or to paint the lily. He would, therefore, not venture any criticism on the able and delightful paper to which the Depart- 440 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. ment haa just listened. There was read, he said, at the meeting of the National Council of Education held at San Francisco, in July, 1888, a most valuable paper on "Waste in Education" — waste arising from imperfect curricula of study, and from abortive methods of teaching. But, in his judgment, there is a waste much greater than arises from either of the sources mentioned — a waste that springs from the want of a proper organization of the school system of a State. The people of the leading educational States of the Union are pouring out their money for school purposes like water. Nowhere else in the world has been exhibited such liberality of expenditure. But have the States received the full results they have the right to expect* from this noble gener- osity ? He believed the supreme need of our school systems is a better or- ganization. For lack of such organization he felt certain there was a waste in his own State of millions of dollars each year, and that in many districts not fifty per cent, on the investment was returned to the people in educational results. In the rural portions of the State he thought the township the proper unit upon which to build a school organization ; this township district to be under the direction of its own board of education, just as are city districts. This township board should have full authority to establish a high school and elect a township superintendent of schools. The presidents of township boards should constitute a county board, the chief duty of which should be to elect a county superintendent. If, however, it should be concluded that it is better to have the county sui^erintendent elected by the people, then there would be no great necessity for a county board. The speaker was not decided in his own mind whether any important advantage is likely to arise in having a State board. But if such a board should be made a part of the State sys- tem, then that board should elect the State Superintendent ; otherwise this officer should be elected by the people. However elected, the State superin- tendent should be invested with large powers. Unless he holds such powers there can be no unified State system of schools. But thus fortified, he can guide, in a large measure, the trend of the educational forces of the State, and can do much to secure proper legislative action. D. L. KiEHLK, of Minnesota: Educational systems grow after the same law as cities. There may or may not be an external and proportionate form outlined to be realized in subsequent growth. That a AVestem man, who is familiar with cities laid out regularly and extensively planned for generations to come, should criticise the apparent lack of plan in Boston, would be absurd. That which makes a city and that which makes a school system i^ the spirit and character of the i)eople. Having these, the evolution may be awkward and peculiar, or regular and symmetrical, but we shall have the thing itself notwithstanding. Hence the development of an educational sys- tem must be on the educational side, and must be directed by the educator? from within, out. The problems of a complete State system are — first, how to articulate higher education of the colleges and universities with the secondary educa- DISCUSSION, 441 tion of the city systems; and, second, how to develop from the common-school system of the country a secondary education which shall make the whole continuous from the bottom, up. In general, we may name as the obstacle to articulation and harmony of parts a narrow spirit of individualism. The college is disposed to consider itself the ierminus ad quem of all lower instruction, that all secondary schools shall be simply fitting-schools for the college. Hence colleges opposed the ]X)pular movement for high schools as against academies. On the other hand, the supervision of the primar}- and secondary education of city system?* has jL*^st purpose, a strong will, and a mind honest in seeking for truth and fearless in accepting and using it, will find at the bottom much likeness in systems*. We have in recent years noted the master-mind at the head of a chaotic school system, bringing order with but very little change. There is a tend- ency to raise a hue-and-cry about politicians in educational matters. Note that organizing power is needed ; executive ability, knowledge of men and manners are more necessary than school training. The pedagogue too often plays the demagogue in such matters. That educational system will be the most efficient where the power in school matters will be centralized in a re- sponsible head. Responsibility is not only a great motor power, but is as well the safer anchor ; for where responsibility is the greatest it ii» held most rigidly to account, and a wrong located is half corrected. M. A. Newell, of Maryland: There is no best plan of organization for State school systems. A school system is not a creation — it is a growth. It grows in accordance with the habits, the prejudices, the civilization, the re- finement, and the history of the State. Indeed, it goes far beyond State his- tory. The public schools of Massachusetts are the reflex of sentiments which the Pilgrim Fathers carried with them to the New World, but which ante- dated that event by many centuries. One might almost say with Pope : " For forms of government, let fools contest : Whate'er is best administered, is best." Previous speakers have described their ideal of a State school system. Pennit me to give you an outline, as brief as possible, of the system actually in operation in Maryland for the last twenty years. And let me begin, as a preceding speaker has done, with the head. The head of our system is the State Board of Education. This board consists of the Governor of the State, the Principal of the State Normal Scliool, and four members, apix>inted by the Governor, from among the presidents and secretaries of the several cx)unty school boards. The most important functions and powers of the State board are to enforce the school law, to enact by-laws, to explain the true intent acd meaning of the law% to decide all controversies that may arise under it, aud to suspend or remove any examiner (county superintendent) or teacher for incompetency or moral delinquency. Next comes the Board of County School Commissioners. This board con- sists of three members in each of the smaller counties and five in the larger, who are appointed by the judgas of the circuit court in which the county i? included. The principal duties of the County School Board are to appoint their executive officer, who is styled " Examiner," and serves also as st^cretary and treasurer; to hold in trust all the public-school property of the county; to build and repair aud furnish school-houses; to fix and pay the salaries <'t' teachers ; and to adopt uniform text-books. As the State Board of Education acts as the representative of the State at large, and the County School Board represents the county, so there is a Bonnl DISCUSSIO?r. 445 of District School Trustees to represent the school district. There are three for each district, who are appointed by the Board of County School Commis- sioners. The District Board nominates the teacher, but he must be confirmed by the County School Board. They also attend to the minor repairs needed by the school building. There is no district or township taxation in Maryland, either for schools or general purposes; all taxes are levied either by the State or the county. The State school tax is distributed to the several boards of county school commis- sioners in proportion to the population between five and twenty years of age. In this way the wealthy counties are made to assist the weaker, education being looked upon as the interest of the State at large, and not of particular localities. I may add in conclusion, that a teacher is not employed for any fixed term. ( )nce appointed to a school, he continues to be its teacher until he either re- signs, or is dismissed according to law. B. G. Northrop, Clinton, Conn. : I fully appreciate the school system of New Jersey, so well described and so strongly commended by the Superintend- ent of its schools. Having attended teachers' institutes in every county of that State, thus meeting most of its teachers, and often visiting its schools, I can confirm what has just been said as to the admirable working of the New Jersey system. The teachers are efficient, and the schools are liberally sup- ix)rted. But, excellent as is that system for New Jersey, it would not work well in New England, nor in Ohio. The school systems of New England are a growth, a peculiar growth, whose roots have been deepening and extending for over a century, so that an exotic would not thrive in that soil, though it be grand as the cedar of Lebanon. The township is the unit in New Eng- land, as the county is so widely in other States. Local autonomy is the cen- tral principle which has been maintained and cherished for many generations by the citizens of the E&?tern States. In deciding on the best school system for a given State, one needs not merely to find what in the abstract would he an ideal plan, but also what would be its adaptations to existing institutions, usages, traditions, and even prejudices. In the most conservative States, great progress has recently been made — while a radical change in more of them is near at hand. These dis- cussions of the "Best State System" are suggestive of many improvements urgently needed, and likely to be gradually adoi)ted. Zalmon Richards, of Washington, D. C: I have a few thoughts, to which I desire to give utterance. I deeply sympathize with most of the views which have been expressed upon the subject of "State School Systems." I have noticed, however, that in the excellent paper which has been read, and in all the discussion which has followed, in which the actual and the desirable excellences of our public-school systems have been clearly and forcibly pre- jMiJDted, hardly a word has been spoken, or even an allusion made to what I believe to be the most important element of a good school system. I refer to 446 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. the necessity for moral instruction in our schools; and to the importance of employing teachers who are not only thoroughly qualified to impart secular instruction, but to be exemplars, and teachers of pure morals. It seems to me that this is the great question of the present day ; and that we, as edu- cators, must meet it, and proj^erly answer it. We cannot, and we ought not, to try to shirk this responsibility. The countr}' is alive on this question now, as perhaps never before. The hue- and-cry of our Catholic friends about what they have seen fit — unwisely, I think — to stigmatize aa "our Godless schools"; their determination to organize parochial schools and force their children into them, because, as they say, the moral and religious characters of the children in our public schools are neg- lected, demands the immediate attention of all true educators. While I do not sympathize with their wholesale aspersion of our public schools, I am forced to acknowledge, after much careful observation and study, that there is too much truth in these complaints; that the thousands of defalcation>, swindlings, breaches of trust, forgeries, and stealings, to say nothing about burglaries, show most unmistakably that there is, somewhere, a terrible defi- ciency in the moral training of our youth. Need we wonder at this state of things, and at these complaints, when we look at these facts : that in some of our most highly lauded schools the subjects of "instruction in manners and morals" and "the reading of the Bible" have been stricken from their course of instruction ? That, to a very large extent, in schools for training teachers and in our normal schools, the subject of moral instruction has no place in their course of training ? That in examining candidates for teachers' places, the question of moral qualifications is rarely, if ever, alluded to ? The time was, and some of us remember it well, when, in good old New England at least, no man or woman was i>ermitted to present himself or herself before the constituted authorities as a candidate for a teacher's place, without first pre- senting a certificate of good moral character, vouched for by some clergyman, or well-known justice of the peace. Those were good old times, when wc used to have sound, exemplary moral instruction in our schools; and the fruit was seen in the character of the men and women who formerly emi- grated from New England, to help in making up the best elements of society in almost every Statt^ of our Union. But now how changed ! Even in New England, the people seem to be afraid to take positive ground for introducintr moral and religious training into their schools, and there is a general demor- alization upon thi^* subject. But we must meet and overcome it, or it will meet and overcome us I CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS. 447 (ITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS, fiUPERINTENDENT W. H. MAXWELL, BROOKLYN, X. Y. Were society perfect, there would be no need of public schools. When society becomes perfect, there will probably be no public schools. When in the pro^nress of evolution men shall reach that condition in which the liberty of each individual shall be bounded only by the liberty of every other individual; when the human intellect shall attain such development that all men shall desire education for themselves and for their children, and desiring it, shall know what is the best kind of education, and how best to obtain it ; and when such a balance between egoistic and altruistic sentiments shall be established that the childless shall regard it as an injustice to pay for the education of other people*s children, and those who have children shall ei[ually regard it as injustice to receive assistance from those who have no children — when all these Xhin^ shall come to pass, then, and not till then, can public schools be dispensed with. That this stage of civilization will not be reached in our time, may be safely asserted. Indeed, in the present age and in the existing stage of social evolution, it may be confidently maintained that education is one of the chief duties, if not the chief duty, of the government. This country has passed through the militant stage. No longer is it neces- sary to expend the resources of the people on expensive armaments to defend the nation from the encroachments of foreign nations, or from the still more dreadful evils of fratricidal strife. We have reached that advanced industrial type in which the chief business of government is not either to be an ag- .ifressor or to ward off aggression, but to defend each citizen from the invasion of his rights by any other citizen. The development of the individual is now the great desideratum. It is an axiom of political ethics that a society is not more advanced in the scale of civilization than are the units of which it is composed. If individuals are ignorant and vicious, it matters not what are the laws and institutions, the society will be low in the scale of civilization. It follows, therefore, that the most important business of government in this advanced industrial type is the development, intellectual, moral, and physical, of the individual. In these facts lies the raUon d'etre of public education. The government that does not educate must either give place to a better gov- ernment or it will inevitably fall before a worse. So much may be inferred from the evolution of social and political institu- tions in the past. Two great forces have been at work — integration and differ- entiation. In the initial stages we find small groups bound together by actual or supposed descent from a common ancestor. The necessities of attack and defense supply the motive for union. One primitive group unites with another primitive group, and the resultant group is compounded and recompounded 448 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, with other groups, always under the pressure of aggression or repulse of an aggressor, until loose aggregations of savages, bound together by family tie*, are formed into great nations, in which individuals are no longer l)oiind to- gether by consanguinity, either real or fictitious, but by the mutual dejiend- ence of citizens. Hand in hand with this process of integration, but always dependent upon it, goes the process of differentiation. The chief, the superior few, and the inferior many, are early separated by broad lines of demarkation. The chief, the superior few, and the inferior many of the smaller groups, develop into the king, the nobles, and the people of the larger aggregation. The conten- tions that arise among the three classes necessitate, in the presence of a common foe, the resignation of rights once claimed by the privileged classes, while the density of population and the increase of wealth consequent upon industrial- ism serve still further to weaken class distinctions. Social or tribal |X)litical assemblies become subordinate to a central political assembly. This body, which originally possessed legislative, political, and executive powers and functions, gradually throws off the judicial and executive powers, which he- come vested in separate bodies, and finally all political bodies become either directly or indirectly of representative origin. The formula for the evolution of societies, thus briefly and impertectlv summarized from Mr. Herbert Spencer, may be stated in these words : Societies which are small, loose, uniform, and vague in structure, develop into societies which are large, compact, multiform, and distinct in structure. To this may be added the further fact that each new differentiation of structure is accom- panied by a specialization of function. Not only is this so in the three great branches of government, but it is so in all the agencies that serve for the protection and distribution of wealth, in all the agencies that lead to the moral, intellectual, and physical progress of the human race. In everything, differentiation of structure and specialization of function is the law of progress. This bald and meager statement of the evolution of societies is given, be- cause it not only supplies the reason for the existence of public education, but also indicates the lines upon which any scheme of public education must be fommlated, if it is to serve the purposes for which it is intended. If the most advanced type of political organization is that in which all goveni- mental agencies, executive, legislative, or judicial, are directly or indirectly representative of the will of the i)eople, the inference is inevitable that, ti> maintain such a system of government, the individuals of which society i.*^ comj)osed must be adeijuately educated to the jxirformance of this great trust. The functions of the American citizen, as Mr. James Bryce has jwinted out in "The American Commonwealth," are far more complicated, delicate, ami difficult than the corresponding functions of the citizen of any Euroj>eiUi country. There, the duty of the citizen is confined to the choosing of legir^- lators, who are lefl to settle issues of policy and select executive rulers. Heiw on the other hand, the citizen is virtually one of the governors of the repuh- CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS. 449 lie. The election of legislators is only a small part of his duties. By popu- lar vote executive rulers are selected and all great issues are determined. The proper performance of these weighty duties assumes on the part of the <;itizeii an amount of knowledge and an amount of intelligence not required ill the European citizen. That this knowledge and this intelligence are still far from universal — in other words, that the public schools have only par- tially i^rformed their functions — is only too certainly demonstrated by the existence everywhere of a class of professional politicians, a class that is to be found in both the great political parties, who exercise a real rule that too often renders the rule of the people only a name. Had the public schools succeeded in imparting the necessary information and developing the necessary' intel- litrence in the people, the power of the professional politician either to nullify or to form the will of the people would have l>een much less than it is at present. It is not true, of course, that all the evils the body politic is heir to, owe their existence to defects in the system of public education. Every educator knows that evil in the environment and hereditary' propensity to wrong-doing, are constant quantities against which he has to contend. They are powers of darkness that will, despite all his efforts, too often nullify the good effects of his work. But the question is: Which is gaining ground — the evil, or the good ? This question I shall not undertake to determine. It is enough for us to know that the professional politician is more firmly intrenched than ever. It is enough for us to know that, in proportion to the increase in the urban population, insanity and crime increase. It is enough for us to know that the common enemies are not diminishing in strength, to cause us to lopk well to the joints of our armor, and to search in the ancient arsenals of his- tory and philosophy for the weapons with which to combat the hosts of igno- rance and evil. He would be, indeed, a dull observer who did not see that educators have already commenced this search. Our higher institutions of learning are be- ginning to recognize the fact that the highest duty of a university is to teach the science of teaching. Superintendents, principals, and teachers are begin- ning to study the principles of education and to deduce their methods from the premises afforded by a rational psychology. The spirit of reform, the spirit of progress, has seized the ranks of the educational army. There is a ferment of thought, a striving after what is better, that bodes nothing but g(H)d to our country. All this is well — so far. But of what avail is enthusi- asm in an army when pro[^)er organization is wanting ? The raw I'ecruits who ran away at Bull Run were every whit as brave a« the men who withstood the desperate charges at ( Jettysburg. Organization, discipline, made the dif- ference between the recruit and the veteran. Organization and discipline are as necessary to succ^s in the educational field as in the military. Without (Scientific organization and proper discipline, wisdom and enthusiasm cannot accomplish their perfect work. The plans of wisdom will be weakened by 450 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION the wile? of the wicked, and enthusiasm! will be dampened by the mists of ig- norance. What then should be the plan of organization ? How is requisite discipline to be introduced ? Organization can come only along the lines on which prog- ress has been made in all social institutions — integration first, and then dif- ferentiation of structure and specialization of function. The surrender at Appomattox Court House rendered political integration complete. Difieren- tiation of structure and specialization of function have proceeded so far on the political side that the legislative, judicial, and executive departments of gov- ernment, both in the National and in the State governments, are now more clearly separated and more closely confined to their special functions than in any other country on the face of the earth. But how is it with the work of public education ? Has it become in like proportion differentiated in structure and specialized in fimction ? The law, as stated by Mr. Spencer, is : " Be it in an animal or be it in a society, the progress of organization is constantly shown by the multiplication of particular structures adapted to particu- lar ends. Everywhere we see the law to be, that a part which originally served several purposes and achieved none of them well, becomes divided into parts each of which performs one of the purposes, and acquiring specially- adapted structures, performs it better." Do our State, do our city, public- school systems answer in structure and in function to the requirements of this law ? Judged by the standard set up by the philosophy of history, our public- school systems are yet in the stage of semi-barbarism. The State has, in the management of city systems, practically abdicated its powers, and ignored its functions. It confers upon municipalities, it is true, through charters, the power of maintaining and managing public schools ; but it has established no authority to compel municipalities to administer educational afiTairs on the lines of scientific progress. It has established and it maintains normal schools, but it has not made normal schools effective by requiring that every teacher should have a professional education. It has enacted that it shall be com- pulsory upon every citizen to educate his children, but it has not providem- mand, as a municipality cannot or will not, the services of the most scientific thinkers and most expert educators, to formulate a course of study. Again, the experience of all other countries that have enacted compulsory- education laws is, that in order to make the law effective it is necessan- CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS. 453 to establish a minimum of knowledge before acquiring which a child shall not be permitted to go to work. But where there is not a uniform course of study, a common standard cannot be established. The consequence is that our compulsory-education laws are to a very great extent inoperative. Even when the power is conferred upon school officers to require all children to attend school a certain number of weeks each year, it is often obeyed in the letter and violated in the spirit There is no uniform standard which all must attain; and consequently children by the thousands, who have attended the prescribed time, are every year put to work before they acquire the mini- mum of knowledge which every citizen should possess. Then, again, the establishment of a uniform and consistent course of study in all institutions of learning from the primary school to the university, will l)revent that waste of time and energy which moving from one locality to an- other or from a lower school to a higher, now involves. Let the most ardent of " home rulers " consider the anomalies of our present system. A boy twelve years of age moves from New York to Brooklyn. He has completed frac- tions in arithmetic in the school he has just left. When he enters a Brooklyn school he must thresh over all the old arithmetic straw because, forsooth, he doesn't know the subject from the predicate of a sentence, or the difference between a preposition and an interjection. Or if he leaves a Brookl}Ti school and enters one of certain New York schools, he will find himself put back in a similar manner because he cannot handle a chisel without cutting his fin- gers, or cannot recite the names of all the bones in the human body. And who shall say what and how great losses may be entailed upon a child by the practical excision of even one short year fit)m his school life ? Or, again, to take the higher phases of educational work, how absurd it is that as ofl;en happens, a boy should pass through a primary school, a grammar school, and a high school, and yet find himself denied admission to a university because he had not studied Greek, or had not performed a certain number of experi- ments in physics ! The President of Princeton told us last summer in Brook- lyn that one great need of the educational systems of this country was proper articulation; and I most heartily agree with him. Our amorphous, disjointed system reminds me forcibly of a line of railroad upon which I had once occa- sion frequently to travel : one half of it was operated by one company, the other half by another. The two companies were at swords' points. If one train could possibly get away from the junction before the other arrived it in- variably did so, and the belated and disappointed passengers were left to spend the night as best they could. And so it is, at least in New York State, with educational affairs. The educational trains do not wait for one another. The students, nay, the whole people, are the sufferers. The remedy is for the State to step in and take control. Then there will be no question as to whether the university shall articulate down, or the public school shall articulate up. To recapitulate, the three reasons for State control of the course of study are : 1. That the uniform course of study would be a better course of study than the average of the many diverse courses of study now in exi tence. —29 454 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. 2. That a uniform standard for compulsory-education purposes would be possible. 3. That all parts of the system would be consistent, and the loss of time and waste of energy, now everywhere apparent, would be obviated. While the elementary part of such a State course of study should be olv ligatory in all school districts, the wisdom of leaving the higher parts to the option of the local authorities will be at once apparent. Another subject proper to State control is the regulation of the qualifica- tions of teachers. This State, for example, has established and supports ten State normal schools ; and there are besides several city training schools and teachers' classes in academies and union schools. Yet not 25 per cent, of all the teachers in the public schools of the State have gone through a rejsriilar course of professional training. The State has provided the means to prepare teachers for their work; it has not required that those who enter the ])ublic" educational service shall have any special qualifications in the way of training. The result is that normal schools, in this State at least, are rather acade- mies than training schools; and that every year there is poured into our schools a mass of untrained teaching material that acts like a brake upon the wheels of educational progress. It may be objected : Do not you city supc^r- intendents subject all candidates for teachers* positions to severe examination?? in scholarship, and is not this a sufficient test of qualification ? Tnie, I an- swer, we have our examinations; but these examinations, except to the ign^v rant, are not severe. The scholastic attainments of the great majority of the applicants for teachers* licenses — the licenses of the lowest grade, I mean — in all the cities with which I am acquainted, would not entitle their ownei^ to matriculate in Yale or Hansard. "Why, then,** it may be asked, "are not your examinations more severe ?** Simply because it is absolutely necessar}', in order to provide a suflicicnt number of class teachers, to issue a certain number of licenses each year; and, on the one hand, there is no central au- thority to lay down a proper standard of qualifications, nor on the other hand is the position of class teacher made either so remunerative or so agreeable a-^ to attract to the service large uuml)ers of persons of a high grade of scholar- ship. And yet this is the most imi)ortant consideration of all. As the teacher is, the claims is. As the teachers are, the school is. While year af^er year thousands of jwrsons, not of a high grade of scholarship, and with no knowl- edge of the scientific priucii)les, methods and historj' of education, are a[>- I)ointed as teachers in the public schools, can we exjject to raise our school? to that plane which they ought to occupy, to make them that civilizing force which the necessities of our political system demand ? The State will not allow a lawyer to practice on our proi)erty, nor a physician upon our bodios, nor even a dentist upon our teeth, unless he has successfully gone through a course of professional training. Should it exercise less care in the case <»f those who are to practice on the intellectual and moral faculties of its own citizens ? Surely not. Surely if this subject were understood, if its trenien- CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS. 455 dous importance were appreciated, all intelligent, conscientious men and women would stand shoulder to shoulder for this the greatest of all educa- tional reforms. Closely connected mth this subject is the licensing of teachers. If the State is to prescribe the qualifications of teachers, it follows that licenses should be issued directly by the educational executive officer of the State, or indirectly by his representatives, who should be responsible to him, and to him alone, for the discharge of this great trust. Under no circumstances should licenses be issued or examinations for licenses be conducted by persons who are not professional teachers. No local board of education should have power to control this branch of our work. It is wholly professional, and, in my judgment, belongs to the State superintendent of public instruction, or a duly authorized representative. Another matter which the State should control is the compilation of educa- tional statistics. Statistics may be u&ed as a basis for the distribution of the State school fund, or for purjjoses of comparison, or as the basis of legisla- tive action. In all three cases they are worth very little, unless collected in a uniform manner. The four lines of work in which, as I have indicated, all the cities of the State should be subject to a central educational power, are the laying out of a course of study, the determination of the qualifications of teachers, the licens- ing of teachers, and the compiling of educational statistics. What machinery will be necessary for the i3erformance of these high and onerous duties ? Here again we find the germ of what we want in existing systems. ' In nearly every State there is a State superintendent, and in most a State board of education. The powers of the State superintendent should be greatly enlarged. The State board of education might be merely an advisory body, or it might be a legis- lative body, or it might be partly advisory and partly legislative; but in all cases it should consist exclusively, as it doe.s in France, of professional educat- ors. In it should be represented the faculties of all the leading colleges and universities, the faculties of all the leading professional schools, and the school officers of cities and counties, in proportion to population. Would not such a board of education give us a course of study that would lead directly, to use Huxley's phrase, from the gutter to the university ? Would it not determine the professional training of teachers in such a way as to make teachmg really a profession ? Would it not devise plans for the licensing of teachers such as those adopted in Germany, that would effectually shut out the ignorant and incompetent ? With such a board of education at his back, what could not a clear-headed, energetic State superintendent accomplish ? What would be lefl for the local authorities of cities ? Much, and of the highest importance. The course of study would be formed ; the qualifications of teachers would be determined ; but there would remain the execution of this course of study, the selection of text-books, the employment and payment of teachers, the discipline of the schools, the location and building of school- 456 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION houses, and the thousand other matters of minor importance that belong tn the management of city schools. In trying to determine how these functions shall be best performed, let us bear constantly in mind the two facts : FLrst that all progress depends upon differentiation of structure and specialization of function ; and, second, that we are likely to find in existing systemi? the promise and potency of all forms of educational reform. Indeed, the machin- ery is everywhere ready to our hand. In some places it is better oiled, and works more expeditiously and more surely than in others, but in nearly all places it is practically the same. In some places — and I am happy to .say that my own city of Brooklyn is one of them — differentiation of structure and specialization of function have been carried much farther than in other? ; but in all we find great similarity in the ground-plan of the system. Even- where we find a board of education. It may be only a committee of the city council, as in Buffalo, but still it is a board of education. We find superin- tendents, with or without assistants, according to the sizes of cities. We find principals, wath or without assistant overseers, according to the sizes of their schools. And lastly, we find class teachers. How shall the various functions be distributed among these officers ? Upon what principle shall the division of functions be made ? That pnnciple, as I have already pointed out, is re- sponsibility. For certain lines of work, boards of educa-tion should be respon- sible ; for certain linas of work, professional educators should be responsible. The board of education, be it large or small, be its members elected by popular vote or appointed by the mayor, with or without the approval of the city council, is still directly or indirectly the representative of the people of the vicinage in the management of the schools, and as such it has the dis- bursement of the school moneys, which come in large measure from local taxes. The board should select the sites for school buildings, and, either di- rectly or through its agents, superintend the construction. It should purchase all supplies, either directly or through an agent. In these matters the atti- tude of scholastic officers should be purely advisory, except in the case of text-books. Text-books being so intimate a part of the scholastic work, and so nearly allied to the course of study, the selection should rest absolutely with the scholastic officers. But after the selection has been made, all busi- ness transactions should be conducted by the board. The board, too, must employ all teachers. But then the question arises: What teachers? Who shall make the selection? Were the requisite machinery for determining the qualifications of teachers by the State authorities once set in motion, this would be a matter of much less consequence than it is at present ; but as mat- ters stand now it is one of the highest importance. Who shall make the nominations ? Shall it be a ward or district board of tnistees, or a local com- mittee composed of one, two, or three members of the central board ; shall it be a larger standing committee of the board, or shall the whole board both nominate and appoint, or shall the superintendent nominate, or shall the principal of each school nominate ? These, I believe, exhaust all the possible CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS. 457 n:ketho(ls. The first four methods — nominations by district boards of trustees, «>r by the central board or its committees — though the most common, are c-1 early violations of the law of evolution. They are objectionable, first, be- oause the men who compase such committees have not, in the majority of oases, the special knowledge necessary to decide upon the merits of candidates ; a,nF political and social influence which it is the duty of every conscientious school officer to disregard, and if necessary to fight at all hazards. Should nominations, then, be made by the 8uj)eriutendent ? I answer em- phatically, no. In the first place, no one man can have the necessary knowl- epix)rtunities for favoritism are so great that only the stryigest men will refrain from helping their personal friends, or the favorites of their friends, to positions in the schools, with little regard to their fitness for the trust." Is, then, the principal of a school the proper person to intrust with this power? Ill my judgment, yes. He has, or should have, a more intimate knowledge of the requirements of his school than any other person. He should be respon- sible for his school, from the lowest class to the highest. How can he be held responsible when he ha*^ no voice in the selection of his subordinates ; wJien, contrary to his protest, incompetent teachers may be retained in his classes ? Responsibility is the quantity that determines the lines along which differen- tiation should proceed. All financial and business afiairs are given over to the board of education, because the board is directly responsible to the people, or to the people's representatives, for the expenditure of the j)eople's money ; and, in like manner, the principal, being responsible to the State, or to the State's representatives, for the education given in his school, should have large powers in the matter of the selection of teachers. The sui)erintendent should share these powers only so far as to have a veto in the case of an appointment of an incompetent teacher, and to have the power of nominating, when it is advisable to transfer a teacher from one school to another ; and the board of education should share them only so far as confirmation is concerned. Con- firmation by the board of education, which of course implies the power of rejection, would be a necessary check upon the principal's power, and would cause him to feel a keen sense of his high responsibility. Closely connected with the subject of appointment, is the question of re- moval of teachers. If admission to the teacher's profession were regulated on proper principles by the State, it would follow that the power of arbitrary 458 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION removal would no longer remain with the local authorities — either school of- ficers, or a board of education. Here I think we would do well to borrow from the Prussian school system. "Although," says President Adams of Cornell in describing the Prussian school law, "although the proper authori- ties of a district may select, from those having the requisite acquirements, a teacher for their school, when he has once been installed they cannot remove him. Such removal can be brought about only by the provincial board. The object of this provision is easily seen. The Government says : The teacher has made a long study of pedagogy, and he has greater ability to judge of the art of teaching and managing scholars than those can have who have had no such training. We will no more allow the people of a district on their whim to turn out a teacher whom we have educated, than we will allow a miHtary company to turn out a captain. If it can be made to appear that there are good reasons why he should be turned out, those reasons must be presented to the provincial board, since they are so far removed as to be free from preju- dice." How different from this ideal system is that which obtains in the State of New York ! In his annual report. Superintendent Draper shows that out of 10,644 rural districts reporting, "More than half of them had a teacher who had not taught in the same district a preceding term. More than seventy- five per cent, had not been a year in their present situations." Doubtless, if statistics were collected for the cities of the State, they would make a better showing than the rural districts ; but it may be set down as a settled princi- ple— the outgrowth of abundant experience in this and all other countries — that permanency of tenure on the part of teachers is one of the primary conditions of having good schools. It is not, however, permanency of tenure for inefficient teachers that we want, but permanency of tenure for those whose qualifications have been tried by competent authority ; and, as I have already pointed out, that authority should be vested in a body of professional teach- ers clothed with powers derived, not from a county or a municipality, but directly from the State itself. There are certain corollaries which, I think, flow logically from the prem- ises I have laid down. If the State, through its educational officers, is to make the course of study for all public schools within its borders; if the State, through its educational officers, is to determine the qualifications of teachers and to license all teachers ; if teachers should be appointed by the boards of education, upon the nomination of principals, subject to confirma- tion by the board of education — if these things are granted, the following corollaries must be accepted : 1. The office of State superintendent must cease to be a j)olitical office. 2. The city superintendent should, in all the educational mattera of the municipality, directly represent the State. 3. As the representative of the State, his qualifications should be deter- mined and his license should be issued by the central educational authority. 4. He should be appointed by the municipal educational authorities only upon the nomination of the State educational authorities. CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS. 459 5. He should be appointed either for a long tenn of years, as are the judges of* the supreme court, or should be appointed for life, and should be removable only by the State board of education, on complaint of a municipal or county l>oard. 6. Principals of schools who are to be responsible on the one hand to the luunicipal board for getting the best pgssible results from the expenditure of tlie people's money, and to the local superintendent for the execution of the ?->tate course of study, and to both for the nomination of subordinate teachers, :should be appointed by the municipal board on the nomination of the super- intendent, either for life or a long term of years ; and should be removable l3 J the State board upon complaint either of the municipal board or of the superintendent. There are other questions which might, perhaps, be regarded as coming if^ithin the scope of this paper. Sudi qu^tions are : Whether public schools should have many or few classes ; (whether promotions of pupils should be zuade once a year or twice a year; whether promotions should be made upon tbe results of examination, or of teachers' estimates; /whether each school should receive pupils only from a limited district, or from any part of a mu- nicipality ; what should be the particular duties of superintendents and prin- cipals in the matter of training teachers and in the general government of the schools? But these questions I have not the time to consider; and if I had the time, I have not the inclination. They are questions that have been dis- cussed time and again before this Department, by men abler and more experi- enced than I — men from whom I would gladly learn — men whom it would be presumption in me to attempt to instruct. They are questions, moreover, whose solution will probably never come in any final form until uniform or- ganization shall have l)een attained. Uniform organization can come only through the resumption on the part of the State of that control over educational administration in cities as well as in country districts, which will provide a uniform course of study, which will prevent the employment of incompetent teachers, and which to the efficient will secure permanency of employment and freedom from all forms of perse- cution. As difierentiation of structure and specialization of function in polit- ical societies lead directly to the greatest legitimate liberty on the part of the citizen, so will differentiation of structure and specialization of function lead to the greatest legitimate liberty for the teacher in his own peculiar province ; liberty to pursue his calling, to perform his professional work, with an eye single to the interests of his pupils. "The State," says Sir William Hamilton, "may wisely establish, protect, and regulate ; but unless it continue a watchful inspection, the protected es- tablishment will soon degenerate into a public nuisance — a monopoly for merely private advantage." What I would plead for is that inspection and supervision by the State which will effectually prevent our great public-school system being used for merely private advantage, whether political or religious. 460 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. That it may be used, that in some places it is used "for merely private ad- vantage," there is only too good reason to believe. And whenever this ha-* come to pass, the efficiency of our schools is impaired in two ways : first, bv diminishing the power of the teacher for good ; second, by preventing many men and women of independent character from entering the profession, be- cause they will not stoop to practice the fawning that leads to thrift. The position the teacher — even the humblest — ought to occupy may not unfitly be symbolized in the beautiful lines: *'A8 some tall cliff that lifts its awful form. Swells from the vale, and midway leaves the storm, Tho' round its breast the rolling clouds are spread, Eternal sunshine settles on its head." The storms of political strife may seethe around him, the clouds of social crime may envelop him, but he should be a soul that, ever mingling with and ever fighting the obscene tumult, is never by it contaminated. The State has no higher duty than to create the conditions under which this ideal' may be realized. Can this ideal ever be realized ? Perhaps not, in our time. But it is a duty we owe to society, it is a duty we owe to ourselves,, to grasp the ideal finnly, and to bend all our energies to its attainment. The history of evolution shows that all true reforms come slowly. Oftentimes it happens that what seems wholly evil lays the foundation for what is good. War and pestilence, cru- elty and oppression, have all had their parts to play in the economy that has evolved civilization out of barbarism. The trials to which public education has been subjected are doubtless the means by which the system will be moulded to better and nobler things. Oftentimes we may seem to retrograde when we are only gathering strength for another great advance. The wheels of progress can no more stop than the earth can stand still. "Swing on, old pendulum of the earth, Forever and forever, Keeping the time of suns and stars — The march that endeth never! Long as you swing, shall earth be glad, And men be partly good and bad; Long as you swing, shall wrong come right, As sure as morning follows night; The days go wrong, the ages never. Swing on, old pendulum, swing forever ! " DISCUSSION. H. S. Tarbkll, Providence, R. I. : I agree iu the main very cordially with the able and effective paper to which we have just listened; but I must at the outset express my dissent at a few points. DISCUSSION. 461 I do not believe that public schools will ever be supplanted by any other educational agency. No schools are improving so fast as public schools. Xone have in their work more philosophy, nor in their results more solidity. They are the infantry and artillery of the army attacking ignorance, while private schools are skirmishers only. The private schools know better public sentiment, the public schools know better the fundamental philosophy of edu- cation. Such centralized State control as has been advocated seems to me unnecessary and injurious. Let us have the unity that comes from agreement upon ap- proved principles and methods sanctioned by experience; not that rigid uni- formity that comes from external prescription. Though we have no American system of education, we are making good progress towards one. Pupils at the stage of advancement at which they enter the high school are in all the school systems of good reputation in the United States of very nearly equal attainments. Our courses of study are not fundar mentally very different. Education belongs primarily to the family. It is the duty of parents to educate their children. In process of time and by division of labor this becomes a delegated duty. The parents employ teachers to instruct their children. With increasing size and closer organization of communities the municipality undertakes to relieve parents of the inconvenience of employing teachers, and, as their agent, becomes the employer. At last the State, and the several civil communiti^ as parts of the State, and local agents therefor, become cognizant of their corporate interest in the education of the young, and therefore on their own account, as well as agents for the parents, employ teachers who are now public officers, or servants, in- structing for the parents and for the State. The duty of the State in education is not done when for its own safety it has provided that its citizens shall be intelligent enough to read the constitu- tion, and its electors their ballots ; but it has the further duty to provide for its own power and advancement by the difflision of general intelligence and the fiill development of the powers of its coming citizens. The State acts, in the employment of teachers, through agents called school boards, or school committees. These, at the beginning, have all the rights and duties of employers of labor. That is, the right to say what shall be taught, and when, where, how, and by whom it shall be taught. If the school system be of much extent or complexity, the discharge of the fiiU duties of a school committee becomes too onerous for its members, and a new class of employes comes into existence, who are employed to discharge duties originally belonging to the school committee. These persons are law- yers, architects, physicians, or superintendents, according to the duties as- signed them. Employ^ are of two general classes : those employed for the special knowl- edge and skill which they possess, and those rendering service under direction. 462 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. The first class are called professionals, or experts, and they stand in a relation to their employers different from that of ordinary employ^. They may be directed in general matters, but not in the details of the special work for which they are employed. If I employ a chemist to analyze compounds for me, I may direct him as to which substance to analyze first, but cannot in- struct him as to the agents he is to use in his analysis. So a superintendent is an expert or professional employ^ of a school committee. HLs duties may. in a general way, be prescribed, but what definite directions he shall give teachers as to methods of instruction or discipline cannot be prescribed fur him. A school committee may have several able lawyers, physicians,. or teachei? in its membership, but as a body it is not composed of legal, medical, or ped- agogic experts. It has certain legislative functions; its executive functions are nearly all delegated, and its judicial functions are merely appellate. In those of his duties in which he is acting as an expert, a superintendent is, or ought to be, beyond direction. When engaged in duties which any in- telligent committeeman might be supposed capable of performing were it con- venient for him, the superintendent is properly subject to the directions of his employers, the school committee. Such is the general intelligence in this country, and so well understood are the general principles upon which courses of study are framed, that a school committee may safely exercise their prerogative in the establishment in out- line of courses of study. So good are the text-books which our publisher? provide, and so helpful are their agents, that the selection of text-books prop- erly falls to the school committee. But how these books are to be used, and how long the several classes shall use each, are matters beyond their ken. Such questions call for an expert, and should be referred to the superintend- ent. The examination, the promotion, and grading of pupils are his also. To select the rank and file of the teaching-force is a matter that after certain preliminary questions, such as scholarship and training, are answered, can well be left to the school committee. If a committee want the assistance of the superintendent in this matter, they have hired him, and can command his services. When it becomes a question of securing a teacher for some pe- culiar j308ition, such as training-teacher or special teacher of any kind, then common-sense and character-reading fail. Many and careful tests must lie applied, and the services of the school expert are called for. But, aside from such cases, I believe that the superintendent is better off if the committee, and not the superintendent, select the teachers. It is not best that the certificating and the appointing powers should be vested in the same parties. The jwwer to issue certificates of qualification to candidates should, subject to general regulations by the school committee, be wholly the superintendent's, and then, sf)eaking broadly, the school committee, by a sub-committee overlooking the entire field, should make from oertitieeen established, and could not now be maintained, did city and county superin- tendents confine their efforts and study to the bettering of the character of instruction. The subject has been set forth in a discussion and papers before the Council of Education, and in an able paper before the National Educational Associa- tion, by Supt. Stevenson, then of Columbus, Ohio, whose nearly twenty year? in upbuilding one of the best city school systems in the country, gives to hi? words the weight of experience, rather than of theory. I remember that this is a great country, and that the obstacles that with constant regularity are met in the discussions in this Department, arise from a failure well to apprehend and comprehend the varied circumstances amidst which we labor. While it has been said that "the personal dangers to the superintendent are, that he may become a business man," and while it may be true of Prov- idence and the old cities of New England, further west another statement seems to me nearer truth : " The {>ersonal and public danger with the suj>er- intendent is that he be incompetent intelligently to participate in the busiue&s affairs of the corporation, whose executive officer he is or should be." John E. Bradley, of Minneapolis, Minn., said that he indorsed the phi- losophy and general plan of the paper, but thought it tended too much to centralization of function. He believed power should accompany responsibil- ity, and that steadiness and unity of administration would be secured by giving control of details and direction of work into the hands of the super- intendent. It was possible to restrict the supply of poor teachers, and the consequent pressure for place, by keeping the city training-school for teachers small, and holding its standards high. H. S. Jones, Erie, Pa. : The plan outlined indirectly assumes that the peo- ple of the United States are homogeneous, which is far from the fact. Taking my own State as an illustration, we find a large element popularly called the "Pennsylvania Dutch," a sturdy, brainy race, who still use their German dialect in the home and on the street, and thousands of miners and iron- workers from the diflferent nations over the sea. In my own city a large per cent, of the people came from Germany, Ireland, Italy, and Poland, and carr}* in bold relief their national characteristics. So it is more or less all over the country, the population of the towns and cities being largely a conglomerate. When the common people become like so many shot, bearing the same national heredity, inspired by similar hojics, and impressed by a life that merely repeats itself generation after generation, then the centralization of education may be in place. One of the marked weaknesses of the public- school svstem to-dav is its stubborn trend toward uniformitv in courses of DISCUSSION. 465 study, and methods of instruction and management. Elasticity, and even wide differences in systems, should obtain, especially in large cities. Unless this is the case, the teaching must, of necessity, be driven into narrow, me- chanical lines. It is encouraging to know that the battle is on in behalf of the individual, and that the school system is to be fitted to the child, and not the child to the system. So far, our cities, without exception, are far behind the great companies, coiiK)rations, and business firms of our country in conserving expert power. These enterprises — our pride and boast — worship the expert; through him they gain progress and protection. Ripe experience to them is the choicest capital. The city school sptems bury expert talent under a grinding ser\'ice in details that could be as well handled by persons of ordinary ability. And worse, men fitted by nature and years of successful labor are thrust out of the ^'ork as if teaching were the "sorriest of trades." If the schools of the town and city are to gain the breadth, push, and growth which crown busi- ness effort, the expert teacher must be called from the tread-mill of routine and set at the solution of the hundreds of problems which stand as obstruc- tions to genuine progress. E. E. White, Cincinnati, O. : I am not sure that I would subject the ad- ministration of the schools in cities so fully to official direction by the State as the very able paper by Supt. Maxwell seems to recommend, but I fully in- dorse the position that it is the right and duty of the State to provide and secure an efficient administration of the schools in these cities ; and to this end the schools should be protected from the control of the ward politician. The great problem which now confronts the American people is the wise gfjvemment of our large cities. More and more it is found necessary to vest the management of all municipal departments having the expenditure of large sums of money in appointed boards, subject to removal on evidence of corrupt action ; and the same tendency is obsei-ved in school administration. The right of the State to provide a wise and efficient system of school control in cities is emphasized by the fact that school systems are not municipal organ- izations. School officers are not municipal officers. They are the agents of the State, and as such are directly responsible to the State. The school sys- tem in every city is a part of the school system of the State, and its regula- tion and control are determined solely by State law. Every school officer derives all his powers, whatever they may be, directly from the State, and not from the municipality. These facts show that it is as much the duty of the State to protect the schools in the wards of a city from corrupt influences as in the townships in the mountains. I fully agree with the position of the paper respecting the necessity of dif- ferentiation and specialization in school administration. We have reached the point in the development of our school systems when school instruction and discipline should be clearly recognized as a special department of school 466 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. administration. There is a widening opinion that boards of education, though thoroughly competent for the general management of schools, are not ciiin- petent to prescribe courses of study and methods of instruction and disci- pline, or to determine the qualifications of teachers. These duties involve a knowledge of education, its principles, history, and conditions, which few men possess who are not professional experts ; and hence it is that boards of edu- cation are increasingly committing these duties to the superintendent and }n> assistants. It would not be a very inconsiderate statement were I to ae^ert that real progress in school instruction in our cities for the past twenty years has been largely the result of the efficiency and authority of school superin- tendents. What experience has shown to be necessary" and wise should now be recog- nized by the State in its organization of city school systems. The law should not only provide for school supervision, but the powers and duties of super- visory officen* should be clearly defined. There should be " diflferentiation and specialization," to adopt the quoted language of the paper. Permit me to add, that in my judgment the selection of teachers, the most important duty in school administration, should be vested, in some wi?e manner, in the superintendent of schools. What he is now really doing in many of our cities, under cover, should be done by authority of law, oi^enly and with a full assumption of all the responsibility involved. There is a clear distinction between the selection and nomination of teachers and their employment. The superintendent's action should be subject to the approval of the board. The time hs^ come when the supervision of schools should be specialized, and whatever the State decrees in this matter will meet with the approval of the people, whatever may be true of the ward politician. What the people want is good schools, and this requires a wise organization and efficient direction. A. S. Draper, of New York: I have been much interested in what my old friend Superintendent Bradley, of Minneapolis, has said concerning the licensing and employment of teachers, and, as I have given considerable thought to the subject in recent years, I have a word which I would like to say upon it. He takes ground for the employment of teachers by .^uperiu- tendenU. I am free to say that I do not think this is tenable. Boards of ed- ucation will not ordinarily yield it. They certainly mil not in the East, and if it is now done in a single city in the Northwest, it seems to me inevitable that it will not long continue. I am not sure that they ought to yield it, and I am therefore doubtful about the propriety of professional superintendent? claiming it. But it seems to me that we can take a position which will b^* invulnerable, which will accomplish all that we want to accomplish, and af the same time not interfere with the employment of teachers by boards of ed- ucation. When we say that a candidate for a teacher's certificate should be examined only by a professional expert, by a person who is thoroughly com- petent, all the world will sustain us. W^hat more do we want ? My idea is DISCUSSION. 467 til at we should close up the avenues to the teaching profession, by insisting that certificates of qualifications shall be issued only by superintendents, and ^wlien we have done that it makes little difference who does the employing. I am for doing the practicable thing, the thing which can be done. I tliink that for years we have been working at the wrong end of this problem. Instead of contending about who shall be employed, when we are inevitably doomed to be beaten upon it, we should contend about who shall be licensed, when we must inevitably succeed upon it. During the last t'wo years we have turned back in the State of New York more than ten thousand persons who sought teachers' certificates by means of our system of examinations. We might have talked for an indefinite period of time, and said what we might, and we could never have prevented the employment of these persons after they had once been certified ; but public sentiment sustains us in claiming that the determination of qualifications shall be left with pro- f(issional experts. I am therefore confidently of the opinion that much greater j>rogress will be made in advancing the character and promoting the efficiency of the teaching service through guarding the avenues of entrance to that service, than by quarreling with boards of education as to who shall be ap- pointed to teach in the public schools. About one matter I do not wish to be misunderstood. I am not in favor of limiting the authority of city superintendents. If I could, I would confer upon them much broader authority than they now have. I would give them almost autocratic powers within their sphere of duty and action, and then I would hold them responsible for results. After a teacher has once been ap- pointed, I would have the superintendent utilize the services of that teacher in whatever grade he could to the best advantage. I would confer upon him the power to transfer a teacher from a lower grade to a higher, or from a higher grade to a lower, just as he thought best; but I am very confident in the opinion that it is impracticable, and that it is disastrous to his own effi- ciency, to arouse the antagonisms which are inevitably incident to the em- ployment of teachers. H. A. Wise, Baltimore, 'Md. : The tendency is to have too much system — there should be no more than is absolutely necessary to secure the efficiency of the schools. The gentleman from Kansas City (Mr. Greenwood) has well said that wherever a desire for good schools exists, and their value is truly estimated by the community, there will surely be good schools, but in a community in which this public spirit does not exist no system can be efficient. As an illustration of the truth of this statement, the school system of one of the wealthiest and oldest States of the Union is acknowledged by the State Su- perintendent, in his last annual report, to be in a most inefficient condition, owing to the prostitution of the public interest to the greed of politicians and place-hunters. One remark contained in this paper meets my hearty approval : "As the 468 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION teacher, so is the class." Good teachers make good schools, and a system whose schools are good must be an efficient one. So we see that the best plan for securing a good school system may be narrowed down to providing good teach- ers for its schools. Everj- system should require its teachers to be broadlv and liberally educated. Teachers possessed of excellent scholarship are what the schools of the country need at this time more than anything else — teach- ers who understand that the main purpose of education is the acquisition of faculty, and not the mere cramming of facts contained in text-books into the minds of pupils. We must learn to attach more importance to the intellectual attainments and enthusiasm of persons offering to teach, than we do to their knowledge of the methods of teaching. The explanation of simple things lies hidden in things that are profound. POPULAR CRITICISMS AND THEIR PROPER INFLUENCE UPON SCHOOL SUPERINTENDENCE. MERRILL E. GATES, PRESIDENT OF RUTGERS COLLEGE. The superintendence of education is no new enterprise. If it were no older than is your Association, still such a body of men as I see before me, meeting under the auspices of a college for the training of teachers which already numbers in its classes hundreds of devoted instructors from our schools, would inspire most confident hope that any problems set by your popular criticism would be wisely considered and patiently and intelligently solved. This train- ing college means that teachers are awakening to the consciousne^ that there is a science of education ; that the art of teaching is not mere empiricism ; that the science of teaching rests upon unquestionable principles of psy- cholog}% and demands and repays earnest and prolonged study. And the ex- istence of a Department of Superintendence in the National Educational Association is in itself evidence of a widespread conviction among our people as to these three points : (1) All children should be educated ; (2) the State must see to it that this is done ; and (3), this work of the State must be systematically and intelligently supervised. In the place where we meet, and in the history written in the deeds of the men who meet here, there would be reason for con- fidence and hope as to the future of school-management in our country. Yet our confidence has stronger reasons than these. The feeling of deep respect with which I look into your faces to-night is not merely respect for what this body of men now is; it is respect and reverential regard for what it ought to be and for what I firmly believe it yet will be. Such a gathering of the men to whom is intrusted the direction of the great work of public instruction in America should include, and more and more tvill include, the most compre- POPULAR CRITICISMS. 469 hensive, the begt-matured thought of our time on education, its methods, its j)roblenis, its traditions, and its needs. You have passed the flush of youth. In one of the popular novelists of the day I came upon this sentence, a day or two ago. Speaking of his hero, be says : " His age was well within the twenties, and, since the whole of the world that is worth anything at all — love, friendship, ambition, hope, enthu- siasm, good digestion, strength, and fighting power — belong essentially to the twenties, he ought on that account to be enormously envied by all who have pa*5sed into the thirties, or — poor beggars — even beyond." "Poor beggars" are most of us, by that test ; for the work of superintending and directing calls oftenest for men who need not speak wholly in the future tense — for men who have already " brought some things to pass." Contrast with the novelist's play- fully-extravagant praise of "the twenties," the estimate Browning has left us (in the prologue to his last volume of verse, written but a few weeks before his death), of the clear-eyed, reverent recognition of things as they are, that comes with maturer years. This clearer vision at which you have arrived may be disillusionized ; but in the clear light that streams from God, who informs and transcends all His works, it f^ee^ things as they really are. Knowing that he is truly strong who can combine with the wisdom of later years the noble en- thusiasm and the undaunted courage of youth, let us look first at the work of superintending education in its large, essential, unchanging features. To delight in your work is your privilege. That thoughtful man is fortu- nate who finds his life-work more and more satisfying as he studies it and practices it. There should be grateful recognition of the fact that our work will bear analysis and reflection ; that it grows in value, in significance, and in satisfaction as we try it by the highest standards. The earliest American superintendents of education as officers of the State or the city, date from time well within the memory of men still living. But looked at in its larger relations, the superintendence of education is no new occupation. The education of the race is the main occupation of mankind. It is the superintendence of education, from generation to generation, that preserved the solidarity of the race. Since the world began, -to educate man, to bring out what is in him, has been at once unconsciously the process and consciously the goal, in all mate- rial advancement men have made, in all their institutional life in family, church, and state. It has marked all the conscious and unconscious efforts of the race toward a higher civilization, toward a nobler manhood. The pa- triarchal heads of clans and tribes were superintending the education of those tribes. The founders of cities and the legislators for nascent common- wealths were supervising their schooling in the institutions of society. The great names which the world honors in art and literature, are the names of those who have given emphasis to this work of teaching men. These are the world's great directors and superintendents of the world's great work — the education of man. The roll of great patriots and statesmen is the list of —30 470 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, practical superintendents of education, on a larger scale charged, 8*^ you an* charged, with the task of embodying the ideas of great educators in in>titu- tions and laws, to guide the race and keep it right. The great poet*« ami historians are the critics and supervising teachers in mankind's great systtni of public education, selecting the names and the methods of those who, h\ ideas or by deeds, have been the race's greatest teachers, and in poem.-* and histories repeating their lessons to large bodies of learners. As the love (•:* human hearts has been " the great conservator of good," has kept alive the virtues through all the ages, so the work of education has constantly been the developing force in the amelioration of the race. Discoverers in material science have been at once teachers to instruct and school boards to pmvidf the means ; and thus by ideas embodied in literature, in art, in iustitutitiii.-. and in conquests over stubborn matter, the work of education has gone for- ward for mankind. This world-old work of education has been done in part unconsciously ami in part by conscious effort. Take such a work as Bagehot's " Physics ami Politics ; " in its opening chapters what a light it throws on the educating ef- fect of those dark ages of race-striving and brutal warfare, as they trained the race, by bitter sufferings and. bloody conquests, to know the immense value of certain radical elements of manhood — of persistence, of united eflfort, of wi?*- and forceful leadership. And when the light of written history falls ujHm the record our race has made, the work of education is seen to be more and more manifestly the conscious aim of leaders and of institutions. The work of education was at one time patriarchal, an institution of the tribe, with it^^ mingling of family tradition with religious rites. At a later time the work of education was for centuries the work of the church. In some of its phase- it must always be the especial work of the church ; and in the thoroughufts- and the universality of education, all who love the church in any form must always have a deep, perennial interest. But as self-government, in the light of the moral law, becomes more and more the a)ntrolling principle in national life and legislation as in the life of the individual, it is inevitable that educa- tion should come to be more and more a matter of deepest concern to the state. Self-government involves intelligent self-direction. Nations and States which depend upon the principle of self-government, by the very first axiom of ix)litical science, by the law of self-preservation, must concern themselves: with the work of educating their citizens. Always, education has been and must be first of all a matter of family concern. For good or ill it begins* in the family. When the family and the school cooperate, then follow the bt^i results. And when the family fails to educate its children with and for the school, that the school through its pupils may educate the family, is one great aim in a wise sujxjrintendence of the schools by the officers of the Stat*?. You, gentlemen, represent this great race-long, world-wide work of educa- tion, in its relation to the State, in a nation composed in the main of Christian families in Christian homes. POPULAH CRITICISMS. 471 We have seen that the race has always been engaged in this great work of education. At first the simple storing up of experience in one man's lifetime was the limit of education. That nation was best educated that had most clear-head^ old men, who could communicate what they had learned from experience, when like conditions, new to younger men, again confronted the people. All the words for councils called to consider wisely such crij»es, bear trac^ of this conceded wisdom of the old men. The Greek "Gen)sia,*' the Latin "Senate," the ecclesiastical "Presbyter," and "Elder" are the fossils in speech which show us how general was this recognition of wisdom as stored up only in the aged. Then came the conscious effort to perpetuate it and to transmit it in other ways than orally, by monuments, letters, books, called "the food of the soul" when Alexandria's great library was building, and took those words as the inscription over its entrance. Then men learned to profit by the wisdom of other nations and of generations long passed. Tran- scripts upon parchment and paper held fuller records than one mind could make on brain-tissue and transmit by lips of clay. Then went on the " hiv- ing up " of knowledge, from generation to generation. Men learned to stand on the shoulders of the ages that had gone before — to see farther into the ^ture by their study of the past. Thus men became more and more conscious that the great business of life is education. No other work compares with it in importance. And the great business of all education in all its varied forms is to supply the world with teachers. This is not the narrow opinion of one who seeks to magnify his office. It is the deliberate conclusion of the philosophy adopted by the men of our time who most loudly profess themselves disciples of progress. It is the dictum of the man whose followers boast of the breadth of his gen- eralization in a "cosmic" philosophy. It is Herbert Spencer who says: "The subject which involves all other subjects, and therefore the subject in which the education of every one should culminate, is, * The Theory and Practice of Education.'" But the vital question in progress is, " Does each age consciously and in- telligently add something to the general store ? " With all due deference to the past, is there an openness to the needs and the possibilities of the present ? The Chinese or the Japanese student who bows himself out of your pres- ence backward, because Confucius or Mencius two thousand years ago told him never to turn his back to a teacher, is a beautiful example of politeness, and of docile compliance with the dictates of the past. We want no less of politeness; but we want it upon principle, and intelligently practiced. We want respect for what is essential and unchanging in principle, combined with intelligent openness to conviction where new surroundings and new needs de- mand new measures. To secure this mingling of conservatism with progress is the problem set us in the subject to-night assigned us for discussion. Unchanging principles are the essential life of all work in education. To hold fast to these principles is the condition of sound school-management. 472 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. To be able to make changes in the modes of application by which these prin- ciples shall lay hold upon and vitalize their surroundings, is the problem of the superintendent. Can a system of education based on sound principle^ so adapt itself to changes in its environment as to grow stronger by such changes ? This is the biologist's test of life in an organism. Let us try school management and the science of education by this test Are there certain fixed principles which change not, which govern all true work in education, everj'where ? We answer, "There are such principles." There is a science of pedagogic?, of education, underlying all the best work of the art of teaching, in success- ful pedagogy. This science is of recent growth, as a science. But who can read Plato and Aristotle and say that they did not know it ? The great body of teachers have paid it too little attention. Yet its principles underlie all their best work. For ages men neglected to investigate, scientifically, the processes of breath- ing and of combustion, while yet they daily cooked their food and each mo- ment took into their lungs the needed supply of oxygen. Philosophical analysis of a very familiar process may be long postponed. Yet the process may be in harmony with scientific principles, and capable of more or less perfect reduction to the definitions and the methodically developed proposi- tions of science. There is a science of hygiene and of healing, and it de- serves and receives intense and prolonged study. Yet how far is it from the precision of mathematics, from the quantitatively exact measurements and proportions which mark the sciences where mathematics is the key? But will you therefore say, " There is no use in studying the science of healing. Let anyone who wants to, begin to practice it. Physicians often disagree. Let the callow boy begin to practice. If he has the 'root of the matter' in him, he'll do. He can learn more from his own blunders than he could ever learn from studying medicine. Let him try his hand. He'll learn how to do it, if he is ' bom to be a doctor,* and if not, after awhile he will give it up for something else." Shall he try on your children ? Will you open the doors of your home, in illness, to the young quack who holds to empiricism as the only science of medicine ? Yet it Ls the calm estimate of very thoughtful men, that young as is the science of pedagogics there is " a larger body of valid scientific truth within the reach of the teacher than lies within the reach of the physician." Facili- ties are not yet so generally afforded for studying the principles of the science of education that we should be warranted in saying absolutely, "no one shall be allowed to teach without some professional training." But the tendency should be constantly toward that position. Meanwhile let us be thankfiil that young and untrained teachers practice upon healthy, vigorous, youD»r coastitutions, and not upon those who are at death's door. And we will frankly recognize the fact, too, that there are " born teachers," who learn rapidly the art and appreciate almost by intuition the principles of the science of eduea- POPULAB CRITICISMS, 473 tion. Such teachers, as a rule, however, are the first to see and to appreciate tlie value of scientific training to improve their methods. There is a science of education. It has a rapidly growing literature ; and every teacher, wherever his work lie — from the teacher of the district school to the professor in the college or in the professional school — every teacher should have an interest in this literature, and should be a life-long student of the principles that underlie the art of so teaching truth as to stimulate the iutellectual life and to build up character. And this higher standard of pro- fessional responsibility the superintendents of education can do much, are do- ing much, to promote. In the existence of institutions like this Training College for Teachere, in the more thorough training of all teachers in the work of their profession as teachers, I find the most hopeful approach to a solution of the problem which the President of Harvard is to consider with you to-morrow evening — " How can we render closer the relation between the Colleges and the Secondary Schools ? " By the consciousness that there is a science and an art of educa- tion, in which they are fellow-laborers, teachers of every grade are drawn into closer relations, to the benefit of all. If teachers in the public schools seek to master their profession, if they study its histor}% they must inevitably come to see the value of broad and thorough courses of study, the worth of the higher education. And, on the other hand, if a college professor has been suddenly transplanted from the atmosphere of worshipfiil reverence and polite flatter}' with which the ladies of a congrega- tion so often surround the favorite preacher, to the colder, clearer air of the college lecture-room, with its more critical audience ; or if he enters on his duties after years of study, and attempts to teach without having been "bom a teacher," and without having studied the science, the art, and the history of teaching, he will inevitably see the need and the wisdom of schools and courses of lectures for the special training of teachers, and for the development of a true ei*j)rit de corps among those who follow our profession. If he does not see this need, his studenU will see and feel it ! Every master-teacher, then, should seek to know the history of education as an art, the history of its development as a science. Underneath the chang- ing, he will then see the essential, the permanent. He will come to know that principles are vital, that principles do not change, though their applications must vary with changing conditions. At the center of the organism, the life — that architectonic guidmg principle that builds up the organism and presides over its growth and development; on the periphery, organs that reach out and adapt themselves, to lay hold on the changing environment and subdue it to the uses of life. And this typifies the attitude of the master-educator, the true su})erintendent, toward popular criticisms and suggestions. On the one hand, popular clamor, often unthinking, often started and directed by men who have never given the work of education a week's serious studv. On the other hand, the trained 474 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. thinker, the student of the science and art of education, with a clear, phik»- sophical apprehension of the work to be accomplished, always aware of eomt? needed changes, and open to conviction as to the need of other changes, clear- eyed, vigilant, a man of affairs, prompt to meet the popular demand so rea- sonably and intelligently as to shape and guide it where it has an element of good in it» and to convince it and disarm it when it is wholly wrong. To do this requires no common gifts. Tried men, and tested, at once jstii- dents and "men of affairs," are needed for this work. There is a delicacy of discernment, a delicacy of touch in execution, de- manded in the ideal superintendent, from the verj' nature of his work. To you as superintendents is intrusted the task of bringing together principles of science and institutions of law and life. You must embody art principles in material conditions. Teaching-gifts and aspirations — and the finest teachers have always a touch of the artist's gift of intuition and strong individuality — the artist's gifts and the lofty aspirations of enthusiastic and ambitious teachers must be made to "go in harness" — must be placed in a system, and brought under State and city ordinances. To respect the true, artistic spirit that marks the best teaching, to leave scope for the individual peculiarities and the sensi- tiveness which so often accompany the greatest natural gifls of teaching, yet to keep all well systematized and subordinated to a common aim, pursued by a true method — this is one of the problems of superintendence. Grentlemen, do you ever watch the perennial revilings that reward the work of the " hanging committees " at our exhibitions of art ? Not unlike their task, when art efforts must be reduced to line and order, when some artist^ must be "skied," and some hung low, and some spoiled, in the artist's own judgment, by unfair contrasts, and only a few can be "on the line" and in the best light — not unlike the tribulations of the unthanked "hanging committee," are some of the conditions that confront you. To put the force of the government not only behind the system but into it, until law and order pervade it, yet to keep it free from deadly mechanical pre8.sure on the teacher's side, and free from "practical politics" on the side of the ward politician and his heelers — free from place-seekers of all kinds— these are conditions that environ the work of the superintendent, and make his place no sinecure. Indeed it is no wonder, since such are the demands of the place, that the office of city su[)erintendent in our country has semi-belligerent associations connected with its origin. If Buffalo will admit that Providence had the first real city su])erintendent, in 1M37 or '8, certainly that first city su})erin- teudent at Providence was Don*, later of "Dorr's Rebellion" fame. The idea of a city sui>erintendent properly belongs to the era of industrialism, however, rather than to the era of militar}' sway. It was the obvious economy in labor and the increased efficiency which followed on the employment of a sui)erintendent of factory labor, which led to the office of sui)erintendent of city schools. It is business principles applied to the work of education. POPULAB CBITICISM8. 475 And while you doubtless know your own history as superintendents far better than I can tell it you, there can be no harm in recalling the fact that New Orleans in *41 and '44, Cleveland in '44, Baltimore in '49, and Cincinnati in '50, were among the cities earliest to follow Buffalo and Providence in creat- ing city sujierintendents. Boston and New York followed in '51, and San Francisco and Jersey City in '52, although Jersey City for years let the office out, unsalaried, to be exj)erimented upon by business men, (she is wiser now,) and in '53 Newark named a superintendent, whose successor (with us to-night) has for years filled the place, a leader by powere of head and heart, a Nestor in our State councils. Brooklyn in '53, and Chicago and St. LouLs in '54, .swung into line; and thirty years later, in 1883, our beloved sister city, Phila- delphia, awakened to the needs of her hundreds of thousands of school chil- dren ; and the whole country knows of the good work done there in these laerin tendency who did it. And no amount of law-making can so strengthen the place as to make it properly tenable, in an intelligent State, by any but men of sound educational training and strong and upright character. For men of such character, so qualified, the field is a noble one. The work of State and city superintendence calls for all a man's best ix)wers, and gives them ample scope. To stand between the ^xjople and the schools, to help to shaj3e public opin- ion ^vith reference to schools and educational work, while at the same time 476 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. he shapes the work of the schools; to be in close relations with political boards and committees, yet to keep the school system out of pK>litics, and politics out of the school system — these are not slight demands. And I have not alluded to the superintendent's relations to his teaching-force of men and women — in itself a complicated problem, requiring for its successful solu- tion intelligence, inspiring power, keen perceptions of justice, wise, courteous thoughtfulness, much knowledge of men and of affairs. Obviously, the man who is to discharge all these duties and give due heed to p>opular criticisms and suggestions as to the work of the schools, has neee the sport of nerw ideas, on the one hand, nor on the other hand must he be a fanatic in his insistence upon only one way to apply his principles. He must stand firmly on both feet. He must be suspicious of every- edu- cational reformer who would do the whole thing by a new phrase or a new piece of apparatus. He must be open to suggestions, yet not swept away by them. He will learn to abhor men who talk as if the honest work of edu- cation could be done by a little general talking here, and a little more general talking there, " dropping seed-thoughts " and leaving them, like ostrich-eggs, in wastes of sandy inefficiency. More and more clearly he will come to see that, as one has said, "there is no way of making heroism easy, even for the scholar." When all has been said as to making attractive to the young (and we need not fear that we shall make it too attractive, so be they learn), he will still realize that as every one mmt eat for himself and must masticate and digest his own food, or cea^e to live, so every mind must act for itself and take in and work over its own mental pabulum, cheuing on it, if muscle and brain are to be developed. He will know that a teacher might as well undertake, in mistaken kindness, to help a boy by taking his gymnastic exercise for him, as to make his studies effortless — "Forgetting that in holy labor lies The scholarship severe of human life.'' He will understand the value of Huxley's definition of the object of an ee of your work. Rise above details, often, in seeking direction for your work. " What is the effect upon society 478 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. at large of the work and the spirit of our school system as our students be- come men and women ?" Here is scope for the study of all the problems of social science ! Many of these problems are working themselves out in the public-school system of to-day. "Honor yonr profession, in your thoughts," and you will be called to active contei^ts as well as to careful thinking. "The ultimate question between every two human beings," says Carlyle, "is *Can I kill thee, or canst thou kill me ? ' " Carried into the realm of ideas, this? is a striking description of the contest that lies before all who are leaders in the work of education. The struggle between ideas and righteousness on the one side, and stupidity and sin on the other, is a warfare that never ceases. And unless the men of ideas kill stupidity into higher life, stupidity will kill ideas. However society may be "reorganized," it is still ideas that must rule, if the world is to prosper. Only by welcoming in your own life, and diffusing among others, the ^way of ideas, can you do your appointed work. If anyone could have dared to place victories of force above victories of ideas, that daring worshiper of force should have been Napoleon Bonaparte. But hear the testimony of that great warrior: "The employment most hon- orable and most profitable to the people is, to labor for the diffusion and extension of ideas ; " " The true victories, the only ones which we need never lament, are those won over the dominion of ignorance." To lead on to such victories, we must be leaders and masters of men in the highest and best sense. We must do more work and better work than others. We must study more assiduously to be ufieful, for all men who succeed in life are life-long students of that in which they succeed. You must put into your life more of self-sacrifice, for it is only by serving others that you caii truly attain to what Ruskin has well called "the one pure klng)*hip, that which con- sists in a stronger moral state and a truer thoughtful state than that of others, enabling you therefore to guide them and to raise them toward a better life." The tendency of every profession and every business is, to narrow a man's horizon and to subdue him to dull routine — to reduce one to the level of the dray-horse, who pulls his accustomed load over the accustomed road, at the accustomed rate of speed, day after day. Wliat can save a man from nar- rowing, dwarfing, blighting his soul in such cramping service ? Be helpful. Communicate ideas. Give out moral energ>'. Let the light you have shine. You do not lose moral or intellectual power by giving au impulse to your neighbor. Here is the difference between mechanical forces, and intellectual, moral, social forces. If you give your neighbor a "cut- off" with half the electric current that lights your house or runs your factorv, your own house munt go half lighted ; your own factory can do but half it^ work. But when you give him your best thought and your heartiest, firieud- liest sympathy, there is more light, more warmth, more power for you both. By giving, you gain. Your own thought becomes clearer. Your own con- DISCUSSION. 479 viction is more intense. Your own power of right feeling and right willing is strengthened. By such unselfish efforts for others, men will keep the horizon broad and the heart fresh. In your noble work may there fall on you all that highest gift, the intense passion to be useful in lifcy to be helpers of your fellow-men, to be among those who see and love the truth and put it in practice, and bear others* burdens while they faithfully do their own work. This passion for service it is which marks the followers of the (ireat Teacher. This is the sword-blow of Christian knighthood, forever setting apart him who receives it, to noble, unselfish service for the sake of One whom he loves ; One who loves him with an unchanging love. DISCUSSIOX. Jerome Allen, of New York: No reform can go faster than public opinion permits. There are always a few people who see farther than the ma- jority. The future is to them, in some respects, as clear as the past ; so it is very natural for them to be impatient of the slowness of their companions. These radical thinkers are the leaders in every reform. Such men were Gar- rison and Phillips before the civil war, and such were Horace Mann and David Page at the commencement of the present activity of educational thought. However much the clear-headed and earnest workers among our superin- tendents of public instruction may desire more rapid progress, they cannot ad- vance against public opinion. This is a barrier over which they cannot pass. Our public press stands in the way of many desirable educational reforms. For example: It persists in advocating manual training on special utilitarian grounds; it will have it that a boy must learn to use the saw because it will fit him to become a better carpenter, and the school-girl must learn to sew, or to finger a typewriter, or learn how to cook, so that she may be better able to make her children's clothes and bread for her husband, or in case of his death, that she may earn a living for her poverty-stricken family. Talk as much as you please to the average editor about the inconsistency of his position, yet he will have it that he is right and you are wrong. Until fathers and mothers get right ideas as to the object they have in send- ing their children to school, it will be useless to talk to them about educational reform. So long as our judges and clergymen and doctors and workmen meas- ure the value of a school by the number of pages their children commit to memory and the number of facts the teacher can cram into their poor brains, so long will it be useless to talk to them about the abolition of improper in- centives and grade-grind, and to urge them to substitute more sensible teach- ing, and more strengthening and broadening moral, intellectual, and physical training. 480 . THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. We are in need of a new apostle of education, whose mission it shall be to create public sentiment in favor of correct educational practices. Such a man we are sure to have sooner or later; I am not certain that he is born; perhaps he is, and he may be the principal of the Cook County Normal School, the State Superintendent of New York, or the Superintendent of the Worcester, Mass., schools ; but I would be rather inclined to think that he would be most likely to be found in the person of one of the two first-mentioned individuals — and yet I doubt a little whether either of these two men will ever have the time to devote to this apostleship. Public sentiment tnmt be brought into sympathy with the beM. educationnl methods. It must demand quality — native, inborn, hereditary, in the teacher. It must also demand acquisition — formal scholastic fitness; then it must make the people willing to pay more liberally than they have been heretofore. It must say with emphasis to the politicians, " Keep your hands off public-schtiol affairs. Let them alone." It must give the teacher a guaranty of perma- nence in one school, without removal except for good cause. If a teacher, perchance, should grow gray in the service, then it should provide a decent pension in a pleasant home, and not in the prison-walls of a public asylum. It should demand that a State certificate issued by the State department of a commonwealth as respectable as New York should be received without ques- tion by all the cities in this State, and by all other States as respectable as the Empire State, and by all other cities as civilized as New York and Brooklyn. When public opinion comes to this, then we can march forward. The con- quering army of "The New Education" will then enter the citadels of igno- rance, and the fortresses of superstition ; but until this " reformer " shall have created this sentiment in the public mind, we must continue to wait, although impatiently, the slow movements of people who are not accustomed to think much above the sentiment of the average novel, or to read much that is more profound than the average penny newspaper. A criticism is valuable from one who knows what to criticise and how to criiieise. It is probably a fact, that nine out of ten criticisms on our public- school system are made from misapprehension, ignorance, or malice. It is well known that we have among us those who would tear our public-school system to pieces, and upon its fragments rear a supei'structure altogether unique in its architecture. These critics declare that the public school of tiv day is Godless, because it is not ecclesiastical. They would substitute dogma for the universally accepted doctrines of morality, and put church control in place of the public-school system of su}>ervision. They igiTore, or else they are ignorant of the fact, that all right teaching is moral teaching, and that all reverence for God and His commandments must come from a living object lesson, and not from a dead catechism. We shall never get beyond Chri{?t, but we are fttst getting beyond creeds, and the best gospel of Christ a child can have is in tlie person of a Christ-like teacher, and not in the pages of a catechism. These critics of the public-school system will come to see that a THE GENERAL GOVERNMENT AND EDUCATION. 481 heart full of love acted in deeds of mercy, kindness, truth, and completeness, is worth far more in the public schools than all the churchly doctrines not found in the words and acts of Christ Himself. Another class of critics oppose what have been called "new methods," but it is coming to be seen that the war during the last twenty-five years between ** the old and the new " has been more of words and misunderstandings than of psychology. We are rapidly coming together, because we are rapidly see- ing that the aim of education is to make men, not pedants ; thinkers, not memorizers. We are realizing that a good thinking-machine inside a pupil's skull, with a good heart and body attachment, is the best ecjuipment a boy can have for the battle of life. So, the "war of words" over the spelling book and the grammar book and the arithmetic book and the manual train- ing, is speedily coming to an end. The result will be that we shall soon have a body of doctrine based upon the philosophy of Aristotle and Lord Bacon, as practically exemplified by Pestalozzi and Froebel. The questions before us will be purely psycholo^c and economic, and these will be large enough to occupy the earnest attention of our best thinkers for many decades to come. The outlook is most hopeful. We are advancing rapidly away from the carping criticisms of the past into the philosophy of the future. The science of education is appearing. Its text-book is not yet written, but we are slowly gathering the facts which will constitute the back- bone of its lessons. We learn that the carping and unjust criticisms of our public-school system are to be ignored. The efforts of true educators wiU be directed toward the fixing of a few basic principles which will be accepted by all. The special questions relating to grading, length of school day and year, method of securing reliable statistics, the payment of teachers, and their per- manency, will be settled by honest thinkers in the light of practical results. And last, but by no means least, the earnest attention of our best educators will be directed toward making teaching a profession equal in the eyes of the people to law, medicine, or theology. THE GENERAL GOVERNMENT AND PUBLIC EDUCATION THROUGHOUT THE COUNTRY, W^. T. HARRIS. The question assigned me for discussion depends for its answer on the theory held concerning the function which the National Government is to fulfill. On this question there are two extreme views prevailing, and also a middle ground of compromise. This middle ground of compromise is a practical course 482 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. actually adopted by the nation. On the one hand, we have the extreme of individualism which proposes to limit the action of the General Government to the police function on a large scale. According to it the Grovemraent should secure the blessings of peace, domestic and foreign, but it should do no act to aid the individual or the community in productive industry, or in any of the fields of effort for the welfare of the individual or the public at large. Ac- cording to it the Government should do nothing to aid agriculture, manu- factures, and commerce; it should do nothing for the education and the enlightenment of the people. It should confine its function to the negative acts of punishing crime, deciding cases of trespass, repelling foreign aggres- sion, etc. The other extreme is that of socialism. It proposes such measures as the Government ownership of land and capital, the establishment of business enterprises, the assignment of careers to individuab. The Government should do all combining, and leave the individual only the narrow prescribed sphere of official servant of the State. If nationalism were to prevail, the faculties in man of direction and combining-power would for the most part rust un- used, or remain mere rudiments. The faculties of man which are unfolded by private enterprise would rust unused. The middle ground, which we as a nation have practically followed, leaves the individual vast spheres for private enterprise, but on the other hand undertakes to perform certain general func- tions of public utility, such as carrying the mails, subsidizing railroads and steam transportation companies, improving rivers and harbors, protecting in- dustries by levying duties on imports, etc. This policy has however been in- consistent and fiuctuating. The reason for it is to be found in the fact that American statesmanship has not been able to agree on the definition of what should belong to the General Government, and what should be left to the private individual. Each extreme, therefore, tends toward making its own definition cover the entire ground of practice. One would have all indi- vidualism, and the other would have all nationalism. The individualists would limit the Government to the police function, and would go so far as to prefer to substitute in many cases lynch-law for the pro- cesses of the courts. They tend in fact to the extreme of anarchism. On the other hand, the nationalists tend to the utter abolition of individual self- activity, and would make society a vast machine that feeds, clothes and shelters each man, woman and child in a satisfactory manner, but leaves no scope for individual enterprise. Each person would become a sort of galley- slave for the sake of his board and clothes. Our actual civilization repudiates both these extremes in practice. It unites them, as we have said, in a middle course which it adopts as a sort of com- promise but does not define as a principle. Let us investigate in a cautious spirit the true sphere of these extreme tendencies, and try to discover what is the ground of their limitation in a higher principle. If we can discover this higher principle, we can by its aid THE GENERAL GOVEBNMEKT AND EDUCATION. 483 decide on a theory of the sKJoj^e and function of the General ( i overnraent, and arrive at some practical conclusions reganling the duties of the General Gov- ernment toward practical education throughout the whole country. It is agreed that our national principle is that of local self-government. This principle demands that the individual shall be left free to do that which concerns himself alone. K his deed is indifferent to his fellow-men, he shall have the sole power of direction over it ; but if his deed involves a common interest, it is necessary to have a joint direction over it. He shall act in com- bination with the other parties interested. If the combined interest extends only to the township, the township shall decide. If it extends to the commonwealth, and no further, then the com- monwealth acting as a sovereign State shall determine and execute the deed. But if the proposed action concerns the interest of several States or common- wealths, then the General Government shall have sole jurisdiction over it. Now this principle of local self-goveniment seems to furnish us a safe and universal criterion by which to decide between individualism and national- ism. The only drawback is found in the difficulty that remains in deciding in the case of a special business whether its interest is a general one or a par- ticular one — whether it is to be performed by the unaided individual, or whether the town, or the State, or the Nation shall direct its doing. Inasmuch as our democratic formula states the object of all government to be the removal of obstacles to individual self-help, we may say that all govern- mental action that paralyzes self-help is injurious, and that which stimulates and increases self-help is salutary and legitimate. With this criterion in view we may see that it is the duty of the town, or the State, or the Nation to remove obstacles in the way of individual activity — obstacles which are so great as to paralyze his endeavors. Man organizes in social combinations in order to overcome obstructions to his freedom which are too great for his individual efforts. If the social combination known as the township will suffice for the removal of this bar to freedom, then its func- tion is all that is required, and the function of the State is not only unneces- 5«ary, but demoralizing. Again, if the town is not equal to this, the State must intervene; or if the State is not adequate, then the aid of the Nation must be invoked. It has always been found necessary to make the matter of roads and avenues of intercommunication a public matter. The Government must make possible free intercommunication. How far it must go in the matters of peculiar modes of intercommunication, such as railroads, canals, telegraphs and the like, is to be left to the discretion of the Government, and should be settled by the general principle above mentioned, namely, that of producing a max- imum of self-help in the community. Again, in matters of production, it is legitimate for the town, the State, or the Nation to undertake works that will aid and stimulate self-activity on the part of the individual ; but it must be clear that such help does not aid 484 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. one portion of the community by retarding the self-help of another portioiL Thus it has been found that matters of public hygiene should be looked after by the Government, to prevent breeding of pestilence and its spread through the community, the State, or the Nation. The supply of water, the drainage, the removal of garbage, the proper lighting of cities and towns, fire-escapes, fire-preventives, and fire-extinguishing machines — in short, a long series of functions once left to private enterprise, are now assumed by the government of town or city. Left to private enterprise they were performed by thrifty and well-to-do people, but neglected by the unthrifty and untidy. The neglect, however, produced conditions which caused evil to all people, whether thrifty or unthrifty. The pestilence became epidemic, and death came to all classes. The fire that burned the house of the careless tenant spread to the mansion of the rich and to the warehouse of the merchant. The unlighted streets where the laboring classes dwelt and where poverty took refuge, became at night dens of crime and a safe shelter for robbers, murderers, and thieves. When wealth is not taxed for these matters of public welfare it does not escape paying a much heavier assessment in the way of insecurity. In our time the increase of cities in number and size is the most important factor in our social problem. It occasions constant readjustment of the atti- tude, of public and private effort. Under the old regime of farmers and planters there was a sort of rude but ready local government. The land- holder and his managers ruled, by personal influence, each a small circle of laboring people, and secured the blessings of peace and prosperity, such as they were, in their several precincts. People were not brought together in masses, but only in clans and tribes, according to the patriarchal principle. Accordingly, personal influence prevailed. Each influential person of wealth or education knew his immediate environment of persons, and ruled it with his direct will-power. Under this patriarchal regime each person was very close to another, and the substitution of the one-man power was much more complete than it can possibly be in a city civilization. It was a family government, and personal authority was at its maximum as a social factor. With our increasing city growth the urban population has arisen from the low status of three per cent, of the entire number, until in 1880 twenty-four per cent, of our people were in cities, and at present date it is safe to say that one-third of all our people live in cities, or large villages so connected by the railroad that they are practically suburbs of cities. The city life breaks up completely the old patriarchal rule in the community. The environment of persons is too large for the strong-willed leader to penetrate and control by the authority of his presence. The patriarchal principle can prevail only where the community is small and isolated, and interdependent. In the city there is no isolation, and very little interdependence. The powerful will of one citi- zen cannot act on his weak neighbors, for the reason that there is no fulcrum of dependence ; or, in other words, the one citizen does not have in his handi^ THE GENERAL GOVERNMENT AND EDUCATION. 485 the entire interests of his fellows. He goes to his manufactory, or to his ware- house, and his neighbors go to their several tasks, he knows not where. The employ^ in his factory, or store, are powerfully influenced by him during the few hours of labor, but he knows nothing of their home life, and has no in- fluence over it There is a citadel of private life at home over which he can have little authority. He feels that his influence and authority are strictly limited. The patriarchal farmer, or planter, knows his obedient clan in their domestic life, and in all their histories and interests, and he can easily stifle tendencies to independence by pulling this or that string of immediate influ- ence. Thus it happens, in all rural communities, wherever they are, there is tlie dominance of one-man power, and the subordination of individual will — the suppression of manly independence by nipping it in the bud, as it were. AVith the social change from the rural community to the village and the suburb, and then to the fiUl urban life, there is a progressive emancipation from this thralldom of personal influence to individual sovereignty. The re- sponsibility falb on the individual, and he must decide for himself, without the advice of the head of his clan. In the family only this patriarchal principle remains, and will remain, though with continually diminishing power. For when the family has a patriarchal environment it has a firm grasp on the individuals composing it. The authority of the parent is something sacred, and the worst sin is dis- obedience. Let the rural environment change to an urban one, and the father of the family loses his firm hold on the obedience of his children at an early age. For implicit obedience, he can exjKJCt only a limited obedience, secured partly by appeals to reason and self-interest. Implicit obedience to personal authority yields to cooperation through intellectual insight into what L? reasonable to be done under the circumstances. Instead of one brain, with many pairs of hands, we see many brains, each governing its own pair of hands. In the rural part of the nation, away from the urbanizing influence of the railroad and daily newspaper, the new status has not arrived, but is arriving. The youth hears of the city and its possibilities of individualism, from the summer visitors, if not from his city cousins, and begins to reflect disparag- ingly on the net-work of customs and usages and blind obedience to personal authority, which holds him in its meshes. Parental authority is compelled to relax, even in the rural district. The railroad, which brings with it the daily newspaper and other instrumentalities of urban life, is piercing these rural communities, and fast modifying all their conditions. Still in the rural town meeting may be seen the old-time power of the strong- willed patriarchs of the town. They control the henchmen of their clans still. They browbeat and crush out individual freedom of opinion among their neigh- bors. Only through their mutual collisions is there left opportunity for some exercise of free individuality on the part of the subordinate clansmen. They may revolt fix)m one leader to another, and thus maintain some degree of self- —31 486 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. determination. The old town meeting which Freeman, the historian, cele brates, is not by any means an ideal of free institutions, but even down t<« this day it is the scene of personal browbeatings and of the tyranny of patri- archal authority to an extent not to be found in any other part of out civili- zation. It is passing away ; but with it local self-government does not wane and nationalism take its place, but the contrary — there is a perpetual growth of individual responsibility and freedom. But how about this matter of urban growth ? Is it not a disease to be curetl by social enlightenment ? Should not people cease to herd together in town.s and remove into the country once more ? Alas ! no one can suggest this who once glances at the causes of the increase of city life. The avatar of natural science has brought along with it an era of mechanic invention, and mere hand-labor is superseded by machinery. The consequent increase of productive power is constantly cheapening the necessary ratio be- tween producers of the raw materials of food, clothing and shelter and the manufacturers and distributors of these. The railroad and steamship coimect the agricultural regions of greatest fertility with the regions of great manu- facturing facilities, and fewer and fewer persons are needed for farmers and more and more persons are called to the management of machinery for man- ufacturing, for elaborating, ornamenting and distributing the productions. The demand for this readjustment of vocations is constant, as is shown by the prevalence of lower agricultural wages as compared with wages for mechanical skill and for the managers of transportation and trade. The farmer averages his $23 per month, while the other occupations average much more than $35. This glance at the cause of urban growth convinces us that it is not a temporary affair. It will go on with increasing perfection of the natural sciences and the increasing fruits of invention that accrue. Agriculture is destined to be done by machinery at an increasing rate of progress. The rural principle of patriarchalism is bound to yield to individual responsibility. Now what is the effect of urban life ? What new strain does it place on the individual, and how does it operate ? This question is a very important one for the consideration of those who direct education. It is very important to all sociologists, and to all would-be reformers. The most obvious effects of these great social changes which I have taken so much of my brief space to describe, are the increase of individual respon- sibility and the phenomena which flow from this extra strain upon the indi- vidual. Its negative effects are twofold, seen in the increase of crime and insanity. So long as the individual held a sort of family relation to a clan leader who did his thinking for him, and who made up his mind for him and directed him in matters not purely routine, it is obvious that he was relieved of a great weight of care and anxiety. All this weight comes upon the indi- vidual emancipated from patriarchal obedience by change to urban sur- THE GENEBAL GOVEHyMENT AXD EDUCATION. 487 roundings. The strain acts upon the citizen who haa possibilities of strength in such a way ajs to develop his resources and make more of a man of him. l^pon the weakling it has quite another effect. If he be weak in intellect, in nervous power, and executive capacity, and possessed of good moral procliv- ities, he is liable to become insane under the pressure for constant self-adjust- ment to the changing outside circumstances. Hence, with the increase of urban life, there is constant increase of insanity obsen^able in all civilized countries. There is also an increase of crime. The patriarch of his tribe holds a sort of sway within each personality of his clansmen, and this appears as a certain restraint or inhibiting force holding back fi*om crime. It is obvious enough that this is not a moral force of a high order. It is only a sort of obsession. The clansman is obsessed by the will of his chief. He leaves his own mental house and lets it be tenanted by the will of a mas- ter. This is not moral, nor immoral, but unmoral. Without the sense of personal responsibility there is no morality possible. On emerging from this authority of the clan and entering the city life, our weak moral and intellectual individual gravitates into association with crimi- nals. The close companionship that prevails among confederates in crime allures our moral weakling. He has none of the instincts which grow with the exercise of responsibility. For such exercise leads one quickly to see that freedom of the individual implies moral and statute laws to protect the exer- cise of free self-determination. The moral weakling yields to temptation and enters the career of crime, because he is too immature to be endowed with full responsibility, and be- cause he is not looked after by good directive power but allowed to come un- der the influence of evil directive power. The good men are apt to be rough and repellent towards this class of the community. They have no sympathy with the moral weakling, though they are willing to help the honest strug- gles Hence they crush the individual of immoral proclivity and drive him out to seek the recognition of wayward and criminal companions. This is the rationale of the increase of crime incident to the increase of urban life, and it b a very serious matter to consider, because it brings us back to our doctrine of local self-government. That principle takes for granted intelli- gent self-direction. It presupposes citizens of moral aims and purposes, to- gether with educated mind enough to not mistake the best means to secure them. In other words, it assures the existence of mature, responsible people, and makes no account of immature intellectual and moral people who cannot direct themselves. To be sure, it meets these immature people at the last end of their career with halters in one hand for those who have yielded to crimi- nal tendencies, and with strait-jackets in the other hand for those who have become insane. It has, moreover, to provide for a large class, neither crimi- nal nor insane, but who have proved unequal to their responsibilities in the way of thrift, and who therefore drift ashore for the pauper asylum. 488 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. The principle of "let alonCj'* laissez faire, does not take hold of this imma- ture class and provide what it needs for it, it does not institute for it a system of nurture. Immature development in responsibility does not need justice, it needs nurture; it needs not the principle of the state so much as the princi- ple of the family, the educative function. But it needs to correct the family or patriarchal principle, so as not to hold back the development of responsibility by the principle of implicit obedience, but to adopt a treatment that shall kindle self-respect and intelligent self- direction. It must aid the growth of self-help. Educative efforts increase self-help. Indeed, it is found that the weakling class that comes into jails and insane asylums is disproportionately large from the illiterate classes. While the il- literate criminal class should be about four per cent., it is nearly eight times as large in our States that have developed urban life. These detailed considerations, I think, furnish us a clew to the main ques- tion— what is the function of Government in the matter of education? Un- doubtedly a free government depends on the education of all its people, A patriarchal community can get along without education of all its members. Its chiefs must have a sort of education that will enable them to take posses- sion of the brains of their followers. Urban civilization needs to strengthen the ix)wer of self-activity, the power to stand the strain of responsibility, on the part of its citizens. Education increases this power more than anything els^. Our modern philanthropy has not discovered anything that will produce self-help in the criminal and pauper classes except education, intellectual and moral. Such help is all pure gain. All aid to education is well invested. Other kinds of aid to the individual may produce mendicancy, but aid to ed- ucation cannot and will not do this. The problems of education in this nation relate to the treatment of immense rural populations in the most of the Southern States, and in many of our Northern States slowly changing into urban populations, and subject to this strain up>on their individual directive powers. We need larger State school taxation, which shall use the wealth of the cities to help educate the countr}' population. We need national aid to swell the funds that shall reach the re- motest country districts. Education, in a country where the government is by the majorities and where each citizen must submit to the majority — edu- cation is a matter of national importance ; it is of State importance and of individual importance. All interests coincide, and all ought to bear a share in it. Our nation should not assume direction of education as a general govern- ment, but it should aid education. Not even the State should assume all di- rective control over education, but it should aid it and partially supervise it. The local self-direction of towns should administer and for the most part supervise it. Bural education now is the greatest of our interests ; it is a na- DLSCUSSION. 489 tional interest of the most colossal kind. Secondary to it, and not much below it, are the education and nurture of the weaklings in will-power and intellect- ual power that drift to our cities without getting on their feet through self- help. We must take the cliildren of these classes, and compel them to receive intellectual, moral and industrial education, from infancy up to advanced youth. There is no way of reaching the rural schools except by increasing the money appropriated for them by State and National aid. The States, especially in the regions where rural life is in predominance, are now making their State taxes for education much larger than other sections of the countr}-. This fact shows the importance of National aid to education. It is the only way of reaching the rural districts except by disproportionate State taxation. The true relation of General (iovemment to public education throughout the countrj' is not one of dictation or direction of it — not one of interference in any manner with the State and township management, but it should be one of aid and encouragement to the educative organizations already estab- lished in the several States. Such National aid will not, and cannot "pro- mote mendicancy " as it is called by extreme individualists. It is evident, from the nature of education, that it is the very instrumentality of all that aids self-help — stimulates individuality, creates self-respect, and increases all kinds of individual enterprise, I have limited myself in thb pajjcr to this single phase of the relation of the General Government to public education throughout the land, and have omitted all consideration of the function of the Educational Bureau, the es- tablishment of a National university, Indian education, military education, and any other phases of National educational work, either in operation or proposed as a subject of Congressional legislation in the future. I have omitted these things in order to present the sociological aspects that should be home in mind in their consideration as preliminary to the reasonable settle- ment of all other questions bearing on National action in behalf of education. DISCUSSION. J. W. Dickinson, of Massachusetts: In a free State like our own the people that constitute the State act together as a community of jwrsous gov- erned by self-imposed rules. A state thus constituted becomes a person with the attributes of intelligence and will. These attributes belonging to the state as a person must bo, in their civil relations to individuals, supreme in wisdom and authority. In its right to exercise supreme civil power is found the sovereignty of the state. The object of the state is the protection and development of the peoj)le as citizens and individuals preparing for citizenship. 490 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, The true idea of the state, therefore, is tliat of a moral person, endowed with supreme civil power, to be exercised in protecting the people in the enjoyment of the objects of their natural rights, and in establishing thoFe institutions necessary for their development a^ citizens. The right of the state to exist is inseparable from its sovereignty, and this right must be higher than any other civil right. As protection and the social development of the people can be secured in no other way than through the institutions of the state, the existence of the state becomes a necessity. It follows then that the state as a governing p)wer must carefully protect its own life, that the objects for which it exists may be secured. Reason and experience both testify to the important fact that it Ls impossible for a free state to preserve its own existence or perform its func- tions unless the people that constitute it are made intelligent, and unl^g they are trained to form those states of mind which are the true and only sources of social unity. There must be included in these mental states a controlling sense of justice, or a disposition to render to another that which is due. Such an education of the people requires the use of free institutions, with common modes of development, made universal in their application through the sup- port and control of the state. In no other way can schools for the people be established and permanently supported, or the character of the education received be made to harmonize with the spirit of the constitution of the state, or the attendance upon the schools be made universal and regular. Institu- tions depending on the will and resources of individuals have a limited and ever-changing life; while those of the state may be immortal, and change only as they make progress toward perfection. The education produced in the former may confuse the ideas of the student concerning the sovereignty- of the state ; that acquired in the latter, being directed by the state, will train the learner into an intelligent and quiet subjection to supreme civil power. The one will have a tendency to set off the i^eople in classes; the other, by ignoring all distinctions of sect or party, or any of the accidental conditions of life, and subjecting all to a conmion development, will establish that spirit of unity which is the only force that can bind the parts of an organism like a civil state into one whole. In a democratic state the free public school, es- tablished and controlled by the Government, with provisions requiring the attendance of the school population upon its exercises, is necessar}- to the continued existence of the state, as it is the only institution adapted to pro- duce a common development of the people. When any considerable portion of the people refuses or neglects to give its sup])oit to such an institution, or to become subject to its educating influences, then the state has begun to resolve itself into fragments, and to enter upon a process of decay. It is because there is some knowledge which all should acquire, and some discipline of the mind whicli all should receive, that com- mon schools and compulsory laws requiring their support and their use are both just and necesvsar}'. EDUCATION OF THE ISDIAXS. 491 The common ends* to be attained are: (1) Training of the mind to think so as to discover the truth. This is accomplished by piirsuit of a tnie course of studies in accordance with a true method. (2) A training of the mind to consider the truth to have a higher value than any other mental product. This is accomplished by a thoughtful comparison of truth with error, and leading the learner to experience the good of the one, and the evil of the other. (3) A training of the mind to choose the highest good. This end is accomplished by accomplishing the other two ends, and by in- troducing occasions for the exercise of the highest principle of action, a sense of duty. Such training, the state should provide for its people, and insist upon their accepting the provisions. While these three ends do not necessarily include the possession of any sort of technical skill, nor instruction in any special form of religious doctrine or worship, conceniing which the state has no right to give any instruction, nor exercise any control, they do include a prep- aration of the mind to enter intelligently upon any of the practical affairs of life, and to examine thoughtfully and conscientiously the doctrines and forms of belief that should regulate the spiritual life ; and they also include a preparation for good-citizenship in a free nation. To train the intellect to think by the use of the method that puts it in pos- session of useful knowledge ; to develop the sensibilities so that in the pleasure and pain they feel, motives for good conduct will be found ; and to cultivate the will to choose that which the judgment and the conscience approve, are ends infinitely higher than any sj^cial ends which the public schools will ever find it possible to attain. " But while the administration of such a system of education may be re- ferred to the commonwealth, its institution is of national obligation, and in defect of the commonwealth its establishment and support should proceed from the nation." Thomas J. Morgan discussed the relation of the General Government to Indian education. He said : In view of the great change that has come to the Indians, in the gradual but rapid breaking-up of the reservation and the taking of lands in severalty, and the consequent di&solution of the tribal relation, and the passing of the Indians into the rights, privileges, and duties of American citizenship, the question of their education, ^ a necessary pre- requisite to individual participation in American life, becomes more important and urgent. The one great purpose of the Government should be, and is, to prepare the Indians, esjxjcially the younger ones, for this all-important change in their relations. Accordingly, schools of various grades — day schools, res- en-ation boarding-schools, non-reservation industrial training schools — into which all Indian pupils of school age who can be induced to attend, shall be gathered for instruction in the arts of living, the duties of citizenship, and in those rules of conduct that shall make them respectable members of intelli- gent communities of free men, are being rapidly developed. The total enroll- 492 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. meiit in schools of all grades and kinds for the year ending June 30, 1889, was 15,784. The number enrolled for the quarter ending December 31, 1889, under the present management of the Indian Bureau, is nearly 1,000 greater than the number enrolled at a corresponding period last year, and, if the present plans of the Indian Bureau are* carried out, the number of pupils enrolled will be increasingly large year by year until the entire number are gathered in. From the nature of the case, this work must, for the present, be done en- tirely, directly or indirectly, by the General Government, because the Indians are as yet incompetent to provide for themselves proper school facilities ; and besides, they do not sufficiently appreciate the blessings of education to avail themselves of educational advantages of their own creating. They must be treated as wards of the Nation. The time is not far distant, however, when education of the Indians will become the duty of the several States in which they reside. When these In- dians shall have become citizens of the United States, occupying their own farms, paying their share of taxes, and participating in all the activities of social, economical, and political life, there will be no more reason for main- taining by the General Government separate schools for Indians than there will be for maintaining by the General Government separate schools for any other class of people. The Indians, after one generation of them have been properly trained, will very readily assimilate with our people, attend the com- mon schools, and will not require any special oversight which is not given by the General Government to other classes of citizens. Already, in some instances, Indian children are welcomed into the common public schools, and mingle freely with other children in the pursuit of knowl- edge ; and it is extremely desirable that this process shall be fostered and en- couraged. If they are to become fellow-citizens, the best preparation that they can receive is that which is offered to them in the public schools. The daily intercourse which they will there enjoy with American children, the fa- miliarity they will acquire with the English language, and the acquaintance they will make with all our habits of life and modes of thought, will utterly break down those artificial barriers of distinction which heretofore have so unhappily separated them from those among whom they have lived. They should be educated for American citizenship in American schools, by Ameri- can teachers, and be trained as men and women and not as Indians. There are very few States where the number of Indians is so great as to render their admission into the public schools impossible, or even difficult. New York has about 5,000, Michigan 7,000, Miimesota 6,000, Nebraska less than 4,000, Wisconsin 9,000, Washington less than 10,000, Oregon 4,500, Montana 11,000, California less than 13,000. Reckoning 20 per cent, of these as being of school age, from 6 to 16 years, it will be readily seen that provision could be made for them in the public schools in each of the States at a very moderate ex|)en8e, and without at all disarranging or interfering with the schools which they enter. EDUCATION OF THE INDIANS. 493 The present plans of the Government contemplate the establishment of at least one industrial boarding-school for Indians in every State, except perhaps New York, where there is any considerable number of Indians, with a view of reaching such a number of them, and awakening such an interest in edu- cation among them, as will prepare the way for the entrance of all of them into the public schools of their respective States. Indian industrial training-schools have already been established in South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Colorado, Nevada, Oregon, and New Mexico; and bills have been introduced into Congress providing for the establishment of similar schools in Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Montana, California, and North Dakota. It is hoped that these schools will all be in full operation within a year from the present time. They will not provide by any means for all Indian children who ought to be in school in these States, but they will provide for a very considerable number, and others will be provided for at a later day. A very considerable popular interest in these Indian schools has manifested itself, especially in Pennsylvania with regard to the school at Carlisle, in Ne- braska regarding the one at Genoa, in Kansa:* as to Haskell Institute at Lawrence, in Colorado about the one at Grand Junction, and in Oregon with reference to the school at Chemawa. These schools are visited by large numbers of people, who go to see for themselves what kind of work is done by Indian boys and girls at school. A very lively interest is manifested on the part of many public-school superin- tendents and teachers; and their visits, suggestions and encouragement are very helpful in the great work that is there being carried on. It is the purpose of the Government to render the Indian schools, so far as practicable, equal in every respect to similar grades of public schools, so that Indian pupils may enter into competition with their fellow-citizens in the fiiendly rivalries of life, feeling able to hold their own. It is one of the es- pecial aims of the present administration of these schools to make it easy, where circumstances permit it, for Indian pupils to pass from the Government Indian schools into the ordinary public schools. To this end, the grading of the schools, the course of study adopted, methods of instruction followed and the discipline maintained, are all, so far as possible, modeled after the best public schools. It is in the highest degree desirable, both for the sake of the Indians and for the sake of the people among whom they are destined to live, that the ef- forts of the Government to give to all Indian youth a practical, common- school education, as a preparation for American citizenship, should receive from all public-spirited citizens in the several States, especially where these Indian schools are located, the warmest encouragement and support. It is very important that these schools should be visited by school people, that the teachers in them should be made to feel that they have the sympathy and re- spect of their fellow-teachers; and the Indian pupils should be encouraged to 494 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. believe that the same pains are being taken with their education as with the education of white children. It is above all, particularly to be hoped that in all cases where it is practicable, Indian children may be encouraged to enter public schools on the same basis as other children. It is probable that ar- rangements can be perfected by which the Government will bear a fair share in the support of the schools attended by Indian pupils, in cases where the Indians* lands are not taxed for public-school purposes. The object of this brief paper will have been fully accomplished if the at- tention of school superintendents gathered here in this national convention can be awakened, and you can be led to take a personal and professional in- terest in the work of Indian education in your respective States. All of you of course are interested in the general question ; but some of you possibly may have failed to appreciate that you may have a personal interest in the education of the Indians of your own State as being a part of your special duties as superintendent of public instruction. Whatever arguments can be advanced in behalf of education for any class of people, have weight when applied in behalf of the education of the Indians. They have many noble traits of character; they have possibilities of great usefulness as members of the republic, and when properly educated will readily and joyfully take their places en masses no longer as wards, no longer as a race to be pitied, or even despised, but as fellow-citizens, co-workers, worthy to be respected and honored. If the present efforts of the National Government can be supplemented by the educational agencies in the various States and Territories, the Indian problem will soon cease to exist, our national honor will be redeemed and our national life enriched and strengthened, and the remains of a once-powerful people be rescued from destruction, to become participants in all that is richest and best in our modem Christian civilization. M. A. Newell, of Maryland: I am no advocate of paternal government. I believe that the State should not do for any man anything which he can do as efficiently and economically for himself. Self-help is the key to free in- stitutions, and the only guaranty of personal independence. Reliance upon government aid for that which })ersonal exertion can accomplish, is enfeebling to those who receive the unneeded aid, and disastrous in its consequences to the community. But there are occasions when individual effort Ls unavaiUng, or cannot be brought into o{)eration ; and then the municipality, or the State, or the (ieneral Government must lend its aid. Of this we have instances in great fires, great floods, great epidemics, in which outside aid is not only proper, but necessary. One can imagine a state of society in which the public school would he superfluous, if not injurious. If all the parents in the land were both able and willing to give the best of education to their children, family instruction might be lield to suj^ersede the necessity of public educati(m. If the States of the South were both able and willing to give the benefits of a good common-school education to all who need it, and to expel illiteracy from their borders, there would l)e no need for government assistance. But the DISCUSSION. 495 census gives us figures from which we are bound to infer that many States are either unable or unwilling to educate all their illiterates. Consetjuontly, the National (lovemment is called upon to assist the State, just as the State, for her own protection, has been obliged to assist the family in this work of edu- cation. In order that government aid may be accepted and utilized, it is necessary that the rights of the States be scrupulously regarded. There must be no squinting towards a national system of education. There must l)e no possi- bility of governmental interference with the State school systems. What is wanted is simply money, under no restrictions except those which are neces- sary to secure its proper application. E. E. White, of Ohio : I take it that I am not expected to attempt a fur- ther discussion of this subject at this hour, but that it is rather my duty to add a. few words in the way of exhortation. I may, however, be permitted to say that I fully indorse Commissioner Harris's masterly statement of the relation of the General Government to education in the States. The true policy is clearly for the Government to render needed aid and encouragement, hut not to assume the control or direction of the schools. But, as I sec it, this limitation of the General Government does not apply to public education in the Territories. The Government has the same constitutional power to organize and maintain schools in the Territories that it has in the District of Columbia; and it is not creditable to American statesmanship that the chil- dren in these nascent commonwealths have been so long left without needed school privileges. The condition of the schools in several of the Territories has long been a disgrace to American civilization. We must all be aware of the fact that this "hands-off " policy was inaugurated under conditions that do not now exist. The fruitful cause of this sad neglect of the settlers* chil- dren has happily disappeared from our national life, and the Territorial policy bom of it should also disappear. The highest interest of the nation demands that the settler be followed by the teacher. There is not a child, white or Indian, in all our Territories in which the American people have not a vital interest. The leaving of a generation of children to grow up unschooled is to burden these young communities with lawless tendencies which two genera- tions cannot wholly overcome. But I wish to emphasize what has been said respecting the duty of national aid to education in the States. I am not now advocating any particular measure, but I do urge that in some wise way the General Government, out of its abundance, should assist overburdened States in their effoits to remove the illiteracy which now menaces the republic. If this wise policy of finan- cial aid in education had been adopted by the Goveninient twenty years ago, how changed would be the present aspect of our national life ! I yield to no one in faith in the American j^ople, or in confidence in our free institu- tions; but I frankly confess that I cannot look the future of my country squarely in the face without a tremor, and especially when I am confronted 496 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. with the fact that there are to-day in the United States more than a round million of legal voters who cannot read a word on the ballot which is suffered to express their will. I find little comfort in Matthew Arnold's doctrine of a " saving remnant." A republic can only be saved by a wise and virtuou? majority. Here sovereign power is in the people; and in the final issue the will of the people — the great majority — is our law, and from their decL^^iou there is no appeal. The only safe condition is, that intelligence and virtue pervade all heads and all hearts. Horace Mann truly said that "In a repub- lic the ballot-box is the urn of fate, and intelligence must shake the bowl, and virtue preside over the lot." This is the one great lesson of history. " In all the past," says Mansfield, " whether we view it in the shades of ancient times or in the light of modern ages, • . . everywhere when liberty is lost, it is buried in the tomb of public intelligence and public virtue." The supreme duty of the American people is to see to it that an efficient school is planted within reach of every child bom into American citizenship. H. A. Wise, Baltimore, Md. : It seems to be the opinion of some persons that money is the only thing needed to insure the efficiency of the public- school systems throughout the country — that whatever is desired in the way of education can be bought. In one of the oldest States of the Union, hav- ing a school system almost as old as the State itself, with ample means for it^ support, the schools are said to be in a most deplorable condition. The Su- perintendent, in his last annual report, says that the schools of one district, regarded as a typical one, were subjected to a most careful examination by experts, and it was found that while there were a few good schools, yet, in the main, the schools were of a most inferior character; that pupils who had at- tended them for a long time knew scarcely anything; that the teachers not only did not know how to teach, but that the majority of them knew nothing to teach. The teachers apjwinted were in many cases the relatives of school officers, or of politicians, and had not been selected with reference to their fit' ness. Money was not what was needed in this State, but an appreciation of the worth of education and such an interest in the subject on the part of its citizens as would insure the efficiency of the schools. Where there is a will there is a w^ay. The aid of the General Government will not mend the matter of illiteracy. If the people have not an apprecia- tion of the inestimable value of good schools, a hearty desire for them, and are not willing to make great sacrifices to secure them, they will never have them, whatever other favorable conditions may exist. The more schools cost, and the greater the eftbrt to secure them, the more they will be appreciated, and the more the people will be benefited by the labor and self-denial exerted in providing them. The greatest care should be exercised to d(5 nothing to destroy that honest and commendable pride among our people which \iill permit no one to undertake to do for them w^hat they can do and ought to do for themselves. The arduous struggle of a poor community to educate its children will do THE EDUCATION OF THE NEOBO IN THE SOUTH. 497 much to ennoble its people and to get them to place the right value on the blessings education insures both the children and the community. Giving money to people who do not absolutely need it, has a tendency to pauperize them and to destroy that self-respect and independence which should character- ize every true American citizen. If the schools are placed under the care of the Greneral Government — for Federal aid means this — is there any assur- ance that the condition of education throughout the country will be advanced ? Is the General Government so much more honestly and efficiently adminis- tered than the State governments are as to warrant the conclusion that what- ever it undertakes to do will be better done than it will be by the States themselves ? The Constitution gives Congress no power to appropriate money for thirt purpose, and the efficiency of the schools of the country, on which the success of our republican institutions so largely depends, demands that the hands of the General Government be kept off of the public schools. THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO IN THE SOUTH. J. A. B. LOVETT, OF ALABAMA. Before entering into the merits of this discussion, permit me to express it as my opinion that this question, allied as it is so closely with American edu- cation, and hence, the future citizenship of the nation, it is eminently proper that it should be given that prominence in the deliberations of our national councils of education which its importance demands. It is a matter to be deeply regretted that the great sections of the United States are so meagerly acquainted with each other socially, religiously, politi- cally, and educationally. If the North and the South only knew each other better there would be a greater unanimity of feeling between them, and they would cherish that fraternal spirit which should hold them in one great national brotherhood. It is a fact to be deplored, that the agencies which could have accomplished great things in promoting national good-feeling, and of fostering a unity of purpose and destiny between the various sections of our common country, have fallen far short of that success which we have had a right to expect from them. While there are noble exceptions, too frequently the press of our countrj', both secular and religious, which wields such a potent and abiding influence in the land, has fostered strife and bickering between the sections, and keeps the people in ignorance of the true conditions of our common citi- zenship. Sectional politicians rarely find it a means of promoting their personal aggrandizement and selfish ambitions to encourage an amicable union between those sections which in past years experienced political es- 498 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. trangement. And I speak advisedly and with proper reverence when I say that even among the most powerful ecclesiastical bodies, those great institu- tions from w^hich we would naturally expect the exemplification of the highest degree of consen^atism and righteous tolerance, those Christian organizations and convocations which should assume the Heaven-born mission of the " peace- maker" among the nations and communities, have permitted, and they do still allow sectional animosities to so embitter the cup of the gospel of " peace and good-will to men," that we cannot hope to witness from their efforts the peace, unity, and social good-feeling which all right-thinking people so much desire. Our national educational convocations have done much, and they will con- tinue to do much, in harmonizing the discordant elements of the sections, as they meet in various localities of the country, giving the people an opportunity of meeting face to face and to learn from each other the true conditions of society everywhere. Feeling that this Department is the most important branch of the National Educational Association, and believing in its readiness to sympathize with, and its willingness to render all possible aid for the educational advancement of every race and section of the Union, I am here to present, for its thought- ful consideration, the subject of "Negro Education in the South." In this presentation I have but one aim in view — the improvement of the negro's condition as a man and citizen, and the welfare of those who are directly confronted with the abstruse problem of negro civilization. It Avill be my steadfast purpose to deal with the facts, as I understand them, care- fully avoiding the fulsome gush and patronizing sentimentality so frequently intermixed with discussions on this subject. I would prefer the condemna- tion of my countrymen for uttering the truth in this discussion, than to re- ceive at their hands the sickly panegyrics which follow in the wake of a more sickly sentimentalisra. In the first place, the Southern people deserve the sympathy and aid of the people at the North concerning the education of the colored people. One of the prime hindrances to negro education at the South to-day, is a want of confidence in Southern philanthropy and patriotism, and an absence of sym- pathy from those who know so little of the struggles experienced by a people upon whose shoulders has been placed the burden of eight millions of enfran- chised slaves. Generally speaking, the fortunes, as well as the misfortunes of life, are shared in common by the various sections of the country. The crops are grown, the manufactories are operated, the nation's commerce is transported, health is enjoyed, schools and churches are fostered, all contributing to our national wealth, dignity, and pros|X5rity. These are among the fortunes that we have in common. On the other hand, no section can claim entire exemp- tion from the ravages of crime and the devastations of unavoidable disastei?. New England, the North, the South, and the West, all have their epidemics, THE EDUCATIOX OF THE NEQRO IN THE SOUTH. 499 l)estilence, floods, fires, forgeries, embezzlements, drunkenness, robberies, sui- cides, murders, and a thousand other disturbing elements. These are endured by our people in common. But the South stands alone under the burden of a vast colored population whose rapidly increasing illiteracy bids defiance to her best efforts at educat- ing them to intelligent citizenship. This condition of things is without a parallel, possibly, in the history of nations. The enormous influx of foreign immigration at the North would seem to approach the Southern situation ; but when we remember that the North is so well equipped with public schools, the great Americanizing institutions of our country, the seeming parallelism vanishes, and the South stands alone. If it be a noble humanity which rejoices at the prosperity and happiness of others, it is a nobler spirit still that dwells in the breast of him whose heart goes out in sympathy for his suffering brother. As the enfeebled forces of a fractured limb seek for sympathy and aid from those parts of the body which are strong and well, so the weakened educational agencies in the South seek sympathy and aid from every member of the body politic, in the solution of a problem which concerns every section of the country, and one which should engage the best thoughts of every patriotic citizen. That the people of the United States, representing every section of the country and almost every class of citizens, are preeminently capable of exer- cising the intensest sympathy in times of calamity, has been demonstrated many times within the past twenty years. But these ready responses to the calls of distress were made to alleviate such suffering as may be classed among the common misfortunes of the people, whether by fire, earthquake^ flood, or pestilence. It is a well-known fact that there are those in the North who understand the diflSculties involved in the question of negro education at the South, and who are ready with their counsel and money to assist in the modification of these difficulties. If it be conceded that the spirit of a noble philanthropy directed the pen which wrote the proclamation freeing five millions of American slaves from legal bondage, it must be accepted that the same impulse is moving the pen and tongue of the illustrious New Hampshire philanthropist who is so ably and so faitkftilly contending for national aid with which to liberate a still greater number of American citizens from the bondage of ignorance. Henry W. Blair, together with the twenty-four other Northern Senators who voted for the Educational Aid Bill, represents a class of people at the North favor- ably disposed toward the South in her struggles, and his and their names will go down to history embalmed in the affections of a liberty-loving and patriotic people. I would also commend the spirit which has prompted thousands at the North to contribute their money, and who are still giving material and moral sup- 500 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. port to institutions in the South that are accomplishing great things for negro civilization. I have intimated that the South is entitled to the sympathy of the Northern people on the question of negro education. But, before this 83Tnpathy is likely to come in copious showers, the people of the North must largely increase their confidence in the Southern white population on the race question. It will be admitted that there are about three types of Northern sentiment concerning the race question in the South : 1. There are those who have something of a vague idea of the whole ques- tion, connecting the present condition of the negro with the highly exagger- ated stories of his ante-bellum suflferings as a slave. 2. There are those who, for political reasons, keep up an unjust and hurtful agitation of the race question in the South : unjust, because such agitations are generally not well founded ; hurtful, because they tend to stimulate race prejudices between the white and colored population, with a proportionate det- riment to negro civilization and prosperity. 3. Still there are others in the North who are very decided in their opinions concerning the various relationships of the races at the South. They hold that there should be a reasonable public commingling of the decent, well- behaved colored people with the same class of white people, thus elevating and strengthening the blacks, and educating them to the level of modem civiliza- tion. Without the fear of successful contradiction, I here remark that there exists in the South to-day, and has existed for many years past, between the whites and blacks, substantially such a commingling. But this commingling is not of the character that comes under the head of social equality. The truth is, as intelligence increases among the colored people they are led to see, and they do generally recognize the fact, that there is a line drawn between them and the whites which no human agency can set aside. I prefer not to call this a "color line," for the color of the negro constitutes only a part of his distinctive race qualities. Give to the negro the fairest Caucasian skin, and still there would remain race distinctions. Those who are at all familiar with ethnological study, must confess, willingly or unwillingly, that there exist pe- culiarities between the races which reach far beneath the skin. Every intel- ligent negro knows this, and he knows, too, not only that these differences exist, but he understands that the peculiar, distinctive features of his own race naturally forbid close social relations with the whites. Then let us be content to speak of the dividing-line, not as a "color line," but as a race line. This being true, it is worse than nonsense for any section of this great and free country to undertake, by agitation or otherwise, to mod- ify what is known as the "social problem" of the race question. And permit me to say here that the constant agitation of this social-equality question has done much to retard the negro's educational and material progress. For it must be known to you that the best element of our Southern citizenship beare THE EDVCATIOS OF THE KEURO IN THE SOUTH. 501 the burden of taxation for the support of negro education. Not only so, but those in the South who lend their moral influence to the institutions which are accomplishing much for negn> civilization, represent the highest type of Southern patriotism. It can readily be seen, therefore, that when this ques- tion is uselessly agitated, and that in a manner which puts the negro on the offensive, the white man naturally falls upon the defensive, and so an uimec- essary feeling of race prejudice is engendered. This always damages the cause of negro education. The South, for the past twenty-five years, has certainly had her trials and tribulations. History furnishes no parallel to the dark ordeal through which she has passed. Emerging from the bloody conflict of the civil war, she lay limp and languid, bleeding from a thousand gaping wounds. Instead of be- ing visited by angels of mercy, her fair breast wo? made the stamping-grounds for a set of thieving ghouls who had deluded the (lovemment with their pre- tensions to loyalty. Though too feeble to speak in tones to be heard by the conquering power, in her heart of hearts she entertained a spirit of patriotism that towered high above the heads of her poM-hellum plunderers. It was a ray of sunshine that penetrated the dense darkness, when the Government l)egaii to appreciate the situation, and when she relegated these tormentors to their legitimate social and moral level. The light has continued to shine, and reason, coupled with a calm and de- liberate judgment, is rapidly dispelling the deeply-rooted prejudices which have so long existed between the best elements of both the North and the South. These sections are better acquainted with each other, and this ac- quaintance is ripening into a fraternal sympathy and union that will finally demolish every vestige of sectional discord. The negro problem seems to be the only lingering discordant element between these sections, and it is a mat- ter for congratulation that, although a satisfactory solution of the question is not clearly in sight, all true patriots of the whole country are giving their best thoughts to its proper adjustment. I desire here to state that the people at the North are becoming better and more thoroughly informed concerning the question of negro civilization, and the peculiar environments of the Southern white people, in their efforts to ed- ucate him for good-citizenship. Ninety-nine out of every hundred of the in- telligent Northern people, regardless of political faith and practice, who visit the South for any length of time, or who have made the South their home, testify with no uncertain emphasis on this question. Their usual expression is, "My eyes are opened — I am converted." It is unnecessary for me to state here that life is too short, and traveling expenses are too great for the entire Northern population to visit the South for the purpose of receiving an object lesson on this subject. However, were such a thing expedient, there would be no bounds to Southern hospitality in entertaining our friends from the North, for the consummation of an undertaking that would forever banish from the minds of all people those lingering prejudices and stinging criticisms —32 502 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. which have operated so powerfully against the peace and happiness of our Southern population. Regarding the education of the negro, together with all the perplexing questions growing out of his citizenship in the South, I believe the Southern j)eople would be willing, without the least hesitation, for a hundred thousand intelligent Northern voters, promiscuously gathered fninj various States, to come South and spend one year in experience and observa- tion, and then settle the whole affair at the ballot-box. The only objection the Southern jxjople, white and colored, would likely raise to such a procedure, would be in the fact that the verdict of these Northern voters would doubtles?!? be to the negro's disfavor ; for it cannot be denied that our best Southern peo- ple have a tender regard and kindly feeling toward the negro, and in return the colored man respects and honors his white friends. But, I am asked here: What of the "race riots" in the South ? My an- swer is given in one sentence: What are known as "race difficulties" in the South, are mostly confined to localities wherein a peculiar state of affairs exists ; they are generally conceived in the minds of the lawless and ignorant of both races, carried into eflect under the influence of bad whisky, and re- ceive the condemnation of the intelligent, law-abiding citizens of both races. When the intelligent Southern negro reads the highly-colored descriptions of the "race riots," as they find their way into Northern newspapers from the hands of unscrupulous correspondents, wherein the whole South is condemned and slandered on account of the dastardly deeds of a few miscreants, he casts his eyes heavenward, heaves a sigh, and gives utterance to the unique Ameri- canism, ''Rodente^!'' In the foregoing remarks I have presented this question as it is connected with Northern sentiments and views, with the hope of dispelling some errone- ous ideas concerning the attitude of the South toward the colored people. The sentiments and pur{K)ses of our Southern white population, on the sul>- ject of negro education, will now be considered. The following propositions may be relied upon by all who are interested in this discussion as reflecting the views of the intelligent, law-abiding citizens. of Anglo-Saxon blood, in the South : 1. This class of Southern citizens would not, under- any circumstances, favor the reenslavement of the colored j)eople. Six millions of slaves at an average of six hundred dollars each, aggregates the enormous sum of three billions six hundred millions of dollars. This was all swept away by the emancipation proclamation, and should the Government propose to return this great loss of property to the Southern j)e()ple in the persons of the negn> population, as slaves, there would be a unanimous Southern voice against the resumption of such a burden. 2. They entertain the kindliest feelings toward the colored population; and, with their counsel and aid, they are ever ready to assist them in the acquisition of ])roperty, and to deal fairly with him all along the line of his political, legal, and natural rights. THE EDUCATIOX OF THE NBQBO IN THE SOUTH. 503 8. They have no fears of any serious or general trouble grovmig out of the fact of negro suffrage, if not interfered with by a low class of political agi- tators. 4. Were the question submitted to a vote, I feel quite sure that the repre- sentative Southern people would elect the negro to remain on his native heath, if he desired to do so. With regard to the education of the negro, there is a variety of sentiment among our people. We have those among us who do not warmly favor the education of the masses of either race. This sentiment is shown in the fact that we suii^r some opposition to popular education. A class similar to this may be found in all educating countries. We have also those who do not advocate negro education, because they have never become reconciled to ne- gro citizenship. Their neutrality on the subject is about all the opposition that comes from this source; and, if their passiveness is an indication of doubt on the subject, it is plain that the negro gets the benefit of the doubt- But the most formidable opposition we have to negro education, is the posi- tive declaration made by a large and respectable class of citizens that educa- tion is a decided detriment to the negro's best interest. It is claimed by these opponents that just as soon as the negro obtains a little learning, he is dis- posed to abandon manual labor, and seeks to engage in politics, preaching, or teaching. It is also claimed that the educated negro often becomes a fire- brand among the more ignorant of his race, and uses his acquired talents in stirring up and perpetuating hatred and strife between the races. Despite all these various phases of opposition to negro education in the South, their schools are generally well filled with enthusiastic learners, and they are making as fair a headway as their limited facilities will admit. And this very fact shows that the majority of the Southern white people are strongly favorable to negro civilization ; for it must be known to those who are familiar with the statistics of Southern education, that our legislators make, substantially, the same provision for the education of the colored children as they do for the whites. Nor do we ever hear of our representa- tives being arraigned by their constituents for supporting measures which give equal advantages to our colored youth. When this is fairly considered, in connection with the fact that the negro population contributes a very diminutive per centum of the State appropriations for public education, it will be seen that the white people of the South richly deserve the gratitude of the negro, as well as the commendation of all who are interested in his cause. Having reviewed the opinions of the white people, North and South, on this question, it is proper that something should be said from the negroes point of view. For the past several years my official relations in the field of education have been of such a character as to enable me to learn something of the purposes and ambitions of the representative negroes of the South. From various con- 504 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. versations with the most intelligent persons of this race, I have gleaned the following facts : They believe that the intelligent white people of the South are their best friends. They know they are at liberty to leave the South, but they prefer to remain. They take but little stock in the exodus agitations. They think the time for such a movement is not yet. When the Good Father shall ar- range his program of final destiny for the negro, possibly there shall be a great emigration of the race to the land of their fathers. At present the burning bush, the presence of a Moses, the inviting Canaan, are not in sight. However, when this day shall come, if ever it shall, there will be no wicked Southern Pharaoh that will detain the colored man from a brighter inheritance ; and there will be no infuriated Southern host to be swallowed up in the BJigry seas, in the wake of his departure. But there will be, should such an event ever occur, a mighty host of friends to the colored man in the South who would raise their prayers to Almighty God to protect and defend the negro, and make of his race a strong and mighty people. The intelligent Southern negroes do not think that social e<]uality with the whites is either practicable or desirable ; not practicable, because it would be unnatural ; not desirable, even on their part, because those who undertake to practice it with them inflict upon them a positive injury. In conversation with a highly-cultivated colored man, not long since, I asked him to give me his views on this subject. His answer was replete with wisdom, and full of good common-sense. He said: "The whites who put themselves on an equal social basis with us come to us in white skins, but their hearts are blaok — they always lower us in the moral scale." The intelligent Southern negroes are also opposed to the co-education of the races. They generally have a natural parental feeling toward their chil- dren, and they would be unwilling to have their oflfepring to undergo the un- avoidable embarrassments that would surely attend the presence of their children among those of the white race. The negroes in the South, as a rule, are eager to receive enlightenment on all subjects which tend to elevate their race ; and, while the great mass of them still remain in gross ignorance for want of better educational facilities, very many of them have achieved phe- nomenal success in the acquisition of knowledge and culture. Wherever the means of education have been placed before them by conscientious, able and faithful teachers, the colored youth have always been improved thereby. And I am fully persuaded that, while a little learning has a tendency to turn the heads of some, the only philosophical, safe and just course to pursue is to educate the colored people. The citizenship of the negro has been settled by governmental action, and this is not likely to be reversed. He should there- fore be given a fair and patient trial on the line of civilization. We should remember that it took the colored man several years to fully comprehend the nature of his freedom from slavery. For a number of yeara immediately sue- THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO IN THE SOUTH. 505 ceeding his emancipation, many thought that their freedom meant entire ex- emption from all kinds of labor; but their natural wants soon taught them differently, and they returned to the abandoned cotton-fields to earn a liveli- hood. So in their education ; many of them are slow to understand the grand end of civilization which the schools have in view. We must learn to labor and to wait. Those who have closely observed the slow but steady improve- ment of the negro, where good schools have been in their reach, freely confess that education is elevating them not only intellectually, but morally and civilly. When education, properly applied, becomes a bad thing for any human being, then we may conclude that the genial showers, the invigorating sunshine, and the life-giving oxygen are bad things for all animal and vegetable exist- ence; for, just as sure as these physical agencies develop embryonic life, just so sure do the principles and facts of science, literature, and art develop the powers of mind and soul. To say, therefore, that right education (and I mean the harmonious development of all the human powei*s) is a bad thing for the negro, would be to admit that the designs in his endowments should all be set aside. And no man can afford to allow his prejudices to so darken his reason as to bring him into controversy with Him who is the Author of our being and the Designer of our capabilities. Before closing these remarks, I desire to make some appeals concerning the negro problem. I appeal to all patriotic citizens. North and South, to receive with the greatest caution and distrust the demagogical utterances on this question, of the political agitator, whether on the field of political battle or in the halls of the Congress of the United States. I appeal to the colored population in the South to receive, with fitting gratitude, the educational ef- forts made in their behalf by the Southern white people ; and to take every possible advantage of whatever facilities they enjoy for the education of their youth in mind, virtue, economy, and industry. I appeal to those philanthropic people at the North, who have already caused a flood of light to pour in upon the Southern colored people, by their timely munificence, to relax not their disposition to render material aid to our colored institutions of learning. I appeal last, but not least, to the patriotic statesmen of the Congress of the United States, to seriously review the claims of the millions of illiterate chil- dren who are soon to be thrust upon the country, prepared or unprepared, to exercise the high and responsible functions of American citizenship. Let it be understood by them that sixty days of school in the year, under the tuition of badly-paid teachers, can never bring the colored people of the South into intelligent harmony with the nature and genius of our free institutions. And if an economic administration of our Government be the watchword of the hour, let them bear in mind that the greatest of all economic measures is the education of the masses to the level of modern civilization. 506 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. DISCUSSION. W. B. Powell, Washington, D. C. : It is unfortunate that, in the discuit- sion of this question, fraught with so much importance, we cannot bring t*> our aid more facts. We know, or may know, the number of schools, the number of teachers, the number of pupils attending school, the number of days' attendance, and some other -facts of interest. We need to know, but do not, the relative growth of homes among the colored people from year to year. These are evidences of advancement. We need to know the relative number of persons becoming skilled in the industries, the relative numl)er of per- sons becoming indej)endent because of their skill to do, the relative num- ber of persons who are becoming an ac([uisition to the State because of their ability to make the State richer, stronger, and society more intelligent, more peaceful, and more secure. In the discussion of the question, I am un- able to give more than an opinion — an opinion, however, based on very careful investigation and much inquiry within the narrow field of my own labors. I can give you, then, little more than a reason for my own acts and recommen- dations in connection. with my labor in the District of Columbia. Soon after going to Washington, it was my pleasure to be present at the closing exercises of the colored high school of that city, on which occasion the Hon. William B. Webb, the District Commissioner having in charge the schools of the District, presented the certificates of graduation to the gradu- ating class. I was much impressed with one remark the Commissioner made to the young people of that class. It was something like the following : "Twenty-five years ago colored men were not allowed apon the streets of the city of Washington after sundown without passes. Twenty-five years ago, I myself, aj; Superintendent of Metropolitan Police, issued passes permitting colored persoxLs to be found on the streets after sundown in the city of Washington. To-night I am permitted, and I assure you it is no small pleasure to me, to give young colored people, not unlikely the sons and daughters of those to whom I issued passes twenty- five years ago, certificates showinj^ that you have completed a course of instruction, including that of the high school, provided for the young people of the District of Columbia, white and colored alike." I wish here to make another remark apropos to the above. I have been told that when in the early history of the schools these young people presented themselves, from year to year, to receive their certificates of success, the line of })ersons was decidedly and noticeably light in color ; now, I assure you, the color of that line is decidedly dark, and from year to year it is growing darker. Many persons found in that line now are as black as the blackest Egyptian. This, to me, is a significant picture. It shows unmistakably the possibilitii^ of the race. He who has seen, as I have, the striving, the earnest endeavor of the pupil, the privation and sacrifices cheerfully assumed on the part of parents that their children may benefit by opportunities offered, will recognize another ini- DISCUSSION'. 507 port ant and encouraging factor in showing the possibilities of this race. As a proper setting to this picture, I should state that the colored youth of the Disstrict of Columbia are given advantages identical with those enjoyed by the white youth of the District. The schools are managed by the same Board of Trustees ; they have the same course of instruction ; the same text-books ; the same kind of buildings, with the same appointments. Their teachers to secure positions pass the same examinations and receive the same pay as white teachers. Their schools are continued the same length of time as the schools for white children. 1 will state further, that some of the class of whom I speak, although re- ceiving only the small pay of the common laborer, are striving to secure homes, humble indeed, but yet abiding-places of their own. This is another encouraging feature, which ought not to be omitted in the discussion of this question. It would be gratifying to me to leave this picture with you and take my seat, if that could be done in justice to my convictions of truth. To leave the subject now, would be to give you but one phase of the entire view of this very important question. There is a less encouraging view, not wholly dis- couraging, but demanding the earnest consideration of him who regards the growth of the citizen, the welfare of society, and the interests of his country. I must tell you, in part, what I believe, also, in part, how I learned facts and conditions, so that you may know the reasons for the conclusions that I give. All efforts to secure uniformity of schools, except on very broad lines, have failed. That essence of Americanism, that should and will pervade American educational institutions, will make the systems of education as varied as the varied prejudices and predilections of our composite nationality ; as varied as the needs and possibilities of our multitudinous resources ; as varied as the variety of location ; as varied as the interests of communities ; as persistent and enduring, but as varied as human ambition in a land offering every dreamed-of possibility to its inhabitants. A board of trustees or a superintendent acts not wisely when attempting to transplant a system of schools. Wiser is it to develop a system of education ; for, when this is done intelligently, the people of a community will have a scheme that wall advance them most naturally and most rapidly. It is wise, then, in conducting a system of schools, to have uppermost in the mind on all occasions when decisions are to be made or lines of policy to be deter- mined, the needs and possibilities of the community. Profoundly impressed with the importance of what has just been said, dur- ing a life of supen'ision, a life devoted less to the study of hotv to teach than to the study of what to teach, the sequence and relative values of its parts, I entered upon a careful study of the possibilities and probabilities of the education of the colored race as soon as I ascertained that my work embraced the supervision of schools for the colored race. This was a new field to me. 508 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, In my study of education I had seen, it is true, that most systems were growths, developing as necessity or opportunity presented itself, sometime? down, sometimes up. Education as represented by schools has, in the main, begun at the top and developed down. Seldom in the history of the world has there arisen a necessity or opportunity for establishing or giving t*) a people a system of education. Experience and judgment will dictate that, when this is necessary for a people uneducated and undeveloped, it should begin at the bottom ; begin at the learning-point. The leaming-jx)int should first be determined in the edu- cation of any individual, any community, or any people. Of the many shameful and humiliating mistakes made in the education of the Indian race, the chief is, that the schools have not been started at the learning-point. The few notable exceptions, whose influence is fast changing the entire scheme of Indian education, prove only too well what I here say. Most of the attempts to educate the Indian have begun at the top, out of sight of the learning- point. In making a study of the condition and needs of the colored race for the purpose of determining the learning-point, which in turn will determine the character of schools to be established, the great mass of colored people must be considered. This, of course, will exclude the few, who, having had oppor- tunities for growth, are already possessed of some degree of development. Especially will it exclude that smaller number of highly-developed persons of color who are as well qualified to study this question for themselves as we are to decide it for them. The mass of colored people, whom alone I here consider, are ignorant and helpless. Not only are they ignorant of letters, of those academic acquire- ments contemplated ordinarily by the word school, but they are largely igno- rant of right and profitable ways of doing many of the ordinary offices of life. This is the condition that renders them helpless. So I say they are helpless in that sense of helplessness given by the consideration of the facts of machinery, perfected mechanical appliances and the skilled hands of white artisans of the present day that characterize the United States as a nation, that characterize our civilization more than any other one thing. I recall many an acquaintance of my boyhood days unable to read or to write, who was yet skilled })erhap8 as a wood-chopper, a farmer, was expert in caring for stock, expert in running a saw-mill, expert in some trade, expert and successful in establishing a home ; many a woman unable to read and write, expert in spinning, in weaving, in cutting and fitting and sewing, expert in butter-making and cheese-making, expert in all the secular duties that make a comfortable, elevating, if not an elegant, home. These people made homes. Christian homes, the most stable element, the most useful factor of our American civilization. The above fact explains, in part, what I mean when I say the masses of the colored race are helpless. They have had little or no opportunity to ac- DISCUSSION. 509 ({uire profitable skill, and are therefore found working to disadvantage, with instruments and by processes requiring an expenditure of labor that would accomplish many times what is now accomplished, if properly directed. It would seem almost unnecessary to state to him who knows the histor}- of the colored man for the last hundred years, that they of whom I speak are un- skilled in most of the useful arts of common life. They are not idle, but they know not how to work advantageously, or how to provide economically. Who can estimate the value to civilization of a clean and carefully patched gar- meuty or of warm and comfortable feet, though made so by darns and patches ? Who can estimate the value to civilization or to the individual of that effort that transforms squalor to comfort, making poverty endurable, and giving to it an inspiration for a higher and better life ? One cannot recall the life of his childhood, or remember with intelligence the homes and labors and successes of the early fathers and mothers, without feeling that their spirit of economy, of thrift, of devotion to duty, to family and to society, and their skill (acquired by doing) in transforming nature*8 gifts (raw materials) into useful, elevating, valuable products, are the great underlying, inspiring, successful elements of the greatness characterizing the first century of American history. These qualities a people must possess if they would live in happiness and prosperity ; without them, not only will they be beaten in life's race, but will even fail to establish a respectable individu- ality among the peoples of the earth. The colored people should be educated as other people are educated, but the beginnings of such education should be wisely determined. They must be made industrious. I have said they are not idle, but to be made indus- trious they must be taught how to work profitably. They must be made provi- dent ; to do this they must be trained in the arts and processes of economy. They must be taught the meaning and value of thrift ; to accomplish this, they must learn to work intelligently, to plan economically, and patiently to wait. They must learn the value of the investment of labor, and patience, and faith, and waiting. These valuable qualifications come not through books or letters alone; they come by doing. So while I would say, teach the colored youth in and of books, I say emphatically train him also in the arts and processes of agricul- ture and gardening, and train him in these while he is learning to read ; thus will he learn to do both better. Train him in the processes of the most useful mechanical arts, and let him get this training contemporaneous with the ac- quirement of his primary scholastic education ; train him in the arts and pro- cesses of barter and sale, and let this be done while he is taking his first steps in reading and arithmetic ; thus, becoming a man of affairs, his scholastic training will be intelligible to him. A supervisor (a colored man, a graduate of the Vermont State Normal School) having in charge a hundred schools, when asked what he would do to educate the colored race if he were given authority to act and the disposition 510 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. of the money now expended on their education, replied that he would foster the lower graded schools, but instead of the colleges and high schools he would establish agricultural colleges and trade schools, and perhaps more normal schools. I would not go so far as my friend. Supervising Principal H. P. Montgomery. There are none too many of these schools. I ^vould foster them all. I do foster them all to the extent of my influence and ability. There is, however, not enough of the training of the hands in the useful and necessary arts of life. I plead for more of this. He is not the wisest friend of the colored race, however, who establishes a university instead of a school of agriculture, a college instead of a machine- shop, a high school instead of a kindergarten. Most unfortunate will it be for this race, however philanthropic may be the efforts for its amelioration and advancement, if this period of learning to do, to save, to economize, U^ plant, to w^ater, to cultivate, to nourish, and patiently to await results, is bridged over, or, what now seems to be too much the tendency of educational effort in their behalf, omitted entirely. Five years of common school in a country community of the helpless class of which I 8{>eak may result in many of the younger portion knowing how to read and how to write, knowing a little of geography and of history, able to perform some or many of the simpler operations in numbers ; but if the homes are little better than they were at the beginning, farming and gardening no better done, fences and roads in no better condition, how much will be the gain ? As a natural result, the young people, discontented with their lot, tired of home, will seek, not employmenty but rather graiificaJtion and entertainment elsewhere, resulting too frequently in dissipation and crime. The same expenditure of money directed only in part to the attainment of letters (and I would not omit that part of education even at the beginning ), but directed also to training these people how to raise potatoes more success- fully, how to market them, how to take care of cattle, milk their cows, how- to make butter and cheese, to keep their fences in repair, to keep their homes neater and more tidy, to do many of the little acts of domestic life that make the home convenient and more endurable, keep the yard tidy and inviting, giving to the premises an air of thrift and comfort — a condition unknown to many — would result in a prosperous, happy, contented, ambitious, and re- spectable community, the pride of a State, without which communities no State can stand, no people are safe. Academic instruction alone never reached such results ; it never can. I am not discussing the question of manual training; I am talking about the education of a people who know how to do very little in harmony with the governing civilization on this continent. Our civilization represents, in the process of its growth, all the qualifications for which I plead. They cannot be omitted in the growth of any people. They cannot be transmitted from one people to another by any process of philanthropic endeavor or legal en- DISCUSSION. 511 actment. The people who would have the growth must themselves do the jyrrowing. The great danger of academic education for the colored youth as now given by the schools in their developed condition, successful and brilliant as I have pictured it, is that it leads them away fn)ra the bread- winning pursuits of life, which must necessarily be the lot of the great mass of them, as it is of us all. This must be so while their manual pursuits are so rude and uninterest- ing. Unless the colored youth are made to know and to feel that successes ill niauual labor are respectable and honorable, as honorable as purely scho- lastic successes, and unless they are made acquainted with, and given skill in, modern industrial arts and appliances, their education will be to them a :*ource of restlessness and discontent, and may be to the community a source of danger. This is not true because of their color. The New England farmer boy did not learn to despL^^e his home work by attending school three or four months in the winter. He was learning, under the skillful management of the father, more, and more rapidly, at home than be learned at school. What he learned at school was only an additional ac- quisition that helped him in his home work. His chief learning was at home. The daughter of colonial days made her chief acquisitions at home under the skillful management of the mother, where she learned to spin and weave and dam and patch. Her school life added accomplishment to these useful arts, and made her more intelligent and useful. The school is to the colored youth of whom I speak his only place of learn- ing. He learns nothing at home ; nobody there is competent to teach him advantageously ; he learns nothing from his neighbors ; nobody with whom he associates does anjrthing better than he finds it done in his own home. He comes to look on the school, therefore, as the only means of growth, as the only means of bettering his condition ; he comes to look on school and scholas- tic accjuisition as the only means by which he can become respectable and grow to be like the white man. Will he not learn to despise labor? This is a view of life, its possibilities and opportunities, that means defeat to the race that holds it, that is fraught with danger to the community. This may all be avoided by training the hand and the mind simultaneously and proportionally. If the colored man has not been so trained, it is not his fault ; it is the fault of those who gave him the schools, the fault of those who builded for him. He knew not how to build for himself. The colored youth can be educated to usefulness, respectability and honor. The education that the colored man receives, however, should be so directed as to make him useful and independent at the earliest possible moment. The philanthropist will give alms to the unfortunate, will feed the man temporarily out of employment, but he will not give employment to the un- skilled man when one who is skilled can be found. Not many years ago it was found that skilled persons from foreign lands were occupying the most lucrative positions in the factories of America. 512 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. Aroused by this fact, and further awakened by the Centennial Expoeition of 1876, the public schools of the nation began in earnest the training of hand and eye. Polytechnic schools sprang up in all parts of the land. The«e things were done for the benefit of America's bread-winners. America's prosperity is due less to her agricultural interests than to her making powers. She has made herself wealthy, respected, and powerftil, by transforming raw material into valuable and useful things. There is more of this to be done in the future than has been done in the past, and skilled hand^ will do it. The colored man should be made to appreciate this fact. The vast thousands of industrious, economical, skilled, intelligent men and women who have filled this land from foreign countries, whatever their na- tionality, have multiplied our wealth almost fabulously, have added to our dignity, our authority, and our national pride. The pauper classes have not been recruited from their ranks. We welcome them ; we are proud of them to-day as fellow-Americans. The larger part of the pauper classes are recruited from the ranks of those who are idle because they know not how to work or how to economize their small earnings. If the colored man is not trained in the useful arts of life, in those arts that have made the best citizenship of America, in those arts that have given the greatest wealth to America, in those arts that have given the greatest dignity to America, in those arts that have brought the greatest renown to America, in those arts that have made it possible for the people to preserve a united interest and a common pride, under one government, the skilled white laborer will occupy the paying positions, leaving for the unskilled colored laborer the poorly-paid places of helpers and assistants. This is the lesson for the colored man to learn. I am not an alarmist. I wish only to see things as they are. It may be that the colored mUn is being trained in the very direction which I suggest. From what I see, I do not think he is, to the extent demanded by his best interests. What would I do ? Let me tell you what one teacher said to me, the col- ored teacher of a country school : " Mr. Powell, I can do these people more good than I am doing now, if you will let me devote two afternoons of the week to teaching them to sew. They come to school untidy; their garments are torn: their sleeves are out at the elbows; they represent the conditions of their homes largely. Now if you will let me teach these young girls to sew, I can teach them to be ashamed tc> come to school with torn clothes. I can teach them to patch or darn their clothes, and I believe that by doing this I will influence the lives of these people at their homes, and thereby do much more good than I am now doing.'' Well, this is the key to it. The young woman who teaches the country school should be something more to the ccimmunity than a teacher of letters to the children. She should be a person who would teach the entii^ com- munity, either directly or indirectly, in many of the simpler home arts, thase arts that are taught in all cultivated homes, white or colored. A school thus Discr^ssiox. 513 presided over would do much more good than is now done by the ordinan' school of letters, and would accomplish, I believe, at the same time, better scholastic results ; for who does not know that, other things being equal, the l>est scholastic results are reached by men of affairs ? Now I need not detail further. I would have men who teach do a corresponding kind of work. I would have more manual training, more direct effort made to train the col- ored youth in profitable, economical, agricultural, and mechanical arts. I would have more kindergartens, so that these people might be reached earlier in life and trained to some extent before the years at which they are forced Uj become bread-winners. I would have no fewer of the kinds of schools than they now have. More money will be required to do this than is now expended for this pur- pose. Neither the people of the North nor those of the South appreciate the vastness of the work of educating an entire people. If one considers what it costs to educate a son or a daughter by private instruction, what it costs to give a child a series of lessons in a single branch of education by private tui- tion, and then reads the annual reports of the superintendents of schools of States and cities, he will be astonished at the inadequacy of the means pro- vided for educating .the millions that attend our public schools. Some of these reports show that less than ten dollars per pupil ' of those who attend regularly is expended for their education. This would little more than pay the cost of a score of lessons in any one subject by private tuition. Another point I would make, a point that may be made with respect to nearly all public schools : that is, it is unfortunate that a school cannot be provided with the best teachers that may be obtained in any locality for the money paid. The principle of home rule, which is made to include the color of the teacher, too frequently gives to a school an incompetent instructor when a competent one might be employed at the same pay. This, however, is not so great an evil as would ensue if white teachers alone were employed ; so that it need be discussed no further. W. H. Bartholomew, of Kentucky: When I accepted the kind invita- tion to be present at this meeting of the Department of Superintendence and to take a part in its discussions, I determined to come in the spirit of helpful- ness. I have no disposition to bring to my aid the figures of rhetoric or the quirks of logic, but in lieu thereof /a^t-? supported by reliable testimony. Prof. J. A. B. Lovett deserves our sincere thanks for the unusual care ex- ercised in the preparation of his paper, for the character of its material, and for the spirit which pervades it. Permit me, sir, to call especial attention to the following points of Prof. Lovett's paper : "1. That the progressive, intelligent and patriotic white population of the South are» favorable to negro education, is seen in the fact that the colored youth share equally vnth the whites in the State appropriations of school funds. 514 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. When it is remembered, too, that the colored people of the South contribute a very diminutive per centum to the school fund, the legislation which gives to them equal normal and common-school facilities is quite significant" " This much-vexed question confronts the people of the whole country, and hence every patriotic citizen should give his best thoughts and exert his best energies for its solution." These facts show that the people of the South believe that popular education is a necessity in a republic. The evidence of their work in this direction stands unquestioned. The South is doing all it can to strengthen every influ- ence that is working against ignorance and vice. Conclusions must rest upon facts, and every principle of argumentation is violated when they are not supported by reliable testimony. Hasty con- clusions are harmful, and lead to ill-considered action. Kentucky is endeavoring to do her whole duty to the colored youth within her borders. In support of this statement, I respectfully submit the follow- ing facts : The annual report of Superintendent Pickett shows that the per capita for educational purposes for the year ending June 30, 1888, 1889, and 1890, amounted to $1.90, $2.05, and $2.15, and that the aggregate expenditures from the public treasury for these purposes during the year mentioned are $1,248,203.10 for 1888, $1,363,209.10 for 1889, and $1,4^55,132.10 for the pres- ent year. During this year, the per capita being $2.15, the sum of $l,4o5,- 132.10 is apportioned as follows: To 565,451 white children, the sum of $1,215,719.65; to 111,355 colored children, the sum of $239,413.25. During the fiscal year of 1887, of the sum of $165,971.84 expended on the schools for colored children, only $12,545.65 was contributed by colored tax-payers. A proportionate contribution has been paid in subsequent years, thus illustrating in a remarkable manner the interest taken by the white popu- lation in improving the condition of the colored race by so heavily taxing themselves. It will be seen that more than half the revenue of the State is thus devoted to purposes of education, exceeding the percentage allotted in almost ever}' other State of the Union for such purposes. The State has, in addition to this, established at Frankfort a normal school for the instniction and training of colored teachers. The teachers of this school are colored. It is believed that this is the only school of the kind in the United States in which the professors are colored. As evidence of the interest of the city of Louisville in the proper improve- ment of the colored youth, the following figures are respectfully submitted : For the fiaml year 1889 : Number enrolled in the high school for colored children, 105; number enrolled in primary and secondary schools, 4,608; average belonging, secondarj'^ and primary schools, 3,467; average daily at- tendance, primary and secondar}^ schools, 3,001. Thus, twenty i^er cent, of all the children of the city attending the public DISCUSSION. 515 schools are in the colored schools. Three teachers are employed in the high school, and seventy-five in the primary and secondary schools. These teach- ers are colored. Amount of money expended on the colored schools for the year 1889, ^.'^7,455; to which add, for incidental expenses, $10,000, and we have a total of nearly $50,000. The course of instruction for the white and the colored schools is the same. The qualifications of the teachers are the same as those of the white schools, and they are paid the same salaries. The white people pay ten times as much for the support of the schools as the colored people pay. For instance, dur- ing the year 1872-73, when the colored schools were organized, they cost SI 8,000, of which the colored people paid $1,800. A proportionate contribu- tion has been paid in subsequent years. There were 457 pupils enrolled the first year. About ninety per cent, of all the teachers employed in the colored schools was educated in the public schools of this city. There are now in this city four first-class three-story buildings, having all modem improvements and arrangements for heating, lighting, ventilation, etc. The equipments furnished by the Louisville school board for the education and comfort of the colored children are not excelled by any city in the United States, Washington, perhaps, excepted. The largest school-house for the education of colored children in the world is here, the average attendance of which is 1,300 pupils. 2. Mr. President, I do not think that eqttality of rights necessarily means identity of rights. When the negroes are supplied with comfortable school-houses, a proper course of instruction, the necessary apparatus for illustration of the same, and qualified teachers, then the requirements of the Constitution of the United States are fully met. This is accepted by both whites and blacks, as far as I know. The schools for the races are separate. As has been said many times during this meeting, we must consider our environments. The colored schools are progressing, and the colored people are satisfied. I hope that I have said enough to show that the people of the South are cooperating with the people of the North, the East, and the West, in a united effort, by means of education and Christianity, to banish illiteracy and crime from our borders, so that our nation may be a blessing in uplifting the other nations of the earth. L. H. Jones, of Indiana: In all attempts to solve a problem like this, it is necessary to find a sure starting-point from which the thought may move forward in an orderly way to a proper and logical conclusion. In the theme now under consideration there is great temptation to mistake sentiment for logic and presumption for fact. It is quite necessary, then, to clear away from this subject whatever may tend to bias the judgment or in any way to obscure the mental vision, A brief analysis of the subject will help to its correct comprehension. The question proposed, then — "The Education 516 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. of the Negro in the South," is a part of a larger whole — "The education (»f the negro" everywhere. This in its turn is part of the still larger whole — "The education of man." This being true, it occurs to me that the topic raises but two questions that are in any sense new, peculiar, or different fn)m ordinary educational questions, namely : first, "Is the negro now in some j)ar- ticular stage of development, as a race counts development?" And 5«econd, "Has he some peculiar environment necessitating peculiar educational treat- ment?" These two peculiarities of the situation, if they may be called such, must be kept clearly in mind and be rightly related to each other, and to the larger fact that the negro is a human being, in any rational attempt to solve the problem of his education. Let us, then, for a moment place, these three ideas in right relation to one another, that we may see how to proceed in their light, if as principles they will serve to enlighten us in the matter now in hand. 1. The negro is a definite portion of humanity, with the essential nature of humanity as to powers, capabilities, and tendencies. 2. The negro, as a definite portion of the human race, is in a special stage of development, and in so far needs peculiar educational treatment. 3. The negro, as a definite portion of the human race, in a given stage of development, by reason of his residence in the so-called South has a special social, political and climatical environment, and in so far his education must be made to accord not only with his humanity, and his particular stage of de- velopment, but also, so far as this is a controlling factor, with his environ- ment. Now anyone who thinks upon these three ideas — the negro is a defi- nite portion of humanity, the negro is in a definite stage of development, the negro is in a peculiar environment — perceives that these ideas are not coordinate ideas in a system of thought. The prominent idea is the first of the three — the human characteristics of the negro, indeed it alone of the three is of the nature of a first principle, and, being determined, settles in part the proper application of the other two — they being in fact but incidents of the situation. That is, the humanity of the negro, by which I mean the pos- session by him of the educational possibilities and necessities of human- ity, determines at once that educational methods and practices to be suc- cessful with him must be in full accord with the nature of the human being. Then matters of special stage of development, and matters of environment, which seem to have occupied so much atten- tion in this discussion, sink into insignificance by the side of this greater idea, or fall into order and place under its constraining influence. So, first of all, settle this principle, that the negro is a definite portion of hu- manity, and we reach at once the conclusion that systems, methods and practices which have proved themselves capable of bringing the other races — Caucasian, Mongolian, Indian, etc. — through the various stages of develop- ment to enlightenment, more complete with some than with others, because of their more thorough application, will just as surely bring the negro through DISCUSSION, 517 if only they are allowed to have their perfect work with him. This is of course not the time nor the place to enter into the discussion at large of such systems, methods, and practices. This company of men is familiar through history with their operations in many lands and in all ages. The educational exijerienoes of the race have, in part at least, been written, and may be read iu books ; but this does seem the time and the place to insist upon the principle that the negro is possessed of human characteristics, and to refer hastily to a few of the most obvious corollaries of this proposition. To this end I desire to call attention to the fact that we as school-men are too likely to think public-school education the whole of education, rather than what it really is, a very small part of the true education of a people ; and especially do we make this niistake when we attempt to deal with any other race than the proud Caucasian. Now there are, as we well know, five great institutions that are so distinct- ively educational that they must be taken into consideration in every attempt to educate the negro. They are the family, the church, the state, civil society, and the school. The negro needs the influence of the responsibilities and the privileges of all these five institutions. He must be taught the sacred char- acter and educational value of the family, and his ideals of this institution must be elevated and refined. No community — North, South, East, or West — having the negro to educate, can afford to neglect this important matter, or so to treat him in any way that he shall fail of its high civilizing influence. So of the church. Its theory' of life, its view of the world and of the destiny of man, its methods and practices, must all be made plain to him, and he must be taught to organize the church, and must be allowed to carry it on in ac- a)rdance with its sacred character. In like manner he must be taught to construct and carry on a civil society whose public opinion shall stand for purity, honesty, and morality. Again, he must be allowed to take his rightful part in the responsibilities and the privileges of the state ; for the institution of the state is little less educational than is the school itself. The state can- not afford to practice injustice upon even its poorest subject, lest it thus give him the ideal and the excuse for the practice of injustice himself. In all these respects the negro is susceptible to the same general action and reaction of institutions as is the white man, and those who have his education in charge will succeed well or ill in proportion as they regard in these respects his human characteristics. So much for the general principle. Now for the application of the two minor ideas. Because the negro is in an early stage of development — the childhood of his race — there is doubtless a double childhood imposed upon children of his race, and special objective methods of education must doubtless be employed with them ; but beyond this I see no large application of this minor idea to the education of the negro in the South. Then, lastly, as to his environment. If, because of his accidental residence in the South, or for any other reason, he must be taught in schools of his own color only, he must have schools —33 518 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, equal in all their appointments to those provided for his white brother of the same region. To this end normal schools for colored teachers must be estab- lished and maintained, until all schools can be provided with colored teacheri^ who are thoroughly trained, and who will live in the communities for ivhom they teach, and who will in every way be united in interest with the pupil? and patrons whom they serve. Aside from these peculiarities, the school eil- ucation of the negro in the South seems to me to present no new or difficult educational problem. In like manner I see no reason why he may not be al- lowed or required to construct for himself, apart from the white race, his fam- ily, church, and civil society ; but it is well to remember that he can do tberr^:- well only after he has had guaranteed to him his proper privileges as a com- ponent part of the State. The property of the State — of the white man and the black man alike — must stand pledged to the equal education of the children of both ; and I myself should not in the least object if this princi- ple should be interpreted to have a national application, A. J. Rick OFF, New York City : It must be conceded that the representa- tions made in Mr. Lovett's paper in regard to the ignorance of the colored people and the difficulties to be met with in their education fall short of, rather than exceed, the truth ; nor can it be denied that the lack of education among the whites in the North, as well as the South, demands the serious attention of the several States aa well as the General Government. No appropriations from either, for the promotion of education, can be injudicious if honestly ex- pended. Governmental aid to private benefactions for the promotion of learn- ing, have never yet pauperized a people. If we had given this matter more attention twenty-five years ago, our condition as a nation would be far better than it is to-day. We may have appeared indifferent in regard to the paasagB of the education bills that have been before Congress, but State and county and city superintendents have been absorbed by the responsibilities they have had to carry from day to day. Anyhow, the time is gone. Possibly some- thing in this direction may yet be done. The possibilities should not be dis- regarded. But it seems to me that there is quite as important work to he done in another way ; a work fully as imjwrtant as to obtain Government aid, however liberal that aid may be. I refer to the diffusion of intelligence among the people in regard to the true ends of education, its supreme impor- tance to the individual, its relation to the material interests of mankind, and finally to the stability of free institutions. It is worthy of the serious consid- eration, whether the friends of education ought not to organize, as other so- cieties have organized, for the promotion and dissemination of great moral and sociological principles. Ought not the National Educational Association, in the beginning at least, employ a permanent secretary whose duty it should be to do much of the work now imposed on the President of the Association, and in addition to this direct the printing and distribution of "Facts for the People," in regard to this momentous question ? He might call to his aid city. State, and county organizations. It seems to me that it would not be difficult Discussioy. 519 to raise sufficient fiinds in support of such a movement. There are men in tlie National Association who could carry it through successfully if the As- &>r>ciation would commission and support them in the work at the start. In a short time I believe it would abundantly support itself. Any one of the pres- icients or secretaries who have l)een active in getting up the monster educational ma.s3 meetings of the last five or six years, or who have displayed the admi- rable directive power required in making the necessary arrangements for such meetings as this, would fill such a position with credit. E. E. White, of Ohio: The statement of the speaker who opened this discussion, to the effect that schooling is causing increasing idleness among the colored youth of the District of Columbia, was a great surprise to me ; and this is my apolog}' for interrupting the speaker to inquire whether I correctly understood him. If this statement be true, there must be some exceptional conditions in the District, for I am confident that it is not true elsewhere. If I have correctly read the history of education, it has always and among all X>eople8 promoted industry and lessened idleness. Education touches both of the great laws of wealth — supply and demand. It not only awakens desires, but impels man to effort to secure their gratification. Horace Mann showed, some thirty years ago, that the progress of conununities in industry and wealth is measured, other things being equal, on the scale of general educa- tion. Nowhere on earth do a schooled people clothe themselves in rags and live in hovels, and nowhere on earth do an unschooled and ignorant people do anything else ! I do not doubt that the colored people need instruction in domestic and in- dustrial arts, and they are not alone in this need ; but I do not understand why a quickening of their intelligence, and love of truth and right, should result in industrial inefficiency. Bacon asserted that the schools of his cen- tury were "filling the realm with idle, indigent, and wanton people" — a statement long since refuted by the industrial progress of the English people. Is it possible that this exploded utterance of Bacon is being verified in the schooling of the colored people ? If so, is it not vain to ask for national aid to provide schools for them ? It has long been my cherished hope that efficient school training will not only promote industry among the colored people, and increase their product- ive skill as laborers, but that it will also improve their intellectual, moral, and domestic condition. Mrs. R. D. Rickoff, New York City, told in a few words something of the impressions she had received from personal observation, during her visit of nearly two years in North and South Carolina, where she had watched with interest the effects of education on the young colored j)eople. She had noticed, especially in South Carolina, numbers of well-dressed young colored men lounging and smoking day and night around the doors of restau- rants and saloons. Upon inquiring how these idle young men came to be so 520 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. well dressed, she was informed that it was their custom to do odd jobs for the accommodation of gentlemen who repaid them by gifts of clothing, and that their mothers, sisters and wives usually provided them with enough to eat. The women as a rule were more industrious than the men, being occupied &» house servants, or taking in washing at their own homes. Throughout the South the complaint is general among the more intelligent white people, as well as the le*^ intelligent, that education makes a loafer of the negro. In many cases it does. This is a fact, and facts we cannot ig- nore ; but notwithstanding this, she could not agree with the previous speaker in supposing that anyone here, or any thoughtful and well-informed person, seriously believed that education was not as good for the negro as for tlie Caucasian — for all negroes as for all Caucasians. That education should have such an effect uix)n the descendants of slaves, seemed to her but a most natural result, and one to be expected. They shrink from manual labor. Is it strange ? Is not this one of the results seen alway.* where the uplifting by education has been sudden ? Does a man need to be black to feel this ? But with the Southern black man the feeling is intensified. With him the taint of slavery hangs about manual labor. It is the badge of slavery, and both white and colored Southerners still feel the influence of thL? stigma. What is the young negro man's idea of a gentleman ? What is it likely to be ? What are the traditions that their parents and their grandparent:? bring to them ? The young master, who was the pride of the one and the youthful companion of the other, was a well-educated, well-dressed, idle man, who had a haughty disdain for all manual pureuits. We need to consider, too, what are the avenues of work that open to the young colored people. They are only the most servile and the least well-paid. The best help that can Iv given to the colored race is that education that shall train them to be skilled workmen and teach them that honest labor is highest honor. The good taste displayed in dress by the young colored women of the South is noticeable. The girls who earn money and spend it to suit their own tastei?, display good discrimination in the harmony of colors and the use of onia- mentation, and a choice for delicacy of fabric. Their scorn for high colors, especially red, and for bizarre effects, is amusing, and at the same time most suggestive, for here too we see the influence of tradition and a rebound from previous conditions. The negroes are an emotional peo})le ; the emotions are the roots from which the aesthetic sentiments sj)ring, and in their education the development of the aesthetic sensibilities should receive its full share. J. M. Greknwood, of Missouri: Mr. Pi-esident, strange indeed are some of the sentiments uttered here this afternoon. Distinguished gentlemen see the negro race under a different perspective from what I have viewed it in Missouri. This class of American citizens has been depicted as lazy, thrift- DISCUSSION. 521 less, improvident, and dei)endent. Occasional vices have been magnified, and not a virtue dwelt upon. In all seriousness I ask if the jncture thus drawn is true. Let facts, not cre- ations of fancy, speak. Twenty-five years ago the colored people of the State in which I live were uneducated, poverty-stricken, dependent, and helpless creatures. To-day they number 200,000. The value of their real and personal property is more than 830,000,000. Thousands of them live in comfortable homes. Of the 50,000 children of school age, seventy per cent, are now in attend- ance. They are as neatly and as cleanly clad as the average white child, and many of them much better. Those who were the boys and girls in school a few years ago are the leaders among their people now. The self-denial prac- ticed by parents to educate their children, is one of the strongest evidences of parental aflfection that the world has ever beheld. When the school-house doors were opened for the admission of colored pupils, they rushed in to get an education, and the influx is unabated. I have seen old white-haired men and women studying the first reader and spelling-book so as to be able to read the Bible, the newspapers, and to write letters to relatives and friends. Have you seen white people doing these things ? But let us look at these j)eople from another standpoint, and see what prog- ress they have made. There are 45,000 of them church communicants; more than 450 ministers of the g08i)el ; 400 church edifices, and 60 parson- ages. Do these evidences of prosperity indicate the wretchedness of this race ? The negro must be treated as a man, neither cajoled nor d&^pued. He is here to stay, and it is our duty to help him to make the most of himself as an in- dustrious, intelligent, law-abiding, and faithful citizen. Whether educated or uneducated, he is not a dangerous element in our civilization. A thousand- fold is he to be trusted when compared with those dangerous elements which have swept in upon us from European countries, and are now a standing menace to our social and political institutions. The negro is thoroughly and loyally American. Yet there is a race question in the South just as there is a race question in Massachusetts and in Pennsylvania. It is this: Shall the whites, representing nearly all the intelligence and wealth of that section, rule it ? That is a vital question in some of the States, and it is a question that will be amicably ad- justed to all parties in due time. As to the proposition to distribute money by the National Government to educate either white or colored people, I entertain grave doubts. The edu- cational sentiment in any community or State is one of slow growth. It is an organism which requires time and favorable conditions to develop. This sentiment must spring from internal conditions rather than from external aj)- pliances. The South is making wonderful progress, all things considered. National aid, in my judgment, will have a strong tendency to impede local 522 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. effort. But if the " Blair bill," or any similar measure, shall be adopted, the money should be employed in building school-houses, and in establishing and maintaining normal schools, so as to supply those States needing help with first-class teachers. A good school-house in each neighborhood would be a powerful incentive to the people. Then, a well-qualified teacher placed in it, and the people would soon realize what a well-equipped school means. Mr. President, I have trespassed too long upon the patience of this body ; but I was unwilling that such a wholesale denunciation of the negro race should be made by those whose opportunities for studying this people are not equal to my own. THE GAP BETWEEN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOI^ AXD THE COLLEGES, CHARLES W. ELIOT. My subject being large and my time short, I am glad that my audience is a professional one, which will know how to supply the needed qualifications and exceptions which I shall not have time to mention. s^An excellent report on secondary education, by Professor James H. Can- - field, read before the National Council of Education in July last and doubt- less known to all my hearers, makes it unnecessary for me to do more than i-eaffirm a few significant facts concerning secondary schools in the United States. No State in the American Union possesses anything which can be properly called a system of secondary education. The elementary school sys- tem, both in city and country, is tolerably organized in many States; but be- tween the elementary schools and the colleges is a wide gap very imperfectly * bridged by a few public high schools, endowed academies, college preparatory departments, and private schools, which conform to no common standards and are under no unifying control. The mass of the rural population — that is to say, three-quarters of the American people — is unprovided with secondarj- schools. The town and city high schools are, on the one hand, independent of each other and of any su j)erior educational authority ; ,and, on the other, are entirely in the power of local committees or boards which can but rarely look beyond the immediate interests of the particular region which supports each school. ^lany States have adopted pennissive legislation with regard to the maintenance of high Hchools?; but for the most part this legislation has pro- duced no fruits. Only one State in the Union — namely, Massachusetts — has mandatory legislation on this subject ; but in that State a large proportion of the 2')() so-called high schools are not secondary schools in any proper sense. Because of tlie lack of secondary schools competent to prepare their pupils for SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 523 college, five-sixths of the colleges and universities in the United States main- tain preparatory departments, against their will, and in disregard of the in- terests of the higher instruction. One would infer from Professor Canfield's report that with regard to sec- ondary education the condition of things in Massachusetts — a little old State in which 60 per cent, of the population may fairly be called urban — is better than anywhere else in the United States. Perhaps it is ; but how wide is the gap between the common schools in Massachusetts and her colleges may be inferred from a few facts about the supply of students to Harvard College. Only nine Massachusetts high schools send pupils to Harvard College every year. In 1889, out of 352 persons who were admitted to Harvard College as candidates for the degree of bachelor of arts, 97 (or 27 i per cent.) were pre- pared at free public schools; but these schools were only 30 in jiumber from the whole country, 23 of them being New England schools. \The plain fact is that not one-tenth of the schools called high in Massachusetts habitually maintain a course of study which enables the pupil to prepare himself for ad- mission to Harvard College, or to any other college in the^ State which enforces its requirements for admission as stated in its catalogue. J If this is the condition of things in what may be called an urban State, what must it be in a rural ? If a patriot were comj)elled to choose between two alternatives, one, that the less intelligent half of his countrjinen should be completely illiterate, the other, that half of the select children capable of receiving the highest instruction should be cut off from that instruction, which would he choose? He would find the decision a dreadful one to make; for either alternative would entail an incalculable loss upon his* country. Yet in the present condition of secondary education one-half of the most capable children in the United States, at a moderate estimate, have really no ojwn road to colleges and universities. I rehearse these well-known facts, that we may appreciate the gravity of the problems presented by the subject assigned me, and may see in them the problems now most worthy of the attention of American educationists. I may be permitted to add, that Harvard College feels a special interest in everything which bears upon the improvement of secondary education ; for that college is devoted to the development and propagation of the elective principle in college studies — or in other words, to the promotion of advanced scholarship in American society — and it knows full well that success in ap- plying the elective principle in colleges depends upon comprehensive and thorough work being done in the secondary schools. Nothing but the feeble condition of secondary education makes tolerable the prescribed course of elementary studies which still obtains in many colleges. Before considering remedies for the present defective, disjointed, and heter- ogeneous condition of secondary education, let us for a moment study avail- able palliatives. Recognizing the plain fact of to-day — that secondary schools are insuffi- 524 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, cient in number and defective in quality — |what can colleges do, under thtse adverse circumstances, to make themselves as useful as possible to the jH)pu- lation, while awaiting a better organization of secondary education ? Ls it not their plain duty to maintain two schedules of requirements, one for the degree of bachelor of arts, the other for the degree of bachelor of science, (or some equivalent,) the latter demanding much less preparatory study than the former? The American colleges have been severely criticised for ofiering to receive students of confessedly inferior preparation to that required of candidates for the degree of bachelor of arts ; but even the oldest and strong" est of them have done this, and from a genuine desire, as I believe, to be serviceable to as large a proportion as possible of American youth. One lower grade of admission-examination, leading to a distinct degree, is an ex- pedient concession to the feeble condition of secondary education throughout the country. That grade of secondary schools, which cannot prepare pupils for the bachelor of arts course, but can prepare them for the bachelor of science course, will so be brought into serviceable connection with the colleges. ^ f The slight and elementary examinations on which many universities admit to their professional schools are also concessions to the weak state of secondary education. We all regret that, concerning the great majority of lawyers and physicians, the community has no security that they are men of any general cultivation or liberal training; but the fault or defect is at the secondary* school stage. The universities palliate the acknowledged evil by opening a severe professional training even to men whose defective earlier education can never — except in rarest instances — be made good, j Another expedient measure for keeping colleges in touch with that large proportion of the American population which has no access to systematic sec- ondary instruction is the admission to college, without any comprehensive examination, of persons who can prove themselves able to pursue special sub- jects which are taught in college but not elsewhere, and who are willing to submit to all college tests of their industry and capacity wdthout expectation of any degree. This measure was adopted at Harvard College so long ago a^ 1826, and was in force till 1848, when it was temporarily abandoned, to be taken up again in 1873. It is an arrangement liable to abuse, and likely, if not vigilantly watched, to impair the discipline of secondary schools; but through it a considerable number of worthy and able young men, who would otherwise be cut off, get access to the institutions of higher education — 1<) their great advantage and the benefit of the community. I venture to think that some colleges have gone unnecessarily far in offering different courses with descending requirements for admission and different de- grees. Tliey seem to say if a candidate cannot get into our classical course, perha{)s he can enter the literary course ; if not the literary, then the scien- tific ; if not the scientific, at any rate the agricultural. The value of all de- grees seems to me to ])e diminished by this unnecessary multiplicity of titles and conditions, and the standards of good secondary schools must needs be SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 525 unfavorably affected by a long sliding scale of admission requirements to the several courses offered by a single institution. Turning now from the consideration of the palliatives which colleges may resort to in the present feeble and distracted condition of secondary education, I pass to the more attractive study of the remedies for existing evils and de- fects. To improve secondary education in the United States two things are neces- sary: (1) More schools are needed, and (2) the existing schools need to be brought to common and higher standards, so that the colleges may find in the school courses a firm, broad, and reasonably homogeneous foundation for their higher work. 1. More Schools. Secondary schools are either day-schools or boarding- schools, the urban school being primarily a day-school, and the rural a board- ing-school. The public secondary school is now urban almost exclusively; and it must be admitted that it is likely to continue so, for no promising sug- gestion has as yet been made of a rural area of support for a highly-organized secondary school. It is admitted that neither a rural township, nor a union of contiguous rural districts, can support such a school. The county has been suggested as a possible area of support ; but there is no suflScient evidence that a rural county, apart frcoa^its town or towns of dense population, could sup- port a good high school. | To increase the present number of secondary schools which can really fit pupils for college, what are the most hopeful lines of ac- tion ? In the first place, every effort should be made by school authorities, the press, and all leaders of public opinion, to promote the establishment of secondary urban day-schools, both public and private, and to adapt the pro- grams of existing schools to the admission requirements of some college course which leads to a degree. | It is noticeable that in the older cities, and to some extent in the younger rflso, the best private schools exist right beside the best public schools. The causes which produce one class of schools simultaneously produce the other. Secondly, rural communities ought to be authorized by suitable legislation to contribute to the establishment (including in that term the provision of buildings) and annual support of urban secondary schools which are conveniently situated for their use. Thirdly, there should be cre- ated by law special secondary school districts much larger than the areas which support primary and grammar schools, and taking account of railroad communications. It is much easier for a boy or girl to go to school fifteen miles by rail than to walk to school in all weathers two miles by country lanes. The rural population has something to hope from legislative recognition of railroads as chief features in secondary school districts. The Massachusetts normal schools illustrate this principle ; for they are really high schools, partly boarding-schools, and partly local and railroad day-schools. Fourthly, every effort should be made to stimulate private benevolence to endow rural second- ary boarding-schools, or academies, under corporate management. A boarding- school ought always to be in the country ; and a rural secondary school would almost necessarily be, in part at least, a boarding-school. 526 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. 2. Common Standards, \ The existing means of elevating and regulating secondary school instruction may be conveniently considered under two heads — (a) State aid and supervision, and (6) college admission require- ments. Both agencies are already useful, but both may be greatly improved and extended.^^ (c) State Aid: and Supervmon, It seems to have been the object of high- school legislation in some States, as for example in Massachusetts and in Maine, to encourage the creation of a large number of low-grade high schools without really expecting them to effect any junction with colleges. Such at any rate has been the effect of the mandatory legislation of MaBsachusett?, and such must be the general result of the aid offered to free high schools by Maine. This unprosperous State now ofters to give any free high school as much money per year as its supporting area annually appropriates for instruc- tion in the school, provided the State grant shall not exceed $250 in any case. No inspection or examination of aided schools is provided for. Such legisla- tion encourages the establishment of numerous weak schools, without helping appreciably the schools already strong. Much wiser is the legislation of Minnesota, which established twelve years ago a State High School Board and offered $400 a year to any high school which was found by the board after competent inspection to fulfill the follow- ing conditions: the aided school must receive both sexes free, and non- resident pupils also without fees, provided such pupils can pass examinations in all common-school subjects below algebra and geometry, and must main- tain "regular and orderly courses of study, embracing all the branches pre- scribed as prerequisite for admission to the collegiate department of the University of Minnesota not lower than the sub-freshman class." The board can appoint any competent persons to visit the high schools and may pay them, but not more than $3 a day. Not more than five schools can be aided in any one county, and any school once accepted by the board, and continu- ing to comply with all the regulations, must be aided for not less than three years. The State appropriated in 1878 only $9,000 for the use of the board; but this amount was raised the next year to $20,000 and in 1883 to $23,000. The board consists of the Governor, the State Superintendent of Public In- struction, and the President of the University of Minnesota. By careful inspections the board has classified the high schools of the State, the nine high schools of the first rank preparing pupils for the freshman class of the Uni- versity. This high-school legislation seems to me the wisest which has been adopted in the United States. It encourages only schools which are already well organized ; insists that aided schools shall connect directly with the Uni- versity; avoids ex|iensive examinations ; provides any needed amount of in- spection; grades schools by their ])rograms and general efficiency, not by individual examination-results ; gives no pecuniary advantage to a large school over one equally well conducted but smaller ; requires aided schools to take non-resident pupils without charge; and applies almost the whole of the SECONDARY SCHOOLS. . 527 Staters grant to the direct development of instruction, which is by far the most productive application of any money intended to benefit schools. Minnesota is a new and sparsely-settled State, and its High School Board acts as yet upon a modest scale ; but the principles of its high-school legislation may be advantageously copied in any State of the Union, however old, or rich, or densely populated. The State of New York furnishes the country with an excellent opportunity of studying another method of improving secondary education through State aid and supervision. This State in 1784 created on paper an ample framework — called the University of the State of New York — which was to include all the academic and collegiate institutions of the State. It must be confessed that neither the State of New York nor the country at large has, until re- cently, taken this institution seriously ; partly because it has not been a teach- ing body, and partly perhaps because a position on the board of regents has seemed to be regarded as an honorary distinction suitable for State officials, politicians more or less retired, orators, editors, lawyers, and men of wealth and leisure, rather than an appointment appropriate for professional educa- tionists. Indeed the fundamental law concerning the University expressly provides that no officer of any institution belonging to the University shall be at the same time a regent ; so that almost all persons profa««ionally concerned with education in the State are excluded from the board. Nevertheless — in spite of such mild criticism as may be conveyed in the words " legal fiction " and " myth " — the board of regents has really exercised for many years consid- erable powers, and has set agencies at work which now have a strong effect upon secondary education throughout the State. The institution in 1863 of the annual University Convocation has added greatly to the influence and usefulness of the board, and furnishes a striking illustration of the great good which can be done by bringing school and coll/ege men together for discussion and consultation under favorable conditions. [ The largest and most impor- tant function of the board is one directly connected with our subject — its function, namely, of conducting examinations at the academies and high schools of the State in all the subjects taught in those schools, and of issuing certificates and diplomas to the persons who pass the examinations which are good for their face at the New York colleges. The examination-results also serve as the basis for the annual distribution of $100,000 of public money among the academies and high schools of the State. The method, therefore, combines State aid with State supervision ; but this supervision is chiefly ex- ercised, not by visits of inspection to the schools, but by uniform and simul- taneous written examinations in subjects taught in the schools. \ It is unquestionable that the regents' examinations have tended to raise the average standard of instruction in the academies and high schools, to extend and improve school programs, to bring schools and colleges together by doing away with useless diversities of programs in secondary schools and useless diversities of admission requirements in colleges, and to stimulate some of the 628 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION communities which maintain these schools to give them better support and to take a pride in their standing. These are great services, which deserve the respectful attention of the other States of the Union and of all persons in- terested in the creation of an American system of secondarj' education. The regents have proved that a State examining board can exercise a stimulating, elevating, and unifying influence upon hundreds of institutions of secondary education scattered over a large State, and can wield that power with ma- chinery which, considering the scale of operations, may fairly be called simple and inexpensive. The system is so interesting and suggestive that even its defects should be carefully studied. The first criticism which I should be inclined to make relates to the prepara- tion of the question-papers in the forty subjects of examination. It is under- stood that one or two persons write all the papers. The examination-papers of the board do not proceed from a body of men of recognized authority in teaching, and they are not prepared by specialists in each subject. I can compare with the regents* mode of providing examination-papers the method employed at Harvard College in preparing papers for the admission examina- tions. At Harvard, each paper is first written by an expert in its subject; next, it is criticised by all the teachers of the department to which the sub- ject belongs — as, for example, by all the teachers in Latin, or Greek, or mathematics ; and lastly, it must be approved by a committee in which all the departments concerned with the admission examinations are represented. With all this care, serious mistakes of judgment are from time to time com- mitted. It seems to me that the regents' method of preparing question-papers is too uniform and unguarded, and that it does not carry the desirable weight of authority. / My next criticism would be directed to the mode of conducting the exam- inations. So long as they are conducted at the academies and by the princi- pals or their deputies, without any supervision by an agent of the regents, they cannot command that confidence which indej^endent examinations con- ducted by agents of the regents would command. • If the cost of conducting really independent examinations be a serious "difficulty — which one can hardly suppose — it may be suggested that one examination a year perfectly conducted, would serve the interests of the schools and colleges better than the existing three conducted in the present manner. Indeed, a reduction in the number of examination-periods seems desirable for many cogent reasons. The integrity of the examinations is of paramount importance; no other consideration, like economy, rapidity, or convenience, is of the same order. I cannot but think that the marking of the answer-papers should be done ex- clusively by the regents' examinei-s. The average percentage of disallowed claim.s for preliminary certificates in the nineteen years from 1809 to 1?^^ was 15] per cent., showing that the principals and the examiners differed in more tlian one ca.<• immediate and potent as the influence of the State, whether the latter were exerted by inspection or by examination. It is in a narrower field, thereforf% ' that the higher institutions of education can act on the lower. At presoDt they act in three ways. \ The feeblest way is by prescribing for admission a knowledge of certain books, or of certain well-defined subjects, and then admitting candidates on the certificate of any schoolmaster that they have gcme over all the pre8cril>ed books or subjects. If the prescriptions of the college are judicious, they are not without some favorable eflect on the curricula of the certifying schools: but it may be reasonably objected to this method that it gives the collegt^ very inadequate protection against incompetent students, and the public no means of forming a just estimate of different schools. Certificates are apt to be accepted from good and bad schools alike, the anxiety to secure students in a struggling college over-riding every other consideration. Particularlj is this apt to be the case in a small college in which the president has succeeded in getting the subject of admissions out of the hands of the faculty and into his own. Under this system a really good school has no means of proving itself good, and a bad school is not promptly exposed. Within a few years this feeblest of all methods has come into use, without any safeguards what- ever, in the large majority of New England colleges, no system of State in- 8[)ection or examination existing there, and no pretense being made that the certifying schools are examined, or even occasionally visited, by the colleges. A more demoralizing method of establishing a close connection between sec- ondary schools and colleges it would be hard to imagine. Nevertheless, even under this loose and unguarded method, which only the two largest New Eng- land colleges have completely rcv^isted, some good has resulted from coopera- tive action between preparatory schools and colleges to make admission retiuireinents, on paper at lea.«5t, uniform for the same subjects. The uniform retiuirements in Englisli, which prevail all over New England except at Yale Uuivoi-sity, and have lately been adopted by some institutions in the Middle Statos, supply a noteworthy case in p)int. The method just dciscribed is a corruption, or degradation, of a somewhat safer method of securing close connection between secondary schools and col- leires which was first adopted twenty years ago by the University of Michigan. Tills safer method, as developed by that l^niversity, amounts to this : frhe I^niversity admits candidates on the diplomas given by any schools, near or remote, within the State or without, which are visited once in three years by a committee of the Faculty, or by other pei'sons dei»ignated by the University. SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 531 The visit may be repeated if any important changes take place in a school within the three years. I The diplomas must specify that the candidates have {sustained examinations at school in all the studies prescribed for admission U) one or other of the University courses leading to a degree. \ There were in 18H9 seventy schools holding this " diploma relation " to the University of Michigan. It cannot be doubted that this method is well adapted for recruit- ing rapidly a single dominant State university ; but its value as a method for general adoption obviously depends on the thoroughness, impartiality, and publicity of the inspection which it provides. To me the inspection seems to fail on all three points. Considering the rapidity with which teachers are changed in American schools, an inspection once in three years seems too in- frequent. I am wholly at a loss to understand how a busy college faculty can get time to inspect properly any considerable number of secondary schools, or how it can furnbh a sufficient number of inspectors competent in all secondary school subjects. The Michigan Faculty of arts and sciences is not so large as the corresponding Harvard Faculty ; but I am sure that the Har- vard Faculty would say at once that they could not inspect twenty secondary schools a year with sufficient thoroughness to warrant them in expressing a public judgment on the merits of the several schools — unless indeed they neglected their own proper work of collegiate instruction. Moreover, I am clear that there is not a single member of the Harvard Faculty who would feel himself competent, without a good deal of special preparation, to examine a well-organized secondary school in all its departments. To examine thor- oughly such a school a committee of at least three members of the Harvard Faculty would be required, and these teachers would have to be withdrawn from their college work for three or four days in the case of a neighboring school, and for a longer time in the case of a distant school. As to procuring competent inspectors — not of the Faculty — in numerous remote localities, it seems quite impossible when we consider how much knowledge, experience, and good judgment are required for examining all the work of any school. The moment we come down to such details as these, we inevitably begin to think that the inspection of secondary schools provided by the University of Michigan, single-handed, must be rather cursory. It is also obvious that the method is not public enough in its processes to demonstrate its fairness and suf- ficiency, and therefore to command general confidence. The single acting authority obviously has interests of its own to ser\^e. I am not maintaining that this diploma method, as conducted in Michigan, has not worked well, or even that it has not worked so well as the method of admission by examina- tion, as conducted in Michigan. It is some gain to establish friendly relations between seventy secondary schools and any university. I am urging that it lacks adequate securities, and is therefore not fit for general adoption. The Minnesota method, which provides in the State High School Board an inde- pendent inspecting authority, is in my opinion greatly to be preferred. There remains the most effective mode in which colleges act on the superior 532 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. sort of secondary schools^namely, the method of conducting careful examina- tions in all the subjects acceptable for admission. y These examinations have a fair degree of publicity ; for most colleges circulate freely their question- papers. Harvard College also publishes in detail the results of its examinar tions for admission. Such examinations are no longer, as formerly, held only at the seat of the college conducting them ; but may be held simultaneously at as many places as the convenience of candidates may require. Several Eastern colleges now conduct examinations at numerous places widely dis- tributed over the country. Yale University distinctly announces that it will hold an admission examination " in any city or at any school where the num- ber of candidates and the distance from other places of examination may warrant it." The method can easily be given a national application by any institution which has prestige and a numerous staff. In the long run, it grades schools fairly, and it is very stimulating to the older classes of second- ary schools. Like all examinations conducted by an authority independent of the schools, it also protects the masters of schools, both public and private, against the unwarrantable importunities of parents, trustees, and committee- men. Nevertheless it is open to some serious objections. In the first place, it is not sufficiently public. The question-papers may look well; but the standard for passing may be unreasonably low, the public having no means of estimating the degree of strictness with which the answer-papers are marked. \ Secondly, the colleges have until lately, acted singly — each for itself witlibut consultation or concert. ) Each college or university is, there- fore, naturally supposed to be seeking its own interest rather than the common welfare. Thirdly, in a small college a few men, who perhaps have peculiari- ties or whims, may control all the admission examinations for many years, to the disadvantage of the college and the annoyance of schools. All these evils would be removed, or reduced, by a system of cooperation among sev- eral colleges. At the conclusion of this rapid survey I venture to suggest that there are three directions in which patriots who desire to see American secondary schools improved and connect-ed more closely with colleges may look for progress : I 1. We may exj^ect State examining and inspecting systems to improve and extend, for they have demonstrated their utility; and remembering the ex- tremes to which examination-methods have been carried in England, we may reasonabl)' hope that State boards will inspect institutions more and more thoroughly, as well as examine individuals. In this connection we may ex- pect that the profession of school inspector will become well recognized as a separate and honorable calling. 2. We may hope to see formed a combination of four, ^ye, or six of the universities which have large departments of arts and sciences to conduct simultaneously, at well-selected points all over the country, examinations in all the subjects anywhere acceptable for admission to colleges or professional schools, the answer-papers to be marked by persons annually selected by the Discussioy. 533 combined universities, and announced to the public, all results to be published but without the names of candidates, and certificates to be good anywhere for the subjects mentioned in them. We see reason to believe that such a coop- erative system would be simple though extensive ; that it would present no serious difficulties, mechanical or other ; that it would be very convenient and economical for candidates, and self-supporting at a moderate fee ; and finally, that it would be authoritative, flexible, stimulating, unifying, and just. 3. We may expect to see a great extension of the scholarship system, whereby promising youth are helped through secondary schools and colleges. States, cities, towns, and endowments provided by private benevolence will all contribute to the development of this well-proved system. DISCUSSION. N. C. Dougherty, Peoria, 111. : The term high school is the vaguest in the school vocabulary. It covers an endless variety of schools with an infinite variety of courses of study, aims, ideals, and methods. In general it means the highest department of the public-school system of the town or city. Any- thing which promises to bring order out of this chaos will be heartily wel- comed. Any influence to produce such a result must be universal and natural ; for it must endure and continue to work, and artificial devices are only for the moment. The plan suggested by President Eliot, both with reference to the State and to the colleges, has both of these elements. If the condition of secondary education is as it has been represented to-night, and I have no doubt that it is, the responsibility for such a condition rests largely upon the colleges and this body. The people are anxious to support good secondary schools. They are willing to pay for them. If they do not have them they have been imposed upon by their superintendents, who failed to carry out their wishes. It is the duty of the colleges to show the patrons of the school wherein this failure lies. The plan of examinations held under the control of the leading colleges of the country and given in every Congressional district which asks for such examination, will soon bring clearly to view the strong and the weak schools. It will take but a short time before the people will apply an effective remedy. The weak points in the public-school system seem to be the transitions — transitions from the grammar to the high school, and transition from the high school to the college. Undoubtedly many pupils drop out at the end of the grammar-school course and fail to carr}^ their education further, only, or at least principally, because of the length of the step from the school they have been attending to the high school. Since the paper presented by President Eliot two years since at Washington — which paper formed the subject of most of the discussions in our State associations the succeeding year — that —34 634 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. change has been lessened so that to-day a much larger percentage of pupil- are to be found in the high school. There yet remains the rural school to \ye united to the city or township high school. The step in passing to the college from the high school is even greater. Our high schools are too much of "finishing" schools. Most of the surround- ings and influences, studies and ambitions of the last year in the high schfx>l tend to confirm in the mind of the pupil the conviction that at the end of the high-school course he has reached, if not the goal, at least a very convenient half-way station, where he may reasonably rest on his laurels. Earnest eilbrt has been made to unite the high school and college. The second plan di^ cussed by President Eliot — that of Michigan University — has done mort for the improvement of secondary education than all the other plans com- bined. If Harvard has received only nine ( 9) students from the high school? of Massachusetts, Michigan University has had at least half of her fresh- man class from the high schools of the West. Her plan lands the graduate? of the high school not in an unlocalized position, not even before the doors of the* college, but within those doors. Were the same true of the other college?, then the college contingent found in each class in the high school would be much greater than now, and the ratio of college-men to the whole population would not be, as now, less than it was a century since. Not only this, but those pupils who did not go to college and the community at large would l^ve a truer conception of the nature and aim of education. If the high school could thus be brought closer to the college, a more per- t differentiation of their respective functions would be attainable. In the first place, such subjects as psychology, logic, the philosophy of ethics, would be recognized as necessarily belonging to the college, and they would be dropped from the high-school course. Less obvious but not less important would be another change, which would inevitably occur, in high-school aims and methods rather than in the scheme of studies. The high-school teacher would see more clearly just what he is called upon to do, just what kind of instruction he should give, just how far he should seek to carry his pupils. And it is just here that some powerful checking influence is needed in our high-school methods. We are in great danger, in getting beyond our pupils, of resorting too much to col- lege methods ; of exhausting, or rather of trying and pretending to exhaust the subject. If both teacher and pupil see the college plainly before them there will be less of this vain, and worse than vain, attempt to cover the whole sub- ject and finish it up. It will be easier for each to content himself with such an introduction to various fields as is proper to the high-school age, each having constantly before the mind the fact that just ahead is a school — the college — in which the same studies are pursued further, deeper, higher. Proi>- erly to appreciate and thoroughly to understand the pebble he was picking up on the shore, it was necessary that Newton should have in his ears, not occa- sionally, but constantly, unceasingly, the rolling waves of that boundless sea of knowledge that stretched out before him. As it now is, we lose our per- DISCUSSION. 535 spective in the high school. We think " The rustic cackle of our bourgh the murmur of the world." We need, teacher and pupil, to be constantly reminded of our subordinate position in the educational world. The plans suggested by President Eliot will lead to a greater uniformity in courses of study, and work. \What could be more natural than that the higher should reach down and adapt the lower to itself ? The high schools are here to stay. If the education given by them in the past is not in all respects just what is needed, let us improve upon it. Let us make it better and better as the years go by, until it shall supply just what is needed. Let us remember that we do the best for the boy who stops with a high-school education when we do nothing to impede the progress of the other boy who goes on to a col- lege graduation. What the college wants, I take it, is a sound, substantial training. They are not so particular as to what subjects the boy has studied as they are as to how he has studied them. We need to make the training of the high school solid and substantial. The lower school must receive its vivi- fying spirit from the higher. Let us see to it that our public schools lead up and connect with the college and university, j Jons E. Bradley, of Minnesota: I wish first to express my gratification that the distinguished President of the oldest American college, or university, has twice shown within two years a disposition to strengthen the relation which exists between our great public-school system and our system of higher edu- cation. It would seem sufficiently evident that all our educational work should be characterized by unity and continuity. If I may speak in behalf of the educational interests which are so rapidly developing and taking shape in the Northwest, I would say that this is of fundamental importance. If I may assume to still represent the interests of secondary education in the East, with which I was so long connected, I would say that a movement to this end is doubly important. For in many of the new States, the State university, with which the educational system is crowned, is already a potent factor in guiding and vivifying the work of the schools below. Michigan University, and the University of Minnesota, and other State universities have thus powerfully stimulated and assisted the work of the pub- lic schools, and in this effort to enlarge the work of the schools below them they have been themselves enlarged. In most of the Eastern States the lack of union or direct relation between the colleges and the secondary schools is much more serious and apparent. It is a natural and laudable aim of the colleges to send out their graduates as well trained as possible. It is important, in the interests of higher educa- tion and of American scholarship, that their standards be maintained and held as high as possible. But it is also important for them and for the com- munity that their advantages be extended to as large a number as possible. If attention is given solely to the few students who find their way to them — to securing as fine and thorough culture as possible for these few — many young men and women who ought to obtain a liberal education will not be 536 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. reached by their influence, and the community must fail to receive the full benefit which should be conferred. It is the function of the public school to give an elementary education to all. It ought to be vigorous enough in its work, and strong enough in its at- tractive power to hold a goodly share of its pupils and carry them on into the high school. Much has been made of the fact that the public school fails to do this. But here, as in so many other matters, the critics of the schools argue from what was formerly true rather than from existing facts. In the admirable paper of President Eolit, the secondary education of the two States with which I happen to be most familiar has been carefully analyzed and compared. It is desirable and important that the best method of strengthening the work of the high schools and bringing them into direct relation with the colleges be adopted. But it is of prime importance that some method be adopted. Either of the plans which have been discussed is far better than no plan and no efibrt. How effective both of these methods have proved is shown by the facts. Twenty years ago there were only twenty- two high schools in this State ; now there are upwards of two hundred. Then there were only seven hundred academic scholars in these high schools; now, judged by the same standard of attainment, there are 12,000. I am not able to quote tabulated statistics for the newer States where the growth has been still more rapid. I happen to know that in Minneapolis there were three or four years ago 450 in high-school grades, and that now there are 1,200, and that of the sixty-five high schools in the State of Minnesota, not more than four or five were in existence twenty years ago. Now it is one of the functions of the high schools scattered all over the land, in city and country alike, to discover and send forward to enjoy the benefits of a collegiate education the boys and girls of promise who are found in their various localities. This work of selection and inspiration is one of the most important duties of the high school, and it is important that these centers of selection and inspiration be as strong and numerous as possible. These young men and women are to become the future leaders in their various communities. If they are thoroughly educated, they w^ill be one kind of leaders; if uneducated or half-educated, they will be another and very differ- ent kind of leaders. To some extent the high schools have been doing this. Boys seldom enter high schools with any definite expectation of going to col- lege. A few years ago I investigated a list of about 100 boys who had fitted for college in the xilbany High School. I found that only six intended to go to college when they entered the school. Many of these boys could not be persuaded to take Greek and Latin in the earlier part of their course, but later, as they breathed the atmosphere of the school and caught its inspiration, they came to me one by one and desired to arrange their work so as to pre- pare for college. Now if it happens that the work of the secondary school does not connect with the college work, that the college offers a bar of rigid examination iu- DISCUSSION. 537 stead of an open door, how can the result be anything but disastrous? I believe in the New England colleges. I am a graduate of one, and am at pres- ent one of its trustees. I am deeply interested in its welfare. I recognize, moreover, that the policy of that college must be in general that of other institutions of its class, and I share the desire to preserve the spirit and tra- ditions and all that is best in our well-tried and time-honored American colleges; but I believe that the time has come when they must broaden their work to articulate with the high schools. The most important service which American colleges can render to the American people is to attract large num- bers of young men who are willing to work, ambitious to rise, and inspire them with the best purposes and ideals. Comparatively few such young men go to the Eastern colleges now. The poor young men who are making their way through college, by teaching and other forms of self-help, are compara- tively rare. They find other avenues to influence and success now ; and, un- fortunately, they find a different kind of success. They go into business, or they go into the professions, without collegiate training. The pulpit needs these men, the other professions need these men, and they need them well trained and disciplined. But if they are to receive a college training it must be by uniting the secondary and superior schools in their work as they are already united in their interest. John W. Johnson, University of Mississippi: As every important struct- ure which is to tower above the general level must have a solid foundation on which to rest, so every system of collegiate education must have its founda- tion rooted and grounded in secondary schools. The dependence is absolute, the condition truly a "wMe qiui non" Conversely, the dependence of secondary schools upon colleges is conceded in the highest and most important sense. Without the maintenance of high standards of education and the production of cultured teachers as the result of college work, the secondary schools would soon cease to be in demand and die of utter neglect. The dependence, therefore, is reciprocal, and their aims and efl^orts should be mutual, harmoniously pressing toward one common end, viz. : the highest education possible to the greatest number possible. The re- lation of these two great factors in our educational system can be strength- ened, among other ways, by a severance of preparatory departments from colleges. It is the honest belief of some, the prejudice of others, and a concession for the sake of expediency of many, that these secondary schools should be main- tained, even by a misappropriation of trust fiinds, as preparatory departments of colleges, and even universities. According to the very able report of Presi- dent Canfield, at Nashville, last summer, a large majority of the colleges and universities all over this country. North, South, East, and West, are retain, ing these preparatory schools as appendages to college curricula. Various excuses are offered for what it seems all concede to be a necessary evil. Many claim that adequate preparation cannot be obtained away from the 538 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. colleges. Some are afraid of being surpassed in numbers by rival colleges ; others claim that State institutions have no right to discriminate against poor boys who have been deprived of the advantages near home of good prepara- tion ; others frankly confess that a desire for a show of numbers is the real cause of thus maintaining the preparatory departments. The perpetuation of such departments works several disadvantages: (1) It is against the prosperity and healthful development of high schools, for the simple reason that, as a rule, preparatory departments at colleges are free schools, while the high schools are of necessity fee schools. The sym- pathy and cooperation of the masters of high schools are eliminated from the colleges as if rivals, and not what they should be, co-workers, harmoniously blending their efforts in the grand work of educating the men and matrons of our great country. (2) It is against the moral development of young hoy^. College discipline involves many problems, which remain unsolved by either the past or the present age. Immature boys thrown under the influence of college life and college freedom, too often fall before the enticing temptAtion.<^ which always beset the youth at this formative period of character. (3) It injures the eclat and dignity of the college. Young boys who fail to enter even the freshman class can add but little to the intellectual reputation, or to the high order of work of the college. But little is expected of such. They are unfortunately looked upon as mendicants, or as undesirable objects of charity, rather than appreciated patronage. Five years seems a long time to remain in college pursuing one long, tedious curriculum. The boy, upon realizing what is before him, staggers at the task ; and, in many cases, abandons the course. He may be good fruit, but he is plucked too early, and retains inno- cently enough a special "native green," which distinguishes him from the riper hue of the young man who can enter the higher classes. The latter has advantages to begin with, which serve him a good purpose before professors and the student body. The relation may be further strengthened by greater intimacy and sympathy between the two. Every college should have as feeders its group of high schools scattered all over the country, over which it should exercise an ad- visory and supervisory control. The college authorities should take special interest in the high-school course, examine the text-books used, and suggest changes when deemed proper. It should make it a point to send, at least annually, certain of its officers and visitors to the high schools. These visits should be somewhat formal, ca.sting, as it were, reflected dignity fix)m the college upon the high schools. It should be an occasion specially appreciated and j)repared for by teachers, patrons, and pupils. It should be a field day, and all on dress parade. The nature of the course pursued and the amount completed sliould be shown by examinations. A well-prepared lecture on some popular subject should be delivered by one of the visitors ; something that would interest and instruct patrons as well as pupils and teacher. I^t the young men of the liigh school thus have some personal knowledge of tJie DISCUSSION. 539 professors, and some little foresight into the sciences taught. The intimacy and sympathy thus engendered will constitute an important part of the thor- ough preparation needed. Again, hearty cooperation will materially strengthen the relation. The col- lege authorities, if sufficient intimacy and sympathy are maintained as above indicated, will know well enough the preparation made by the different high schools ; and should, therefore, accept the candidates who bring certificates of (qualification from their teachers, without the usual entrance examinations. This will stimulate the pride of the teacher to recommend only those who ^hall maintain themselves creditably. Feeling that his ability to teach is thus recognized, and that he shares, in part, the responsibility for the grade of scholarship in the college, he will exert the greater effort to send well-prepared boys. He will feel a greater interest every way in its prosperity and success. The boys who are being prepared will feel the greater respect for the teacher, if they know that his recommendation will be honored by entrance, without examination, and they will therefore strive the more to secure his indorsement. Patrons will feel that they have a teacher known and recognized by the col- lege authorities, and will appreciate and sustain him all the more for that reason. In short, the chain of symi)athy and cooperation, starting out from the college, will embrace teachers, pupils, and patrons, and band them all to- gether as strong friends and supporters of the college, and of the higher edu- cation generally. A young man prepared at home for entering high classes will be able to determine with greater certainty his natural talents and predilections. We live in an age of specialties, and the sooner a young man can ascertain the preference of his talents, and the inclination of his will, the sooner he can enter upon that line of thought which is to control his activities through life. If mathematics be his forte, he can make a specialty of studies in that line. If he be gifted in language, he may study linguistics. If any of the natural sciences attract him, he can devote himself to any one of those beautiful fields which have furnished so much food for thought to many of the world's bright- est intellects. Above all, let us have mjstematw and regular State appropriations to the high schools. Taking a plain, common-sense view of our school system, it does seem an invidious distinction that the State should liberally provide for primary and collegiate instruction, but leave secondary instruction without support. In this the State might be likened to the proprietor of a spacious hotel who should fiimish his lower apartments with all the needed appliances to make his guests comfortable, and prepare elaborate upper chambers, with fresco and cornice, protected by imposing roof with beautiful dormer- windows and balustrades, and yet leave all the middle of his house exposed to wind and snow and storm. Such a proprietor would be laughed to scorn. But suppose he should persist in conducting his business in such a house, and claim that he had a right to public respect and patronage. Suppose, too, he 540 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. should pay his servants in the upper chambers magnificent salaries, and thc»*e also in the lowest apartments satisfactory wages, but expect the servants in the intermediate apartments to work without any fixed and regular salary, and live on whatever little fees they could collect from the guests, doing out- side work somewhere when guests were scarce. How would guests like to pay extra these hungry servants after they had already paid their annual stipend for the comforts of the house? Would not the guests say to the proprietor: " Why, my dear sir, we are surprised to see such poor equipments in these in- termediate departments. The rooms are not comfortable. The servants seem too much pressed with outside business to give us proper attention. They want pay, too, and indeed they seem to need it. But they do not give us ser- vice enough to make us feel comfortable and properly chaperoned for intro- duction to your nicest guests, of whom we hear so much. We hear that they have a little ante-room up there adjoining the drawing-room, and that more than half of the guests going from here are rejected and carried to that ante- room for proper toilet. Now such will be very embarrassing to us — to be rushed out of those fine parlors, as objects of ridicule, before all the nicer and more fortunate guests. Being rejected once, we will ever after be embarrassed by the thoughts of it." The proprietor might reply: "Well, if you will par them enough they will prepare you all right. But, really, I do not expect many of my guests to pass up through here. My upper chambers are free, to be sure, to everybody, for everybody who cheerfully pays the stipend ; but, really, they are far above the level of you common people, and I expected you to be satisfied, and even grateful for even the privilege of being rejected ! " 8uch management in business would be absurd, indeed, but this is reaJIy the management in some States, Mississippi among them, in school affairs. The secondary schools are neglected, the teachers forced to teach for whatever they can collect from the citizens, who have already paid a liberal school tax. In many cases the teachers grumble because they collect so little, and the patrons grumble because they collect so much ! It is gratifying, however, to know that in many States the secondary schools are supported by the State. West Virginia reports favorably concerning the State aid to high schools. Wisconsin sho^vs gratifying results. Minnesota shows a very good system or ladder leading from the primary schools into the university — certificates are accepted from their high schools in lieu of entrance examinations. Rhode Island claims ten such schools doing thorough preparatory work, and good re- sults follow. Vermont reports her high schools as the most prosperous class of schools in the State. It is sincerely to be hoped that the mighty chasm between the priman' schools and the colleges will be bridged by placing the secondary on a finan- cial basis commensurate with their importance and responsibility. R. K. BuEHRLE, of Pennsylvania fs In addition to what has been so well said by the President of Harvard College, I would suggest that the colleges agree on a uniform standard of admission among themselves before they ex- DISCUSSION. 541 pect any uniformity in the public high schools. Not only local circum- stances, but the course of studies and the terms of admission of the Alma Plater of the high-school principal, condition the course of studies of the school he teaches. Such a unifonn course of study, published by a joint com- mittee appointed by the colleges of a State, and annually sent by them to the secretary of each school board sustaining a high school, though not authoritar tive, nor mandatory, would be suggestive and helpful to the committees charged with the course of studies. Gradually, uniformity would be attained ; for although the committees change, the course of study would naturally shape itself more and more in accordance with jthe thought of men standing high in the educational field. It should also be remembered that the high- school students are not generally the sons of wealthy parents, nor of such as value a college training because of having personally experienced the ad- vantages of such discipline. Here is a work for the colleges to do. If Greek is to be studied, the advantages of such study must be set forth to the parents of such high-school students. In other words, the college and the university must come down to the people, and enlighten, educate them on this subject, this phase of education, the advantages of higher culture, the necessity of it in order to attain to higher manhood. Perhaps one cause for the smaller relative number of persons who paas into college in the East — in the North- eastern States — is to be found in the change in the population. The immi- grants which have supplanted the old New England stock are not all likely to rush into, or to be attracted by, institutions permeated by the spirit of the Pilgrims. As regards admissions into State colleges or universities, like Michigan and Minnesota, I have no doubt the denominational influences and interests are largely responsible for the small number that pass from the high schools into them. The church needs a trained clergy, and hence establishes higher institutions of learning in which its children shall be educated, not only scientifically, but also religiously ; and I am inclined to believe that it is best that it is so. The smaller colleges often accomplish great good utterly beyond the reach of large and far-distant institutions.^ Another cause, I have no doubt, is to be found in the character of the teachers of the public schools. They are, especially in the cities and towns, almost exclusively female, and have hence to a large extent been excluded from the colleges, or perhaps they have been hesitatingly allowed to enter The Annex. How, or why, shall they be expected to prepare students for institu- tions which deny them admission? In former days the school-master was largely the college graduate who would naturally attract the brighter boys and lure them on to the same elysian fields in which he basked. Even when the teacher is a graduate of a normal school he is often not qualified to pre- pare pupils in the classics for admission to the college. In our State the ele- mentary course requires for graduation only the first twenty-nine chapters of the first book of Caesar. Yet, I suppose the normal schools of Pennsylvania are second to none in the country. 542 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. Now these teachers, foreign to the college, its methods, its culture, its asso- ciations, are not at all likely to send pupils to college. The girls go to the normal school where the teacher had been, and the boys, without a manlv guide, wander off and are lost to higher institutions. Nor must it be for- gotten that an influential portion of the community protests against making the high-school a feeder to the college, against all higher education in the public schools as foreign to the idea of common schools supported at the expense of the public ; and what is remarkable is, that these antagonists are generally newspaper and professional men — editors, lawyers, doctors — men who hare for the most part come from college halls. When such men raise their voices against the classics in the public schools, what wonder that those who have the direction of them are led away, and make no provision for these studies? PROCEEDINQS ADDKESSES KINDERGARTEN DEPARTMENT. Kindergarten Department. SECRETARY'S MINUTES. FIRST SESSION. St. Paul, Minn., July 9, 1890. The Kindergarten Department was called to order at 3 p. m.j the President, Mrs, E. L. Hailmann, in the chair. The singing of the Teachers' Hymn by the audience was followed by a prayer by the President. The Secretary being absent, the reading of the official report was omitted ; and Miss H. M. L. Eggleston was appointed Secretary pro tern. The President made a short address, after which Mrs. Helen E. Starrett, of Chicago, read a paper on "The Kindergarten; by an outside observer." Then followed a vocal solo by Miss Morehouse. The following committees were then appointed : Ckmimittee on Resolutions — ^W. N. Hailmann, La Porte, Ind.; Miss Eva B. Whitmore, Chicago ; Miss Lucy F. Wheelock, Boston. Committee on Nomination of Officers — ^Nathan C. Schaeffer, Kutztown, Pa.; Mrs. Eliza A. Blaker, Indianapolis, Ind.; Miss Mary S. Clark, St. Paul, Minn. A resolution was adopted empowering the President to appoint a committee to advise concerning a kindergarten exhibit at the World's Fair at Chicago in '93 ; said committee to report at the meeting of the Kindergarten Depart- ment, Friday, July 11. An addr^s by Lucy F. Wheelock, on "They have Eyes and Ears," was followed by a paper on "Eifects of Kindergarden Training on Primary Work," by Irwin Shepard, of Winona, Minnesota. The audience then sang "Home, Sweet Home," and the meeting adjourned. SECOND SESSION.— July 11. The meeting was called to order at 3 p. m. by the President, and was opened with singing and prayer. Miss Anna E. Bryan, of Kentucky, then read a paper entitled "The Letter KiUeth." (545) 546 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. W. N. Hailmann followed with a paper on "Schoolishness in the Kinder- garten." The last paper of the session was given by W, E. Sheldon, of Massachu- setts, the subject being " Professional Training of Kindergartners and Pri- mary Teachers." The minutes of the previous meeting were read, and adopted. The Committee on Nomination of Officers reported as follows : President — Mrs. £. L. Hailmann, LaPorte, Indiana. Vice-President — Miss Lucy Wheelock, Boston, Massachusetts. Secretary — Miss Anna B. Williams, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Miss Williams not being a member of the Association, the name of Mrs. E. A. Blaker, of Indianapolis, was substituted for Secretary ; and with this change the report of the committee was adopted. The Committee on Resolutions reported as follows : 1. Resolved, That our hearts are filled with gratitude for the growing recognition of the educational principles of the kindergarten in all departments of educational work, but more particularly in the primary schools of our land and in the homes of the people. 2. Resolved^ That in our opinion, a full knowledge of the educational principles of FroBbel, and familiarity with the ways and means of the kindergarten, is an es- sential part of the education of every woman as the prospective queen of a home. 8. Resolved,, That it is desirable that the kindergartners of the land unite under the leadership of this Department, for a full and logical exposition, at the World's Fair of '93, of the aims and achievements of the kindergarten, and of the schools that follow Froebel's lead. 4. Resolved^ That the officers of the Department be empowered and requested to send the affectionate greeting of this Department to the widow of Friedrich FroebeL at Hamburg. 5. Resolved, That W. N. Hailmann, of Indiana, be empowered and requested to collect and forward to Miss Eleanor Heerwart, whatever funds he may be able to secure for the Frcebel Memorial Kindergarten, at Blankenburg. 6. Resolved, That we cordially thank the people of St. Paul, and particularly the members of the First M. £. Church and of the St. Paul Free Kindergarten Associa- tion, for the splendid hospitality extended to us; also Prof. Brown, organist of the church, and Miss Grace Morehouse, for the inspiration we obtained from their beau- tiful music. 7. Resolved, That we acknowledge and appreciate with gratitude the successful efforts of the officers of the Department, and of the ladies and gentlemen whom they associated with themselves on the program, to present current important ques- tions in a manner that cannot fail to bring them nearer to a satisfactory solution. These resolutions were adopted. After the singing of "Auld Lang Syne " by the audience, the meeting ad- journed. H. M. L. EGGLESTON, 5ecrcearypro<«m. KINDEBGABTEN8—BY AN OUTSIDEB, 547 PAPERS, THE KINDERGARTEN WORK AND MISSION FROM THE STANDPOINT OF AN OUTSIDE OBSERVER, HELEN E. 8TARRETT, CHICAGO, ILL. No statement in regard to the work of the kindergarten is more earnestly made or more frequently reiterated by those preeminent among its advocates, than that its principles and methods cannot be understood without deep and earnest and systematic study. To those whose youth antedated the days of kindergartens, this is often a discouraging statement, and one calculated to make them feel that if they cannot understand it they are not bound to take any special interest in it. To the unreflective mind, even the popular state- ments and elucidations of the fundamental principles of kindergarten educa- tion are often mystifying on first presentation. When the uninitiated young mother (or young father) opens the little book entitled "Merry Songs and Games," prepared especially for the little ones, and reads in the preface that, "The development of mind is a progressive self-recognition, and this recogni- tion is effected through perception of the analogies between mind and nature, through the instinctive exertion of uncomprehended power, and through the participation of the one in the thought of the many," he or she is apt to close the book just there, and wonder what all this metaphysical statement has to do with the little three- or four-year-old child about to be intrusted to the kindergarten training. It perhaps recalls to the mind Spencer's definition of evolution : " That it is an orderly progression from indefinite, incoherent ho- mogeneity to definite, coherent heterogeneity," and at once a comparison is in- stituted. We argue that Spencer wrote for thinkers, and is, therefore, excusable for metaphysical and abstract statements ; but we feel that the phi- losophers and expounders of Froebers system should speak in less abstract terms and sentences. Now, nothing can be truer than that the philosophy of Froebers system cannot be understood by the unthinking, nor mastered in a week or a month even by the student and thinker, but there are many of its most beautiful practical developments that can be understood by even the cursory observer, provided that observer is interested in the most interesting thing on this earth — the development of child-life. It was as an outside observer that I first learned to know and appreciate the kindergarten. As a result of a con- tinued daily observation for four or five years of the work done in a kinder- garten of about twenty or twenty-five little children, I have become an ardent 548 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. enthusiast for its methods. I feel that I wish everybody to kno^w what I know ; to observe what I have observed, and to appreciate as I have learned to appreciate, a work which I earnestly believe to be fraught with the richest benefits to the human race, a work the most vital and far-reaching of any de- partment of human beneficence. I think the first thing that strikes one who enters a well-conducted kinder- garten, is the evident happiness of the children. Xow, happiness is the birth- right of every little child ; it is the normal concomitant of innocence ; and no human being with a heart susceptible to the finer and higher feelings can see a little child unhappy without painful emotion. But here are a score of little ones, seated around their work-tables, or going through their little ganaes, sur- rounded by an atmosphere of love, guarded by intelligent care, and every countenance expresses the happiness that we imagine existed in Eden. Por my own part, it was a long time before this illustration of the happiness possible to the little children ceased to affect me to tears at the sight. It was to me an instant symbol of a children's heaven. It was a type of the possible care and loving guidance to which all little spirits go who pass from this life in tender age. It gave a new meaning to the expression of Christ : " I tell you that in heaven their angels do always behold the face of my Father." It gave me a thought of the possible occupation in heaven of those who in this life loved little children, and that celestial city seemed always more attractive after I had seen the kindergarten here. I felt as if ever after I wanted to say to be- reaved parents, "Your little child is in heaven — in a kindergarten — and the teachers are the angels." It was with surprise and delight in view of my thought, that I heard one of our teachers one day relate this incident. She pointed out to me a little golden-haired girl, not over three and a-half years old, who had that morning leaned back in her little chair, and said to her companions, "Well, maybe heaven is nicer than this, but I don't know how it can be," and the thought came to me : here is a little one taught to think of heaven as a lovely and beautifiil place, a place of happy occupation and tender associations, and loving guardianship. The old gloomy, repellent view that emphasized death and separation from friends, and the judgment-seat, and peopled heaven with congregations "that ne'er broke up," and "Sabbaths that had no end," all this was superseded by the child's thought of heaven — it was to be nicer than a kindergarten. The occupations of the kindergarten, though devised and systematized in accordance with a profound philosophical principle or law of development, have an abiding charm and an abiding lesson for those who do not compre- hend or realize all that is involved in this principle or law. We observe ^rst in the gifts, as they are called, the elementary forms of the cube, the cylinder, and the ball. We observe the tables with their surfaces marked off in square?; we observe the colored beads, the straws, the weaving-paper, the blocks in all the forms of the cone, the parallelepiped, and the various geometrically exact KmDEBGABTENS—BY AN OUTSIDER. 549 foriii8, W^ see the little fingers joyfully plajring with all these beautiful tilings, yet in their play directed to use their fingers with precision, to observe the difference between things straight and things crooked. We see them taught to use their eyes so as to discern and practice exactness and precision even in placing their playthings ; we see them taught to observe the primary forms of color, and to have an artistic thought in combinmg them. I have heard parents who knew nothing of kindergarten work object that it seemed a forcing of the mental powers to thus direct the attention of children to all these principles. I do not agree with them. I think a little child taught to h>ve to see things placed straight, or parallel, or at exact angles, will be just as happy and healthy, and have just as good a chance for a long life, as chil- dren who are allowed to play in confusion, and whose self-determined activity is allowed to express itself in destructiveness instead of constructiveness. I have thought, as I have watched the little fingers guided into deftness and order, that here is the true cure for that clumsiness, that is so often annoying d^tructiveness in little children. From the very start, the little ones are taught to love order and neatness, and to respect beauty and delicacy of structure. They are taught to handle delicate things carefully, and to shun all splotching or untidiness. To see a tablefiil of little children engaged either in paper-folding, or in pasting on sheets of paper the figures they have j list been taught to cut out of colored paper, is to realize how such a training, if universal, would eliminate from our houses and storehouses all that clumsi- ness which in the ignorant and uneducated is a constant source of terror to the possessor of beautiful things. No boy thus trained in a kindergarten but would in future years be able to steer or carry a piece of furniture out of a parlor without knocking it against every intervening object, to the irreparable damage of all the articles ; no young girl trained thus would in after years take the hearth-brush, all smudged with ashes, to dust the delicate satin dam- ask embroidered furniture of her employer, as I have known to be done in homes near my own. In fact, looked at from a purely material and selfish standpoint, I believe the kindergarten training for the children of the poor and laboring classes, the one and only panacea for that almost universal stu- pidity and awkwardness, and lack of appreciation of fine and beautiful and delicate things, which makes the domestic servants in modem homes such a source of dismay by their utter unfitness to work with fine surroundings. With help trained in the kindergarten we could venture to have some really beautiful and delicate bric-a-brac in our parlors. We could venture to have beautiful vases, and beautiful china, and delicate embroideries, which are now in so many houses almost entirely dispensed with simply because no com- |)etent and appreciative workers can be found to help take care of them. A fiirther observation of the occupations of the kindergarten shows to any thoughtftil person that here is the germ of all the manual training concerning which we hear so much. The education of the hand is at length beginning to assume its true place in modem educational systems. Books are written —36 650 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. about it ; lectures are delivered by eminent thinkers upon the subject : insti- tutions are organized with a view to making manual training an integral part of the best educational systems. But to have the best results of manual training as an adjunct of higher education, the work must be begun in the kindergarten. While the little fingers are pliable and delicate they can acquire a dexterity that will tell on all future work, and while acquiring thL* beautiful and useful dexterity the child is only giving expression to that in- stinct which will, perforce, find expression in some form of activity — if not in good, then in evil. This wise direction of the activity of little children is one of Froebel's fundamental principles, but no understanding of the principles is needed in order to appreciate the good results. I have known little children whose activity, or, as the parents named it, "nervousness," made them a tor- ment to an entire household, so trained by one year in the kindergarten that this nervousness, or restlessness, or activity — whatever you choose to name it — was changed into a source of constant enjoyment to the child, becau^e madf than this. The seeds of all the virtues, the genns of the most beautifiil moral qualities, should all be implanted in the heart of the child with the da^ii nf intelligence. We all know that an only child, or a child brought up in isola- tion from its fellows, has little or no conception of the rights or regard for the feelings of companions when first brought into relation with tliem. All tht- relations of children to each other in the kindergarten, under the care of tht- true kindergarten teacher, are made to emphasize the duty and the f/eaufif ot' unselfishness, of love and kindness, and helpfulness. Too few parents and teachers realize how the sentiments of love and kindness can be cultivated in a little child by the proper teaching and stimulation. It has often seemed t*^ me, and I have often regarded with deep regret the apparently natural cruel instincts of very little children. Almost all very little children will kill or cruelly hurt any helpless little creature thrown in their power. They will pull the wings off flies and butterflies, and squeeze little chickens to death, or pull the tails of kittens, or beat or w^ound any helpless creature seemingly without any compunction. But the teaching of the kindergarten is almost always successftil in a very short time in changing all this thoughtless cruel instinct into one of kindness and sympathy. It is one of the beautiful and most encouraging aspects oi the very early moral training of little children that the sentiments of pity, kindness, love and sympathy are so easily and so quickly developed. We have only to tell the little child, as we show it the bird's nest with its beautiful eggs so softly cushioned there, about the mother-bird, and her loving care for these eggs, to fill its little heart with sympathy, and cause it to feel that the nest must be protected. AU desire to steal the nest or break the eggs is eliminated. At the same time we may W teaching the child the very words of one of our sweet American poets: "The blue eggs in the robin's nest Will soon have wings and beak and breast, And flutter and fly away." And who will presume to say that the little child's memory will not be a greater source of refined enjoyment, stored with such lines and thoughts a-^ these, than if left to be filled with any or every description of the rude slang or ruder rhymes of the ordinary unguarded associated child-life ? And so I conclude that tlie most uninitiated outside observer can appreci- ate the influence of the songs and rhymes collected and prepared for the use of kindergartens, in their powder to teach the little ones the law of love, and fill their memories with beautiful words and sentiments. To turn aside a moment from a study of the eftects of kindergarten training upon the little children, I wish to record the profound impression I have received of the value of the kindergarten work to the workers themselves, the young girls and women who devote themselves to a study of the princi- ples of the kindergarten and to the application of these principles in the work of teaching. A very short time ago I heard a lady who herself had gradn- KIXDElHiAnTEXS—BY AN OrXSIDER, 553 ut?OTA. It has been said with truth and force, that the hi.story of education is tin* history of the world's conscious eifort toward civilization, and eraboay-tree, and is bearing abundant fruit among the upper branches. Most of U3 have but to look back over our own school and teaching experience to see the Pestalozzian object-lessons and objective methods of teaching first recog- nized, introduced, and developed in the elementary grades ; and then extended until they have become the present highly-prized laboratory methods of teach- ing natural science and history in high schools and colleges. The present de- mand for school manual training had its origin in the success of freehand and industrial drawing in the elementary grades; and this training has been most valuable in those schools in which its origin is recognized, and in which its methods grow out of and keep " touch " with the industrial drawing work of the primary school. Even this valuable work of industrial drawing in ele- mentary grades took on new meaning and vastly increased educational value when it borrowed from the kindergarten its beautiful form-studies and adapted them to the larger comprehensions of the older children ; and now if we were to choose a symbol to represent the most important elements of form-study, drawing, and manual training, throughout all grades, we would select Froe- beVs ball, cylinder, and cube ; adding, possibly, the surface tablets of the sev- enth gift. Thus closely does every educational movement revolve about and center in the primary school. The preeminent importance of the primary school and the many unguarded avenues to its management, have made it an inviting field for the exercise of the vagaries of every self-constituted educational rev- olutionist, who has more often hindered than aided the needed reforms. The problem of the relation of the kindergarten to the primary school should be approached from a |X)int of view which recognizes the latter as the corner-stone of our great educational system. It must be recognized that each field of work has its distinctive nature and mms, and therefore its distinctive and appropriate general and special meth- ods. The kindergarten enthusiast, who would transfer the methods of the kindergarten to the primary school without raising the question of modifica- tion and adaptation, is quite as unsafe a leader as the veteran primary teacher who sees nothing in kindergarten philosophy and methods, and wants none of either in her school. There are three phases of kindergarten work. The first embodies methods 556 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. designed by Froebel for the mother in the nursery, and which are wonderfully adapted to awaken and guide the budding sensibilities and fancies of babv- hood. To this phase belong the earlier gifts, and especially the "J/?/irer uwl Kose LwdeVj'^ whose charming beauty of imagery and music lead, I fear, t«« their use much beyond the period of their highast usefulness; and to the ex- clusion of much of our ow^n classic poetry and song for childhood which di^ey^ not bear the talismanic name of the great FrcebeL This phase of Frcebel** philosophy has not found the most congenial atmosphere in the busy home? of American mothers, and has been, in consequence, carried forward out of place into the second stage, where it serves to supply the deficiency in nursery train- ing in those who enter the kindergarten at the age of about four years* While passing this phase as not directly related to the public school. I would not be understood as regarding it as unimportant. No more important or profitable discussions have been held in this section than those on FroebelV education for motherhood. I fear, however, we shall make but slow progress in realizing FroebeFs nur- sery education until we have a class of mothers whose own earliest recollec- tions are associated with the "Die Mutter %md Kose Lieder" The second phase includes the work of the kindergarten proper, suited to children of from four to six or seven years. For this field of work, Frcieber.s gifts, occupations and plays furnish the most philosophical, and in the hands of a skilled leader the most perfectly adjusted system of methods yet device*! for any stage of child-training. At every step of progress in this work the kindergarten is closely related to the primary school, and should be conducted with a clear view of these relations. While the kindergarten was struggling for recognition by a somewhat unappreciative public, and for the right to ex- ist, it was not uncommon to hear its enthusiastic advocates make for it the most extravagant claims as being in itself a complete ^ucation, and as destined to revolutionize if not absorb the primary school. The kindergarten has not revolutionized the primary school. In so far as it has been conducted as an exclusive thing, too sacred to admit of modification or adjustment to the average conditions of the jniblic school, it has had little or no influence on the public school, and has often failed to maintain its own existence. Where it has been ccmducted as a subordinate element of a great system of training and in recognition of its tme relation to that system, it has wonderfully prospered, and has marvelously blessed the schools with which it has been in touch. Many, if not most of the embarrassments, perplexities, and failures of the primary school have arisen from the sudden transitirtunity to watch their progress through the succesesive grades, and test in subsequent educational progress the value of their kinder- garten training. So firmly am I convinced of its value that I want to reaffirm what I have often said, that if I were forced to choose for my child between the two years in the kindergarten and the last two years in college, I would certainly choose the former. Twenty trained kindergartners have been sent out, who have found ready employment and have served in important positions. But the most important work has been done by the four hundred graduate teachers of the normal department, who, although they have received but a limited course in kindergarten training, have gone into the public schools with a true Froebelian spirit, with a fair knowledge of the gifts and occupa- tions best suited to advanced work, and an intelligent judgment coneemintr the true relations of the kindergarten to the primar}' school. They have in- troduced the kindergarten work, and, better than that, the kindergarten spirit, and have everywhere succeeded in commending its methods. THEY HAVE EYES AND EARS. 9 LUCY F. WnEELOOK, BOSTON, MAS8ACHUSETTS. In a recent copy of Life, the following conversation is reported : Query : "Why does a dude only use one eye-glass?" Answer: "Because he wii?he.^ to see no more than he can comprehend." As the court jesters of old used to give their royal masters some most serious words of wisdom wrapped up in a jest, so there is a large grain of truth hidden in this answer, namely, that the outward eye can see no farther than the mind's eye, or, as an old rhyme has it : ^* What hears is mind, what sees is mind ; The ear and eye are deaf and blind." Mrs. Whitney's Country- Woman, who thinks "the White Mountains is a clear hvmmu^,'' and that the mountains are "all in the way of each other and don't show for nothing to speak of," has as good a visual organ a.- any artist who paints the glories of the Presidential Range ; but her mind cannot rise above the loss of "a black alpacy," and so, as her more appre- ciative 8i)ouse informs her, "She doesn't take 'em in." The botanist visits Mout Blanc, fills his tin box with the red balls of thf snow-plant, watches the rapid growth of the tiny fungus until an entire slojv is flushed with rose, and he has seen the mountain. To the geologist the mountain is simj)ly the birthplace and home of the glacier, whose action he THEY HAVJE EYES AND EARS. 561 is studying; but to the poet it is "The king of mountains with its wreath of clouds and diadem of snow." We speak of training the senses in the kindergarten and school ; but the real training is "to enlighten the eyes of the understanding," to lead the child to truly hear and see; because he thinks. It was Helen Keller, and not a seeing child, who said of the apple trees in l>loom that they looked "like ladies dressed for a party." It is "a great, wide, wonderful, beautiful world," into which these children of ours come, and the kindergarten is to be the open door leading to all its wonders. and beauties, letting the child "hear the wind among the trees playing celestial symphonies," and all the "various language" which nature speaks to him, letting him see unrolled "the splendid scenery of the sky," and best of all, making him feel everj'where the spirit of the Creator. The kindergarten puts a living voice and meaning into all that is seen, touched, and heard. "The primrose by the river's brim" is not simply a primrose and nothing more, but a revealer of God's great law of symmetry. The blocks the child uses to construct his tower or his wall tell him a story of the waving forest upon the distant mountain, of the woodinan with his ax, of the rushing mountain stream, the saw-mill, the busy carpenter, and all the helpful work of human-kind which ministers to his pleasure. The steel rings with which the young artist lays beautifiil star and flower figures tell him a fascinating tale, more wonderful than the magic ring of the Arabian Nights. The worsted balls bring to the eye of imagination the green fields and " the young lambs playing in the meadows," and Annie says that a good mother- sheep gave her a dress, and Jack some stockings. The finger-song of the Ijambkins introduces the sheep-shearers, and the interwoven worsted threads on the sewing-card, and the weaving of the paper mat, make the process of manufacture of the cloth interesting, so that henceforth every woven fabric has a history. But Mary's dress is not made of wool. How did it come to her? The story of this dress will carry us to sunny France or Italy, or per- haps far away to the country where the children say "good-morning" to the sun when we say "good-night." We must look at the box of cocoons, fastened in place by the finest of silk threads ; we must learn about Pen-de, our Chinese sister, who helps her father tend the silk-caterpillars on the mulberry bushes ; and be very sure we call them silk-caterpillars, and not silk-worms. A worm is a worm always ; but the crawling creature that spins itself a silken house in which to sleep, comes out with wings, ready to fly. The children know this, for they sing : "Now the soft cocoon is stirring; Now a tiny head we spy! What, is this our caterpillar, Spreading gauzy wings to dry? Now the bright and happy creature Flutters gaily by." 562 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. But here is little Katie, who has a dress which is neither silk nor wool ', Ah, now we must go to the warm Southern country where the oranges grow. and see the great cotton-fields, to find out how her dress is made. Another day Philip shows his collar, and asks for a story about that. This brings u? to the plant-world again, and Andersen's " Story of the Flax " will give the whole process of the manufacture of linen. It is lunch-time, and the basket- are opened. What has Jack brought? "Nothing but bread." Nothing but bread ! How did you get the bread ? Cook made it Yes, of what ? Maxy knows, for she has seen the pan of flour. How did she get the flour? Why, from the grocer, of course. Where did he get it ? Someone has been at a flour-mill. How did it get to the mill ? No one knows. See, I will show you something on the end of this needle. What is it ? Some one thinks it is a seed. Yes, a wheat-seed. How many can you see here on this head of wheat ? We count, and find how one has been multiplied into fifty or sixty in the marvelous underground factory of nature, and sometimes there are three such heads from one little grain. Can you ever again say, " Nothing but bread"? But there is another wonder in the making of bread. When the bread u^ mixed and has risen and been made into loaves, is that all ? No, it must be baked. Where ? How ? Let us take a piece of black coal from the hod and ask it for a story. A wonderful tale from the fairyland of science this — of the two busy work- ers, Light and Warmth^ hiding themselves away in the tninks and branches of the great trees of the world of long ago, lying buried for ages until the hand of man should free them and use them to drive trains of cars, move great steamers over the water, and to bake bread for hungry children. In many of the songs of his Mother-Play, Froebel shows how the child is to be led to really see the thing by going back of the outward appearance or activ- ity to the cause, or the reality of the object. In his handling of the typical forms of nature presented in the gifts and occupations, the child is stimulated to close observation of the great world of form. Charley, who was sewing a Greek border pattern, said : " If I should forget my pattern, I could go home and look at the table-cloth, for it has the same thing." "And it is on baby*s afghan, too," said his neighbor. Some children, who have been working out geometric forms with the tablets, are much inter- ested in tracing out the same forms at home and on the street. Two of them told me that there was a square at the first landing of Helen's stairway, and that there were rhombs where horse-car tracks crossed each other. One of the older children came one moraing radiant with the information that her room was a hexagon, for it had six sides, and that the window was a trapezoid. A boy of five asked "if a thing with six sides was a hexagon or a pentagon,** and when the answer was given, said, "Then my tumbler is a hexagon." By the combination of these geometric forms into figures having the beauty of THEY HAVE EYES AND EAMS. 563 symmetry, the artistic sense is awakened, and the eye is ready to perceive the beautiful. The rose-window and carving of a church, the decorations of buildings, the frost-pictures on window fuid sidewalk, and the cloud-pictures in the sky, do not fail to attract the child who has been a creator of beautiful forms himself. " Why, there are pictures everywhere," said a child to whom a bit of slate from a coal-mine with a fern impression upon it had been shown ; "there are pictures up in the sky, and Jack Frost makes pictures on the windows, and pictures are even buried in the ground." Will not many a child, whose sense of the beautiful is so awakened, be able later to discover and set free the angel in a block of marble, or to spread the colors of the sun- set sky upon his canvas ? The balls of the First Gift ilirnish the standard of color, and form the early exercises in connection with these balls, leading to obser\^ation of the red and blue and yellow in flowers, in the sky, and in the leaves of autumn, to the later combinations of color in the parquetry and paper-cutting. Thus there is constant opportunity for the cultivation of taste in combining colors. A child of four who had drawn a butterfly and colored its wings with a yel- low crayon, attempted to put blue spots on the same, and made a wonderful discovery, which she joyfully announced to the class : " I made my butterfly yellow, and then I marked over it with blue, and it turned green." The children personate the rainbow fairies wearing tissue-paper caps of the differ- ent colors, and then they are ready to lay rows of fairies with colored sticks or slats, or to make them rainbow chains with wooden beads, or to paste rows of fairy umbrellas with colored circles. Painting gives an opportunity for combining the study of form and color. Mr. Tilton, of Boston, has issued sets of cards with fundamental forms out- lined, and their modifications in vegetables, fruits, flowers, and leaves, which form a series of easy steps for little painters. An artist sees color and beauty where an untrained eye fails to detect it. The little child who is working with color every day is learning not only to name and combine diflTerent hues, but to feel the beauty of sky and mountain- wall, where "God's great pictures are hung." Not only does the kindergarten child learn to know and appreciate form and color, but his eye is trained to recognize number, which Froebel agreed with Pestalozzi in making a foundation-stone in instruction. From his early handling of the cube of the Second Gift to the later study of fractional parts in the Fifth Gift, leading to a wide field of knowledge, the eye is trained by repeated exercise to recognize groups of number at a glance. The finger-plays of "Five Little Chickadees," and "Ten Little Soldiers" teach subtraction of ones objectively, so that eye and mind act together. The apple tree, or the Christmas tree, are favorite representations, with sticks or slats with colored counters for fruit and presents. Eight sticks are given for branches, and of coarse four must be placed on each side, so the experi- ence of two fours, gained from the cube, is extended. An apple on each 564 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. bough will give two fours again, and, if it is a Christmas tree, oranges and popcorn-balls may be added in the shape of orange and white counters, and three fours presented. Again, a square garden is made with slats. Blue- bells are planted in each corner, four red tuUps along by the fence on each side, and four yellow tulips in a square bed in the center, all represented bv appropriate counters, and three fours are seen again and counted. Not only are concepts of form, color and number gained by these exercises in {)n> ducing forms of beauty, but the attention must be fixed upon the directions given, in order that the form may be made ; and so the habit of listening is formed. Harry Heedless is not often found in a kindergarten. Were it not for the stimulus that aris^ from the joy of creation, this chise mental application for the time might become wearisome ; but fingers work out the desires of the mind, and the interest rarely flags. I was sitting in church recently near a boy of eleven, and wondered at the intense interest with which he followed every word of the speaker. I said to his father that such power of attention was remarkable in a boy of his age. "He owes that to the kindergarten,'' was the reply. "An enthusiasm was aroused in him there which he has never lost." The kindergarten, too, leads its children along the avenue of song to the great realm of music, which some one has called "the art pathway to God." Surely, the heart that has sung with all the joy of the returning spring, "*Wake,' sings the air from the blue sky above, *Wake, for the world is all beauty and love,'" or the song of "The Brown Thrush," "Oh, I am as happy as happy can be/* has begun to mount higher. A boy who had gone from the kindergarten to a primary school complained to his mother that he did not wish to stay there, because they did not sing anything but do, re, vii. The kindergarten puts even do, re, mi, into the fairy-land of music. The balls are the red, blue, and yellow fairies who sit in some mossy dell and sing, each her own song. The red always sings do, and the blue, who is a ver}' cheerful fairj', always sings sol, and quiet yellow sings mi. Sometimes they sing together, and then how pleasant it sounds I Some- times these singers hum very softly, so everyone must listen well to tell which one is singing. So the ear is trained to distinguish tunes, and the musical sense is awakened. The world lies at our door, the wonderful world of light, of color, and of tune. ''Everywhere the gate of Beauty Fresh across the pathway swings, As we follow truth or duty Inward to the heart of things. And we enter, foolish mortals, Thinking now the heart to find, There to gaze on vaster portals! Still the glory ll-^s behind!" SGHOOLISHNESS IX THE KIKDERQARTEy. 565 To open the door, to make "the mind a mansion for all lovely forms, the >oul a dwelling-place of all sweet sounds and harmonies" — that is the office of the kindergarten; and with this revelation of outward truth and beauty through eye and ear, comes the vision of that which eye hath not seen, nor ear heard. Through this opened gate of Beauty, young eyes begin to behold the face of the Father. SCHOOLISHNESS IN THE KINDEROARTEN, W. N. HAILMANN, LA PORTE, INDIANA. In spite of encouraging symptoms in isolated localities, the fact forces itself iijwn us that, on the whole, the school still maintains an attitude of reticence with reference to the kindergarten. I doubt if there is a single large city in the United States in which the kindergarten is an essential and permanent feature of public education. Even in Milwaukee, which comes nearest to tbi?, there are still many schools without the kindergarten. In a number of cases, too, where kindergartens have been established in connection with the public schools, they have gradually lost their distinctive characteristics and degenerated into sub-primary schools in which learning, and not growing, is the chief concern. ' In many cities where benevolent societies have for years maintained free or charity kindergartens, the movement has not gone much beyond these. For many reasons, among which irregular attendance and poorly-prepared assist- ants are most prominent, their work is often desultory, and, consequently, school-men fail to appreciate their true educational value, or, seeing only their cnidities, condemn them as puerile and demoralizing. On the other hand, private kindergartens frequently suffer so severely from prejudices and fads of patrons that they invite pity and ridicule rather than admiration and praise, and even thoughtful school-men turn away from them in distrust of Frnebel and his ways. I do not mean to say that all kindergartens are bad, nor even that all are riadly deficient. Indeed, I am aware that in public, private, and philan- thropic work there are most excellent kindergartens; and — inasmuch as the cause is steadily gaining ground — I am ready to concede that (^uite a large number must be good, and that probably all must, in some direction, be right. Yet the advocates of the new education should not, on this account, close their eyes to existing flaws and defects, but should rather seek out their causes and labor to remove them. Now, without wearying you with an analysis of the many possible and probable causes, I shall direct your attention at once to what seems to me to lie at the root of the various shortcomings of current work in the kindergartens, —36 566 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. viz., a certain one-sided, exclusive, and more or less pharisaical intellectualis?m that takes pride in wordy phrases and formulas, and looks with indifference <»r contempt on the active and emotional phases of life, an undue regard for mere ^ so-called knowing and for purposeless formal culture, and a corresponding dis- regard of efficiency in and a life of creative doing. For this condition I can find no better name than that of schoolishnei^s. It is, indeed, a fault that affects injuriously not only the kindergarten, but all educational work, from the cradle to the university. Nor is it confined to educational work, but stretches its benumbing influence into literature, phi- losophy, and art. It has fullest sway, however, in the traditional school, and for this reason I have chosen for it the name of schoolishness. ? Froebel directed all his efforts against this spirit, or lack of »pirU, in educa- I tional work. The kindergarten is a protest against its dominion, and every so-called kindergarten principle is directed squarely against it. Hence it i> not astonishing that there should be a certain degree of hostility between the kindergarten and the traditional school. ' Nor is it a wonder if the traditional school, so much stronger by the reverence it enjoys because of its traditions should in many instances overcome the kindergarten and force its fetters on the conquered foe^ There are public-school authorities that examine prospective kindergartens on the basis of mere scholastic attainments ; there are public kindergartens in which keeping the children still is the crucial test and chief concern of the "teacher"; there are public, and, for that matter, private kindergartens in which the gains of geometrical and scientific terms and formulas constitute the chief glory of the work. There are school superintendents who value the kindergarten chiefly because of the time it saves in rushing the children through the subsequent school curriculum ; there are others who condemn it because it makes the children "too inquisitive and loquacious"; and I know at least one who dislikes it because it renders them too eager "to do something with their hands.'^ The exclusive business of the traditional school is to give information. This it does with exclusive reference to the subject of instruction. Whatever concessions it may make to physiological, psychological, and ethical needs of the child, it makes with reference to its exclusive business of giving informa- tion. Its lessons it measures by their quantitative contents. In its work it appeals to verbal memory even where it makes a show of logical analysis, re- lies on the rei>etition of words and formulas, and finds its highest achievement in imitation. On the other hand, the kindergarten, and the school that fol- lows the principles of the kindergarten, seek to develop the child. Their labors are, therefore, in constant relation to the child's ability ; they measure their lessons by their qualitative contents, with reference to the child's powers to see and to do. In their work they appeal chiefly to the imagination ami spontaneity, rely on experience and joyous interest, and find their highest achievements in productive or creative tendency and skill, in life-efficiency. SCH00LI8HNESS IN THE KINDEBGABTEN. .)()7 The traditional school subjects the child to its authority, demands submis- sion to its rules, lays almost exclusive stress on certain mediate virtues of subordination, such as punctuality and promptness, buries its work in drudg- ery, finds its arcana in slavish subordination to all sorts of conventionalisms. On the other hand, the kindergarten and the rational school labor to secure cheerful obedience to law, to insight ; they lay greatest stress on the immedi- ate virtues of justice, truth, and love; they lead from joyful, earned play to cheerful, earnest work; they seek to establish freedom, i.e., deliberate co- ordination of self in the service of duty. The traditional school deals almost exclusively with the functions of the? inteUect ; the kindergarten sees in head, heart, and hand an inseparable trin- ( ity, and is convinced that every attempt to divorce them is punished with loss of life-efficiency and life-joy. The traditional school seeks to repress the spon- taneity and self-activity which the kindergarten would develop and nurture through careful adjustment of surroundings. The traditional school bases its program on remote principles involved in the material of information ; the kindergarten bases it on the living interests of the child and of humanity. The traditional school faces the child persistently backward, rendering him curious to know what was or is ; the kindergarten faces him forward towards a future that will be or ought to be, and renders him eager to strive for this — . in the joyous performance of clearly-apprehended duty. 1 Possibly the term traditional in the foregoing remarks is misleading. For- tunately, very few if any schools are wholly traditional. All are more or less rational, and accord to a limited extent in aim and method with the best thought of the educational reformers from Comenius to Froebel. Yet all, too, and to a comparatively much greater extent, linger more or less tenaciously in the one-sidedness of traditionalism. Nor is the situation necessarily favor- able to progress in the right direction. Colleges, as a rule the most determined champions of traditionalism, fight not without glory for every inch of ground. School superintendents, on the whole, are quite averse to " new departures ; " - indeed, not long ago one of the weightiest of these advocated even a return to abandoned text-book methods in the study of physics and chemistry. Not infrequently men, whose utterances carry with them the weight of authority, unmindful of the fact that all error was at one time the nearest approach to truth, burden themselves with apologetic efforts in behalf of waning insuffi- ciencies. Only last year Dr. Harris read before this department an effort, not only - to justify the traditionalism of the school, but to reconcile it with the most ad- vanced demands of the kindergaiten ; an effort — remarkable for its boldness as well as for the erudition it displays — to place not old wine but musty vin- egar into the fresh bottles of the new education. It would be difficult to find a more unreservedly approving and satisfactory presentation of the essential tendencies of the kindergarten than that which we read in Dr. Harris's paper. He recognizes ^vith Frcebel the children's intuitive appreciation of the creative 0(y^ THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. essence in all things, their instinctive yearning for expression and consequent love of the symbolic. He accords to the kindergarten its power to emanci- pate children from egoistic selfishness into a recognition of social responsibili- ties ; its power to develop and strengthen self-consciousness, and to lead it to the very gates of God-consciousness; its tendency to develop true freedom by lilt- ing self-activity into creativeness, and by bringing it into conformity with the moral law. Without stint he praises its philosophy, its aims, its ways and means, its success in "helping the children to the conquest of nature," in con- veying to them "the treasures of experience of the race in solving the problem? of life," in " making them wise without the conceit of wisdom." But at the age of seven the children leave the kindergarten and ent<.^r school. Now, according to Dr. Harris, all is changed. The stpn bolic is dis- ; missed, and yields to the conventimiaL Nature is conquered, the experience of the race in the solution of life problems is laid on the shelf, wisdom with- out its conceit is packed away, and the time has come when they need "to learn how to read and write, and how to record the results of arithmetic " : life, with its inexhaustible epiphanies, is discarded, so that the child may learn to dig for revelations in the "printed page"; his own ideals are cast aside,. or suppressed, so that he may "realize the ideal of another." Play and respimsibility to law make room for work and responsibility to "establishentaneity, and with steady increase of that divine joy which attends whatever creativeness lies in the work. Labor in the service of another, and in which the child has no interest, is not work, but drudgery or slaveiy ; there is nothing noble about it. Obedi- ence to external authority which compels us to toil in the service of its ideals without permitting us to share them, Ls in no way ethical, and is never to be f watching constantly to see that the rules of decorum are kept. More serious still are the sins of schoolishness by which the child is isolateii artificially from his associates. If the kindergarten has any specific duty, it is to be found in the development and nurture of the child's social tendencies^. What, then, shall we think of a kindergarten practice which assigns to each child a si^ecial seat before a small table on which just two distinct square feet of surface are ruled in square inches, one square foot for him and the other for the little fellow on the opposite side. The isolation is none the less com- plete because the little table is joined to others to give them the appearance of a real kindergarten table. This is nevertheless his own square foot. There must be no interference with him on the part of his neighbor, but also no union of efibrt, no working at a common task that needs united effort. He lays hU blocks, his tablets, Im sticks, weaves his mats ; and all the tender germs of sympathy, and helpfulness, and love, are stifled by rank, weedy growths of selfish, schoolish egoism. Here it is that our ears and our hearts are offended by such cries as, "Thi^ is my mat," "Teacher, he knocked my sticks on the floor," "Give me my blocks," " I want to take mine home," and the like. Under such conditions, even the social game loses its influence and fails to draw together the heart*? of the little children. Stolidly, selfishly, as if intent upon a schoolish les.son, each one does his part, or goes through with his evolution, when his turn comes. The growth of the true kindergarten is in a very different direction. All artificial barriers that separate the children from each other are removed. The surroundings, the method, and character of the work, whatever things are said and done, tend to encourage mutual helpfulness, sympathy, and self- expansive love. The group table, the social table, the central thoughts that organize the work in its several parts and phases, bring the efforts and achieve- ments of each child into living, actual relation with the efforts and achievement* of all the others ; and when, later on, in school, the child is isolated for the sake of strengthening his individual i>ower8, he enters into the exercises with a new zest, because of the hope and purix)se that thereby he may lift himself into higher social efficiency. Possibly, however, the greatest depth of schoolishness is reached in the ct^n- st ruction of programs and time-tables. It is not rare to find program- built wholly on the schedule of the gifts and occupations. The fall term o|)enj? with the first gift and weaving, and the spring term closes with the sixth gift and embroidery, and next year they are ready to start in with the seventh gift and folding. The children seem to be there in order to study the gift^, just as they go to school to study the three ll's, and other " con ventionalitie* of learning." THE LETTER KILLETH. 573 Programs should take their keynotes from lines of natural interest, pre-f renting for consideration the plants and animals, the trades and occupations of men, and all other matters at times and seasons when circumstances are iiioet favorable to spontaneously eager contemplation and corresponding play | a.iid work on the part of the child. ^ _^ Equally reprehensible are the time-tables, which cut up the work in strictly 1 schoolish fashion, allotting a fixed number of minutes for each predetermined ' kind of happiness, guiding the work by external circumstance, instead of the inner need of the children. Of course the children need variety, and need it ill a certain order; but in this as in other matters, the rigidity of the school is out of place, and renders impossible vigorous natural development and creatine j doing on the children's part. *~^ From all these tendencies .to schoolishness the kindergarten must free itself if it would do well its legitimate work of all-sided harmonious development of I whatever lies in the child towards highest effectivene^ I'rom all th««etClI?F encies it must rid itself if it would accomplish its mission with reference to the school, and which is nothing less than the regeneration of the school on the basis of a new education that would add to culture efficiency, to knowledge character, to representative skill creative fervor, to sight insight and foresight, to industry purpose, to talent genius, to freedom power, to individual thorough- ness social intensity, to justice benevolence; a new education that ends not in the individual nor in the moment, but directs all its work towards widening spheres, and remoter ends which partake of the infinite and eternal ; a new ed- ( ucation, not of self-contraction but of self-expansion, by which, as our great master Froebel teaches, man may realize his destiny, and become one with I himself, with humanity, with God. THE LETTER KILLETH. ANNA E. BRYAN, LOUISVILLE, KENTUCKY. It is characteristic of a great teacher to indicate — never to prescribe; he seeks disciples who love truth more than himself — to whom the ministry of truth is infinitely preferable to the establishment of a personal cult. Hero- worshipers can never make the best disciples ; they fail to distinguish between the idiosyncracies of the man and the universals he reflects. Taking his ideas as final, accepting them as finished, they remain but servile imitators — they, whose mission it should be to transmit the eternal verities. When we realize the immense injury that may be done to any cause by an injudicious advocate, we may well pray to be delivered from our friends. The dread of being misunderstood and inadequately represented was the cause of 574 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. the greatest suffering to Frecierick Froebel. It was the Damocles* sword daily threatening his cherished plans. To a marked degree this is manifest in hi^ conversations with the Baroness von Marenholz Bulow. Prophetically is it expressed in his words when he said: "Only the children educated in the kin- dergartens will ever understand me." And again : " If three hundred yeai> after my death my method of education should be completely established according to its idea, I shall rejoice in heaven." If his followers subject their work and their attitude toward it to frequent and strict examination in the light of his principles, can they feel that the subtle understanding of fine di^ tinction between matter and spirit has been reached in the practical working of the system as seen to-day ? It requires not an inspired vision to see that the creative spontaneity of Froebers idea has yet to be developed to its finest results. The work at beet is but that of beginners ; none can afford to boast ; we can only hope it is vital enough to carry some life to the future, and grow into such conditions that its founder would not fail to recognize it as his own. The distinctive feature of FrcebeFs genius was that which makes possible all the theories of past educators, in the practical system of means and method. The wonder ever grows that the universals of thought and experience could have been so reduced to their beginnings and traced to their springs in the child's life, and embodied in playthings as material counterparts to the early-developing mind. A poet, no less than a philosopher, was he to be able to so penetrate that re- gion, vague and misty to our dull senses, where the beginnings of the physi- cal and spiritual merge and are yet one in manifestation, and to discover how to satisfy the needs of both simultaneously — to minister to the unseen by means of the seen — never to have lost sight of the reality of the spiiitual being notwithstanding the predominance of physical manifestation. Who save Fr(i?bel thought out such voluminous resources — which, while scientific and philosophic, are feasible, and based upon the constitution and nature of the child ? Only he really met the needs of a creative being. Was ever be- fore so delicate a work provided with means so delicate ? In this lies the wonder; and in the abundance of his means is to be found the stumbling- block to his followers. It takes a Fro}bel to properly and skillfully use them: they overwhelm the student in their truth, simplicity, and possibility, making one feel narrow and uncreative. Yet the machinery which moves the world is equally powerful to grind to powder, if it controls instead of being controlled. The tendency of all ad- herents to great systems is to pervert into injury and restriction that which was originally designed as a help to freedom. So does history repeat itself. .1// revolution is but an effort to restore the vital, and so scarcely has a reform been gained than it in turn needs reforming. Because of the complete and a)mprehensive arrangement of materials Frcebel has given as a system, there is gi'eat danger and temptation of niip- taking the schools of work and the mathematical sequence in gift-work a^ a THE LETTER KILLETH. 575 l^rescribed, formal line of teaching, instead of tools to be skillfully and dis- criminatingly used. Grreat clearness, balance, wholesomeness, and vitality of mind and charac- ter are required to avoid following slavishly the letter of Fra?bers material, to avoid a stagnating literalness of interpretation, to keep one's mind free, creative, ever tracing spiritual relations, never losing sight of the child's im- mediate inward condition and needs, never becoming so fascinated by the tools as to study them more than the child : such watchfulness and care are c^^uistantly needed, to be a worthy disciple of Fra?bel. A sense of fitness, order, harmony, the relatedness of all animate and in- auimate things, the mutual dependence and service of all life — the friendli- ness of life — the goodness of all creation — leading to the brotherhood of man and the fatherhood of God — is unity — Froebel's end and aim, to make the child feel and see that life is conditioned by law ; that law is friendly, order, the \Qry best way of helping us ; in short, that law is love. Froebel, by directing his activity through the use of materials and games, would lead the child to trace relations in his earliest surroundings, to recog- nize in all his experiments and investigations growth; the dependence of one state upon another ; finally, to relate ideas through feeling. But this requires an arrangement of material so in accordance with the child's needs, that he .^hall be enabled to ahvays abstract from it some definite idea. To suppose that simply giving to the child a sequence of material will necessarily lead to a sequence of creative thought, is the root difficulty in the use of Frflebel's school of work. This illustrates a mechanical and empty use of sequence. It is the letter without the spirit. The story is only a succession of circumstances strung to- gether to make an excuse for the moves in the blocks — simply a circum- stantial sequence; no single idea is developed, no leading to any thought relations; only a bare copy of the letter of life, none of its deeper meaning involved — a rehearsal of facts leading to nothing. That it is a trip to Grand- mother, and related to the child's experience, is an attempt to touch the sym- pathies. The child is not creatively active, only mechanically so. He has played from his spinal column, not his heart. It therefore may be called a barren, uneducative play. To properly use sequence as an instrument, a play should be started with one definite idea, which when developed will lead the child to feel and see some relation in cause and eflfect not before perceived. The result will be power of thought, and orderly thought. In planning this play a subject w^as chosen which should be simple, and re- lated to the child's experiences, but which would set the children thinking out and finding relationships for themselves. Instead of the teachers fiimish- iug moves to be copied, the child himself created moves by the suggestiveness and relatedness of ideas, and is thus led to consciously work out the thought ; to compare, measure, relate, judge, to determine the kind of form required by the necessities of the case, and thus to arrive at a conclusion. All this logical. 576 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. orderly process went on as a natural sequence in the child's mind. In ord^ r to give sequence in reality, there should pass through consciousness not slj^j*- ivfy literal sequence, but an active, creative one. It is so easy to be self-deceived, so easy to cover over weakness and stupidity with voluminous, undigested theory; to feel that somehow we are safe and <'r- thodox so long as we are using Froebel's material — yet constantly violating Froebers idea by a misapplication of his form. There is, as I have befc^rv intimated, a tendency to allow the schools of work and the gift material t- rule rather than serve. The material seems to be regarded as j)ossesainf: - r" itself some magic. It is but lifeless, powerless, without a soulful teacher back of it. It gives otherwise what the letter alone can give — and the letter killeth. Trusting to mathematical sequence unaccompanied by a correspon«l- ing creative thought sequence, and so not vitally answering to and created t* r* the child's immediate needs, must cause a gravitation toward materialism — substitution of mere mechanical skill for the development of faculty. "Sys- tem is a good servant, but a poor master." Under such rule the child i- in danger of having his spiritual creativeness stunted. One easily sees h^w plays too much systematized may reduce the kindergarten to a dead letter. The danger lies in the failing to recognize simultaneously the creative natuiv of the child, and the need of orderly method ; either he is given license, under the supposition that it is freedom to create, or he is restricted with methtHJ. The opposites of creativeness and orderliness, freedom and obedience, are like all opposites, when understood, ministers to the same end. But we have u^i ourselves entirely assimilated this truth ; our theory is not yet practice. The test of the kindergartner's mastery of the principles is the result in the chilk) long as the child does not indulge in caprice, or grow tired, he should be allowed to follow out his own inclinations ; at the slightest sign of weariness, of exhausted resources, or trifling with the material, the kindergartner should be ready to suggest, to lead to new views and experiments, and thus to con- tinue the play. Indeed, in all play the right attitude of the kindergartner st'ems that of sympathetic and ready responsiveness, whether in sequence, dic- tation, or in free play. If a child is so full of some recent experience as to *^eeni unable to take the idea suggested, he should never be repressed or forced ; prolong the play by reference to feathers ; she has the birds eat, tips them over to drink, goes through all the literal details of a bird's life, until the broad idea she started with is lost in the attempt to make the balls literally represent the birds. It began in truth and ends in untruth. It was the spirit, the life of the bird, shown in the motion, a spiritual idea alone, to be dealt with. The kindergartner's safety lies in keeping to the broad qualities and truth in her symbols. If the children feel more, let them express it, so long as it is true to them ; but let not the suggestion come from her. They will grow into the deeper sense, and forget their mistake of confusing letter and spirit, sooner than if the mistake is hers. The only escape from the danger of con&sing truth and fact is in a clear and definite understanding of the quality or idea to be given the child, and so avoiding too literal interpretation. There m\iA be at least one quality, if not more, in common between the material and the THE LETTER KILLETH, 579 thing symbolized. The cube can never symbolize anything but objects at rest, and the ball, objects capable of motion. Such a view does away with the seeming difficulty in the way of fairy stories. These stories are indispensable in the training of a child's spiritual sense by symbolizing what his mind cannot grasp, but his feelings apprehend. Every fairy story cannot do this — the majority of them are false; but a true fairy story, one that has truth for its basis, such as the pretty little tale of " Double Darling " — has a power no realistic story can ever exert It is all the difference between truth through the mind and truth through the feeling. A literal-minded, unimaginative child, such as we often see in the free kinder- garten, may need some preparation for the fairy story ; he should be led to it — not dosed with it because it is good ; the best things are good only relatively. The kindergartner should herself be always definitely conscious whether she is speaking after the letter or after the spirit — keeping the two distinct in the child's mind. In a recent paper there was an article headed, •* Kindergarten Ideas Ap- plied to Sunday-School Lessons." The following is an extract from it : " To love, to trust, to obey, are given as the conditions upon which one may become a member of God's family. As a closing exercise the three blocks of the Second Gift, the cube, the cylinder, and the sphere, are set up. The cube — the foundation — is named love, the cylinder trust, the sphere obey." Had this been headed "Kindergarten Material used in Sunday-School Lessons," the title would have been a more fitting one. If this be a right use of material, then the ball, cube, and cylinder may sjrmbolize any idea. It is purely arbitrary, and is misleading. There is no reason why the blocks should be used to represent these ideas any more than a box, a bottle, and a marble. Do the objects make clearer to the child's mind the particular ideas ? Do they not add difficulty rather than clearness ? Is it not a blind, almost superstitious, use of Froebel's aids ? It can only lead to materializing spiritual things instead of spiritualizing material things. How easily sentimentality may be substituted for spirituality. Froebel's idea is to see through physical relations their corresponding spiritual relations, not to put spiritual meanings haphazard and arbitrarily into some little blocks. The little blocks do typify a great truth, but do not typify all the details of truth in the universe. Is it to be wondered at that strangers to the real principles should consider kindergartens empty and trifling. The fourth gift play, and also the others given, illustrate the idea here intended of spiritualizing mate- rial things. The intention was to lead the children to the meaning back of forms of every inanimate object especially, showing that necessity and desire are the basis of all construction — not leaving the child in the howj but bringing at once to grasp the why which illuminates all things with the reality back of them. Thus he is at once initiated into the difference between fact and truth. 580 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. The Baroness Marenholz von Bulow says upon this subject: "The reproach of mysticism applied to Froebers system has a certain justification, so long a? the theorj'^ lying at the foundation of his emotional idea is not completely un- derstood and scientifically established, and thus far there is little prospect that this will really happen very soon, since the great mass of the represent- atives of the cause can comprehend only its outside." This indicates that those who most impede the progress of kindergarten are among its friend?. To face the fact is wholesome for all concerned, and likely to drive out any complacency unconsciously entertained regarding our possession of a broad and comprehensive gospel. Wisdom would be shown in an earnest, humblt struggle to make our discipleship a reality, not a name. Self-satisfaction and self-deception shut out light and leave us in greater darkness than any we may hope to dispel. It is but just to look to the normal school to remedy the failings seen in kindergartens. While perfect training cannot be expected, it is certfdnly not unreasonable to hope for such as shall prevent a violation of the cardinal principles of the system. Could the grave errors in practice exist to the extent they do if the normal training connected in the pupils' experiences the apparently irrecon- cilable opposites of practice and theory ? The principles of all true teaching are the same, whether for adults or children, and the same developing laws must be carried out in the normal training as are required for the children ; failure in the one case brings alwut the same disappointing consequence as in the other. To attempt to give more principles than opportunity to assimilate through experience, is but to cram, and render skillful use of principle an impossibility. Practice is the basis ot' all the most important part of the normal course ; for the student, even with daily experimenting, fifteen months is scarcely sufficient to give the necessary- equipment. When the offer is made to graduate a kindergartner in three months, such violence is done to the principles of Froebel as shall make his prophetic vision sadly true. Only eflbrt and failure, rei)eated again and again, can possibly enable us to reconcile practically the extremes found in developing a human being. The student must learn that at every instant she must be two-sided — as Fra?bel expresses it, "giving and taking, uniting and separating, dictating and follow- ing, active and enduring, deciding and setting free, fixed and movable." Pnjf. Hailraann thus discriminates : The child is not to study Froebel, but to " unfold the divinity within himself." With equal truth this may be said of the train- ing teacher. To tell the subtle principles to the grown person is as useless a* to tell them to the child. Said a kindergartner truly : " Kindergarten could be learned in a short time if we were properly prepared before we begin the study." What is needed for our normal students, to save them from kinder- garten cant and pharisaism, is not glib quoting of Froebel's phrases, but free development of faculties, balancing of powers, incarnation of truth. Until THE LETTER KILLETIL 581 tliey are trained to independence of FrcebeVs material, so as to be able if necesaarv to use in the development of a child anything at band, instead of slavifcihly depending on certain forms, we shall not have done our whole duty by them. Until they are able to develop thought, rouse feeling, call forth creative power without this material, they are not free enough to properly use it. —37 PROCEEDINQS ADDRESSES ELEMENTARY DEPARTMENT. Department of Elementary Instruction. SECRETARY'S MINUTES. FIRST SESSION. Markct Hall, St. Paul, Minn., July 10, 1890. The Department of Elementary Instniction was Called to order at 3 p.m., by the President, Bettie A. Dutton. Prayer was offered by Dr. Richardson, Mrs. Yahony and Miss Faher, of St, Paul, rendered a vocal duet. Alexander Winchell, of Michigan, read a paper on "Geology in Early Education." "Science Training in Primary and Grammar Grades" was the subject of a pai)er by Gustave Guttenberg, of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Mr. Guttenberg was followed by Miss J, S. Tutwiler, of Alabama, whose subject was " Our Brother in StrijKJS in the School-Room." The President ai)pointed the following Committee on Nomination of Offi- cers: C. C. Rounds, of New Hampshire; F. L. Soldan, of Missouri; and ^liss Abbie Low, of Pennsylvania. The Department then adjourned. SE(^ONI) SPX^ION.— July 11. The Department met in Market Hall, at 3 p. m. ; President Dutton in the chair. The exercises opened with a song by the children ; after which the minutes of Thursday's meeting were read and approved. The first paper of the session was by William T. Harris, Washington, D. C, on "Fair}' Talas and Folk-lore." The Committee on Nomination of Officers made the following report, which was adopted : President- -H. S. Jones. Erie, Pennsylvania. Vice-Pre»ident — Miss J. S. Tutwiler, Livingston, Alabama. SecreUxry — Miss Ellen F. Wheaton, St. Paul, Minnesota. Another song was given by the children. (685) 586 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. " The Teacher and the Child" was the subject treated by C. B. Gilbert, of Minnesota, and Mrs. D. L. Williams, of Ohio. After a piano solo, Mrs. J. S. McLauchlan, of Illinois, and C. C. Rounds, of New Hampshire, spoke on " The Teacher and the Parent." H. S. Jones, of Pennsylvania, read a paper on "The Teacher and his Fellow-Workers." Mr. Jones was followed by N. A. Calkins, of New York, on "The Teacher and the Superintendent." After a few closing remarks by the President, the meeting adjourned. WILLIAM E. RICHARDSON, Secretary. GEOLOGY ly EARLY EDUCATION. bSl PAPERS. GEOLOGY IX EARLY EDUCATION, ALEXANDER WINCHELL, ANN ARBOR, MICHIGAN. I can only hope to outline the discussion of this theme. Some features of an adequate treatment would embrace: The present condition of geology in elementary schools ; the influences which oppose its wider introduction, and its purs*uit in the higher schools ; the diversity of the subject-matter of the science of geology ; the range of intellectual powers which it calls into exer- cise ; its peculiar adaptation in its observational phase, to the needs of the stu- dent iu the observational stage of his education; the completeness of the intellectual discipline derived from its pursuit ; the peculiar sources of enthu- siai«tic interest in the early stages of the study; the direct and the reflexive ethical influence of the study ; the place held by geology in the development of American industries and civilization ; the rightful demand of pupils not preparing for college to be permitted to make at least an outline acquaintance with the science oflfering such means of culture and knowledge. Most of these topics have been elsewhere discussed by me ; * and I can only express the hope here that American educators will make themselves acquainted with the reasons for the positions which I have taken ; because the ulterior and collateral benefits of geological study constitute indirect reasons for the early study of geology. But the direct reasons are the thesis here for consideration ; and I shall have to restrict myself to these, with bare reference to other points. Fir4, I desire to elucidate the broad and just conception of the nature of tlie science. It is necessary to state squarely that the widely-current concep- tion among educators is both inadequate and erroneous. Greology is not chiefly a professional study. Some of our pedagogical thinkers, with attention strongly arrested by the splendid results of geology applied to economic devel- opment, have concluded that the chief function of the science is utility ; and that consequently it is not an appropriate study in general education ; that it is suited only to i)ersons with professional aims, and should find place in the later stages of the educational career. Cleology is set down by Chancellor Payne as having a low culture value ; and in resjiect to practical value, affords knowledge which it is better to " hire " than to possess. " Geology as an inde- j)endent study," he says, "has still less culture value than geography; it has no independent unit that is imposing, though when superadded to geography * Shall We Teach Geology? A dlscusition of the proper place of geology In modern eductitlon. 588 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAIj ASSOCIATION. it raises the culture value of the latter/'* Such a conception of ge<:»l«»L'y i.- so inadequate as to become ridiculous. At the opjwsite extreme of misconception ai*e those who pronounce .jjfculi»'-r> but a "bundle of theories." The attention of such persons has been oitunitiH- lying at our doors for intellectual inspiration and educational activity. That 8i)eculations find place, results from the fact that the field of geology sti^tolit- from the present, the accessible and the known, in all direction? into tin- unknown — the inaccessible, the past and the future. A science without oji- portunity for s|x*culatiou — without provocations to sj)eculation, is a comi>letHl science, like Euclidian geometry. The possibility of s|)eculation implies* o|xmi, unexplored territory; stimuli to inquiry; incitements to intellectual enter- prise. Nor are even the pure theories of geology without value. All theory is based on deductive considerations ; and the processes of deductive iviison- ing possess the same disciplinary value, whether the basal principles an: geological, physical or mathematical. Another misapprehension is the l)elief that the abundance of technical terms in the science, and the assumed abstruseness of the conceptions, with the remoteness of the times and places at wliich the truths weiv i>rei?ent realities, render geology a difficult study, as well as an unimportant one. and therefore better suited for advanced stages of the educational career. Sur-h impressions result both from ignorance and from the positive influence •►!' many of the text-books. That these are false impressions, will Ik? undei-sttMid from what I intend presently to state. These are mentioned as misapprehensicms current among educators — uion- particularly educators occui)ying positions of control — as principals, sujieriu- tendents, and jiresidents; and they are the misapprehensions of this class of educators, because, for positions of control, pei-sons of literary and classical educations are usually sought. Such misconceptions of the 8C0]>e and value of geology cannot be charged generally upon the intelligent public ; liecaust' however the subject of geology may be slighted in the schools, or actually excludeer of persons acquaint themselves with the sub- ject, either through private instruction, or "Agassiz Clubs," or **Chaiitau<|\ia Circles," or general reading. The evidence of this is statistical, and camiMt be gainsaid. Under a more adequate conception of geology, it is presented as a hmhi oj facfjn, a body of principles, and a body of theories. The facts are : tii-st, the phenomena of the terrestrial surface; second, the phenomena of other woHd>. ♦Contributions Xo the Science of Education, p. 59. (tEOLOG Y IX E.UiL Y ED CCA TIOX, 589 They are matters chieHy of ocular ohsermilon ;^ they stretch from our im- mediate presence to remote localities? aud distant realms. The principles of geology are the general truths reached by inductive reasoning t on the facts. They are the settled doctrines, and constitute the substantial bulk of the scient»e. The theories are the intimations reached by deductive reasoning.! They start from established doctrines, as first principles, and proceed on the basis of physical, mathematical, and, sometimes, biological truths, to enuncia- tions touching tilings lying within realms of space and time where actual ob- servation has no access. It is at once apparent that geology stretches over a scoi)e of contemplations wide and diven»ified — diversified in their nature and in the demands which they make on intellectual effort. Let us consider the facts of geology with more attention. It is the world which presents itself for study. Whatever it is, or has been, or is to be, is a legitimate subject for inquiry ; but the facts of the present are, in every case, our starting-point. There is no feature of the terrestrial surface which is not a geological fact. ( )ur thoughts may range to mountain-chains, to gloomy gorges, to desert plains, to eroding rivers, to seaside cliffs, to ocean abyssas, to }K)lar ice ; but these stupendous phenomena are not more the data of geolog}' than the alluvial fiat, the lake-side marsh, the gravel-})it, the opened quarry, the bowlder by the road-side, and the soil under our feet. The larger phe- nomena arrest attention and arouse the imagination by their obtrusiveness and grandeur. , The less obtrusive phenomena may teach the same lesson ; and when we consider them with more than casual attention, they awaken equal interest. These visible phenomena constitute the world in which we find ourselves on first awaking to consciousness. Escaping from the nursery, they are the media of our introduction to material nature. From infancy on- ward, they surround us on every hand ; we are in contact with them ; we walk upon them; we build our houses on them; the temples which we rear, the monuments which we place over our dead, ai-e yielded from this store of geo- logical data. I wish to emphasize this point: There is no science whose data are so accessible; none whof})eratious are not tasks set by a teacher. They are spontaneous. The best teacher is he who places the young intelligence in the presence of stimuli to action. The most fertilizing truth is that which the pupil discovers, not that which the teacher imparts. Discovered truth is an outgrowth of spon- taneous and delighted activity. It is in organic union with the mind. Im- parteil truth is received with effort, often painful, and remains sometimes as It n assimilated material. Because the child is not a mere seeing-machine, but a rational observer, the acc^uisition of geological information is precisely in the line of his natu- ral l>eiit, the indulgence of which is a natural delight. It is not difficult to di.'^cover, therefore, what are the sources of the pleasure and enthusiasm ex- ^x»rieiioed by young people, in the observational study of geology. FirM, they are in the way of the exercise of those percipient powers which nature liiu> iussigned to childhood as its characteristic. Second ; they enjoy a gentle stimulus to reflection, and are led to the personal discovery of truth. Thirds the jK)wer of memory is kept in pleasant exercise. Fourthy the imagination is excited, both in the effort to reproduce things before seen, and the endeavor to i^icture the conditions under which the things seen have been produced by the causes generalized. Fifth , the muscular motion which accompanies the range through the fields of observation is in itself one of nature's provisions for delight, and is accessory to the control of attention. Coojierative with these sources of delight is the pleasure of the open air, the cheerful sunlight, the shifting scenes, the picturesqueness, the beauty or the sublimity of many of the phenomena which yield their suggestions, and the grandeur of the ter- I'estrial globe of whose history all these phenomena are incidents. I hear it said that earnest and profitable study must be dissevered from emotions of pleasure. There is a stem pedagogic dogmatism which mani- festly practices on this principle. The principle contains a truth ; but the pr()jx)sition covers a fallacy. It has been much discussed, with much misap- prehension and assumption. The whole truth seems to me so obvious that I will not enter into the discussion. Evidently, feeling w^hich turns attention Jrom the object of study, is detrimental ; feeling which fixes the attention on the object of study is helpful. In other words, if the source of the pleasure or the pain is extraneous to the subject of study, it is distracting and hurtful; if a pleasure is found in the subject of study, it is intensifying, concentrative, and auxiliary. Such is the source of the pleasure experienced by young persons in the observational study of geology. It is quite apparent to anyone ac(iuainted with text-books on this subject, that they are generally prepared from a diflferent point of view. They pre- sent geology according to the same method as that employed for logic or mathematics. The logical presentation is sometimes best; but is not best for 592 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. beginners — evS|)ecially young beginners. The method of discovery is' better— the method which brings the most active powers into natural exercise — i\w method which promotes the spontaneous development of thought^ and infer- ences— new views and pei*sonal discoveries. It is not necessary t<.> pursue the method of discovery indefinitely. No i)upil can rediscover everythinir which is recorded in the science. But he should know from experience in wiuu manner the discoveries have been made; and should imbibe the j*pirit of a discoverer. Most text-books are didactic. We need books to serve a^ «^ide^. rather than teachers. The best school-books in science aje not "manuals" — still less, manuals "boiled down*' — they are books which take the ])upi] by the hand, and point out what to observe and where to find it, and leave him to the full exercise of all his {)owers. The logic of the world is such that he will observe where obser\'ation is the best to be done; compare and group when his observations otter him nuiterial ; generalize, when his groujx< of <»lv- jects permit it. Better, however, is it to employ no text-book. The truth> are all written on the pages of nature; and the pupil will read and interpn-t with the aid of only a judicious monitor. It may be thought the methods here suggested are only a vision. It luay still api)ear to some that the facts and principlas of geology are too occult for young pupils. Now one of the most important statements which I have to make is the announcement that tlie method is workable, and has been worked with all the success here pictured — and with far greater success than I havr yet suggested. I could name schools in which teachers have grown into ex- l>ert<, and pupils have become exuberant in enthusiasm. I have seen thf interest Sf)read from the school to the town; and I have seen hammei-s in the hands of boys and girls too young for the eighth grade. I have seen classt'S outside of the schools si>ontaneously organize themselves, in towns where but one enthusiastic leader communicated the flame. Should I be questioned more sj)ecifically as to methods of procedure, I would rei)ly that any sj)ot to which fortune appoints the teacher is a good spot for a beginning. The spot suggests ideai? of its own ; they may l)e differ- ent for different places. From every starting-point the path widens, till the great world comes under view. If there be a quarry accessible, we will resort to it. We will note all the circumstances of the arrangement and consolida- tion of the strata. We will discover the evidences of sedimentary de]>ositi(»n — of an ancient sea, and of the populations which swarmed in it. We will meiusure and count; we will delineate with i)encil and camera. We will develop here a season's resources of instruction and delight. Should there be a river near, w-e would sit on the bank and think of the sediment it is bearing to the sea. We would follow it in thought, and witne» it laid down in beds, while the relics of the creatures of the sea are entombeii in its slimy sheet**. We would notice the work of erosion going forward iu the banks or blufls on which we rest, and would discover that old lands aiv taken to ])ieces, to ]>e built beneath the sea, into new ones. Yvoia this '•tart- GEOL OG Y IN EARL Y ED UCA TIOX, .193 iii^jT-poiiit the thread of thought would lead to profouuder glimpse? of the fabric of the world. Should fortune assign us a position where quarry and river and sea and iiunintain are inaccessible, we should turn to the tell-tale stones — the far- trsiveled bowlders which have come from northern homes to narrate a story of transportation and vicissitude. In their very selves they are specimen stones of the fabric of the world. They are many; they are diversified. We may s]>eiid a season gathering samples of the eight hundred species which have come to bring us tidings of a hundred regions which we may not visit. And from this platform of knowledge we will rise, till we apprehend our earth the sister of the planets, with a noble origin and a starry destiny. It will be noticed that allusion is here made to some of the loftier concep- tions to which the study of geology leads. It is not supf)osed that these will he attained by a child, nor in an elementary course. The elementary course will illustrate the methods of obser\'ation and of the generalization of the great principles — such as the former presence of the sea over the continents; the origin of the stratified rocks by deposition in the sea; the gradual improve- ment of organic ty[)es as the ages passed ; the persistence of the plans of the world, both inorganic and organic ; and the great doctrine that the earth 'is a cooling body. The generalized doctrines of the science may thus be assumed as first principles, from which by quite a different method of reasoning, the now maturer student, in a course of quite a different character, will proceed into times and places inconceivably beyond the reach of observation and in- duction. Thus from the general doctrine of a cooling globe, he feels com- l)elled by the laws of his intelligence to inquire : From what past conditions has the cooling proceeded ? And to what future conditions will it arrive ? From the present, he reasons deductively, but by an inverted deduction, toward the primordial condition of the earth. If the remotest condition reached by thought is not absolutely primordial, it is inconceivably remote in time and in physical conditions, and he finds the history of the world to be the histor}'^ of worlds. This is a new exercise for his powers. He reasons from the laws of heat, attraction, mechanics, chemistry ; the process is from cause to effect. In his earlier studies, the process had been from effect to cause. Here is a new discipline. For this purpose it is not essential that the remotest stadium reached should have been actually the first. Nor is it es- sential that the conditions reasoned out should ever have been real. The processes of thought are the same as if the conclusions were demonstrable. But at the same time, the conclusions are highly probable ; and they are the clearest glimpses wliich human intelligence has attained, into the ancient his- tories of cosmic matter. Now also, from the standpoint of the great generalized principle of a cool- ing globe, the student is in position to i)ierce with the ray of thought the deep mysteries of the distant future. What is to be the final destiny of the world ? Will it continue as to-dav, a fair orb, to serve as the abode of sensi- 594 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. tive creatures, unimpaired through the countless ages of the future? Or i^ it destined to reach crises in a career of change — finalities which will end it- present mode of existence, and terminate all organic life? The mysterie^of the future tempt every mind. Human intelligence is unable to hold in \\> possession the means of unfolding the fortune of the world, and piou?ly refrain from the inquir}^ It is perfectly legitimate to reason as to vicissitudes impending in the ages which are to come. Nor is the inquiry fruitless. The general nature of the earth's finalities is as certainly known as the events of its past history — they are both parts of the same current which is sweeping' past our doors. But with all these tempting secrets suggested, it is not the purpose of the present paper to disclose them. x\ttention is directed to them to remind the hearer of the profound interest of the ulterior reasonings of geology, and of the fact that we employ here also the deductive judgment in the legitimate pursuit of geological knowledge. How much is implied and how much recalled in the statement just made. Not only is there here activity for the mind's deductive powers ; the conclu- sions reached startle the soul, and excite imagination to the effort to embody the strange scenes reasoned out. I believe no one who has listened to a faith- ful word-picture of the high career of a forming world, can fail to have seen with the mind's eye, scenes whose sublimity will rest on his memory as lonir as consciousness endures. It will be well to recall, therefore, the range of powers of the human intel- ligence which our science, from the beginning to the conclusion of its pursuit, calls into active exercise. Finty it stimulates into action the percipient pi>w- ers, accompanied by all the pleasure and health which early youth enjoys in the indulgence of Nature's wholesome bent. With this, the young imagina- tion is kindled to a warmth, the memory is drilled to tenacity and alertness: the artistic faculty is tempted to delineations; the powers of description brought into demand ; the vocabular\' extended and familiarized. As a re- sult, it is quite an education which the purely observational study of geolo^ry confers. But with all this, the inductive powers rise by degrees into activity — com- parison, abstraction, attention, generalization, higher memory — and again the imagination, the ix)wer of language — and if you please, the power of lan- guages, for much that is useful to the student is recorded in other langua4re>. In the higher study, a« I have shown, the jwwers of deductive reasoning are brought into delighted activity ; and imagination, memory, gifts of languaL'e and graphic delineation, find ample opportunity for exercise. This enumeration embraces nil the leading powers of the intelligence : ami it remains still to consider the marked ethical influence of geological study, and its applications in the industrial activities of our civilization. Considered merely in its intellectual relations, I propound the question in all earnestne>^. whether there is another study which awakens into action so wide a range of faculties; another which brings the intelligence such divereified strength and SCIENCE IN PIUMABY AND GliAMMAR GRADES, 595 alertness; in short, another so good for general discipline f Is there any power not reached by the demands of geological study ? What further can general culture require ? In respect to discipline, the study of geology is a complete education. I leave it to your reflections to select another study }x>ssessing equal capacity for culture. Interesting as this position is educationally, it is really incidental to my theme. But its application is not remote. If obedience to the prompting of nature, in treating the child to the delights of observational geology, is truly but the threshold to a study of widest culture, most elevated conceptions, and most beneficent influences, is it not a study which calls aloud to every educa- tor for just recognition? But is it possible for those who control the organi- zation of studies to dispute seriously the positions which I have here assumed ; or can they yield assent, and then, without stultifying themselves, refuse or neglect to provide for geology the place which it claims in early education ? SCIENCE-TRAINING IN PRIMARY AND GRAMMAR GRADES, GITJSTAVE GUTTENBERG, PITTSBURGH, rENN8YLVANIA. " Science-training," as applied to the common schools, means training in the observation of nature. I assume that the teachers before me are as thor- oughly convinced as I am of the importance of such training, and I under- stood, when I received the invitation to address you concerning this subject, that I was simply to open a discussion that might bring out valuable sugges- tions concerning systems, means and methods for conducting exercises in this direction. I hope that such a discussion will follow ; and to make room for it I will try to make my address as short as possible. An ideal system, a system which would enable us to apply our eflbrts most effectually and wisely, and to secure the very best results, would probably be one which presents the objects of nature, including man, the natural laws and phenomena in their interrelations and connections, and which, with a thorough knowledge of the faculties and powers of the child, arranges the "science" lessons with regard to these powers and with a view to their further development. Such a system, to my knowledge, does not yet exist. I under- stand that my friend Prof. W. S. Jackman, of Col. Parker's Normal School, is now at work elaborating such a plan ; Prof. Jackman is earnest, enthusias- tic, energetic, persevering, and no doubt will present us with a very valuable work. There is a boy observing a beautiful flower, with its stem, its leaves, its se- pals and petals, stamens and pistils ; a bee comes humming, alights upon the flower, attracted by the bright color of the jietals or by its sweet fragrance ; 596 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. it inserts its tongue into the nectary to sip the honey. The legs of the W are yellow from the pollen which it brushed off from some other flower; sores of the skin : then he puts on dry clothes, and feels not only delightful after his exertion, but has saved himself from a severe cold with its possible consequences of bronchitis, pneumonia, or consumption. This story, which is not to be taken too seriously, which may be greatly amplified, but which includes observation, reasoning, experience, and application, and keeps the things in their natural relations, may serve to suggest the possibilities of an object lesson on an im- proved system. According to the system now taught in most of the schools, the plant i« studied during the term devoted to botany; the bee has to wait until the study of zoology begins ; the j)cbble is treated later on, in the lessons on geol- ogy. To get his lightning and thunder, the scholar has to advance to the high school, where physics is taught, while the lessons on the care of the health are reserved for the regular study of physiology. This may be a poor system, but it is vastly better than to have no training at all in the observation of nature. I^t us see what our scientists think of this question ; There is a committee existing, the members of which are representatives of Harvard and Wesley an universities, Princeton and Williams colleges, and some others. This c>ommittee has been ap}X)inted by the American Society of Naturalists, to consider the sulyect of science in schools. It has submitted a report, which has been accepted by the society. The propositions of this re- port, as far as they concern primary and grammar schools, ai*e as follows : 1. Instruction in natural science should commence in the lowest grades of the primary schools, and should continue throughout the curriculum. 2. In the lower grades the instruction should be chiefly by means of object lessons; and the aim should be to aw^aken and guide the curiosity of the child SCIENCE IN PRIMARY AND GRAMMAIi GRADES, . 'ydl ill regard to natural phenomena, rather than to present systematized bodies of fact and doctrines. The following scheme is suggested, subject to changes and variations ac- eoixling to the conditions and surroundings of the schools : In the primary schools and in the lower grades of grammar schools the study of plants and animals should be the main part of the scientific work ; the botanical instruction should commence with such simple exercises as draw- ing and describing diiierent forms of leaves, and should gradually advance to the easier and more conspicuous flowers, and later to the more obscure and (lifiicult forms of flowers, the fruits and seeds. The zoological instruction in the lower schoob should not attempt a sys- tematic survey of the whole animal kingdom, but attention should be directed chiefly to the most familiar animals, and to those which the pupils can see alive. The common domestic mammals should first be studied, and later the birds, the lower vertebrates, the insects, crustaceans, and mollusks. While the range of zoological instruction must be limited as regards the number of forms studied, these few familiar forms should be so compared with each other iis to give the pupils, very early, some conception of the main lines of biolog- ical study — morphology, physiology, taxonomy. Special prominence should be given to the study of plants and animals which are useful to man in any way ; and the teacher may advantageously, from time to time, give familiar talks in regard to useful products of vege- table or animal origin, and the processes of their manufacture. Attention should also be given to the more obvious characteristics of the kind of minerals and rocks common in the region in which any school is situ- ated, and to such geological phenomena as are comparatively simple and easily observed. A most important feature of the scientific instruction in the lower gradas should be to encourage the pupils to collect specimens of all sorts of natural objects, and to make those specimens the subject of object lessons. The curi- osity of the children will thereby be rationally cultivated and guided. The rudiments of the subject of physiology and hygiene should be taught in the primary and grammar schools. Exceedingly rudimentary courses in physics and chemistry may be intro- duced in the grammar schools, to enable the intelligent study of physical creography and physiology. This scheme does not difler essentially from the plan pursued in most schools where science-teaching has been introduced and carried on as a regular feature ; but it may be a satisfaction to teachers and principals to find how closely the opinion of men who represent one of the foremost scientific societies in the country, agree with their own ideas concerning this matter of science-training in common schools. To be of use to the teacher to whom the subject is entirely new, a detailed plan of proceedings should be given, and methods suggested. This would - 88 598 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. properly form the subject of a manual of instruction, or could be pre?»ent^i in a school of metliods, but cannot be undertaken in an address. A short outline may be attempted of a course which has been tried and attended b\ good results. The leading thought in devising this course was to develop successively i observation, (2) description, (3) investigation, (4) reasoning, (o) general in- formation. Take for instance the lessons on plants : in the primary grade not more i> attempted than observation of main features, with the simplest oral descri|»- tion. The science lessons constitute a part of the general object lessons, and help not only in forming perceptions of number, form, position, color, etc., but direct the attention of the child early to the beauties and wonders of nature. In the intermediate grade, when the scholars have learned to write, they art- led to observe and describe systematically. The leaf forms an admirable ob- ject for a beginning. The simplest leaves are simple enough not to discouraire the untrained powers ; from these the exercises may proceed to such a variety of form and features that the pupil's vocabulary is greatly enriched and hi.- power of expression greatly strengthened. Technical terms should be iiseeen Superintendent of Prison and Jail Work for the W. C. T. U. of Ala- bama, and have had the prayers and sympathy of the ladies of that associa- tion — few in number but zealous in heart. (Jne of the most distressing features about the mining-prisons is the extreme youth of some of the inmates, and the i)etty nature of the offenses for which they have been condemned to the constant companionship with burglars and miiixlerers. At Pratt mines there were at one time seventeen boys under six- teen years of age. At another mining-camp I have found them as young as eleven, or even nine. Carrying a pocket pistol, playing cards or "craps" in a public place, killing partridges during the months forbidden by the game- law — such are some of the crimes for which a great State condemns little children to hard labor in the mines in the companionship of ruffians. In 18><7 a great eflbrt was made to remedy this crying evil by proposing a bill for a. boys' reformatory, the annual expense of such an institution being estimated at ten thousand dollars. The economical legislators thought it a cheaper plan to let the boys grow up to swell the class of professional crim- inals, than to expend this amount for their redemption. Two days before the close of the legislative session I learned that the bill had been adversely reporte*! upon by a committee, aft«r having passed one house. I was told that it was too late to do anything else, as there was no time to give a new bill the necessary number of readings, even if there were time to prepare one. But the thought of those poor boys unaided for two more long years (our legislative sessions are biennial ) weighed so heavily on my heart that I felt that God would work a miracle rather than leave them longer so forlorn ; and He did, my dear friends, He did. I am here to testify that He did for His poor prodigal sons what all human counsel had declared to be impossi- ble. I took a midnight train for the capital city. I was delayed eight hours on the road, and reached it late on the morning of the last day but one of the legislative session. As the reformatory bill had been tabled on the ground that it asked too much, I proposed the plan of attaching a teacher for every fifty inmates to every prison, and allowing night schools of two hours. "Too late! too late!" was the answer, even from those who are friends to every hu- mane movement. " We have only one day more, and the law requires a bill fi04 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. to be read on consecutive days." A sudden thought came to me, an inspira- ation, for I know nothing of legislative details. "Could we not call the night- school bill an amendment to the lost reformatory bill, and thus dispense with some of the preliminary readings?" Heaven be thanked ! this could be done, and wan done, even in the midst of the hurry and pressure which attend thf last hour of the la^t night. The amendment was scribbled on the margin of the lost reformatory bill as I sat in the gallery, and then committed to tlie care of the kind-hearted member who had promised to make law for once a-' elastic in a good cause as it has often been for bad. I detail these circum- stances attending the passage of the law, in order to show you that the plau of our prison-schools must not be judged as though it were the result of Ioul' and careful thought, well digested. On the contrar}% it must be considere*! as the hasty makeshift of the last moment, a dernier renort, and judger-room to a large, <*lean, airy school-room, where for two hours Christian teachers give them instruction in the elements of an English education, and undenominational Christianity. We have now three of these prison-schools — one at each of the three laiye mining-camps where the county and State prisoners are hired. The teachers also conduct Sunday schools, and supervise the Prison Christian Association. In the morning they meet for two hours the men who have been in the night shift, from twelve to twenty in number, and give instruction to all who desin' it. They also visit the hospitals daily and hold service there, and do some- thing to cheer the ill and convalescent, leaving illustrated papers for thoM* who cannot read, and books and papers for those who can. One teacher irave simple lessons to the convalescents. This was a plan which I saw carried ovit in Germany in a hospital under the care of the Deaconesses of Kaiserswertlu EDUCATION OF CONVICTS, 605 with whom I lived for a year. It struck me as worthy of imitation in every hospital. The convalescent often suffers as much from emptiness of mind as from weakness of body, and recovery is hastened by exciting an intelligent interest in some subject not beyond his powers. Of course, great discretion must be exercised in giving these lessons to convalescents. Before we had these mission teachers, when men died in the hospital their mothers and wives oilen remained ignorant of the fact for months, sometimes for years. The county ofRcials were informed, but somehow the poor womenkind were oft^n uncer- tain for years whether Sam or Joe was dead, discharged, or made an escape. This is partly due to the commonness of some names, and partly to the fact that the colored people, not having owned surnames until the present generation, seem to change them as fancy dictates. I tried for months to find out for my cook whether she was the wife or widow of John Jones. I don't think we ever reached certainty on the subject, for my zeal slackened when I found that her anxiety was not due to wifely affection, but to the desire to marr}- again. I am sorry to spoil my story with this fact; but truth is truth, and must be told. The plan of our night school is very simple. We cannot teach more than the most elementary branches, and must confine ourselves mostly to the three R's. At Pratt mines, where there are two large mining-prisons, we have three teachers to each school. We consider the schools as divided into three grades, representing roughly the four primary grades, and perhaps the first two intermediate of public schools. It is impossible to make the grading very strict and accurate ; my desire is that each grade shall represent two grades in the public school, and that we shall try to do the work of the six lowest grades. We have four half-hours. One is divided between the open- ing and closing exercises. During the first half-hour aAer opening, the pupils are divided into three classes for reading, each teacher taking one. Dur- ing the second half-hour the same arrangement is made for the arithmetic classes. During the third and last half-hour all who need practice in writing sit at the tables and write, under the care of one teacher, while the other two teachers give lessons in geography and the history of the United States. We open with a brief reading from the Bible, and singing, and close with the Lord's Prayer. Of course this is doing very, very little compared with the Chautauqua Cir- cles and literary papers of Northern prisons ; but if you knew the state of things under the lease system a few years ago, you would see that it is a tre- mendous advance. Our Governor, a noble. Christian man, said to me in ref- erence to the bill before it passed, that he could not hojie that the bill would do much good. I told him I did not hope to do more than just to have an auger-hole in the roof of the darkest cavern in hell, and let in one ray of heavenly light. I think we have done this. You must consider two difficul- ties— the material with which we have to work, and the tremendous prejudice 606 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, that exists against our work. A farmer-citizen went through the prison not long ago — a good man, j^erhaps a Christian man. "Who pays for all this?" he exclaimed with indignation when he saw the school-rooms, and book-causes'. "This is an outrageous wrong to the children of honest farmers of the State, for whom this money ought to be spent, and I will be one to see that the next Legislature puts a stop to such foolishness/' He expressed the opinion of all but a small minority. Fortunately, the company now leasing the State pris- oners is bound by a contract of ten years to continue the schools. The county prisoners are not so happily situated, and I should tremble for them, at each meeting of the Legislature, had I not learned by experience the truth of that grand saying that God and one make a majority. Attendance is voluntary ; if it were compulsory, as has been proposed, the schools would be worthless ; for what could three teachers accomplish in one long narrow school-room with five hundred unwilling pupils of all grades of knowledge and character ? The white men form about one-fifth of the pri2H>n population. We tried for more than a year the plan of having colored and white attend school together ; but practically, although in the same room, they formed two schools, as they would never go into classes together. So we had six grades instead of three, and found it impossible to do justice to any class in fifteen minutes. We were therefore compelled to adopt the plan of having the white and the colored men on alternate nights ; this gives each only three school sessions per week, and gives besides occasions of backsliding into the old habit of gambling and. idling on the alternate nights. But it is the best that we can do at present, with only one school-room and a limited number of teachers. I have often wished that some one of the noble organizations of the North and West, which are doing so much mission-work in the United States, would take an interest in this work, build us an additional school-room, and give us nine teachers. Dear friends, I will confess to you that I have taken this long journey at a time when, for many reasons, it is most inconvenient for me to do so, in the hope that some such help might be found in the generous hearts and liberal hands of the West. The work needs so much besides what little the State gives with grudging hand, and what the company does to fulfill its contract ; although this company has done much to disprove the old adagi' that corporations have no soul, by doing more than its contract required. But we need so many more books for the librar\% pictures for the hospital, and comforts for the teachers, whose small salaries — $25 per month and board — make the work one of self-denial. Now what of the pupils ? The majority of the colored are ignorant beyond the conception of this more favored section. Many do not know their own ages ; of moral and religious training they havie had absolutely none. I have often asked them to tell the number of the Commandments, and they rarely know this, much less their import. I promised to have the names of all who EDUCATION OF CONVICTS, 607 would learn perfectly the Ten Commandments, the Creed, and the Lord's Prayer, inscribed on a roll of honor; but ver}' few could do it. They are .stupefied and brutalized by ignorance and hard labor. I do not know whether you will think the story too trifling if I illustrate **our brother in stripes" as a pupil by describing an object lesson that I watched last summer. I had a bright young man, now leading his class in the State University, employed as prison-teacher for the summer. I spent a week near the prison, going every night to assist him in his work. He had attended the School of Pedagogy at Chautauqua, and was brimful of the ** New Education," which he expounded to me with much eloquence, and to which I listened with that humility which is Ijecoming to old teachers in the presence of the younger lights. The 'development of thought by the Socratic methoil was his theme, and he promised to give me a specimen of it in the form of an object lesson that evening. " I shall take the pen as a subject, and bring out by question and answer the story of its development from the reed and quill to the present forms of the steel pen." When we were seated in the school-room, and had sung and prayed, my young missionary — forming, in his youthful, radiant, Saxon beauty and in- herited culture of face and form, a strange contrast to the stupid, dusky Afri- can faces around him — drew out his penknife and began after the most approved (^uincy method: "Now, my boys, what is this that I hold in my hand?" He elicited the facts that it w&s a knife — a penknife; that there were many kinds of knives — butcher-knives, pocket-knives, table-knives, carv- ing-knives, etc. So far, so good. "But why do we call this one a penknife; who can tell me ? Ah ! that boy has his hand up. Well, my boy, why is this called a penknife ?" "'Cause you cuts your nails wid it ! " called out the hopeful young brother in stripes. The demonstrator of thought-development by the Socratic method glanced rather nervously towards me, but saw only the greatest gravity and deep respect for modern pedagogic methods. So he took heart and began again with renewed courage. "No, no; that answer will not do. Think again. This is a penknife ; now why, why a pen knife ? Ah I there is a raised hand. I see by that boy's eye that he has thought out the right answer ! Now, my boy, tell the class why this is called a penknife." *''Cau?ie you picks your teef wid it!" shouted the pleased disciple of the modem young Socrates. So that object lesson came to grief — the methods were all right, but the material all wrong. Excuse the apparent levity of thi.s story. I want to give you some idea of the sort of subjects we have to work on. I am sure you will agree with me that this only makes a stronger rea.«on for the work. I suppose teachers to be familiar with names of noble men who are acting a«* the worid's teachers, therefore I need hardly introduce to you F. W. Wines, of Springfield, Illinois, the present Secretary of the Prison Reform Associa- tion, the worthy son of the man who is justly called the Howard of modem time.s. I wish to end this paper with words from one of his letters: "Take 608 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. this thought for your encouragement: Every man who is hopeless as t«> th^' possibility of elevating mankind as a race or as individuals is deludes! by tb* devil, and plays the part of the deviPs agent in so far as he gives expre:^*i'«r. to this sentiment by word or deed. But the man who works in faith for ai y of God's lost children is working with God for the accomplishment of a tli- vine purpose, and to doubt that God is stronger than the devil Ls the \\*^t< form of infidelity." Take this, also, which was suggested to me by Dr. Wm. T. Harris, wi.- said to me one day; "Those who have the missionary spirit in some one - /* its many diversified forms — they only. constitute the invisible church." Do not care too much for sympathy or cooperation in your work. whom we are trying to help. THE TEACHER AND THE PARENT MRS. JKNNIK S. m'lAUCHLAN, nij)li- ment, but because it is a fitting tribute to the motherhood of the nation, fn»m the grand army who help to educate our children. This making room for the parent at your teachers' symposium is, a> I un- derstand it, a sort of new departure, but we doubtless all agree, in the<^ry at least, that it is a step in the right direction; for do not the school and homo coexist for one and the same purpose — the training of the child? Aii09 iiiemal and moral treatmeut for which we hold the teacher so largely respon- >ihle? Admitting that the real pnrpose of the school as of the home, is character- l)uilding, and that the best success demands an active sympathy and honest fonferenc^ l)etween teacher and parent, what can we do toward making the practice conform more nearly to the theory? For we know — "They're no more like than horuets-nesta and hives, Or printed sarmonn be to holy lives." We know that instead of mutual sympathy there exists outward indifference aiiearable misbehavior on the part of the child. We know that among you, as teachers, the sentiment prevails that we, as j>arents, are indifferent to your work; and you confess with a tinge of bitter- ness, that you care less for the children because we care so little. Appearances are against us, and I shall not attempt a defense for what set^ins to be a great lack in our lives. Personally, I am under conviction, and am willing to go forward to the anxious-seat and ask an interest in your prayers, that my sins may be forgiven, and that at this glorious revival meet- ing I may receive new inspiration to press forward in the performance of duty : and furthermore, that having sought and found the light, I may be in- strumental in leading other parents to see and perform their duty more faith- fully. But I am not quite satisfied with confessing the sins of the parents, or will- ing to admit that they should bear all the blame for non-intercouree. I sat beside an esteemed teacher on the train the other day, and for the sake of a fresher insight into the teachers' feelings, I drew her out a little on the sub- ject in hand. She was not at all slow to respond, and betrayed such intens- ity of feeling in her denunciation of the shabby treatment of the teachers by the parents, as relieved me, for the time being, of all responsibility in finding fault with myself; and she was so full of her subject that, when our little jour- ney ended, she expressed regrets that the time was so short for relieving her mind. I felt the justice of her accusatioas, and my only attempt at defense was expressed in the mild question, " Do you think the fault is all on the par- ents'side? Why shouldn't the teachers call on the parents?" "Oh, f/m/ would be considered presuming in aristocratic society." Allowing that her individual experience may have been such as to create this impression, I am 5*urc it is an unfair estimate of public sentiment in general. The day is fast passing when a woman loses caste because she earns her living, and the time is at hand when her claim to public respect will be based u}K)n honest effort to pay the world for the privilege of living in it ; and al- though the latest Unabridged resen-es for men alone the application of the word loafer, I trust the next revision shall put it in the common gender. 610 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. The teacher is honored and respected in the home, and the reason why thi- respect and intei^t does not oftener iind expression in the hearty hand-gra? j . is simply that it is "crowded out." Not a sufficient reason, I admit, for W4 should always make room for the best things ; yet for the sake of your indul- gent consideration I would fain make you understand how much there h behind it. Mothers are housekeepers, and to catalogue the innumerable and infinitt^i- mal duties required of us would be an endless task. We are in bondage tn details, which not merely follow each other in close succession, but are &*u- stantly lapping over in a way that paralyzes systematic effort, and robs reso- lution of its energy. I have sometimes thought that if I could write up tht history of a single day it would be a satisfaction ; and I was so much enter- tained by a mother's statistical annual report — the only one I ever saw — that I am tempted to give it to you as a sample summary for the average mother ; the only question as to its verity being raised by the quer>% " How did she ever find time to write it down?" It purports to be an answer to tht- question of a foolish, innocent man, " How do women kill time ? " by a woman who had one husband, two children, two servants, and lived in a house <»f nine rooms. Here it is: "Number of lunches put up, 1.157: meals ordered, 963; desserts made. 172; lamp> filled, 328; rooms dusted, 249; times dressed the children, 786; visits received, ^U7: visits paid, 167; books read. 88; papers read, .553; stories read aloud, 234: gamt>^ played, 329; church services attended, 125: articles mended, 1,236; articles of clorb- ing made, 120; fancy articles made, 56: hours in gardening. 49; sick days. 44: amuse- ments attended, 10. ** Besides the above, I nursed two children through measles, twice cleaned every nook and corner of my house, put up 75 jars of pickles and preserves, made seven trips to the dentist's, dyed Easter eggs, polished silver, and spent seven day.-? in nursing a sick friend, besides the thousand-and-one duties too small to be mentioned, yet taking time to perform." Please notice that she had two servants, whereas the majority of familie? can afford only one, or none at all. We know that she had no direct relatious to the public school, because her children were too young to dress themselves, and was therefore uninitiated in the wear and tear of one of the liveliest hours of the day, from 8 to 9 a. m. A teacher has told me that she is weary of that maternal whine, "You can't appreciate the feelings of a motlier." We are glad she cannot ; aini furthermore, we fear if the pressure and excitement of the " getting-ready-fbr- school *' process could be borne in upon her mind, she would be too forgiving toward the culprit who w^as thirty seconds late, or without written excuse fi>r yesterday's delinquency. It's all very fine to talk about "taking time by the forelock," but only tJu* mother of a rollicking half-dozen can appreciate the number of things to bt* done at the last minute — the fresh surprises that greet you in a showier — the joints in the colts' harness which give out all at once. In the school-rooiu. J THE TEACUEH and the fab E NT, 611 children are supposed to stay in place, and ought to be clean. Out of school, they ought for the most part to be dirty; and this is one of the "oughts" that takes care of itself. Natural affinity for Mother Earth begets that close communion which resultt^ in an even smear, but when it comes to communion with soap and water there is no evenness about it, and no amount of persist- ent drill will insure you against the glaring annoyance of seeing "spots on the son." After the tableau vivant of "You Dirty Boy" has been several times enacted, there follows an equal number of tussles with the hair-brush. "Harper's Young People" furnishes a double cut, giving front and back view of the boy who brushed his own hair. It does not illustrate the argu- ment needed to convince him that his success in pasting down the forelock, makes only more conspicuous the rebellion in the rear. Having at last secured the buttons, sewed up the rips, put on the neckties, distributed the pocket-handkerchiefs, the slate-rags and the kisses, and dispatched them with the warning to hurry lest they be late, the tired mother draws a long breath, and audibly exclaims, "Thank God for the public schools, and the faithful teachers who take these young irrepressibles into line ! " Then turning to col- lect the debris left in their wake, she hastens to the kitchen to take up the discouraging task of training the "dumb Swede" by pantomime and object lessons to quickly assert her independence and become mistress of the situation. Human life has its limitations in every direction, and are we altogether sinners because we trust you to do your work without our supervision ? We know you are doing it ten-fold better than we could do it ourselves. We be- lieve you could do it better still if you knew us better, and our children through us, for "character is hand-made," and there is no lumping process in saving souls. It is also in your power to help us know our children ; for while our time and energy are absorbed in the demands of the physical and mate- rial, there are unexplored regions and undeveloped resources in their natures which we have no time and ingenuity to cultivate. There may be evil tend- encies and habits which reveal themselves to the . teacher's observation and are overlooked by the parent, aud on the other hand a word of confidential explanation from a mother may often give the needed clue to some perplexity which will not yield its secret in the school-room. In stating the hinderances in the way of visiting the school, I draw the in- ference from my own experience that a parent's visit is often an embarrassing ordeal to the children themselves ; and this not of necessity because they are ashamed of their record, but rather that in the precision of the school-room a visitor seems to be an innovation. Sometimes when I have remarked, "I think I will come to school to-day," the child would reply, " Oh, mamma, don't come ; you visit the school more than anybody else." One child in my family was, from a baby, so distressingly bashful, that I had a trial in recon- ciling her to going to school at all, and after she grew to a state of " harmo- nization with her new environments," it was sure to upset her if I looked in. Her tears were a mystery to the teacher, but I understood thev were caused 612 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. by sheer embarrassment. Under the circumstances it seemed unkind t4) dis- turb her equilibrium, but I suppose there was no other way to get her useil to it. Usually in the lower grades, however, they are pleased and proud t<» have me know about their school by a personal visit. As they get farther on and outgrow the sweet unconsciousness of childhood, the ple&^ant wondermeni as to what mother will think of the school, gives way to the embarrassiu^ query as to what the school will think of mother. And now I am conscious that what I have offered has been little more than an apology for remissness of duty on the part of the parents. In fact, I have had a suspicion that the invitation to discuss the relations between parent and teacher, in this presence, was in itself a call to the confessional. As such 1 render my confession in true sincerity, and wdth the purpose, that so far a* in me lies, I will lay aside every weight, and the sin of omission which so easily besets me, and come into more demonstrative and closer relations to those who are doing such valued service for my children. To bring you ad- vice would hardly be consistent with my penitential mood. Time was when I had opinions of my own. Theories are easily formulated on a narrow experience, but they become marred with use, and weather-beaten in the storms of life, and in the place of our positive convictions we acquire much practical ignorance. This surely does not indicate a softening of the brain, but a softening of the disposition rather, toward those who differ from il^. You will allow me, however, in closing, the privilege of re-reading with you Mary Howitt's sweet familiar verses, called — •Give us light amid our darkness. Let us know the good from ill; Hate us not for all our blindness, Love us, lead us, show us kindness, You can make us what you will. THE CHILDREN'S APPEAL. "Look into our childish faces: See you not our willing hearts i* Only love us -only lead us. Only let us know you need us. And we all will do our part. 'We are willing; we are ready; AVe would learn, if you would teach; We have hearts that yearn toward duty. We have minds alive to beauty; Souls that any heights can reach. 'Train us; try us; days slide onward They can ne'er be ours again. Save us: save from our undoing. Save from ignorance and ruin. Free us from all wrong and stain. *We shall be what you will make us; Make us wise and make us good. Make us strong for time of trial. Teach us temperance, self-denial, Patience, kindnesH, fortitude. 'Send us to our loving mothers. Angel stamped in heart and bro^nr: We may be our fathers' teachers. We may be the mightiest preacher.-*. In the day that dawneth now. 'Such the children's mute appealing, All my inmost soul was stirred. And my heart was bowed with sadness; When a cry like summer's gladness Said, the children's prayer is heard." PROCEEDINGS AND ADDRESSES DEPARTMENT SECONDARY EDUCATION. Department of Secondary Education. SECRETARY'S MINUTES. FIRST SESSION. Plymouth Church, St. Paul, Minx., July 9, 1890. The Department was called to order at 3 p. m. lu the ahseuce of the President, Vice-President, and Secretary, W. T. White, of Tennessee, was called to the chair, and R. H. Tripp, of Iowa, was appointed Secretary pro tem. The first paper on the program was one hy A. F. Bechdolt on "The High School as a Fitting-School.*^ At this juncture the President of the ' Department, Henry E. Chambers, of New Orleans, took the chair. He explained that he had been unavoida- bly detained. John W. Johnson, of Mississippi, read a paper on " The Demands of the 1 ligh School for Severance from the College and University." At the conclusion of his paper Mr. Johnson read four resolutions, which he proposed should be discussed by the Department. The first resolution was discussed by Professor Chandler, J. H. Baker of ( 'olorado, A. F. Bechdolt and Lewis of Minnesota, Chandler and Smith of New York, R, H. Tripp of Iowa, Mr. Johnson, and others, and was adopted with a slight amendment. On motion, further discussion was postponed until after the reading of L\ W. Bardeen's paper on "The Effect of the College Preparatory High School iHX)n Attendance and Scholarship in the Lower Grades." Returning to the resolutions, the second and fourth were adopted, after dis- cussion by Rogers of Iowa, Lewb of Nebraska, and others. The third resolution was discussed by J. H. Baker, Sprague of Rho»! problems than men brought up in the school of the world. Certainly thes* men came to the front and shaped the work of the schools. Other collegia ))red men took charge of ^he schools. None better than they could be found. Quite naturally the course of study of our high schools came to be* entirely modeled on the demands made by colleges for admission to the classical course. Communities grumbled under the infliction. The dislike for the classic- gained ground and rooted itself in the community because it was something' forced upon them against their will. The attendance upon high schools di- minished, just as it did in our colleges. Gradually our colleges widened their doors, became more liberal in their courses of study, offered electives, estab- lished scientific schools, and in various ways exhibited a more or less hearty acquie?:cence in the doctrine that a man may become educated and yet be un- acquainted with the classics. To properly prepare pupils for the new courses of study open to them in our colleges, the high school was forced to find teachers for the scienct^ thorough in their knowledge and skilled in the teaching of the natural sci- ences. The schools again filled with pupils, and broader and more liberal provisions were made for their support. The teachers of science became apt>s- tles of dissent, and gradually there has grown up within the schools a senti- ment opposed to the domination hitherto exercised by the classics. The friends of classical education have, it seems to me, acted very unwisely. In- stead of seeking to come to some adjustment with the advocates of the science:^. instead of recognizing that the world does move, and that the nineteenth cen- tury has before it school problems and school work unknown to the eighteenth. for which adequate provision must be made, the position occupied by the ad- vocates of the classics has rather been one of conscious infallibility. This i- the only path to an education, the only road to intellectual enlightenment. All others are a deception and a snare. Thus the friends of the classics seemed to say. In consequence, the high school to-day is drawn in two di- rections, seeking to do all that the classical colleges demand as a preparation THE HIGH SCHOOL AS A FITTING-SCHOOL. 619 in Latin and Greek, and striving on the other hand to maintain ite hold upon the x>6opl6 whom it seeks to serve by presenting a liberal course of study in the sdenoes. Thirty years ago the instruction in natural sciences in our high schools was a.s nebulous and infinitesimal in character as the cosmic dust said to permeate j^pace. It was a vague, indefinite something, calculated to increase our awe and superstitious reverence. Things have changed for the better, and the student in physics in our modem high school is likely to know enough of electricity to enable him to fit up an eiectric door-bell. With this change in the study of the sciences has also c* »me about some change in the study of the classics. This has not been so much in the amount required by the colleges to be read — (in this respect col- leges have been slow to move) — but in the thoroughness of the preparation, I believe that the preparation in Latin was far better thirty years ago than it is now. Perhaps this belief may be largely due to a kind of mental mirage. The past of which we were a part ahvays seems to us much larger than the I»i*eseut field, where we are spectators and a new generation do the battling. I^t us see what are the demands made by the classical colleges of to-day. I ((uote from the Catalogue of the Officers and Students of Hamilton College, N. Y., for 1887-88, page 15, as a type of a good classical college: '•Candidates for the Freshman class are examined in the following books and subjects or their equivalents: Latin- -Caesar's Commentaries, four books; Virgil's .tineid. six books, with prosody; six of Cicero's Orations; Sallust's Catiline and SiiUust's Jugurthine War or Virgil's Eclogues; with the Latin Grammar and twelve chapters of Allen & Greenough's Latin Prose Composition. Candidates will also be examined in Ancient Geography and in Greek and Roman Antiquities." Thirty years ago these would have been regarded as very reasonable de- mands. It may be that there are some schools so closely following the course of study of a past generation, or with so large a teaching force and conse- (juent differentiation of Work, that these may be to them very reasonable de- mands to-day. Thinking, however, of the condition of the smaller high schools, and speaking for myself, these demands seem to me to be too great to allow thorough work to be done. They require so much biting off to be done that little time is left for digestion. So much must be read, and so many other things are to be studied, that little time is left for either pupil or teacher to deal with close study of grammatical forms. In proof of this I would point to the very little true philological work done in the average high school. If less in amount were demanded by the colleges a better quality of work could be done by the school and could be insisted upon by the colleges. This, it seems to me, would be an improvement in every way. As far as the boasted disciplinary influence of the classics is concerned, the pupil of the high school who did not purpose going to college might then have some of this extended to him, and in addition it would diminish the number of mere memorizers, intellectual polyps, who vex the entering classes of our colleges, and substi- 620 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL AS80CIATIOK. tute young men strong in mental power. As to methods of teaching, I am strongly of the conviction that the so-called natural and inductive method* i.f making easy the first year in Latin, this royal road through Latin grammar, proves in the long run to be a very hard road to travel ; and that there ha.- been no positive improvement made over the old way of thoroughly leaniin.' the main matter in the Latin grammar. I know that some will say that thi> way is only good in the same sense that certain remedies are warranted t. cure where they don't kill. I am almost willing to grant this. (Bear in mir'l that we are speaking of the high school as a fitting-school, and it is the |^n of a fitting-school to eliminate the weak, who never will be strong, from thti^ who with proper drill will become strong.*^ The demands in Greek, quutiiii: from the same catalogue of Hamilton College, are as follows : "Greek: Xenophou's Anabasis, three books; Homer's Iliad, two books: Allen- Hadley's or Goodwin's Greek Grammar; Jones's Greek Composition, twenty chap- ters." These seem certainly far more reasonable, and yet it is difiScult throughout the Northwest to create in pupils in high schools any desire to study Gi\?ek. Many school boards make no provision for it whatever, and others put it iw their course of study as an elective. Of the two languages, Latin or Giwk, the latter is not only more beautifiil, but more regular and philosophioaL Looked at from the standpoint of mental gymnastics, Greek is a more valua- ble study than Latin. I heartily wish it were possible to bring about a revival in the study of Greek in our high schools, though I am afraid that until a change comes over the spirit of the dreams of those who shape the teaching in our colleges, until there will be somewhat more of philology and perha[i* less of mere translation of texts in our colleges, such a revival will not be likely. As to mathematics, most high schools, worthy of the name, offer more than the average college demands. Little need be said of thb subject, therefore, except that incidentally it may be noted that in a subject like mathematici:. where the community and the college have interests in common, there is uo difficulty for the high school to meet all requirements. Since colleges have begun to offer more liberal courses of study the modern languages have beeu added to the college curriculum, and a certain amount of preparation ha^ been demanded in either German or French, rarely in both. Throughout the northwest, German is more popular than French, and high schools have no difficulty in complying with the two years' easy work demanded. This studv as a rule is popular in the schools, although, as far as my experience goes, l« not so often well provided for, either in the high school or in college, as t" teachers. And now as to English. In view of the demands made by our colleges upon the high schools in Latin and German, we have reason to be- lieve that the demands in English will be very great and that the high sob«x>l will be cora}Xjlled to make very liberal allowance of time and teaching-tbrw to meet these requirements. In view of its importance in any scheme of cul- THE HIGH SCHOOL AS A FITTING -SCHOOL, 621 ture, Trhatever subject be slighted this one subject certainly will be carefully and thoroughly protected in its interests. Thus a foreigner might think. Let lis see what one of the largest of the universities of this country demands as preparation in English of those about to enter the freshman class as candi- dates for the degree of Bachelor of Arts. I quote from pages 34 and 35 of the Calendar of the University of Michigan, 1889-90: "Fob the Dkobek of BAOHSiiOB of Abts. — CandidateB will be examined in the follo^ring subjects: I. English Language, Composition, and Bhetoric. The examination will be a» follo^^s: ''(a) A grammatical and rhetorical analysis of short selections in prose and poetry. The rhetorical analysis will be confined chiefly to the meanings and forms of MTords, sentential structure, paragraphing, and figures of speech. *' ( 6 ) An essay of not less than two pages ( foolscap ), correct in spelling, punctu- ation, capital letters, grammar, sentential structure, and paragraphing. The subject for 1890 will be taken from the following works, with the substance of which —the plots, incidents, characters, etc., — it is expected that the student will, by careful reading, thoroughly familiarize himself: Shakespeare's As You Like It; Scott's Guy Mannering; Kingsley's Hypatia. The subjects for 1891 will be taken from Shake- speare's Macbeth; Goldsmith's Vicar of Wakefield; Scott's Old Mortality; Longfel- low's Hyperion. Equivalents of these will, of course, be accepted. "For securing the proper preparation, the following course is recommended: 1. A few lessons and constant practice in the proper use of the Unabridged Dictiona- ries. 2. A review of the elements of English Grammar during the last years of the preparatory course. 3. Daily recitations for at least one term in some such work as D. J. Hill's Elements of Rhetoric and Composition, or A. S. Hill's Princi- ples of Rhetoric. 4. A careful reading of one of Shakespeare's plays, in an anno- tated edition, as Hudson's, Rolfe's, Meikle John's, or one of the Clarendon Press series. .5. Weekly exercises in original composition, for at least two years. ** A large portion of those who seek admission to the University are found to be very deficient in their preparation in English. It is on every account desirable that such deficiency be removed as far and as fast as possible, and that the requirements in English for admission to the University be enlarged." Very few schools do more than this, and, as a result, the graduate who does not expect to enter college leaves the high school with a handful of husks as all that the school has to offer him in English literature. Of English before the days of Shakespeare, of Chaucer and of the days be- fore Chaucer, of Anglo-Saxon, what can be said ? Why, so few colleges offer opportunities of study in this direction that it is not surprising that high schools do nothing. Those who would like to do something do nothing, because it is 80 difficult to find teachers competent to give instruction ; and as for the others, they do nothing because they do not know that there is anything to be done. There are some schools, even in our smaller towns, which, knowing the better, strive toward it. One such devotes the first two years to English comjwsition and rhetoric with daily recitations, and numberless composition exercises, and a daily recitation during the lost two years of the course to English literature. That the study of English literature becomes to the pupil in this school a labor of love ; that they look forward to it as the summation of their work, and seem 622 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. to revel in its pleasures, is evident to those who have had the opportunity to inspect the work of this school. Not to tarry too long here, it seems to me that as teachers of English-speaking people, possessors of a grand history and literature, it is our duty to lift up and set upon a pinnacle in the high school the study of English. In history as grave fault may be found with present high-school work as in English. A daily recitation for a year is given tt» ancient and modem history. In that time is gone over the history of Greece and Rome, and, by those not too ambitious, the history of England. Some wres- tle with the history of the world for this length of time. At any rate, it be- comes only a question of relative thinness and poorness when we look over the work in history in the high school. United States histor>' has generally been disposed of in the grammar school before the high school is reached. From the mental immaturity of the pupils studying United States history, and from the imperative necessity to complete the study in two years at furthest, nothing like genuine historical study can be expected. As a result, the study of civic-^ri labors under many disadvantages in our high schools. New ideas involving logical processes take lodgment in their entirety very slowly in the minds of the young. They can see but one side of any matter at a time. An idea must be presented again and again, different sides of it, and illuminated by changing lights, in order that a true picture may exist in the mind. This is the kind of study especially desirable in history, but this is out of our reach until hours and minutes are not dealt out to us so stingily as at present, and until it will not be necessary for the high school, as a fitting-school, to do all the preparatory work for the college in every direction. There remain yet to be considered the natural sciences. Except for their special courses, the colleges make little demands upon the high school in the sciences. Under natural sciences are generally taught in our high schools, physiology, zoology, botany, geology, astronomy, physics, chemistry, and physical geography. These are of varying value to the student as studies in creating new men- tal power, and as helps in his college course. Most valuable to him, from my standpoint, are botany, geology, astronomy, physics, and physical geography. Botany awakens the powers of observation and classification. Geolog}- de- mands in addition logical reasoning from well-known facts to causes. Astron- omy and physics — both forms of mechanics — are properly added at times to the department of mathematics, and physical geography takes up under one name all that has been discoverable in all the realms of science. Chemistry can only be made of value where enough time can be given to allow of gen- uine study, so that the new ideas — and chemistry is full of them — may have time to root themselves in the fibers of the brain and begin to grow. Now, to summarize briefly : The high school, as an outgrowth of the ac«d- eray, comes to us burdened alike with excellences and defects. Supported by the community, its course of study has been fashioned by the influence of the college to suit the purposes of the college. The recent establishment of schools of science has had some influence in modifying the high-school course of study, and has brought it nearer to the needs of the community. THE HIGH SCHOOL AS A FITTING- SCHOOL. 623 The adjustment of the course of study to these varying interests is not complete, and the high school, as at present organized, is a provisional ar- rangement. In Latin, the demands are too great for thorough work, and it is question- able whether the substitution of extensive reading and the changed methods of acquiring the elements are any improvement over the old method of thorough mastery of grammatical forms. The decreasing interest in Greek in our high schools and colleges is much to be deprecated. As a high-school study it can be made more valuable and more fruit-bearing than Latin. In mathematics high schools have done readily all that is expected from them by the colleges, because in this subject tlie interests of the college and the community are in harmony. The work done in English in very many high schools is almost farcical. The better ' colleges lament this, although the fault rests in the main with the colleges, which, until very recent years, have almost ignored this subject. Ancient and modem history is very poorly taught in the ordinary higli school. The colleges ask for very little. The course of history in many col- leges is very weak, and as a result the work is shirked and poorly done in high schools. As to natural sciences, the college makes few demands on the high school as preparation for the classical course. Froin the standpoint of general scholarship, botany, geology, astronomy, physics, and physical geog- raphy are deemed most valuable. Chemistry is valuable only where enough time can be given to do thorough work. Of the right of the high school to do work preparatory to the college or scientific school I have said nothing. It seems to me that at this late day in the ninteenth century, in view of the general tendency of society — in view of an existing necessity — it may be assumed that such a right exists, and that the school is free to expand indefinitely in lines of teaching. Of the ability of the high school to map out any one course of study or combinations of courses to do equally satisfactorily the various lines of work, previously i-e- ferred to, I am doubtful. It has been suggested that by beginning some of our high-school work in grades below the high school, and by modifying somewhat our time-sanctioned schemes of work, the high school might be eon- verted into a gj^mnasium after the German pattern. Of many objectioas against such a scheme, I may mention two. My time will not permit an expansion, even of these : Fird: The patrons of our schools will not indorse and join in such a change. Second : The social environment of pupils in this country militates against such a change. Our schools must adapt themselves to American conditions. These, and other reasons, cause me to believe we will gradually develop out of our high school as it now is, a series of special schools — all public schools, and each one a fittmg-school for something beyond. 624 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. And now in conclusion, my topic, " The High School as a Fitting'-Schooi/' I take to mean a discussion of the course of study of high schools as prepar- atory to college. There is another sense, however, in which the high school i> a fitting-school, and that is in preparing men and women. This idea ha? been in my mind constantly in preparing this paper. Here and there I have sought to refer to it incidentally. The subjects boys and ^rls study in our high schools can be made to bear good fruit in that direction. We look ti» our colleges, to which we are related as fitting-schools, as a wanderer in a desert country looks to the hills ; and from them would that we could always draw the help we need. EFFECT OF THE COLLEGE-PREPARATORY HIGH SCHOOL UPON ATTENDANCE AND SCHOLARSHIP IN THE LOWER GRADES. C. W. BARDEEN, SYRACUSE, NEW YORK. An ounce of pull is worth a pound of push. If a child remains in seh27 fifty years there were no other studies than Latin and Greek, until in 1829 the course was broadened by the addition of geometry, modern history, and vulgar fractions. The boy's life is given up so entirely to the school that when little Samuel Taylor Coleridge was whimpering of homesickness, stem old Master Boyer, of Christ Hospital, cried out indignantly: "Boys, the school is your father! The school is your mother! The school is your brother and your sister ! The school is your second-cousin and all the rest of your relations ! So let us have no more crying ! " That is English, you know ; but the American father is not quite so ready to see himself relegated to the single office of chancellor of the exchequer. As Mr. Nightingale said so well last year, "The first grand purpose of the high school is to educate our children up to the age of eighteen under the be- nig:n influence of home." I am not ignorant of the noble work done by these public schools, and am not prepared to say that a better system for England could be devised. But with us the conditions are different. The motto of the oldest of these Eng- lish schools is, " Manners makyeth men." It is not to make scholars, but to make gentlemen, that so much stress is laid upon sending English boys to the ten great schools. Where class distinctions prevail, as there, it is not unfair to say that the only avenue of entrance to what are known as the upper cir- cles, is through the public schools. Fortunately we have.no such rigid regulations. Manners go far to make a man everywhere, but we have other standards, and we think pretty well of the manners that come from growth in the home circle as a good son and a good brother. Until we are ready to admit that our boys must be sent away from home in order to grow up gentlemen, the idea of the English public school can never in its entirety prevail in America. It is as a rule better for the boy to get his preparation in the high school at home, even when he is from his earliest age intended for college. But what proportion of boys who finally go to college are recognized from a very early age as sure to do so ? Without pausing to dwell on the misfor- tunes of a boy trained solely to enter college and finally unable to go, hence forced to enter life with an education ill-balanced and largely useless, let me ask how many of you present who are college graduates knew at eight years old that you would go to college ? How many of you expected to go at twelve ? at fourteen ? at sixteen ? It is a peculiarity and an advantage of American life that the possibility of a college course may occur to one unex- l)ectedly. Perhaps you will permit me to give my own experience. At sixteen, I came home from the army with my regiment, in which I had l)een for two years a drummer-boy. I had no money, no one to direct me, no especial plans ; and I settled down as a book-keeper in a grocery store, at a dollar a day. This was in Fitchburg, Massachusetts. At that time the Bos- ton mail came in about six o'clock, and the steps of the town-hall were at that hour a general rendezvous. 628 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. One evening as I stood on these steps a young fellow came up, a boy I Wi known in school where, although older, he was in a lower class. He had jusi finished his first year at Williams College, and what he didn't have to tell of the fun and glory of college life wasn't worth experiencing. In the midst 'M it all, he stopped suddenly, and asked with too carefully concealed pity : "Bardeen, why don't you go to college?" Like a flash I replied, "I am going." "When?" " A year from next fall." "Where?" "To Yale." I didn't know where Yale was, but I knew it was a bigger college than Williams, and I was glad to see the fellow's bumptiousness cloud over a littlt at my prosi^ects. Well, I did go to college, and a year from the next fall, and to Yale: and yet when that conversation began I had not dreamed of it. The fact was, a? he talked down to me from his superior height, I said to myself, unless I g»' to college it is going to be so all through life. This fellow is not naturally my superior in any way, and yet if he goes through college and I don't he wili always patronize me as he is patronizing me now. I don't need to stand it, and I won't. Hence the sudden resolution. But the point of the story, so far as it has any place here, is that the Fitch- burg high school was a college-preparatory high school, and hence alJ tiie training I had was in the direction of college ; so that when, three years after I had left school, the necessity of a college education suddenly occurred to me, I had only to begin where I had left off, and a single year enabled me u> enter Yale without condition. My experience is not unusual. I presume in all important particular? it could be matched over and over again among those of you who hear me. Hence it is not wise to bring scholars at too early an age to that fork in their studies where they must decide whether or not they will go to college. Leave the possibility open as long as possible ; and to that end let every high school keep present to the mind of the pupil that he may go to college if he vdll As James Russell Lowell said at the Harvard anniversary : "It is to be hoped that oar higher institutions of learning may again be broaght to bear, as once they did, more directly on the lower; that they may again come into snch close and graduated relation with them as may make the higher education the goal to which aU who show a clear aptitude shaU aspire.'^ 8EVEBANCE OF HIOH SCHOOL AND UNIVEBSITY. 629 THK DEMANDS OF THE HIGH SCHOOL FOR SEVERANCE FROM THE COLLEGE AND THE UNIVERSITY, J. W. JOHNSON, UNIVERHITY, MISHISSIPPI. The high school is fundamental in importance as a support for the college. Success in any school system demands perfect harmony and hearty coopera- tion between the two. It would seem well, therefore, that everj' college should have its high school immediately under its protection and guidance. Can the bigh school not do better work — work more in accordance with the recjuirements of the college, if both are carried on under the same roof? Ac- cording to the same curriculum, and under the same management ? Surely, in union there is strength. Under the influence of such reflections, one is drawn to the conclusion, that the union of the two is the best possible arrange- ment. It is only after more mature reflection, supported by experience and observation, that we lose confidence in the theory, and finally abandon it altogether. There is strength in union only when the parts united are mutu- ally helpful and advantageous ; but if the interest and well-being of the one must decline as the other advances, then the two need work separately and independently. We shall notice first the disadvantage to colleges and uni- versities in thus maintaining preparatory departments. First, the excess of numbers is undesirable, especially when the number include different classes of boys so much out of harmony. The large number of preparatory boys requires additional teaching-force and equipments, thus incumbering rather than aiding the college machinery. The discipline becomes more difficult to enforce, with the mixed class of students, than it would be with an equal number of either kind separately. Were they all high-school boys, they would be placed under the strict sur- veillance of diligent teachers, and taught by rigid discipline, to know their j)laces, and to conform to established regulations. Were they all suffi- ciently advanced to be admitted into college, they could be trusted to behave, and the trust not be abused. In this case there would be no young awkward boys to serve as scapegoats for the crimes of the older ones. The average college boy delights to see the young, ignorant fellows tricked now and then ; he enjoys also inveigling them into mischief and trouble, dis- appearing himself from the scene in due time to leave his junior comrades as scapegoats for all the iniquity, and the objects of censure for the whole afifair. It soon follows as a sort of corollary that the younger boys are blamed for aU kinds of mischief, however foreign to their instincts or capacity. When such false accusations become common, or, as they are sometimes, offensive, the spirited youths, feeling wronged and misrepresented, become reckless, and are stimulated to bolder deeds, and more serious misdemeanors. Sometimes even a sort of party feeling is engendered, and constant antagonism is the result. —40 630 THE IfATIOITAL BDUCATIOKAL ASSOCIATION. Then the greater numbers and divided responsibility both work very much against good discipline. Again, the dignity and eclat of the college or university is seriously ham- pered by a preparatory department. We hear it said there Is nothing in a name; but there is much in the name and reputation that a college beaiv. And many people judge of a college by the character of students admitted. If the college admits students of low grade, they say the college is low-graik iVnd in proportion as the college is strict in its requirements for admk^i^'U, and will admit only those who have a high grade of scholarship as prepara- tion, do they attribute more and more merit and importance to that collt':^^'. Again, some old-fashioned people take the old-fashioned way of testing a pud- ding by tasting it ; a method simple, to be sure, but eminently reliable Jiii«i satisfactory. Accordingly, they are ready to judge of a college by the Iwiv? who have been there, whether they be graduated or not. Now whenever a man even of little learning happens to meet a mere preparatory boy who caii boast of the months and terms which he has spent at the university, he is sim- to regard such a university as a mere high school. In short, these preparaton- boys can do but little credit to the university anyway or anywhere. Their low grade of scholarship is fatally apt to be taken as an index of the scholar- ship at the univci-sity. That requisite dignity, therefore, is sadly waniiuj: which is necessary to make a university tower in influence and eclat eomiiien- surate with its name and pretensions. Another serious injury to colleges and universities arises from the fact that they ai'e brought into competition with the high schools ; L e., the preparaton' department competes, and the whole college is criticised and held responsii»/e. It is natural for public patronage to flow to the preparatory department, with its great university name and classic dignity where tuition is free, rather than to the private high school with tuition to pay and a far less display of aiuip- ments and high-sounding patronage. The public, indeed, perhaps rightly ta», are very much disposed to demand free instruction in the high schools. Tu- ition is already free in the common schools and colleges, and why not, they say, in the high schools ? They naturally cast about for free tuition, and as soon as the preparatory department is found to be free they overflow it with numbers. From a narrow, business point of view the advantage is wholly on the side of the preparatory department. It can employ the best teachers; be- ing indorsed by the State, can furnish the best appliances, and oflfer every- thing free. This of course gives it an overwhelming advanti^. Now if* preparatory departments could do all the preparatory work it might be well enough to coutinue and even expand the system. But such is not the cm'^ there is a large and worthy class of patronage which would appreciate a local high school and patronize it liberally, but cannot afford to send away fri>® home, and especially to subject young boys to the well-known temptation? of college life. The consequence is that a large portion of available patronace never reaches the college or university, but must be content to take a short SEVERANCE OF HIGH SCHOOL AND UNIVERSITY. 631 superficial couree under name of normal or some other misnomer. The ulti- mate consec^uence is that the college or university, under a strenuous effort to feed itself with a preparatory department, really shuts off its main supply, which should come from the public at large. Another serious result is, that when a private high school prepares a few boys by stemming the tide of com- [)etition with the preparatory department, there being so little feeling of co- operation and sympathy, the boys will be advised to go to some other college, perhaps outside of the State, rather than to one of so low standard, and one which stoops to such low and unfair competition. In view, then, of the many disadvantages to the college — the excess of numbers, difficulties of discipline, loss of dignity, competition wholly unfair with the high schools — in view of all these, we think the demands of the high schools for severance from the college and university are well founded, and ought to be granted. We shall next notice some of the disadvantages to the high schools them- selves. The high schools are of course dependent upon colleges for indorse- ment and for finishing work begun. When colleges fail, high schools are not appreciated, so that they have a right to be interested in the welfare of col- leges and to demand severance for the good of the college. But the union of preparatory departments with colleges, works perhaps more serious injury to the high schools themselves than to the college. It is difficult, however, to eliminate the high-school interest from that of the college. They are mutu- ally dependent upon each other, and have many interests in common. We shall notice, however, some of the disadvantages peculiar to the high schools, considering preparatory departments as high schools, and show first special reasons for the demands of these departments for severance. Preparatory departments must largely, if not wholly, adopt college customs and curricula. Boys must have their stated hours to meet the professor and recite, vanish from the presence of that professor, and report to another, or noty as inclina- tion may suggest, or indifference and laziness persuade. Not being under the eye of his teacher, the young boy is liable to fall into idle habits, and become truant and in many cases really worthless. College freedom and college laxity are not suited to immature boys. Kigid discipline, the very thing they most need, they least receive. It seems wholly impracticable to have a different system of discipline and instruction in the preparatory depart- ments, from that of the college proper. At their age preparatory boys are easily influenced by older ones, and in too many cases the influence of the older ones is detrimental to the younger. Many a young boy comes fresh from the bosom of a pure family, with the mother's kiss and benediction still aglow in his countenance, to be enticed into the ways of evil, and before the close of the session to be sent away a moral wreck. This is a sad feature indeed. For what is intellectual strength without moral character? What benefit to himself or others is a man's high culture if it is to be used on the side of the immoral and the base? But in failing to secure intellectual development, as is so often the case in preparatory departments, and reaping instead corrupted 632 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. morals, the case becomes doubly sad and deplorable. But there is another class of young boys that deserves notice in this connection. It consist? <»! boys who are not so subject to bad influences, who resist temptation and du their best, but their best is but little. Not possessing brilliant minds and n. i having enjoyed previous training, they labor under disadvantages. The} need the patient direction and kindly oversight of a sympathetic teacher. In a preparatory department this usually is not practicable. They must Cfjmt at the beginning of the hour, retire at its close to give room for anotbf! class. He sees his teacher no more till next day, when new and advanoni lessons are required. The boy fails, the class presses forward — no time t. wait — obscurity and gloom thicken over his mental vision — he gropes ii; darkness, and finally reaches despair, when he calls for an honorable di^ml- sion, and retires from intellectual pursuits, perhaps never to return a^'-ain. A better arranged high school would have helped him on, and perhaps finally made of him a respectable scholar — at lea.<*t one prepared to pursue a colki'^ curriculum in a college-boy sort of way. I have seen many melancholy pictures of this class. They simply need more attention and care than can be given in keeping with college style and formality. Many sad mistakft- are made on the part of parents by sending their immature sons to these pre- paratory departments. But the ordinary high schools are likewise injured; I mean those that are not in connection with the colleges as preparatory departments; those that have to stem the tide of competition, and prepare boys the best they can, la- boring under the disadvantage all along of a private enterprise against a State monopoly. It is human nature for the masters of such schools to lost sympathy with his State university, which competes in a way so disastrous to the high-school interest. Such a teacher feels that he is wronged by an insti- tution which he wishes to love and aid. Since the State does not furnish free tuition to all high schools, he seriously believes that it makes an invidiou.^ distinction by supporting one and thereby crushing many. The boys who are best able to pay tuition are the first ones to leave, for they are likewise better able to incur the expense of going abroad. Another loss to these schools is realized in the general want of appreciation in the public mind. Patrons knowing that they can patronize preparatory departments which are free, and better equipped, are independent of the mas- ters of high schools, and are very apt to treat them with indiflference, especially in neglecting to patronize them. If they should patronize the home school for a time, and their sons should be disciplined with some firmness, they easily blame the teacher, and withdraw at once to patronize the free preparatory department. Even the boys themselves feel that the teacher, with his simple and sometimes, of necessity, scanty equipments, is of little importance com- pared to the teachers of the university high school. The result, in many cases, is that the teacher is driven to something else as a means of support, while the colleges and universities, continuing to feed themselves by meaoB of these departments, are really smothering out the generous support whici THE HIGH SCHOOL AS A FINISHING -SCHOOL. 633 would be cheerfully rendered from all over the country if the unfair compe- tition iwere removed. Finally, this demand of high schools for severance from colleges and uni- versities is based on legal grounds. As a matter of simple justice, what right have college authorities to appropriate public funds, which are designed for college work, to mere preparatory work ? Or if they have a right thus to ap- propriate fiinds, why so partial as to give to only one school in the State ? Why not help all a little, so as to keep all on equality ; pleasing all and offend- ing none, rather than to please one and offend all the others ? Are not all the others equally worthy, equally needy, and equally appreciative ? Can a great State not afford to deal out even-handed justice to all its wards ? The State furnishes free tuition in the common schools and colleges, and prepara- tory departments of colleges : why not to the struggling remainder of high schools? If this just and liberal policy were adopted, the demands of the high schools for severance would still be just and very urgent, for the simple reason that the teaching of immature boys as a preparation for college is a difterent kind of teaching, and requires different methods, from that of college instruction. So that we believe from every standpoint, the demand for sev- erance is just, and ought to be granted. We offer, therefore, the following resolutions : Hesolvedj first — That the method now so prevalent among many of onr coUeges and nniversities, of maintaining preparatory departments in connection with the college curriculum, is detrimental to the ultimate interests of coUeges and universi- ties, and consequently to our school system in general. Second --That the subjecting of young boys to the influence of coUege life and customs degrades in many cases the moral character of the young boys, and weakens the restraint of discipline upon the older ones. Third — That the maintaining of preparatory departments with free tuition in connection with State coUeges and universities brings about unfair competition with high schools, and tends to render abortive the efforts of private enterprise in fur- nishing thorough instruction for coUege. Fourth — That it is simple justice and consistency that the State should furnish free tuition in high schools, separate and apart from colleges and universities, adequate to the demand for college preparation. ^ THE HIGH SCHOOL AS A FINISHING -SCHOOL./ JAMES IL BAKER, DENVER, COLORADO. In the evolution of our school system, naturally the work of education has been divided into periods, each corresponding to a stage of mental develop- ment. While growth and proper education are continuous, and very sharp lines of demarkation must be more or less arbitrary, these divisions are quite as useful in their way as the separation of the development of human insti- 634 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. tutions into periods and epochs. The high-school period is nominally between the ages of fourteen and eighteen. Before this time the mind deals largely with the concrete. The higher powers of abstraction and of generalization first become prominent in the high-school period ; hence this period is the one in which the elements of a broad mathematical, scientific, and literary knowl- edge and training may be acfjuired. Beyond the high school these same studies may be pursued in their fuller development. It is natural to expect that those whose aptness for knowledge and training is limited to concret^e number, geographical location, local events and familiar concepts should end their school couise with the grammar grades. Others are limited by health, home obligations, or pecuniary necessity. Only those who have more than an average aptitude for scientific and literary pursuits, or who are incited by strong secondary motives of ambition, continue beyond the high school. Higher education properly deals with the more abstruse mathematical law?, the more intricate problems of science, with the refinements of language and literature, and with philosophy. This field of investigation is for the few. ( As suggestive for some parts of our discussion, I present some statistics re- cently taken from the history of one high school. It is shown that in a series? of years 40 per cent, of the enrollment are boys, and 60 per cent, girls; that about one-third of the graduates are boys ; that 37 per cent, of the boy grad- uates take camplete courses in some college or in some scientific and professional school, although many others take partial courses ; that comparatively few of the girls pursue higher courses ; that thirty-five per cent, of the girl graduates teach. From this showing, which I assume to be somewhat representative of mixed public high schools, it appears that a large majority of their gradu- ates, estimating both sexes together, end their formal education with the high school. We come at once to the question: "What is proper to the high school in its ftmction of fitting-school?" Although no new ideas may be presented, yet it is well sometimes to review old fields and emphasize impor- tant features.^ Education is the development of the individual in and through his en- vironment— or, more clearly for our purpose, education is gaining a knowl- edge of one's environment and training the faculties to use knowledge wisely and skillfully; it properly includes in the high-school period a training in the consciousness of one's own powers and possibilities. The acquisitions ti> be made in this i)eriod, which is the full dawn of all high possibilities, are view and power — the view, which takes in broad and striking scenes ; the l)ovver, which may be used successfully in any field of activity. Without the objective view, in ignorance of his surroundings, one experiences a timidity, a feeling that he has not found himself in the world where he dwells ; without the power, the individual is limited in his jwssibilities. In other words, the aim of this period of education ia the large development of subjective possi- bilities, in and through objective relations. These statements point not only to the class of studies adapted to secure the desired results, but suggest to Bn extent the manner of employing them. THE HIGH SCHOOL AS A FimSHmG- SCHOOL. 635 'Specifically, then, the high school should teach numerical generalization, and the spatial relations and measurements shown in geometry and trigonometry, >vl\\ch lead to a practical use of nature and its forces — relations which are the same for the near and the distant, the minute and the inconceivably vast. It shi>uld teach the science of atoms, how they, with numerous affinities, people .space with manifold kinds, and the general and specific laws of their com- bination ; the science of molecules, how they, in aggregate forms, constitute the material of the varied, beautiful outer world, the laws of molecular forces, and the causes of common phenomena; the science of masses, the earth and the heavenly bodies, presenting some of the wonders of their structure and movements; the science of life, vegetable, animal, and hliman, as a hi<^her phenomenon controlled by mysterious forces, its more prominent mani- festations, and the likenesses and differences that determine classification. It should emphasize the deeds and the institutions of man, and the nature of mind, that mirror of the outer world, chamber of reflection, that self-activity that interprets and unifies all. It should present man's higher thoughts and aspirations. It should teach the vigorous and graceful use of the mother language, as the ready instrument of thought, ^iid should increase the stu- dent's concepts, by directing him to the Latin source of the generic element of our tongue. In a formal enumeration, we would sum up these studies as fol- lows : Mathematics — algebra, geometry, and trigonometry ; Science — chem- istry, physics, geology, astronomy, botany, zoology, and physiology ; History — government, political economy, and psychology; Literature — language, both native and foreign. Too often the teacher performs his duties mechanically, measures off portion by portion the work, and teaches isolated facts. But he should add a grasp and insight which the unaided pupil may not gain, show the nature of each study as a whole, the relation of studies and their use for knowledge and training. What is a view worth that is misty and disconnected, unless the parte can be unified to make up a consistent whole? What is a training worth that is not attended by a desire to use the power gained for progress ? One great aim of a high-school course is inspiration. Thus far the use of studies on the knowledge side has been considered, but the mental power, the development of the mental faculty — that higher pur- pose of education — must be constantly kept in view. Properly employed, mathematics trains the abstractive and deductive powere ; science the percep- tive, conceptual and inductive powers; history the ethical and the higher personal emotions ; literature the aesthetic and the ethical emotions; all studies exercise memory and imagination more or less; proper school requirements cultivate right emotion and train the will ; all physical training, as reading, speaking, music, drawing, exercise, ^ve the mind power over the body and thus train the will. Text-books, instruction, recitation and examination al- most everywhere too nmch emphasize the side of knowledge — memory-knowl- edge. In every recitation and examination the original power of the pupil 636 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. to infer, interpret and combine should be tested. This is true education in that it develops the self-activity of the soul — makes it a growth toward high possibility. Upon the selection and order of high-school studies in many points there is a general agreement. What special features of a discussion present them- selves ? No high school, which performs its true function as the people's college, is adequate if it omits such studies as geology and astronomy, which present the sublimer features of environment. They add something beside. the mere intellectual view. "The undevout astronomer is mad." Not till the mind, in imagination, has delved into the depths of the earth and traced the history of its formation, not until it has radiated to the extreme finite and rounded a sphere upon the center of self, is man fully prepared to view our fragment of creation as a whole and in the relation of its parts. Nor would I omit the subjective side. I^et the student become conscious of mind, without which all things would be as if they were not ; teach him to know the signs by which he learns of the external world, and thus bring him facM? to face with philosophy itself It can be done as easily as he can be made to know that a written word is the sign of an idea. Teach him the wonders of the human consciousness, the laws of attention, the power of habit, the value of imagination, the nature of thought, the significance of emotion, the im- portance of will, the supreme estimate to be put on a noble and progressive spirit. The study of the subjective gives a new analytical insight; by it his- tory, language, literature, education, are filled with new meanings. All thi^ can be done readily and successfully and enjoyably in the high school by ba>- ing principles on concrete examples, by advancing from known experience to deductions. In addition to the general value of psychology there is a special reason why it should be studied in the high school. In the statistics quoted it appeared that 35 per cent, of girl graduates teach. Many of these have no special preparation for their work aside fix)m that obtained in the high school. Psychology, properly taught, should be of great value. It is the disgrace of the teaching profession to-day that it has so little knowledge of the basic principles of mind. In connection with subjective study, give the student the logical forms and principles, and ac(}uaint him \iith their ordi- nary violations. Show the almost universal injustice that men do their fellow- men through ignorance and hasty, one-sided generalizations; show thai prejudice and selfish inclination lead to much error and wrong. Above all, the formation of character should be regarded. This should l)e established not only by the necessary authority and restraint and unconscious influence of school-life, but by securing as far as possible persistent practice, which alone makes a sure foundation for i)ermanent character; by pr^entiiig ideals which invite toward higher planes. The pages of history, biography, and literature are full of inspiring examples and ennobling thought. By the use of proper selections, many an idea may be implanted which in later year? may unexpectedly l)ear fruit in excellence of character. This is not wholly THE HIGH SCHOOL AS A FiyiSHING- SCHOOL. 637 a matter of theory with the writer. The practical side of character-making will, I predict, be regarded in the future as the surest foundation for perma- nent and practical religious growth. (I cannot help referring the teacher to F*elix Adler's article, "Moral Instruction of the Young," in the Ethical liecord, vol. 11, No. 2.) It seems to many an observer that there has been an excessive tendency during some years to so lessen the hardships of young people that the heroic stamp will be wanting in the character of the rising generation. Cultivate a little of the Spartan. C'ourage and nobility of character are ever worthy of the highest admiration and approval. A true altruism is not inconsistent with these sterling traits. I cannot help repeating that the element of power in education is nowhere more neglected than in the high school. Few teachers fully realize how much of final results, even in the form of principles, are memory results, and do not of necessity indicate the power that should be gained in acquiring them. Ijack of clearness and accuracy in presenting knowledge is a fruitful source of disgust of school-life and of failure in results. Finally, the work indicated in this paper as proper to a high school cannot be accomplished in three years. The additional year makes jwssible the introduction of studies that do more to broaden the mind than is done in all the previous years. You will say, " What ideal and unpractical views ! " True, they are ideal, but not unpractical. These are ideal views for the ideal teacher and the ideal pupil, and the ideals will never be fully attained — but to attain them should be the constant aim. They show what I believe to be the essentials of high- school education and the spirit in which the work should be done. Man is an ideal creature with ideal hopes and aspirations, or he is nothing sufficiently distinctive from lower orders of creation. These views look toward ideal man- hood and ideal preparation for practical life. The theor}'^ that the end of education is artisanship and citizenship is narrow. The ideal man is an ideal citizen, or so much the worse for the State in which he lives. I predict that the aim of education in the future will be to secure the highest interests of the individual man. The charge that high-school graduates are useless for any- thing practical, has repeatedly been proven false by referring to their occupa- tions. And it must be noted that no enumeration of occupations can show more clearly the power for enjoyment and the essential manhood, which could be increased even more by an ideal education. The view presented has not taken in the so-called practical side of educa- tion. A "business course," for instance, in a high school, is regarded by some as desirable. But we must think that its introduction is emphasizing compar- atively unimportant details in the scheme of education, such as book-keeping, local histor}', and our own government. These are important, but should not be unduly emphasized to the neglect of more comprehensive studies. My view is that mind is essentially the same in all human beings ; that the word environment is essentially the same for all ; that among the possible factors in education there are some that are of higher value than others; that not until 638 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. the best view has been gained, and right power has been acquired, and a cer- tain knowledge of self has been added, can the student select his special <>c- cupation understandingly, or do his work with independent intelligence; that emphasis ujwn minor features leads to neglect of the general knowledge and power that are most essential to the ideal man. The foremost question of to-day is that of manual training. I would D": disturb this bone of contention if I could fairly neglect it. The value <•! phiiamil training is conceded by most educators; I mean manual training a? distinctive work in wood and metal. In order to limit the discussion and ar- rive at the real issue, I will presume that all educators worthy of the name grant the value of physical training in the form of reading, speaking, singiuL'. drawing, exercise, exj)eriment, etc. On the other hand, I will assume thai the economic value of manual training is niled out of the discussion, as mtvi leaders of the manual-training movement agree, and that the discussion b upon general educational values. Then if it is true within certain reasonable limits that the featun^s of general education good for one are good for all, the question is simply one of relative values. Among the many things that mav be put into this pt^riod of education, only the most important should be usoeradded in strictly manual work is limited to few implt" ments, few industries, and few principles. We are not warranted in n^ardifli' THE HIGH SCHOOL AS A FINISHING -SCHOOL. 639 this knowledge as essential, beside the phases of education already presented. As to the moral effect, no doubt manual labor may give to some a better view of the worth of labor, but most of the young men who attend our schools know its value. Great emphasis is sometimes given to the "sense of doing" involved in manual work. But is this not gained in solving a prob- lem, or performing an experiment, or writing an essay, or making a drawing ? Is it not gained by most boys voluntarily in a hundred ways outside of school? I will concede this much, however: if I had a pupil who could be influenced by no ordinary motives, if his will could be reached in no other way, if he w^ere worthless, I might tr}^ the effect of manual training, try to cultivate attention and interest, and constructive power and morality, by training the physical power. It may be that for some boys every large town should have one central school exclusively for manual training, and that the school should be open to some boys in regular courses outside of their school hours. But even under these conditions there would be danger of abuse. I recall an instance of one of our graduates, who during his last year was list- less and seemingly hopeless in his studies. He was not wholly idle, however. During the year he constructed a wagon and a banjo, and doubtless meditated in a vague way on various schemes. He was finally induced to "seize on himself," perform his work and graduate. He is now a student in a school of technology, and will undoubtedly become a director in some field of indus- try instead of being a day-laborer. You will say, "Here was a subject for manual training," but I believe that the higher salvation of this young man wa<* keeping him in the regular course, and guiding him to a higher course. Something can be done toward keeping this class of boys in school by improving the character of instruction. A healthy boy needs to encounter mental and moral strength. Methods in instruction that develop original power will carry many through school who now fail. I took pleasure in com- paring the occupations of the graduates of the St. Louis Manual Training School with those of your own high-school graduates. Judged even by occu- pations, I do not think that the results in that excellent institution could be regarded as superior to those in any good high school. Let anyone interested make a similar comparison. Aside from the question of occupation, high- school graduates have, I think, a broader preparation for life, and a better kind of preparation for college and special schools. Many of our former students express pleasure that they pursued studies not directly necessary either for practical life or for the scientific school. One, a railroad suj^erintendent, ascribes his practical grasp to his mathematical, scientific, and other school training. Another, now in the Sheffield Scientific School, expresses satisfac- tion that he first completed his high-school work, because of its general value. We have a State School of Mines, to which one could gain admission with very much less than a full high-school course. But its President advocates a complete course before entrance. Several of our graduates, now there, recog- 640 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. nize the great value of an extended general course as preparatory to the work of special education. But must not the demands of practical life and of the difierentiating tend- ency of the age be considered ? Assuredly ; .and the entire period of active life beyond the school constantly and successfully urges these demands. There is more need to emphasize the ideal than the practical. The spirit u* hampered by present practical tendencies, by too much dwelling upon the material, and learns to view human life as evolved from earth and returning to earth, until the doggerel of a comic opera seems to have a profound philo- sophical meaning: "And the dust of the earthy to-day, WiU be the earth of the duHty to-morrow." To be sure, wonderful things are done by the practical scientific hand, and it seems from recent ballooning experiments and from the reported transplant- ing of the optic nerve of a lower animal to the human eye, that we shall not only mount up with wings as eagles, but see with eyes as jack-rabbits. All of this, however, is on the material plane, and reaches not man's higher nature. (An acquaintance who, by study of the material side, has abandoned the God of his fathers, rejects sentiment, poetry and ideals, nevertheless finds a tearful joy in the fact that a cornstalk aspires.) Unless inspiration, character, aspiration, can grow out of our schools, they serve not their purpose as finishing- or even as fitting-schools. Unless each generation, through the public schools, we can raise the standard of morality, there is not much hope for democratic institutions. Unless we can regard man as a self-active unit-being, can recognize in him a moral nature, can see, figuratively, all the tragic possibilities of the highest heaven and the lowest depths before him, there is not much hope for ideal life. Unless the totality of nature, as self-activity, reveals to us creative intelligence immanent in nature, we are blind to the more profound teachings of philosophy. This in- sight is to be obtained not by material progress, but by spiritual growth. ART INSTIWCTIOX IN THE HIGH SCHOOL; ITS UTILITY AND VALUE, CHRISTINE Hl'LLlVAX, CINCIXNATI, OHIO. An art course for a high school should give a further development of the principles and methods of a progressive system pursued in the primar}' and grammar schools. The purpose of this, as of all true education, is to develop the mental and moral faculties and to impart useful knowledge and skill. A course of drawing is practical in the degree that it accomplishes these ends. The first requisite for this attainment is the adoption of rational methods of ABT INSTBUCTION IN THE HIGH SCHOOL. 641 teaching the subject. Moreover, it is all-important that the instructor use these methods intelligently. This remark should be unnecessary, but its per- tinency is immediately evident to anyone who has given, much attention .to the workings of this department in our schools. How often do we find an instructor mastering merely the routine of a method, glibly enunciating ver- batim the tenets laid down in the " Instructor's Manual," wholly ignorant of the laws of mind, on which these methods are based, wholly incapable of modifying his plan to meet chance exceptional conditions. His teaching must be mechanical; and however philosophical may be the system and methods he uses, his work falls short of realizing all the possibilities of growth that are developed under the skillful teacher. The power of the true educa- tor lies in his clear comprehension of the needs of his pupils, and the intelli- gent selection and arrangement of means and methods to meet the desired end. The educational and industrial importance of drawing is a fact now conceded by all who have given the subject due consideration. Its value as an "educa- tional process" is evident. It cultivates the power to perceive, remember, and imagine form. It cultivates the attention, reason, comparison, and the lesthetic faculties. It is an accepted truth that the study of any branch in- volving the activity of certain faculties, increases the power to master every branch that appeals to these faculties. I would add, that it increases the power to master any of the affairs of life that address themselves to these facidties. In the light of this truth, the scope of the influence of drawing appears in all its greatness. To what individual is it not an advantage to have the cul- tivation that it gives? Studying form, with intention of reproducing it, calls for a close scrutiny and prolonged attention, a comparison of the parts in their relation to each other, that develops the power of comprehensive per- ception as no other study can. This power is evidently indispensable to the artisan, the architect, the engineer, and to all others whose callings lead to the production or embellishment of form. Equally necessary is it to the scien- tist, whether botanist, geologist, anatomist, or chemist; for success in the fields of science belongs to him whose searching observation takes note of every detail, grasps the relation of the parts and the plan of organization ; in short, to him whose perceptive powers present the greatest amount of correct data for the consideration of the reflectives. A mind capable of a broad, intelligent perception, discerns a multitude of facts that escape the less observ- ing, thus gaining the immediate knowledge of anything to which the at- tention may be directed. Observation awakens reflection ; diflerenoes and likenesses in the objects observed are noted, and reason and comparison are enlisted to explain. Thus the other faculties are stimulated to activity, and the sphere of thought enlarged. Drawing from memory cultivates the power to remember whatever has been attentively observed, and also strengthens the perceptives. This power is ob- viously desirable, in that it alone gives permanency to the achievements of the 642 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. perceptive faculty. Imagination, the power to project before the mind's eye new combination of form, is cultivated by all attempts at original work, be it object-drawing, design, or construction. A fair degree of development of this faculty is desirable and even necessary in every sphere of life. It enables us to translate into pictures word-descriptions either written or spoken ; and how much of our knowledge must reach us by these means I It depends on the development of this ix)wer whether we receive descriptive passages in geog- raphy, geology, botany, physics, history, works of travel or i)oetry, as clear pictures of the objects or scenes described, or take merely the dr}' statement of the fact and remember words only. The difference that this makes Iw^th in the quality and quantity of our mental store is obvious. The aesthetic fac- ulties are cultivated by the study of beautiful form and color and harmonious arrangement. Let them be once awakened and all nature and art become the teacher, and stimulus and food for growth appear on every hand. As a means of expressing ideas, a dramng is valuable. A few strokes of the pen- cil will often convey an idea with a distinctness and fullness that words would fail to accomplish. The industrial importance of drawing is based on the fact that it furnishes knowledge and skill that are necessary in every depart- ment of manufacture. Houses, bridges, ships, machinery, fiirniture, clothing, and jewelry, all are made from carefully-prepared drawings showing plan, elevation, section, and details. These are the work of skillful draughtsmen, and the workmen who have received the education that acquaints them with the principles upon which the drawings are made are at an advantage, work- ing more intelligently and receiving higher wages. In the manufacture of textile fabrics, wall-paper, fine pottery, china, jewelry, laces, and all article^^ whose value increases with their beauty, not only are educated designers re- quired, but also workmen who have the taste and skill to carry out the con- ception of the designer. This they can acquire only by a systematic course in drawing. I have dwelt thus at length on the scope of drawing in its aim and influence, in order to fix the attention on the importance of correct method ; believing that a clear purpose placed before the mind as the goal of our effort, lights the entire path, showing what effort is progressive and what comparatively aimless ; and moreover, a great deal of the matter is particularly related to the high-school plane of the subject. The course in art instruction must sub- serve these two ends — the educational and the industrial ; and it will be found that that system which most fully answers the educational purpose is also the best from an industrial standpoint, because it gives most power to the faculties that are necessary to a good artisan, and at the same time an art knowledge and skill that furnish the best foundation for subsequent S{)ecial training in any branch of manufacture or art. Let us take a review of the work done in the primary and grammar schools ; for upon this foundation must we build in the high school. The course thus far has included elementary study of construction, object- ABT INSTRUCTION IN THE HIGH SCHOOL. 643 drawing, and design. In construction, nothing more difficult than simple problems in plane geometry has been given, the knowledge and skill thus gained being applied to the construction and subdivision of geometric figures for design and the construction-drawing of simple objects. The knowledge acquired is merely sufficient to enable the pupils to understand the principles upon which construction-drawings are made, and to read them. It fiimishes a good basis for further education in the subject, either in the workshop or in the school. In the high-school course both the problems and their application to constructive drawing become more complex. With this fuller knowledge, work wider in variety and scope comes within the pupil's power; and when lie has completed the course he should be able to represent with accuracy any fact of form, either from the solid before him, or from dimensions given him. In the manufacturing world this knowledge and ability, in varying degrees, seems to be in universal demand, and to be almost universal in its application. The next subject to claim our attention is object-drawing, the representation of solid form upon the flat. This subject is inseparable from i>erspective, for there is nothing upon which the eye can rest whose image is not impressed uix)n the mind in accordance with the laws of perspective. Therefore, no flat repre- sentation of a solid object can be correctly reproduced unless it be represented in conformity thereto. Absolute knowledge of rules is necessary, otherwise we can have only a vague and general expression of its principles. The subject is commenced in the grammar school. The rules for parallel perspective are mastered, and applied to the drawing of type forms, and of familiar objects whose forms bear close relationship to these geometrical types ; this, together with the knowledge of descriptive geometry, already acquired, fiimishes the basis for the high-school study of the branch. Here the subject of perspect- ive is further developed according to the logical order of principles, and the course in object-drawing is widened so as to include the study of angular per- spective, harmonious grouping, and light and shade. A word as to method of instruction. Bearing in mind the educational purpose of the work, the teacher will conduct the lessons in a way that com- pels the pupils to independent thought. He will lead them to observe closely, to analyze appearances, to reason, to deduce the rules. There can be no com- parison betweeen a lesson given in this manner and one in which the teacher merely gives the rules and sets the pupils at work from the models; for knowledge developed and assimilated by the pupil becomes a part of his men- tal store and an earnest of the power of still higher efforts, whereas rules forced on the mind burden further progress. We pass now to the subject of design in the high-school course. We find it developed in the grammar course to the point of making simple designs for flat surfaces. The pupils have learned to conventionalize plain forms, and have gained elementary ideas of symmetry and repetition, and of suiting their design to the use, size, material, and texture of the object for which the decoration is intended. The same plan is more comprehensively developed 644 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. in the high school. More difficult geometric construction, fuller knowledge of the principles of correct design, the introduction of the features of per- spective, light and shade, and color, furnish them with the knowledge and ability to produce designs adapted for practical purposes in all the leading in- dustries— for carpets, wall-paper, china, wood- and iron -work, stuned glass, etc. I regret that the scope of this paper will not permit me to enlarge upon the subject of color. The time given to the instruction in this feature being of necessity limited, the teacher should aim to secure on the part of the pupils a thorough understanding of the fundamental principles which govern the use of colors, since this knowledge is necessary for the production of harmonious color effects. Even those who have intuitive appreciation of color harmony — and these form a very small minority — will find the scientific knowledge a valuable supplement. Although in the public schools this knowledge is em- bodied chiefly in their decorative designs, still, since the same principles hold sway in fine art, the knowledge will be equally useful in the pursuit of the latter. Another important feature of design is the study of historic ornament, not with a view to the mere reproduction of these elegant forms, but to grasp the principles that underlie historic styles, these widely differing conceptions of the beautiful. Together with this study of the finest examples of ornament of the past, the pupil must keep before him as the source of his deepest knowl- edge, the natural foliage, fruit, and flowers. He must imitate these objects carefully, investigate the laws of their growth and development, and embody this knowledge in his designs, conventionalizing the elements, and arranging them in a manner to preserve the natural salient characteristics and the laws of geometric arrangement. It will be seen that the subject of design pursued in this manner acquires an educational importance of the highest degree. The mental habits cultivated in this work must predispose to a closer observation of Nature, to a deeper feeling for her infinite variety, changing grace and dif- fering beauties. Accustomed to utilize as material for designs the beauti&l forms and colors with which nature supplies him, there comes to the pupil the tendency to al- most unconsciously seek for the secret of some harmonious effect, and to store it away in memory for future use. This effort gives the faculty of remember- ing form an increased power that asserts itself in any affair of life in which the clear recollection of form is a matter of importance. And finally, the cul- tivation it affords the imagination, the inventive faculty, is of paramount im- portance. The thought required to conform the arrangement of the selected elements to the function and material of the object to be decorated, and the vivid imagining of the effect of the completed whole, offer the best possible ex- ercise for the development of the imaginative faculty, the educational impor- tance of which I have already dwelt upon. I would observe that the study of drawing need not be confined to the hour specially devoted to it. It may be introduced as a valuable assistance into THE HIGH SCHOOL AND THE MASSES. 645 be study of almost every other branch. Much that is descriptive in the study »f geography, botany, zoology, geolog}', and physics, reaches the pupil's un- lerstanding merely as words, because he lacks the power to translate the ivord-description into a pictured conception. As a remedy, I would advise liooperation with teachers of these branches, to the end that they require the pupils to make drawings representing the facts described. It is not necessary tbat they be finely finished. A sketchy style, considering the lack of time, would be quite permissible ; the main point to be attained being the transla- tion of xvorda ifito forms. I would require pupils to bring such work to the drawing-class neatly finished; and fiirther, I would require the reproduction of tbe same from memory. This fbr the reason that it offers an admirable exercise for developing faculties that are necessary to every one who sees, and remembers, and thinks, no less than to the skilled artisan and the artist. Since this course for the high school is foundational and preparatory, it ebould not favor one method of execution to the exclusion of another. Crayon, charcoal, pen-and-ink, each has its 'advantages, and in any particu- lar case that process should be selected which best serves the purpose to be attained. For some work we want the fine finish that crayon gives, while the rapid process of pen-and-ink work seems most favorable to record facts or impressions to be used as suggestions in her work. We may test the practical nature of this course by answering the question, "What may we reasonably expect it to accomplish?" We answer, it must increase the power of intelli- gent, comprehensive perception, and the power to remember and imagine form. By directing the attention to the beautiful in nature and art, it develops the aesthetic faculties, forming standards of correct taste, and making the beauty of the world a birthright, giving to each as much as he may wish to take. It furnishes a basis for further instruction to those who wish to become archi- tects, designers, constructive engineers, artists, or skilled artisans. It makes the artistic producers and the appreciative buyers. Since progress in all de- partments of human activity rests on the ability to exercise independent, original thought, I would aim to develop self-reliance and faith in one's own ideas. I would prefer crude original conceptions to elaborate, elegant imita- tions. Having gained everything but independent and progressive power, they have still gained little. THE HIGH SCHOOL AS A FACTOR IN MASS EDUCATION. E. A. STEERE, BUTTE CITY, MONTANA. Ralph Waldo Emerson said: "The highest test of civilization is, not the census, nor the size of the cities, nor the crops ; no, but the kind of men the country turns out." And thus we find to-day that intelligence skills the hand —41 64f> THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. of the laborer, and fills our countr}' with a brighter hope. The poor, in order to light against mind, is learning that mind must be used. We have onlv t> make a thorough canvass of any of our high schools, as Spokane, Taoonuu and Seattle did soon after the holidays, and we but run up against the stan- ling fact that five-sixths of the pupils of this department of learning are from the homes of the laboring classes. What does this teach us? That eduoa- tion is the wedge that lifts the curtain from benighted minds, and the work- ing classes stand upon a higher plane the more they use this wedge. As not more than one out of every ten who graduate from our high schools ever re- ceives a higher education, w^e have only to ask, what influence does it have ujwn the masses ? Joseph Jefferson, in the (^entury, says: "Look ^t the decorum observed by the vast assemblages that go to witnesi? our national games. Disturbances are very rare. It would have been indecorous, if not dangerous, when I was a boy, for ladies and gentlemen to visit any public ground^ containing such large masses of people, whereas now they can do so with perfect safety. What lies at the foundation of all this improvement? People went t<' church in those days as readily as they do now, and the laws were administered quit*^ as rigidly. There is only one solution to this problem — the /re€ sc/ioo/ ha» done this work." [ What is begun in the lower departments is simply perfected and brought out more thoroughly in our high schools. And as our people are getting U* be be very practical in every-day life, our curriculum of study is being made quite conformable. The more we do this, the more attention is paid by our working classes to allow their children to remain in school longer and have them better fitted for the labors of life. This great power of practical educa- tion is being carried from our high schools to-day to help move the world to-morrow. We are learning that life is too short and the race too swLft \a^ spend time and money in learning that which can never be turned into bread or meat. An eminent authority has said : ^The student becomes valuable to himself and the rest of the world just so far as he can turn his acquire- ments to good account." ] As his education is to be useful, we obserx'e, that the matter taught and the habits of mind thus created are to be ever kept in \ncw. The pupil is taught more and more to observe, to think, to do, than formerly, and we are thus compelling the respect of the wise towards our high schools, liiterature, history, chemistr)% surveying, and geology, are bringing out mon^ and more some hidden po Wei's, as they are being taught in a more practical way. The poor realize this fact, and resolve to give their children a better education than they could| obtain for themselves. They are depriving them- selves of many of the comforts of life to allow their boy or girl to complete the high-school course, so long as it can be done and remain at home. Today, ideas and aspirations are being substituted for rules and meaning- less ta.sks. At the opening of manhood, and when the reasoning faculties are being best develojjed, we find the boy filled to the brim with ideas ; and we hope they are always good ones, too. How many of our patrons still think THE HIGH SCHOOL AND THE MASSES, 647 we are "tiptoeing" their children in the high school "up higher than ever their fathers was teached"! They still think that arithmetic is the only practical study, and are still growling at the new encroachments. But how many a boy has never shown any aptitude till history, literature, and science woke him up ! The people are beginning to find out that their children might become fossilized in par- tial payments and foreign exchange, and that ideas, yes, ideas, are the levers which move the world. As so few ever go away to school, we naturally ask, what is the school board's responsibility in this matter, and what the teacher's ? We are told "Second thoughts are best"; so we believe that the characters brought out at the close of school-life when this thought -developing is getting well under way, should be of serious consideration to all school boards and parents of the teachers who hold the power of this character-building in hand. No pupil who leaves our high school fails to carry away with him some por- tion of the mental ability, moral conviction, and permanent preferences of his instructor. A man's intellectual character is made up of those mental tastes and qualifications which his training and opportunities have developed. " What is the teacher's character ? " should never be neglected ; for we grow like that we kneel before. Character builds itself as the tree does — out of the elements in which it lives ; not by taking them on outwardly, but by assimilat- ing them inwardly. Character takes up into its permanent substance the in- dividual acts and choices of life, and gives forth the strength it has received in thought and action. The parent and school board cannot help but realize that the groi?v1;h must be proportionate to the given material for growth, and that the fruit but corresponds to the tree. Every moral act or choice of the teacher passes into the character of the pupil and makes its contribution to the latter's permanent preferences. Thus teachers should be model men and women. The silent, unconscious forces are always at work. The most power- ful of all means for the influencing of life is that period of school-days at the beginning of manhood ; then and there the character is formed ; then the dis- position to good is fostered ; then the tendency to evil is checked ; and all this with consequences not only for the brief space of our mortal life, but for an eternity. Is it a matter, then, for parents to push this question slightingly to one side ? If we should set ourselves at the task of analyzing the forces which have done most to shape our lives, we should find, no doubt, that we could trace our best impulses and strongest incentives to progress to the influence of per- sons upon us. Perhaps as we threaded our way back along the course of our plans and struggles in life, we should find that it was the encour- aging word of some kind teacher, at the critical moment when we were about to enter the portal of the world, which turned the scale with us when our resolution hung trembling in the balance. The student is ever held by the very sympathy of his associates which springs from their common aims ; 648 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. the example of his predecessors who have fought their way through disamr- agements like his own to useful and honorable achievements ; the presenoe "i instructors whose eager zeal and devoted labors speak to him perpetually u\ the dignity of life, and of the priceless worth of a fine culture — these art forces which have operated upon us all with a power which we shall never fully know. The world is awaking ! Old Time moves on ! What the people demand, the high school must teach. This department has been devoted to teaching a great deal about the properties of matter; but more is being taught to-day about the passions of men. Much has been taught about the perturbationi^of the planets ; we are learning that it is of greater worth to teach about the interplay of parties. Yesterday we were talking about the constitution of ihe solar system ; to-day we are teaching the Constitution of the United State*. Yesterday it was about the laws of the universe ; to-day it is about the laws of the land.. Yesterday we learned a great deal about universal gravitation : to-day we are teaching more about universal suflfttige. Yesterday we studied about the Grecian democrats and the Roman republic; to-day we are trying to inculcate the principles of the republic to which we ourselves belong. In- deed, in our high schools at present we are trying to give our pupils idea^: trying to develop the reasoning powers ; trying to create thoughtful men and women to go forth and battle till death against the wrong. Thus the ''great- est good to the greatest number" is proportionate as we teach a broader culture in our high schools of the present day. i THE PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF HISTORY IN THE HIGH SCHOOL. W. M. WEST, FARIBAULT, MINNE80TA. 80 far as college requirements have determined high-school studies in tbe past, history has not had a prominent place. It is true, the increased atten- tion given that study in the great universities the past fifteen years is now fil- tering down through the undergraduate courses to the fitting-schools. A.- with all good movements, the impulse has come from above. The imiversity expects more of the college ; the college demands more of the secondar}' school; and the higher institutions are sending out teachers with a historical train- ing to be had nowhere in America twenty years ago, and so are making it more possible for the lower schools to respond to these increased demands. Fitting-schools, however, as such, must always find it difiicult to give proper time to history and literature. Colleges cannot be expected to require the amount or kind of preparation in these branches that is desirable for the stu- HISTORY IN THE HIGH SCHOOL. 649 at who is not to get the college education ; nor could they exact such prep- ation if they would. Entrance examinations may test for information and some extent for the results of intellectual discipline, but they cannot label th per cents, the more elusive effects upon the student of these distinctively ilture subjects. These studies need a discursive treatment. Time must be ven, in history, to acquire familiarity from many points of view, and for the ow growth of historical conceptions. Belief in the value of this kind of historical work is gaining ground, and * we look upon the high school in its other ftinction, and place the stress we light upon the needs of those for whom it is the finishing-school, we may onfidently hope that more space will soon be accorded history and literature, it least in optional courses, than has yet been given them ; even though they meroach upon the domain of the mathematics and dead languages. Much :>f the so-called '' practical" movement in education is mistaken in means and low in aim. We revolt rightly against any educational theory that makes an engine of more account than an Iliad, or that hints at any science as compar- able in importance with the science of noble living. But we must grant the need of an educational system more practical in the proper sense. Our ear- nest consideration at least must go to any innovation that promises to secure more power at less expense of means, and to develop sounder citizenship and higher manhood. And upon its fitness for these ends, the study of history may rest its claims to more attention than it has yet received. These claims are being recognized slowly in theory, but the practice so far 18 sad enough. " No branch so widely taught," said G. Stanley Hall a few years ago, "is so badly taught." To be sure, we have heard something very similar from hobbyists ( and Dr. Hall claims to be a hobbybt in history ) of every branch known to our schools — and a pessimist might be tempted to exclaim, with good ground in every case ; but there do seem to be peculiar reasons in the conditions of our schools for assenting to Dr. Hall's statement. The first of these conditions to demand notice is the preparation, or rather, lack of preparation, our high-school pupil brings from the lower grades. He has "studied" United States history a year, perhaps — under a teacher hardly less ignorant than himself, probably — what history means ; and he has acquired the date 1492, the fact that we once whipped the British, and the firm con- viction that we can do the same thing again for them or any other nation. Aside from these lofty incentives to patriotism, he brings to the high school little of a historical flavor, except bad habits of studying, a more or less pro- nounced dislike for the subject, and a colossal ignorance. There are signs, however, that this state of affairs has begun to mp- Good libraries are no longer confined to the high schools, but are } introduced into lower rooms; courses of historical stories are beginni make part of the work in our intermediate grades ; in our grammar sq the old, scrappy reader has pretty well given way to cla^ " ' * ^ place among which is accorded the myth and the hist- 650 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. thorne's, 8cott*8, Kingsley's, Greenwood's, Plutarch's ; and whether tht reading and story-telling work become systematized, after the German ideal, or not, it must help give us pupils better prepared for high-school work. Another difficulty lies in the fact that history hardly ranks as a siudu yd. even from the teacher's standpoint. Many colleges require little of it for a«l- mission; it won't help get bread and butter; and, even if it is a good thiiu anyone can read history at home. So say practical parents; and oftentin.^ the only fault the teacher can find with this plea is, that ver^' few people 'i- read it at home. Of course parents and pupils must find out that the teacher is as neoessan in history as in algebra or chemistry ; but first the teacher must find it out. and be so necessary. Special training has long been demanded of teacher^ of mathematics and the classics, and more recently of science teachers ; but any girl just out of the high school, with pleasant voice and lady-like bear- ing, is thought moderately fit to teach high-school history, or, if convenient. classes may be assigned the special teachers of other subjects. What wonder that most teaching of history has been chiefly valuable, as some one puts it. as an illustration of how it ought not to be done ! In the preface to the 1^72 edition of the Science of Wealth, Amasa Walker intimates that while it is >< course desirable for the teacher of political economy te have some aoquaint- ance with the subject, it is not neces&ary if he have a good text-book. Vntil very recently a similar idea regarding history has obtained in colleges even. and some of them still look for no other special qualifications in a teacLer than are possessed by any cultivated gentleman. What can we expect of tbt- high school ? This lack of specially trained teachers, and of any demand for them, is the most serious condition we have to face. But here, too, the future promiie? well. That the better colleges are beginning to send out teachers fitted fur the work h&s already been alluded to, and it is a familiar fact in social e(*«>ii- oray that a supply of this kind creates the demand for itself. But beyond these unfavorable conditions, which may be surmounted, lit the difficulties in the subject itself, requiring higher ability in the teacher than does any other high-school study. Into these difiiculties, and the vexed | questions of methods arising from them, I shall enter no further than I can help. But there are some references to methods inseparable from any consid- eration of the purpose of the study. In this assembly it is not neoessan^ i" enter any protast against that teaching which consists in asking questions fr'n- the margin of the text-book — the stock occasion for the critic's wit — tboui't something very like that does ])ass often, even now; so that the name of his- tory is still usurped in many schools by what Herbert Spencer thirty years a:'' called "that mere tissue of names and dates and unmeaning events." No good teacher will fail to establish a clear outline of definite facts iu i^/' I)upirs memory as a groundwork for something better ; but all good teacli''^ will do more than this. The teacher's mind must of course be saturated ^vifli HISTORY IN THE HIGH SCHOOL. H51 V\e spirit of history and stored with copious illustrations? of its lessons. His iidgiiieiit must be wide and catholic, that he may not be hampered by nar- row prejudice, or swept oiF his feet by novel ideas or false analogies; but his ?y mpatliies must be ardent and his imagination glowing, that he may see and pTes5.eT\t the men of past ages, not as colorless abstractions, but with throbbing liuman hearts. T^oT raost young people, reading history soon becomes stale and unprofita- ble. They lack imagination to see back of the words, and they want knowl- edge to give coherence and interest. The teacher must flash light upon dark and dreary spaces, by suggesting new meanings and unthought-of relation- ships. He must clothe these dry bones, and breath life into this dust. But still more must he rouse the student's self-activity, and make him something better than a passive recipient of the best history. The laboratory' method is just as practicable with high-school pupils, and just as essential to effective work in history as in botany or physics. Only the better ones of course can do any original work, and none can do much of it in either history or chemistry, but in both they can get a taste of what original investigation means. Current politics, debates, reports of different branches of the local and national government, afford material for students' historical scrap-books, and for occasional written topics. Local history, the town or city, the school district, the high school, a library, militia company, and various corporations and local industries, provide fields for fuller original investigation by the abler and more ambitious students. Their productions will usually be of no value in themselves, though sometimes a local paper will be glad to publish the better ones; but the pupils will get a glimmer of his- torical method, and will be better able to do laboratory work under a teacher's direction in the history of past times, with some appreciation of its value. For the reading expected of all students in connection with the daily work, the references should be specific to chapter and page, and should be placed wpon the blackboard (not dictated in class) several days in advance. Pupils do not have time to ransack a library each week upon a dozen diflferent topics ; but they do or should have time for reading, and the teacher should leave them no excuse for not taking hold at some definite point. It is as absurd to turn a child loose in a library, without guidance for class-work in histor)^, as to do the same thing in a chemical laboratory ; as in the latter case the be- ginner must have at least specific instruction for j)erforming experiments, and for their order, and often for what to look in each exj^eriment, so in the library young students should be told where to look for information upon specific points. It is enough if they know how to collate the matter when they find it. Alternative readings may oflen be indicated, and additional references at the student's option should fre(iuently be sugg^ated ; and these need not be so precisely marked, but the line between the required and optional readings should be kept distinct. The abler students can do more library work. Nearly all pupils in tlie 652 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. 1 upj)er years can work up good reports upon collateral topics. These art - presented orally irom blackboard synopses, and sometimes the class ma\ • required to copy these outlines and be held responsible for the topic: hu the chief benefit accrues to the one who prepares the re<5itation, the t^; - however imjx)rtant, should not be essential to the continuity of the study. It might be noted that such topics as a consideration of the cause? of !:- Norse migrations and of their success in other countries, in connection w:; the Norman conquest of England, prepared by the whole class with f; statement of their authorities, and with all the time needed, afibrd excell-i and wholly unobjectionable examinations — a true test of ability in the-^tui Another more important field for individual effort is to be found in t!- exercise of the historical imagination. Let the pupil during the term ah'" everything he can about some one period, and then try to reproduce ^nr leading event or character of that period from the inside, with local colon::, in names, terms, and ideas. A dialogue between Socrates and Xantippe, ai address by a revolted Helot to his compatriots, a Persian captive's \iewi : Greek institutions, a Norman's account of the return of Godwin and ki* welcome by the great Witan, are among the topics I have known twnu"^ successfully by children thirteen to sixteen years old. Some pupils, of coui^ utterly deficient in dramatic instinct, must be allowed to sum up their f^tmh from the standpoint of a reviewer, not an actor. Doubtless college students can do all this better ; but at the risk of he'iw: accused of recommending university methods for children, I would in?i>t that high-school students with pro})er training can do such work profitahir. For the individual reports upon short topics, and still more for this work last mentioned, the pupils should not be given specific references, as in the daily work. Here they have an opportunity to practice that art of reading that consists in judicious skipping — to learn to use indexes wid catalo^^- and to run down a subject in a library. At first they need guidance : but there is no reason why the average high-school student should not acquire this desirable element of power to a greater degree than the average college student has done in the past. Effective librar}' work requires some system of "reserve" libraries, in which the books most needed may be kept easily and constantly accessible, mthout the intervention of glass doors or librarians; but the details of the system must vary with the size of the school. A library for historical work should contain not only the standard modern works, but, even more indispensably, from the laboratory standpoint, contem- porary authorities. To illustrate : For Greek and Roman history, Herodotus, Homer, Thucydides, Demosthenes, Livy, Tacitus, Plutarch, Cicero ; for Eng* lish history, Bede, the Anglo-Saxon and other chronicles, the diaries of Pep^ and Evelyn, volumes of charters, and such works as P. York Powell's £«?• Uira.ry and the class-room. Historical novels are probably best read in rroups, even though some periods be wholly neglected. For instance, I would ratlaer a. pupil should read and compare Kingsley's Hereward, and Bulwer's and Xennyson's Harolds, than that he should read three times as many vol- wiTcies Nvithout special relationship. For one thing, he is more apt to perceive that a novel is something more than a story, and is to be read for something moxe tlian to find how it comes out. A proper use of fiction, indeed, may best rid the pupil of the haunting idea that history is mainly valuable for the information it contains. He may not come to think it a compliment to call a history a work of the imagination, but he should learn that all great histories i\o contain the poetic element in large measure ; that they are, in a true sense, imaginative, and inspired and pervaded by great ideas ; that those histories are worth his reading that widen his views of life and of man's destiny, that make his pulse beat higher, and incite him to noble action ; so that he will turn away from the book-agent's compendiums of useful information, to the Motleys and Carlyles, whose works belong, like the great poems and novels and Bibles of the world, to the literature of inspiration and power. This may involve work in literature, but one of the incidental purposes of historical study is to open up the world of books. It pays both from a his- torical and literary standpoint for the teacher to give two or three short bibliographical talks early in each term, chiefly, of course, about the works accessible in school, city, or Sunday-school libraries. It goes without saying, that this and all other library work will help free the pupil from the too com- mon idolatry of print ; though the teacher is bound to see that it does not, on the other hand, lead to a carping conceit. The pupil should acquire also some comprehension of the different kinds of historical evidence, and of the value of indirect testimony. He should understand, for example, why the Iliad gives us fuller and more reliable knowledge of the social and political life of the Heroic age, in all that we care about, even if Achilles never lived and sulked and fought, and though Hector's body was never dragged around the walls of lofty Troy, than could have been given in any express treatise upon Argive polity by the most con- scientious Hellenic Dry-as-Dust of the year 1000 B.C. — if there had been one. He should realize, too, something of the history of historical writing — from the old legends and ballads, through the barren chronicle and romantic tale, up through the special pleading of a Clarendon, a Gibbon, Hume, or Macaulay, to the conscientious, judicial, scientific researches of a Stubbs or a Green ; all the better, of course, if clothed in the poetic imagery of a Freeman or Carlyle. Besides all these intellectual and esthetic ends, and the broader culture that comes from the realization that "beyond the Alps there are men also," the study has high ethical value. It gives the youth lofty ideals, animates him with heroic conceptions, and makes for him a vast Westminster Abbey of every land ; it broadens his sympathies, and fosters a wider love of his kind. 654 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, It is the special function of historical study to replace the lower, fal*|5: otism, that "easiest virtue for a selfish man," with the lofty sentiment of M cus Aurelius : "As an emperor, I am a Roman ; but as a man, I am a lit of the whole world." At the name time a true patriotism will be inculcated. The boy will l^^" that history is not a dead subject; that it b being made daily. He wilU' more or less clearly that the economic problems of Solon and Numa aR ; isolated and unmeaning to us, but that they are bound indLssolubly, ul with the struggles of the old trade guilds, of Wat Tyler and the Ell- l)eaBantry, of the Jacquerie and the French revolution, to the question? to-day. It is true, the danger in a little historical knowledge lies in faW 3 superficial analogies, and young students should be trained to habits of I'n' ing difficult problems for further light and maturer judgment. Debate?, evr. when the truth is aimed at, are dangerous weapons, but they may be u?eti ' give pupils a realizing sense of how easily special pleaders become convim-H! of the justice of their own side, whether that side be assigned them as ]>nj'.i* by a teacher, or as citizens by the managers of their political party. A little can be done, then, to fit pupils to grapple with political proWe/L?. at least in training to more delil)erate judgment, and in giving them thai base line in historic development, for want of which many would-be M&tr^ men flounder about so piteously. And for all pupils the study will cultivate and intensify a love of country and of our institutions, and place this tntt patriotism upon a sounder basis than that from which the too prevalent blat- ant jingoism of young America sprouts. They will learn that to-day re?ri upon yesterday ; that Greek political isolation gave way to Roman conaolida- tion, which in time has been succeeded by Teutonic organization ; and that our own history did not begin with the Declaration of Independence, or even with the Pilgrims, but that we may count as kin in blood and political Ji^'f^ the old Herman preserving Teutonic liberty from the legions of Varus, along with Eliot, Hampden, and Cromwell, maintaining it against the usurj)iB^ Stuarts as truly as Hooker, Washington, and Lincoln, who planted and de- fended it in this new home. Village selectmen, the village green, the villat^e jwund, the very names town and hamlet, and the picket fence about his father's door, the boy should see full of historical significance ; and he should be ftblt- to follow them back in unbroken continuity beyond Alfred, beyond Hengi^'t- to the obscurity of the old Saxon forests and morasses. And the town meet- ing in particular, i)reserved for its vigorous growth in New England by a series of tnmsi)lan tings and happy providences, he should be taught to love and revere, not only for what it has been, but for what it still is — the W school and truest safeguard of democratic institutions. These are some of the things that can be accomplished in high-school lii*- tory. It prepares for further work; it has practical, disciplinary, literan. and culture values. The analysis is not complete or exclusive; but is it i»*^i t'U()ii<:}i to give us hope that more attention may be given this neglected studv. HI8T0BY IN THE HIGH SCHOOL. 655 ^A. few words as to time and order. In a four-years course, history may Fa,ivl y claim a place through the whole curriculum, at least for those students v^liose school-life is to close with the high school; although for half the time the recitations may profitably alternate with those in some other culture sub- jeet, like literature. With a fair preparation granted, Greek and Koman History is probably the best starting-point for the high school, because for \\igli-school purposes it is simpler than modern history. It should be fol- lovsred, I think, by a topical survey of mediaeval, and of the more important niovements of modem history, to fiimish the background for English history, a year in which leads up naturally to a year in United States history and civics — the crown of the course. The important principle is that the teacher select some periods in all this work for special study, exhaustive study from tlie high-school standpoint, no matter by how narrow a road the intervals be bridged, if only it be firm. PROCEEDINGS AND ADDRESSES DEPARTMENT HIGHER INSTRUCTION. Department of Higher Instruction. SECRETARY'S MINUTES. FIRST SESSION. First Baptist Church, St. Paul, Minn., July 9, 1890. The Department of Higher Education met at 3 p. m., and was called to order by the acting President, George R. Cutting, of Lake Forest, Illinois. Prayer was offered by Rev. Robert Camaham, of St. Paul. Three more sessions of the Department were decided upon : one each on the afternoons of July 10 and 11, at half-past two o'clock, and one social ses- sion to be held on the evening of July 10 at "The Portland," when a dinner s^hould be served. Charles A. Blanchard, of Wheaton, Illinois, read the first paper, his subject being, "What Have the People a Right to Ask from the Colleges?" M. D. Hombeck, of Quincy, Illinois, discussed Mr. Blanchard's paper. H. L. Stetson, of Des Moines, Iowa, read a paper on "Shorter College Courses to meet a Popular Demand." H. A. Fischer, of Wheaton, Illinois, opened the discussion of this paper, which was continued by Chas. Scott, of Holland, Michigan ; H. W. Everest, ©f Wachita, Michigan ; R. G. Boone, of Bloomington, Indiana ; Mr. Blan- chard, of Illinois ; W. G. Williams, of Delaware, Ohio ; and W. F. King, of Mt. Vernon, Iowa. After a paper by R. G. Boone, of Indiana, on "A Chair of Pedagogy," the Department adjourned. SECOND SESSION.— July 10. The second session of the Department was called to order at 2:30 p. m., by the acting President. Rev. Arthur J. Benedict, of St. Paul, oj)ened the meeting with prayer. Levi Seeley, of Lake Forest, Illinois, read a paper on " Pedagogical Train- ing in Colleges where there is no Chair of Pedagogy." Mr. Seeley's paper was discussed by C. M. Grumbling, of Mt. Pleasant, Iowa, and J. J. Mills, of Indiana. The symposium on "College Administration" was next entered upon. (669) 660 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. The first paper was presented by Rufiis C. Burleson, of Waco, Texas* i the subject, "Defects in College Discipline." The discussion on this paper was carried on by J. M. Ellis, of Ohio ; M. I'. Honibeck, of Quincy, Illinois ; and Mr. Blanchard, of Illinois. The President appointed the following Committee on Nomination of Officer? R. Cr. Boone, Bloomington, Indiana; W. F. King, Mt. Vernon, Iowa; S. < . Mitchell, Clinton, Mississippi ; Levi 8eeley, Lake Forest, Illinois ; J. A. Welle:. I^ecompton, Kansas. The Department then adjourned. THIRD SESSION.— July 10. The third session of the Department was a symposium at dinner at " The Portland," Thursday evening, July 10, at 7 o^clock; President G. R. Cutting in the chair. Over fifty delegates were present. The divine blessing was invoked by Rev. John Wright, of St. Paul- church, St. Paul. The theme of after-dinner discussion was: "The Fraternity of Collt^ Interests." Responses were made from the follow^ing States : Georgia — Professor Henry A. Scomp, Emory College. lUinou — ^President Charles A. Blanchard, Wheaton College. Indiana — Professor R. G. Boone, Indiana University. Iowa — President J. T. McFarland, Iowa Wesley an University. Katmw — J. A. Weller, Lane University. Michigan — Prof B. A. Hinsdale, Ann Arbor. Minnesota — H. Goodhue, jr., Carlton College. Mississippi — S. C. Mitchell, Mississippi College. North Dakota — S. Estes, University of North Dakota. Ohio — President Chas. W. Super, Ohio University. South Dakota — Professor L. A. Stout, Dakota University. Texas — President Rufus C. Burleson, Baylor University. Wisamsia — President G. W. Gallagher, Lawrence University. The Rev. John Wright responded for St. Paul, expressing the deep inten^i of its citizens in the meeting of college-men. President R. C. Burleson, of Texas, introduced the usual resolution of thanks to the President, which was adopted. Aft^r some informal remarks by the members, commending the social feat- ures of the Department meetings, the section adjourned, to meet Friday, at 2:.'><'. FOURTH SESSION.— July 11. On Friday, July 11, the final session of the Higher Department was held. Prayer was offered by the Rev. Professor J. M. Ellis, of Oberlin College. The symposium upon College Administration was continued. The first BEPOBT OF SECRETARY. 661 \>aY>er was by President M. C. Femald, of the Maine 8tate College of Agri- culture and Mechanic Arts. Theme: "Cooperative Government." The second paper under the same subject was by President M. D. Horn- heck, of Chaddock College, Illinois. Theme: "The Relation of the College ti> the Morals of the Students." At the close of the paper a committee was appointed to prepare for presen- lutiorL at the meeting next year a tabulated report upon the requirements for admission of all the colleges of the country. This committee consists of Prof. VI. A. Fischer, of Wheaton College, Illinois; Prof Henry Garst, of Otterbein College, Ohio; and President H. L. Stetson, of Des Moines College, Iowa. During the afternoon, a deferred paper in the symposium upon CoUege Instruction was heard. The theme was, "The Spiritual Element in Educa- tion," by Professor E. F. Bartholomew, of Augustana College, Illinois. The Committee on Nominations made its report, which was adopted, and the following persons were elected by ballot as officers of the Department: President- -President J. J. Mills, of Earlham College, Richmond, Ind. Vice-President — TTeaideni E. B. Andrews, of Brown University, Providence, R. I. decretory— -President C. A. Blanchard, of Wheaton CoUege, Wheaton, 111. Ejrecutive Committee --The three officers named, and in addition Prof. Julius- H. Drayer, Roanoke College, Virginia; Prof. Duncan Brown, Highland College, High- land. Kansas. The President-elect was introduced to the Department by the retiring President. A resolution was adopted asking the Executive Committee to take steps toward promoting the social feature of the meeting next year. Adjourned. Q. R. CUTTING, Secretary, and acting President, —42 662 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS. WHAT HAVE THE PEOPLE A RIGHT TO ASK FROM THE COLLEGES f CHARLI-^ A. BLANCHARD, WHEATON, ILLINOIS. I omit from this discussion the self-evident, and seek to bring to the sur- face certain considerations which, perhaps, tacitly admitted, are also tacitly omitted, until they are in certain quarters denied. It requires no argument to show that the people, having devoted large sum:* of money to the purpose of higher education, and having put these ftinds un- der the control of boards of trustees, have a right to ask that these boards shall furnish the instruction for which provision is thus made. All that patience, energy, foresight, and zeal can do to convey to our young people a thorough knowledge of books, the colleges are bound in common honesty to perform. But if the college stop here, it becomes a sort of a phonograph, slavishly repeating voices of once living, but now dead men. Each age has its own problems ; and while knowledge of the past will aid in their solution, the great need of each generation is a set of leaders who know how to lead, and dare to do it. In business, the love of gain stirs men to the depths of their being ; so that there is little need for anxiety as to the efficiency of methods. The great problem of reducing the profits by increasing the output and multiplyiDg sales, is grinding the minds of American merchants to a razor-edge. The col- leges have no call to interfere in this field. Laboratories of scientists will l>e equipped by capitalists interested in inventions ; and no man who has an idea which can be turned into dollars will long want for dollars w^ith which to give that idea a local habitation and a name. It is natural that in such a nation and in such an age as ours there should be, for a time, a chaotic state of public opinion on the subject of education : and one of the first duties of the college is to teach the nation what a liberal education is, what it is for, and how it can be obtained. We are in an age of short courses, electives, manual training, technical schools, and normal uni- versities. The high-school room has imitated the college commencement, di- ploma, thesis, and course of study, in part. The " practical " men on the board? which handle school taxes have largely omitted Greek and Latin, occasionally inserted German, and have furnished on the whole an illy-balanced course of study. It is easy for the college to drop into line with this crude and undigested THE PEOPLE AND THE COLLEGES. ()«3 mass of eilucational notioDs, fads, and follies. Men wiio do know how to Tnake money, but who have never enjoyed a thorough education, can see the value of obviously practical studies, the saving of time involved in short courses, and the increased skill secured by early specialization. These men are frequently generous. They desire to do a good thing for the young peo- ple of their own age, and if the college-men wish enlargement without refer- ence to the real interests of society it will not be difficult to secure sums of money for various lines of work that may be helpful to commercial life, but wbicli at the same time will injure the educational interests of the nation. This leads me to say that the first thing which the people have a right to a&k from the colleges is a clear, consistent educational theory. If men who spend their entire time and thought on education do not know what it is, what it requires, and how it is to be attained, it is asking a great deal of business men to expect that they should know ; and if college men do under- stand what education is, the men who furnish the money to carry it forward have a right to ask that these college-men tell the public what they know on this subject so many times and in such forceful fashion as may be needful in order that taxes and gifts for education may not be uselessly expended. We are not yet out of the experimental stage of our civilization, and it will be many years before we arrive at settled views on many subjects. Neverthe- less, progress is being made. There will be few to write hereafter on "Sex in Education." It will not be long before men will cease to debate the propriety of expending public money to prevent national assimilation in speech. The line between the education which should rest upon taxation and that which should be at the expense of those who desire it, is certain to be drawn. And by-and-by all intelligent men will understand that the purpose of education is not to help men to get a living so much as to make men fit to live. In bringing order out of the present chaos the people have a right to ex})ect college-men to bear a leading part. Mere specialists are not expected to see the whole field, but those who have laid a broad foundation for the particular department in which they are engaged and who teach in schools devoted, not to the particular notion of some well-meaning, narrow-minded person, but in a school which recognizes the complete nature of man and seeks to develop it harmoniously, these men are expected to teach the people what they have a right to demand in return for the taxes and gifts which are lavished in ever-increasing millions upon education. Men ignorant of the history of constitutional government may imagine that they can render children patriotic by giving a flag to the school which they attend. College-men know that the springs of patriotism lie altogether too deep to be stnick by such surface digging. We banish the word of God from our schools, we cut down devotions, we enlarge athletics, we improve on buildings, we develop a college yell, we dilate on the **Socrati/i Element " in "Modem Methods" and then seem to hope to make sterling men by contact with a bit of bunting. 664 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. Of course no one objects to the American flag on a public or other schcii:*^ The star-spangled banner is a beautiful sight when it does not suggest slaverr. the nationalized liquor trade, the exclusion of one foreigner at the comiDacd of another, or the demagogism that undertakes to secure the booty of pui»- lic office by pandering to all the commanding selfishiiess of the populace. But college-men know that integrity, patience, self-denial, courage, industn , and, above all, the Christian religion, are the only foundations upon which permanent national prosperity can be builded; and the people have a ri^ht t»« expect that they shall come out from the class-room and study into the busy marts of men and establish a standard on educational questions upon which busy men may rely. Their position makes this imperative. If they do not let the people know what education ought to be, they will sooner or later find that false notions prevail, and that in the true sense of the word there m n«» education, no matter how many schools and teachers there may be. That this note of warning is not premature, is clearly indicated in the ex- amination of college triennials by Charles Mclntire, jr., M.D., entitled, "The Percentage of College-Bred Men in the Medical Profession." He shows that out of thirty-eight thousand and fifty-four graduates from fifty-eight Ameri- can colleges, nine and two-tenths per cent, became physicians, twenty-six and two-tenths per cent, became ministers, and nineteen and seven-tenths per cent, became lawyers; — fifty-five and one-tenth percent, for these three profession!-, while forty-five per cent., nearly, turned to other lines of life. This would be no cause for regret were it not for the fact that these three professions which are so intimately connected with the well-being of society are being filled up with thousands of untrained men. If there is anything that a man needs to be sure of, it is that his physician is not a quack, that his lawyer is not a thief, and that his minister is not a liar nor a coward. I am not affirming that the boys who are rushing into these professions witii almost no training make unworthy men. I simply say what everyone knows to be true, that the less complete their training the more will be the danger that they will rely upon short cuts to success ; wiU take the shorter rather than the longer view; will be like the tramp who wanted "something to have, not something to do." Mr. Mclntire above quoted shows that in 1880 7A per cent, of over nine thousand medical students had a college degree; 26iV per cent of over five thousand theological students had such degrees, and 24iV per cent, of over three thousand law students possessed them. This means that ninety-three per cent, of those intending physicians, seventy-three per cent, of those intend- ing clergymen, and seventy-five per cent, of those intending lawyers had pur- sued no extended course of study. Is it any wonder that these professioD.^ are commanding the respect of communities to a less extent than in former days ? Then, no man could enter these vocations without long-continue;enoe and scholarship in industrial and mercantile lines is steadily rising. Yet in the face of such facts as these, we at times hear it said by college- men tliat the position of the college of the future is to be determined by its facilities for original scientific investigation ; i, e., the American college belongs to a past age, and chemistry, geology, mineralogy, botany, biology, etc., etc., are to constitute the future education. Against such misleading doctrine lis tins it becomes all those to protest who value a complete training. The other demand which the people have a right to make of the colleges is for leaders in social, industrial, political, and religious reformation. Wendell Phillips, in one of the last addresses which he made, declared in substance that college-men were generally cowardly, following, not leading their own age in the respects above indicated. It would not be difficult to present a list of college-men whose faithful and courageous meeting of the questions of their age would seem to contradict this declaration. Yet on the other hand, it is well known to all intelligent men that there is a reason for the charge which the eloquent son of Harvard brought, in sorrow, not in anger, against his Alma Mater. Not long since the president of one of our largest universities, being requested to do a little something to stay the Sabbath desecration which is defying God and oppress- ing men, replied : " It is the rule of our Faculty to act only on academic sub- jects." The president of another powerful university, when askt^d for the position of his Faculty on the temperance question, replied : " We leave those questions to our students." A letter asking for a college protest against the Sunday newspaper, was recently sent to fifty-five college presidents. Three responded favorably; and in response to a second letter, four more replied. These are straws showing the direction of the current. The college is de- pendent, in great measure, upon public opinion for its outward and material prosperity. Is it not in danger of bartering its true glory for mere earthly and perishing riches ? Is it not true that a careful avoiding of all truths likely to awaken the hos- tility of worldly men is one of the means sometimes adopted to secure college prosperity? — and is not the degradation of the college from its true position as the conservator and friend of a broad, symmetric culture to the position of a sounding-board for popular opinion, another? If there be danger in these directions — and I think that there are few thoughtful men who will not agree that there is — ought not there to go forth from such a body as this a kindly, earnest protest that should demand and se- cure a change ? The world of business is one where the margins are narrow, the competition intense, and the strain on both brain and heart severe. The college-man is in large measure set aside from this grapple with man and nature, by his very profession. He is a student of the past as well as of the present. He is acquainted with the causes which have lifted nations to power and hurled them to destruction. 666 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. Have not the people a right to demand from such men leadership in all great causes of social, political, industrial and religious reform ? And if they have, shall this demand be satisfied ? Shall political corruption, social de- generacy, industrial demoralization, and religious apostasy proceed until every office has its price, every marriage altar its divorce side, every wage-worker his gospel of dvnamite, and every church its itching ear; and all this with no clear, effective protest from the college-man ? Shall we be content to teach a few facts and processes in science, a few pages in ancient or modem lan- guages, a few texts in mental and moral science, while all about us the foun- dations are unsettled, and the men and women to whom our education should render us useful are living without solid comfort and dying without rational hope? We should teach books, no doubt ; but this is by far the smallest part of our work. It is not difficult to admire perfect versification, or to be thrilleri\T\ciDg civilization; the ]3oliticians are seeking to keep the other side lit a.iieccimes us, then, to accept this obligation, and to see to it that no social demoralization, no political corruption, no industrial oppression, no religious apostas^y be permitted to work ruin among our people without our timely, kindly, continual warning. If we are to be swallowed up in greed, sectarian- ism!, idolatry of party, or lodge idolatries; if our halls of legislation are to become market-places, our churches are to be deserted, our wage- workers are to \>e robbed of their rest-day, and mammonism is to become the shame and nun of our people, then let the colleges be able to say : " We are innocent of t)ie blood of these slaughtered ones." And if, on the other hand, the alliance between government and liquor- shop is to be broken, if the wage-worker is to have one day in seven to sit of the day, both secular and religious, I have not been able to find that tb^rv is what might be termed a general or a popular demand for anything of ttv kind. There has arisen, as we all know, something of a desire for this chaiii.Tr among certain classes. We have been told that some graduates who havr taken the full four-years course and then spent from two, three to four years in professional schools, find themselves behind others who have taken shorter courses and have entered upon their professional studies, or professional life, sooner. And in order that the college graduate may not thus be behind hi? competitor, we are told that he must have less mental trsuning, else he will make a failure in life. Whether this is true, whether facts will sustain the statement, may be questioned ; whether the lawyers and physicians and clergymen and business-men who have had the entire college course, liiifl themselves at the end of twelve or fifteen or twenty years of active life in the rear of those who have taken shorter courses ; whether thet«e men, who have devoted the whole four years to careful, thorough intellectual and moi-al training, have dis(]ualified themselves for the successful pursuit of their vari- ous vocations, may be ver}' seriously questioned. For myself, I haven't \men able to find any man or woman in any of these professions who is willing:, after an experience of several years, to say that he had too little train iug. and that he could well have left out one year of the four, and that he ad- vises other young men and young women to do the same. This proposition to shorten our college course has recently received verv strong advocacy in the course at Harvard. The proposition there made, as I understand it, is to allow the student to take his bachelor degree at the end of three years, instead of at the end of four, as formerly. If I have correotly leamed the work proposed, there is no intention to make the course shorter, but the purpose is simply this: to allow those students who are competent, to take six courses of study at the same time, instead of four, as formerly, and to graduate at the end of three years instead of at the end of four. There is no elimination of studies. The course is in no respect shortened, but if a bright student can cover the ground in three years instead of four, he is given the privilege of doing so. This is not entirely new, for you who are ac- quainted with the history of colleges, in the East and in the West, know that that this has been allowed not a few times. So that the new departure, {l« ir SHORTER COLLEGE COURSES. 669 ft esilled, at Harvard, is not especially new, and does not very seriously change he present order as it has prevailed from the beginning, and as it exists 3L\x\oivg most of the institutions of our country. Whether it will be wise to allow any student or a large number of students to cover the four-years course '\Ti t^liree years, only a fair trial can determine. One thing is certain : that a iiiajoritj of the young men who are in our colleges find themselves quite suf- ^cieivtly occupied with the assignment covering four years, and to increase their l&bor would very frequently break them in health, and unfit them for tVie severe work which comes after they have graduated. The other proposi- tion, made at Columbia, and I think also seriously entertained in Indiana Tjmversity ( I can be corrected if I am mistaken), and perhaps one or two others, is this : to allow the student the privilege of taking his bachelor de- gree after he has taken one year in a professional school. In other words, allow the cutting out of one year, as I understand it, of the regular college courae, and substituting therefor the first year in one of the professional courses. This is quite different ; and whether it will be wise, only a very care- ful experience can determine. The conviction of some who have given not a little attention to this matter is, that the time demanded for the regular college course is not too long, and if we are called upon to eliminate from the course one-quarter of the work, it will be almost impossible for us to come to any- thing like substantial agreement concerning what should be eliminated. It would be a difiicult task to induce anything like a majority of the college presidents and professors and managers to agree to leave out the classics ; the modem languages, and the sciences, and history, and literature, are all of them demanding more time, increased attention. We have been told fre- (jently, during the past ten years, that we must devote more of our attention to these things ; and how shall it be possible to satisfy this demand which ha» been so persistently made, that has been mooted to a great extent, and yet eliminate one-quarter of the time, or so to arrange the courses of study that they can be covered in three years ? This question leads us to another. What is the end which we are to have in view in our college work ? Shall we propose for ourselves simply to fill men with a little technical knowledge, make them parrots in any of the departments to which they may give their attention ? Is it not rather our 8upremest duty to take under our instruction those who come to us, in such a way that they shall become men in the truest sense, thoroughly trained in brains and in morals, to meet the responsibilities that rest upon them when they shall go out to citizenship ? If we are to produce simply parrots, we can do it in less than three years ; but if we are to produce men and women who shall be competent for the lofty duties of American citizenship, if it is our business to lay our hands firmly, yet kindly, upon those who come to us, and so train them that they shall make this nation what it ought to be, can we do it in less than four years ? Those of us who have spent four years in the col- 670 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. lege course can look back and for the most part say, the addition of another year would have been a great benefit instead of an injury. There is one other thing connected with this subject, which needs a moment's attention. If the proper preparatory work could be accomplished, I think there would be no complaint with reference to the length of our present al- lege courses. If the student could be started at thirteen or fourteen yeare, in his preparatory work, and if it could be made to cover the subjects most essential for him to enter his college course, he would be able to graduate at the end of the four years, at about the age of those young men who enter the various professions without the college training. And the result of my inves- tigation has led me to this conclusion : that the whole difficulty is not in the college course, but is in what leads to it. Our preparatory- work is in such chaotic condition ; we have so few thoroughly good preparatory schools. Some of them are engaged in teaching the classics, and others entirely in teaching the sciences. Their pupils come to us without any regular preparation, and they are comj)elled to spend more time in preparing themselves for the four years, than frequently is necessary to accomplish the entire course in college. In answer to these demands which have been made for increased scientific in- struction, the high schools — of the West particularly — and very many of the academies, are devoting more and more time to the sciences and to Eng- lish literature ; and it may be, if this instruction is increased and made what it might be, our colleges may have to readjust their courses of study to this fact, requiring less of the classics for entrance, and giving more attention to them and more attention to advanced work in the sciences; and in this way, possibly, we may be able to meet all the demand that is made for less time to ^^ecure an education. I do not belong to the older educators, but I am thor- oughly in sympathy with that thorough, manly education, which says that from beginning to last it ought to be of the most thorough character, and that all shoddy, that all slipshod methods, that all attempts at a short-cut route to scholarship, should be forever abandoned by every institution that claims the name of college ; and that it is the business of those who are in these institutions to see to it that they do not allow themselves to be carried away by a little wind which may be drifting over the country — for out of all this chaotic disorder we shall find ourselves, I think, drifting back again to the old position, the classical curriculum, as the foundation of our work, cov- ering at least four years of hard, earnest collegiate instruction. Permit me in closing to say, that I had expected the gentleman whose name precedes my own on the program would have been here with his paper, and that my duty would be simply to say something with reference to his presen- tation of the case. Hence I appear before you without that carefully written production which would otherwise have been forthcoming. DISCUSSIOX. 671 DISCUSSIOX. H. A. Fischer, of Wheaton College, Illinois, said he agreed with almost every position taken by Mr. Stetson. The demand for shorter courses, if there was any, was one of the results of the commercial spirit of our age, and of our country. College-men, above all others, should insist on the fact that a man's life does not consist in the abundance of the material things that he j)osse&ses. While he did not approve in all respects of the sentiment that there was in educational circles in the Old World, especially in Germany, where possibly too much stress was placed in the intellect, yet he believed they were nearer the true ideal than those in this country who were filled with this commercial spirit. We needed to emphasize the fact that the mind, the intellect merely, without saying anything about the soul, or moral nature of man — that the intellect is worth more than all the material things the world can give. The s|>eaker also emphasized the fact that men who go into profes- sional life at an early age find that they lose by it, or at least they find that tliey have made a sad mistake. ('has. Scott, of Hope College, Holland, Michigan, said that if he should put any interpretation upon the term, "popular demand," it would be simply that (»ur young men who want to study are in too much of a hurry. In his own exi)erience there was only one man in four desiring to study for the pro- fessions, whom he could induce to become an A. B. Prepare the young men for college, and three-fourths of them were determined to go to the professional schools. This was worse than shortening the course. The whole thing needed revision, and universities should fix a law that a man cannot be a professional man and impose his profession on the State unless he is an A. B. When that wa.« the case, we would want no shorter course. H. W. EvERK*e well, in view of existing wants and conditions, to vary the college course in such a way as to meet the ])urposes and necessities of the various students. This he believed would be of great advantage, and would make it an object for students to remain in tlie college. R. (t. Boone, of Indiana University, made an interesting statement of the }K»p^ition of that university resi)ecting the college course, and methods of in- ;*tnietion. He added: "It seems to me that in our discussion we are over- looking one factor in education. We are talking, whatever we may think, as if education consisted in getting so much Latin, and so much Greek, and so much mathematics, and so much philosophy into the student, whereas educa- tion means growing, and time for growth. You can't hurry a child through hy education and have him grow as much in three years as he can in four. When vou come to do that, then I will admit vou can have a shorter course." 672 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. A CHAIR OF PEDAGOGY, R. G. BOONE, BL(X)MIN«TON, INDIANA. Professor Boone pointed out that one very important function of chair:* c pedagody in our colleges, is in the preparation of teachers for the geec»nda:y schools. After discussing the importance of the educational work <*f th- country in the common schools and the academies, he said : ** There needs to be then in the university, some department, or some cliair, < r some school, or some curriculum that shall make a serious and long-continaed «tGd5 of educational questions, so that those who go down into the secondary j$chools and do the work of preparing students for the colleges shall have an intelligent c<»nce|»- tion of this larger question of education. I do not mean simply that th« coll^r;^*-- by this chair of pedagogy, is to fit teachers simply. I think there is a larger nii-- sion than that. The pedagogic department is quite as much a department for disci- pline, quite as much a course in the liberal arts, quite as much a part of a lil>eiH'. general education of our young men and women, as a large per cent, of our c<»ar-i«-s in mathematics, in history, in biology, in various other departments. I doabt if there is any subject, in fact, in which a young man would get more discipline "* mind and a larger insight into himself and better conception of the world whethrr there is any department which would give him a larger culture, speaking ^enersillv, than a persistent and intelligent study of the history of education.*' The si)eaker also showed that the pedagogic chair in the college ha:* t«»r another of its functions, the provision for an intelligent mastery among tiit- people of the problems of education. He believed a department of pedagi^gy in a college could do very much indeed toward rationalizing the general pul^ lie's conception of education. Still another function of pedagogic depart- ments had relation to the quev«Jtion which had been discussed this aftenirH»n — College Courses. What was wanted was that some jjerson, or persons, shouM seriously and through a jieriod of years and in a rational way and with all the advantages of study of the historical asj>ect esi^ecially, and of the soieutitit* and philosophical aspect of the question, work out and present Ui the wnrlti for the world's criticism and for the world's trial and verification, the<^ries and doctrines upon this question of college courses. The sfieaker dwelt ujxni this branch of the subject at considerable length. He gave as one other reason why the department of pedagogy is needed in the college?^ of «»ur country, this: That it is to make rational our methods ui the elementary schools, and our conceptions of education as a great public problem. Then* were a thousand economic problems involved in this question of general edu- cation. The problems of labor, for instance, must be misunderstood, or under- stood as they had been, in proportion as w^e should come to understand tlie problem of education. This problem of labor and capital could only W studied on this rational line, of education on one side and labor and (*apit;il on the other. There waa just as much reason why education should Ije made one of the great subjects for study as that statistics or finances should lie niado PEDAGOGICAL TBAININQ IN COLLEGES. 673 me i>i* tli€ great subjects for study. There were other reasons too, he said, v'hy there should be departments of pedagogy in the colleges, in addition to lie normal schools. We needed specially-prepared men and women as teachers 11 our higher institutions — academies, normal schools — as much as we did in ruir elementary schools. The normal schools gave scarcely more than, and •ioine of them not as much as, a good high school would give in general studies, and l>eyond that there was a certain amount of professional study. They could not fit men and women to be superintendents of counties and teachers ill our higher departments. And so these pedagogic departments were needed for these teachers as well. PKT>AGOGICAL TRAINING IN COLLEGES WHERE THERE IS NO CHAIR OF PEDAGOGY, LEVI 8EELEY, LAKE FOREST, ILLINOL**. Oi the three hundred and sixty-one colleges and universities in this land, only twenty-one, so far as the records show, make any pre.tense of pedagog- ical chairs; and many of these are simply on paper. Is not this strange, when we consider the great number of college students who enter the profes- sion of teaching? Prof. Fitch, of England, says that "the great function of a university is to teach and to supply the world with its teachers ; but no uni- versity truly can be said to perform the latter duty so long as it does not provide adequate professional training for the teacher's work." It must not be forgotten that nearly all the presidents and professors of colleges, many principals and teachers in secondary schools, a large number of superintend- ents and some teachers of lower schools, as well as principals and instructors in normal schools, are chosen from the ranks of college graduates. Surely a large factor in shaping the educational interests of our country. Nor is this, by any means, all. In communities where politics has not yet laid its insa- tiable, blighting hand upon the schools, where school dictatorship is not a reward for political activity, but an honorable trust, to which a community delights to call its best citizens, college-men are the chief factors in shaping the schools. Fortunately, this still comprises the great majority of communi- ties outside of the great cities. I need not indicate to this body how impor- tant a factor the school board is to the success of education in a community. Indeed, its importance is so highly appreciated that, in some States, the pro- priety of educational qualifications for members of the school board has been seriously considered. Such a requirement would be of vast account to the % cause of education. It will thus be seen that the influence of pedagogical training reaches much farther than to those who may actually engage in 674 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. teaching. Time does not permit me to discuss its influence upon those wb • become fathers and mothers, in shaping the education of their own chil- dren in their homes and in properly guarding it in the school. And vk, the theory of education covers the period of earliest childhood until nian- hood's estate is reached. It will thus be seen that pedagogical training to the college student is one of the most important lines of work to which he can turn his attention, from a professional and social standpoint as well as from self-interest. Our normal schools are supposed to be devoted exclusively to the training of teachers. But they are utterly inadequate to supply the ile- mand, and will continue to be until we multiply their number by ten, or by some means secure a longer tenure of office for the teacher. The length <»f their courses, in most cases, precludes their fitting teachers for higher work. And yet the testimony of Dr. Sears is as follows: " I was for some years cr»u- nected with the public schools of Massachusetts. School boards who had formerly employed college graduates, but more recently graduates of the Statt- Normal Schools, could not be induced to appoint as a teacher a young man without normal training. This is the more remarkable, as the member? of the boards were themselves generally college graduates. It was found by trial that a knowledge of what is commonly taught in learned schools is not all that the teacher needs." This is the opinion of a man, himself a college graduate, a teacher, a successor of Horace Mann, and once President of Brown University. Surely there is a manifest lack somewhere, especially when we take into account that the training of the normal school is at lea^t two or three years short of that of the college. I grant that the work of the college is largely dbciplinary and not prt>fe>- sional. Our best colleges, it is conceded, carry the student about two years beyond the graduate of the German gymnasium. We thus insist upon two years of disciplinary work more than the Oermans do. Even if we shorten our course a year, as Harvard and Columbia have done, we still hold the student back a year more than the Germans do before he enters his pn>fej?- sional training. Now the fact is, we do attempt much that is practical, or I may say professional, in our college courses. We have well-appointed lab<>- ratories, which fit young men to enter various fields of technical labor. But we do nothing professional for the large number who go out every year to en- ter u|)on teaching, and to the still larger number who enter other vocation?, but who would be greatly benefited, as we have seen, and as Prof. Boone so ably showed yesterday, by some pedagogical work. Many urge that every class in college, under every professor, should be an example of the very best didactical training. A grand ideal ; would that we all could attain it! But how few, alas! reach the ideal. The late Pres»ident Joseph Alden, of the Albany Normal School, used to say: "We give in our daily class-work the very best methods of instruction that trained teachers can give, and send our students out to do likewise." But the very nature of class-work prevents, in most cases, the best didactical training. The time i- \ PEDAGOGICAL TRAINING IN COLLEGES. 675 naturally largely given to the mastery of the subject in hand, without regard to the pedagogics of the subject. The method pursued may be proper for a college class, but few, very few, leave college to enter college professorships. They fit themselves for college professorships by years of experience, after blindly stumbling upon the truth at the expense of their pupils, when their college course ought to have fully equipped them for teaching. Parents and school directors are protesting against this in a most effective way by prefer- ring normal graduates, as we have already seen. The discussion of this ques- tion thus far seems to warrant the following conclusion : There ought never a student to be graduated from any college who has not had definite instruction in the history and science of education, and the laws of pedagogical discipline and training. But the great question of how to do this is still open. Prof. Boone has strongly urged the establishment of "chairs of pedagogy." That certainly is the ultimate end to be sought. But the great majority of our colleges can- not afibrd the expense of a separate chair of pedagogy. Even if they can^ the sentiment in favor of such chairs, though manifestly increased within the last few years, is not yet sufficient to secure favorable action on the part of most boards of trustees of colleges. But the course of study rests largely with the college faculty. Let there be placed in the course at least two terms of pedagogics — a modest demand when we consider the importance of the subject — one for the history of education, and one for didactics. These should be placed in the senior year, if possible, for two reasons: (1) The work should be professional in character, and should therefore come when the discipline of the college course has produced considerable maturity; (2) it should be brought as close as possible to the time when many of the students will enter upon their life-work. They are looking forward to their work with deepest interest, and would therefore profit more from the work, . while they will have the subject fresh in mind when they do begin their work. I would make the work in pedagogics required work for all of the class, for reasons already set forth, and because of its value to all. But who is to teach pedagogics if there be no chair of pedagogy? I would take the professor of the widest and most successful- experience in the faculty, if possible, the one who has the most liking for the subject, and assign the work to him. Of course it would be far better if a man who has had especial training for the work be found ; but if such be not the case, surely some one can be found in every faculty who can easily prepare himself for the work with great profit to himself and to his class. Then in his work in didactics, especially, a man of wide experience will have a vast fund to draw from in connection with the practical side of his work. There is not a faculty in the land that has not one or more men who could successfully carry out the plan above indicated. As but little expense is attached to it, the trustees will have no cause to interfere, and a new field will be opened to our students, 67« THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. { M hich in interest awakened, in discipline acquired, and in practical valae« «u' not be surpassed by any study pursued. I do not ofler any new suggestion when I outline my second point ; at-i yet, so far as I know, it is not generally — indeed, is but seldom practie^i It must not take the place of the philosophical work above indicated, btit W supplementary to it. It is the introduction of the German Seminar idea, which in brief is this : Each professor in the Grerman university holds w^eekij what he calls a Seminar, A limited number of students who desire to 4 • some special work meet him, and the work of the semester is distributed. If in pedagogics, for example, to one might be assigned an essaj on Spartaix culture, to another "The Influence of Comenius," while to another would h*- assigned a lesson, say, in Latin conjugations, to another a topic in history. again some work in mathematics, and so forth, covering, as far as may he, the whole field of instruction. Each student, having ample time, his -woii being assigned at the beginning of the semester, is expected to thorou^bir prepare himself, whether it be to give an essay or a lesson. If a lesson, he must be ready to give an outline of it beforehand. A critic is appointed for each exercise, and he is followed by general criticism, the professor having the final word. In the lessons it is better that pupils from outside be ob- tained, if possible, taking those whose present work in school is the subject in hand. If outside pupils cannot be obtidned, a few of the class must be taken so as to make the exercise illustrative of actual teaching. Every inci- dent possible to actual school-life should be brought in and discussed in all its bearings. There will be opportunity to discuss, not simply methods of instruction, but questions of discipline, and development of character, and the physical, intellectual and moral well-being of the pupils ; henoe the im- portance of widest experience on the part of the professor. Such exercises a? these could be made of great interest, and of inestimable value in preparing our students for the work of teaching, and giving them, whether they ever teach or not, an intelligent idea of what teaching should be. My third point is quite closely connected with the last, and really sub- ordinate to it. I would carry out the same idea in several classes under their regular professors, but of course in a modified and much more limited form. Let the professor assign topics to such members of his class as are intending to be teachers, or are willing to undertake the task, giving ample time for preparation, and let the student take the professor's chair and give the in- struction for say half of the hour, once a week, the other half being taken by the professor in correcting defects and in kindly criticism. This, of course, should be in connection with the regular, daily work of the class, and should not hinder the progress of the work assigned the class for the term. Indeed, I think it would help the work, because it would stimulate interest and lead to more thorough preparation, not only on the part of those who give the lessons, but of the whole class, who would naturally prepare themselves well, so as to be ready for criticism. DISCUSSION. 671 Even if there be a regular professor of pedagogics, such work as I have in Heated would be a valuable, and almost indispensable aid to his work. It >\iglit to be given, however, under his supervision and direction. X have thus briefly outlined work in pedagogics that is entirely practicable ill every college in America; that would not materially add to the expense, and that would be of inestimable value to the cause of education, and would add i nimeasurably to the success, teaching ability, and equipment of those whom we send out year by year. The most important chair now to be established ill our colleges is that of pedagogy, and the work I have suggested is not in- tended as a substitute for the work of such chair, but as the best we can do until every college in the land has a head to its pedagogical department, and the preparation of teachers is recognized as one of the most important hranches of college work. DISCUSSION. C. M. Grumbling, of the Iowa Wesleyan University: It seems to me that what we need is, not everywhere a chair of pedagogy, but a normal course in every college in the land, equal to that which obtains in our best State normal schools ; a normal course which shall be equal to any scientific or classical course in any of our colleges, requiring the same number of years. And this, I believe, can be done without any great increase of expense, for it is well known that a professional course in teaching is more nearly allied to a college course in the liberal education than the profession of law, or medicine, or any professional calling you can name. I believe that this would add dignity to a normal course, and instead of being antagonistic to our State normal schools and other normals, would strengthen them. I stand here ready to say that it is my opinion that many of the so-called normal schools are only normal schools in name. I am in favor of raising the dignity of the teachers' pro- fession, and requiring of our teachers a thorough training. I say, not let anyone teach in our schools unless he is instructed in a coUege where there i a course such as I have indicated, or in a normal course in a normal school which is a normal school de facto and not a normal school in name only. J. J. Mills, of Earlham College, Indiana, in an earnest speech also advocated the introduction of normal instruction by every college into its educational work, and showed the opportunities for such work in colleges, and the special advantages that would accrue were colleges to give attention to this branch of study. He pointed out also that in colleges there are usually students who are working their way through, who, from term to term and from year to year, step out to teach ; so that they are gaining a practical experience and knowl- edge in teaching all the time, in connection with the pedagogical instruction they are receiving in the college. By this means they gain a much more thorough preparation for teaching than persons going out from institutions mth only a knowledge of the theory of education. 678 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. DEFECTS IN COLLEGE DISCIPLINE. RUFU8 C. BURLESON, WACO, TEXAS. Mr. President, I congratulate you and your Program Committee in aelt^n- ing "The Defects of College Discipline" as one of the themes for discu^i-ii in this noble army of teachers in the National Educational Association. No grander theme now claims the attention of the educators of America. Two great truths I hold to be self-evident: 1st. Society and government are what the family and the school make them. 2d. The great ^pallinj fact is that our social and political system is becoming fearfully corrupt. That hydra-headed monster. Anarchy, is lifting his gorgon crest on biirL and stalks abroad in daylight and midnight, turning thousands into stone. Two hundred thousand licensed saloons with their twin sisters, the fir^m- bling-houses and houses of ill-fame, pouring liquid, devouring stream.^ •f crime, death, and ruin, over our land. These two hundred thousand saloon^ licensed by law, murder sixty thousand fathers, brothers, and sons every year, and clothe three hundred thousand helpless women and children in rags aiid shame. Indeed, this government is fast becoming a government of sa]ot>u- keepers, by saloon-keepers, and for saloon-keepers. The result is, bribery and corruption pollute our legislative and congressional halls, and even pollute the s|)otless ermine of justice. But, Mr. President, though I have drawn this dark picture, I do not de- spair of the republic. Like that grand old Roman who lost the battle of Trebia, and said, "Though our armies have been routed and slain, and Hanni- bal thunders at the gates of Rome, the republic shall live and the invaders shaU be scourged from our shores." I do not believe that any Gibbon will ever live to write " The Decline and Fall " of our government. I firmly believe that this republic, extending from the snow-clad hills of the North to the flowery prairies of Texas, and from ocean to ocean, will he thoroughly purified and reunited, and march on, increasing in power and glory till the stars grow dim. But let it never be forgotten that the two grand fac- tors in the purification and the stability of our beloved republic are Christian homes and the halls of education. Then, in full view of the perils of the hour, and the glorious possibilities of the future, let us inquire what are the defects of our college discipline ? I can but express here the ardent desire that at some early future day ten thousand fathers and mothers shall assemble at St. Paul, or some other beautiful city, in a grand National Parental Association, to discuss "The Defects in Family Government," so appalling to every patri- otic heart. The first defect in college discipline is, that our teachers are not profoundly penetrated with their sublime and glorious mission. How few teachers realise the fact that they are the moulders of the leaders of the world. And they are & ll DEFECTS IN COLLEGE TRAINING. 679 responsible in a fearful degree for the corruption in our social, political and commercial life. No man is prepared to correct the defects in our colleges vinless his soul is filled and burdened with his responsibility. Nearly twenty centuries ago Horace said: "If you wish me to weep, you must weep first." The ^reat Andrew Fuller says : " No man can make others feel till he feels himself." But lest the modesty of the teacher may prevent him from realizing his sublime mission and feeling his fearful responsibility, I refer to three great historic facts. When Alexander the Great was commander, Philip, King of Macedon, while writing to the king and potentate, wrote a special letter to the great teacher Aristotle, saying: "I thank the gods profoundly for giving me a son to inherit the splendid fortunes I have gained; but I thank them more profoundly that they have given me that son in the lifetime of the great teacher Aristotle, who alone can teach him how to main- tain and extend his splendid inheritance.*^ And if Aristotle the great had not lived, perchance there would never have been Alexander the Great. All know the mournful fact that the bloody Nero had his old teacher Seneca put to death ; for said he, " I hear at every step of my bloody career his gentle, luring words in my ears." So he murdered him, hoping to hush forever the warning voice of his great teacher. When the wily, godless politicians of France urged the king to violate a plain treaty, he laid his hand on the treaty and said: "There is the treaty, and my old teacher Fenelon taught me never to violate a treaty." But do you say these cases are far away ? Were it not immodest I could report living facts. Thirty-nine years ago I adopted character-building as the foundation-stone of Baylor University. I wrote upon our walls. Pro Eccl^da Pro Texana, My heart was thrilled when that great human brute, Sullivan, went from pious New England to New Orleans to show that he was a greater brute than Kilrain, and the Governor of Louisiana issued a procla- mation that he should not disgrace Louisiana soil. It was then suggested that they cross over to Texas and have their brutal sports. My beloved student. Governor Ross, who was converted while in Baylor University, issued a proc- lamation ordering all sheriffs to arrest this son of New England if he dared pollute Texas soil with his infamous siwrt. And to-day a student of mine, as Lieutenant Governor of Louisiana is a banner-bearer in the glorious battle against the infamous lottery now disgrac- ing our nation ; while another student of Baylor, an Indian chief, is becoming another Moses to his people. If as humble a teacher as I know I am, on the very frontier of civilization can achieve so much, what teacher need be dis- couraged? When the teacher is fully aroused to the sublime importance of his mission, he will be prepared to contemplate the second defect in college discipline, a 680 THE NATIOXAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. want of parental love and watchful care in the teacher. How often do we hear it proclaimed, "The teacher is in loco paretvtis" But alas ! how often i^ this a mere promise held sweet to the ear, but broken to the heart of the student. How few teachers, and e8})ecially college professors, cultivate a real or even semi-parental affection and care for students. Here is the woful defect in col- lege discipline. Let even a wayward student see love beaming in his teacher's eye ; let him hear the fatherly admonition and even the tearful, sharp repri- mand ; let him realize that affectionate vigilance and watchful care by day and night, in sickness and in health : then the greatest difficulty of coU^e discipline vanishes away. Love conquers all things. But how many teachers wrap themselves up in the cold mantle of unapproachable dignity or laziness, and endeavor to govern students by haughty commands and the cold steel of excision. But do you say parental affection and watchful care are impos- sible in colleges ? Then why talk about loco parentis f Why call the college A hna Maier — a loving mother ? Why not change the name to Injusta noverea — a cruel stepmother? But I know from thirty-nine years' experience as President of Baylor LTni- versity that parental affection and vigilant care by day and night are not only possible, but practicable. During these thirty-nine years I have instructed over five thousand seven hundred students, male and female, and I can recall and locate all of them. They all live in my auction. K they want any position, or are candidates for sheriff. Congress, Governor, or matrimony, they know if they are worthy and well qualified their old teacher's pen and tongue are always ready. I regard no man worthy to be a teacher in loco parentis unless he can, in the beautiful words of Goldsmith, " Watch and weep and pray for all." *'And as a bird each fond endearment tries, To tempt its new-fledged offspring to the skies, He tries each art, reproves each dull delay, Allures to brighter worlds, and leads the way." But I am no maudlin sentimentalist ; for when tender love and vigilant care all fail, and the student is all animality and no spirituality, I firmly be- lieve with Solomon, that he that 8i)areth the rod hateth the son. I know that in this fast jyrogremonal (?) age men have grown wiser than Solomon, and talk sentimentally about the cruelty of corporal punishment. Yet fifty years in college halls and thirty-nine years as president of a college, demonstrate to me that Solomon was divinely correct when he said, " Folly is bound up in the heart of the son, but the rod of correction [alone] will drive it out." I have long since learned that all this maudlin sentiment against corporal and even capital punishment, is not love and sympathy for the criminals, but in- difference to crime and contempt of all law. The third great defect of college discipline is, that teachers do not inspire their students with a profound reverence and love for law in every form, whether in the family, the academy, the university, or the State. Thousands of teachers DEFECTS IN COLLEGE TEAININQ. 681 ure xnei^e routinigts and lesson-hearers, and they do not realize that in our long jtruggle against tyrants and t3rrannical laws, our people confound law and tyr- axvny ; and as they regard resistance to tyrants service to God, and all law as a trespass on personal liberty, our whole people are rushing to the other ex- treme of lawlessness and anarchy, and unless speedily and wisely checked will plunge our beloved country and civilization into the bloody vortex of rvxin. I repeat, every teacher should daily and in a thousand ways imbue the brain and beart of the student with a profound reverence and love for law and or- der. The student should be taught that law differs as much from tyranny as noon-day brightness does from the blackness of midnight. That law differs as much from tyranny as the harmony of heaven does from the anarchy of lieW. That law is the offspring of God and heaven ; that anarchy is the off- spring of Satan and darkness. The sublime words of Bishop Hooker should be graven on every student's heart and brain : " Of Liaw, no less can be said than her seat is in the bosom of God. Her voice is heard in the harmony of the uniyerse. The mightiest on earth or in heaven are not beyond her control, and the feeblest feel her protection/' When the soul of the student is profoundly penetrated with the beauty and importance of all law, he will see how loathsome is that delusion of Satan that college boys can trample on law, and that it is smart to dodge the professors ; that college boys can steal chickens, rob orchards and watermelon patches, and outrage all the better instincts of humanity and God's word in "hazing" new students, and descend to the level of brutes. For hogs, horses, and es- pecially dogs, always "ha?e" a new-comer; and the savage always compels a new recruit to run the gauntlet. All this under the plea of fun and the mon- strous delusion that college boys will be college boys, which means that college boys are privileged to be brutes and savages and thieves and robbers. I verily believe there are a thousand boodlers and thieves on our public treasury w^ho learned their first lessons in stealing chickens, watermelons and apples while college students. Our colleges, instead of being the nureeries of Washingtons and Jeffersons and Websters, are becoming the nurseries of Benedict Arnolds, boodlers, and plunderers on the public treasury. But again we are met with the objection, "How can you help it?" I answer, first, by loving, parental care; second, by a will and courage that fears neither pistols, bowie-knives, brickbats, nor torpedoes. A teacher thus armed can crush hazing and all col- lege stealing. Thirty-nine years ago I entered Baylor University with the sublime purpose of making it a nursery of learning, piety, and patriotism ; that every student must be a model gentleman and lady ; that all hazing or out- raging new students, and robbing hen-roosts or orchards, and destruction of public or private property, must be placed under eternal quarantine, just as small-pox, yellow fever, and cholera. But do you ask, "How did it result ?" I answer by giving one illustration, as one fact explains more than a thousand theories. The students, especially 682 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. some who had been to the older States and caught the infection of hazing and stealing, looked at each other significantly, as much as to say: *'Oh, Tie have heard such talk before ; we intend to have our fun." Twenty-two stu- dents, fifteen collegians, and seven preparatories wanted to get suspended ^ • as to go on a grand hunt and fish, and then get out of the examinatioii. Thej commenced by tearing down signs, rolling wagons and carriages down inu« the valley and removing the wheels, carrying my pet sheep into the second story and tying the bell-rope around his horns to make him ring the bell at midnight. Among them were the sons of an illustrious governor, and of wealthy sugar- and cotton-planters, and of merchant princes. Their mothers came to me, or sent word, not to suspend their sons, pleading that they wante»i an excuse to go fishing and did not know the disgrace of suspension. 1 ad- monished them tenderly and with tears. I implored them in the name of their mothers not to force me to harsh measures, saying that I was resolved to correct the evils at all hazards — tenderly if I could, severely if I must. That ver}' night they went to the home of an aged German gardener, tore down his fences, robbed his orchards and hen-roosts, and when the aged man, eighty-two years old, came out and threw at them they threw a hundred rock.* on his house. When he shot at them they fired on the top of his house and nearly frightened his wife and daughters to death. Next morning they sent him a purse of seventy-five dollars, saying it was only the fun of college bojs. When summoned before the faculty, they all confessed. Our learned faculty, one from Vermont, one from North Carolina, one from Georgia, one fix>ni Berlin, one from Tennessee, said it was a bad case, but it was only fun ; and as they had paid the old German seventy-five dollars, the most that could be done was to suspend them a month — which was the very thing they were work- ing for. They very gladly shifted the responsibility, and unanimously con- sented to refer the whole matter to the President. I called in the twenty-two robbers and rioters, some of them grown men, and sent for twenty-two friends of Solomon. I explained to them tenderly and with tears their horrid crimes, first of all in outraging the sanctity of home. I told them that if the Queen of England had so lawlessly outraged the home of the humblest peasant, she would be dethroned as soon as Parliament could assemble. I drew a vivid picture of the alarm and screams of the aged man's wife and daughters, till the whole company was melted into tears, and said, "Dr. Burleson, we know we have done wrong, and are willing to be sus|)ended." I told them there must be a suspension, but as I did not want to disgrace them or cause them to lose precious time from preparations for examination, we would have t^ make the suspension short and sharp. Just at that juncture my messenger brouglit in twenty-two switches. I said : " You are the sons of my dearest friends and brethren. I love you as I do my own son whom the angels took home to heaven. I have exhausted every remedy to correct your crimes, but words and tears only excite your contempt; and to suspend you would be a farce, for that is just what you desire. Now, wholly for your good, and in DEFECTS m COLLEGE TBAININa. 683 love and tears, I intend to lay twenty-five lashes on each of you; and that you may receive it meekly, and that you may be savingly benefited, let us kneel down and pray." But that I might obey the apostolic injunction, to ** watch," as well as pray, I locked the door and put the key in my pocket. After an earnest prayer I fully obeyed Solomon's command: "He that spareth the rod hateth the son." Then after a short season of prayer I put my arms tenderly around each one, begged them never again to force me to so painiul a duty of love, and with tears they promised they never would. But that flogging was what Cromwell called his "crowning mercy." There was not another case of stealing and vandalism on the property and homes of citizens for twenty years. When the crime was again repeated, the same medicine was used. Liast session, with six hundred and eighty-seven students — Texans, Louis- ianians, Arkansans, Indians, and Mexicans, and one Russian — we had only two cases of intrusion on citizens. One was by a little boy who accidentally knocked his ball into a citizen's pasture and climbed over the fence, without permission, to get it; the second was when some thoughtless young men Jaughed at an aged colored woman on the street. These offenders were kindly repTimanded in chapel, and warned never to repeat similar offenses. I repeat, any college president can correct these disgraceful disorders if he bas Grod-like love for his students, and also a courage that neither pistols, bowie- knives nor torpedoes can shake. And if he has not these, he should resign and become a book agent or a Sunday-school teacher. But in the name of decency and honor, and for our country's glory, let our college halls be the fountains of honesty, purity, honor, courtesy, piety, and patriotism. But the fourth defect in college discipline, and nearly allied to all the above disorders, is that infamous usage that one college student cannot in honor be a witness against another. This code of honor says that if one college student sees a negro, or a German, or an American steal chickens, or watermelons, or break out windows, or destroy public or private property, and he conceals the fact, he becomes a party to the crime. But if he sees a college student do all these, and more, it would be highly dishonorable to be a witness against the wrong-doer. This is really the thieves' code of honor, but how it ever gained such power in colleges is marvelously strange. It is a snare of Satan to say that college students have a different code of honor and honesty from other good citizens. This wicked device has done more to make our colleges semi- naries of Catilines, Benedict Arnolds and boodlers than all other causes com- bined. The Bill of Rights grants to every citizen the right of having com- pulsory witnesses. If the Governor of Minnesota, or of Texas, or of New York should refuse to testify to any fact, he would be sent to jail till he learned more sense. And why should college students be exempt from the same law ? All tattling or tale-bearing should be denounced as infamous among students and gentlemen ; but when any student is called before the faculty to testify to any violation of law he should be required to tell the trutli, the whole truth, 684 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. and nothing but the truth. If he refuse, he should be expelled as a protector of criminals. The fifth defect in college discipline is in not filling the soul of every stu- dent with a noble ambition to be a great scholar, and above all, a good and true man. Every teacher should fire the soul of his student to become a useAil citizen and a devout worshiper of the true, the beautiful, the good, and above all, to love and adore that God who is the fountain of all^' wisdom, purity, and mercy. These noble aspirations will so preoccupy his soul that he will have no time for college revelry and crime. When I entered Nashville University fifty years ago, my father so fired my soul with a noble ambition that I said, "I will come out of the University the foremost scholar in my class, or I will come out of it in my coflin." And that scholarship was only a means to a grander life-purpose, from which I have never deviated for a half-hundred years. My time, my thought, my vitality, have all been absorbed in one single aim, the glory of my country and my church. I have not had time to smoke a cigar, to take a chew of tobacco, or a dram of whisky ; I never was in a ball-room or theater, or on a race-ground ;. I have not baited a hook or fired a gun for fifty years; I lost one day, thirty- eight years ago, of which I am heartily ashamed. Hence, my firm conviction is that the great defect in college discipline is the want of inspiration, the want of a high moral purpose, occupying all the powers of the soul, and every moment of time. And as nothing but the ocean can fill the ocean's bed, nothing but duty, truth, and God can fill all the longings of an immortal mind. And no man — friend or foe — who knows the history of Texas and of Baylor University, can doubt that an unusual per cent, of our students become great leaders in every department of life. A great senator and ex-govemor has said : "The influence of Baylor University is felt in every great convention and in every department of life in Texas." This great and unusual success, and the rare failure of our students, and our remarkable good order' and strict discipline, result largely from this one point — character-building, and a noble ambition in me to inspire every stu- dent to be great and good. Not to be like dumb, driven cattle, but to be heroes in the strife ; and to let all the ends they aim at be their country's, Grod*8, and truth's. But I must not fail to mention, as incidental to all this, that healthful amusement and innocent recreation, suggested and encouraged by the teacher, must not be overlooked. I encourage all my students, at suitable times, to be mirthful and joyous, but not to waste their time on boat-racing, base-ball, or other base tliin<^. In conclusion, 1 must ask you to excuse my frequent use of the pronoun I, and my references to my own work. I understood you wanted me to give my experience and the result of my toils, rather than a bookish, learned essay on this great subject. And permit me to say, in reviewing my long life-work of CO'OPEBATIVE OOVERNMENT. 685 nearly forty years in college-life, I am only sad that I have not forty years more to give to the glorious cause t)f Christian education and my country — my nv'faole country, North, South, East, and West. DISCUSSION, J. M. Ellis, of Oberlin College, Ohio, warmly indorsed the presentation given by President Burleson. He said he hoped the college-men present would consider very carefully the last suggestion, with reference to this deep- seated iniquity which prevails in our college-life. This false sense of honor that required a man to cover up mischief with which he was acquainted, and to join hands in evil-doing, he believed to be the secret of a large part of the mischief perpetrated in colleges. It was a grave matter. He believed, how- ever, that there was rather less trouble experienced from these traditional evils in the Western colleges than in the older schools of the East. M. D. HoRNBECK, of Chaddock College, suggested that in a few of our Western colleges, the colleges have taken the matter in hand of organizing Young Men's Christian Associations in such a way that members of the As- sociation laid hold of new students with a view of drawing them into the Association and putting them into direct Christian service ; and in that way the spirit or desire for "hazing" seemed to be forestalled. Mr. Blanchard, of Wheaton College, said he believed that the disorders referred to by President Burleson were largely due to the secret-society prin- ciple prevailing in colleges, and a feeling among the members of these socie- ties that the members of them must be, at all hazards, defended when in trouble. One reason why the Western colleges were freer from this thing than the older colleges was probably to be found in the fact that the secret- society principle does not prevail to so great an extent in Western colleges. COOPERATIVE GOVERNMENT, M. C. FERNALD, ORONO, MAINE. The subject of discipline in American colleges is one that, of late, has at- tained something of prominence in the public mind. It is a subject which especially challenges the thoughtful attention of all earnest workers in the educational field. In the administration of the American college, I think it will be generally conceded that the most vital questions are not those relating to the arrange- (^z 686 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. ment of courses of study, the determining of equivalents in educadonal valu^ . or the introduction of electives, important a£ all these are, but rather tb^ questions pertaining to the morals and the conduct of students as affeclixu: either advantageously or disastrously the working of the purely intellectaaiLi forces in the institution. The problems arising under college government do not always admit « easy and satisfactory solution ; and it frequently happens, moreover, tiiait a solution of a perplexing problem, deemed satisfactory at one time and un^i^i one set of conditions, may be found far from satisfactory at another time aiiu under different conditions. In other words, the methods best adapted to gov- ernment in colleges, under the varied circumstances of their application, aTv not such as can be established wholly by authority. We do well, therefore, to accept light on this subject from whatever source, so that it be real, aod serve for actual illumination. Valuable contributions have recently been made to the discussion of thi< important topic, by distinguished educators through the public press and bj means of addresses before educational gatherings. It is my purpose to pie- sent another modest contribution on this subject of college government, based on an experience of seventeen years in the institution over which during' the larger portion of this time it has been my fortune to preside. Since 1873 there has existed at the Maine State College a system of coop- erative government. It is not claimed for it that it has accomplished all that its most sanguine supporters could have desired, or that it can do away with all the evils which beset student-life. It is claimed for it that it has contributed to a better understanding and to more harmonious relations between the faculty and students than otherwise could have existed ; that it has rendered discipline easier and more effective ; that it has had a tendency to prevent mis- demeanors, and when they have occurred it has disposed of the minor cases satisfactorily, without the intervention of the faculty ; that it has saved time of the professors, not to say annoyance also; and that it has developed in students the principles and the habit of self-government, so important at all periods and in all the relations of life. It is not a system in which the government is turned over to the students, ' but one which seeks their organized cooperation. Every college officer well understands the value of appeals to the manli- ness and the sense of honor of students, and that for the large majority such aj){)eal3 are all that are ever required. Such students are self-regulating, and individually exercise a healthful influence over their companions. It is for the small minority that laws are needed and disciplinary measures adopted. In dealing with tliis restless class the organized cooperation of students is especially helpful, inasmuch as their association with those inclined to mis- chief or disorder enables them to detect the motives by which the latter are impelled, and frequently to counteract them in advance of any open violation of order. Every college officer well understands the great aid which the G^ CO'OPEBATIVE GOVERNMENT. 687 Ler a.Tid more thoughtful students can render in restraining the younger rl more impulsive from wrong acts. Moreover, in every college in which 2 ret societies exist it is well understood that they are organized forces which xy oftesa. be used with great advantage in matters of discipline, especially in le control of their own men. This is not the place to discuss the utility or )ii-utility of college fratemitieB, but, recognizing their existence, I claim lat it is the part of a wise administrator of college aifairs to utilize them, iid to make the organized forces which they represent subserve the interests f good government. Perhaps enough haa been said to indicate the underlying thought in a plan, >f cooperative government. Such a plan implies an attempt to utilize under a. definite and organized form certain forces or aids which most executive officers endeavor to avail themselv^ of, in some way or under some form, in administering the government intrusted to their control. In devising the system of cooperative government for the Maine State Col- lege, the principle was acted on that the simpler the plan and the less com- plex its machinery, the better it would be, so that the elements necessary to be considered should be recognized in it. Accordingly, as first arranged, the I Council, which was the chief executive body on the part of the students, con- ; sisted of but four members, one chosen from each class. Its officers consisted ^ of president and secretary. As aids to the Council, two committee-men were i selected on each floor of the college dormitories. Under this simple form of; organization the system was maintained for thirteen years, when slight revi- ' sions of it were made, designed to recognize more fully existing conditions. ! This revised scheme, adopted in 1886 and still in force, I submit, asking ' especial attention to its simplicity, to the powers conferred, the duties imposed, and the limitations to the undue exercise of power on the part of those ad- ministering it : PLAN OF COOPERATIVE COLLEGE GOVERNMENT. Powers Conferred, and Number of Members of Council. Section 1. DiBcipline to , the extent that it shaU prove efficient, ander conditions indicated in this plan, shaU ' be committed to a Council composed of six students (except as this number may undergo change in the application of subsequent sections of this scheme) of good standing, residing at the College, who shaU be chosen as hereinafter provided. Composition of Council. Sec. 2. (a) Each college fraternity, and also the non-society students, shall be entitled to one member in the Council from either the Senior or Junior class, and the order of selection, at first, shall be so determined by lot that the representation herein contemplated shall consist of two Seniors and two Juniors, and the order thereafter shall be continued by alternation; provided, that any col- lege fraternity, or the body of non-society students, not having in its membership an eligible representative in the class from which it is entitled to elect, may make choice from the other class above named, but not from a lower class. (6) The Soph- omore Class shall be entitled to one member in the Council, {c) The Freshman Class shall be entitled to one member in the Council, who must be of different society aflaiiation from the Sophomore member. Exctption to Choice may be Taken by the Faculty. Sec. 3. The Faculty may take exception to any member, and require new choiceuntil satisfactory. 688 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. Organization of Council, and Modes of Procedure, Sbo. 4. The Council shall ef- fect its own organization, the principal officers being President and Secretarj, and shall determine its own method of procedure. Term of Office. Sec. 6. The term of office of the Council shall be one year, the time of election of new members to be indicated by the President of the College early in each college year; except that the first election after the acceptance of thl* plan shall be for the half year. Vacancies occurring at any time shall be filled for the remainder of the term of office. Continuity of Council, Sbc. 6. In order that the functions of the Council may be continuous, the old Council shall hold over with full powers, until the new Council is elected, organized, and ready to enter upon duty. • Duties of CounciL Sec. 7. The duties of the Council shall be, to act as an inter- mediate body between the Faculty and the students, to secure maintenance of order on the different floors, neatness of halls, observance of college regulations within and about the college buildings and grounds, and to perform such other duties consistent with the spirit of this plan, as, in the judgment of the councillors, shall best pro- mote the interests of the entire college community. Assistants and Monitors. Sec. 8. The Council may appoint, at its discretion, as- sistants and monitors to aid in the discharge of imposed duties. Penalties. Sbo. 9. For the effectual carrying out of the purposes designed in es- tablishing the Council, it may impose penalties in accordance with college regulation$(. subject to revision by the Faculty. Meetings and Reports. Sec. 10. The Council shall hold at least weekly meetings, and shall by its Secretary make weekly reports to the Faculty, of the condition of the premises under its jurisdiction and of any cases [coming to its notice] requiring the attention or action of the Faculty. Parliamentary Rules to be Observed. Seo. 11. In questions as to pt-oceedings not provided for in this plan, the Council will be governed by parliamentary rules. With but slight modification this plan of cooperative government has been on trial since February, 1873. It will be noticed that by it, disciplinan' power is conferred only to the extent that it proves itself eflScient. In other words, there is no surrender of governmental authority, but a delegating of it so long as and to the extent that it is judiciously and satisfactorily used. With this understanding, a pride of worthy achievement has naturally been devel- oped in the Council, and a spirit of fair-mindedness has characterized its pro- ceedings. It will be noticed, also, that the sensitive elements in a community of college students are recognized in the composition of the Council, and yet the number of members is not so great as to render the body an unwieldy one. A larger institution adopting a like plan would doubtless find a larger Coun- cil unavoidable. The principle that has determined the limit to membership in the Council of the Maine State College is the generally accepted principle that for executive duties a small force is better than a large one. The term of office being a full year, and one-half of the members of the Council being chosen at society meetings, little time is consumed in an elec- tion of new members, and very little excitement prevails. It is understood by the several organizations represented in the Council that it is clearly in their interest to have good men in this body, and hence it rarely happens that the faculty have occasion to take exception to a name presented, and in such fc2 CO'OPEBATIVE GOVERNMENT. 689 *»e a. seooTid choice is very sure to furnish an acceptable candidate for con- rmatioxi. Under the duties of the Council, the cooperative principle most fully ap- >ears. There is no attempt to impose upon the Council the duties to which he faculty can more easily attend. An attempt is made, however, at cooper- it ion, hy ^which the Council supplements the efforts of the faculty to secure neatness and maintain order in the halls, and to insure observance of college I'egulations in and about the buildings. Within this domain, an organized body of right-minded students, to whom the trust has been confided, has an advantage, as conservators of order, over even members of the faculty, since the former are almost always present at the neediiil time, as the faculty can- not be. The principle of cooperation very distinctly appears in the function of the Council as an intermediate body between the faculty and the students. Act- ing in this capacity, with interests fully identified with those of their mates, yet sustaining the relations they do to the faculty, its members possess a weight of influence in matters of discipline which otherwise would be impossible. It is in this capacity that the Council does its best work, advantageous alike to the students and to the faculty. The Council has authority to assign penalties, in accordance with college regulations, its decisions being subject, however, to revision by the faculty. This limitation guards against an undue or arbitrary exercise of power. As a matter of fact, in the trial of seventeen years, the faculty have found no occasion to subtract from the penalties assigned by the Council. It has come, therefore, to be well understood that when a case goes over from the Council to the faculty, the reasons for modification must be beyond question, or the action of the Council will be sustained. I conceive that no small part of the effectiveness of its work is due to this well-established fact. We have thus briefly noticed some of the more prominent features of this plan of cooperation. The inquiry is a pertinent one, and can be answered in a few words : What has been the actual working of the plan, and what have been its results? At first, every new Council has been tried. When it has managed success- fully one case, or at most two cases, in the early part of the year, its future work has been easy. In other words, when it was once demonstrated that, in the phrase of the street, it meant business, there was no further trouble. Even those who feel its power respect the authority that is real — the government that governs. From an observatian of the working of the system through the period above named, I am free to say that its successes have greatly out- numbered its failures; its positive and beneficial results have been largely in excess of the negative results and those of doubtful character. The fact of its continuance through this long period with no attempt to set it aside or to supersede it by some other system, is evidence of its utility. Whether or not such a plan would be found equally useful in another in- 690 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. stitution, I am not able to say. I know of no reason why a STBtem ly more to do with developing character tha .ose bound as Oliver Wendell Holmes's illustratio lAfe cxyatal would imply, but with such modifying axLnot l>e given to the matter of environment in th( Ttxere are several sources of influence that play i iiid youth, leaving decided moral effects. TVve first of these is home influence. Here the eai i the first lasting impressions made. The phases of n ! \i\ Xk\e liome are those relating to personal and social a turns largely upon social questions. The individi i seTutinized, and the seal of condemnation or approA i Whatever may be the private or personal opinion o o£ the family taking part in the discussion, no well- tolerate any shading or any condouement of social ir A second moulding influence in the life of the yc all its varied methods of Sunday-school, social, and aware that the church generalizes upon the subject ^\ church would effect much more than it does could it j honie. From the church, drunkenness and fraud rec terms; and political and mercantile immoralities, w places, and parties, receive occasional censure; and sue the life and tone of the church receive casual notice, phase of church influence which cannot be prized too the character of the young, viz. : the emphasis laid upoi responsibility to God and to one's own conscience wi and future peace and happiness. An Athenian motl Aristotle, asking how she should enter him upon the dul said she, "If he be virtuous and tell the truth, men will be not virtuous and tell not the truth, the gods will des was, " Reverse the order, O woman, it is well. If thy s tell not the truth, men will love him; if he be virtuous gods will love him." The woman was left still in dou wanted to know was whether it were better to please gods, and the teacher was blameworthy in that he d opinion in the case. The church emphasizes the ide moment to please God than to please men, and herein moral teacher. For those children, and there are man go to church, it would seem that religious teaching, school is indispensable. A third influence is the environment of vocational much in a certain city, or a certain country, or upon ley, nor does he live so much in the company of those to be associated in the pursuit of his daily occupation, nature of his business; in the aims of his life; in the p 692 THE NATION.Ar, JELkUCu^ I and in the effect that he is daily, axid o. the lives of others. It is imjx>ssible for character while engaged in a business that, to the character of others. jV business that the employ^, ruins the moral character of th a business that exalts and purifies the moral.*- of the employ^ will extend its beneficence to t ble phase of the compulsory school law is thnt youth out of evil environment and places them In this discussion I place fourth in order the i pupil ; though in value it comes third. Afier tl individual life, and the church has strengthened t of responsibility to God, the schooJ comes in to hull elements in the moral structure which are not Ukel phasis from other sources. As to what the public school may teach, there is di Mr. Savage in his Forum article said ; *'A private thing the pupil cares to learn, provided the teacher am ing; but a public school, supported by public money, a public ends." And pubhc ends, according- to Mr. Say self-support, an intelligent ballot, and morality," And to the same critic, consists in "justice and right between n President Eliot holds the position that, "The State might elementary education on the ground that it is a cheap systen national defense. But no man ought to be taxed to send an to the higher school." If such is the ^rovinoe of the puk surely the college has a higher mission. And as to what the teach and what should be its bearing* toward the student, there c opinion. The college is the representative of the highest there ii The public school may educate for citizenship, or for some special the work of the college is to develop aJl there is in the student at him the best possible specimen of mmhood. Now what are some of the elements of manhood that the collegt velop ? President White said : "I insist that it is the dutyofsodety to itseli in the highest sense, a duty which it cannot ihro^ off, t^ see that the >/ genius and talent of each generation shall hare opportuiiilij /or dere/(Y^i that it may increase the world's stock, and aid in the wrld's work." But according to the firstproposition of this paper, talent, ^k<;/ifl(//i'/i ing, without morality, are intolerable. And this paper holds that mornli consists in three things : First, knowledge oi M's \&y^ and will, with obd ence to the same ; second, right notions of h'fe, inciudin^ the source of life, ih- chief end, its obligations, and itsiinal destinj; and third, duly practice in harmony with the whole of the first and second. H COLLEGE TRAINING AND MORALITY. 693 "^Yo k.i\o"w the laws of God, one must know the laws of the physical, moral, itellectual and spiritual universe. To know the will of God, one must be ^^ ftV>\e t<> draw forth rational conclusions from his knowledge of the above- leiitioiied laws. It is the business of the college to assist the student in ac- liiirinjr such knowledge and in deducting rational conclusions from the same, liiis a^^isting him to a state in which it is possible for him to render perfect A^eAience to God. With reference to right notions of life, it is the business of the college to iv-^sist the student in collecting all the available data and to draw rational conclusions from the same as to the origin or source of life. We say all the rith wholesome effect. His daily practice may he far from a true standard, and yet his sympathies in accord with the best. He has such a strong moral sense that he approves the perfect life in others, esfHicially in his own oflfepring. He also expects all institutions which affect public welfare to support a high standard of morality. Biology and physio- lojrical i>sychology are important subjects of knowledge, but psychological morality should not be overlooked. Man's relations in life indicate that life is a great moral trust, and strongly suggest what his obligations are. He is a member of the family, and has re$^ting upon him all the relations of the same, as child, as brother, as father. He it* a citizen of the state, sharing all its benefits, and is therefore iinder ob- ligations to the state as defender and counselor. He is to defend with the sword, if need be, and certainly he shall be called upon from time to time to give advice with the ballot. For what is the ballot but a brief and univer- sal means of giving advice? Man's relations to himself are clearly indicated by his ^vants and the various means and methods at hand for supplying those wants. Finally, man's destiny is a moral one. His perfect estate is to have a good conscience, to be in harmony with all fixed laws, and to be at peace with God. It is his to exercise the highest virtue, enjoy the greatest happiness, and glo- rify God for the greatest period. Time and eternity are not to be separated in this instance ; for what is time but a part of eternity ? The college finds its sphere in guiding the minds and hearts of its students towards the highest iroal in all these things. The avenues through which the college operates for the direct accomplish- ment of its sphere are, the class-work, its code and method of government, and the personnel of its professors and instructors. The class-work is divided into different sections, such as, for the teaching <»f science, mathematics, literature, history and the higher philosophies, and the evidences of Christianity. And different instructors are assigned to each. —44 694 THE NATIONAJL EI>UC^ Danger arises when the instructor becoi. the exclusion of the kindred relation of h elusive instruction breeds prejudice a.nd employed in obtaining and irapartin^i^' kno^ The mind of the student is thereby conlV agnosticism. Nothing is more disastrous t< the lack of candor in the class-room. Orthoi titudes because it has from time to time he^^a preconceived dogmas. Criticism ii as greatly c working its theories. Hume woiiJd have r<-i scholarship of his times had he not lost al^ht v; sition can religion and science find a common ^ro not only that, judging by analogy, the essential trut that most abstract element pervading- all its forms, abstract element is the only one in which religion is . ence." At this point the reader stops, and wonders i warrants the premises. He then doubts the premises, n even deei)er than iVfr. S[)encer'8 agnosticism. Turning to Butler's Analogy, he finds that there is ham and religion, at leai^t, if not between science and religioi candid discussion. He is convinced of the value of other t soning. He rests his head, firet upon intuition, and then pillar of faith, and is thankful that, '* The things that aiv i God, but the things that are revealed belong unto us and to c ever, that we may do all the law of the Lord.'^ In the second place, the college makes or unmakes ebaractt and method of government. In some colleges statutes and writ discarded, and the better sentiment of the students is appealed to and decorum. That there is virtue in such method there can he i doubt. But that certain benefits are lost is aiso true. Some of effects of a code are as follows: 1 . Fonnulated rules of governmeut afford ideal guides to good The obedient find compliance with them my. Tbey hd the staudnn than they would establish for themselves. These higher guides he stimulus and supjwrt in searchinir for tlie ])erfect goa/. 2. We find also that m Q\m kmm ch&r&cter there is some strong pi pie that assists the individual in tiding over some weaker principle H/i him, and in bringing it up to a better ideal. Many persons despise law the abstract, but willingly obey it in the concrete. Thev pride themseh-e> "j being law-abiding citizens. They will say, "We do not Mly indorse the h \ COLLEGE TRAINING AND MORALITY, 695 >ut since we have them, we will obey, and will assist in their enforcement." E lere is an answer to the argument that there is no use in making laws in ad- vance of the sentiment of the people. 3. We have also learned that before one can command he must learn to obey- It should be the law of a young person's life to obey. He must obey nature in the end. He may defy for a season, but time works the downfall of all incorrigibles. The laws of right conduct are no less imperative. Every trade, every profession, every enterprise has its governing principles, from which there can be no departure without violence. The mind has its own processes, the heart has its code. There should be written in ever}^ niche, on every por- tal, upon tablets of gold, hung everywhere, that monarch of words, "obedi- ence." 4. The incorrigible can be dealt with safely in no other way than by defi- nite rules of government. There is a very wide margin of difference between the ideal of government as entertained by an obedient spirit and a refract- ory one. In such cases, without definite methods of administration much controversy arises, and the end does not hasten into sight. o. An indifferent governing officer finds himself held up to a higher stand- ard of duty by regularly prescribed rules of government. There is an ele- ment quite prevalent in our texts on pedagogy, to the effect that, "The fewer rules the teacher has the fewer rules will be violated, and the less responsible will the executive be." Such guides afford consolation to cowardly and weak disciplinarians. Just how far the college should undertake to supervise the personal acts of the students depends upon the character of the college and the maturity of the students. In the case of universities where the attendance is large and the students are advanced in age, supervision is diflScult. And yet there can be insistence upon good behavior, to which penalties and forfeitures may be attached. No institution should continue the attendance of a student known to persist in immoral habits. Neither should it issue its diplomas and degrees to immoral persons, thereby setting the seal of the college upon the character of the individual, and thus deceiving the public. (>. Finally, the personal life and bearing of the officers of instruction and government carries perhaps a greater weight with the student than any other one thing. Bishop Keane in speaking of what constitutes an essentially Christian school, said at your Association a year ago, "What, above all, make a Christian school, are the moral atmosphere, the general tone, the surround- ing objects, the character of the teachers, the constant endeavor, the loving tact and the gentle skill, by which the light and spirit of Christianity — its lessons for the head, for the heart, for the whole character — are made to per- vade and animate the whole school-life of the child; just as the parent desires that they should animate his whole future life in all his manifold duties and relations as a man and as a citizen." Certainly these are well-chosen words. May they not apply in the relation 696 THE NATiaiTJU:, JEDUC of the college to tbe mo7'al^ of the stuc the students ? I would emphasize what the character of the teachers, and the ge* i Hear the words of the lofty-spirited P young man the royal roa"hly tin^ out with a proper theory of life. Ijet hiiu spurn away from him. for only an imiir^ the hh Let liim burst from the l>onda^e of aii uunmnly hij^h-toned :< the whole land 'that remaineth to be poss€>B»t*d * nl nest, honest jjjaze. Scorning to be hoodwinAred nm him penetrate into the heart and reality uf his whaJi tice t(» the claims and dignity of the mind as well its of the future no less than of the near and the present." No such w^ords as these can fali from tbe lips No student can come into contact with such a spirit w of truth and righteousness greater than the reagents < oratory can afford. It is not sufficient that the instrm student against immoralities. He shouJd provide dei\ and manliness for him; indeed, his own life should hi water for all who drink at his hand. Thus will be solved tion of the relation of the college to the morals of studen THE SPIRITUAL ELEMENT IN EDVCAL E. F. BARTHOLEMEM*, ROCK ftXvl.VD, Ihimm. The chief conserving and moulding factor m tbe life of tbe pr culture which we foster. The future of tbe world depends on wh cated and the educators make it; but it is equdly true that we, of ent, shall make the world's future jmt what our mkure makes m. Ti problem of what the destiny of the human race sb&U be lies in tbe (ju the thought which characterizes the men and women of tbe present ,ij tion. The thousands of young people that ^tber ye&rk in our cul esi>ecially our Christian colleges, will decide in wbut d/rec&n tbe i'tnm progress shall flow down through the ages, and what tmmpbsofgreMmv, , human family shall achieve. But what the educated /outicofflifl^/ii;/?;"/ colleges shall be, and do, depends krgelj on the persou&l chdmcter, tb spint, and the quality of the instruction of those whose My pnV%//iW" THE SPIRITUAL ELEMENT IN EDUCATION. 697 ' i».ch. in our higher institutions of learning. I thus reach the induction that ^ ore is no other sovereignty so extensive in the scope of its influence, and so xi^hty in shaping the destiny of nations, and of the human race, as the sov- r^eij^nty of the teacher. This thought alone is sufficient to kindle the glow 't* a holy zeal in the heart of every faithful teacher, and bring inspiration 11 to his life. 3iit now the question arises, what element in the teacher's equipment gives I nost force to his own character and the greatest effectiveness to his work ? ^ot losing sight of other absolutely necessary qualifications, I am prepared to a.iiswer this question in the words of my subject. The spiritual element is the t^ruly royal quality in the teacher. The importance of emphasizing this ele- ixient in our educational forces is seen, first, in the tendency of the times ; and secondly, in its own inherent nature. Among other prominent characteristics of the times is one which is es- |>ecially important in an educational aspect. I refer to the materializing tendency of the times. Mrs; Browning, in Aurora I^igh, thus forcibly puts it : "For everywhere We*re too materialistic, eating clay, ( Like men of the west ) instead of Adam's coi^n And Noah's wine — clay by handfnis, clay by lumps. Until we're filled up to the throat with clay, And grow the grimy color of the ground On which we are feeding. Ay, materialist The age's name is." This materializing habit is apparent, not alone in the commercial, political, and social life of the world, but it is no less marked in the education, morals, and religion of the times. In every phase of our life are to be seen the evi- dences of a powerful undercurrent of secularization, the drift of which is to underrate and ignore the unseen realities of life, to drop the spiritual element out of our culture, and to subordinate everything to material ends and methods. In our intense and passionate gazing upon material phenomena, forms, processes, forces, and effects, we are prone to forget that there is also an invisible world, as real as that cognizable by the senses ; that thei-e ai-e facts not measurable by material standards, and forces not translatable into physi- cal formula?. It is to be deplored that in our eagerness to explore the physical universe, in our immoderate grasping after material treasures, and in our blinding gaze upon the glittering delusions of sense, external things, God, conscience, im- mortality of the soul, human accountability at a divine tribunal, providence, faith, and such like, if not entirely eliminated from the creed of the age, at any rate seem to have but feeble hold on the thought of the day. Our edu- cation, in all its branches and grades, from the home nursery to the univei-sity and poljtechnic school, is gradually yielding to the secularizing stress of this sense-intoxicated age. This in my judgment is a far more dangerous tendency than many of us imagine. It is an evil which will produce disastrous results 698 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. to our countn- , to the home, to the school, and to religion. In the H^bt such considerations it is the imperative duty of educators to set them^eh ■ against this tendency by empha^^izing anew the place and value of the ?i>irit'.i element in education. I use this terra "spiritual," not in its narrow, pit-t:?:. sense, but in its broader, philosophic and ethic sense, as denoting that un^-i and immaterial elemeut in human things, which, while nowhere visibly tin bodied, is yet felt to be everywhere present and oi^erative. It is the -t- imj)alpable fact which is behind all other fact«. It is the universal uncx plored remainder which always comes to view in the last analysis of all o •^lui things. It is the radical element in all history, in human exjjerienoe, and i : the system of things in which mundane life stands rooted. It is alsc* tl- spring of all power and the secret of all the transcendent great ne&^ of tb^ world's master spirits in all ages. I^et us be thoroughly ajimtred of the n-nii' of this s{)iritual element in the life of the world. The existence of an invi-i ble world whose facts project themselves into the visible, and whose fV>nv have contact witli the visible at every point, is not a vain persuafsion of a morbid imagination, or believed in only by men of small intelligence, but La* been the conviction of some of the deepest and clearest thinkers the wcdo has ever had, from Plato to Christ, from Christ and the Apostles to the present day. The visible only mirrors the invisible, and is its standing proof; so thai, in the language of St. Paul, "the invisible things of (xod from the creation ut" the world are clearly seen, being undei-stood by the things that are made.* To Milton occurred the significant interrogatory, " What if earth he hut tht shadow of heaven?" Carlyle wrote, "All visible things are emblemf*.'' Em- ei-son said : " Every natural fact is a symbol of some spiritual fact. . . • The visible world and the relation of its parts is the dial-plate of the invisible. . . . It is the standiug problem which hai^ exercised the wonder and the study of every fine genius since the world began ; from the era of the Egy;*- tiaiis and the Brahmins to that of Pythagoras, of Plato, of Bacon, of I^eiln nitz. . . . The visible creatitm is the termination or the circumference ut' the invisible world. Through all its kingdoms, to the suburbs and outakiru- of things, nature is faithful to the cause whence it has its origin. It alwav> s{)eaks of spirit. It is a great shadow, pointing always to the sun behind us." The Duke of Argyll said: "The deeper we go into science, the more certain it becomes that all the realities of nature are in the region of the invisible." And the (Treat Teacher gave utterance to the same truth when he said: "The life is more than meat"; and, "A man's life consisteth not in the abuu- dance of the things which he possesseth." To this must be added those re- markable words of the Apostle Paul, "Then look not at the things which aiv seen, but at the things which are not seen : for the things which are seen are temporal ; but the things which are not seen are eternal." These are the utterances of philosophers, scientists, poets, critics, apostles, and Christ Himself: and they bear positive t-estimony. They recognize the unseen element in uH human affairs. In human historv there are unwritten and hidden facts which THE SPIRITUAL EL E ME XT IX EDUCATIOX, 699 > \\<.>t. consist in outward circumstances and do not yield to description, but liioli are no less real than battles, thrones, successions, and acts of govern- \v?\\t. a. broad, deep, silent undercurrent in the flow of human events which f resist ibly bears nations and races to their certain destiny, and more than ii\y tVkiiior else gives type to the j)eriods and epochs of the flowing centuries. "So one can write a truthful history of any people or period, and no one can rtM\i\ Viistory aright or understand the philosophy of events, who ignores this unseen factor in individual and national life. The great characters of history \v\n> towered above and stood far in advance of their age have been borne along hy forces unseen. The mighty movements in human society which have wro\is^ht revolutions and have lifted humanity into higher planes of existence, iiave had their secret source in the hidden undercurrent. The progress of civiVization down the ages has been moved and guided by a hand out of sight. In the history of literature the same fact is seen. In all the master-pieces of literary production in every period we become aware of the presence of something which eye has not seen, nor ear heard; which neither the prose- writer nor the poet has been able to grasp and formulate in his paragraph and lines — only the reflection of something out of sight, the faint illumina- tion of a veilM glory breaking through its physical body, like that of the sun from behind the clouds; we hear the sweet undertones as of a harp unseen; we feel the soft breath of a beautiful soul enshrined in its own creations. The unseen is also the very soul of art. A Raphael labors to spread it on can- viLs; a Michael Angelo seeks to reproduce it in marble; a Beethoven endeav- ora to embody it in his divine symphonies: but still there are beautiful pictures which have never been painted, there are images which have never been carved, and there are chords of angelic music ringing in the soul which the masters have never been able to materialize. The divinest things in us refuse to take any form ; the sublimest, brightest, holiest things in the world never are expressed. Note, again, the unseen in human character. There is always more of a good man than is seen. His character, his faith, his hopes, his ideals, his principles — the very things which make the man — do not con- sist in material substance, are never seen except as they image themselves in outward acts. The essential part of character is spiritual. Life, according to the divine conception, is to be sj^firittial; "not made up of things that can be counted and valued and measured and handled, but of ideas, convictions, impulses, and decisions that are divine and invisible and imperishable." Not only has the unseen a real existence, but it is a\9o a reseir oh' of mighiij [mtencm, from which the servants of God and of mankind may draw a never-failing supply of power for the performance of great works. He who habitually looks at the "things not seen" thereby brings himself into living CDramunication with the everlasting fountain of power from which his soul is constantly fed and sustained amid the labors and hardships and trials of this life. The lessons of history and biography remind us that those who have been most in communication with the forces of the unseen universe have 700 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. wrought most efficiently in the service of mankind and have attained the hi^rb- est rank in the list of the world's worthies. He who looks only at " the thiiii;> which are seen," whether in commerce, or politics, or social affisdrs, or letters, or morals, or religion, reaches not the greatest heights, builds not the nn>>t lasting monuments, starts not the most l^neficent streams of influence to the generations to come. The men who have accomplished those mighty works which are the glor)- of histor)', have been men whose characters were deeply rooted in spiritual things. Men like Abraham, Moses, Nehemiah, David, Daniel, Socrates, J^t. Paul, Columbus, Luther, Savanarola, Milton, Lord Ba- con, Gustavus Adolphus, Thomais Arnold, Washington, Lincoln, and all tk long list of hen)es whom grateful generations will delight to honor down lo the end of time, were all men of faith, men who wielded the power by which all things are possible. The secret of their greatness and of the magniticent works that they wrought, is found in the fact that they drew their supplies of wisdom and power from the eternal and invisible resources. "Into the ??'»ul that lifts its steadfast gaze up into the invisible things of God and eternity there conies sooner or later the baptism of wonder-working power in the full- ness of which even the poorest life is made rich in mighty results. It i:^ by communion with the verities of the spiritual realm that man's nature touche> on the divine, and reaches kindredship with Heaven. It becomes the en- trance into man of the jwwei-s of the world to come, which frees, uplifts, ami purifies the life of the present.*' In the language of another : **All the bes^t good that gladdeuB and cheers the earth has come by this looking'. J** the Apostle looked, at the unseen, of which the Gospel of Jesus is the apocalyp:'*'. Under it oppressions, slaveries, wrongs, and inhumanities that were torturing and wasting the race, have disappeared. Under it flourishes all that is best in thoniriit. feeling, and action: in righteousness, prosperity, and happiness; all that is greates* in the State, most sacred in the family, and noblest in manhood. It has beeu the inspiration for the most beneficent labors, the sublimest heroism, the purest >elf- sacrifice. the ripest and loveliest character, that have been making the world berrrr and enriching it with goodness and happiness. By looking up to everlasting life. the present life is quickened into excellence and fruit fulness. It becomes rich here in proportion as the realities and life there come down into it." If such is the nature of the spiritual element, and such its relation^ to ihe life of the world, its vast imiwrtance as an educational factor cannot be over- estimated. It is needed to correct the engrossing materialistic trend of thr times, and to furnish the proj)er regulative principle to the feverish iuteiij^ity of the forces of society. It is needed to give elevating and saving ethcaoy to our culture. Without it, there can be no healthy moral life in society. iui«i knowledge itself would be a doubtful blessing. Unless our schools and ( »1- legcs are to become nurseries of infidelity and gross materialism, we niu?t h« to it that the tendencies already in vogue are counteracted by infusing ^ healthy and far-seeing spirituality into our education. In my judgment, thf man or woman who knows nothing exi)erimentally of the spiritual element in his or her own culture, and who never has anything to say directly or iinli- THE SPIRITUAL ELEMENT IN EDUCATION. 701 recti y to his pupils about the realities of the spiritual world, is not the best ciistodi&i] of interests so precious as those conserved in the school and the col- lege, is not the safest guide of youth. Other things equal, he is the most forceful teacher who has the deepest hold on spiritual things, whose soul is most plenarily charged with the dynamics of the unseen world, and who brings most of these forces to bear on his work. He who is himself most in communion with the unseen, whose eye is steadily fixed on spiritual verities, has the farthest-reaching and most powerfully controlling influence on the y>\astic nature of the student in his charge. But let not my meaning be mis- understood. I do not mean spiritualistic fanatics who pose as " mediums " to deceive simple-minded people; neither those misguided enthusiasts whose re- ligious culture lacks the ballast of a rightly discerning intelligence. Accord- ing to my conception of the subject, the spiritual element in education should receive special attention in our higher institutions of learning, as students here are better able to appreciate its bearing, and as advanced collegiate stud- ies are better calculated to develop it. If there is a place, next to the very altars of God, where a reverent bearing, a devout spirit, and a corresponding style of utterance are both becoming ornaments and requisites to the highest usefulness, that place is the professor's chair. The example of the illustrious Agassiz, at the opening of his Penikese Scientific School, is not only most ex- cellent in itself, but eminently in keeping with the fitness of things, and wor- thy to be imitated. Would that such a spirit were in every great scientific explorer and teacher, and that he would send down upon his students such an influence from his high seat of power ! liCt the professor be reverent and devout ; let him be spiritually minded as well as learned and otherwise able; and let the instruction in our colleges flow down upon the training youth from the highest possible plane of potentiality, and then may we hope that from these fountains of national, social, and moral life there will go forth healthful streams that shall make glad the waste places of earth and fill the land with their rich fruits. Fellow-teachers, as we in our high stations are the real sovereigns of our great republic; as we love our country and are set for the defense and perpetuity of its institutions ; as we cherish the sanctity of the home and prize the beneficent eflfectiveness of our whole educational system ; as we have regard to the formation of right and substantial character in the education of the youth ; as we aim to make them good and useful and patriotic citizens, well qualified and efiicient ser- vants in the various stations of trust and responsibility ; aa we are zealous to put them in possession of those means and forces as will minister to them the greatest comfort and helpfulness in their various callings, let us, above all things else, both by example and precept, teach those who are committed to our charge to look at "the things which are not seen," as well as "the things that are seen." 702 THE NATIOXAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. COLLEGE EDUCATION AND PROFESSIONAL LIFhL J. r. Hl'T( IIINSON, MONMOrTH, ILLINOIS. • The presumption has been in paet years in favor of the proposition that a college education is necessary-^ to success in a professional life — and thus iht burden of ])roof has rested upon those who would oppose this proposition. But the tendency of the day is to rush into active life with undue precipita- tion. The preparatory work is shortened, the training-school hurried throu^rh, and the arena entered, and its battles fought with precipitate haste. The consequence has been that the candidates for the professions are not l)repared for their work ; the contestants are unskilled in the use of their weapons, and many go down in the first onslaught of the foe. And this rush into the professions is influenced largely by the haste that Ls shown in busi- ness affairs. The two fields of activity are so closely related that the one partakes largely of the character of the other. If the pulse of the one is quickened, a corre- .spouding quickening is felt in the pulse of the other, or if the blood in the arteries and veins of the business man becomes sluggish, the blood of the pro- fessional man will become sluggish and stagnant to the same degree. Or, to change the comparison, we might style it the principle of venturi A current flowing through the atmosphere of commerce and trade draws into its influence a strong current from the atmosphere of the professional life. Just as the draft in the flue is increased by a strong wind across the top of the chimney, so the strong winds across the tall shafts in the marts of- trade and commerce add large increments of velocity in the life-stream of the pro- fessional world. The result of all this hurry has been to fill the professions with men inade- . ortant advantages for his road, he wa<* superintendent, manager, and at- torney ; and though dealing with railroad magnates of great corporations, he held his own, and gained many valuable points for his corporation. He was none the loser, but a great gainer in being a college graduate. Another college-man has attained eminence in the engineering profession ( as it should be styled to-day), and his mathematical training in the class-room wa.< one stone in the strong foundation of his marked success. Another stone in that foundation — the keystone — was the training received from ^odly parents. His father — the best 'college President and the finest educator Illinois has ever seen — being Dr. David A. Wallace, of precious memory. And we can all as college-men point to notable examples of successful busi- ness men who have attained much of their success through mental develop- ment, training and skill acquired in the college class-room. But if the college education is beneficial to the business man, much more iir it beneficial to the professional man ; and while it may not be necessary to success in the former, still it may be shown that it w necessar}^ to the highest success in the latter. The same line of argument obtains in substantiating this point, that was used iu the first. Mental powers, and skill in their use, are needed in a higher de^a'ee of development in the professions than in the trades. The subjects handled are more intricate ; the lines of investigation extend beyond those followed in the world of traffic ; and while the lines of the two great fields of mental activity may seem to run parallel, like the asymptote and its curve, they are gradually approaching, and will finally intersect each other, when there shall be no distinction between the workmen, skilled or unskilled, professional or non-professional, but all shall be engaged in the one ser\'ie€ — praising the great Creator of the universe; and for that ser\^ice the mat preparation needed here in all classes of workmen is the culture of the heart. 704 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. But the preparation needed for this mental development necessary in the professional life is gained better in the class-room drill, in the instruction im- parted from the professor's chair, on the principle of precept upon i)recept» line upon line, here a little and there a little, until impressions are made which are as lasting as the marks on the rocks by the falling water. Nor can this preparatorj' work be done in the mere professional sc1kk»1 — the law school, medical college, divinity hall, or normal. These cannot take the place of the college, but should be the supplement- of the college. The training given or the knowledge imparted in any of these, without a previous college training, is like building on the sand. Hence we claim that the best lawyers, physicians, theologians, and teachers, other thiu^»> being equal, are those who first received their bachelor's degree in the college, and then a diploma from the faculty of law, medicine, theology, or pedark other than that gained in the mental discipline of the college curriculum. The (irovemment acts wisely in preparing her soldiere for their profession — in requiring a thorough mental training, a high standard of scholarship, and nothing omitted that can in any way advance the preparation of the cadet for his military career. The same care, we maintain, should be exercised by our educators in preparing the candidates for the other professions. And when similar thoroughness in preparatory work is insisted on by our professional schools of the applicants for admission to their class-rooms, and when upon this foundation, thus secured, these schools of law, medicine, the- ology, engineering, and pedagogy build a superstructure of polished gi-anite. reflecting the painstaking care and diligence exercised by the professor in his work, then will our professions be filled with an army of workmen of which we shall not, as a nation of learning and culture, l)e ashamed. Then shall our sons grow up in their youth, and our daughters as corner-stones polishwl after the similitude of a palace. For, accepting this language of the inspired writer as a prophecy, we would not exclude the daughter from the same pro- fessional honors to which we admit her brothen*. And from our knowledge of her ability in the class-room, they need not be ashamed of competing with UNIFORM REQUIBEMENTS FOB ADMISSION, 705 l:ker in the professional arena. And they may look well to their laurels, for silie may snatch them from their brows, as she has done in the classic halls of t-lie college or university. The lady professor of psychology in Albert Lee Col- le«jre, in this State, took the honors of her class, and ranked first for five pre- N'ious years. And Wellesley, Vassar, Smith and Bryn Mawr, Waco and Oberlin, will iibtless furnish many in the years to come, who shall stand first in the ranks of all of the professions. But then, all had not attained this eminence in the ranks of teachers without this higher college education. Granting that the tirae is long in which this education is imparted, is it any too long, when we oonsider the grand results that are gwned by its acquisition, and which, in many cases, would not be gwned without it ? And while we do not claim that the college course might not be shortened in many cases with profit, yet we do claim that the professions should not be attempted without a college educa- tion, and that the best the candidate can get at a fresh-ivat-er college, as Dr. Patton styled them, or a sea-water universUy. Let our young men and young women seek the walls of Harvard, Yale, Princeton, Evanston, Lake Forest, MacAlister, Hamlin, or Vassar, Wellesley, Smith, or Bryn Mawr, and seek them for the power to be gained in their training, and not for their name; and, using well that power in the professions they choose, their alma maters will be honored in their sons and daughters. UNIFORM REQUIREMENTS FOR ADMISSION H. A. FISCHER, WHEATON COLLEGE, ILLINOIS. The gentleman, in opening his address, spoke briefly in support of the as- sertion that the requirements for admission to colleges to-day are not uniform, showing that many and varied ideas prevail among the collegiate institutions of the land in this regard. He also spoke upon the desirability of uniformity in the requirements for admission to colleges. "If,-' he said, "there is no special meaning attached to requirements for admission to college, just so far there is no meaning attached to a college degree. Uniformity of these requirements is also desirable because through no other means can there be any definite relation between the college on the one hand and the high schools and academies on the other. "I will speak now of what has already been done in order to secure uni- formity in requirements for admission. And I will mention first the fact that in the National Educational Association several abortive attempts have been made lo secure some degree of unifonnity. I need not dwell on this topic, because it has come to nothing. In the next place, there is in the New Eng- 706 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, land States a commission of colleges, embracing some fifteen or sixteen nf the leading colleges of that section, which has for its object the maintenancv of the existing degree of requirements for admission ; to bring about a greater degree of uniformity of requirement** upon common subjects; to brin^ about a greater degree of uniformity of regulations in regard to the division of ad- mission examinations into preliminary' and final examinations. This crun- mission has issued three annual re[X)rts. In the first report they treat only of the subject of English requirement; in the second report this subject i- continued; in the third and last report, I believe, this subject is still <.v»n- tinued, and concluded, and the subjects of modem languages, natural science* and (Treek and Roman history are begun. You see the road before i>ur friends in the East is a long one, and they approach to the work step by !«t4?]i. The next endeavor to secure uniformity of which I have knowledge is foun^l in the State of New York. The l^niversity of the State of New York heiivj. governed by a board of regents, this board of regents have a sort of super- visory control over all colleges in the State ; and they prepare various course?, one of which is called the college entrance course. They advise that all col- leges make this college entrance course the equivalent for what they requin- for admission. "The fourth attempt to secure uniformity comes from the State of Ohif». There is an association of Ohio colleges which I consider a very imj>ortanr body. This association of Ohio colleges — having been in existence, I don't know how long — in the year 1875, I believe, took it into their heads that the word college ought to have some significance, if possible, and the committcv reix)rted, and this rejwrt was adopted: *That in the judgment of this com- mittee, colleges holding membership in the association should be compelled to fulfill these conditions: First, the four regular college classes in full opera- tion ; that the college course should comprise four years of solid work with fifteen recitations per week ; the minimum requirements for admission to the freshman class should be, besides the common English branches, two to three years of Latin study with daily recitations, two to three years of Greek with daily recitations, and algebra to quadratic equations.' Only fifteen college^ were named by the committee as being entitled to representation in tlii* association ; but I must commend the skill of this committee. They wei'e asked to decide what were entitled to membership in this association, and it was a very delicate question to determine. So they simply say this: Wt will say nothing about a large number of the institutions, saying nothiiiif either for or against them, because we do not know what their courses are ; but we will say with respect to these fifteen, that there can be no doubt. So the^^e fifteen were admitted, and whether the rest were up to the standard or not. wt* are in doubt. " Finally, there was an attempt to secure uniformity made in the State '>f Illinois. At the time of the meeting of the college session — which, by the way, is a branch of the Illinois State Teachers' Association — about a vear 1^ COLLEGE FBATEEyiTIES. 707 tviid a half ago, a paper was read on the subject of uniform courses in colleges. F'^'ollowing this paper a committee was appointed to report on the same sub- j €2ct at the following session. That report was made at the following session, ri,nd then another committee was appointed to call a convention of all the ci'olleges of the State and to present to that convention courses for their in- s5t ruction, and also courses and requirements for admission. This is the state of the case in the State of Illinois. The committee is now at work, and it is l:ioi>ed that in a few years this committee will be able to report — perhaps in one year — and that at least a number of the colleges will adopt practically, at least for a length of time, the courses that will be suggested. " Now what further can be done ? It seems to me the work must be taken up by States, or at least by sections having some common center where repre- sentatives of the various colleges can come and consider the topic. It cannot be successfully handled in this National Educational Association. Secondly, let the work that is commenced go on — even if it does take lime, let it go on. I hope the colleges of our country will have an existence of a century or more, and we can take two, three or five years to do something that is desirable. So let the work that has been commenced go on. And in connectioit with this, allow me to remark that there ought to be a great deal of correspondence be- tween the colleges of different States; and furthermore, our present Com- missioner of Education, Dr. Harris, will be found a very valuable assistant to any persons in any State who desire to take up the subject and desire to secure uniformity in the requirements for admission. And finally, let these meetings continue. Even though we cannot go to all the meetings, let us have the meetings. Let us go as often as we can, let us exchange views, and the eftect will be, especially if this topic is introduced occasionally, that there will be a leveling-up process begun." COLLEGE FMATEBXITIES: THEIR INFLUENCE AND CONTROL, J. T. m'fARLAND, rOWA WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY. When at quite a late date I saw from the published program that I had been assigned the task of opening this discussion, it occurred to me that I would like to know more fully what the status of the fraternities is in the colleges of the country ; what the judgment of college-men is concerning their influence; and what methods are followed in the administrative control of them. To this end I sent out a circular of inquiry to the college presidents of the country, soliciting answers to the following questions : 1. What, if any, fraternities are organized in your institution ? 2. Are fraternities prohibited in your institution ? n 708 * THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. 3. If fraternities have been abolished in your school, state by what method and with what success. 4. What, in your judgment, is the influence of fraternities on scholarship in your school ? o. What is your observation as to the moral influence of fraternities ? 6. Have you found the fraternities to be helps or hindrances in matters of discipline ? 7. Have you adopted any rules for the control of fraternities ? If so, state the substance of them. 8. What suggestions would you make as to principles and methods for th*? regulation of fraternities if any special control is desirable ? 9. On the whole, balancing their good and evil effects, do you regard the existence of fraternities in your institution an advantage or disadvantage ? I had received replies to these questions, before leaving home, from one hundred and thirty institutions; which, considering the lateness of the date at which I sent out the circular, the fact that it fell on a time when the col- leges generally had closed, and many of the presidents were away from home, together with the almost irresistible gravitation which circulars with long list* of questions have toward the waste basket, is a very fair return. I will not attempt to present any detailed digest of the answers which I have received to these questions. A summary of results on the principai points, together with the quotation of a few individual opinions and sugges- tions, will be sufficient. Of the one hundred and thirty colleges replying to my inquiries, thirtj- three report that they have no fraternities, but that they are not prohibited, and express no opinion concerning them. Twenty-one have none — do not formally prohibit, but express unfavorable opinions of the fraternities ; twenty have them, but consider them a disadvantage ; twenty-seven have them, and consider them an advantage; one has none, but expresses a desire for their organization. Summarizing simply with reference to the favorable pr un- favorable estimate of the fraternities, not taking account of the 33 that do not have them, 85 report as opposed to them, while 28 regard them with favor. It thus appears that, comparing the testimony for and against, the proportion is three to one against. The complaints against the fraternities specify that they produce clannish- ness ; that they give rise to unnatural divisions among the students ; that they interfere with the work of the literary societies ; that they add bitterness to college politics ; that they are occasions of burdensome expense to their mem- bers; that they encourage extravagance and dissipation ; that they are organ- ized upon a social rather than a scholastic basis ; that they are frequently places of refuge and rocks of defense for evil-doers ; that they absorb time and energy that the student should give to his regular work ; that they tend to cause students to regard college as a place of amusement rather than w^ork, and that on account of the unnatural factious which they create, and the strife 7^ COLLEGE FBATEBNITIES. 709 id ^>\t'temess which they engender, they seriously interfere with the moral i< ci- ties is more unfavorably marked in the church institutions, where more spa i' attention is given to and interest is taken in, the religious life of the ^studt:.: It is therefore impossible to draw any conclusions that will be true of ;i. fraternities in all schools. We cannot generalize on the basis of the experif n > of a particular school at a given time. We must judge of the system a.- . whole in the light of the general and long-continued experience of scho» •!- The matter should not be dealt with, either as to the recognition, exclusion • - abolition of fraternities, with reference to local and temporary condition*, but broadly, on the principles of college statesmanship, with reference to th total average results of experience concerning them. If, on the whole, ih^ verdict of experience is that secret societies constitute a disturbing- and burr- fill element in college life, those institutions in which they do not exist won In do wisely to prohibit them ; and those institutions w^hich have them shouJ»i either abolish them, or carefully guard against the evils incident to the m>- tem. With regard to the control of the fraternities I have not received maiiv suggestions. The majority would apparently recommend the *'let-alrg:auized capacity. The iratemities are ordinarily too important and posi- tive factors to be ignored. It may be, as in case described in the returns to my questions, that some schools are in the happy state of the man of such perfect stomach that he is not conscious that he has any stomach at all ; but the disciplinary digestion of most institutions is not so absolutely reliable that they can afford to be indifferent as to what they swallow. If I may be permitted to refer to the institution with which I am connected, 1 would say that we have had fraternities for many years. At present we are experimenting with certain regulative methods, the result of which so far, wMle they do not remove or even lessen many of the evils incident to the system, are fairly satisfactory. The requirements which we have prescribed are chiefly these: We forbid preparatory students being received into the fraternities. We require that a student shall have been in attendance in the school for a year, or in a school of equal grade, before his reception into a fraternity, and that for the year preceding his reception he shall have made an average grade in a full set of studies, of not less than 85 per cent. We require the name of every candidate for membership in a fraternity, prior to his reception, to be submitted to the secretary of the faculty, from whom a certificate must be obtained, certifying that the candidate is eligible to mem- bership under our rules, before he can be initiated. We also require each fraternity to keep us supplied with a ftiU register of its membership and offi- cers. The good results which we observe from these regulations are several. It prevents the societies from taking in men too soon after they enter school, be- fore the men themselves have had adequate opportunity to consider the rela- tive merits of the societies or the desirability of fraternity membership in general ; and before the societies have had opportunity to consider the char- acter and abilities of the new men. It acts as a stimulus to scholarship on a great many students. Those who aspire to membership in the fraternities know they must make the required grade ; and those who are indifferent as to the matter of joining a fraternity, still do not want to fall below the standard of eligibility. In this way it forces the societies up to a scholastic basis, and gives them a respectability and legitimate pride which they would not other- ^VLse have. PROCEEDINaS ADDRESSES NORMAL DEPARTMENT. Department of Normal Schools. SECRETARY'S MINUTES. FIRST SESSION. Assembly Room, St. Paul, Minn., July 9, 1890. The meeting was called to order at 3 p. m. by the President, W. W. Parsons, of Indiana, who delivered the annual address. Papers were then read by F. Louis Soldan, St. Louis, on "Educational Ideas in Dickens's Novels," and by Miss Isabel Lawrence, St. Cloud, Minne- sota, on "American School Branches from a Professional Point of View." The President then announced as a committee on nomination of officers tor the ensuing year, Joseph Baldwin, of Texas; H. H. Seerley, of Iowa; and L. C. Lord, of Minnesota The Department then adjourned. SECOND SESSION.— JiLY 10. The Department met at 3 p. m., with the President in the chair. On motion, the discussion on the subjects presented the previous day was clisj)ensed with. Dr. W. T. Harris then delivered a talk on "The Difference between Nor- mal-School and High-School Methods." President A. R. Taylor, of Kansas, read a paper on " Recitation Estimates." The report of the committee, appointed ftt Nashville, to continue the sub- ject of " Pedagogical Inquiry in Public Schools," was submitted through its chairman. President T. J. (iray, of Minnesota. The report of the Committee on Nominations was then made, as follows : President- -B. A. Hinsdale, Ann Arbor, Michigan. Vice-President- -G. L. Osborne, Missouri. Secretary -Isabel Lawrence, St. Cloud, Minnesota. The Secretary was instructed to cast the ballot of the Department for the nominees. The Department then adjourned. JOHN L. LAMPSON, Seeretai^, (717) 718 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. PAPERS. THE NORMAL SCHOOL CLREICULUM. WILLIAM W. PARl^OXS, TERRE HAUTE, INDIANA. A course of study is a means to an end. It presupposes on the one hand certain existing conditions, and on the other, a prescribed object to be ac- complished. The curricuhim is determined by these two factors — the degree of maturity, the ability, the attainments of those presenting themselves for admission, and the special end it is designed to bring about or promote. It is manifest that these are the two important and immediate considerations which determine the course of study in both the general school and the school for a special or technical training. Assuming that the normal-school course is to be organized in the light mainly of these two considerations, it will be well to direct attention to each for a few moments. As it was found impracticable to gather trustworthy statistics from a wide field, I will state the conditions as they exist in my own State — Indiana. Probably these will be found to represent substantially the conditions under which the majority of the normal schools of the United States are conduct- ing their work. The average age of students at the time of entering is a little more than twenty years. About twenty-two per cent, of the number are graduates of high schools and academies that maintain a three- or a four-years course be- yond the work of the town and city grade schools. A very few are college graduates. Ten i)er cent, more have had from one to two years in the high school. From sixty to sixty-five per cent, of the entire number have only such scholastic attainments as are given by the country district school or the town or city graded school, with some enlargement and deepening of this in most cases by private study. Perhaps one-half of the students in attendance at any time are teachers of more or less experience. Many have taught several years. As a clas.s, they are plain, earnest, studious people, and are in the main self-supporting. They have habits of industry, attention and per- severance, and they know the value of time and opportunity. These are the people whom the normal school is to prepare to be teachers. It must be clear that so long as the normal school is obliged to admit as its students person? having only meager attainments, its course of study must be adapted to the needs of tliis class. THE NOBMAL SCHOOL CUBBICULUM, 719 Let the aim of this class of schools be stated in a word. As the normal s^eViools of the United States are constituted and conducted, so far as I am i»»ble to learn, they confine and devote their attention to the preparation of t:eacliers, and for teachi&g in the elementary and secondary schools. The iTormal school is not a school for general education, training and culture, for ti^heir own sake. It is a professional school. It seeks to confer a certain knowl- odge, skill and ability necessary to the rational practice of an art. That it may so do its particular work as to give a most valuable general training, ^)robably few would deny; nay, a thoroughly rational study of the problem of education in its various phases must result in an efficient mental training : "but this is an incident, not the controlling aim of the process. To be sure, there are not wanting jiersons who maintain that the normal school has no particular function — that it has no integral and organic place in a system of education. These hold that the work of the normal school, in so far as it is efficacious and valuable, is essentially a duplication of that of the high school, the academy, or the college. It lies without the scope of the present discus- sion to consider this objection. We may leave this class to that educating influence which a great popular consciousness and a world movement always exercise at last on the opposing individual. The world is committed to the doctrine of a professional education for teachers. The normal school has a problem of its own. It is giving its attention And energy to a valid phase of the educational question. It may be remarked, that in stating the fact that, as normal schools are now organized in this country, they do not prepare teachers for the college and university, it is not conceded that there is no need for such professional train- ing for the college or university professor. On the contrary, if this question were under consideration, it would be held that one of the urgent needs of the higher education to-day is a more thorough understanding of the history and philosophy of education by those who are conducting its work. Holding in mind the qualifications of those who make up the great body of normal students, and remembering that the object of the normal school is to prepare teachers for the country, town, and city grade schools, and for the high schools, we ask, what should be the distinctive features of the course of study in the normal school ? The question is not. What constitutes an ideal course of study for a normal school? but, Under the conditions described, what means are best adapted to the end sought ? It will be convenient to conduct the discussion to be made, by using terms already current, and somewhat settled in meaning — academic, professional. We may first consider the course with reference to what is usually denoted the academic phases of it. The first thing to be noted is, that the term academic as ordinarily employed in this connection is very misleading. The unthinking observer notices that the normal school, the academy, and the high school have many things in common. He sees physiology, literature and geometry in each of these 720 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. courses, and infers that the normal school gives instruction in these subi^t' substantially like that of the others. This is wholly inconclusive. The hi^ school and the academy teach these subjects as instruments of general e«lni-3 tion. The student pursues them as means of self-culture. His object is, *• - 1 study these subjects as to acquire by this means the largest and most effici^L: culture of his own faculties. The subject is not exclusively academic, W the student pursues it in the academic spirit and for academic ends — fov^d culture. In the normal school this is all changed. The primary aim ir? rii.: self-culture, (may not the fact that the aim is disinterested and unselfish reali} make the subject more truly educative to the self?) but to acquire >uc?. knowledge of the subject as will enable one to wield it as an instrument in the education of others. This does not ignore the academic aspects of uV subject, but adds a most important something to these. It first give* tbr ordinary general knowledge of the subject; the second gives a teacher'^ knowledge of the subject. The normal school, therefore, gives no strictly and exclusively academic instruction. It is not inapt to say that there i? high-school geometry, and there is normal-school geometry. Botany in the academy is one thing; it is in the normal school, in essential particulars, a different thing. The same field of subject-matter, so far as the facts and gen- eralizations constituting the subject are concerned, may be investigated : but they are investigated in a different spirit, and for a different purpose. C an we make this distinction clearer? A subject of study, as arithmetic, physiology, or histor\% consisti? of a lanre body of facts, particular and general — built together in such form as to show their organic connections, and to reveal the general truths which lie hidden in these facts. An intelligent study of the subject for any purpose will lead to the mastery of this subject-matter thus organized. It will require the :ftu- dent to think these facts and generalizations, and to see all parts and pliases of the subject in their proper relations, to constitute an orderly branch oi knowledge. The normal student and the high-school student must alike mas- ter this subject-matter by seeing its inherent order and method, and we niay admit that there is equal necessity for both seeing it ; though jierhaps, a« mat- ter of fact, the normal school lays the more stress on this. But the normal student is not only to think the facts and generalizations in their inherent re- lations and inter-relations, but he is at the same time to think his thinking of these. He not only j)erfornis the mental activities necessary to seize this sub- ject-matter, but the very processes by which he does this are objects of most attentive consideration. He sees that these are the necessary activities of the mind in acquiring this subject-matter. He comes to know this subject-matter as product of mind-activity. To the act of knowing is added an act oi in- tros|)ecti()n, and it is seen that there are necessary conditions of the act. and that only when these are supplied does the act mature into its proper product. It will hardly be denied that, if a given field of knowledge is to be acquired by a student, that person will be the best fitted to direct the process of acqui- THE NOBMAL SCHOOL CUBEICULUM. 721 >itiori who knows what mental activities must be performed, and under what i^onditions the processes will mature their legitimate products. An illustration I nay make this difference apparent. The point to be mastered is, that every s>^iitence contains certain main elements bearing a definite relation to one an- <^ther. The school for general training would show that the sentence has its meaning in the fact that it expresses a thought or judgment; it would lead t:be pupil to see, by reflection, illustration, and example, that a judgment has a s^iibjeot and a predicate, and that the perception of a relation between these completes this product. It would satisfy itself that the student had mastered the nature of the thought as a means of understanding the nature of the sen- tence, and would then be ready for an advance point. Now the normal school would do all this with equal thoroughness and completeness, and, in addition, would lead the pupil to a consciousness of his own mental procedure in acquiring this knowledge, and moreover to a rational verification of this as the true procedure in the premises. In the high school or academy one of the vital organs is the subject of investigation. This organ from a lower an- imal is put on the dissecting-table, and its anatomy is revealed by the process of dissection. The microscope also reveals its histological structure. The normal school would do this, and in addition would make the pupil strongly conscious of this as the true method of making these acquisitions. It would require him to justify, on psychological grounds, his procedure as a student. The high school wishes the pupil to acquire a certain notion or concept. By definition, illustration, and concrete example, it seeks to effect its object. The normal school requires the pupil to reflect on the means he employs to acquire this notion, and to see that the steps taken are psychologically the necessary steps. Thus, one who is preparing to teach the subject he is now mastering, adds a phase of reflection at every point, wholly unnecessary to the mastery of it, ajB a means of self- culture for its own sake. He is acquiring a teacher's knowledge of the subject. It may be objected that the normal student is not mature and reflective enough to add this introspective act at every step. The answer is, that until he is able to begin to do this, he is not prepared to engage in the professional study of the normal-school curriculum. And here, I incline to believe, is the true test of qualifications for admission to the normal school. Not that the applicant has a fair or even a liberal general knowledge of subjects, but that he is capable of making this reflective or introspective study of the subjects in the normal-school course. Strong dissent is here implied from that view which would have the person preparing for the vocation of teaching first study a large range of subjects, that is, acquire a large scholarship in the general school, and then come to the normal school for what is called a professional training. The normal school does not admit that any study of a subject in the general school does away with the necessity for a rethinking of it in its main features and for the pur- 722 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. pose of seeing it in relation to the mental processes it involves. X<> l>e ^u the time reciuired for the professional view of it will be less if the gen- -.. school shall have done well the work it has undertaken. But we may < question if there has not been loss of time and energy in divorcing thes^e : ^ aspects of the subject in time and attention. The school for general cuIti"^ emphasizes the product of the mental act ; that is, the knowledge. It tAke* i notice, or at best, gives only incidental attention to the act which with h> attending conditions makes the acquisition. The normal school is not )»-* careful that the knowledge shall be acquired, but it makes the prtM^r- which results in the acquisition the chief object of attention and empha*i- If this last element in the process is, as has been held, peculiar to the norma' school, if it is also necessary to the teacher's knowledge of the subject, aui not important when general educational ends are sought, what valid rea^' n can be assigned for separating in time what is denoted the academic study of the subject from its professional phases? It is tnie that the teacher's view r-i the subject involves deeper reflection and a higher degree of abstraction and self-consciousness, and the subject, as knowledge, may be studied at aij earlier age than the subject as process; but this distinction disappears when the student is ready to enter the normal school. This supposition will bring us face to face with the <|uestion : A young man of eighteen is a graduate of a good high school or academy. He wisbe?: to devote the next five years to making the most thorough preparation possible for the work of teaching. Recognizing the necessity for a liberal scholarship and also for a sound professional training, he is unable to decide whether to give four years to an academic course in the college, and follow this by a year's strictly professional training in a normal school, or elsewhere; or to spend the full five years in a normal school, whose curriculum covere, sub- stantially, the range of academic work given in a college, and in addition carries along with this a line of distinctively professional instruction. Let the terms of the comparison be clearly understood. The standard for admis- sion to the normal school is equal to that for admission to the college. If this does not represent the actual situation, it in nowise affects the argument. The instructors in the one are equal in ability, scholarship, experience, and skill, to those in the other. What shall be the young man's choice? These con- siderations, to ray thinking, will rec^uire him to give the five years to the normal-school course. FirHt: The normal school will put an emphasis and stress on the organiza- tion of the subject, whatever it may be, that the general school, as a rule, at- taches less imjwrtance to. We may admit, indeed we must assert, that for the highest ends of general education, the method in the subject, the inherent logical order or disposition of the subject-matter, should be considered aiid mastered. The general school may give this; it should give it. The normal school must give it. It is constrained by its function and purpose to make this a prominent subject of study. It is necessary to any intelligent teaching THE NORMAL SCHOOL CUBBICIUM, 723 t* the subject; but general education may accomplish its object in a fair de- i^oe without this. jSecofifi : In a normal school every subject is to be taught as an illustration .11 ci exemplification of the doctrines of education and method, which are the t>w elusive subject of study in the strictly professional subjects of the course. riie doctrines set forth in pure psychology, ethics, methods or applied psychol- >^y, philosophy of education, and pure philosophy, find in the every-day in- struction in the academic phase of the normal-school work complete illustration SLTid exemplification. No other procedure affords as this does the opportunity to make each phase of the work strengthen and reenforce the other. It is econoniical of time and energy, and moreover, must result in a view of the subject that would otherwise be acquired with difficulty. Third: To study an academic subject in the atmosphere created by the presence of a large number of persons pursuing the same end, is itself a reen- fbrcement of the individual's own power. This rests on a well-known fact of mind. Two children in the kindergarten, if set to work together, will dis- X>lay a great deal more invention than would be shown in the combined results of separate and individual work. Fourth: In the normal school the student puts himself into the attitude of the teacher while studying a given subject. He assumes a teacher's mental attitude toward everything he takes up. He is thus led to consider every subject as an educational agency or instrument. He reflects on its value as means of acquiring useful knowledge, knowledge to be turned to account in the after-life of the student ; he weighs the subject in respect of its worth in the more strictly disciplinary view as fitted to strengthen, develop, and invig- orate the mental faculties ; he thinks of its ethical value as suited to open to the student some phase of society or the rational world he lives in. It is one of the chief aims of instruction in an academic subject in the normal school to lead the student to a mastery of it as an educational instrument or means. Fifth : But perhaps the strongest reason for pursuing the academic subjects, so-called, in the normal school, and in immediate connection with the exclu- sively professional subjects is, that the conditions then exist, as under no other circumstances, for the analysis and study of the mental processes employed in mastering them. Next to a knowledge of the subject-matter in the purely acjulemic view, this i^? the most important element of a teacher's preparation for teaching the subject. It lies at the foundation of any scientific procedure in the school-room. If it is attempted to acquire this professional view of the subject some months or years after the academic work has been done, there is required a rethinking of a field of subject-matter which has faded more or les8 out of the memory, and is wanting in that freshness and clearness character- izing it at the time of acquisition. In addition, it may be claimed that the strongest logical association which knowledge has, is with the processes which acquired it ; and it may be doubted, therefore, if a purely academic study of any subject ever results in the definite, clear and comprehensive understand- 724 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATIOJV. ing that is given by adding to this the reflective consideration o£ the pro€&^^ involved. The considerations adduced lead to the opinion that the normal-schooi mu>i enlarge its course to cover the academic field required by the teacheis whi>iL it educates, and that it must treat these subjects persistently in the light «c the educational doctrine it holds and teaches. The limits set to this address preclude any treatment of the norinaI-sciKi»i curriculum .in its purely professional phase. It is enough to say that thi- must include a thoroughly reflective study of pure mind, mind in its app/ica- tion or method, science of education, and finally, of pure philosophy, which. as furnishing a rational theory of the world and of human life, gives the uki- mate ground on which all educational doctrine rests. EDUCATIONAL IDEAS IN DICKENS'S NOVELS. F. LOUIS SOLDAN, ST. LOUIS, MISSOURI. Hans Makart attempted in one of his paintings to express the generaJ idea that pervades the works of Raphael. His painting shows a group of but three persons. There is the portrait of Raphael himself, pencil in hand, his eye intently fixed on the face and form of a young mother, who draws with gentle hand the veil from the face of her beautiful child which is slumbering in the cradle. It is not diflScult to understand the symbolism of Makart's group. The central idea of Raphael's art is, to unveil to the world the Divine in mother- hood and childhood. Through the hand of the artist the genius within pro- claims to the world without the divine mystery revealed in that human relationship. Raphael's work is the apotheosis of motherhood and childhood ; it is tiiis theme which shines from his greatest paintings. The unveiling of the Divine in things human was the object of DickensV novel! itic art. He differs in this essentially from the other great novel-writers of his age. His aim was not, to introduce the reader to the circles of high life, and to open to him in story drawing-room doors closed to him in reality: his aim was not, to revive the romantic age of knight and crusader; it wa* not, to propose psychological puzzles and to unravel them in finely-woven plots of fiction. No ; his eye dwelt with never-fading interest on the events of common-place life and every-day characters. Not the heights, but the depths of human existence formed the theme of his art. The warehouse, the counting-room, the street and the gutter supply him with heroes, with godlike men and women whose noble qualities ray out all the more strongly for the dark background of folly, sin and vice against which their images are thro\^Ti. EDUCATIONAL IDEAS IN DICKENS'S NOVELS. 725 Che great novelist shows a tendency toward grotesqueness and exaggeration 11 draining characters and relating events ; but even this strong bias cannot liminisb in the reader the feelings of reverence and sympathy when he sees Divine traits appear in the thoughts and actions of the humblest and lowliest t>f men. The sensation of the ludicrous, for instance, which the broadly gro- tesij^ue farce of the adventures of Mr. Pickwick arouses in the reader is more and more overshadowed by the powerful pathos of the hero's actions. The Divine element appears when the hero forgets insult and injury and lifts up his down-trodden foe, poor Jingle, from misery and hopeless despair, conceal- ing to others his benevolence with anxious care. Strong human foibles and absurdities become amiable weaknesses in a life consisting of the unpretending exercise of good-will toward all. The hero's life ennobles his surroundings. The grotesque \s forgotten when in it a grandly noble soul unfolds itself. Neither Job Trotter nor Sam Weller can be justly accused of sentimentalism i)v hyperbole, but even they see distinctly the Divine element appear in the grotesque character whom they admire. When Mr. Pickwick had helped Job's master in his darkest hour, he had touched the soul of the scamp in the one unselfish sentiment which it contained : in his devotion to his master and friend. Speaking of Mr. Pickwick, Job says : " I could serve that gentleman till I fell down dead at his feet." " ' No one serves him but I,' answered Sam. ' I never heard, mind you, nor read of in story books, nor see in picters, any angel in tights and gaiters — not even in spectacles as I remember, though that may ha' been done for any- thin' I know to the contrairey — but mark my words. Job Trotter, he's a regular thoroughbred angel for all that ; and let me see the man as wentures to tell me he knows a better vun.' " The grand theme of Dickens, the unveiling of the Divine in the lowliest forms of human life, can be traced in many if not all of his writings. In " Oliver Twist," in the "Old Curiosity Shop," in « Bleak House," in " Barnaby Rudge," it is shown that even an atmosphere of corruption, sin and crime, cannot always stifle the divine essence of the human soul. He turned to the delineation of childhood in novel after novel with ever new delight. It was suffering, abused, downtrodden childhood, however, which had a fascination for him. It was there that he could show best that man might grow into a true image of the Divine in spite of circumstances of mis- ery and poverty, of corrupt surroundings, of stinted, misguided, or tyrannical education. There are pictures of child-life, of educational folly or wisdom in nearly every one of his great novels, and it is ever the tender and loving task of our author to reveal the Divine in the child-soul, and to show that innate nobility dwells in the humblest and lowliest of the little world. Oliver Twist, brought up in coruption and crime, trained to be a thief, keeps his soul unsullied. Paul Dombey, brought up in selfishness, never knowing the loving care of a mother, remains a sweet and loving child. Strong manhood grows into being, in cases where there is a total absence of formal education. —46 726 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATJOI^. Sam Weller, in his humble station, is a sharp-witted, intelligent, and hfjgjss lad; but — what was his education? Here is his father's account of it, «l Sam's commentary : "'Wery glad to hear it, sir,' replied the old man; 'I took a good deal pains with his education, sir ; let him run in the streets when he was t^ young and shift for his self. It 's the only way to make a boy sharp, sir/ " ' Rather a dangerous process, I should imagine,' said Mr. Pickwick, vir a smile. " 'And not a very sure one neither,' added Mr. Weller jr." While Dickens has delineated child-life more fully and more fiTequeuLT than any other novelist, yet we should in vain look for a theory of educatj-: or for positive educational principles. He is negative in the litejrary meaii which he employs, and uses exaggeration, caricature, irony and satire ever where. Educational shams and follies are his subjects, not ideals of educa- tion. Happy child-life, good schools and good teachers have no place in hi- works. They lie outside of the self-appointed task of our novelist. He ii- tended to correct sins of education and to remedy social evils by the force >/. strongly overdrawn description, which was sure to move,*if not shock, pubL • sentiment. He never tells how education should proceed, but gives ninnen'iL- examples of ways in which children should not be brought up. Yet, fiom hi- negative statements, from the follies and crimes which he scourges, we may ic- fer the educational plan which he considers good and wise. Notwithstanding this tendency to exaggeration in his descriptions, there is a sufficientlv ckiese resemblance to reality to let the caricature at once suggest the image fnm which it is drawn. When Dickens described, in "Nicholas Nickleby/* the revolting scenes of Dotheboys Hall, a number of Yorkshire school-masteis took offense and threatened the author with personal vengeance, each of them claiming that Squeers was intended for his own libelous portrait. Dickens looked upon childhood with tender sympathy, and it had a pecul- iar attraction for him. It left him the widest scope for the employment of his favorite literary means, humor and pathos. There is hardly any of hiy works without some child-character or some thoughts on education. In some novels, as in " Oliver Twist," he makes the child the principal person in the book. In " Dombey & Son," Paul is the real hero ; and when he passes away the interest dies out. The fascination of helpless, trustful, simple, artless childhood is so strong, that Dickens tried to perpetuate these qualities, in some of the lives which he describes, beyond the limits of childhood. This led him to create some unique characters, in which he tries how the attributes of childhood will fit the adult hero or heroine of the novel. Little Dorrit shows the delicate sweetness and simplicity of the child blended with the strong character of womanhood. While other artists see the sublime in what is strong and grand, Dickens finds it in the small, insignificant, and lowly. He tiims constantly to the EDUCATIONAL IDEAS IN DICKENS'S NOVELS. 727 tx-ly days of his heroes, and tells us of their sufiering and training in the jlkool of sorrows and the sorrows of the school. Xti ia astonishing to see how many sharply-drawn child-characters Dickens as given to literature. There is the early novel of "Nicholas Nickleby," in rViicli the Yorkshire schools, Squeers, the school-master, his family, and his eaxsHer appear ; there are the Snawley children, poor Smike, and the little ven^gises. There is little Paul and Florence in "Dombey & Son." The tory of little Pip and Estella is told in "Great Expectations," where the per- w-exted training of the sentiments is the theme. In "Little Dorrit," quite a n limber of educational incidents are related ; there is not only the early life of Amy, but the stem school in which Clennam grew up, the hard task of Airs. Greneral when she tried to train irreverent, rebellious Fannie in social reiinement. In the " Old [Curiosity Shop," little Nell, Kit, and other child- characters are prominent. In " Hard Times," a whole system of education is placed before the reader, when he follows the author to Gradgrind's school, and learns his educational ideas in regard to the bringing-up of his children, l.d, * is largely taken from London life. The waif of the street, the victim of i rental neglect, the orphan remitted to the tender care of the stranger. : selfish utilization of child-labor, the perversion of education by makio;^ ■ aim the realization of some pet scheme of the parent ; these and other edu* l tional themes are the favorite subjects of Dickens. No more pathetic dc^r.: tion of the child of the gutter and of the ideal side of this pitiful life can *■ found than in Poor Joe, of "Bleak House." Desertion, squalor, poven- hunger and misery cannot altogether destroy the waif's better self; th^rt in him an instinctive knowledge of right and wrong, the noble feelings . gratefulness and attachment, and recognition and love of the good in othtr- Here is the scene at the inquest over that obscure copyist, Nemo, with wbt't the fate of proud Lady Deadlock seems to be bound up in such a mysteri«''j' way : "Says the coroner: *Is that boy here?' Says the coroner: 'Gro and fete:: him. . . . Oh, here is the boy, gentlemen.' " * Here he is, very muddy, very hoarse, very ragged. Now, boj — but sio\ a minute. Caution. This boy must be put through a few preliminary^ pacw-- " * Name ? Joe. Nothing else that he knows on. Don't know that everr- body has two names. Never heard such a thing. Don't know that Jrt is short for a longer name. Thinks it is long enough for him. He don't fineen glad to give him some. " ' He was very good to me,* said the boy, wiping his eye with his wretched sleeve. * When I see him allaying so stretched out just now, I w^sh he could have heard me tell him so. He was very good to me, he was.' " The deep sympathy which our author ever manifests for the sufferings and sorrows of mankind, explains the extreme bitterness with which he sj)eak8 of the tormentors of childhood — selfish parents, tyrannical teachers, and bad schools. It is the one subject of which he never tires. Hence the long line of the Creakles, the Squeerses, the Blinibers, the Pipchins, the Wopsles, and others. His command of details in depicting the wretchedness of these edu- cational monstrosities seems to be endless, but he is sparing in the praise of the few good schools which he describes. We tire of his constant abuse of educational plans, of schools and school-masters, and try to find what kind of education he approves. But where our author praises he seems soon ex- hausted. We hear much about Dotheboys Hall, about Dr. Blimber and Mr. Creakle ; we find a very vivid description of every detail of Mr. McChoak- umchild's teaching; but when we turn to Dr. Strong's noble school, a very brief and very general description is all that is given. Copperfield-Dickens describes it thus: "I got a little better of my uneasiness when I went to school the next day, and a good deal better the next day, and so shook it off by degrees that in less than a fortnight I was quite at home, and happy among my young com- panions. I was awkward enough in their games, and backward enough in their studies ; but custom would improve me in the first respect, I hoped, and hard work in the second. Accordingly I went to work very hard, both in play and in earnest, and gained great commendation. And, in a very little while, the Murdstone and Grinby life became so strange to me, that I hardly l)elieved in it, while my present life grew so familiar, that I seemed to have been leading it a long time. "Dr. Strong's was an excellent school; as different from Mr. Creakle\s as good is from evil. It was very gravely and decorously ordered, and on a sound system, with an appeal, in everything, to the honor and good faith of the boys, and an avowed intention to rely on their j)ossesi*ion of those quali- ties, unless they proved themselves unworthy of it, which worked wonders. We all felt that we had a part in the management of the place, and in sus- taining its character and dignity. Hence we soon became warmly attached to it I am sure I did for one, and I never knew, in all my time, of any other boy being otherwise, and learned with a good will, desiring to do it credit." There is, perhaps, some reason for the fact that Dickens paints parents and teachers so oflen in the darkest colors. The memory of the miseries of his own childhood was stronger than the recollection of its joys. He himself had been a ix)or, neglected child. The literary master-mind of the age had never 730 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, received a literary education. When little Charles was nine years old, L father, who had held a small government office, became involved in financb difficulties, which landed him in the debtors' prison, the Marshalsea. T. boy had to shift for himself. Copperfield's life in the warehouse of Mur^ stone and Grinby is a fairly correct account of Dickens's boyhood during Xh.^ years. Mr. Micawber and Mr. Dorrit, the father of the MarshaJsea, are tv- flections caught from the lights and shadows of the personality of IHcken- • father. His mother is perhaps depicted in Mrs. Nickleby. Our novelist had but to recall his own neglected child-life and then to ca£- template the suddenness with which his life, after the appearance of his fir« great novels, passed into the sunshine of fame and wealth, to derive from tM^ reflection the lesson which he reiterates so constantly : The innate power u: the soul will triumph over neglected and perverted education, and break through the bar of circumstance into the sunlight of a noble life- Let us now look at the educational content of some of his best novels. In his earliest great work, the "Pickwick Papers," the educational theme i- touched on incidentally only. If Sam Weller is in a sense the hero of tht story, he illustrates the rough training which the life in a large city may give to a naturally well-disposed boy, and shows the qualities which are likely t be developed — shrewdness, sharpness of wit and resource, readiness of speeth. extreme self-reliance verging on irreverence ; and yet, with all these, good-will towards othere. In " Oliver Twist," the second great novel, the educational theme is niK only an incident, but it predominates. The novel is an account of the check- ered career of a poor orphan boy, whose mother had died at his birth, among strangers. The infant had been turned over to the workhouse, "He was en- veloped in the old calico robes, which had grown yellow in the same service: he was badged and ticketed, and fell into his place at once, a parish child — the orphan of a workhouse — the humble, half-starved drudge — to be cuffed and bufletted through the world — despised by all, and pitied by none." At the age of nine he is summoned before the workhouse board, and a kind of practical business education is mapped out for him : " * Well, you have come here to be educated, and taught a useftil trade,' said the red-faced gentleman in the high chair. " *So you'll begin to pick oakum to-morrow morning at six o'clock,' added the surly one in the white waistcoat. " For the combination of both these blessings in the one simple process of picking oakum, Oliver bowed low by the direction of the beadle," After a short time Oliver is "let out" to some master, is badly treated, and runs away. In London he falls in with a young thief, and is taken by hira to Fagin, the head of the gang, who takes much pains to educate Oliver for the same occupation. There is really a kind of technical training in robben* in the house of the master-thief. After breakfast the young rogues are re- quired to practice on Fagin, who walks about the room with his pockets' EDUCATIONAL IDEAS IN DICKENS'S NOVELS. 731 tu fifed with handkerchiefs, snuffboxes, pocket-books, and the like; and the ra.me is to take these things from him with such light-fingered skill that the jvatcHful eye of the old thief does not perceive the loss. Oliver's education through the surroundings of this wretched place seconds this direct evil train- Irvg. He lives among depraved men and women, from the thief down to the murderer. Yet, in spite of this education for crime, by design and surround- ings, the purer instincts of the child's soul triumph. He turns away from the first dark deed in which he is to take part, and finds good people who iwcLke his welfare their care. The lesson of "Oliver Twist" seems to be that even perverted education caunot crush the Divine instinct. The next great work from the pen of Dickens was "Nicholas Nickleby." In it the educational theme again predominates. It was written with the avowed intention of dealing a crushing blow at the outrages of the York- shire hoarding-schools. While Nicholas and Ralph Nickleby are the heroes of the book, the center of interest is the school of Dotheboys Hall. The lesson of the novel seems clear: The ethical and sacred relation of love be- tween parent and child is an essential, indispensable element in all education ; it must be reflected in the sympathy between teacher and pupil. Without love and sympathy there Can be no education ; home becomes a place of tor- ture, and school, a jail. In Squeers's school, sympathy has no place ; and yet the disgusting brutality of the master reflects but the depravity of the parent who removed from the circle of the home the child that nature had deformed or neglected. Squeers's school is the Inferno of childhood, the place without hope or joy. There can be no stronger presentation of the principle that education without love or sympathy is depraving and brutalizes both educator and child ; it is worse than even the total absence of schooling. There are schools which do not educate, but ruin. In the " Old Curiosity Shop " the educational theme is continued. Here it is shown how love may in itself become an education. The folly of the old gambler wrecks his own fate as well as that of little Nell, for whom he at- tempts to gamble together a fortune. Yet, the tender love with which he clings to her and the deep attachment of the child to him makes her soul grow into an ethical beauty round which the author weaves his most pathetic story. Child -heroism is crowned with unfading glory. "This child," he thought, " has this child heroically persevered under all doubts and dangers, stniggled with poverty and suflfering, upheld and sustained by strong aflfection and the consciousness of rectitude alone ! And yet the world is full of such heroism. Have I yet to learn that the hardest and best-borne trials are those which are never chronicled in any earthly record and are suflfered every day ! And should I be surprised to hear the story of this child ? " "Great Expectations," one of the later novels, might here be mentioned. 732 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION^. because of the special kind of i)erverted education that forms its subject I)erverted education of the sentiments. The power which education m-^ i ercise in rousing and deadening the feelings of the heart is illustrated 11 lives of Estella and Pip. Estella is an adopted child; her benefactrf>>, y\^ Havisham, had been deserted, on the day that was to see her married, bv man she loved. Since that terrible hour she had spent a lifetime in the ^ sion of her rooms, still dressed in the white robe which she wore on th«' i • I day. Her heart was broken, her mind affected. She adopts and Imn^ Estella to be devoid of all sentiment. Estella grows into a mo^t l>eaj.':: '' woman ; true to her training, she marries without love. But instead of i ing a life free from sorrow — because in consequence of her educatiou sht- = not 8upix)sed to possess a heart capable of suffering — she lives in wretci. •- ness at the side of a contemptible being until his death frees her. Pip, a village boy who had been called to the lonesome Havisham niau.-. several times to play with Estella, has an educational career of a different ^.r He is an orphan who is being brought up by his sister, the wife of the villus blacksmith, Joe. "Mrs. Joe," says little Pip, speaking of his sister, "wa-. very clean housekeei)er, but had an exquisite art of making her cleanliiu-' more uncomfortable than dirt itself." She did her duty by her young broth*-:, as far as feeding and clothing him were concerned, -but she did not love hiiL. She did not seem to have much affection for anyone. Pip says : " I wa< al- ways treated as if I had insisted on being born in opposition to the dictate- of reason, religion and morality, and against the dissuading argument of my best friends." In this respect Pip's training was similar to that of Estella's. In her cast, there was the training of hatred and scorn ; in the other case, there was the absence of natural affection. Pip himself gives us an idea how this schcx'I- ing without love or sympathy affected him : " My sister's bringing-up had made me sensitive. In the little world in which children have their existence, whosoever brings them up, there is noth- ing so finely j,)erceived and so finely felt as injustice. It may be only small in- justice that a child can be exposed to, but the child is small, and its world i? small, and his rocking-horse stands as many hands high, according to scale, as the big-boned Irish hunter. Within myself I had sustained from my babyhood a }KTpetuul conflict with injustice. I had kno\vn from the timt- that I could sj)eak that my sister in her capricious and violent coercion wa.-- unjust to me. I had cherished a profound conviction that her bringing mc up by hand gave her no riglit to bring me up by jerks." While Pip's education seemed to lack the essential elements of sympathy at home, yet he did not grow up without schooling. Mrs. Joe sent him to the village teacher, Mrs. Woi)sle, whose name Dickens's caricature has made im- mortal. "Mr. Wopsle's great-aunt kept an evening school in the villa^T: that is to say, she was a ridiculous old woman of limited means and unlimitel infirmity, who used to go to sleep from six to seven every evening, in the so- EDUCATIONAL IDEAS IN DICKENS'S NOVELS. TSJJ ety g£ youth who paid twopence per week for the improving opportunity of ieing Her do it." Yet, after all, Pip made some progress. ** ^tuch of my unassisted self, and more by the help of Biddy than of Mr. Vopsle's great-aunt, I struggled through the alphabet as if it had been a >raixil>le-bush ; getting considerably worried and scratched by every letter. \fter that I fell among those thieves, the nine figures, who seemed every even- ing to do something new to disguise themselves and baffle recognition. But at last I began in a purblind, groping way to read, write and cipher on the very smallest scale." While little Pip did not obtain much of an education from his sister, Mi's. -Toe, nor from his teacher, Mrs. Wopsle, he received the highest training from one more ignorant than himself — from dear, clumsy, illiterate Joe, the village blacksmith, the giant with the heart of a child. By him he was taught les- sons more important than any schooling in letters : forbearance, good-will, and love. "I loved Joe — perhaps for no better reason in those early days than because the dear fellow let me love him." Not unfrequently, when the storms of Mrs. Joe's temper drove big Joe and little Pip from house and home, the two fellow-sufferers would sit together and talk their sorrows, and the noble soul of the simple blacksmith would unwit- tingly teach golden ethical truths to the listening child, never-forgotten lessons which helped to form his life. Here is how Joe explains the untiring patience with which he bears his wife's infirmities : " 'And last of all, Pip — and this I want to say very serous to you, old chap — I see so much in my poor mother, of a woman drudging and slaving and breaking her honest heart, and never getting no peace in her mortal days, that I am dead afeard of going wrong in the way of not doing what's right by a woman, and I 'd fur rather of the two go wrong t'other way, and be a little ill-con venienced myself.' "Young as I was, I believe that I dated a new admiration of Joe from that night. We were equals afterwards, as we had been before ; but afterwards at quiet time^ when I sat looking at Joe and thinking about him, I had a new sensation of feeling conscious that I was looking up to Joe in my heart." In the novel " Hard Times " there is a new variation of the favorite educa- tional theme of Dickens. Here it is not meanness, nor lack of sympathy, that causes wealthy Mr. Gradgrind, the factory-owner and school-committee- man, to espouse a pernicious system of education and to sacrifice his little ones to the Moloch of a theory. While in the works which we have so far considered, under-education, educational neglect and perverted education are represented, the story of "Hard Times" illustrates how even a well-meaning effort and an honestly-conducted school may defeat the objects of education when they are made subservient to a vicious theory. Here the school " system " becomes the enemy of education. Instead of making the "system" serve the child, the child is sacrificed to the "system." True, he is educated for life, as the phrase is : not for his own life, but somebody else's. The aim is not so 734 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. much to make him strong, good and happy, but to fit him for some place in shop or factory. Mr. Gradgrind's educational system sounds strangely famil- iar to us. We have heard it reiterated as the most recent educational wis- dom by generations of his successors : " Schools must be practical. They must not teach anything that is not of practical value. Only what is directly useful. Nothing but what has a price in the labor market. We want no sentiments, no romance about education." It never dawned upon Gradgrind's soul, until misery and suffering had brought it home to him, that education must do its work for the soul within rather than for the world without, and that the most practical education l« one which makes every good germ grow into fruition. Gradgrind, however, to begin with, thought that matter-of-fact knowledge and sharp intelligence were all that school-training should aim at, and in con- sequence lays down the following course of study for the teacher of his school : " Now, what I want is facts. Teach these boys and girls nothing but facts. Plant nothing else ; root out everything else. You can only form the mindi^ of reasoning animals upon facts. Nothing else will ever be of any service to them. This is the principle on which I bring up my own children, and thL« is the principle on which I bring up these children. Stick to the facts, sir." Mr. Gradgrind, though mistaken in his theory, was an honest, well-meaning man. He did not advocate to limit public education to the three R's, while he sent his own children to the best college. He acted in accordance with his belief: the education which he thought best for the public was good enough for himself. He sent his own children, Louisa and Tom, to Mr. McChoakumchild's school to be filled with facts and nothing else. No train- ing of the sentiments for him ! No cultivation of gentle fantasy and happy imagination ! Nothing but practical facts ! In Mr. Gradgrind*s model school Sissy Jupes, the child of a traveling circus-performer, had found admission by accident. Her father, whom she had loved tenderly, died from a fall, and Mr. Gradgrind was moved to receive the orphan into his own family. It was through Sissy Jupes and her loving nature that Louisa, who had been brought up on facts, was saved from the destructive consequences of Mr. Gradgrind's educational theory. The rich inner life of the strange child, its affectionate nature, its strong and sound sentiment, worked a reform in the selfish tendencies of Louisa, and led her to realize that while her mind had been filled with facts, her heart had remained void. "'You have been so careful of me,'" Louisa tells her father, "'that I never had a child's heart. You have trained me so well that I never dreamed a child's dream. You have dealt so wisely with me, father, that I never had a child's fear.' " Mr. Gradgrind was quite moved by his success, and by this testimony of it. 'My dear Louisa,' said he, 'you abundantly repay my care. Kiss me, my dear girl.' " How poor little Sissy Jupes, the orphan, longing for tenderness and sym- EDUCATIONAL IDEAS IN DICKENS'S NOVELS. 786 pathy, the bright child foil of rich imaginative life, fared in Mr. McChoakum- child's school, can easily be conceived. Even the most decisive statistics which Mr. McChoakumchild, in the spirit of his philosophy placed before her, could not convince poor Sissy that she was a happy child. Here is her account of her mental difficulties at school as she relates them to her friend, Miss Louisa: " He said, * Now this school-room is a nation, and in this nation there are fifty millions of money. Isn't this a prosperous nation ? And are not you in a thriving state ? ' " ' What did you say ? ' asked Louisa. " * Miss Louisa, I said I did not know. I thought I could not know whether it was a prosperous nation or not, and whether I was in a thriving state or not, unless I knew who got the money and whether any of it was mine. But that had nothing to do with it. It was not in the figures at all,' said Sissy, wiping her eyes. " * That was a great mistake of yours,' observed Louisa. " * Yes, Miss Louisa, I know it now. Then Mr. McChoakumchild said he would try me again. And he said this school-room was *an immense town ; in it there are a million of inhabitants, and only five-and-twenty are starved to death in the streets in the course of a year. What is your remark on that proportion?' And my remark was— for I could not think of a better one — that I thought it must be just as hard upon those who were starved, whether the others were a million, or a million million. And that was wrong, too.' " The results of Gradgrind's system of education could have been anticipated. In his son Tom it engendered the worst features of selfishness and deceit ; his wretched life represents a downward course from facts to disgrace and sin. Louisa's life, too, was made miserable through her training, but the love and womanly strength of Sissy Jupes saves her from ruin. For Mr. Gradgrind himself, a time of adversity arrives ; and in the down- fall of his hopes, in the dark hour of disappointment, when his daughter's love, and that feeling of deep sympathy for which there had been no place in his "system," become the solace of his wounded soul, he realizes and con- iesses to himself the error of his former views: "'Some persons hold,' he pursued, still hesitating, ' that there is a wisdom of the head, and that there is a wisdom of the heart. I have not supposed so; but, as I have said, I mistrust myself now. I have supposed the head to be all-sufficient. It may not be all-sufficient.' " While in "Hard Times," education falls a victim to the "system," in "Dombey Son, that there is no doubt his parental atfei'tf«»L might have been easily traced (like many a goodly superstructure of fair fame), to a very low foundation." Little Paul, old beyond his years, feeble and frail in body, strong only i:. his affection for dear Floy, his sister, was placed by his father in Mrs. Pij- chin*s famous institution, "an infantine boarding-house of a very select di- scription." Mr. Dickens gives us a brief sketch of the methods of teaohini used in this place : "At about noon Mrs. Pipchin presided over some eiirly readings. It being a part of Mrs. Pipchin's system not to encourage a child- mind to develop and expand itself like a young flower, but to open it by fonv like an oyster, the moral of these lassons was usually of a violent and stun- ning character: the hero — a naughty boy — seldom, in the mildest catastn»- phe, being finished off by anything less than a lion or a bear." Afler Paul had been with Mrs. Pipchin for a while, it occurred to ^fr. Dombey that it was time to require of his boy a still higher effort in behah* of Dombey & Son. "Mr. Dombey withdrew to the hotel and his dinner: resolved that Paul, now that he was getting so old and well, should begin a vigorous course of education forthwith, to qualify himself for the position in which he was to shine ; that Dr. Blimber should take him in hand imme were got off' the driest twigs of boys under the frostiest circumstances. Na- ture was of no consequence at all. No matter what a young gentleman wa- intended to bear, Dr. Blimber made him bear to pattern, somehow or other." The satire of these lines fits our days as well as those of Dickens. Cliil- EDUCATIONAL IDEAS IN DICKENS'S NOVELS. 737 <1 ren are made too much to " bear to pattern." There is not sufficient heed given t«> *' what they are intended to bear." It is all right as far as bright, vigorous nnd strong children are concerned. There the high-pressure systems of edu- eation may stimulate and lead to the unfolding of the best strength. But woe to the weak child, which is driven to eflforts beyond his strength and ^vbos^ life is made unhappy by demands of parent, or teacher, which he has not the power to meet. Unhappy is the lot of the child whose education is meted out to him, not in accordance with what he is able to do, but in accord- •ciiice with what the parent or teacher desires him to do, who is educated, not i\ >r himself, but for Dombey & Son. The results of Dr. Blimber*s high-grade school were universally admired. "NVhen the examiners summed up the examinations passed by these pupils with ease, it seemed a pity that the per-cent. system of recognizing merit was limited to one hundred. While this was the general verdict, yet there were a few very rare cases in which nature seemed ungrateful to the "system." There were instances in which this vigorous training killed the mind, and instances ill which it killed the body. Paul Dombey was an illustration of the latter effect, young Toots of the former. "This was all pleasant and ingenious, but the system of forcing was attended with its usual disadvantages. There was not the right taste about the pre- mature productions, and they did not keep well. Moreover, one young gen- tleman with a swollen nose and an excessively large head, the oldest of the ten, who had 'gone through' everything, suddenly left off blowing one day, juid remained in the establishment, a mere stalk. And people did say that the Doctor had rather overdone it with young Toots, and that when he began to have whiskers he left off having brains." If we leave our author here, it is not for the reason that our topic — the ?tudy of educational thoughts in Dickens — is exhausted. Comparatively few points of the many which invited discussion have been touched upon. *' Bleak House," for instance, is rich in educational lessons. There is the tel- escopic philanthropy of Mrs. Jellyby, who had a tender heart for sufferings far away, but none for own neglected children. The trouble with her charity was, that it did not begin at home. She planned how to educate the natives of "Borrioboola Gha, on the left bank of the Niger," but allowed her own little ones to grow up like savages. There is in the same novel an account of the growth of Esther's grand soul, whose presence ennobled every life with which this child of neglect came into contact. In "David Copperfield" also there are many educational threads which might be woven together; the edu- cation of David Copperfield himself, of Traddles and Steerforth ; the schools of Creakle and of Dr. Strong. All these topics are excluded from our dis- cussion to-day, by the limits of this paper. In conclusion, let us attempt to sum up once more, in positive form, the views which Dickens seems to express. His own mode of presentation is necessarily a negative one, because it was his task to show what ought not to 738 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. be done in education ; what teachers and schools ought not to be, rather thaL to illustrate directly what should be done. But from the very wrongs whitl. he scourges we may infer the rights and principles which he calls upon parent- and teachers to vindicate. His novels are an earnest appeal to let education concentrate its eflbrt? t. build up an ethical world in the child. The training of character should ever be the highest aim, and the schooling of the intellect should be made su (ser- vient to it. The superiority of general human culture that considers all t\^ faculties, heart as well as hand, over mere mind-training, is a theme whicL modern education should never forget. It needs to be reminded of it criu- stantly by public opinion. He lays stress on the training of the sentiments, which is omitted at time?. Even modem books on the science of education lose sight of this factor whec they give the current and faulty definition of education as being the traiiiiz2_- of body, will, and intelligence. We are so used to this definition that we d* not realize its defect. It omits the factor on which Dickens lays so much stress — the cultivation of the heart and its emotions. No one will deny tb*- importance of this factor. To illustrate: It would be of little value to teach history if such lessons appealed to intelligence only, and included nothini^ but the mere data and facts of history. Instruction in history ha^ a far greater task to perform : the cultivation of patriotism and of the feeling of reverence for the grand human qualities of our national heroes. Dickens emphasizes also the child's claim to a happy life, not marred bv demanding from him efforts beyond his power, neither in respect to Iesson>. nor in res{)ect to conduct. He demands from ever}^ educator the recognition of the principle that "nature is of some consequence." Life is an echo of* the child's education. No forced acquirement can ever form a substitute for a lacking spirit of kindliness and good-will toward others. These ethical qualities, the treatment of the child by his educator, may rouse or stifle. The novelist enters a protest against over-education, under-education, per- verted educational aims, and educational shams. Child-nature will not pro^ per unless the faculties dormant in it are allowed to grow in the sunshine of genial teaching and loving companionship. His body does not need the food of nature more urgently than his heart needs the food of the soul : the love of friends, the sympathy of his teachers. One of the dangers of which the novelist reminds us is that of over-edu- cation, of " Blimberism,'' so to sj)eak. Over-education does not consist merely in excessive number of studies, but more particularly in the attempt to force upon the yielding mind of the child that .training which neither his nature, tastes, nor future needs warrant. Education should not be made a forcing, but a helping process, through which a richer unfolding of the best human quali- ties is brought about. The aim of education, so again Dickens teaches, does not lie outside of the child, but within. He is not to be educated "for Dombey & Son," nor to at- COMMON-SCHOOL BBANCHES, 739 test; the value of some "system," nor to become a living proof of the exoel- lexioe of Mr. Gradgrind's plans. He should be educated for himself, for his o^wn. sake, that he may become the best and happiest being into which his in- dividuality can be developed. The key-note in all that Dickens has written a.l>oiit education is, that even in the lowliest child slumbers the divine fire of truth and love, of devotion and enthusiasm, which the gentle breath of a parent's or teacher's love may fan into flame. If this be true, we may place over the lowliest school-room and the humblest educational task the words of Heraclitus: "Enter. Here, too, are the gods." COMMON-SCHOOL BRANCHES FROM A PROFESSIONAL POINT OF VIEW, MI88 ISABEL LAWRENCE, 8T. CLOUD, MINNESOTA. This paper particularly emphasizes the value and the need of the study of common-school subjects from a professional standpoint, by the faculties of normal schools. It is so easy to be misunderstood in these educational topics, that it may be well at the outset to be as logical as possible, and to state plainly what ideal of education governs the thoughts here presented. That which distinguishes the educated man is his standpoint, his point of view. He is the man of the broadest culture who looks with wide-open, clear- seeing eyes upon all knowledge ; who is blind to no side and exaggerates no side of our infinitely varied life, whether heart, soul, or intellect be concerned. It goes without saying, that the method of such education must be founded upon the unity of all thought. Only in so far as the educator comprehends the harmony in the relations of all knowledge, can his work be scientific. Without such comprehension, the specialist, so often eagerly sought for as a teacher, must narrow instead of developing intellectual life. I believe that "there is such a thing as being too profound. Truth is not always in a well." The miner in the valley is typical of very much deep re- search into the secrets of the universe, but the superficial view from the mountain-top may be of far more value in the conduct of life. There is little sense in the common confusion of the superficial with the false. The surface view is always the widest, and usually reveals the more important relations of truth. Possibly the reason that the ultra-philosophical educator lays himself open to ridicule from his equally short-sighted, practical friends, is that he is diving somewhat deeply and is a little blinded to surface views. If there were time, I could demonstrate that every real advance in modem — li a. ii-{ •i^ r iir--^ •-•1 L '- ' ■" - "^f -"^-•'-;^' - -f tlii5 auili..ritarv, -_i, .: 1. :ir:>r • The manual scIj.m] i. -i^ri^r-^ ^ ^. muoh better tiiaa .4h.i^. ^2.rwTrick«dknowJedge,butwiiL COMMON-SCHOOL BRANCHES, 741 that only in so far as one appreciates the elements which growing life >s, should he be trusted with influence over life. • normal schools have not yet solved the problem before us. Doubt whether it is ours, paralyzes much work. It should be an axiom that to ormal school, more than to any other, belongs the thorough investigation »\v the mind comes to know. The faculty of a normal school should be a of men and women bound together by one common purpose to find out node of the mind's knowledge. hat normal school in which the teachers of professional work stand alone, le the other members of the faculty teach the various knowledge-subjects he course without attention to harmony or study of method, is a failure. s is not strong language. Run over the list of normal schools that have duced a lasting effect upon the educational thought of the country, and I will find none but those whose faculties have united in earnest investiga- n of this problem. Nay, more : if you are connected with a normal school, tice that its years of greatest progress have been those in which the problems method have been most eagerly studied by its teachers. ( rranted that this is the work of normal-school faculties, the next question • be considered is, what are the lines of investigation which may be profitably »Uowed out? 1. The foundation study should be of the laws of knowing, psychology and philosophy, studies delightful in proportion as they are pursued, and which vhen taken up in connection with the active work of teaching, suggest unex- plored fields of professional thought and practice. 2. Accompanying this should be the study of the common-school subjects from a professional standpoint. It is a matter of common remark among those best accjuainted with normal- school work, that for one teacher capable of teaching arithmetic, geography, and grammar well in such a school, fifty can be secured to teach French, natural science, rhetoric, or any advanced subject. In one sense, this only shows how few teachers should be trusted with normal work, for no one can teach the so-called advanced subjects as they should be taught in a school for teachers, who cannot handle elementary ones. The lack of ability here proves the lack of investigation of the problem of knowledge in its unity, without which all work must be out of harmony with the purpose** of a training- school. Common-school subjects are the ftindamental ones, and hence in them is to be found the unity of all knowledge which the normal-school teacher must comprehend or fail. Nothing will so serve to harmonize the work of an entire faculty as a united study of the method of arithmetic, geography, grammar, etc., with a view to draw from these branches which contain the elements ^ all knowledge, that which shall guide all teaching. Some suggestions as to plans of work may not be out of place. The first thing to be sought for in the study of the method of —47 742 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. edge is its main view-point ; that is, that notion the gaining of which will enaf*!- the student to find out for himself the other facts of the subject, that iier-cent. system is more apparent than real, and that data carefully gathered throughout a term*s work make a more satisfactory basis for promo- tion than that which any man or woman can carry in his or her head. I take it, however, that the system of marking has little importance beside the greater question. What elements liJiall eiiter into the eMimat^ of the value of the pupiVs reoitation ? The pupil, as well as the teacher, should know what is de- manded of him, for each pupil should be taught to measure himself every day by the ideal standard. Ordinarily, the standard is suggested in the command, " Be good and get your lessons." But what it is to "get a lesson," and how to get a lesson, are left to the pupil's own intuition. He " has got his lesson " when he can repeat the words of the author, is the too current conception of the RECITATION ESTIMATES. 745 X^upil and master to-day. He has made an ideal recitation when he has reached tlie desired result, regardless of the bungling way in which it has been done. ^ow, if the possession of a fact were the only object of school-work, the test oould easily be met; but a fact simply in education is of no more value than a bit of undigested food in the alimentary canal. It lies there, and the longer it lies undigested, the more of a burden it becomes. It is in the hope of em- phasizing the other essentials in a recitation that this paper is presented in this section. In making up recitation estimates there are some general points which are common to all subjects ; and some which are peculiar to each individual sub- ject. Among those which are common to all may be mentioned: 1. Accuracy as to facts. No greater blunder was ever made than to train the child up in the idea that rough approximations and vague guesses are just as satisfactory as the def- inite, unquestioned fact. The difference of a few cents in a problem in arith- metic, or of a few years in an important date, or of the characteristics of a certain flower under examination, or of the details of a certain event coming under his own observation, is too frequently passed over with an apologetic word from the teacher, and the pupil given to understand that his statements are 8atisfactor^^ Nothing but the fact, and the fact as established by others, and by his own individual investigation, whenever possible, should be ac- cepted by any teacher. Facts furnish the basis from which all empirical truths are developed, and looseness or carelessness about facts begets confusion in all reasoning. The child should be taught to see things exactly as they are, and retain what he sees, without modification. Demand should be made, not simply for accuracy as to facts, but for a liberal number of facts. One fact proves nothing, but a score of facts establishes a great principle. 2. Accuracy as to principles. As has been said, a single, isolated fact is worth nothing ; but from related facts grow beautiful and far-reaching principles. The accuracy demanded is in a clear conception of the origin, nature, and scope of the principle, as well as ability to express it in simple terms. Accuracy is found, not in the mere repetition of the words in which a principle is formulated, but in the compre- hension of its truth, and in its application. A principle is of little value to a . pupil, if he does not comprehend its origin ; if he is unable to build it up for himself, and to see the reasons leading to its acceptance. It would seem that a pupil who masters a principle in this way would possess ready skill in its application ; but experience shows that this must not be taken for granted. Eepeated tests in solving a variety of problems will bring out the real knowl- edge which he may possess. 3. Readiness in the presentation of subject-matter. A stammering tongue is too frequently but the evidence of a stammering mind. A slow tongue is assuredly the organ of a slow mind. Readiness is not less essential than accuracy. An ideal training teaches the pupil to a 740 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION^, quick and clear response to the call of the preceptor. A oommon fault i*-: mits the pupil to take up the time of the class in a dazed eflbrt to i«5a] . poorly-learned lesson, and to flounder about catching at words in whidi ^ express it. No pupil should consider a lesson prepared until he can recall . parts of it at will and clothe them in acceptable and intelligible langux"^ No recitation should be considered satisfactory which has not thus l>ecr»iL- part of the child. No one recognizes the difficulty here more than I, and ; such demands made from the primer through the high school will result in royal line of scholars. It must be borne in mind that the ready men in n. .- can tile and professional life are the men who win. There is abundant knoTr edge among the masses, but little skill in the prompt handling of* it. It i- j)ossible that we are laying too much stress on the amount our pupils do, az.! too little on the way they do it. In this age of steam and electricity the .sch*- r rooms ought not to be content to turn out indifferent, slovenly plodders. 4. Comprehension of the subject-matter as a whole. The wholes which a child builds up must at first of course be very cireufi.- scribed, but by training him to grasp each fully, and by carefully expandin:: his vision with each forward movement the habit of thoughtful synthesL- Ke comes a part of him, expanding and strengthening every faculty. < >rdinarilv pupils fail to see the relation of the parts of a single lesson, much less to aim- bine into one beautiful whole the dependent parts of an entire subject. A logical outline of a subject should always be building in the pupil's mind, and recitation estimates which ignore this element are of little value. T). ( 'onfidence in positions taken, and ability to support them. This grows naturally out of the processes already urged. The little child cannot be convinced against the testimony of his own senses, and he appeals to them with unwavering confidence. The extension of this assurance to the same faith in inductive and deductive truth, sa well as in the processes pro ducing them, is a fundamental part of all education. Without it there is no education. The fallacy of knowledge, so called, without ability to support its truth or its reasonableness, has been undisputed since Socrates walked the streets of Athens. The pupil's skill in maintaining his conclusions is not often given too much prominence. There is of course a confidence that be- gets irreverence, a dispositisn to argue and to run off into fruitless discussions which sometimes displaces all systematic study. Few teachers, however, need be deceived by such bushwhacking. 6. Appropriateness of language used in expressing thought. Here the work of the pupil and teacher alike is commonly slack. Pupils should not be j^ermitted to use any language but the right language. While it would be a great mistake to insist upon the words of an author or of a teacher, it is a much grosser blunder to accept vague and equivocal terms or ungram- matical and cumbrous expressions. The pupil should know what every word he uses means, and should grow into the habit of expressing himself in sim- ple, clear, and definite language. The nomenclature of each subject should BE CITATION ESTIMATES. 1^1 eiit-ei: into his vocabulary so that appropriate terras would come with ease and tcrace. To secure this fluency, care is needed in attaining correct pronuncia- tioTi, as well as in securing a knowledge of the meaning of the words them- &elve.s. Puj)ils should not only know that the correct use of language is Aesirable, but that it is required in every recitation. 7 . Interest shown in the work. Interest cannot be forced, and yet it is always a sure indication of the amount of subject-matter the pupil is imbibing. Indifference never masters anything. Little credit should ever be given to the listless, drowsy fellow wht> hangs heavily even on time itself. The child who is awake to everything ^vithin reach, is rapidly making it his own. Ko matter what blunders he may make at the start, he will rise with new power at the end. Lack of interest may be due to lack of skill on the part of the teacher, but the discouraging and discreditable fact remains just the same. The pupil whose interest flags not is deserving of recognition in making up recitation estimates. ^. Attention to the work of fellow-pupils and to the work of the teacher. A recitation is not complete when a pupil has responded satisfactorily to the particular part assigned him. The teacher has a right to demand his atten- tion and cooperation for the entire period assigned to the class. He owes assistance to his teacher and to his fellows. He gains in practice as he ap- proaches a subject from the different standpoints of the different pupils, and serves to increase their interest. He also gains advantage from the explana- tions of the teacher, and increases his teaching power by inciting him to greater effort. Attention works both ways. It brings the pupil to the teacher, and draws upon the resources of the teacher, generating new power in him as well. 9. Success in grasping and assimilating new thought. Every lesson ought to give something new to the pupil. If it does not come in a new object of thought, it ought to come in the way of new additions to the present conception of the object. The grasping of the idea and its proper location, is one of the special lines of training through which every pupil should be constantly passing. Wherever met, whether in e very-day experiences, read- ing, or conversation, that which is new and valuable should be instantly seized and made one's own. A pupil's success in assimilating all such material is a valuable test of his capacity and of his growth. 10. Evidence of growth in thought-power as well as in knowledge. This test applies only at intervals of some length, and yet the vigilant teacher is not slow to note the increase of power to comprehend and master a difficult subject. The cramming process does not develop it, and a very few months or years at best mark habits of study as clearly as though a pupil's diary were laid open before us. The object of all education is the generation of thought- power, and the pupil whose equipment consists in facts only is like the sphinx —useful only as a curiosity. Enough has been said to leave no question as to the value of facts, but the power to utilize the facts is the one thing which 748 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. a pupil should always know is needful. That which a pupil does for hini-r. under the direction of the teacher ought to be increasing his power to oli^er. - to discriminate, to assimilate, and to apply. Unless from the simple trutL- ever}'-day life and its experiences a pupil grows in ability to rise up and ix* possession of abstract truth, his daily work has been of little value. FrJ— he approaches manhood with the power to reason out the great queg?ti«>n- . practical life for himself, he is wanting in the essentials of success. The teacL must instill this idea into the mind of every pupil. 1 1 . Disposition to seek and to profit by criticism. This enters incidentally as a valuable means of discovering how iiiiit :i . pupil knows, and how thoroughly he is interested in a subject. Promptdi O' such an impulse, he usually throws open his entire knowledge-box t*> thr in- spection of the teacher. More — the cultivation of such a spirit is the iium characteristic sign of the true student, and assures the happiest res^uii*. When a pupil asks honestly and intelligently for a truth, the work of tl- teacher is already half done ; and for the sake of the overburdened teacbt- r if for nothing else, this element should not be forgotten in making up inti- mates. 12. Promptness in doing supplementary work. There ought to be no necessity whatever for referring specially to this jKUur. but not all teachers have yet succeeded in convincing their pupils that what- ever work may be assigned, whether in the text-book or out of it, is part -•! the lesson to be prepared. Frivolous and indifferent excuses for neglect of supplementary work are accepted, which develop most vicious habits of indo- lence and procrastination. It might be remarked parenthetically that a irivat gain would come if the word supplementary in this connection were dropjjei from our vocabulary. Whenever such work is assigned, the pupils who do it should receive proper credit for it ; those who do not, should lose in proporti(»iK 13. On originality and invention. Some subjects present greater opjwrtunities for the exercise of originality in the ways of doing things, and in the doing of new things, than others: hut all permit the personality of the pupil to a<^sert itself in some degree. We an* dealing with beings whose special privilege it is to create, and whose educa- tion must realize that highest and best of all prerogatives. The longin«r tn plan and do for oneself, to go farther than his fellows lead him, should be fus- tered and encouraged every hour in the day. Little spurts at comjwsition- work once per quarter are pitiable attempts to force the growth of ?!icb persons. 14. Manner of sitting, standing, speaking, etc. The education of the mental powers is not the only object of school-work. In large part the recitation is the only place where we can personally direct the cultivation of correct habits of sitting, standing, speaking, etc This i-? the apology, if one be needed, for noting this point here. The manner in which a thought is expressed is often of as much importance as the thougbl RECITATION ESTIMATES. 749 it>si=^olf. Grace in body is as necessar}' as grace in language. Too much atten- tion is paid to the direct preparation of the youth for public speaking, and t,oo little for conversation. A million words are uttered in ordinary conver- £^a.tion where one is uttered on the platform. The influence of individuals over each other in conversation has always been many fold greater than the influence on the platform. So these elements in an education must be given tVieir proper place, and must enter into the pupil's knowledge of what is re- cX^iij;^ of him. I.O. On written work. All teachers in secondary and high schools know how shamefully negligent of the simplest requirements in the preparation of manuscripts are a great majority of the candidates for admission to their classes. It simply shows tliat teachers in the lower grades do not exalt this point, in estimating the work of their pupils, a^ they should. Nothing but careful, constant attention to the penmanship, the punctuation, the spelling, the capitalization, the para- o^raphing, and the neatness of the manuscript in every subject studied, will secure the needed reform. I know that many teachers pretend to consider these things everywhere, but too frequently the pupil does not discover that it means anything. There is nothing new in all this, and yet it may serve to remind some one that his ideal of the recitation is too low, and that he ought to join with us more vigorously in fixing upon higher standards for estimating the work of pupib. The noting of these points in criticising the essays which pupils may pre- sent occasionally, is not enough. I insist that the language or the rhetoric class is not the only class where these points should enter into recitation esti- mates. Scholars are not made in any such manner. They are the products of intelligent effort in daily drill through a long series of years. Reliable, thoughtful, graceful scholarship is not born of a day, but of a life. Its dis- tinguishing characteristic is quality, not quantity. Quality is not supplied on demand, but comes of loving toil and patient waiting. The necessity for placing well-defined ideals before the minds of the pupils, and of arousing continued effort at their realization, Ls not more true anywhere else than for the work in the recitation. As fast as pupils are able to compre- hend them, these points should be presented and required. Each individual subject should have the work requii:ed as carefully outlined from time to time. 750 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON NORMAL SCHOOLS. CRITICISM IN NORMAL SCHOOLS-ITS VALUE AS AN ELEMENT IN TBAIK- IN6 TEACHERS. THOMAS J, GRAY, ST. CLOUD, MINNESOTA. Perhaps no terms in pedagogy are more unfortunate than "critictnu "practice-teaching," and "model school." Unless they can be removed Ij substitution we must patiently plod through the long, slow process of raising a term once perverted to a correct scientific meaning. This devolves up»E every writer or speaker the necessity of constant definition. "Criticism" as commonly understood on the outside is a process of aiu€- chanical nature by which a novice in the art of teaching has his mistake^, real or imaginary, pointed out to him by some one who is supposed to know just how the thing is done or should be done. It consists in Miss A's visitation of Miss B's class, for a period of from one to ten or twenty minutes, ( Mke A i* the critic-teacher. Miss B the trembling neophyte, in terror lest she reveal the fact that she does not know whether to teach her pupils to "answer in com- plete sentences," "to sit, or stand when they recite," to say "2 times 3 are t>/' or "2 times 3 is 6 "; or whether the subject of a sentence shall be defined as "that of which," or "that which represents that of which"; or whether tk child shall be compelled to follow the particular "outline of the plan." or whether he may be permitted to suggest that the river of his home is as good as the little stream in the sand-box before him, and so forth and so forth, to hundreds of such trivial nothing?,) followed at a later period with a per- sonal interview on the w^ork done. Whether this criticism be helpful, harmful, or indifferent, depends upon the conjunction of a few easily-defined factors. If the critic-teacher herself knows her problem, if she has the ability to make another know the problem, and is capable of quick and accurate sensing of things ; if the pupii-teacher be of sufficient maturity, scholarship, and pedagogical knowledge to be intel- ligently guided, something of value may be had from the criticism work It is quite su^xirfluous to remark that the results are far below what they should be. After such a study of the problem as I have been able to make, after a practical contact with it of eighteen years, I am led to the following con- clusions : 1 . The first requisite of a critic-teacher is a philosophic cast of mind. This may seem strange to those who sneer at any reference to philosophy in a teacher ; but it is true, nevertheless. Not a mind possessed of Day's Psychol- og}', or Haven's, or Hamilton's, or of Kant, or Plato even, but of the qual- ities of mind that appeared in highest form in Plato. An introspective mind, a mind having a trend toward "true being," away from mere "opinion." a CBITIVISM IN NOBMAL SCHOOLS. 751 liiiiid dwelling in the sphere of the real, rather than the phenomenal, a mind to which the phenomena of the mental world are more actual than of the material world. No one can ever become a true scientist to whom the invis- ible and imponderable atoms are not as actual as the mountains or the planets ; as fi rmly grasped by the insight of the soul as the latter by the physical eye. So Tvith the mind of the true critic-teacher in respect to the data of the men- tal world. This quality is leas common in America than it will be a century hence, though much more common than a century ago. Few men, and almost i\o \vomen, possess it. I believe I am correct in saying that the history of [>hil()sophy contains no w^oman's name. The later centuries will, I trust, change this record. A critic-teacher will always reveal himself in a ten-minutes conversation with one who can identify him when he sees him. li. Another fact growing out of this, is the total lack of "fruit" as tested by the standard of Bacon. His unanswerable criticism against the scholastic philosophy and science was its lack of fruit. This result, or lack of result, must ever appear under any system of empiricism ; the moment an empiric reaches the limit of the enumerated instances in experience, he is absolutely helpless. He has no general principles out of which may perpetually spring new directive energies for new conditions. Topic-books, filled with the rec- ords of Oswego methods, or Albany methods, or Whitewater methods, will prove of no value. The poor empiric will find to his amazement that the given elements of his own problem are not found in terms of his topic-book — unless, [)erchance, he may be so blind as to deal out his abstracts and plans of lessons in regular order as so many recipes might be read out of a cook- book. I have known this to be done. The only thing that can relieve our normal-school work from such harmful absurdities is to rationalize the work of training. The critic-teacher must formulate a theory of knowledge. If he does not accept Fichte's, he may form a better one; but he is valueless as a guide in rational criticism until this is done. His pupils must leave him without the power to know or apply principles to new phenomena, and so after a short time, having sprung up quickly, they wither away, having "no depth of earth." 3. These considerations suggest the final answer to the problem. This is not difiicult to state ; it w hard to realize. Criticism work consists of two parts: (1) The familiarizing of the pupil- teachers with the best means and appliances of instruction and control. (2) Interpreting each in the light of a rational purpose in education. The first half of this work the normal schools have been for the past half- century faithfully trying to do. For the most part, the second half of the work is untried. Nor are we to look toward chairs of pedagogy for help, as up to the present time they have not contributed anything of much value to the rationalizing of educational processes. As one looks over the field of educational appliances, devices and "methods," 752 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. he can but reflect that we have been engaged as a people in inveiitin>r r machinery of school-work, and have not fully appreciated the more diffi< i task of producing the machinist; or, to restate the thought, we have bu>i-. ourselves upon means for external application to the mind of the studtrn- rather than upon a rationalizing of the modes of mental structure. Sr» ]• l. as this state of things continues, " criticism " must be of value as a mean? • stimulating imitation only, a result of value to the mind incapable of o-x- prehension of principles, but dwarfing and pernicious in its effects upon ^A\^: minds. We do not want less attention given to educational appliance::: ^' do want more insight into the purpose of each. "Criticism" might well ^» defined as the process of making a pupil-teacher rationally conscious of ihr» category of purpose. 4. To undertake to define the modus operandi of "criticism" is like carry- ing coals to Newcastle. For the person who comprehends its rationah i^ 9*-]^- determinative in its sphere, and one who is an empiric in thought has not the elements needful out of which to formulate a definition. However, a sugn^?- tion or two may not be inappropriate. I would have the critic-teacher hM close to comprehensive laws rather than the specific instance. Subsume tbe special under its proper genus in all cases. Ijet criticism be directed more h^ a class than to the individual. This will prevent that too personal critici*m which tends towards imitation as its law, destroying the personality of tht* teacher. I would hold the pupil-teacher to a strict account as to the pur{i<»j« of his work, both for tlie day, the grade, and the future. For this reason be must know subjects comprehensively, that he may know parts in their true re- lations. An example in arithmetic may need to be seen in its relation to the whole circle of mathematical concepts in order to its full comprehension. This view of subject-matter is all too uncommon on the part of critic-teachf r^ themselves. I would have the critic-teacher familiar with the history of atHw- cational ideas, and with mental science as a conscious possession. This alone can give him the ability to recognize and classify the facts of the various subjects of instruction as data in consciousness, without which ability he mu?t ever grope blindly in the field of empiricism. I would have the critic-teacber separate sharply between the empiric art process in instruction, and the rational. This will keep distinct in the mind of the pupil-teacher the line marking the division of the categories of means and purpose. The blanks and plans of work I have examined into in use in the normal schools of America suggest little attempt at a di\'ision. But to attempt any process of criticism without an adequate theory of the art of knowing, is like trying to cure dyspepsia with plasters and liniment. As pedagogical semi- naries, standing as the representatives of the best thought in education, normal schools in their applied science — for such the criticism work really is — must rise to a higher plane. They must become the seats of the educational phi- losophy of the coming century, and this result will first make itself felt in the criticism work of the training-schools. MENTAL EFFECTS OF FOBM IN SUBJECT-MATTER. 753 MENTAL EFFECTS OF FORM IN SUBJECT-MATTER. A.ri Inquiry into the Nature and Character of the educational eflfects which sys- t.ezxi8 of suttJect-matter, and forms in which it is taught, have upon the mind of tlc^^ pupils in the primary grrades— the first three years of school-life, begrinningr &,X, five years of affe. Thi?* tlietne may be restated thus: An Inquiry Into the effects which form In subject-matter has ui>on Hie- form of mental activity of the pupils who learn the subject-matter. J. H. IIOOSE, CORTLAND, NEW YORK. J. Form in subject-matter means the shape, figure, conformation, mould, fushion, appearance, phenomenon, under which the subject-matter is held, maintained, borne, supported, seized, known, cognized. Subject-matter in- cludes anything and everything that is to be done, worked, accomplished, or that exists; nothing exists, or is done, without form. Each and every subject- iTiatter exists under a form which is peculiar to itself: e, g,, (1) This apple (^a crab-apple) exists under its peculiar form of sonorousness, of touch, of taste, of color, of smell; it can be cognized by five senses — i, e., one of its qualities (color) exists in that peculiar form which is cognized by the eye, another quality (odor) exists in that form which is cognized by the sense of smell, another form (smoothness) is cognized by the sense of touch, another peculiar form of quality (sonorousness) is cognized by the ear, and another form (sourness) is cognized by the sense of taste ; these five forms of qualities constitute the unit form that is known as this crab-apple ; (2) This sunshine exists under its peculiar form of matter, i. e,, it can be cognized by the senses of sight and touch, but not by the senses of hearing, smell, and taste ; (3) Sub- jective phenomena ( forms of subject-matter) are cognized by self-consciousness : e, g.f joy is cognized by self-consciousness. Some kinds of subject-matter exist in forms that are fixed by the innate constitution of the things ; these forms are called the natural forms of the things: e. g,, (1) The form of this apple (a Greening) is natural to this ob- ject; (2) The form of this horse ("Tom") is natural to himself ; (3) The form of this tree (a pine) is natural to itself; (4) The form (characteristics) of this rock is natural ; (5) The form of this flower (a sunflower) is natural to itself. Thus it is with aU natural objects. Other kinds of subject-matter exist in forms that are controlled wholly, or in part, by the agency of man. These forms are artificial; they include (1) material products (as piano, silk thread ) ; and (2) mental products, as these thoughts, those words, these feelings, these volitions — also all those subjects which are constituted of "mental contents" (Uberweg), as history, science, mathematics. 11. System of subject-matter is a "complex whole, put together;" it is subject-matter elaborated into form by students, teachers, authors, inventors, when they arrange the parts in an order of succession, the procedure being guided by some theory of relationship of part to part and of part to the 754 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. whole. It may be asserted as a fundamental proposition, that no subject - study or of practice can exist unless it exist under some form — called *v- tem : e. jr., the Grube system of number, the Pestalozzian system of numJi^r. the Tonic-sol-fa system of music, the Spencerian system of penmanship, rj - Swedish and the German systems of physical culture. III. Form in mental activity means that peculiar activity which the min-^ exerts when it does any particular thing, or thinks any particular thought • r word ; it is that native endowment of aptitude or of adjustment by which th* mind is enabled to seize, grasp, apprehend, comprehend, take hold of, sny form of subject-matter: c. g., to think "boy" is one form of mental activity- to think "ir=3" requires another form; thus with all forms of 8ubject-matt*»r — each requires a form of mental activity that is adjusted to grasp it. IV. Form is given to mental activity by the form of the subject-matter that is cognized, seized, known, thought, or done; this proposition is true in tb^r most general sense. Each and every form of the thing to be done or thought requires its own (peculiar) form of mental activity to do it or to think it. Adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing numbers are four difierent forms of mental activity. Mastery of these processes implies that the act ' as of addition) is performed with a minimum of conscious attention ; and with ^ maximum of readiness and of accuracy in the form. Grant mastery in these processes, yet when one comes to "applied arithmetic," which is another form of subject-matter, the mental activity proceeds in a form that is not like the form in the computations; the matter is related in its parts; these relatioDe must be discerned. Again, e. f/., the eye of the Indian of our forests is trained (form of mental activity) on trails of wild animals (forms of subject-matter ■ : his eye is expert in detecting footprints and other evidences of presence ur passage ; but this same eye (formed on trails and habitat) is satisfied, gratified, with the rudest colors (forms of subject-matter), because these colore gave form to the activity. This characteristic of mental activity is one of the natural phenomena of mind. To remember names, is one form of activity, formed ou names ; if the subject-matter (names) is changed to dates, the form of the act of remembering them is modified accordingly ; one mind adjusts itself num- readily to the names, another to the dates. The hand acquires cunning (form of activity) on the keys of the piano (form of subject-matter) ; yet this cun- ning of the hand will be clumsy with knitting-needles (another form of ^iilv ject-matter). V. Exercise and repetition in the activities of one feculty lead to masterv in those particular forms only. The "butter-taster" is expert in distinguish- ing shades of flavor — in butter, not in teas or coffees; this expertness of the sense of taste does not help the eye to discern tints and hues in color. The fingers may be master of the frets and bow of the violin, but the feet will not travel more easily or rapidly, or gracefully, from the skill of the fingei^ The general law of nature in learning appears to be that each form of subject- matter must be learned in its own way (form). Geometry cannot be learued MENTAL EFFECTS OF FOBM IN SUBJECT- MATTER. 755 i>y the same form of activity that learns algebra. No two subjects are alike i II form, unless they are identical. Mastery of one subject stands for itself alone, in so far as the subject differs from others in form. VI. Mastery is habit; and habit is power acting in specific form. When t>\\e state called habit is attained by one in any line of study or practice, he is in the condition known as mental freedom in that line — i. e., he can pursue tV\\s line into new fields ; the forms of activity being familiar to him, he gives the maximum of his power to investigating the new materials in this territory : e. r;., after one has learned to talk, to use the forms of language, he can pursue studies in that language, because he is free from the bondage of conscious attention to forms (learning words and forms of speech). One cannot study intelligently and with freedom the German language until he is master of the iorins of the language. Freedom, emancipation, in music comes only after a mastery of the forms that constitute music. VII. When the forms of different subjects are similar, the habit acquired upon one of the subjects will be conserved in greater or less part to aid one in learning the other subjects : c. ther without. He says: "' I object to the terms * Bench- Work ' or * Vise-Work,' * Carpentry,' * Blacksmithing/ i\«^ r^aToring too much of the commercial shop, and too suggestive of 'trades.' I particularly object to the term/ Machine Shop,' as the words convey an idea directly opposed to that involved in manual training. I think the less machinery used in a inanual-t raining school the better. The introduction of several complicated machines, such as planers, shapers, drill-pressers, screw-cutting lathes, is too suggestive of a niaxiufacturing or commercial establishment, and is in danger of jeopardizing the very object for which manual-training schools exist, viz.: * Teaching and learning the use of tools, the methods of working materials, and the construction and use of shop-drawings, where the mastery of tools, materials, and methods is the end in view.' ••Beyond the steam-engine for the purpose of furnishing motor power for the Kriiidstones and lathes (and also to give the pupils the opportunity of studying steam-engineering), I would not go any further than to provide one of each of the machines above mentioned — simply to familiarize the pupils with their uses, and to facilitate certain processes which have already been taught to be done by hand." >Ir. Sayre stands quite alone in thus limiting the amount of machine prac- tice ; though that subject wai* generally not touched upon. Mr. Booth and Mr. Bennett approve of the term "Machine Shop" because "it is used in commercial establishments/^ thus standing at the other extreme. As to some of the terms used in joinery there is great variety. Three words are used to express the fact that the details of a completed joint are in- visible, viz. : blind, secret, hidden. The greater number prefer " blind.'' The term is a little forced, though it may be said that at no point does the joint look out an observer. The words ** secret" and "hidden" are objected to as api)earing to have a sinister meaning. As to the use of the word "dowel," Mr. Mills and Mr. Kleinschmidt declare that it may properly be applied only to joints in which "a pin or pins form the essential feature of the joint." AVe desire to protest strongly against the use of the word "mechanical" as de??criptive of a kind of drawing. Yesterday Mr. Abom, of Cleveland, made, freehand, what he called a mechanical drawing. It was merely a freehand projection-drawing. It is probable that "mechanical" usually signifies "with instruments." To prevent all obscurity, it is suggested that "instrumental" be used to describe all drawing in which instruments are used. It is difficult to see why an orthographic projection should be called mechanical any more than a linear perspective, if both are made freehand. They are equally pro- jections on planes. 2. Should we recognize as manual training properly so^alled experimental work in physics, chemistry, or dynamics f Should we not insist that manual 764 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATIOJf, i ! training in limited fo teaching and learning the iise of tool>*y the mrt' > , working materials, and the construction and v^e of shop-drawing^^ frh-.- mnstery of tooU, materials and methods, is the immediate end in t^ietr/ A should we not also insist thai when, on the basis of more or less niamui/ fr"i ' the student goet* on to utilize hin training in science and art faborato.i- -. work there should be called ^* Science Work^^ or "Art Work" f This question contains three divisions. With one exception the unaiii:: \ answer to the first division is, that the experimental study of physics, chemi- : ; and dynamics is not manual training properly so-called. At the same r . all agree that such experimental work should be encouraged, and that all ;•- sible skill of hand and knowledge of materials should be utilized in exi-e mental work. I give Mr. Crawford's answer below. The second part contains a definition of manual training. This i:« in«i r- by all but Messrs. Crawford, Bennett, and Mills, Mr. Mills says he see- ' \ reason why a moderate amount of experimental work in physics and ehenii-t^ should not be included in manual-training work in an elementary way in e.r nection with the purely * book' work." Though apparently differing, it jMru- pn)bable that Mr. MiUs is more interested in maintaining experimental wis in science than he is in giving exact definitions. Mr. Crawford says (and the italics are his) : **I think that all experimental work, whether in physics, chemistry, dynt'iiii-. or elsewhere, in which the Kuccens of the experiment depends upon the skill ot tn- hand, should be reco^^nized as manual traininj^. I do not believe that manual tnib ing is limited to teaching and learning the use of tools, the method;^ of workin» materials, and the construction of and use of shop-drawings, where the mastery * tools, materials and methods is the immediate end in view; but I do believe ih,.r manual training embraces all hnnd e.rercises, with or irithout fools, the primanj *.'>,r. ' of which i» intellectual development/^ Mr. Bennett says: "If you will leave the phrase, 'and the construction and use of shop-drawiui:<.' out of the second part, and in its place put 'according to given drawings and sj^et'i- tications,' I will answer, yes. I see no good reason why the 'construction* of drau ings should be called manual training, but I think I do see many reasons why it should not. If we are to draw the lines around manual training so that the word will mean some specific branch of educational work, it seems to me that we must not have it include drawing. "We all know what drawing is. It has become a necessary and permanent phrt of our school- work. Why caimot manual training, without robbing its neighhi»r-. hold just as dignified and honorable position? Manual training is not a conglom- erate, composed of drawing, kindergarten work, scientific manipulation, and trnde school work. However closely it may walk beside these, however much a>!^i^!t:^^tv it may render them, however much life it may receive from them, it still has distin- guishing features which should forever make it a separate individual.'' Mr. Sayre says in reference to the whole question : "I think the work in the chemical, physical and electrical laboratoriei^. iu thf third year, should be supplemented by the construction of apparatus for tho'-e Je- CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE. 765 ' 1. xTtxrieiits, and also by the construction of typical forms involving mechanical prin- .X>1«8 'which do not require the agency of machinery to finish. The work in the tl-> oratories I should call * Science Work,' and the freehand drawing, designing, col- x-ixig, clay-modeling, wood-carving and grill-work I should designate as 'Art Work.'" It thus appears that there is substantial agreement as to what is meant by He term, " Manual Training," and as to the distinction between that work xTxd science and art work. It may be well to discuss at this meeting the v^iews of Mr. Crawford, and the propriety of including all freehand draw- ing, wood-carving, and grill- work, under "Art Work." 3, 4. Should any regular shop-tvork except in wood be introduced into the r/ramniar grades f Slwuld this wood-work include more than joinery and ivood-caiming f How long and how frequent should such exercises be f All responses agree in answering " No " to both parts of question three. Mr. Belfield says : "Pasteboard, clay, and wood in schools lower than high schools. Joinery is enough in wood. Don't see much education in wood-carving, and don't practice it \iere." Mr. Sayre : *' I doubt the wisdom of putting regular shop-work in the grammar grades, not only on account of the difficulties in getting teachers for that kind of work, but as a general thing boys under fourteen have not the physical strength to do the work properly, or the mental ability to comprend the logical processes involved in the ^ork. It would largely be mechanical imitation, which is quite different from man- ual training." Mr. Kleinschmidt: "I am not in favor of introducing any regular shop-work, except wood, in the grammar grade, and then only in the highest grammar grade. I would not intro- duce wood-turning until they have finished this grade, as I find that pupils have not grown thoughtful enough to work safely with machinery. I think the tendency is to begin the regular instruction in the use of tools too early, before the pupil has reached the age of reflection. To such pupils the bright tools appeal more as pretty toys than aa means by which certain ends are to be gained. Pupils when too young do not stop to reason out a process, but much rather come to the instructor with the (luestion, 'What must I do next?' The older pupils in the same class will not ask such a question, but will go on, and come afterwards with the question, *Is that cor- rect?' The younger ones can imitate but not reason from one step to another." Prof. Ordway : "The best work for boys in the grammar school is wood-work and joinery in particular. Carving should be left for the higher schools. But, under some circum- stances, wire-work, and what the Germans call ' papi>-arbeit,' might be introduced. I should not advise any work in the grammar school except what can be done with simple tools and without any machinery. "I doubt the propriety of starting boys in wood-work before they are twelve years old. The lessons should occupy less than one hour, and I believe three lessons a week will do." 766 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. Mr. Crawford : ^'I have had regular classes from lower and higher grammar grades, i. e^ seventh- and eighth-year pupils, or pupils twelve to fourteen years old, for the past four years, and they have been very profitable. We have one-hour lessons, three daj- per week, in shop. Two days per week, pupils take drawing in school-house." Mr. Bumann : "I don't think it would be profitable to have the grammar grades take up tbr wood-work. They are too young to get the most benefit from it, and it would 1^ well to let it be introduced in the high school. I get good results by giviiij^ three lessons of one and one-half hours per week. I wouldn^t advise giving any less than three lessons a week, and one and one-half hours long." Mr. Mills: "The experience I have had at this time and for the past five years with stadent- of the senior grammar grade, would dictate that regular work in wood should \*^ carried no further down, for reasons expressed in Q. 29 of your letter. Even in thi.- grade, many students are found too young to properly grasp the work. We found it necessary to cut the lessons down to forty-five minutes per day, in shop-work." Mr. Bennett: "In connection with this. I wish to say, that I believe there is manual training that is best adapted to pupils of the seventh and eighth grades, but that it is not the same that is best adapted to pupils of high-school grade. I think it is useless ti* give a seventh-grade boy a complete kit of tools to work with. It is money wasted. The boy at that age can best acquire the mastery of but few tools. Give him the knife and the chisel, with the proper laying-out tools, and perhaps a small saw. and he has all that he can master in the time which properly belongs to manual training. " In answer to the question, I would say that the average pupil cannot profitably undertake working in wood with edge tools earlier than the seventh grade. This statement is based on actual experience. In the Hancock school of this city. Mr. Pickwick tried the experiment in the knife- and try -square-work with pupils from the fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth grades. Only pupils of the two upper grades could do the work properly. My own experience in another school would verify this statement. Full kits of tools should not be given to the pupil until one year later. "For pupiLs of the seventh grade the lessons should not be over thirty minutes long, if they have manual training twice per week. I should favor four thirty-five or forty-minute lessons." Mr. Anderson : " Lowest high-school grade, one hour and thirty minutes ; five lessons per week." Mr. Kilbon: " Nine years of age, lessons forty minutes long ; once a week for pupils nine and ten years of age." 5. Can edge toolf*^ other than knives and seizors, be put into pupih^ hand.< in regular achool-rooins ? This question was generally answered in the negative, and sometimes with emphasis. CLASSIFICATIOJ^ AND NOMENCLATUBE. 767 !NIr- Say re says: *" Sxercises in olay-modeling, &rKwiag^ and the making of geometric forms from irci\>oa>xd, seem to me to be the only kind of manual work that can be practically irried out in the lower schools, as at present organized." P*rof. Ordway says : *' For any manual training, for either boys or girls, there should be special rooms tiflferent from the regular school-rooms. When it is impossible to find any place or se^wixkg, except the school-rooms, scissors and needles can be admitted for the Anie Y>eiiig." ^Ir. ^Bennett replies : '*Yeft, the chisel or carving-tool can be used if a proper desk attachment be fur- nished. ( This answer is not based on actual experience, but I hope to have the ex- perience before the year is out. )'• It will now be in order for Mr. Bennett to give us the result of experience. A very little experience is worth a good deal. {_ Mr. B. reported that he had failed to try the experiment.] Mr. Kleinschmidt says : •" I do not see what benefit can be derived from placing edge tools in pupils' hands in regular school-rooms, although I do believe that much good might be done if they were given two-foot rules, properly divided into inches, and these into six- teenths, and were taught not only how to read them, but also how to go through the processes of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of fractions and mixed numbers, with reference to the rule. I find that many pupils who have no difficulty in working such an example as this, *Find one-half of one and five- eighths,* in the class-room, are totally at sea when asked to find one-half of one and five-eighths inches in the shop." 9t. Is it ever tmse to attempt to give class itistruction in wood-turning on lathes driven by foot f Is it not better, on the whole, to wait till power can be introduced f Mr. Crawford answers: ** Decidedly better to have mechanical power." Several others answer similarly, without going into particulars. Mr. Kilbon says : *' Lathes necessitate power. Mr. Bumann thinks : "It would be discouraging to the boys to have to drive a foot-power lathe, and would soon drive the boys out of the turning-room. It would pay to wait until power could be put in." Dr. Belfield replies : "Yes; but I have seen excellent work on foot lathes. Hand-work is more educa- tive than lathe-work." Mr. Steinert says ; '* Yes. A boy who has learned to do turning on a lathe driven by his own foot- power has more fully acquired the mastery of his hand; for he must then learn to 768 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, operate two »et» of musclefl simultaneously , and this is as different from taming nii a lathe where power is supplied by steam, or otherwwe, as two-hands is to one-hand playing on a piano. It requires more skill, and hence seems to me an advantage to boys learning. I ha^-e in my school two foot -power lathes, and I hear the boys com- plaining occasionally, yet both they and I are gratified to see the splendid w«*rk be- ing done, and I find it doesn't lessen their desire to be able to do turning one particl*-. Don't understand, however, that I would prefer foot-power where steam-power is al- ready established." In opposition to these two opinions is the following from Mr. Kleinseliiuidt: **I am not in favor of teaching wood-turning by means of foot -power lathes. When a pupil is learning the use of a tool he has enough to occupy his attention, and the labor necessary to run the lathe is bound to take his attention away from his tool ; the result is, he does poor work and does not learn to use his tools pro]>erh. "The argument that later on he may have to use foot-power lathes, does n<»t hold at all, because after a pupil once knows how to use his tools, the labor of ranninff a foot-power lathe will not be such as to keep him from using one if he can .4^et no other. The trouble with the foot-power lathe is, that one must know how to u^e his tools before he can use the lathe- -like the Irishman who would never be able to ^r^t his new boots on until he had worn them awhile.'- Mt. Say re's opinion is : "I think it advisable to wait for * power.' Anything that tends to distract the at- tention of the pupil from the thing in hand, tends to lessen the effectiveness <»f hi- works." Prof. Ordway seems at first to favor the use of foot-lathes, but it will l^e seen that he comes out right at last. He says : "Foot-lathes are much used in Europe for sldjd instruction, and I believe tha* they might be used in high schools in this country, where power cannot be afforded. All school - houses are not heated by steam, and it costs something for shaft ioi:. pulleys, and belting, besides the daily cost of steam. And if the shop i.< in the school-building, machinery propelled by power is objectionable on account of the noise and jarring. Yet when the pupils are far enough advanced to use any ma- chinery, they should be put into a high school, and the high-school shop in all lartre places ought to be provided with power.'' Mr. Mills answers suggestively: "I have never had any experience in giving instruction with foot -driven lathes, but should think that it would be decidedly wiser to wait for power. Electric mo- tors are quite well fitted for the work in small shops." 7. Are there anij whittling exercises (slojd) which have enough In th^m to jndify their introduction into the achool-roovi? Mr. Oawford thinks it doubtful, as does Mr. Booth. ]Mr. Anderson thinks it depends entirely upon the teacher, Mr. Steinert replies: " Whittling exercises are good, and will be enjoyed by the pupils in the school-rc»om as a relief from the constant strain of book-studying." Dr. Belfield replies: "Doubtful; but as I am not familiar with slOjd, prefer to wait for more light/' CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE. 769 Mr. Kilbon replies: '* Sume knife-work has been done in the middle grades of two Springfield schools for the past three years which holds the interest of pnpils, possesses edaoational merit, and meets with favor among teachers and interested citizens.'^ ^Ir. Sayre says : • " I believe that whittling exercises could be made nsefnl in the school-room if they were properly systematized, and wherever possible made from working-drawings." Mr. Bennett answers : " Yes. We have carried ont fonr months of such work here in St. Paul in the seventh and eighth grades, with good results. In such work I believe the try-square should be used freely. We furnished a knife for every boy, a try -square for every two boys, an oilstone and oil-can for every six boys. Accuracy is the main thing to be emphasized in such work, and everything should be done according to given directions." These suggestions are excellent, though there would appear to be nothing derived from Sweden in them. Prof. Ordway is quite familiar with slojd. lie replies as follows : *'The wording of this question implies that slojd consists in whittling, which idea is altogether incorrect. In Sweden, the home of slojd, the knife is used more than it iH with us ; but after all, the larger part of the slojd work is done with the regular joiner's tools. Slojd is in fact manual training without the use of any other machin- ery than the foot -lathe. One can bore and plane, cut off and split, and scrape with a knife, but it is almost always better to use an auger, a plane, a saw, a hatchet, or a scraper. One may occasionally whittle out a peg, a dowel, or a wedge, but the range of work in which the knife can be used to advantage is so very limited that it is not worth the while to occupy school-time with instruction in whittling." The other gentlemen claim to know too little about the matter to justify positive views. 8. Shovld pu}){h he encouraged to try to learn the iise of such tooh as they can gf't at home, without indmction f Prof. Ordway says : *'Mnny boys acquire bad habits in the manipulation of tools when they work without instruction, and when they have tools of their own they are not likely to be of the best sort. I would not, therefore, encourage practice out of the school-shop except after the pupils have had a considerable amount of training." Mr. Crawford says : *'They might be encouraged to do so, but I should not expect much benefit." Mr. Booth says, "Yes." So do Mr. Mills, Mr. Kilbon, Mr. Belfield, and Mr. Anderson. ^Ir. Steinert is evidently thinking of boys from his own school, who have instruction daily at school. The question was not intended to apply to such, but to those boys who have no instruction whatever in regard to the use of tools. However, here is Mr. Steinert's reply : *' Home work should most decidedly be encouraged, for it is excellent training 770 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. for the inveutiye faculties, and for originality of thought and action, besides doic^ good service for the mothers in keeping their boys out of evil companionship. I've been asked by several mothers to give their sons some work which they could dr> at home, for the purpose of keeping them at home in the evening/* Mr. Bennett says: "Not if they can possibly get instruction from anyone, either in or out of school/' Mr. Sayre replies: "I should not encourage home work until the pupil had acquired a consideraljle knowledge of the use of tools/' Mr. Bumann thinks: "They should not be encouraged to try to use the regular tools of the school with- out instruction." Mr. Kleinschmidt replies at length: " Unless pupils are taught the proper use of tools at school, I do not think they will derive any benefit from using tools that they can find at their homes. The pupil, not knowing when a tool is in good condition, will become disgpisted, becaus<' generally such tools are in poor condition. Not even a skilled workman can do goi>d work with duU tools, so the pupil will soon give up in despair when he finds that, try as much as he may, he only succeeds in turning out a poor job, and in spoiling his temper. Even if the pupil were given the finest set of tools, in excellent condi- tion, yet would I not favor his using them without instruction, because under the ignorance of the pupil as to how to use them properly, their usefulness to do j^ood work would soon deteriorate, and then the pupil would find that the longer he used them, the poorer would grow his work, and he would soon become discouraged and find no pleasure nor profit in their use. (This is a little from my own experience. Before I attended the * Manual ' I used to try to use the tools I found at home. The saw I had was a poor one, so I saved enough money to buy myself a new one. .\t first all went finely, but soon that saw, too, would not do good work, and I became disgusted with tools in general. It was then that I was sent to the 'Manual.* and the first vacation when I returned home I fixed up the old tools and did good work with them, and with much pleasure.) '' 9. Would it be worth while for teachers of upper grammxir grades, €vppiy- ing theni coinpetenty and supposing the scJwol can furnish lytd a single bench and set of tools, to give occasional lectures on the uses of tools and the method.* of '* laying out " tvork from draunngs f Mr. Cra^^-ford answers promptly: '* This would be wise, as it would soon create a demand for more benches." Mr. Belfield says, "Yes." Mr. Kilbon thinks it would be "an entering-wedge." Mr. Mills thinks it might be worth while as an adjunct to drawing. The rest of the teachers disapprove of the suggestion. Mr. Booth says: " I do not believe anything would be gained by such a course except, possibly, to arouse a slight interest on the part of a few pupils in the use of tools." CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE. Ill Air. JBiimanu replies: *' It ^^rould not be worth very much without the pupils having the practice. The iiltils must do the ivark, to get the betiefit.^^ This is what Mr. Steinert thinks: ^* Txi my opinion it does not pay for a teacher to make this special effort; at best t is not likely to deeply impress the scholars. It has about the same effect as a his- v>Yical lecture illustrated by magic-lantern views; some good may come of it." ^Ir. Bennett answers : " ^o. There are more profitable ways to spend the time." ^Vlr. Kleinschraidt replies : " I do not think it worth while for teachers in upper grammar grades to give i iccasional lectures on the use of tools and the methods of laying out work from drawini^s, because such instruction might lead to their trying to use tools at home, with bad results. Although such instruction might show them how these things are done, it would by no means be manual training, and should not be introduced as .such/' This is Prof. Ord way's reply : '• Lectures on the use of tools and the laying-out of work would be of very little use without the actual handling of tools by the boys themselves. You might as well expect boys to learn to swim by seeing others in the water. Lectures are in place alter pupils have used the tools, not before. Then they can understand what the teacher talks about. Orammar-school boys can derive very little profit from lectures of any kind. Object lessons will do for them, but they should see and handle the objects.^' 10. Should shop exercises ever be executed from models alone, withmit draw- ings f Mr. Crawford says: "1 think they might be occasionally, with profit;" but the concensus of opinion is strongly against it. Mr. Sayre says, " No ; " as does Mr. Anderson. Mr. Belfield says : "Rarely; let the boy first make a drawing from the model." Mr. Steinert says : "No. This training in drawing is very necessary, and it would be quite a loss to leave it out." Mr. Booth replies : **I would not say 'never,* but 'hardly ever.' " Mr. Bennett thinks the boy should work from the model without a draw- ing, "only in exceptional cases." Mr. Bumann : " Can think of no case where it would be better to do without the drawing." Mr. Kleinschmidt answers : "Making shop exercises from models is only a system of imitation, and is in my opinion little superior to the old-style drawing-books, in which a pupil is taught 772 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATIOy. drawing by finishing out one^half of a figure, the other half of which has been gi'^eu to him to copy. Such work would to some extent teach how to square up a piece, how to saw to a line, etc., but there would be little exercise of the thinking facnlti(:>. which, above all, each exercise should call into play to the utmost extent/* Prof. Ordway replies: '* It is well to train students to work from models alone, from drawings alone, and from only written or verbal specifications. The most natural course is to beg^in with models, and the pupils should certainly have good models to look at. but I would not allow them to handle the models; the dimensions should be given them either orally, or marked in a sketch. An exact scale-drawing should not always be re- quired. Of course, in the drawing-room the pupil should have the model and mfa«- ure it himself, and draw mostly from the object itself. There may be a limited amount of drawing from other drawings, but in such oases I would have them draw on a different scale from the original pattern." 11. Should pttpilfi, as a rule, have both models and drawings before ihein in regular class exercise f Mr. Bennett answers, " No ; " as do Mr. Kleinschmidt and Mr. Anderson. Messrs. Belfield, Sayre and Booth say that drawings alone are sufficient. Mr. Kilbon says : " Drawings are sufficient as a rule, though we exhibit models when pupils ask for them." Mr. Steinert thinks that "a drawing made by the pupil himself, and under- stood, is sufficient." This of course rather begs the question, for the point was whether the drawing was likely to be fully understood. It is assumed that the exercise involves a new form as well as a new tool-process, and the important thing is to give the pupil just enough light to enable him to find his way. Mr. Bumann answers: **As a rule, I think both are not necessary; but in carving the model is a great help, and I think it best to have both." Prof. Ordway thinks : ** Pupils should generally have a model before them, and a scale-drawing or n sketch to work by." Mr. Crawford says that "either a model or a drawing is sufficient" In most class exercises exact dimensions are given, and it is difficult to see how pupils can work to advantage without figured or scale-drawings. If the drawings show all that is necessary, and pupils are able to read them, no models are necessary. If, however, the pupil cannot see the model in the draic- ing, he should study the t%vo together till he can. 12. Should pupils make their drauings for a shop exercise before or afifr they have seen the teacher execute the exercise f This question was based on the assumption that the exercise had in it either a new process, the use of a new tool, or some new feature that needed to be CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE. IT^ w^gUt. The execution of the exercise by the teacher should include a full x: jx^sition and illustration of all that is new, with references only to what is \i^ady well known. As several remark, it is only in the very earliest exer- ises of a series that it is necessary for the teacher to execute the entire exer- ise before the pupils. However, it is proper to add that in the St. Louis chool, experience has taught us to execute quite freely before the class. A )iipil who is soon to execute an exercise for himself, learns a great deal as to ^ irrect methods by carefully watching a skillfiil teacher — and a teacher should l\o his very best work before his class. Now, in order that the pupil may un- dei-stand what the teacher is doing, he should as fully as possible have a clear mental picture of the forms he is to produce; hence our practice now is to have the first-year pupils make the drawings or sketches and figure them, in the shop, immediately before the teacher executes what is new in the exercise. As our practice has changed considerably, it seemed well to call for the prac- tice of others. >Ir. Crawford agrees with the above, as follows : '* When it is necessary for the teacher to execute the work, I should judge the pu- pil would be more profited if he had his own drawing in his hand for reference, as the work is being executed." Similarly Mr. Kleinschmidt : " With beginners I always explain the drawing with model in hand, and show them how each view corresponds with the model. I then take away the model and allow them to copy the drawing into their books. When all have finished. I give out the stock and proceed to execute part of the exercise before the class. I seldom complete the whole of it before them. As students become more familiar with work- ing-drawings I show no model at alT, but let them proceed to work as soon as they have made the drawing. I explain then only the steps to be taken, and the use of some new tool which may be brought into use for the first time by the exercise." Mr. Bumann says: •'After the teacher executes the exercise, the pupils will then have a better idea of the work if they are beginners; but if they are used to the drawing somewhat, it can't make a very great difference." Mr. Anderson replies to this question : "I do not believe it best that pupils should make many of the drawings from which they are to work. It is just as necessary that they should learn to read draw- ings by Rome other person as to make drawings themselves. They can get practice in the latter by making drawings of other things." Mr. Booth and Mr. Kilbon answer, "Before." Mr. Mills and Mr. Steinert answer, "After." Prof. Ordway answers more at length : "It is hardly necessary that the pupils should see the teacher himself execute every exercise. When he has shown them how to perform the special operations, it is better that they should make the combinations themselves, and not have him show them everything. They should be trained to depend on themselves. The teacher should occupy the time in seeing that the pupils do the work in the right way, not —49 774 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. in doing the work himself. Suppose, for instance, the exercise is to make a r^. i bolt. The pnpil has already learned all the separate operations required, &nu should be able to go on and make the whole according to the dimension prescribed- * to the drawing, it is better for the pnpil to haTe a model, and make a drawing fr -. it to work by; but as the time in the drawing-room may be more profitably ^p*: than in drawing all the models, I would have the pupils draw only a part of * • models/' 13. Is it ever uise to have one teacher mpen^ise the making fif the ^V' draxvingH, and another teacher give the shop instntdion in which those riV-; ings are to he m^edf Mr. Belfield and Mr. Anderson say, "Yes," without qualification. Mr. Bennett says: "Yes; most surely, both teachers should know their business.'' Mr. Booth says: **It is the only proper thing to do." Mr. Sayre replies: "In a regular manual-training school the only practicable method is for •/Ut teacher to superyise the making of shop-drawings, and another to give the shop is struction in which those drawings are to be used. Theoretically, if one teacher ci>ald do both, it would be advantageous to the pupils. As a matter of fact, in this sch<.K' the shop teachers analyze the drawings which come from the drawing-room by black board sketches and illustrations, before the pupils execute the work." Mr. Kilbon thinks that "whatever concerns the tool instructor should be under his direction, or he cannot be held responsible for good work." Mr. Bumann must have had a drawing-teacher who was unfamiliar witl shop-work, for he says : " We tried that scheme here, and it didn't pay." Mr. Mills is afraid of incompetency on one side or the other. Mr. Crawford says : " I think it not wise to separate the drawing and the shop instruction. I hare tried it both ways; i. p., ( 1 ) one teacher for drawing and another for shop-work; and (2) one man for both drawing and shop-work. The latter has been more sat- isfactory." Mr. Steinert says : *' This would very likely lead to confusion, and possibly make excusable the shift- ing of responsibility for errors." Mr. Kleinschmidt replies thus: "Having always taught the shop classes and the drawing-classes myself, I am unable to answer this question. I should think, however, that it would be a gottd plan to allow a certain day of the week to be devoted to making shop-drawings, in the drawing-room, under the supervision of the drawing-teacher, from drawings fur- nished by the shop instructor. This enables students to make better drawings, ba?- ing all the facilities near at hand. Especially in metal-work, I think that the be^ plan." CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE. lib P*rof. Ordway: ** I think it is always wise to have one teacher attend to all the drawing of the ^ VI pile, and another to see to the shop-work. In those cases in which it is deemed izxxieoessary for the pnpils to make the working-drawings, the shop instructor may :xi.Ake them. It is by no means necessary that the drawing should always be made t>y the pupil himself." It is evident from these replies that there is considerable fear of incompe- tency, either on the part of the shop instructor or the drawing-teacher; and ttliat some are thinking of beginners, and others of students advanced into Tiietal-work. Advanced classes have little to learn from the making of shop- od- work: twenty-two in forging, and sixteen in machine-work. In the St. Louis school the shop and drawing divisions are the same in size, to wit : First year, twenty-five: second year, twenty-two; third year, twenty. No teacher ever has an assistant with him in the same division, nor does any teacher in shop or drawing have two divi- sions at once." 15. Should the work in every shop culminate in a project suited to a tfhop f The replies are these : Mr. Anderson: "Yes." Mr. Mills: "As a rule." Mr. Belfield: "It is a good plan." Mr. Kilburn: "It promotes interest, and we practice it." Mr. Booth : " Not necessarily, but it may to good advantage." Mr. Crawford: **Let the pupils, as a rule, after the first twenty or thirty lessons, select their own work; but see that it is well done." Mr. Bumann: " It would be well to have each shop make a project, so that the pupils could ap- ply their knowledge." Mr. Kleinschmidt: '* I think it a good plan to have the work in each shop culminate in a project suit- able thereto, i. <•., when full time is given to the work; otherwise the time is better spent in regular exercises through to the end." Mr. Sayre: •*In the mitre joint, each boy is required to supplement the joint by making a picture frame, and in the dove-tail joint he makes a box. The tongs and cold chiseK in the second year, are in a certain sense ' projects.' In the third year, each piece of apparatus or mechanical construction might be considered a * project.' '* Prof. Ordway: "It depends on how much time in all is allotted to shop-work. Generally, I think a project at the end of the whole course is sufficient, unless the Russian system i«« followed. But I do not approve of the Russian system." Mr. Bennett: *'No. I think only a very limited amount of project -work should be allowed in a manual-training school." It is possible that jVIr. Bennett attaches a different meaning to the word "project" from that commonly used. In the St. Louis school, the principles taught in each shop are embodied in more or less elaborate combinations, though they are not always called projects. 16. Should Jorge A have *^ power ^^ hlai*iSy or are "Jvand^^ blaai-^ equally gtH}df The replies are unanimously in favor of power blasts ; though Mr. Belfield thinks hand bla<*ts have some advantages. CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATUBE. Ill Ttie question did not apply to cases where a single forge was used. No iass-^work can be done without a full equipment of forges and anvils, one to acVi boy of the division. ]M]r. Mills says: ^^1. should recommend power blasts as being less liable to breakage, economical n t Ke end, and less noisy." ^Ir. Kleinschmidt speaks thus: •* I am decidedly in favor of power blasts for forges, as I find pupils keep their fires in better condition by their use. With the hand blast they frequently have t roTilt>le because in pursuing their work their fires will go out for want of air, and tYixis time is lost in rekindling fires. As our object is education, and not labor, we should always use the best means to attain our end." Prof. Ordway writes as follows : ^*A hand blast is not so good as a power blast unless two work at one forge, and one acts as a helper. To do good work one needs to concentrate all his nervous energy ou the forging, and not use a part of it in blowing. The growing boy has not strength enough to do both. Whenever the means of the school allow iron-work to he taught, there should be a power blast. But it is well to have one hand-blown forge in the shop, so that the pupils may know how to make a blast without ma- chinery. But I would always save as much of a boy's strength as possible, so that it may all be applied to important work, and not to useless drudgery." 17. Do you stigged any changes from the prevailing order in which the dif- ferent lines of shop'tvork are taken up f Several responses contained no suggestions on this point. Mr. Bumann indorses the plan in the St. Louis school, which is as follows: First year : Joinery, twenty-two weeks; carving, five; turning, thirteen. Second year: Pattern-work, and moulding (some moulding before, and some after pattern- work), ten weeks; forging (with some brazing), thirty weeks. Third year: Vise and machine-tool work, forty weeks. Mr. Bennett says : *'The following is the order in our school: (a) Joinery, (6) Carpentry, (c) Wood-carving, ( d ) Wood-turning, ( e ) Pattern-making, (/) Foundry-work, ( g ) Forge- work, ( h) Machine-tool work. W^e contemplate placing a large part of the foundry- work just before the pattern-making." Prof. Ordway : ''Joinery ought always to come first, as wood is the easiest material to work with. And I would finish up wood-work before taking up iron. It matters little whether vise-work comes before or after forging, but I think the preferable order is: forg- ing, vise-work, foundry-work, soldering and brazing, lathe-work. Local circum- Btances may favor a variation in the order. Thus, in this part of the country f New Orleans], the last three months of the school year are too warm for forge-work, and we substitute tinsmith's work." Mr. Kleinschmidt : "I think that a four-years plan is more satisfactory than the three-years. First 778 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. year, wood-working; second year, moulding, and sheet-metcd work ; third jear.forfT^ and fourth year, machine-tool work. The drawing should be so arranged th&t i'- pils will be at work on construction problems at the same time they are studjisu: this subject in geometry. Development of surfaces at the same time tbej art n. sheet -metal work in the shop, etc.^' See what Mr. Rayre says under the next question. 18. Do you favor putting the same students upon two lines of shap-^^'. simultaneously f Mr. Sayre writes suggestively : " In this school, the pupils are brought at once into contact with the two et-n structive materials, wood and iron. They work on alternate days in the wood ar j metal shops. In the first year a series of exercises in joinery is carried on pamLt^' with a series of exercises in clipping, filing, and fitting both oast and nrronght iron. The same plan is pursued the second year; the pupils alternate from the wood toil- forge shop, and the exercises in pattern-making run parallel with the forge-work. The moulding and casting from the patterns is also part of the work of the ^^t^o-^^ year. In the third year the * mechanical constructions' involve the manipulation fl wood and iron, and also brass." Prof. Ordway : "One thing at a time. In most schools of late years, the pupils have too many studies on hand at the same time. It is not well to divide the attention.** Mr. Crawford: '*One thing at a time." Ditto Mr. Anderson, ^fr. MilU and Mr. Kleinschmidt. Mr. Bennett: "No, unless it might be two lines in the same material — as wood-carving and wood-turning -alternating by weeks." Mr. Buraann: "I found it pays to have some turning every week with the carpentry -work; es- pecially with the glue-work. The pupils can see that perfect work in gluing is nec- essary for turning." Mr. Belfield: "No; with the exception that pattern-making and moulding might be combined/* The Philadelphia plan is not approved in St. Louis. 19. Have you any suggeMlons as to the length and frequency of »hopt-\vork fo r t h a h ig her g ra des f The usual allowance of two hours (one-third of the school time) daily is indorsed by all, with two slight modifications, as follows : Prof. Ordway: "Pupils of the higher grades should not work over three hours at a time. I should prefer to give them two hours and a half every other day.'' Mr. Crawford : " Our periods have been one hour (but I am satisfied that one and a half houri« would be better), three days each week, leaving two days for drawing."" CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE. 779 20. Where should regular exercises in geoynetrieal draming come into a course f ifiMirumental drawing f ^Ir. Crawford and Mr. Booth are quite alone, as is thus seen : Mr. Crawford: ^^ I think they should come into the course early. I have had pupils of fourteen io excellent work in this line. Geometrical drawing certainly furnishes a basis for nmny measurements, etc., needed in more advanced work.^* Mr. Booth: " Early in the course." ^Ir. Anderson : '• Just before and during the study of geometry." Mr. Kleinschmidt : "Geometrical drawing should not come until the students are weU up in their study of geometry." Mr. Belfield: "The study of geometry should, if possible, precede geometrical drawing; or at least be taken simultaneously." Prof. Ordway: •* I would have no geometrical drawing tiU after the lapse of one-third of the whole time to be devoted to instrumental drawing." Mr. Sayre : " I place the drawing of geometrical exercises where, I think, it properly belongs — in the mathematical department, when the pupils come to that part of geometry which treats of those problems." Mr. Bumann: ''Geometrical drawing should not be introduced until the pupil has had geometry. It might be good practice in lining, but what they learn is of little value, as they can't and won't remember the problems." Mr. Mills: "Geometrical drawing should be introduced graduaUy from the beginning, as op- portunity is shown to demonstrate their application.'' Mr. Bennett: "The geometrical problem should not be given until it is needed. Never give a course in abstract geometrical problems to pupils who are beginning the study. I v?ould give a boy a carefully-graded series of exercises in drawing from real objects. Give him a geometrical problem when he needs it, and be sure the course is so ar- ranged that he wiU need it. Teach him projection in every exercise, and it will soon become second nature to him. Teach him to figure and letter every drawing." The 8t. Louis plan is that of Mr. Bennett and Mr. Mills, so far as ele- mentary problems are concerned. The higher problems are deferred till the third year of the course, and the pupil is half-way through geometry. 780 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. 21. If* it worth while to t^ach linear pernpective to ntudent^t who hioir noth- ing of descriptive geometinj f Messrs. Belfield, Booth, Anderson, and Crawford answer, "Yes." Mr. Kilbon says, "No." Mr. Bennett says : '* I do not believe in teaching linear perspective in manual-training schooL?.'* Prof. Ordway says: "One can do very little freehand drawing without flome knowledge of perspective. StudentR should begin to draw, and to draw in perspective, long before they come to descriptive geometry. I believe it is decidedly worth the while to teach linear per- spective in an early stage of the pupil's progress, and a previous knowledge of de- scriptive geometry is entirely unnecessary." Mr. Kleinschmidt : "I have taught a few pupils linear perspective who had no knowledge whatever of descriptive geometry; but in general I do not think it best to do so. Without « knowledge of descriptive geometry they may be taught how to make a linear per- spective drawing, but they cannot be taught to make such a drawing understand- ingly, and it becomes more a system of memory than of reasoning; hence I do ni»i think that time put to such use is well spent." Mr. Say re: "Linear perspective is taken up the third year in connection with architectural drawing. The pupils then have a suflBcient knowledge of descriptive geometry tu enable them to make an intelligent application of it." Mr. Mills: "Students who pursue a systematic course of projection-drawing will understand enough of descriptive geometry -to grasp linear perspective readily. My experience demonstrates this to my entire satisfaction." In the St. Louis schools, the little perspective that is taught is put in the last year of the course, when the pupil is familiar with projections, intersec- tions, and developments. The freehand work of the first year is largely in the direction of projection- drawing, preparatory to instrumental work. 22. /j< it wii^e to teach pupils to treat one kind of material as though it urrf a different materkil f For inMance, should clay be used a^^ though it ime wood ; or wood as though it were ironf The point of this question was not very obvious. It was aimed at a sort (»f pseudo manual training which sometimes apjiears at expositions, where the eye may be partly satisfied at the expense of the judgment. There have l)eeii seen w^ooden saws and hatchets; paj)er houses and furniture; clay boxes aud tools ; — all of which seem excessively childish and futile. All the response? condemn such exercises. Mr. Kleinschmidt hits the nail on the head when he says : " One might work clay all his life and never learn that wood splits with the grain, and that iron does not break into splinters." CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE. 781 ^Ir. Anderson says he "thinks it good to use clay [to represent vegetable likI foliage forms] before wood-carving, and a little lead before iron-forging." Similarly we may, without impropriety, turn wooden goblets and vases as •itiidies of form. 23- Should we not discourage all aitempts to teach joinery by the use of pa- per^ ccirdboard, and thin slips or sheets of woodf The responses are in the affirmative. At the same time, several are careful to say that there is no objection to representing geometrical forms (which of course are purely abstract) by any convenient materials : pasteboard, clay, or wood. The study of form is of course one of the features of shop-work, though the methods of using tools and working-materials are the main features. As Prof. Ordway sa}T8 : ^^ We should discourage all attempts to teach working in wood with anything but the lumber itself, or iron-working with anything but iron." But of course one may learn to make models in any materials. 24. Should not the drawing of onwment be followed, whenever practicable, by the actual construction of the ornament in suitable material f Messrs. Bennett, Crawford, and Booth answer, " Yes," without qualification. Messrs. Anderson and Kilbon answer cautiously, "Not all." Messrs. Sayre and Kleinschmidt specify that "The drawing of ornament should be followed by the actual construction in some suitable material — clay, wood, iron, or stone." Mr. Mills is afraid that it might result in a demand for an " art education." Mr. Belfield thinks that "the construction of plastic ornament should pre- cede the drawing of it. It is easier to model than to draw." But what are " plastic ornaments " ? Certainly we know of none that are made of clay, or wax, or putty. These plastic materials may be used to represent ornament only in form. The real ornament itself, which is of course the direct end of constructive work, is generally in hard and durable material, and the practi- cability of its construction is not often realized. As Prof Ordway says : "The actual construction of ornaments should be preceded by the drawing or modeling of the ornament, but one would accomplish very little work in drawing if he attempted to execute everything that he draws or models." Yet it would seem that one's education in ornament would be very imper- fect if it went not beyond mere representation on a plane surface, or in some foreign material. 25. Would it not be well if in every grammar school, provis^ion were made for hidruction in wood-work of all boys over fouHeen years of age, irrespective of their standing in book studie^^i f Messrs. Anderson, Booth, Kilbon and Ordway answer, " Yes." 782 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. Mr. Mills says : ^'Yes. Sometimes the age limit of foarteen is high, as many jomiger boj5 -. better qualified than those a year or two their seniors." Mr. Crawford: "My experience is that the age might better be placed at twelve; and liter.- • standing should have nothing to do with it." Mr. Bumann : "I heartily favor the manual training for the pupils of the grammar grade ot-. fourteen years, but not for the grammar pupils under that age. The pnpils in *: ■ grammar grade of fourteen years and over would probably have a chance to It-Arn great deal that would encourage them to take hold of their other work." Mr. Sayre: "I think so. Some central locality could be fitted up. and such boys could be itr tailed at certain hours from a dozen or more schools." Mr. Kleinschmidt : "I think it would be well if all boys over fourteen, in the grammar g^rades, coiiV' take wood-work; but I am not in favor of allowing instruction to tho^e too low it their .studies, as I do not think that they derive the benefit from the work they woold. were they further advanced." Mr. Bennett differs emphatically : "No. It would be disastrous to the system, and impair work in other branches of study." Mr. Belfield gives his views as follows: "As a general rule, yes. But the time given to hand-work is, with some boT». wasted utterly. It is best to economize a boy's time, and not compel him to do ^\\n\ nature has apparently given him no aptitude for. In like manner, while I believe in Latin and Greek. I think that with some pupils to give them Latin and Greek i» to 'cast pearls before swine.'" 26. Should not inmilar provision he made for laboratory work on the paiioj the girh in the principles and general processes of the kitchen and the senino- room f All the answers were in the affirmative. 27. Should not girh he taught all the general drafting that is taught to hoij^, and enough shop-work to enahh them to appreciaU detail drawings f Mr. Crawford answers: "I think they should be thus taught, and should be allowed to take the r^rulflf shop-work with the boys, where they so desire. I have had a large class of gid'^ this year in carpentry and wood-turning, and they do equally as well as the boy;*." Messrs. Kleinschmidt, Booth, Kilbon, and Anderson answer, "Yes." Mr. Belfield answers, "No." Mr. Sayre says : " Yes, to a certain extent." Prof. Ordway thinks " the same drawing should be taught to both boys and girls." CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE, 783 Mr. Mills says : *-!Not unless they show a liking for it; I believe that more tStoeoratiye and sketoh- ixig -work should be given girls." Mr. Bennett says : ** I think their drafting should run more in the lines of architecture and decora- :1 ve design. While the boy should pay special attention to constructive design, girls ^\\ould pay most atte ntion to decorative design. A course in wood-work, consisting m.o8tly of elementary joinery and wood-carving, should be given to girls, I think t-His would be enough to enable them to appreciate detail drawings." 28. Does your experience justify any rem- sooner that training begins, the better. But we must not expect much w<»rk. j^nj-i- cal or mental, of young children, and shop-work should be work, not play. A ^hia i boy can be taught to use a square or bevel, to measure and mark out line.**, but \j. has not the firmness of grip and steadiness of muscle which are reqair€*d to ur^ a gauge or handle a plane.*^ Mr. Kleinschmidt replies: **I have found in my experience with pupils whom I thought too young t(» eritir on the course in the actual use of tools, but whom I was forced to take inti» )Dy classes, against my judgment, that they fully justify the expressions made by y* a. They do very well in imitating, but when left to themselves to lay out work, they in- variably make a failure of it, because they have not acquired the ability to ve&i^pj* toward an end, i. ut of work before actual construction, when the pupils are too young, or before they have reached the age of reflection, which I think does not come to most pupils before the age of fourteen. They should at least be far enough advanced in studies to under- stand the simple operations in arithmetic, so that the shop instructor need not take up his time in teaching them addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of fractions. No work should be given to younger pupils, that involves accuracy in construction to any great extent." PosT8('RiPT. — Since the above report was prepared and read, a valuable response was received from Messrs. Perry and Richards, of Pratt Institute, Brooklyn. These gentlemen agree in general with the majority positions as given above. A few answers are, however, of value as emphasizing positive views. It is therefore thought proper to append them here. The numerals refer to the questions given above : "2. Inasmuch as the term 'manual training' was introduced to denote instruction in the use of tools for educational purposes, and as that has become its generally accepted meaning, it would seem wise to retain it as the distinctive title for this work, and to class all other work under distinctive heads. "8. Decidedly, No. The benefit derived from shop-work in the grammar grades is limited by the mental and physical development of the pupils: and great care is necessary in planning work for these grades to bring everything that is attempted well within their comprehension. Surface-cutting on open pieces, and the elementi* of joinery, if preceded by proper training, lend themselves admirably to these con- ditions. Wood-carving much less so, because the artistic thought involved in the design cannot at this stage be thoroughly apprehended. "4. If the use of separate shop and carpenters' tools is implied, we should say the last grammar year; and if the conditions permit, three lessons a week, of an honr each. "7. Suggestions may be taken from the first slojd exercises in simple surface-cut- ting for grammar-grade work: but neither the exact methods nor the exercise,^ can be applied with advantage to American schools. "8. Such work is of doubtful value with younger boys, and the purpose of manual training would probably, in most cases, be but little forwarded. *' 13. The question evidently takes it for granted that it is necessarily an advantage CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATUME, 785 t.*.> «.c5company each shop exercise by a drawing of the same by the pvpiL This is seri- «>i.»slj doubted, and it is believed that the greatest efficiency in each branch of work C5«i.xi only be reached by dealing with each on its own conditions. ** Of course the ability to make and to read the drawing of each exercise must be in- ^if%t ed upon, but this does not, of necessity, imply that each pupil should make that pAvticular drawing. In fact, no advantage appears which justifies the consumption of t ime necessary to make a correct and neat drawing for each piece of work; and the ^Ix-fi. wings, if not made correctly and neatly, to a certain extent, set a low standard of performance for the work. For these reasons, it is thought that the use of a care- fully prepared set of working • drawings of the shop-work exercises, both saves ooxifiiderable time, and does much to advance the ideal of performance, and that the «imployment of a special teacher for the drawing should, of itself, be an advantage.'* PROCEEDINGS ADDRESSES DEPARTMENT OF ART EDUCATION. Department of Art Education. SECRETARY'S MINUTES. FIRST SESSION. High School Building, St. Paul, Minnesota, July 9, 1890. The Department of Art Education met at the high-school building at 3 p. m.; President Jesse H. Brown, of Indiana, in the chair. The Secretary being absent, Mra. H. S. Smith, of St. Paul, was appointed Secretary pro tein. Miss Khoda E. Selleck, of Indianapolis, Indiana, read a paper on "High- School Work in Drawing." The subject was discussed by ^Irs. Carter, of New York City ; Mr. Collins, of Denver; Mr. Ardley, of Minneapolis; and others. The President appointed the following Committee on Nomination of Offi- cers: J. C. Mulkins, of Missouri; Miss E. A. Weaver, of Chicago; Miss Kate M. Ball, of Omaha; Miss Vienne Dodge, of Wisconsin; and Miss Olive Underbill, of Iowa, Josephine E. Locke, of Illinois, read a pai)er on "The Mission of Color," which was discussed by Mrs. Ilicks, of Boston ; INIrs. Carter, of New York ; Miss Shelleck, of Indianapolis; Mr. Collins, of Denver; and others. The Department then adjourned. SECOND SESSION.— July 10. The second session of the Department met at 3 r. m. ; President Jesse H. Brown in the chair. The Committee on Nominations made the following report, which was adopted : President- -Kanimh Johnson Carter, New York, N. Y. Vice-President — Lillian Jacoby, Rockford, Illinois. Secretary - -Frank H. Collins, Denver, Colorado. Mrs. Carter, of New York, read a paper on " Drawing in Normal Schools,*' which was discussed at great length by a member of the Department. The Department then adjourned. MRS. H. 8. SMITH, Secretary pro ten}, —50 (789) 790 THE XATIOXAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATIOX, PAPERS. HIGH-SCHOOL WORK IN DBA WING. RIIODA E. SELL.rK, INDIANAPOLIS, INDIANA. It has seemed to me in the gatherings of the past that if this Depart mteu: is worthy of a place in the Association, it should be worthy of our be^t in- terests ; of a determination to obtain the best possible good from the variuu- methods that should be presented. I may not have chosen wisely in the subject-matter of my paper, but I •J- trust that in laying before you what I have been able to do in the IndianajMiH- high school with our limitations, it will incite you to criticisms and sugirt-^ tions that we may all take home and develop in our future work. I have laid aside theory', and shall present to you a phase of the work, the result perhaps of some years of experience. The freehand drawing- work of our high school, of which I have the entin- control, I have classed as the "Art Department" in order to distingui^jh it from the "Mechanical Department," of which Mr. Bass has charge, and whom I assist. The art department has grown within the past few years from a cla^^: oi six, until we now have a cla^^s average of a hundred or more. The work L< wholly elective on the part of the pupil, and in most cases it has seemed pret- erable to allow only those pupils to take the course who have spent at leas-t one year in the reirular high-school work. No question is asked as to ability, as all can do the work who .show a ]m)per amount of interest and enthusiasm. A record is kept of the work of tlie pupil for the first and second half-year of the work, and reported the same as his other • studies. He may after ihk remain in the cUu«s as long ils he chooses while in the high school and his ag^ and time will permit. Many of the post-graduates return and continue or take up the work for a year or more. Our classes have been held in a large assembly-room, from the lack of a large enough room elsewliere. It has had its innumerable inconveniena-?, but by a series of devices we have been able to overcome many difficulties. It was some time before I succeeded in finding the proper material with which to work ; that is, material that could be adapted to the different kinds of work and at the same time be economical to the pupil. I studied the ma- terial used at Cincinnati in her schools, and her Art Institute and elsewhere. HIGH' SCHOOL WOBK IN DBAWING. 791 Finally, through the aid of the Art Emporium of our city, we now use the toUowin^, although we are constantly open to changes and suggestions: For the first outfit each pupil supplies himself with a pine easel ; a tablet of white charcoal paper twelve by eighteen inches in size that he fastens in book form and covers before being allowed to use it; four of John Faber's Siberian pencils, letters F, H, B, and B B B; a typewriter's eraser, a piece of sand- paper, one sheet of Whatman drawing-paper, and one sheet of German draw- ing-paper. This outfit costs the pujnl one dollar and ninety-five cents. The second outfit that he buys, the latter part of the first half-year of his work, amounts to eighty cents. It consists of ten cents for fixative, that I have made at a drug store of mastic and alcohol, and buy by the quantity ; one stick of crayon sauce, three crayon pencils, Nos. 1, 2, and 8, a crayon- holder, a paper, a chamois stump, and one-half a box of the best French charcoal. This constitutes his entire material, unless it may be with the ex- ceptional use of a sheet of crayon paper now and then, in his advanced work. I have thus enumerated the material, for to me one of the greatest diffi- culties, as I have already said, has been the proper material with the best economy to the pupil. To me, the words of Carlylo have been in many ways an inspiration. He once said to Wolner: "I am sure it would have been better for me to have been taught to draw when a boy ; even than to read. Clearness and precision of thought would come with manual skill. It would be a boon, a preserva- tive of mental health to studious brain-workers and anxious business men, to have an interesting occupation to which to turn." The nature of our work has had a development of its own. It has seemed to grow and shape itself instinctively, as it were, from the wishes and feel- ings of the cla.sses. The aim of the work has been to the accurate development of the eye and hand in their close relation to tlie development of the mind, to make it possi- ble to portray upon pajx^r many c()nce])tions that come to them in their litera- ture work ; to iidvance in the i)upil that culture that tends towards the true, the beautiful, and the good; and to give to the pupil a power with his fingei-s, that he may apply in all his other studies, and contiime to use after he has lefl school. No one system has been followed ; perhaps the best has been chosen from several systems. Au effort has been made to firmly impress upon the mind of the i>upil the principles of construction that underlie all freehand drawing-work. As much material Jis possible has been placed in the hands of the pupil, that he may become familiar with its nature, and know its adaptation to future necessities. Our hours of work have been one recitation daily of forty-five minutes, with the oj)eration of several grades of work, all at the same time. Home work is reciuested, as the subject is placed upon the same footing with their other school studies for the first two half-years. In order to know if this re- 792 THE NATIOXAL EDUCATIOXAL ASSOCIATION. quiremeiit is met, a reix)rt is made each Friday of the time giveu to j)ractice, on a pai)er ui)oii which has been drawn a required study that bears some re- lation to the regular work of the week, in their books. Our work has been almost wholly the representative, the reasons being the purpose of the work, the desire of the parent and the pupil, the need of time, the size of the classes, and the lack of facilities with Avhich to do otherwise. The manual-training work embraces much that is of the purely mechani- cal, and while the practical is a larger part of the educational regime, there is something higher and fuller, a culture that looks beyond machinery' into the realm of nature and her beautiful forms. The kind of studies, and the method followed in handling them, I have en- deavored to show you in the drawings before you. I trust they are worthy of your careful study and criticism. I have commenced with the line of various lengths, not to simply make the line, but Xo find the pu[)il as to his ideas of length, distance, position, holding of the pencil, etc. In this lesson he also learns the use of the two p<»ucils F and H, the F with which to make the line, the H to finish the line. The outline of the sphere is given as the second le?*?on, because of its simple form and multiplicity of a})})lication. To this is added a similar form from nature, to show the relation of the geometrical form to the natural. The purpose is to draw almost entirely from the objects, so as to help to overcome in a slight measure one of the weakest points in our present school methods, to have the pupils do as told, to draw from the object as they >*/r it and not to first draw as ^//r// think it is, or to add to a subject what they think is in it before fii-st tinding what is put into a subject by the maker or writer. A lesson follows of the cone, where the axis is not parallel to the sides of the figure, but the })rinciple of the cylinder continues of the longest diameter drawn of the j)ersj)ective circle, remaining at right angles to the axis, no matter in what })osition the curved oliject may be placed. To fix this j)rinci- ple more clearly, a page is drawn from the cone in various positions, as in lesson seven. Believing it essential to fix the few simple principles that seem so hard to the pupil as firmly as possible, a page is devoted to drawing the hoo}) in many ways, closing w ith the draAving of a ring of considerable thick- ness. Not a lesson is given without a reason. To test the pupil as to his knowledge at the end of the first step of the work, lesson eleven is rec[uired to be a drawing made at home from a group of ob- jects similar to the ones from which he has thus far drawn. Taste and design are also sought in the arrangement of this lesson, as you may see from the two or three drawings I have ])ur])osely chosen. AVhen this lesson is returned, it is criticised as to the quality of lines, the relation of the objects to each other, the perspective of the curves in accordance to their various jwsitions above or below, to the right or to the left of the eye, and to the neatness and honesty of the work. . The second step, that is carried through several lessons, introduces the per- HIGH'SCIIOOL WOHK IN DRAWING, 793 il>ective in straight-line objects, as the door open at various angles, the cubes 11 various j)ositions, followed by two lessons in drawing from boxes, two from books, and closing with another original study drawn at home from objects of tins* class. The difficulties to overcome are many with pei-speetive, and these lessons ixrc given with reference to these difficulties. I have often thought, whenever time should be given, of introducing at this i>oint a few lessons in mechanical pei-spective. I fear now that with time and wider experience, I am being drawn to the conclusion of our great American artist, of New York, Mr. William M. Chase. He says: "It seems to me well to know much about these things. I never have thought it necessary to take a very thorough ccHirse in perspective. About the best lecture in perspective I ever had was once when I stood at the back end of a railroad train and saw a track run- ning to a point away from me, and I have never forgotten it, and I have seemed to see things diminish in the distance so ever since." I have commenced the third step of the first half-year*s work with shading, the first correct representation of the object. I continue still with the use of the pencil, adding to the pencils thus far used the three-B landscape pencil, followed by the single-B f)encil in the shading of the basket. An effort is made to impress strongly u]>on the mind of the pupil the tones and values of light and shade to be seen upon the object, where the high light and shadow should not be seen upon any curved object, and the umbra and the penumbra of the cast shadow. The shading is commenced with the broad pencil, to more clearly show these facts, and to cause the pupil to use freedom and boldness in his work. He is taught to see the effect that the direction of the lines produces and the effect that one object has upon another, by shading the cylinder, the group, and the vase, as you may see in lessons XX, XXI, XXII, XXIV. The single-B pencil is brought into use by shading the basket with straight lines, to show the power of representing the values of light and shade, regardless of the di- rection of the surface, similar to pen-and-ink work. Two or three studies are also shown of this work. A sj)ecimen of this pen-and-ink work comes from one of our first-year high-school boys. The pupils have now become very much interested in their work. Some of them prefer to continue this pencil-shading while the course takes up the crayon. The first half-year closes with shading the ball with the stump and crayon sauce, and shading a vase in stipple with crayons Nos. 1 and 2. The last class was able to accomplish more than any previous class, from some un- known cause, hence you see two or three additional lessons. The last lesson was drawn and shaded by one of the young men who was also in the manual- training class. The second half-year's work continues the pencil, the crayon, and takes up the charcoal ; that is placed last for various reasons. More freedom is now given to the pupil, as he has become thoroughly enthusiastic in his work, and, 794 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, to a slight degree, begins to find himself, and often desires to work in at- tain direction. He is now given the casts from which to draw. The vari -" of which we t)osse8s, you may know from the drawings before you. T pupil works from the simple to the more difficult with as much rajndity t • is capable of doing. The shading from the cast is done with the crayon sauce and stump ut-i the charcoal, the English, and the Whatman crayon-paper, in various sty it- of touch. One i)iece you will see done in stipple. No other mat(*rials \i '•*.' which we have experimented have been as satisfactory. Not for one moment is the thought lost sight of that the sha, to which many of our students go after leaving the high school. We havt (piite a number of casts of the human figure that form something of a c*'L- necting link between our work and the work of the art institute of the city. The more advanceerries. The drawing is first made with the straight line, in various sizes, inliiig with the same shaded, having applied methods that they would use II drawing the object lesson before the pupil for reading or numbere in the f clioo 1 -room. They have been required to make several outline-drawings and mount them for use by the pupil when they enter upon their school-work. . ( )ne of our great purposes has been to see the beautiful forms in nature. "To him who In the love of Nature holds communion with her visible forms, She speaks a various language.*' AVe have come to love each other and our work. We see ourselves just upon the edge of great possibilities. Our enthusiasm has led us to the form- ing of outside work in the nature of two sketching clubs. The one of longest organization, "The Sketching Club," has taken for its work this past year the work in water colors, having spent two years in working entirely in charcoal from nature and from studies. Our work is of necessity slow % but we trust in the right direction. Certain rules and regulations are enforced, and work is brought by the members to each meeting for suggestions and criticisms. We have also studied the history of art from Kadclifie's "Schools and Masters of Painting," and have read from John C. Vandyke's " ITow^ to Study Pictures." (^uite a collection has been made and mounted in a book of Soule's photo- graphs of the pictures of the great artists, and a fine water-color of one of our leading artists has been purchased. The younger and the larger club, "The Hints of Haunts," has worked thus far in charcoal, with a little in pencil. The historical study of this club has been from Liibke's " History of Art." Out of the funds this club has pur- chased this year a fine set of the "Ideals of American Art," published by the Lippincott Co. These books are kept upon a table in the room, where the })upils may have constant access to them. As far &s possible we have gone to Nature herself for our studies. Not but that still-life and symmetrical shaped objects are the best from which to draw, but the attempt at the repro- duction of nature's forms brings us into larger and closer relation with her in- fluence and varied arrangements. Another strong feature of our work has been the effort we have made to reach and interest the public. AVithout any egotism; for, as Chase says, "Wholesome ccmceit, great ambition, plenty of work, are the essentials." Our firet reception, three years ago, was a revelation to the people and an inspira- tion to the school. Some thousand came this year to see the work and the artistic taste of the pupil. Under guidance the pupil is made to feel that tliis reception is his, and its success depends upon him alone. Bince the manual-training department has been added to the school, we have united in the display of the work, under the name of the "Art and Man- 796 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATIOy, ual-Training Classes and Sketching Clubs." Great care is taken in tht- ar- rangement of the work u]X)n the walls of a large assembly-room and in tht- decoration of the room. All effort possible is made to prevent a school-rcKmi appearance, and give to the visitor a feeling that he is in an atmosphere *»t appreciation for the work on the part of the pupil. An effort has been made upon the part of us all to work in the right direction. In a direction that would tend towards the greatest good for the pupil and for the school- An effort towards the recognition of the beginning of growth that is slowly but surely being felt throughout our prosperous city. I claim nothing new. I have taken what I trust will produce upon your part a discussion as to what is possible to teach, what is the best, and what can be done in the limited time, kind of material, and lack of encouragement with which many of us w^ork. I have not brought my work for any advertisement. I simply trust that it may, in some way, assist and encourage some one who may be working- in the same direction. THE MISSION OF COLOR, JOSEPHINE CARSON LOCKE, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS. Many are the questions being asked to-day concerning color and form. The American public are slowly aw akening to the fact that color has to do w^ith healthy, wholesome human living ; that there is an eternal word in na- ture and in color which we must heed, for the heart of man feels the need of it. Great changes have come in our civilization, whereby a large male popu- lation, that in former times were serviceable only for offense and defense, are now employed in the gentler w^ays of ministering to each other. Long ago, Mahomet said, "The colors which the earth displays to our eyes are manifest signs for those who think." Curious, isn't it, we should be the first civiliza- tion to neglect the teachings of color? Among all people of high antiquity, it had a most sacred significance ; in Egypt, oldest of the nations, it was closely associated with religious teach- ings. They understood that color and human happiness were closely asso- ciated together; that love lies back of all life, and that the colors with which Nature robes herself are simply the overflow of the oversoul — the covenant between God and man ; the same which is expressed in the many hues of the rainbow. Hence, the robe of Isis was at once a hieroglyphic of physical and spiritual truth. There is no separating these two — health of body and health of soul are one, and color ministei's to both. What is light but color in the concrete? — and without light no fruition of physical life. Science, indeed, tells us that THE MISSION OF COL OB. 797 txiit^ wll live and bear leaves when fed by only the red and yellow rays, but le-y lia.ve never been known to blossom or flower without the presence of the \\ie ray. If this is true of plant-life, that it def>end8 for its perfection on a ill proportion of color, as found in the sunlight, how much more must it be rv»e of human nature. Xlie ancients did not use the pigments, red, yellow, and blue, as we do, but I early always modified them with black, which, while it dimmed their inten- ity, rendering them more pleasing to the eye, was also an expression of their :b\nk.ing. Back of their education lay the j)henomena of light and darkness, :lay and night, as symbols of good and evil. Color was to them a dimin- ished quantity or energy of light, and the primary colors were black and white, not red, blue, and yellow. The Egyptian religion Avas gloomy in the extreme, and subject to all the restrictions of accident or fate, because of the uncertainty which hung over their ideas of a future. This feeling increased more and more as the Chris- tian era approached, until we find it most strongly reflected in the painting of Greek vases. It must be remembered that art, literature, architecture and workmanship of all kinds, equally with modes of worship, are expressions of the indwelling soul, and it is not possible to separate the one from the other if we would ar- rive at the whole truth of history. Modern science has admitted of three theories concerning color: the Gcethe theory, the Newtonian, and the wave theory. Goethe's theory is the most poetic and ideal. It mirrors closest the thought of the ancients. Shelley ex- presses it in the well-known words, " Life, like a dome of many-colored glass, stains the white radiance of eternity." When the thought of to-day shall have reached Mr. Ruskin's standpoint, "that true science is true art," we Avill understand the Goethe theory better, for it relates to the spirit and not to the letter. In application and practice the wave theory is the one usually accepted. However, all the theories agree that light and color are mutually related and dependent ; that the various colors of the rainbow are found in the spectrum, therefore the spectrum must be made the basis for all investigation and study. But true color, being spiritual in essence, exists in nature only. To trans- late it into material form, a paint, pigment or dye must be used. Thus we get our worsteds, colored fabrics and papers. Now the study of color has ever been brought to the people in two ways. First, by association with, and careful observance of nature. Second, by the use of conventional color to express thought, whether religious, technical, or artistic. Healthy natures have ever held themselves open to both these avenues of growth; for color is more than a fact — it is an influence, and as such trans- cends all literalism. The true color-critic needs also to be a practitioner, and the practitioner must read nature with heavenly as well as with earthly vision. Thought-expression through conventional color recognizes two departments. 708 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. The representation of graded colors a^ it is perceived in nature by the cultivat*^ eye, taking account of distance, light and shade, and atmosphere. Here the color is never independent of its surroundings. It becomes transposed bv juxtaposition with other colors, is irradiated by a flow of light, or modifielor always expresses the hunger of man's heart after satisfaction. It is something above and beyond the first apparent necessity; yet so deep has this passion nestled in human unconsciousness that the savage will tattoo his skin before he clothes himself. Pure color as it exists in nature, and conventional color as practiced iu both the fine and useful arts, have certain principles in common; the use of the latter being based and determined by the existence of the former. From the study of pure color in nature is derived the theory' of color. Some- times it agrees and sometimes it disagrees with the practice of conventional color. But in no instance can the teaching of conventional color ignore the laws of nature with safety. We will look for a minute at some of these princi- j)les as found in nature. All color proceeds from white light Here it dwelb in jjerfcct harmony or unity. In order to go out, bless and redeem the earth, it breaks itself up into rays, but each of these is forever seeking a return to harmony and unity. The mind of man is seeking the same end — a return to harmony or unity: his physical eye is merely an organ through which he ex- presses this desire of his being. A color composition is pleasing to the mind, just in proportion as it em- bodies the several rays in the relations in which they exist in white light. In the language of Owen Jones, " No composition can ever be perfect in which any one of the three primary colors is wanting, either in their natural state or in combination." This is the technical statement ; of which the educational translation would be, that in proportion as the individual making the com- position is intelligent and responsive to the highest in him, will be the subdued subtility of his combinations. The three primar}' colors of white light, are they the same with the primary pigments, and do they exist in equal or unequal quantity in light ? 8ciencM3 gives varying ro})orts as to what are the primary sj)ectnun color?: now it is red, blue, and yellow ; again it is red, violet, and green. But the pigment basis never varies, and the theoretical basis does not affect it. For all practical purposes the primary colors are red, blue, and yellow, because these are pigments which cannot be obtained by the mixture of others. Science also tells us that the primary colors do not exist in equal quantity in white light, and that it is a necessity for practice to follow this rule, or a shock of inharmony will be ex])erienced. White light is com]X)sed of three i)arts yellow, ^ye red, and eight part^ THE MISSION OF COLOR, 799 lie ; or, if you please, five red, eleven green, and thirteen violet. From this c» lea.rn, however simple the work maybe that the child is doing, he must (jt vise red and yellow in lis large (|uantities aa blue or green. >I"o\v scientific truth is not arbitrary or dogmatic, but guiding and dii*ect- itr. It does not order one to measure out just so much yellow, so much red, ml so much green, for it recognizes the limitation of pigment, and moreover, he spiritual fact that erne's ability to perceive and recognize coloi-s dejiends »n the enlightenment from within. lloiner in his description continually mixes up blue with purple, and red Liiid purple. The Welsh have the same word to this day for blue and green. Tlie Rushman recognizes but three colors. Nature, with all her forms, colors, and movements, is to him a blind riddle. God is love, is not in his vocabulary any more than God is beauty is in ours. For love, unmixed wdth fear, pure and undefiled, dwelling in the human heart, is the secret of its ability to per- ceive and appreciate beautiful, harmonious subtile colors. Hear the confirmation of history : In the Greek })eriod was form jxirfected, the high-water mark of the world's intellectual development w^as reached then and there. Plato and Aristotle still reign " mastei^s of those who know." In Greek form, Greek intellect reached the culmination of artistic expres- jfion. In subtile proportions, in rhythmic motions, in exquisite flow of line, in mysterious cun^es, in subordinating variety to unity, in freeing the external, so that the body became a living temple, the Greek delighted ; but the spirit he could not free. Christ came: good-will from God to man was made a living fact, the life- pulses of the world quickened and throbbed with the influx of the Divine love. Gothic cathedrals, glorious in brilliant coloring, the legacy of Byzantine, Basilicas, and Saracenic mosques, replaced the marble temples of Greece. In literature, Dante breathed so truly the message, that he groups all the virtue and all the color of the " Inferno " together in one place, even where the noble heathen dwell. Xgty interesting is it to note how pagan literature takes us only as far in the study of color as does the " Purgatory." Dante alone may scale the heights of Panidise, and bathe in the golden sunlight of the Divine presence. To him, and him alone was it given, to cancel the mystery of white light. Then flourish the world's great colorists, and Bellini, and Tintoretto, and Velasquez, and Correggio, j)ainted such pictures Jis caused the nol)lest of the nineteenth-century critics to exclaim : "All great art is j^raise." It needed love to wake the understanding of men to an appreciation of . color, and it is because love is once more knocking at our doors in a second- Christ epoch, that the thirst and hunger for it are coming into our school- work. The time has come when education must cease to be a pain. Too long have we been mesmerized into the delusion that the way to knowledge is by grind- ing; that the way to growth is along the lines of intellectual acumen, and so- called mental discipline. We are waking to find grinding gives dust only ; 800 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCTATIOX. \ that growth comes not through drudgery and toil, but through th^ ud • scions breathing-in of the Divine ; through the yielding of ourselves U» ail \ and ennobling influences; through inspiration. But Nature uses her colors in an orderly fashion. Children should W 1- to observe where and how this is done, finding the primaries, red-«. yeK- «- and blues, the strong colors in the heavens overhead ; the secondaries, «zr> r- purple, and orange, midway in the grass and foliage of trees, in fruit* ai flowers; while the tertiaries, the most subdued of the colors, are found m\'\ foot and in the earth. The Moors, who were the first to excel in decorative coloring, ba^ed all tb ii use of the primaries on observance of this law, and since their time it liu- become traditional. Fra^bel divined how easily a child's sensibility to color might be hi iint--i and therefore he pleads in his Education of Man, for the use of pure, di-tiiif coloi-s; that they should be studied as nearly as possible in their actual nr»r- ural relations, in their differences and resemblances ; and that the forms ii-*^ u should be simple and definite. From this I gather he would have us stvA} the several coloi-s, both primaries and secondaries, in their self-tones fiivt, il the relations which each color sustains to itself, until a scale of the oolor U> comes associated in the mind. And this is indeed the only way to avoid o"»ri- fusion and ])er[)lexity. For a color studied in its relationship to it^^elf pre-sc^nt- fewer difficulties; it is modified only as to tone, the light color appearini^ lighter, and the dark, darker. But a color studied in relation to a diflenni color involves a double modification: first, as to tone, and second, as to hue. each color becoming tinged by the complementary of the other. One can easily see what a disturbance this last method would produce on child-vision. Behind all color is the si>ectrum. Should we not, then, begin with it as a w^hole, and proceed to its parts, the several colors ? Let us then familiari/*^ the child with the spectrum as a whole, catch the light in a glass prism, and let him see it broken up, then give liim such an arrangement of papers, wors- teds, or pigment^?, that he may make one himself. My ex{)erience is, one cannot be too familiar with the order, gradation, and brilliancy of the tones of the spectrum, and that ever}' grade should be re- quired to practice making it once a year. In the study of contrasting colors, it must always be remembered, the com- bining of a primary or a secondar}' with its complementary will not produce harmony. Everywhere quantity, intensity of color and proportion of area, must be considered, the strongest colore being always used in the smalle.-t quantity. Tlius blue and orange are complementary' to each other, and iu white light do form a harmony ; but it by no means follows they will do so in any kind of colored pa])cr or worsteds the teacher may choose to use. In ]>roportion as the paper or worsted approaches technically to truth of color, tliey will do so, and no more. In any composition the color must be so iistni a,-* not to distract the eye from the unity of the composition, for the office \or is to enhance an organic whole, not to separate, or divide, or cut up into •arts. In nature, wherever the form changes, the color changes also, as in the >lant, ^vliere flower, leaf, bud, and stalk are all diflerent; but this is only to iidividualize each part. The most gorgeous color is always reserved for the lower, where it is used in graded tones, stamens, pistils and petals often mak- ing a harmony within a harmony ; while every detail, as well as the whole [)laiit, is enveloped by the blue-gray of the atmosphere, and this blue-gray at- mosphere is always a mediator. Mr. Ruskin says: "No color harmony is of a high order unless it involves indescribable tints. Even among simple hues, the most valuable are those which cannot be defined. The most precious purple will look brown beside I)iire purple, and purple beside pure brown, and the most precious green will be called blue if seen by pure green, and green if seen beside pure blue. The finer the eye for color, the less it will require to gratify it intensely ; but that little must be supremely good and pure, as the finest notes of a great singer which are so near to silence. And a great colorist will make even the absence of color lovely as the fading of the perfect voice makes silence sacred. Color that is unmysteiious is wholly barbarous." Harmony of color depends jiot only on the purity of the pigment, but also upon the texture and finish of material used. Thus, glazed papers have a harsh, not to say a hurtful effect upon the eye, and prcference should be given to softer, dulled papers. From this, one can see the study of color is altogether ditierent in its nature from the study of form. Color is the one thing in all the world that defies the training of the schools, and the judgment of a cold, piercing intellect. It reveals itself only where there is warmth of feeling, and the responsive simplicity of a little child. It will not be argued over, or reiisoned about. It appeals directly to the affec- tions, and its mission at this time is to teach us to know truly what other men have felt during their sj)an of life, and to open our hearts to the messages of the skies and the earth. Shall we receive it ? It will be understood that throughout this paj)er I have reference to the positive right teaching of color, which, while recognizing sensation as the legit- imate gate by which to approach the individual, yet knows if growth is to be attained sensation must be transcended, and subordinated to understanding. Color greeting the child on the plain physical at first appeals to sensation only ; then, through the gateway of the intellect and the knowledge of science, it leads him into the mansion of the intuitional and the spiritual, where he knows only harmony, thinks only harmony, and expresses only harmony, for he has attained to harmony with himself. Thanks to the Prang Educational Company, and the efforts of Mr. Bradley of Springfield, Mass., better ideas are being formulated concerning color and form, and the conditions made more favorable for their proper study and teaching. 802 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION^. The exhibit of the Chicago Kindergarten Training School, as shotrL 1: Armory Hall, is one step in the above direction. It is open, as ail grriniLj things are, to criticisms, and is offered to the public in the sure faith that ol f the absolutely fit and true can survive; for the [period of selection which m"*-. sooner or later characterize our American education is fast approaching, aai will try all things as by fire. normaIj-school work in drawing. MRS. HANNAH JOHNSON CARTER, NEW YORK <'ITY. There can be no broad, substantial foundation for art education until th- regular teachers in the public schools are sufficiently accjuaint^d with the sul>- ject to give the instruction ; and it is to the normal schools that the public schools must look for the preparation of these regular teachers. The great trouble at the present time in normal schools is that students come to ?ijch schools with little or no knowledge of drawing, and therefore in a very differ- ent condition for taking up this study than for any other of the comnv^c branches; conseciuently we have to take time which should be devoted V* methods of teaching, to training in technique. This, I apprehend, will om- tinue to be the situation until drawing becomes, as it has in some places, km^m of the important studies, instead of being badly taught and sometimes barflr tolerated. From the outset, the course of instruction both in method and technique should consider the practical needs and j)ossibilities of the public schools to day; and, while a high ideal should be kept constantly in mind, the e^^sential? should be looked after, and the work made sufficiently j)ractical to meet exL-t- ing conditions. Certainly in city schools the classes are often too large for the greatest advantage to the individual ; teachers are forced to give class exer- cises, and it takes tact and skill to guide any individual and separate him from tlie maublic school to obtain and to use, while the methods taught should be practically applied and carried out in a model school, >vhich shouhl be the necessary adjunct of every well-appointed normal school. All good ill St ruction in drawing in the common schools is now based uiwrn the study of form, through the use of the typical form solids. Then follow? the relation of natural forms and common objects to such type solids, through the observation of the child by handling and seeing. This requires that models and object** should be studied by each pupil individually; that i?, he must study the ol)jeet by personal contact with it through the primal seu^c-s of touch and siglit. As we develop through the senses, we also train the NOBMAL'SVIIOOL WOBK IN DBAWING, 803 »iise of color by the use of different materials and mediums, and also help to lie understanding of form by the use of clay-modeling. The normal-school Lvident should study the laws of psychology and the science of education; he necessity for strong fundamental training in psychology, as a basis for vormal training, I can only emphasize. Not until a teacher understands the lature of form-study and drawing in mental development can she teach them properly to children. You know it is a bit of sophistry which some persons still cling to, that drawing should not be taught until the will can guide the Angers with care and precision. I am sure from my own experience with children, that this is a fatal error to all freedom and artistic expression. The oue objection which has been hurled at those of us who strive for the artistic development of the children of this country is, "The public school is no place to make an artist"; and one can always answer, "Neither is it the place to spoil one." The old neglect of the young child when his thoughts and feel- ings iu drawing w^ere punished rather than encouraged, and the rigid training to copy exactly the, to him, meaningless figure, cramped the hand, dulled the senses, and produced the poorest results. It is a favorite objection to clay-modeling in the primary school, that chil- dren when it is time for them to attend school should leave all play behind them ; that children know much more than they are given credit for, and so do not need sense-training; while some, on the other hand, wax sentimental over the cruelty to children of teaching them the qualities and activities of geometric solids. To one and all we may say : See to it that your methods are in accordance with the development of the child's mind ; in brief, study the child ! Do we not see in the kindergarten, in the ver}'^ young child, how the mind may grow and expand with well-regulated play and healthful action ? — and must all this be put aside when the door of the primary school opens and he enters in? We preach self-discipline, and yet this can only be gained slowly, as all good things come, through growth. The thoughtful teacher will so combine the teaching of form with sense-training that the one shall help the other. By such methods children may drink in the very essence of all good things and yet be happy, free, natural, never forced, crammed, or over- strained. We must remember that the early years in school should be mainly devoted to observation ; and that correct expression in different lines, while sought for and desired, should not be expected before clear and definite con- cepts are formed. Children will say anything they think the teacher wants them to say, and a bright, ambitious child will try to go beyond his powers if there is the least undue pressure. Such points, then, as these, we ought to impress upon the students in a normal school : Fvrd : That the study of form should precede the drawing, and that the child should be trained from the first days of school-life, and the training ehoiild be according to the laws of psychological development. Second: It is utterly useless to teach form-study and drawing iu public schools without suitable models in the hands of every pu])il. Accordingly, 804 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. every student in a normal school should possess models, and not be simplj talked to about them. These models should he studied in their order, with sjxjcial reference to developing ideas of beauty and fitness to purpose. Third: Clay-m(xieling is such an important factor in the study of fomi. that a good course with this medium should be given. I have found the fol- lowing order of clay-work adapted to the children of our model school, and also to the college students. First, the modeling of the geometric solids and natural objects based upon such forms ; then the building of a simple tile, or base, for relief, with perhaps some elementary figure in design, as concentric sachiiiir have discarded the well-known eye, ear, and nose as separate casts, and n> quire that all modeling or drawing of a face shall be from the whole, with the consecpient relation of parts. In the same way that we now base the teaching of drawing upon the study of form, and we teach form, beginning with the whole, and then the parts, jh» there is a difference in the present method of technical training. Drawing' being a means of thought-expression, instruction should not be given in the abstract way of working from ]K)int to line, and so on, but rather from ideas of objects as wholes, and through the training of the pupils to expression of their own ideas in their own way; })asing the instruction, not primarily ui>on the training of the fingei-s, but rather the training for ideas in the study of things, and then bringing the fingei*s, by practice, into skillful ways of expre^ sion. We drill for free movement, and strive to get a light, yet bold touch, transparent and artistic gray lines. Movement in the direction of tlie lino to be drawn precedes the drawing. The method is an excellent preface to the advanced work, as it leads to free, broad handling, and technical excel- lence. When the nature of form-study and its relation to drawing has been pre- sented, the development of form-study and drawing into the three subjects of construction, representation, and decoration should follow, and normal students should be particularly instructed in regard to the distinctive features NOBMAL 'SCHOOL WOBK IN DBAWING. 805 these three subjects, and also in regard to their interrelation with one lotlier. The relation and unity of all departments of aesthetic culture nould be made clear, and we should strike a blow to that modem error that idustrial art and fine art are absolutely distinct, and must always be so. In he past, the artist was often an artisan, and the artisan an artist. True >eauty and real art entered into common things ; and we shall only regain our ost birthright when we return to the same condition of things. An orderly and satisfactory course of study in a normal school may begin with methods and practice suitable to the little ones, and carry the work right alopg in much the same order it would be given to children, interspers- ing such suggestions and exercises which, while not essential to the course, may be advantageous to the students either as practical suggestions or prac- tice in technique. From time to time examinations may be given, or rapid oral questioning on the work passed over ; and unless the students have prac- tice in teaching in other studies, no one should be allowed to leave the school without having taught a class of children. Indeed, the normal instructor should employ any and all aids that may help to the best understanding of the subject. As during the past ten years a number of well-tmined and experienced teachers have embodied the results of their knowledge and practical experience in manuals and text -books, it is a great service to the normal-school students to make them acquainted with these manuals and text-books; and as the kindergarten and manual-training movements are coming into education as permanent features, the drawing instruction in nor- mal schools should be in sympathy with these two movements. It is desirable that normal students shall study not only the theory of color, but have sufiicient practice in combining different hues, tints, and shades^ until certainly what not to do in teaching the subject is well understood. There seems to be no greater fallacy than the idea sometimes advanced, that children may combine colors into hideous and utterly inartistic arrangements because they like to do so : as well allow them to eat unwholesome food on such a principle, or read pernicious books. In the same way that drawing needs to be taught by systematic methods, one step following another in or- derly and educational sequence, so should the study of color be carefully guided by the teacher, that the aesthetic and artistic development may never be lost sight of. The highest aim I conceive to be in the teaching of this subject of art ed- ucation is the rounded development of the child ; the uplifting of the soul to better things ; the refinement of the national taste. We can accomplish this only by the highest motives and through the patient encouragement of thought-expression in all the work of the pupils, from the tiny child to the last years in school. With this aim we cannot be content with the develop- ment of simply imitative power; but by stimulating the imagination and developing thought in every stage we should aim to have the expression of thought always visible. This method is radically different from the old way —51 806 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. of drilling on lines, lines, lines. Technical skill may come slowly, but iIr- artistic quality which comes through the imagination, and freedom in drain- ing, will well repay the patient training. Different means may be employ*: i to secure this artistic breadth : the use of colored papers in decorative desigL. beginning with the elementary work and carrying it far enough to gain skill of hand and nicety of arrangement, is an admirable feature for hand-training-. while it overcomes the tendency to create only a meaningless combination •»! lines which so often passes for a design, when abstract teaching is wholly ad- hered to. I have some examples of this kind of work from my own normal students. I do not show them as examples to be admired, but as a fair show- ing of average work under ordinary conditions, with very little time at di^ posal, and little or no previous training on the part of the students. The sheets of historic ornament are enlarged from copy ; the colors taken from the best authorities — the Egyptian, from mumtay-cases. Such work is pre- ceded by lectures on the subject, and pupils are referred to books and muse- ums for further study and information. While it seems best to build our method of elementary teaching almost wholly on the study of the object, it is nevertheless of great value to the stu- dents to be able to copy skillfully fix)m the flat, to enlarge correctly, and ti« handle water-colors in a wet, free, and artistic manner. For light and shade, charcoal seems to be the best medium ; and the first exercise is the blocking of the whole in a very angular way. When the study is to be purely out- line, then the greatest expression is given in the fewest possible lines ; every stroke having a meaning and showing some relation to the others. In light and shade we study the mass before detail ; hence drawing in two or thn?e planes is required before the student is considered ready to render a complete effect in full values. Thus far I have spoken on some things it is desirable to do in the training of students in our normal schools under existing conditions^ and have shown some work which has been done under the same conditions. May I call your attention for a few moments to some of the things it would be well not to do ? The matter of teaching color is agitating those interested in educational matters at the present time, and from the artist's standpoint may we not oom- teraplate existing dangers ? First, I think too great stress is often laid upon the theory of color, and the symbolism of color. Are not all educational theories of value just so far as we make them subservient to our purpose, which is the mental and sesthetic development of the individual ? Because according to a theory that certain colors enhance each other, which is unquestionably of value when employed by a master, shall we dazzle the eyes and perhaps vitiate the aesthetic taste of all the children by harsh and crude combinations made according to tkl^ theory by persons without aesthetic training ? Children enjoy bright colors and they should have them, but their combinations should not be left to ran- NORMAL 'SCHOOL WOBK m DSAWmO. 807 dom selection ; neither should symbolism nor theory in arrangement hamper the free flow of their artistic sense, or warp their judgment. Again, is it not desirable that brush work (unless with the babies), shall be restricted to decorative design or scientific work until thorough training in drawing and light-and-shade shall have been mastered ? Does not this work require power and skill beyond the usual training and conditions of the school- r(x>ni at the present time? Realism, or the exact imitation of objects, may be of value in scientific study, but it is not art. The power of reproducing the spirit and essence of what we see should be our aim, and I leave it for your consideration whether there is any royal road to such attainment. What might be done with the individual, child or adult, in the studio with plenty of time and with proper materials at hand, can hardly be reasonably expected in our public schools. We must creep before we can walk ; and I am sure that you will agree with me that real artistic expression is a language desir- able indeed, but acquired only through the slow process not only of learning to see, but also by gaining the power to express by pencil and brush what is seen. Shall we not endeavor to control the color within the limits of agree- able and artistic treatment ? One more point I wish to call your attention to, and that is the importance of good instructors in form and drawing in the normal schools. Normal schools recognize the importance of strong teachers in language, number, and other fundamental branches, but are too apt to take for the form and drawing teachers of very indifferent training. This subject cannot receive its proper development in the public schools until the normal schools recognize its im- portance sufficiently to be as careful in selecting a thoroughly trained teacher in this subject as they are for any other subject. When, through the training received through our normal schools, the regular grade teacher can teach her part of this subject intelligently, then will the severe duties of the supervisors of drawing be materially lightened, the character and quality of the work ac- complished will improve, and art in education shaU be an abiding principle^ an influence felt in all the schools and in all the homes of our land. PROCEEDINGS ADDRESSES DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC EDUCATION. Department of Music Education. SECRETARY'S MINUTES. FIRST SESSION. St. Paul, Minnesota, July 9, 1890. The first session of this Department was called to order at 3 o'clock p. m., in the People's Church ; President Herbert Griggs, of Denver, Colorado, in the chair. The musical program was opened with organ solos by Samuel A. Baldwin, of Bt Paul; followed by "The Butterfly Song," given by selected pupils from the public schools of St. Paul. President Griggs then delivered the President's address. " Music as a Factor in Education " was the subject of the first paper, by Margaret Morris, of Cincinnati, Ohio. A song, "The Shaking Quakers," was then given by selected pupils from the schools of St. Paul. C. H. Congdon, director of music in the public schools of St. Paul, regretted that he had not been able to prepare a paper on " Intelligent Singing by the Masses," as announced on the program. Instead, he gave, with classes from the St. Paul public schools, examples of sight-singing, using test exercises written by John W. Tufts, of Boston, which were entirely new to the pupils. N. Coe Stewart, of Cleveland, Ohio, opened the discussion of the subject, and gave tests to the pupils. On motion of Mr. Wescott, of Chicago, the time was extended, and Mr. Congdon proceeded; closing the session with "The Swing Song" and "Holy, Holy, Holy," by John W. Tufts, sung by pupils from the sixth, seventh and eighth grades. The Department then adjourned. SECOND SESSION.— July 11. The Departmeftt was called to order at 2:30 p.m., in the House of Hope church ; President Griggs in the chair. Two pupils from the public schools of St. Paul rendered a duet ; and other selections were given by St. Paul vocalists. (811) 812 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATIOJ^. The subject of the first paper was, "Music as a Regular and R^qmrr-i Branch of Grade Work," by Aaron Gove, of Denver, Colorado. The paper was discussed by N. Coe Stewart, of Cleveland, Ohio, and V others. In the absence of M. L. Bartlett, of Des Moines, Iowa, who Mras t4> sp^ on the "Union of Tonic Sol-Fa with the Staff ^"otation," and of B. C. Gn-j ory, of Trenton, New Jersey, who was to have given a paper on " Value the Union of the Tonic Sol-Fa with the Staff Notation," Robert H. Begp of Denver, Colorado, read a paper on the subject of " Notation." Discussion followed by H. E. Holt, C. H. Congdon, N. Coe Stewart, N. L. Glover, O. S. Cook, President (Jriggs, and others. The President announced the following Committee on Nominations: O. jS. Cook, of Illinois ; C. H. Congdon, of Minnesota ; and Emma B. Mitchell, <»f Colorado. On motion of N. Coe Stewart, a vote of thanks was extended to the as- sisting artists. O. S. Cook, on behalf of the (Committee on Nominations, made the follow- ing rejwrt, which was adopted: Preaidenf -Herbert Griggs, Denver, Colorado. Vice-President N. L. Glover, Akron, Ohio. Secretiu-y -Frank E. Morse, Auburndale, MasHachusetts. The Department then adjourned. FRANK E. MORSE, Secretary. PBESIDENT'S ADDBE89. 813 PAPERS. PRESIDENTS ADDRESS, HERBERT GRIG(iS, DENVER, COLORADO. ^lusic as a study is becoming more and more an important factor in the course of study in the public schools. Until within a few years, it was con- sidered of little worth as compared with other studies. Truly, as I remember it, it was of little worth — merely a pleasant pastime, good to add a little cheer- fulness to the daily routine of school-work, and when there was little else to do. How easily I can recall our first music-master coming into the room with his iiddle-box under his arm. How anxiously I watched his every movement, hoping to see him lay it on my desk and open it. When he would take out his bow, tighten up the hair and resin it, take out the fiddle, pick the strings and tune it, I would think what a wonderful man he was. How tickled I was when he broke a string ! That was the joy of it ! But when he pointed his bow at me; told me to "Stand, sir," and asked, " What are those two flats there for, sir?" or "If a whole note has four beats in 4-4 time, how many beats will a dotted eighth-note have in 3-2 time ? " or when he would stand me on the floor for trying to sing bass like the big boys ( I was about ten years of age), or rap me on the head with his bow for not singing "louder," which caused me to weep, and which I verily believe was the primary cause of my present baldness : that was the sorrow of it. How he used to stamp his foot, wiggle his head, scrape that fiddle, and count and sing, and sing and count ! How we filled our little lungs with bad air, grew red in the face, and emitted sounds that for loudness and harshness would ex- ceed anything that the size of our bodies would warrant ! Such was the style of teaching music in the public schools years ago. About a year and a half ago, it was my privilege to visit many schools in different parts of the country, and in many of them vestiges of the same old methods, of teaching prevailed. Improved ? Yes, to some extent. Were the results obtained better ? Yes, in proportion to the improvement in method of teaching. Were the results obtained by the improved methods of teaching as good in proportion as the results obtained in improved methods of teaching in other branches of study? Most emphatically, wo. Why? One reason, I think, is in the wrong conception of the object of the study of music. Many princi- pak and teachers seem to lose sight of the fact that the study of music, if properly taught, is eminently educational, intellectually, physically, and mor- ally. Put an exercise on the blackboard, have the pupils sing it at sight ; 814 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. you will find that it requires really more concentration of thought, is beaitri for the hody, is better means of discipline, than any other exercise in x other branch of study. If the principals and teachers realized thL? m fully, there would not be that lack of interest on their part which makt- extremely difficult for the instructor of music to carry on his work with a degree of ease or enthusiasm, or to successfully accomplish the desired r^^-^w Another reason is, that music instructors will not or cannot to any :ri> r extent, break away from the old traditions. They seem unwilling to I« s - the old beaten paths of rote-singing, song-singing, loud singing, useless th-^- retical show — all leading to the objective point, exhibition-singing ; leavifi. out altogether such points as intelligent singing, the education of the min .' concentration of thought, the intelligent conception of musical ideas, indej'en i- ence in singing at sight, pleasurable emotion in rendering or hearing renden ^ good, healthy music, discrimination in good or bad music, and its benefit to xh health. A teacher who loves his work, loves children and is enthusiastic in his w.nk can create in his school a love for the study and an enthusiasm on the part ^ i his pupils that will make his work almost a delightful recreation. With«»Mi this love for the study on the part of the children, this musical atmogi>hePr, no real, good results can be obtained. The idea of forcing pupils, or of makiu^ children sing, is all wrong. As the teacher feels, so will his class feel ; at ti^ end of five minutes the class will be a perfect reflection of the teacher's ft* 1- ings. If the teacher comes before his class irritable, cross and impatient, ht may expect the same from the children. If on the other hand he st-aiid- before them patient, cheerful, and in earnest, the pupils will be found rea*ly to work, happy and in good order. If a teacher is not capable of causinir the eyes of the little ones to brighten, and a smile of welcome to greet him as thev see him enter, or of giving a class of children a twenty-minutes lesson with- out leaving them better and happier for it, he had better send in his resiirna- nation at once; and the best thing his school board can do is to accept it promptly. It is also very important that the supervisor of music be able to have th^^ hearty cooperation and good-will of principal and teachers, as it is in their power to further impress upon the pupils the importance and pleasure of the study of music. If possible, let the supervisor speak a word of commenda- tion to the teacher as well as pupils ; it will do a world of good. Keep ii) touch with the principal of the school ; gain his sympathy and good-will : let him understand what you are trying to do ; and it will be a curious thinir it' he does not help you all in his power. Above all, let us receive adverse criticism of our work in a spirit of fainie>? and equanimity. We are all liable to make mistakes, and when thev aiv pointed out to us by others, or when we see in another's work points of ex- cellence that do not appear in our own, let us admit frankly and freely wbeiv we have made the mistake, and try to profit by the improvements of other?. MUSIC AS A FACTOB IN EDUCATION. 815 r*o quote the words of an eminent educator^ "K a man lies about me, I have -<5i:ise enough to know that there must be some truth in it." Speaking of improvement, is not this a good time to cast a backward Lsrlanoe over the past year's work, and see wherein we may have made mis- t ctlves, or see now how much better we could have done this or that if we had it t.o do over again ? — and as we compare notes, discuss various methods of teach- ing, or try to iind the best means to the best results, resolve cheerfully to axiopt in the future any new ideas that may seem good, even if they reflect somewhat on our own previous method of teaching. I hope that whatever is said or done here in the convention will be as prac- tical as possible, and that every one will feel perfectly free to discuss, suggest, or remark on any of the subjects that may be presented. I welcome you heartily and sincerely to the annual session of this depart- ment of the National Educational Association. MUSIC AS A FACTOB IN EDUCATION. MARCJARET MORRIS, CINCINNATI, OHIO. Some one somewhere states that "The new education assumes to develop character, to perfect the constitution, to consolidate the health, to elevate the moral and religious sentiments, to fit men and women for practical life, and to develop genius." Now, music being merely one of the factors in education, it cannot of course assume to do all of these things, although it may and does accomplish some of them. From the earliest times music has been an accompaniment of re- ligious exercises, a necessary and vital part of worship in all ages and all re- ligions. This constant association of music with religion implies its ethical value — its power to turn the mind by means of rhythm and harmony towards the contemplation of what is elevated and impassioned. That it appeals to the emotional rather than to the intellectual side of our nature is no disparage- ment, for symmetrical mental development requires the fair and proper exer- cise of both. Is not that worship more fervent, that religious spirit more exalted, which is invoked where "the pealing anthem swells the note of praise " ? Thackeray was not the only one who felt that to listen to the choir of charity children at St. Paul's was to be lifted as near to heaven as mortals ever attain in life. Perhaps few people are, at first thought, able to perceive any relation be- tween music and the third clause of the text — to consolidate the health. But health of body largely depends upon health of mind, and mental tone de- pends less upon environment than upon mental resource. By providing 816 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. recreation which is neither exhausting nor depressing in its after effects, mu- - rests a tired body, elevates and cheers a weary mind, thus adding to tbt v. tality instead of subtracting from it. This may be insuring the health only indirectly, but we have testiinonv a? to the direct value of vocal music as a health factor. To quote from -^ article in the Boston Mtudcal Herald : " The time wiU soon come when singing wiU be regarded as one of the ^reat h*rii - to physicianfl in lung diseases, more especiaUy in their incipient state. Alu.<.- every branch of gymnastics is employed in one way or another by doctors, but ih- simple and natural function of singing has not yet received its full meed of attrr. tion. In Italy, some years ago, statistics were taken which proved that the vtn*3 artists were exceptionally long-lived and healthy, under normal circumstancjes, whw of the brass instrumentalists it was discovered that consumption never cLaimed 3 victim among them. Those who have a tendency towards consumption should take easy vocal exercises, no matter how thin and weak their voices may seem to be. . . . Vocal practice, in moderation, is the best system of general gymnastics that can b^ imagined, many muscles being brought into play that would scarcely be suspet-tt-d of action in connection with so simple a matter as tone-production. Therefert. apart from all art considerations, merely as a matter of health, one can earnestly snr to the healthy, 'Sing, that you may remain so;' and to the weakly, *Sing, that \<..q may become strong. ' " For other evidence in this line, it may be added that the superintendeiit of one of the finest gymnasiums in the country requires the men in his dailv classes to nng the counting in their class exercises, because he has found that it not only develops the chest, and strengthens the lungs, but that it piv- vents or cures catarrhal affections in the throat and nasal passages. Now this consolidation of the health leads naturally to another clause in the text — "to fit men and women for practical life." Even where music i« not made a profession, it may still retain a practical value for reasons above stated. No one will claim that we need to know that only which will secure our daily bread. Such a view is barbarous : it would mean to be narrovr, stunted, deprived of the best part of life — the power of enjojing and ap- preciating the beautiful. Music opens up a wide field of appreciation to one genuinely proficient in it, or with a cultivated taste for it. To understand music and to love it, means so much more than that alone ; it means an ability to appreciate harmony wherever it occurs — in note of bird and babble of stream, or among "the mur- muring pines and the hemlocks " ; to delight in harmony not only of sound, but of form, and color, and proportion ; to feel the subtle harmony in a beau- tiful poem, a stately building, a delicate flower, or a noble anthem as essen- tially the same. It was a curious and instructive discovery that Daltonism — color-blind- ness— is usually accompanied by a corresponding deafness to certain musical notes, and incapacity to produce them. It would be interesting to know whether both are dependent upon some atrophied condition of the same part of the brain. MUSIC AS A FACTOR IN EDUCATION, 817 Tt has been truly s^d that "the sense of beauty is the source of much that s noblest in character," and this sense should be carefully cultivated. Beauty iiici utility go hand in hand in nature — they should do so in education; we :lo not want all hard facts and bald deductions. Music is one of the easiest and most readily available factors in such an education, for by nature, "such harmony is in immortal souls" that in all but rare instances it is readily made to respond to cultivation. We increase the practical power of the mind by cultivating the faculty of comparison ; for our most useful knowledge is that gained through the faculty which enables us to compare one thought with another. No judgment is ever formed without the use of comparison ; even our intuitions are mainly judg- ments formed from comparisons made so rapidly that we lose sight of that element in the apparently instantaneous decision. In the study of music, this faculty of comparison is cultivated in the reading of notes, in the necessity of attention to rhythm, in the recurrence of certain tones and chords, and in their variations. This may be accomplished by very little direct teaching; perhaps too little, when the value of the faculty is considered; but the mind makes conscious comparisons and benefits by them, even where attention is not directly called to similarities or differences in the particulars mentioned. It may be that a minimum of positive instruction will secure a maximum of individual and independent observation and comparison. As a pupil should not have knowledge given him which he may acquire for himself, notes should not be sung for him that he may acquire tones by sim- ple imitation. And yet care should be exercised in this matter, for voice culture should not be neglected. If music be a " concord of sweet sounds," then the sounds from children's throats are not always music. That quality of voice should be preferred to quantity, seems a statement too trite for repe- tition ; but to any long-suffering teacher whose ears have been racked with the noise from half a hundred little throats, all doing their best (or worst) to "sing out loud," this question of tone-production seems no slight matter. Hence individual effort at tone-production must be wisely guided or the re- sult will be anything but gratifying. With this limitation, requiring a pupil to sing his notes, not from imitation, but from personal judgment as to tone and pitch, renders him self-reliant in direct ratio to an individual effort that teaches him the value of independent observation and action. It has been objected that children thus thrown upon their own resources would remain dumb, refusing to sing without leadership and the opportunity to imitate ; but why such an objection is any more valid in a music lesson than in a reading-lesson, has not been made apparent. There is much to be gained in a right beginning of such instruction, and more moral force than is often imagined, in a teacher's taking it for granted that pupils will pursue a certain course of conduct. Where a new method is to be introduced, and 818 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. the teacher manifests apprehension that the method will meet with oppo^itt on the part of pupils, such opposition is sure to appear. If we agree with Socrates, that "Interrogation is the chief function of -^2, cation, because its object is to compel thought," then does music offer a g .. field for just such interrogation; an interrogation that will arrest attenti- encourage observation, compel investigation, assure correct deduction and \:. sure remembrance. It has been said that the trained musician is an example of the power ! education to develop talent immeasurably above untrained native capacity and the value of musical education lies in the fact that it may and usual! does go on continuously, not suffering as other studies do from the weakenin. relaxation of vacation intervals. The study of music seems to lead towari- and develop certain qualities of genius which distinguish it from mere talent giving a direct perception of truth without conscious induction or deductlM.i and bestowing an intuitive sense of harmonious proportion which cultivated the artistic and moral side of human nature. Now, though the fact is often taken for granted, it does not always follow that a so-called good educatirn: will develop the moral faculties symmetrically with the intellectual ones ; and the fault probably lies in the stress thrown upon the immediately practical t') the disadvantage or even the exclusion of the moral and spiritual elemente of education. Instruction in music should be promoted as a power in that mi^ct important of ends, the development of fine moral character. For it is one of those studies which, by their appeal to the beautifiil, foster the growth of man's nobler qualities — qualities to be tenderly cherished and earnestly en- couraged. It is no small advance towards symmetrical development of char- acter, to have learned the principles of order, harmony and proportion, gradually rising above material things to a spiritual perception of the laws of beauty and harmony, which underlie all truth; and to have learned them almost by intuition, so that the only direct teaching requisite was a natural advance from simple to more complex musical composition. That all great poets have recognized the power of music, is valuable tes- timony to its worth as a factor in character-making. An education that will tit men and women for practical life, if it means anything, means to insure for them such a symmetrical development that under all circumstances they may find resources within themselves to cope with every problem which life may offer them for solution. History teaches us that advance in civiliza- tion is marked by a corresponding advance in general musical training; that with increase of artistic appreciation comes not only the desire but the ability to live on a higher plane morally and intellectually ; that the concomitants of this higher plane are still higher degrees of culture and refinement, loftier aims, nobler deeds — a plane of pure living and right thinking that \\ill gti far towards bringing Tennyson's noble conception of that "nobler Eden" to a possibility of realization, and making it the rightful inheritance of the generations to follow us. MUSIC AS GRADE WORK, 819 SilUSIC AS A REGULAR AND REQUIRED BRANCH OF GRADE WORK, AARON GOVE, DENVER, COLORADO. It has been demonstrated that the study of the elements of vocal music can be placed in the course for the schools and its accomplishment required i 11 the same way and upon the same basis as is that of arithmetic, grammar tiiicl geography. No material difference exists between the execution of the scheme for music and that for arithmetic; the number of pupils who from natural defects should be excused is no greater in one than in the other. The work assigned for each grade, the tests as to the accomplishment of the tasks, the holding of the pupil for the satisfactory performance of his assign- ment— all are in line with requirements in other branches. The conduct of the class differs from others only that, like penmanship, more concert recita- tion is required. Yet individual recitation is helpful, and must frequently be demanded. The instruction should be given and the drill conducted by the teacher who is regularly in charge of the room, and with the same regularity and same energy as that of spelling. The purpose of the pursuit of the study is identical with that of coordi- nate branches : an expert accountant or an eminent rhetorician is not made by studying the elements of arithmetic or grammar in an elementary school; neither is an accomplished musician to be graduated from the common school. The young person at the end of his course, wherever he may leave it, is rela- tively as advanced in music as he is in the rest of the work ; and when the eight or twelve years are accomplished, he is able to read and sing as well as he is to write and compute. Not as an accomplishment, but as a part of that training that goes to make the intelligent citizen, is this branch to be required. A fallacy is abroad among us that many able teachers, skillful and efficient in other directions, are unequal to the grade-work in music. It has been found that where a teacher is absolutely incompetent for this duty, the cases are so rare as not to be noticeable. A competent supervisor is a necessity; the supervision must not be a lazy one. Lazy supervisors are not of rare appear- ance in the music line. One director of music can competently superintend two hundred teachers, devoting his entire time to inspection and instruction, frequently assembling them by grades, out of school hours, for special instruc- tion. The ability of the teacher to sing has little to do with the teaching; indeed, if she can sing, she must not. In singing, as in reading, the pupil, not the teacher, is to do the practicing. It must be remembered that in all teaching, imitation is the last expedient to which the teacher should resort. The ear should enable the instructor to detect glaring inaccuracies ; but even the de- 820 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION^. feet of a faulty ear is measurably overcome by the pupils, for in all but tr. beginning grades, voices are ever in the room that are correct iii time ^\ tune, and will cover and bring up the erring ones. The study of the element- of music has no more dependence upon ability to sing than has the study i percentage. The practice daily required is a task, and not necessarily a pleasure tt» ib- class. The recitation must be considered as are all others, and the ressul'r must be accounted for in the same way. The misfortune has been, and is. tbi* the music of the schools is regarded as an extra, and not as a regular. It ha- a place upon the daily program ; it is the most conveniently omitted- Excuses should be granted only for excellent reasons, and then br tin authority of the superintendent ; it is possible to reduce the excuses to a minimum by cultivating such an opinion in the schools as shall lead the pupil to expect no excuse: unless the same or a like reason would excu?^ from other branches, one for music must be refused. Song-singing, while a pleasant feature of the room, is a small part o£ the legitimate work, and is related to the main study in hand as is a special read- ing, declamation, or oration, to the study of reading. As a reason for placing this branch among the obligatory branches to be taught, too much stress has been laid upon the happy influence of music in the school. It is true that the quieting influence of song is helpful in dis- cipline, and it is also true that geography, well taught, has a happy effect. Change is desirable. Monotony in school life, as in adult life, is harmful. Fair condemnation can be given to the common song-singing of the com- mon school. Too often, not merely a negative harm is done by the work, but a positive injury follows the execrable execution of the ordinary school song, as it frequently reaches the ear of the hearer. The teacher, principal, and superintendent, each is blamable for the vitiated tastes of children who pre- tend the study of music ; the literature Ls often abominable, while the rant and roar of the children, who are not taught the difference between noise and song, cause men and women of culture to condemn the methods. Skill and professional intelligence is a requisite in this as in all other de- partments. No song should be permitted until it has received the approval of the musical director. "The Tardy Song," "Billy Boy," and "I Want to be an Angel," would then be assigned to outer darkness, where such eflTusions belong. With many of us the printed course of study presents an acceptable course in music ; a personal inspection too often demonstrates that the work fails to conform to the text. As long as the average school prospectus continues to overstate the truth and the annual issue of school documents are so replete with imaginative statements evolved from the ambitions of mistaken school men and women, you and 1 must learn the truth about grade-work in the schools, including music and the kindred study of drawing, by personal inspection and by a comparison of work and notes at conventions such as is this. VALUE OF THE TONIC SOL-FA NOTATION. 821 Forty years ago, Mr. Baker commenced the teaching of music in the Bos- ton schools. It was the beginning. I remember the eflTort. We learned little bixt rote-songs. Progress has been made; and yet so much remains to be done that I incline to the belief that the country will be more efficient in \>iil>lic-8chool education, if efforts are concentrated upon improving the work ixnd. methods of what is already in hand, rather than by dissipating the energy in the various new directions now urging upon the schools by zealous but uiistaken reformers. VALUE OF THE TONIC SOL-FA NOTATION. ROBERT H. BEGG8, DENVER, COLORADO. To be successful in this age one should know everything of something, and something of everything; his vocation makes the one necessary, his relation to society demands the other. When one's specialty is the teaching of a sin- gle subject, his tendency is to insist that this subject is the one thing about which everything should be known. Our supervisors of drawing ask time enough to make artists of all public-school pupils ; the special teacher in gym- nastics asks for time to develop athletes ; the arithmetic teacher would produce both lightning calculators and profound mathematicians ; and so on, through the list. But the grammar school cannot make specialists in all things — it should not make specialists in anything. You, whom I have the honor of addressing this afternoon, would have children leave the eighth grade with the eye, ear, and voice of a trained vocalist, and your ambition is a laud- able one ; but the school authorities say to you, as to all other special teach- ers, ''You cannot have the necessary time." I am aware that it is claimed by many that this high standard can be att^ed in the fifty to seventy-five minutes per week allotted you, and am also aware that in public tests you seem to make good this claim as to reading at sight ; but I do not forget that concert work is always deceptive. I remember how often I have heard a class of fifty children repeat in unison a table or a sentence that not ten could re- peat alone. Neither do I forget that a majority of eighth-grade pupils have taken private lessons in music, spending hours each week, year after year, in painstaking practice in reading. I know full well that it is claimed that these pupils read no better than others ; that reading readily by letter is no help in reading by syllable. This point I do not propose to argue. I shall not point out the fact that in sight-singing, in the true sense of the term, the syllables are not necessarily thought of — merely the tone. I shall simply say that those who are in doubt upon this point can easily settle it for themselves by selecting in some fair way, equal numbers of those —62 822 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL A880CIATIOK. who do, and those who do not take private lessons, and ^ving them the sas^ test in simply naming notes at sight. For my own part, I have severs. times applied this test, and always with the same result. This, for the tiri heing, has settled the question for me; but it cannot settle it for you, ai.; rather than raise a discussion upon an unessential side-issue, I would euAu^v that private lessons are to be credited with no part of the musical knowledi-- possessed by public-school pupils. This, however, I do assert: that the aver age eighth-grade pupil uot taking private lessons, cannot name at sight tb<^ notes in the ordinary school exercises as fast as they should be sung, even when allowed to call six per cent, of the notes incorrectly. I make this as- sertion ujwn the result of tests made in different schools situated hundred? ..t miles apart, and these tests conducted by different persons who had no preju- dice to bias their judgment, and no motive to render untrustworthy returns. Forty notes in sixty seconds with six per cent, of errors, is about the averag*^ of the figures received. If they cannot read the syllables, of course they can- not sing them. But you tell me that you fail to secure satisfactory results in voice-culture and ear-training, and I have no reason to doubt you. Indeed, it would be strange if these should not be slighted, rather than the reading. We all want our work to be appreciated. We can give an exhibition at sight-reading that is conclusive evidence to all, of efficient work. Cqually good work in cultivating voice and ear, can be appreciated by musicians only. And this, no doubt, accounts in part for the fact that fifty per cent, of the time allotted music, is devoted to reading notes. ( I say fifty per cent, be- cause I do not want to provoke discussion upon my estimate. Should it be claimed that I have placed the figures too high, I will say seventy-five per cent., and prove it by an appeal to facts familiar to all who have observed other than their own methods of teaching) I conclude, then, that the work you are trying to do cannot be done in the allotted time ; but I would not disparage the results attained. Looking at the matter from the standpoint of a school principal, I am free to admit thai no part of the time or the money devoted to public-school education yields proportionally larger returns to patrons than that devoted to music. But the results are not what they should be. Too much is attempted, and nothing done well. If children leave the school with voice well trained, and with a strong love for vocal music, they will sing, no matter how the music may be written. The remedy suggested is the employment in the lower grades of a notation that will present no obstacles to the learner, supplemented by such a study of the staff in the higher grammar grades as will enable the pupil U> translate from one notation into the other. Five years ago, at Saratoga, there was present at a meeting of this body a class of little children from the Boston schools. Mr. Seward, for his own purposes, placed on the board an exercise in Sol-Fa. Mr. Holt got the floor for a single minute, and under his direction these little children, trained in the staff* only, sang this exercise in such a manner as to confound Mr. Seward VALUE OF THE TONIC SOL-FA NOTATION. 823 3tn.uld sing better from the Sol-Fa notation, which they had not used five minutes, than they could from the staff, which they had used five years. In s^hort, this notation seems to present almost no diflBculties to the learner. The use of the staff by beginners tends to beget slovenly habite of reading. "^riie singer finds it easier simply to approximate an interval when the sylla- ble is not named, and depend upon a leading voice or an instrument for the ex act tone. So strong does this habit of approximating become, that a child -Nvill frequently call the syllable correctly and give it the wrong sound, when if the name had been given him without seeing the note, he would have given tlie correct tone. For example, he guesses the note to be the fifth of the scale, and after the tone is mentally produced he gets the name of the note, ^vhich proves to be the fourth, and combines the two, saying fa but singing s€pL a large majority of chorus-singers, and fiiUy ninety per cent, of our eighth-grade pupils, have this habit well established ; and so long as the hu- man mind tends to follow the lines of least resistance, so long will the staff tend to foster this habit. The Sol-Fa notation is free from this objection. It gives the name only, and this suggests not the approximate but the exact sound. In the very successful reading test given last Wednesday afternoon, we noted that when the little folks failed to sing a note, it was only necessary for the leader to speak the name to bring out the correct sound. Again, staff notation hinders the best results by distracting the child's mind from the singing itself. Pitch, quality, force and time demand attention ; and if half the child's mental activity is expended upon the mere reading of the syllables, only half is available for the real work of singing. It is claimed by Sol-Faists that those who begin with Sol-Fa make the best staff-readers, and they point to the large percentage of prizes won in staff-read- ing contests, as substantiating their claim. They claim also that it is likely to become the popular notation, and cite as evidence that it already holds this rank in the greater part of the English-speaking world. These claims I have not investigated, but should not be surprised if both should be made good. But should they fail in both, I should still favor Sol-Fa for the reasons I have stated. The position taken is simply this: Musical culture is worth more than familiarity with any one system of notation. We cannot attain the culture and a good knowledge of the staff; let us take the surest means of securing the former. Then, with a strong love for music developed in the child who goes out from our schools, with an ear trained to appreciate the sweetest har- monies, with a voice able to assist in their production, and with a familiarity with one method of representing musical sounds, we need not fear that he will fail to acquire all needful knowledge of any notation he may be called upon to use. PROCEEDINGS AND ADDRESSES JOINT SESSION DEPARTMENTS OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION AND MANUAL TRAINING. DEPARTMENTS OE Elementary Schools and industrial Education AND Manual Training. SECRETARY'S MINUTES. Market Hall, St. Paul, Minnesota, July 9, 1890. The joint session of the Departments of Elementary Schools and of Indus- trial Education and Manual Training was called to order at 3 p. m.; Andrew J. Rickoff, of New York, in the chair. The meeting opened with repeating the Lord's Prayer; after which Mr. Rickoff made a few opening remarks. A piano solo was then given. N. A. Calkins, of New York City, read a paper on "A Course of Manual Training for Primary Classes." John E. Bradley, of Minnesota, read a paper on "Manual Training in Grammar Grades." "Manual Training in the Elementary School" was the subject of a paper by W. N. Hailmann, of La Porte, Indiana. Mr. Hailmann was followed by H. M. James, of Omaha, Nebraska, on " The Influence of Manual Training in Elementary Schools." The last paper on the program was "Drawing: A New Method," by Frank Abom, of Cleveland, Ohio. This paper was illustrated with blackboard drawings. The Department then adjourned. WILLIAM RICHARDSON, Secretmy. (827) 828 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL A880CIATIOy. PAPERS. COURSE OF MANUAL TRAINING IN PRIMARY CLASSES. N. A. CALKINS, NEW YORK CITY. According to the announcement by the program, it appears that I am to speak about primary classed ; and from the association of this announoement with others for this meeting, and from the remarks just made by your pre- siding officer, I conclude that I am expected to say something about the beginning-work in primary classes that leads to manual training. With the hope of aiding you to understand what I may say in relation to this subject. I will endeavor, first, to give you a brief account of steps taken by the Board of Education of New York City for introducing manual training into the public schools there ; and perhaps an outline of what was done by one boani to overcome difficulties may suggest hints to others as to what may be done elsewhere. When you remember that the public schools of New York contain about 200,000 pupils, and employ nearly 4,000 teachers — who had received no spe- cial instruction in manual training when the Board began to discus the pro- priety of introducing this feature of education — and then fiirther consider the cost of the materials and appliances necessary to success in this work, you may be able to realize some of the difficulties to be overcome in beginning a new form of instruction. The system of public instruction in New York embraces three classes or grades of schools, viz. : Primary, grammar, and college. In the college for boys, mechanical drawing, wood-work and iron-work had been a part of the course of instruction for two or more years, when the City Superintendent was re(|uested to ascertain and report what had been done in manual trainlog, or work leading to it, in schools of other cities. Facts relating to this matter were collected from several cities in the East, in the West, and from other paits of the country, and embodied in a report to the Board of Education. It was found that the "work-shop" was a prominent feature in the plans for manual training ; and that provision for shop-work was generally limited to the pupils of the high schools, and to those of the most advanced class in the grammar schools. Ailer careful consideration of this subject, the Board of Education decided that if this feature of education was valuable, it should be adapted to and provided for all grades of pupils in each of the three classes of schools— pri- MANUAL TRAINING IN PRIMABY CLASSES. 829 TrxsLTj and grammar, as well as high schools. In accordance with this decision, a. course of manual instruction was prepared for each grade of classes from the lowest primary to the highest grammar, and it was made obligator}^ so tliat each pupil should be trained in this work as well as in reading, writing, Arithmetic, etc. Furthermore, in order to thoroughly test the practical value of this feature of education, before making it general throughout all the schools of the city, tlie Board decided that until further action is taken, such course shall not be introduced into more than six male grammar schools, and six female grammar schools, and the primary departments and schools connected with them. The conditions under which these twelve schools were selected were essen- tially as follows, viz. : Pint All the teachers of the school must unite in a request that provision be made for the manual-training course in their school. If the trustees and the committee on course of study approved of such ap- plication, then the necessary materials, appliances and additional teachers for this special work were furnished by the Board of Education. To meet the ex- X>en8e8 of this experiment the sum of 815,000 was appropriated for the first year. A few schools began the work in February, 1888, but the course was not introduced into all of the twelve grammar schools that had been selected until 1889. The fact that these schools were selected from those with widely differing conditions as to the class of pupils attending them, made the test valuable in relation to the general utility of the course. In one of these manual-training schools I asked the principal, "How many nationalities are represented in your school?" He replied, "I took a census a few months ago, and then found in the primary and grammar departments twenty-seven, and there are now at least twenty-five varieties of nationality represented here. Among them are English, Irish, Scotch, French, Spanish, Italian, Rus- sian, Poles, German — high and low — Bohemians, Hungarians, Armenians, Chinese, etc. COURSE FOR PRIMARY CLASSES. The general plan of instruction in the primary course for manual training is to develop conceptions of form through seeing objects, handling objects, clay-modeling, stick-laying, etc., and to represent conceptions of objects by clay-modeling, paper-folding, cutting, and drawing. The methods pursued lead the pupils to see and draw lines as the repre- sentatives of strings held in different positions, and to represent lines and an- gles with sticks ; also by folding papers, by cutting papers, etc. I will give one or two simple illustrations : Pieces of paper are distributed to a primary class, and each pupil told to fold one piece from end to end, then to observe the line at the folded edge. Next, they are directed to fold the same paper from side to side ; then to open it and notice that one line crosses the other so as to form four right angles, thus, [ illustrating.] The pupils may then be directed to fold another piece of paper so as to 830 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. make the longest possible line in it ; then to fold the same paper from side t side, so as to make obtuse and acute angles, thus, [illustrating.^ Following these, the pupils may be directed to compare the angles on :: two pieces of paper, and notice their differences in form and size. If th- teacher wants to lead the pupils to see an error in their attempts to draw i right angle, they may be told to place on the drawing the right angle form-' by folding the paper as in the first illustration, thus, [illustrating^ By then- and similar elementary steps the pupils become familiar with the ooniiii. l solid and plane forms. The discipline in observation and representati«'r . combined and interwoven with manipulative exercises in construction^ pn- pares the way for an application of the knowledge of form thus gained. Following this primary work, the use of instruments in mechanical drawinj begins and is continued through the grammar grades, with applicatioiL-^ c: simple problems in geometry, and graphic solutions of selected geometrical theorems; and with drawing from measurements, and drawings for work-sht.j.. Freehand drawing, leading to ornamental designs, is continued. During the last three years in the grammar school, the boys are taught bv successive steps the use of tools, the making of joints, working from dra\*- ings, etc.; and in the first two years in- the grammar school, in addition ti» designs in ornamental and decorative drawing, the girls are taught sewing — introductory lessons having been given during the last year in the primary course. In the third year, the girls are taught practical cooking, together with the related chemical and physical facts. The amount of time s|)ent in all the work pertaining to the manual-traiuin;: course, including drawing, is about two hours per week in each class, exclu- sive of those engaged in the work-shr)p and the cooking-room. The extra time allowed for the work-shop is about one and one-half hours per week, and for the cooking-room one hour per week. In relation to the results of manual training in the public schools of New York, it has been found that teachers who knew little or nothing of this work two years ago, have become successful in training their pupils, and both teachers and pupils are interested in the work. The effect upon the order of the school is favorable, rather than otherwise — the boys and girls keej> steadily at their work because they are interested in it. One day I asked a principal of a grammar school in which manual train- ing had been a part of the course of instruction for about one year, " What effect have you observed on your school from this new feature in education ? " He replied: "I have made the discovery that it is changing the character of the teaching in other subjects, and making it much more efficient. I am sat- isfied," he continued, " without taking into consideration the value of habits of careful observation gained, that the time spent in manual-training work is worth more than it costs, from its influence in improving the general charac- ter of all the teaching." MANUAL TRAINING IN FBIMABT CLASSES, 831 One day your worthy President said to me, "Can't you show something trom the work of the pupils in the public schools in New York to illustrate some of their results in manual training?" Acting upon this suggestion, just before starting for St. Paul I went into the grammar school which has already been mentioned as containing representatives of so many different nationali- ties, and requested the principal to give me a few specimens of his pupils' original work in geometrical forms, that I might show them to you. Through his kindness I am able to place the samples of work which you see on this table before you to-day. Before showing you these forms, I will add a few words of explanation as to the character of the instruction given the pupils before they undertake this original work. At this point you will please to recall the fact already stated, that the prescribed instruction in mechanical drawing includes " applications of simple problems in geometry and graphic solutions of selected geometrical theorems." In order that I might be able to explain to you how the teachers of this school are guided in presenting the principles of geometrical forms, I borrowed a few of the charts which the principal had prepared for his teachers. These charts are so graded as to embrace the essential problems and theorems required in the prescribed course of mechanical drawing. These are the teacher's guides; the instruction is given by the teacher from the blackboard. In producing each of the forms which I shall show you, the pupil first makes a drawing on a single piece of paper — not from a copy, or by specific directions of the teacher. The paper is then cut so as to leave all the parts of the drawing attached to each other ; then it is folded, and pasted, with the results that I will show you. [The speaker exhibited several charts.] This chart contains a flat drawing of a cube, or hexahedron. After the pupils have drawn this, the paper is cut, folded, and pasted, so that a single piece forms this solid, with its six equal faces, [exhibiting.] Other charts represent flat drawings of a prism, and of a pyramid. This chart represents the plan of drawing two pyramids, with the base of one resting on the base of the other. After the pupils have been taught these from the blackboard, the boys apply the same principles in several ways, chiefly original with themselves ; here are some of the results, [exhibiting.] This is a square prism, with a pyramid standing on one end of the prism. This is a prism, with a pyramid on one end, and another pyramid projected into the other end. Here is k specimen of two hexagonal pyramids, each resting on the base of the other. This is a pentagonal prism, with pentagonal pyramids on the ends of th^ prism. In this manner the boys apply the prin- ciples previously taught, to prisms and pyramids with six, eight, ten, twelve, and even twenty sides. Here is a combination of pyramids on the six faces of a cube which was first drawn by a pupil, on a single piece of paper, then cut, folded, and pasted. If you could separate the parts of it, you would find that this solid contfidns but one piece of paper. The same may be said of each of these 832 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. solid forms. Let me state again that the teacher does not tell the pupils how to draw, or how to make these remarkable forms. The instruction giTen chiefly relates to the principles represented on the charts that are used as the teacher's guide. That instruction leads the pupils to think ; and it frequently happens after the lesson, that one thoughtful boy asks for some paper to take home. In a few days he brings in a drawing, and the solid which it will form when the paper is folded. Other boys in his class examine these ; they ask for paper, and bring modified drawings and solid forms, the result of their own thinking. In this manner they form octahedrons, decahedrons, etc, wiUi other figures, having corresponding bases, resting on their sides. This is a' flat drawing, representing the six faces of a cube in the center: and drawings of six truncated pyramids, with six small cubes to rest on their tops. Here is the form which the boy made by cutting, folding, and pasting this single piece of paper. I doubt whether the teacher knew what the draw- ing represented, when the boy first showed it. I do not know what to call the solid form. The principal of this school informed me that the boys fre- quently bring these inventions — as the result of combining the forms which they have been taught to draw. Here are several solid forms — a cone and a truncated cone, a pyramid and a truncated pyramid, cylinder, prisms, etc., which were drawn flat, to measure- ment, so that each should be of exactly the same height when finbhed ; as you may see by the card which I place on the top of them, [illustrating.] These were made by the boys of the first grade in the grammar school. Mr. Woodward: What do you mean by first grade? Mr. Calkins: The highest grade in the school. These pupils had probably been in school, including both the primary and grammar departments, less than eight years. The specimens of work now before you were made by the pupils in the three higher grades of the school. The memorandum on this remarkable specimen [exhibiting] states that the boy who made it was fourteen years and five months old ; that the plan was original with him ; and that it was com- pleted without assistance, and not shown to the teacher until completed. Similar statements could be made concerning much of this work. Please to remember that these pupils are only two years old in the element- ary 8te])S of manual training. Mr. Richards, of Washington, D. C. : Before a boy makes one of those forms, does he draw all the parts of it on one piece of paper? Mr. Calkins: Yes; each form is drawn complete on one piece of paper. Mr. Richards : Did the boys stick any paits of them together before the drawing was finished ? Mr. Calkins: In doing this work, the pupil first thinks what he is going to represent, and how to do it ; then he makes the drawing complete in all its parts, on one piece of paper ; then cuts, folds, and pastes it. No cutting, fold- ing or pasting is done until the drawing has been completed. MANUAL TBAININQ IX PRIMARY CLASSES. , 833 ^Mxi. KiCHARDS: How much of this work of cutting, folding and pasting is lone in the school-room ? ^1». Calkins: The specimens which you see before you are the products of voluntary work, and they were made by the pupils at their homes and \)roiight to the school to let the teacher see what they could do. ]Mit. Woodward: Can the boys do anything else? >Ir. Calkins: Yes; they make the drawings for their own shop-work. ^^oITleti^aes they are given paper, pencil and measure, and requested to observe u simple part of machinery, to measure, make notes, then to draw it to a scale. They can draw a simple flower or fruit, then make a model of it in clay. They make models of maps in their study of geography. They learn to think about what they see and do. One day I asked the principal of this school whether or not the pupils lose anything in arithmetic by spending from two to two siiid one-half hours each week in manual-training work. He replied, " They do not have as much practice in arithmetic as the pupils did before this course was begun, but I believe they learn to think about arithmetic better than they did before." Pinding that the class then before me was studying decimal fractions, 1 ^ave them two or three examples, one of which was — "Boys, please add the following numbers: five and three-faurthsy twenty-five hundredth^ forty-seven foi-iy-sevenths, tivo and one-half five-tenths, f&ur and seventy-five hundredths, one-fourth, fifteen-sixteenihs, and seventeen-^ixteenths" The teacher said, "I never gave any like that." I replied, "I did not suppose that you had ; I wish to see how well the boys think." The boys were soon at work, and in a very short time the majority of them indicated that they were ready to ^ve the result. Noticing a boy still earnestly at work, I inquired, "What are you trying to do?" He replied, "I want a common denominator." Other boys raised hands, and one said, "I know that |j and || make two, and I put down two ; and that four and y^ and i make five, and I put down the whole num- bers." Other pupils indicated that they thought of the whole numbers repre- sented by the fractions, and put down the results of the several combinations. The correct result was not obtained by all of the class, but the manner in which the boys handled the example gave evidence that they were learning to think in a practical way. As another evidence that the boys are trying to learn how to do something besides making these remarkable forms, the principal informed me a few days ago that six or eight of the boys in the highest class of this grammar school wanted to get into architects' offices, or places where they would have me- chanical drawing to do, instead of blacking shoes and selling papers. We believe that the course of instruction now in operation in the public schools of New York is leading the pupils to think ; that it is training them to use their hands also, and generally broadening their development. In conclusion, I will add: When the experiment with the manual-training course had been in operation about two years in the schools selected for this 834 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. purpose, inquiries were made relative to its effects on the general couiae d^ struction in those schook. The evidence obtained from them w^as so stfbi tory that the Board of Education decided that the manual-training o urr essentially, (excepting the provisions for clay-modeling, shop- work, and o« -. ing,) should be introduced into all the primary and grammar schools ul : its care, beginning with last February. Now the course of instruction ^a _ the public schools of New York city includes the elementary train ing- of : • feature of education. Should any of you care to examine more closely these paper 3|>€!cimen,- pupils' work that I have shown you, you are invited to come to tiie platfon_ at the close of this session, to get some of them to take home with you. MANUAL TRAINING IN GRAMMAR GRADES. JOHN E. BRADLEY, MINNESOTA. Progressive movements are often mbunderstood. The mind is slow to gra^' great truths, and does not comprehend them in their full significance till educated, step by step, to understand them. Testing their value hy fabe standards, we unduly exalt, or prematurely reject them. We unconsciou?ly distort or misinterpret facts, and lean in our conclusions towards precon- ceived opinions. 80 largely are we the creatures of education and environ- ment, that we can only hope to see truth — not through the prism of prejudice, but in its own white and unbroken light — by patient study of all its detaik Before considering, therefore, what branches of manual training shall be at- tempted in grammar grades, we need to determine what aim and purpose we wish to promote. The term, manual training, carries widely different meanings to diflPerent persons. One sees in it the subversion of our educational system, to empiri- cism and a fruitless attemj)t to develop the mechanical industries, instead of the elements of manhood. To another, it means the emancipation of the schools from formalism, the infusion of vitality into their work, and the solu- tion of great social problems. Too much has been claimed for manual train- ing by enthusiastic advocates. Groundless fears and objections have been raised by its opponents. Our present need is a true estimate. It will be mj purpose in this paper, firsts to state some of the ends aimed at in manual training ; and, second, to offer a few practical suggestions on its incorporation into the regular work of the schools, looking at the subject, not with the eyes of the enthusiast and specialist, but from the standpoint of the teacher, wish- ing to maintain due proportion in educational work, and to give due empha- sis to that which is most important. MANUAL TRAINING IN OBAMMAH GBADES. 835 1. - IFirst, then, the aim in manual training is, as the term implies, the dis- plii\e of the hand. Why should this end be ignored in a symmetrical edu- ii^tion ? Are the uses of the hand unworthy of consideration ? Does its leclaauism indicate that this member of the human body is of small account ? r>ie ajiatomist tells us of the thirty bones in its framework ; their marvelous Lclj vistment, and the facility with which the thumb may be brought in contact ivitH each of the fingers. He describes its arteries and veins, and its net-work jf lt>eautiful ribbons and bands, twenty of which must unite, we are told, to produce thcL slightest movement of one of the fingers. But how little can he tell us of its countless nerves, with their facile control of every muscle and joint; and who shall explain the infinite number and variety of messages t ransmitted from the finger-tips to the centers of thought and volition ? or who shall make known the secret of their prompt response to the mandates of the will ? Sir Charles Bell, reflecting upon these things in his Bridgewater treatise, declared himself overwhelmed with the evidence which they afford of the " wisdom, goodness, and power of the Creator." Do we need arguments to convince us that such an organ should be developed and perfected ? or that we should be permitted to enjoy its best service and use ? If, now, it be maintained that nature will take care of the development of the hand, and that our trouble is unnecessary, I reply that the assumption is as gratuitous as it would be to assume that nature will take care of the train- ing of the brain. No mental faculty or bodily organ improves more rapidly under cultivation than the hand. None is more in need of training. Note the clumsy weakness of the little fingers as they attempt the first exercises in paper-folding or drawing. See how awkwardly the childish hand grasps its first pen. Let a few years elapse, and observe the result of judicious training. The handwriting is regulfir and legible ; the drawing is correct, and begins to he artistic; while the manipulation in paper-work, needle-work, and clay- modeling commands our admiration. Every movement is firm and graceful. Can anyone doubt that the results of hand-training in such children have fully kept pace with the results of intellectual training ? Look a few years later at the products of higher manual training. Compare the specimens of carpentry, wood-carving and metal- work with the original essays and mathe- matical demonstrations in the high school. Which affords the greater evi- dence of progress and improvement ? Can any reason be assigned for giving exclusive attention to the brain to the neglect of the hand in our educational work? 2. Again, the aim of manual training is the education of the eye. What has been said concerning the discipline of the hand is equally applicable to the training of the eye. We are dependent upon it for our ideas of color, form, and symmetry ; and these ideas are among the most practical and inti- mate to our daily life of any that we possess. As the eye is trained, these ideas become definite and correct. Few of us realize the improvement of which the organ of sight is bus- 836 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. ceptible under specific training. The sailor will clearly discern a distant ship and count her masts before the landsman can discern the slightest specL The lace- weaver, while passing hundreds of bobbins over and under one an- other with marvelous rapidity, will detect at once the slightest defect, and catch up a stitch or tie a knot with almost instantaneous celerity, when the ordinary observer will hardly see what has been done. Engravers at first work with a glass, but their sight improves with their skill, until at length they execute the most difficult and delicate work with the eye unaided. So admir- ably does Nature respond, in such cases, to the demands made upon her for more exact and perfect work ! What a pity that such a wonderful piece of mechanism as the eye should render us only half of the service of which it is capable ! 3. Thus far we have spoken of the hand and the eye as bodily organs. Let us now consider them as instruments of the mind. ** Nature, crescent, does not grow alone In thews and bulk ; but as the temple waxee, The inward service of the mind and soul Grows wide withal." Here we I'each the most important end in objective teaching. The value of manual exercises is to be determined principally by their influence upon the mind. The ultimate aim is educational. Give the child possession and control of all his powers. In so far as the mental is higher than the physical nature, it is entitled to permanent consideration. The supreme end of man- ual training, as of all education, is the harmonious development of the entire human being. Manual dexterity is an indication of a certain kind of mental power ; and the mental power is developed along with the dexterity. When the dexterity is fully established, the mental growth also ceases, and the exer- cises should be changed. Our third aim, then, in manual training is the education of the perceptive powers and the formation of clear and correct habits of thought. Whatever theor}'^ we may hold with reference to the higher problems of philosophy, all will agree that there can be no knowledge where there has been no basis in perception. Our aim in educational processes is to furnish such materials through the avenues of sense as will cause the mental faculties to act with ease and vigor. In education, seeing is more than believing; it is the be- ginning of knowledge. The development of intellectual power can only be secured by supplying the materials for intellectual activity. The perceptive operations precede other forms of mental action. The growth of a child's mind is like the opening of a flower; one after another its faculties unfold and expand, each in its proper order. It is impossible to reverse this order, and to attempt to do so, in our educational work, is like tearing open the bud in a vain attempt to produce a premature blossom. Supply the perceptive powers, then, with abundant materials during the period of their development. Make the conditions favorable, and the growth MANUAL TBAININQ IN OUAMMAB GRADES. 837 I be rapid — unfavorable, and school will but check what nature is already ^oniplisbing. How does a child learn so much during his first five or six XT^ ? By simply following the promptings of nature. The restless activity, 3 fickleness and the inquisitive instincts of the child have wrought to a LiTid result before he enters school. Let us not arrest, but guide this growth. ^^•e succeed, the child will never know the weariness and ill-temper which me with irksome and unnatural restraint. He will enjoy school-work be- II se his faculties are exercised in accordance with the laws of their normal ivelopment. His mind will seize and assimilate knowledge as unconsciously . the magnet attracts iron. But the materials furnished must be such as his lind can appropriate. They must be adapted to his age and mental cravings. otherwise the weariness and mischief-making which indicate intellectual star- ation will be manifested. As well might we expect the flower to bloom with- ut warmth and moisture as to look for a harmonious growth to which urrounding conditions do not minister. As well give a stone to the child v\io asks for bread as to ofifer him mental food which his mind cannot ap- propriate. Interest is essential in training the child's perceptive powers. His capacity for voluntary attention is very limited. He may listen respectfully to his teacher. He may bravely endeavor to attend to that which does not interest him ; but nature soon asserts itself, and the faculties flag and refuse to act. Abstract and general statements do not come within the sphere of a child's interest. But let the teacher bring well-selected objects into the school-room ; let her distribute them among the pupils and elicit the results of their observa- tion, and their spontaneous attention will evince the vigor of their intellectual activity. Efforts to this end are systematically begun in the kindergarten and first grade; they never should be discontinued in all our educational work. Of late, all are agreed in theory that occupation should be furnished for the sense-organs in training the child. But so little impression has been made upon the actual practice in most schools, that this necessity of the child-nature needs to be continually urged. Teachers should not be allowed to forget that the intellectual fabric which they seek to build must have a solid foundation in sense-knowledge. Sully says: "Thought will be* loose and inaccurate when the preliminary stage of perception has been hurried over. The first-hand knowledge of things through personal inspection is worth far more than any second-hand account of them by description." And Porter, always conserva- tive and stately, remarks that " the perfection with which this power can be exercised depends on the interest and training of the individual. Diflferent persons acquire, by special discipline, special power to perceive certain classes of objects. What a man is, is exemplified by what he perceives." Manual training, then, should not be regarded as a new subject, as a counter- claimant with other branches of a limited amount of time and mental energy, but rather as a system of educational methods which recognize the neces- sity of addressing the child*s intellect through his senses. It aims at the pro- —63 838 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. duction of thought-jwwer by supplying an abundance of thought material' It develoi)s the capacity for voluntaiy attention by creating conditions wL.. require it. The child who is moulding clay, the boy who is cutting a mrmi-^. the young man who is carving a panel, 7nitst attend. With thein^ inte^e^t at i spontaneous attention pass unconsciously into voluntary concentration •' mental energy. They cannot sit listlessly with books before them while thvlr thoughts Hy away to the skating-park or play-ground. They cannot delu^k themselves with the idea that they have studied two hours, when they ba\r not really aj)j)lied themselves ten minutes. They acquire — they must actjub — the power of observing closely and accurately. They learn the great 1«\'- u of ascertaining just what is to be done before attempting to do it. They It^ar. the dej)endence of one thing upon another, and that each step in a prrH>-r must be taken in its proper order. They learn that carelessness and mi^taki? destroy good work, and that every faculty must be alert in order to secure tL-: bet»t results. A generation ago, nearly every boy gained a practical familiarity ^ii'r some emj)loyment at home. The farmer's son secured a good muscular dt.- veloj)mont by assisting his father out of school. He learned how to use U* hands. His quick and accurate eye was trained to observe every feature of an object. But nothing gives our modem city school-boy any such oj)[K»rtu- nity. And this one-sidedness of his educational environment is a serious kr^i to his teacher, as well as to himself Children need objective teaching. It is difficult for them to think in the abstract ; it is easy and natural for thera v^ be interested in individual objects — in things which they can themselves handle ; in work which they can themselves do. The child who is confii>€^ and wearied with intellectual work will be made happy and refreshed by s<>mt^ thing to do with his hands. He learns to think, as is natural for the child, in the concrete. He learns the qualities of objects, and manifold facts which can only be gained by actual experience. The judgment and powers of compari- son are developed. The taste is stimulated and confonned to correct standank Manual exercises, then, are an imjwrtant auxiliary in the formation of correct intellectual habits, not only because they require close attention, but also because they supply accurate materials for the processes of thought Men who j)()ssess a high degree of intellectual penetration are always cl«^ ol)servers. Good analytical powei*s imply vigorous perceptive powers. The shadowy and disconnected materials furnished by careless observation fail to enrich tlic memoiy and imagination. Close deduction and reliable influence cannot be drawn from inexact or insufficient data. Every intellectual fac- ulty is enfeebled and its product obscured by indistinct or insufficient datA Every intellectual faculty is enfeebled and its product obscured by indistinct or indifferent i)erci*pti(m. All mental operations are clarified and brouirht into harmony by uniform reliance ujwn clear and definite knowledge. Such a thinker walks in the light. He feels no distrust of his conclusions, because he sees the amj)le foundation on which they rest. He proceeds with couli- MAXUAL TRAINING IN GBAMMAB GRADES. 839 dcnce, because his lines of thought and action are clearly apprehended. His mental habit compels him to stop before a doubtful step has been taken. How much of the vague and shallow thinking which pervades the commu- nity would be rein vigora ted if all were trained to apprehend clearly the grounds on which their opinions rest ! How much more effective would be our tbinking and our work if it all rested uix)n a sure and well-laid foundar tion in perception ! Moreover, the child can learn no lessons at school which are of greater value than the virtues of industry, perseverance, and genuineness. It is not claimed that this education has the power to overcome all the faults and weaknesses of human nature. Those who demand such results from the pub- lic schools will always be disappointed. But it is already apparent that manual training, especially in its more advanced work, stimulates the best elements of an upright character. The boy w^ho has learned to apply him- self till a specific thing is accomplished, has taken an important step in moral training. The universal weakness of human nature, until trained and disciplined, is a tendency to do things imperfectly, partly from ignorance, partly from reluctance to make the requisite effort. Habits of thought react upon fundamental traits of character. The boy who has learned precision and adaptation in the use of tools, has also learned a lesson which will serve bim in other departments of training, in social and moral relations. Any means or system of training which will help a boy to overcome a dislike of work and a disposition to do things carelessly, is of great educational value, though nothing else come of it. He who has conquered difficulties once will more easily succeed a second time. The skillful use of tools and materials in the production of any article, is intimately related to that moral rfvit which will find a means of accomplishing any needful end. The boy acquires in the work-shop the habit of overcoming difficulties, and persisting in an un- dertaking till it is crowned with success. Every boy in the royal family of Germany is taught to work with his hands, not that he may fall back upon it, if necessary, as a means of earning a livelihood, but that he may acquire the power of doing things. Character, stimulated and reenforced by honest effort in one pursuit, will not fail when brought to the test in other and more important relations. Let us now attempt to apply these principles in answer to the question, What kind of manual training is appropriate to the grammar grades? We require, fint, bodily exercises which involve a maximum of intellectual activity; second, those which are interesting; and third, thorn which savor of work rather than play. 1. Drawing should render far greater service in this direction than it has hitherto done. History, geography, animal lessons, plant lessons, and much of the other work of the grammar grades will be greatly enriched by combin- ing the dra^ring with them. A pupil's interest is wonderfully stimulated when he finds that he can make practical use of his drawing in his other school- 840 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. work. He discovers a new significance in a subject when he finds that h^ can iUustrate it with a picture. The sketch and the description stand s-M by side ; they supplement one another, and the double expression gives fx' more than a double value. He makes a drawing of the animal whose habhr he describes. He embellishes his historical narratives with such illustratioib as will make the scenes more real. As he grows older he gives you a glimji^ of the objects of interest which he has seen in his imaginary geographical tour-. He paraphrases a classical poem and accompanies his literary work with i picture of the castle or belfry-tower to which reference is made. In this war. the hand, the eye and the taste are at once trained, and the habit is fomiei of giving clear and adequate expression to every idea one wishes to oommuiL cate. Drawing has now been taught in the public schools for fifteen year-. No teacher is longer acceptable who has not learned to draw. The best teachtr? make constant use of the blackboard. They should train their pupils to K equally accustomed to graphic illustration. Almost everything taught in tli? schools thus becomes tributary to language-teaching, and all the school-work contributes to that practical habit of thought which associates the daily routint of school with actual life. Let us cease to imagine that in training the powen of thought or expression we need to ignore the world of to-day with all it> busy interests. Let us teach our boys and ^rls to know and to love that which is beautiful and good all about them. 2. Nor need this work be limited to drawing. The clay-modeling of the primary may well be developed into more artistic forms and continued in tk upper grades. It affords admirable training, and has been successful wherever tried. When a pupil has learned to draw an animal, or a basket of fruit, let him reproduce the article in clay with appropriate coloring. Belief maps and other expedients for making real the facts of geography and history, should be made a part of the regular grammar-school work. Sand, putty, salt, and various other materials are used. Elaborate and beautiful work of this kind is now produced. Fortunately, schools which cannot attempt the large and expensive pieces prepared in some places, can do just as profitable work on a smaller scale. 3. The construction of geometrical solids out of thick cardboard aiibrds excellent training for the eye and hand. This work leads inductively to a knowledge of geometry, that noble science whose cold abstractions and tbei>- rems have been the terror of many a student, when a more favorable intrr- duction would have led to an agreeable acquaintance. By combining tbtse geometrical solids, having one penetrate another, interesting and highly disci- plinary problems are presented. At what age pupils may wisely begin to work in wood, is much disputed. The cause of manual training has not gained in intelligent interest and con- fidence by the attempts to anticipate the ordinary physical development of children. A boy of nine or ten years is not capable of handling carpenters' tools in a safe and proper manner. He has neither the strength nor the MANUAL TRAINING IN ORAMMAB GRADES. 841 steadiness to use such tools. He is not yet capable of taking an intelligent interest in such work. It is as premature for him mentally as it is physically. They who propose putting little children to manual exercises which are be- yond their years are guilty of as serious a disregard of psychological princi- ples as are they who tax and weary the childish powers with complicated processes in arithmetic and grammar. It does not follow, however, that excellent training of hand and eye may not be obtained by various forms of wood-work in the grammar grades. For pupils between ten and thirteen years of age a variety of exercises in whittling may be provided. In some schools this work has been systematized and brought into line with the drawing and clay-work. Cubes, prisms, pyramids, cylinders, and other fundamental forms are carefully shaped with the knife. These type forms are then modified or conventionalized into various familiar articles. An almost unlimited variety of objects may be thus produced. The expense is very slight. We have depended entirely upon the bits of lumber from the manual-training shops for the materials for this work. In these grades many of the exercises of the Swedish slqjd may be intro- duced. This system is especially to be commended for its simplicity and in- expensiveness. The earlier exercises, such as making a pointer, a bird's i)erch, or a flower stick, are not too diflicult for ordinar}' pupils with an ordinary teacher, and the work can be done in an ordinary school-room. In wood- working, as well aa in other school exercises, there is danger of making the first steps too difficult. The limitations of the slojd are, however, apparent, and I question the wisdom of the principle that each exercise must be a com- pletely-finished article. Its great merit is its availability. It is closely re- lated to the drawing, develops the sense of form, and is well adapted to gain the interest of pupils. For the last two years in the grammar school, when pupils are from thir- teen to fifteen years of age, a carefully-selected course of exercises iiTcarpen- try and cabinet-work affords perhaps the best manual training. Even here the heavier tools should be avoided, and care taken not to over-tax the pupil's strength. The exercises should be short, and should lead up to the manual- training work of the high school. A work-shop is of course a necessity, but it need not be elaborate or expensive. I have no desire to differ from those who propose to put wood-working tools into the hands of the girls, but it would seem that something more appropri- ate might be found for them. Every girl should learn to sew ; indeed it is surprising that all girls are not taught plain sewing at home. But every teacher can testify that many mothers never attempt so slight a matter as mending their children's clothes. Multitudes of women are utterly ignorant of the use of the needle, and girls are left to grow up in rags, simply because they have never been taught to sew. The educational value — the effect upon the mind and character — of learning to sew is equal to other forms of manual training, and the practical and social bearings of the instruction invest it with 842 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. peculiar imi)ortance. The use of the needle has long lain at the fimnda'i of domestic thrift, teaching those lessons of economy, 8elf-siipi>ort, and - : respect which are so essential to an upright character. The difficulties* wK-. stand in the way of introducing wood-work and metal- work into the sove mere animality is furnished by the hand; that without the hand he oiiKl neither hold fast the past and transform stupid heredity into intelligent iistory, nor project himself into a future and transform sight into foresight, >lin- servation or discovery (sensation) is followed by some sort of synthetic activitj in which the knowledge gained is applied, however vaguely, for enjoyment «*r otherwise ; and education, while it may or should lay greater stress on tk former, should not ignore the latter. Analysis finds its purpose in synthesis: it means nothing unless it leads to synthesis. From the very start ther*- should be established in the child's mind this tendency or habit of applyinir all new gains in knowledge to the synthetic purposes of life. It is for this reason that Froebel directs the mother to swing the colored ball to and fnj. up and down, and to play with it in a variety of synthetic lines, even while the child is still apparently only observing the newly-found object. It is for this reason that science and philosophy, art and literature, in the most ad- vanced phases of their work, ever rest clearly and consciously on the delicate analyses to which they owe the materials and inspirations for their cieationi. A manual training which would neglect this, which — e.g., in the kinder- garten— would weary the child with the purely analytical work of point- ing out and naming the parts of things, or of cutting pieces of paper into shreds according to geometrical rules, would be one-sided and incomplete, and could yield no fruit. The same is true, though to a less extent, of a manual training which, in advanced stages of the work, would confine the learner to incomplete syntheses, to the making of parts and features of things, never giving him the satisfaction of completing the mental process involved in the making of complete wholes of which these things are the parts and features. A number of other considerations are of value in the choice of wa^'s and means. At first the hand alone, unaided by tools, is set to work, so that it may be in direct contact with the material, and control and test directly what- ever changes it seeks to bring about. Gradually, simple tools are introduced for the sake of facilitating certain laborious processes, such as scraping the clay, which lie clearly on the automatic side of the work ; for the sake of convenience and cleanliness, as in the application of pigments and cements; for the sake of greater accuracy in measuring, and in drawing lines ; or for the sake of overcoming the refractoriness of material, such as paper, wood, and the metals. At last, more or less complex machinery may be introduced, by the help of which the worker is relieved of the labor of setting or keeping his tools in motion, and is enabled to use his hands freely in the intelligent control of the work. Again, the first activities are a mere handling and arranging of things, such as balls, beads, and the like. Subsequently, more or less distinct forms are constructed with the help of suitably prepared blocks, tablets, or splints; and still later on, the material itself — paper, cardboard, wood, etc. — is transformed MANUAL TBAmma IN THE ELEMENTABY SCHOOL. 845 >r fsLshioDed in accordance with fixed plans and purposes. Of course, as in a.11 other similar series, there is much overlapping; and whatever activity has boen set iree is never again abandoned, but continues as an important and necessary factor through all subsequent forms of work. Ajn indispensable requisite for successful manual activity is self-confidence, flaltli in our ability to accomplish our purpose. At first, therefore, it is desir- a.l>le to lay almost exclusive stress upon this formal purpose, and to subordi- nate all other considerations to the establishment of self-confidence. The material for whatever work involves transformation or fashioning of material, is, therefore, chosen with reference to its plasticity. In the beginning we should use material of a high degree of plasticity, offering the least possible resistance to the hand that would fashion it ; later on, more and more refrac- tory materials are introduced ; and at last, the material is chosen with ex- clusive reference to the needs of the product, the endurance of the object of the work. In the beginning the child will require much showing, opportunities to ob- serve modes of procedure which he may imitate, and the teacher will have to do much "living with the children" as Frcebel has it; making herself one with them ; doing herself the things she wants them to learn ; making herself one with them in the work or play. Later on, dictation may be employed, the child performing actions with which he is more or less familiar, in accord- ance with written or spoken directions. Subsequently, the task is set, the expected result simply indicated, and the child is expected to deterfiaine upon his own road of procedure, until at last he learns even to set himself his own task, to work towards a purpose of his own. As to the relative amount of stress to be laid on manual work in education at successive periods within the child's life, it should be remembered that among the various modes of thought-expression, manual activity is the most tangible. In very little children every dawning sensation reads outward in some sort of muscular movements, wholly meaningless at first, merely an- nouncing in a vague fashion that something is going on in the child's mind. Subsequently, as sensations become more definite and true sense-perception is bom, these muscular reactions, too, become more definite and appeal more and more exclusively to that most mobile muscular mechanism, the hand. The hand now becomes the chief organ of expression. Whatever interests the child he seeks to grasp with his hands ; with all things he seeks manual contact. During this period, and during much of subsequent periods, the child can- not think without manual activity of some sort. The hand does similar ser- vice which speech does to older persons who cannot think without talking out loud, whispering, or at least moving the lips in silent speech. Frequently it continues to have this influence even in persons who have confined the hand to one-sided occupations, such as writing: we find writers who cannot think connectedly or clearly except with pen in hand. 846 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, At a subsequent i>eriod, when ideas be^an to become established in tht; 1 1 : the vocal organs come to the relief of the hand, and with the unfoldiLj social tendencies there is develoi)ed in the vocal organs language which eiiu man to unite with his own the manual activity of others in commoQ endcsav. - and which ere long becomes the chief organ of thought-expression . However, the thought-expression of language never can fully replace \\ j of the hand. Language is diffusive; in itself it is incomplete; unle?8 it - ■ to work some hand, it loses its purpose and vanishes. The though t-expre>-i of the hand establishes, fixes, renders permanent. At no period of the learri' r • life can education dispense with it wholly, or neglect it, without serious 1««>? i its outcome. Indeed, the hand is ever a most profitable servant. It pays him wh^rt "> serves. It not only does the task required and gathers increasing stort-* * skill, but it brings at the same time to its master new information, streu«rti- ens his power of thought, and enables him to require more and higher ^t-:- vice. It seems as if the joy of w^ork were the only reward it claims: aiii great is the joy it awakens by reaction in the soul of him who has remaiiiM; faithful to his hand, who — instead of abandoning it for the airy delighb^ ••* mere tongue-service — follows it into the realms of subtile mechanical j^kiu, deep scientific research, and highest art. In judging of the relative value of different schemes of manual training, wr should carefully guard not only against under-estimating, but also agaiu^t over-estinAting the value of manual activity as an educational factor. Tu< hand is as incompetent in life-leadership as is the head. Both are of value only in the measure in which they serve, strengthen and open out the heart of man, the heart which is the seat of whatever spiritual tendency' he mar possess ; and the full, true value of the man depends ultimately on his heart- qualities, on his spiritual tendencies. Now it is true, that every manual activity, and therefore ever}-- kind «•!' manual training, by imparting vigor and Han to the physical side of our being, by developing sense of power, by strengthening perseverance aiid patient industry, and in many other ways, is more or less educative. Yet if, misled by this, we permit ourselves to emphasize it to the neglect of the higher and deeper concerns of spiritual life; if we endeavor to make the hand master instead of training it in effective service only, we run the risk of low- ering the man to the level of the hand, to emphasize his material outward existence at the expense of his spiritual inward being, to sink creative genius in productive talent, or mere toiling industry. This is done in every manual-training scheme, and in every part of such scheme of which the manual activities have their ends in themselves, without any })urp<)se beyond, and in no way consciously connected with some higher si)iritual interest. In such cases, manual training — whether in the work- shop or in the slcijd-roora, in drawing or coloring, in penmanship or in the various occupations of the kindergarten — degenerates into the woodenuess of MANUAL TRAINING IN TUB ELEMENTARY SCHOOL, 847 lie ordinary subjects of instruction, and passes over the child, leaving scarcely 1. trace in his inner being. Summing up the results of our analysis, we find that a fully educative =^olieme of manual training should at eveiy step hold fast the object of edu- c^ivtioii as a whole, laying stress successively on the analytic and synthetic ivctivities of the hand ; on the service it may give to the senses, the intellect, t: lie sensibilities and the will ; on individual development and social coordi- iiation. Inasnmch as the establishment of self-confidence is of primary im- portance, such a manual training will select its material at first with chief reference to its plasticity, and later on with chief reference to the purpose ^vhich the finished product is to serve. In the mode of treatment of its ma- ten al, it will proceed from mere handling and arranging activities, to others, ill which the material is modified, transformed, and used in accordance with the requirements of the object in view. At first it will apj^eal to the hand alone, which it gradually strengthens with tools, and at last, with the help of the machine, emancipates from the drudgeries of toil. In its method it be- g^ins with showing, and through dictation and the setting of tasks reaches at \v^t fully creative work. Yet through and over all these successions rules the life-principle of con- tinuity. The predominance of any one phase or proximate aim never excludes the others. All are present, in however vague a form, in the very beginning, and not one of them, as it recedes in predominance, ever entirely vanishes. For the period before conventional school age, for the nursery and the kindergarten, the scheme of manual training suggested by Froebel satisfies all these requirements. The "First Gift," with its six colored balls, invites the analytic activity of the child's senses ; the child is to see and distinguish, and, with his hands, to touch and grasp the balls for the purpose of gathering infor- mation. Yet this gift invites also synthetic activities of holding and releasing, of rolling and throwing the balls. Each ball, itself clearly individualized by its color, appeals strongly to the child's individual powers and eflbrts, but the value of social coordination is distinctly foreshadowed in the additional charm that comes to the play when mother or sister takes part, swings the ball to and fro, throws the ball to the child and catches it when thrown by the child. The ideal softness and mobility of the ball simulate plasticity, and its elastic- ity as well as its almost stubborn unwillingness to keep still, indicate a self- hood which lies at the root of the refractoriness of coming playthings and materials for work. The activity that first engagas the child is simply handling the ball. Yet the many balls invite arranging activities; and, mentally at least, the child even nse.9 the ball and in a sense transforms it, when, because of its color, he makes it stand for an orange or a cherry, or because of its motion and color, for a canary-bird or a blue-bird. In the beginning, mother or nurse plays with the ball before the child, showing him, as it were, what can be done with the ball; but very soon she asks him to hold it or to throw it, and even leaves 848 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. him that he may do with the ball creatively what he may choose to do. Ev- the coming tool and machine are foreshadowed in this gift which seems to l- meant for wholly direct control by the hand. The tool appears in the str'L: by which it is held, lifted, or swung; the machine is indicated in the pendulLr movement by which it continues the force of a past impulse and even im{.an- its motion to another ball without the intervention of the hand. Thus through all and over all rules that life-principle of continuity wb.>* fundamental importance we have recognized; head, heart and hand are ever busy in unison ; and, if the mother herself but sees and feels aright, she i*aL- not fail to secure with her play right heart-tendency in her child. The same law underlies the construction and use of each successive 'gili,' and to the ten * gifts* viewed as a whole. From 'gift' to 'gift' the doniinaLt stress comes nearer the latter ; and of each series of considerations, and in the play or work with the 'gift' the appeal is less and less directly, though noLe the less distinctly to the hand, more and more directly and effectively to thr mind. A sui^erficial glimpse at the make-up and use of the last 'gift' — th»? sticks and peas — will show this quite clearly. While it still is the source r.f much information, of more and clearer information than the preceding 'gift?,' it appeals more to the intellect than to the senses, more to the expressive aL«i executive than to the acquisitive powers of the mind. While it invites aDd aids analytic effort much more directly and effectively than preceding *git\s' its invitations and facilities for synthetic work are by far more numerous and urgent. Individual achievement is more and more clearly and readily appliel and coordinated in social purpose ; the increased refractoriness of the material has little power to discourage effort ; showing and dictation are at a minimum, and have made room for the setting of quite complex tasks and for purpose- ful creative work. Throughout, this 'gift' not only retains all that may be cMmed for the predecessors, but adds to these things and enriches them with the additional advantage of bringing the stress of opportunity nearer the true meaning and purpose of all life-activity. It gives, indeed, more and higher skill to the hand ; but it places this skill at the same time more and more fully under the control of enlightened insight, and, thanks to increased opportunities for social endeavor, under the leadership of a heart which ever more unreservedly obeys the dictates of rational good-will and high aspiration. A similar review of the "occupations,'* in which Froebel places at the child's disposal, material, rather than things, would reveal similarly thoughtful and conscientious obedience to the same laws and principles, both in the selection and use of each successive "occupation," and in the arrangement of the series of " occupations " as a whole. Afler what has been said, this is evident from the most superficial consideration of these " occupations," so that I may well forego the pleasure of presenting such a review here, even though it might prove quite helpful, inasmuch as these " occupations " satisfy largely the de- mands for the manual training of the elementary school. MANUAL TBAININO IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL. 849 In his analyses, Froebel confined himself largely to considerations of form a.nd size, and to the most prominent contrasts of color. The force of gravita- tion plays a part in the First Gift, and its consideration is a feature in the play with the subsequent solid gifts, more particularly with the fourth and eixtb gifts. Inertia and elasticity, and certain incidents of motion, are touched in the first and second gifts ; the latter appears again in a few plays ^evith the fourth gift; then all are lost. Certain other qualities of the material used in the occupations, such as paper and clay, and based on inner relations of cohesive forces, play a part in their selection. But all these things, appar- ently, come only as suggestions; they are not carried on to their logical conclusions. They are ample for the purposes of the nursery and of the kindergarten, but for the work of the elementary school they need to be fol- lowed out at greater length. In the manual analysis of form, the pupil may, with the help of paper and clay, and subsequently with the aid of drawing and the use of more and more delicate tools, reach whatever knowledge is conveyed in the text-books on ele- mentary geometry. In corresponding manual syntheses, he should apply his knowledge as he gains it to purposes of art and science, using successively more and more effective tools on more and more refi*actory material. From paper and clay he proceeds to cardboard and wax, wood and plaster of paris, and to the metals. At the same time, he enters more and more deeply into the important art of measuring. In the kindergarten, measurements are given in the material for work and play, in the ruled table and paper, and in the gift of fixed size. Here there are added the rule and divider, the gauge and the protractor, with the help of which dimensions are determined in analytic work, transferred and applied in synthetic work. In the analysis of color, more delicate contrasts and ultimately the intrica- cies of shades and tints are introduced. The mixing of colors, the use of the brush in connection with inventive drawing, in the advanced applications of geometrical drawing, and in the descriptive drawing of animal, plant and mineral forms in the study of natural history, afford ample scope for the synthetic use of color. A most important field of work is opened through the study of force and motion. Here the pupil enters the domain of physical and chemical science, of the mechanical and industrial arts. Here, more than elsewhere, are ex- haustleas opportunities for the use of the hand in experimental research, as well as in the application of known processes to predetermined objects or re- sults. To what extent the laboratory and the work-shop'-^as special features of the school — are to enter here, is chiefly a question of means, or of expedi- ency. The poorest school may contrive to engage in the more important feat- ures of this work, for it may establish somewhere a laboratory comer and a slojd comer, and arouse an eager spirit of home-work ; and the richest school 850 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. can only add greater facilities by means of which the same essentials art at- tained, with possibly more j)ride, but not necessarily w^ith more enthusia^itL Throughout all these lines of work, and others that may be introduf>-- with more or less profit, the school should be mindful of Froebel's thought!'.. division of the products of the work into ( 1 ) forms that bring knowledge— which, in the elementary school, tend to become organized in science ; ( 2 ) form- that represent or aid life — which, in the elementary school, tend to fbrni> •.! utility and to industrial pursuits ; and ( 3 ) forms that gratify the sense of har- mony, of the beautiful — which, in the elementary school, lead to true aitL^ii'' self-expression. It is evident, too, that throughout the same principles that guide the work in the kindergarten can and ought to be followed. There can and ou^ht V be at every point progress from analytic to synthetic processes, from individ- ual achievement to social endeavor. The same considerations can and should lead in the selection of matenal, the use of tools, the method of instructioD and the like. The same principle of continuity and wholeness ought to pre- side over every feature and part of the work. Finally, the manual work should at no time become a subject of instruc- tion. At no time should the mere acquisition of skill become even a proxi- mate object. Whatever manual activity is undertaken should be more and more closely and consciously wedded to the spiritual gain to which it is re- lated. More and more clearly, as tlie years roll on, should the hand recede in the prominence of its activity and be recognized as the outer organ of the thinking, loving sj)irit within. The consideration of further details is precluded by the limits of this paper. They must be left to circumstances, and to the knowledge, skill, and tact of the teacher. Yet I feel confident that faithful following of the principles here hidicated will lift the educational work of the school to a plane of efficiency that would excite the grateful astonishment of its most sanguine friends; at any rate, that under such leadership the school must move in the right direc- tion, and make every stroke of its work tell in the whole life of the child. INFLUENCE OF MANUAL TRAINING IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. II. M. JAMP:S, OMAHA, NEBRASKA. It is a trite observation that the nature of man is threefold. He pc^sesses an intellectual nature of almost infinite possibilities; a moral nature by which he distinguishes right from wrong ; and a physical nature, consisting of a body with its various members and organs, which constitutes the dwelling- place of his higher faculties. All these natures are capable of man^elous im- MAXUAL TRAINING IN ELEMENTABY SCHOOLS, 851 X> rc> veraen t — an improvement that strengthens and enlarges every faculty. By tlie laws of heredity this increase of power not only benefits the one who re- ceives it, but it is transmitted to posterity. What may be accomplished by tlio training of the mind is well understood. The intellect of the Caucasian, tin rough generations of cultivation, has acquired wonderful strength and sup- pleness ; centuries of moral training have given to Europe a race with keener Interceptions of right and wrong and of moral obligation ; and the result of "tlie physical training may be seen in the dextrous hands of civilized people and the supple bodies of savage tribes. The importance of disciplining all the faculties has long been recognized. The feeling that the mind should be trained is universal in civilized lands. For this purpose, more or less pretentious institutions of learning have been established in every neighborhood. While religious instruction has had much to do with establishing schools, it is strange that moral instruction, not dis- tinctly religious, has not till recently held a prominent place in educational work. Stranger yet is the fact that while the discipline of the body — the training of the eye and hand — is helpful in every stage of existence, it has still to fight its way for a place in education. The advantages of this training are more immediately apparent than any other, yet people are slow to recognize them. It brings greater pecuniary profit, yet a generation that worships mammon is reluctant to take advantage of this truth. It is indeed very strange that a training that contributes to human existence more than any other, is opposed by prominent educators. With so general a recognition of the diversified nature of man, it would seem that his education should be as many-sided. Not a few maintain that the schools, especially the public schools, while giving an iota of attention to moral education, should devote their energies mainly, if not exclusively, to the training of the intellect. There was a time when this was reasonable. Fifty years ago, when our educational systems were unformed, schools were in session but few weeks in the year. Nearly all our population was rural. Girls spent most of their time in home industries with their mothers, while boys were occupied with their fathers on the farm. The girls were taught to sew and cook and perform every duty connected with domestic life. Under their fathers' supervision the boys learned to plow and plant and do every- thing incident to the work of the farm. In both cases this training would likely prepare for the work of the future. At his majority the youn^ man was an accomplished husbandman. The young woman at the same age was amply equipped for the duties of life. While neither of them had spent as much time in the school-room as do the children of the present day, they had served a long apprenticeship, and their industrial education had not been neglected. There would have been small excuse for devoting any part of the few weeks of the winter school to any kind of industrial training. The time was all too little for acquiring the modicum of intellectual training deemed necessary in those unpretending days. Under the circumstances the schools 852 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. could at best teach nothing beyond the rudiments of an education. In d^k: rural schools many of the same conditions exist to-day, though longer ieno^ .• school are maintained than formerly ; and to undertake to introduce maiiQ£i or industrial education into these schools would be unwise and unpracdcabk Now, how changed are the conditions! Instead of a few weeks of school \l cities the entire year is given to the education of the children, and the scbc» : period continues, or is supposed to continue, to the dawn of manhood and womanhood. The school has come to occupy a much larger place in the boy's or girl's training than formerly. Children of school age are sometimes better known to their teachers than to their parents, and the school exerds«^ a larger influence than the home in the formation of their characters. In- stead of labor on the farm, or in the household, and an industrial skill that makes its possessor independent, our youth graduate from the high school a& helpless as babes, as far as concerns earning a living by intelligent labor. Society and occupations, too, have greatly changed. Instead of a peopk whose industries are almost exclusively agricultural, we have become one of the leading manufacturing nations. With a large portion of our people, the clumsy hand of the farmer has given way to the dextrous Angers of the arti- san. The city boy who now represents so large a portion of our population, no longer works with his father till he becomes master of his business. He grows to manhood with no knowledge whatever of the industry bv which his father has supported him. Thus, while under the old conditions there was no occasion for this manual training, it now becomes a necessity. The civilization of the day demands it ; that of the future will compel it. The city school that does not recognize this necessity, fails in a measure to provide a proper training for the young. Let us observe certain facts. I have alluded to the helplessness of higb- school graduates. If clerkships can be found, all is well ; if not, the case is often pitiable. Society needs more mechanics than clerks, and the young man just out of the high school usually thinks himself too old to learn a trade. Not finding the work he can do, he regrets that he entered the high school at all. Many boys see so little practical advantage in the common high-school training, that at the end of the fifth or sixth year of school, they withdraw and begin a trade. As a result, it is common to find the American mechanic with only a limited education, A scholar can copy and keep books ; but if only It scholar, all his life he suffers for want of the trained eye and hand. The farm-trained boy is his superior in many ways. This criticism on the work of the high school is formidable, and in some cases has even threatened to overthrow it. If industrial training were made a part of the course of study in every grade from the lowest to the highest, this would not be the case. It has been observed that in schools where such training is provided, the tendency to remain and complete the course is greatly strengthened. Again, if you ply a dozen city-bred young women, of good parentage and education, with technical questions on housekeeping, needle-work, or anr MANrAL TBAIXING IN ELEMEXTABY /SCHOOLS. 853 >tlier subject which a young woman is expected to know, a few only will be al>le to answer. The majority would prefer an examination in algebra. Plain mid. iine sewing are as important to every woman's education as arithmetic or t^eo<»^raphy, and yet venerable Boston and Philadelphia have found that in order to have sewing well taught in the public schools, specialists must be employed — not to supervise the work, but to do the actual teaching. The uverage teacher in these and other cities seems not to know enough of this most common of all arts to teach it to little children. Ill a leading woman's college in the East, quite recently, some benevolent work was attempted by organizing small circles of students to meet an hour each week to sew, while one of the number was to read some interesting book. But the project failed. There were enough who could find the time, enough who sympathized with the purpose of the organization, and more than enough to read, and read to the edification of all ; but here, in this college of excep- tionally well-bred young women, with an immense store of ancient and mod- ern learning, the benevolent scheme failed because the girls had so little skill m the use of the needle. But I am discussing this subject in a general way, and arguing for the use- fulness of manual training, rather than its influence in elementary schools. What this influence is we may determine, /r.-^f, by considering the nature of manual training ; and, second, by observing its results in schools where it has been introduced and subjected to a test. The lines of activity through which this training has been secured have been the various gifts and exercises of the kindergarten, drawing, sewing, cooking, carpentry, and some others. In the higher schools, work in metals holds a prominent place ; but this hardly con- cerns the present discussion. It requires no argument to show that the edu- cation of the hand and eye, the object sought for in all this training, is of great value, and we would expect to secure this as a result of the instruction given. More patience and accuracy, and a quickening of the observing j)owers, would seem to result from this kind of instruction. All teachers un- derstand how difficult it is to secure from a pupil a clear and thoughtful con- ception of the things he has to do before he undertakes to do them. How frequently you give a pupil a sentence to analyze, or a problem to solve, and he is ready to answer before he knows what the question is. He does not think, and he answers wrong because he does not understand. The mention of this to a body of teachers will suggest abundance of illustration. The training that comes through work and contact with material things helps in a measure to overcome this tendency. Here, undoubtedly, we may find part of the explanation of the greater capacity of the country youth. The boy who undertakes to plow a field, or mend a sled, or build a fence ; the appren- tice who forges a joint, or hews a beam ; and the girl who bakes a loaf, or sews a seam, must, in the nature of the case, have a clear conception of the thing to be done before a hand is lifted to perform the work. The tendency of this training to produce accuracy and though tfulness is apparent. All the —54 864 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. exercises of industrial education are of this character. The pupil who {ul4 paper, moulds clay, draws a leaf, joints wood, or cooks food, must have tb- whole process in his mind before he begins his task. There are numer^n.^ examples of mechanics whose school-room education has been limited, Yihr* mental training has come almost wholly from their work, and yet their miud^. though narrow, have acquired a keenness of observation and a strength ci judgment that have made them men of influence in the conmiunity in whicli they live. They illustrate the educational value of the work-shop, and the intellectual tendency of manual training. But will experience justify this a priori reasoning ? Unless it does, therp is no use of forming theories. To test this matter fairly I have endeavoni to obtain the opinions of a large number of persons who have had opportunity to judge of the results of this kind of instruction in schools where it hst^ been thoroughly tried. Instead of consulting superintendents alone^ who may be enthusiasts in their devotion to this departure in education, and are per- haps responsible for its introduction into the curriculum, most of my inquine^ have been addressed to principals whose opportunities for observation have been unsurpassed. If they are enthusiasts, it is probable that the good rv- sults of manual training have made them so.* * T%e following circular of inquiries waa used^ about forty response* being received: I. Ik klnder^irten Instruction given In your city schools? a. In what yoar was It Introduced? b. For how long a time nre pupllH kept under this Instruction? c. From your observation, how does this training affect subsequent echool work? II. Is clay-modeling made a feature of your public-school work? a. For how many years has It been carried on ? b. In what grades Is this Instruction given? c. How many lessons and how many minutes are given to this work weekly ? d. What do you consider the advantages of this kind of instruction? in. Is drawing taught systematically In your city schools? a. In what year was It made a part of your course of study? b. At what age — In what grade — Is it begun ? e. How long — through what grades — Is it continued? d. How many lessons, and how many minutes are given to this subject weekly? e. >\'hat do you consider the tendency of drawing as affecting other school work? /. What tendency, if any, do you observe as affecting the character of the children in tht-ir preparation for the duties of life? IV. Is sewing taught in the public schools of your city? a. In what year was this branch introduced Into the school curriculum? b. At what age — in what grade — is it taught ? c. How long — through what grades — Is it continued? d. Is the Instruction limited to the girls, or is it open to boys as well? e. Is It made optional, or are all reentry or other work in wood taught in your schools in any of the grades below the hiizh school ? a. When was it introduced? b. In what grades Is It taught? c. How many minutes are given to this subject each week? How many lessons? d. Through what grades is this work continued ? e. Win you state in detail the kinds of work taught below the high school? MANUAL TBAINING IN ELEMENTABY SCHOOLS. 855 Now, what is the testimony ? From a large number of inquiries, east and ^west, made of those whose opportunities for judging have been so good, the sklmost unanimous answer comes that proper kindergarten instruction es:erts a most favorable influence on the subsequent work in school ; that it CLrouses thinking and observation ; that it awakens the mental powers and produces intelligence ; that it melts down the shyness and self-conceit of a child, and puts him more in sympathy with his fellows ; in short, that it de- v^elops a child and makes him more capable of receiving instruction. A few ^whose opinions are valuable, array themselves on the other side of this ques- tion, but curiously, not one of them has responded to my questions. The course of kindergarten instruction has been greatly harmed, by including under this head mere baby schools, with no method or value; schools in all respects unworthy of the name. This department of education, in which no books are used, and in which the instruction seems to consist almost wholly of a training of the fingers and senses, now holds such a position as to justify the conclusion that it is valuable, and has come to stay. Modeling in clay has come to be extensively employed as a means of education. It is used in the lowest primary grades in teaching geometrical forms, and in the higher grades in representing geographical surfaces and con- tours. The theory is that a child has a clearer apprehension of what he han- dles than of what he simply sees ; and that which he constructs is more real and vivid to his mind than what he only handles. The testimony as to the great value of clay-modeling is general, but not as enthusiastic as in the case of the kindergarten. The witnesses declare that it cultivates accuracy, neatness, pa- tience, and artistic taste ; that it cultivates imagination, observation, and a knowledge of form, thus laying the basis of drawing and geometry^; that it cultivates the sense of touch, a sense hitherto neglected as an avenue of ap- proach to the soul ; that it cultivates manual dexterity, power to construct, and better thinking; that it creates an interest in art, and in many cases arouses hopes of a career that otherwise would never have occurred, thus opening the way to a noble and remunerative life-work. You will agree that not many branches of study pursued in school yield richer results than these. The value of drawing, including paper-folding and paper-cutting, as a means of training, seems to be unquestioned. Indeed, it has won so sure a place in the curriculum of schools, that one needs to be very bold to object to it. A few wise men, however, have denied its practical value, either as re- gards the other studies of the course, or the every-day duties of subsequent life. This is especially the case when the instruction is for only a limited period. The same may be said of any other branch of study pursued in the schools. But the discriminating eye and the dextrous hand are so often of /. What reeultci do you observe from teaching carpentry ae affecting the other studies of the school? g. What do you think of its value as a pedagogical agency? VII. Have you any other branch of manual training in your public schools? Will you please state the amount of work done, the time devoted to it, and its apparent influ- ence? 856 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. service, that even a limited training should not be despised. On the general vahie of drawing, both as relates to the other work in school, and to the prac- tical duties of life, there is almost unanimous agreement. When the subje*i is well taught, it is followed by excellent results. The following are the per- manent gains said to be observed from a course of training in drawing, li tends to strengthen observation, accuracy, and intelligence, and to give clearer conceptions of the physical world. It cultivates taste, neatness, and patient'e- It is a perpetual lesson in form and execution, which is helpful in all the mechanical industries. It is of service in all scientific studies where graphio illustrations are desirable. Like moulding, it may reveal to the pupil a hid- den talent, and stimulate an enthusiasm that will ultimately bring him wealth and fame. " So indispensable is drawing as a branch of elementary educa- tion," says Superintendent MacAlister, "that its utility does not admit ff discussion. As a preparation for the duties of life, it is advantageous in every way." Many years ago sewing was made a part of the instruction of the school* of some New England cities. It was not introduced as a means of mental discipline, but its general utility sufficiently justified its place in a course of study. Very recently it has found its way into the programs of other cities. East and West, notably Philadelphia and New York and cities in their vicin- ities. In some of these, good teachers are employed, and the instruction 15 systematic and thorough. In some, the instruction is confined to one short lesson a week for one or two years in the primary grades. Other schools give two lessons a week, and extend the instruction through all the grades to the high school. In some cities all pupils are required to take this instruction, and in some it is optional. As might be supposed w4th these varying condi- tions, great difference in results is reported. There is, however, abundant reason to believe that sewing may be successftilly taught, so that girls of fif- teen may be able to do plain needlework, and cut, fit, and make garment*, including dresses, in a creditable manner. No one claims that it hinders other school work to any appreciable extent, nor has it any tendency to aid the study of other branches. A few, however, claim, that it is an agency for intellectual development, and there is a general agreement that, like any other honest in- dustry, it is helpful in character-building. It dignifies labor; it cultivates habits of neatness, order, and industr}'^ ; it develops patience, thoughtfulnes?, and executive ability — all of which tend to moral elevation. It would l>e equally difficult to find educational value in penmanship ; perhaps it has less educational value; but while everyone needs to know how to write, in this toil-burdened world most women are called to use the needle much more fre- quently than the pen. To meet the claim so generally made, that sewing L< something that should be learned at home, I may say, so might penmanship: but it would not be best in either case. Few homes would teach children U) write ; and the girl who attends school ten months in the year finds little time MANUAL TBAINING IN ELEMENTABY SCHOOLS, 857 to leaorn to sew till her school days are over. In both cases the fact should not be forgotten that dexterity of finger can only be acquired in childhood. Cooking, as a branch of school education, has had a narrow and brief experience. In only a few cities does it seem to have gained a place in the curriculum, and nowhere do I learn that it has yet been recognized as a school study for so long a period as ten years. While this instruction is a part of the elementary course, it is usually given in the last years of the gram- mar grades. One or two lessons a week, extending through thirty or forty weeks, and making in all irom fifty to eighty lessons, constitute the usual course. Girls are taught all kinds of plain and pastry-cooking, and in some cases cooking for the sicjc. With so short a trial it is wise to be cautious in estimating results. There seems to be unanimity on the point of the practi- cal success of this kind of instruction. In the eighty hours given to this subject, pupils may become excellent housekeepers, learning how to pur- chase, economize, and cook. Principals and superintendents who have ob- served, are divided on the question of its effect on the other work of the school. Some insist that it interferes with the other studies, and that it has no strictly educational value. Others claim that it aids in geography, physi- ology, chemistry, and elementary science. All agree as to its industrial value, and that its influence on social well-being might be very great. Manual training as applied to wood- work is generally understood, since it has been before the public so prominently in the last ten years. While work in metals belongs to the higher grades of manual-training schools, in the elementary schools the work is confined to carpentr}', carving, and wood- turning. On the point of the eifect of this training on the other studies of the course, and its general pedagogical value, superintendents and principals, who are competent observers, claim that neither can be questioned. There is entire unanimity that its influence is good and its value very great. Those who are so far away from this kind of work that they can see it only through a glass, and thus see it darkly, may be excused for opposing it as a school study ; but the testimony of those who have watched it closely shows that it cultivates patience, observation, neatness, and order; that it arouses interest in other studies ; that it trains the eye and hand as few studies can ; that it teaches how to do and apply ; that it trains by the laboratory method, and that, since it is an industrial employment, it has a moral value. A few other lines of manual-training study have been pursued, printing holding the first place ; but none of them have been so generally or so exten- sively used as to warrant their mention here. I have thus made inquiries concerning every exercise and kind of work that has occupied a large place in the department of manual training, and have endeavored to discuss the answers with candor and fairness. While the testi- mony is singularly harmonious and the conclusions easy to reach, I have not meant to suborn witnesses or pack a jury. As far as I have been able, I have tried to obtain the opinion of every principal and superintendent in the coun- 858 / THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCLATIOIf. try, who from personal observation is competent to judge of this line of worL I think it true that the conclusions here reached are the thoughtful judgmtui of the best informed men of the present day on this important subject. DR A WING— A NEW METHOD. FRANK ABORN, CLEVELAND, OHJO. As a background against which the outline of anything that mig^ht ju5t]v be called new in the way of drawing would stand out with greatest cleameff. nothing could be better than a history of the various schemes of iiistriicti far, has been detxjndent for its success upon specific instruction in rules, names, definitions, and the like, together with the careful production of present re- sults l)y certain carefully-prescribed processes. The final, ultimate succt*? has been dej)endent simply upon the careful, painstaking, present doing of certain things, rather than upon the nature of the faculties employed or the resulting eiiects upon those faculties induced by the doing. Drawing-books are regarded as the essential means, and they are in uni- vei-sal use wherever the subject is taught. These books consist of certain exercises to be reproduced, problems to be solved, matters to be learned, 8[)ecific methods to be followed, and success is measured by the perfection with which all is done. To render this success in perfect, present results completely assured, these books are graded so fine as to make the doing monotonous and the exercises insij)id. This uniform tastelessness destroys the appetite, making growth and progress well-nigh if not wliolly impossible. There are heroic efibrts made by teachers to compensate for this loss, but to no purpose. They try innumer- able devices. They instruct, criticise, reward, punish, and worst of all, think for the child without stint, many times without conscience. Showy exhibit* are manufactured, but the average child acquires nothing but a perverted taste as a result of all the time, money and labor bestowed on the subject By all the methods that have been advanced, whether it has been object- drawing, or designing, or copying, or what not ; whether drawing-books have been employed or not, the drawing has been made an end in itself, and, in no DB AWING— A NEW METHOD. 859 1 clequate sense at least, has it been, until now, anywhere treated as an una- lulterated means, as it must be, if it is to become a potent educational fac- tor. It is this that constitutes the inherent defects of all the popular iiiethods. And it is in this respect that the method to which I invite your s^ttention at this time, claims the right to be called new. So much has been necessary to bring us to common ground. It is now un- derstood, that this method differs from all others in the fact that by it draw- ing becomes an undefiled means of employing thought, and that skill in execution necessarily is made an assured incidental product. It remains now t<) show how this may be accomplished. To do this, permit me to illustrate. Let me imagine that I have before me a. class of immature beginners, and that you, my hearers, are looking on while I give them a series of exercises, that are typical of those I would em- ploy at successive progressive stages of the child's development. The first is adapted to the most immature and the last is suitable for the well advanced. EXERCISE I. Children, this picture ( Fig. 1 ) that I have just drawn on the blackboard, tells a story about Jim Crow. It tells how he would look if you were in front of him. I want you to try to draw a story on your slates, show- ing how you think Jim Crow would look if you wore to go round on the other side of him. Draw quickly, it makes no difference how roughly, only get some- thing made. fio. i. W^e will now draw it together. We will draw a story which will tell how I think Jim Crow would look to me if I were to go round on the other side of him. Let us think. If I were to look at Jim Crow from the other side, 1 would see his back. I would see the back of his head. Draw a ring to represent his head (Fig. 2). How many eyes has he in the back of his head ? None ? I^ok on your slates and see what you have said about it there. I would see the body inclined to the right hand. I would see the right leg vertical, straight up and down, and I would see the outstretched leg on the left-hand side. You see that in this story, the left leg is described on the left-hand side, while in the initial figure I described it on the right *^"' ^' hand side of the story, and that the body is described leaning towards the right hand, which is just the reverse of the direction of the slant given in the initial figure. This is because in going round to look at the opposite side of anything you turn yourself round, and to describe what you would see, you must draw the several parts on opposite sides and with opposite slants to what you would draw them if you were describing the side toward you. -^ 860 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION'. EXERCISE II. Fig. 3 tells a story about a crocodile- Draw ib- a story about what you think you would see if is — - were about to swallow you ; if you were about to U. taken into his mouth. Fio. 3. Now, let us look at the story together. Tell me, if you were to be taken int' his mouth, where do you think you would be? Yes, you would be in front *a him. Tell me now, if you were in front of the crocodile, would you see tfn front of him or the side of him? Yes, you would see the front of him. Ix->k at the story you have just drawn. And now tell me, if you are in front of him and he has his mouth open to take you in, will you see the inside or the outside of his mouth? The inside? Are you sure? Look on your slate?*. You have said in the story you have drawn that you would see the side, not the front of his head. Now let us try it together. We will draw a story about what we would see if the crocodile were going to swallow me. I would see the roof of his mouth. Draw it. (Fig. 4.) I would see the inside of the floor of his mouth, his teeth, the top of his head, and his eyes. Draw them. This tells what I would see if the crocodile were going to swallow me, or what you would see if he were going to swallow you. You did not understand me exactly, but you will learn to pre^ ently. I shall keep on telling you something in English every day, and you will try to translate it into drawing, and when you have tried a sufficient number of times to tell me back in drawing what I say in words, you will understand, and then you will do it correctly. Then there will be nothing gained except by a change, and we will try something else. Fio. 4. EXERCISE III. Fio. 5. Prob. 1. This figure ( Fig. 5 ) tells a story about a house with a wing. I want you to try and draw an end elevation of a house simi- lar to this. Draw a story that will tell how a house with a wing would look to you if you were to stand opposite one end and so far away from it that the greater distance of the win:: is too slight to be described. I y^ We will draw it together. You would see the gable end of the U^ \ main house. Draw it. (Fig. 6.) You would see the side of the wing, but because it is equally high and practically no further off than the main house, it will be described equally high. Draw it. In elevation, all equal parallel parts are described equal, regard- less of differences of remoteness. Fio. 6. DRAWING— A NEW METHOD. 861 Prob. 2. You may try to describe an end view of a house similar to that described in ^gure 5. You may draw a story about how a house with a wing would look to you if you were opposite one end and so near to it that the wing is decidedly :£arther from you than the main part. We will draw it together. You could see the gable end of the xaain house. Draw it. You could see that the wing was farther off. Draw the wing less high than the main house. In describing a view, equal parallel parts are described equal only when they are the same distances from the picture plain : the surface on which they are represented. You do not understand this. You do not know what I mean by picture plain, but that is of no con- sequence. I will keep on using the term. Presently you will know what I mean, and by-and-by it will all come as clear as daylight to you. You do not comprehend why, in one case, equal lengths are described equal, and in another, which seems to you to be almost precisely similar, equal lengths are described unequal, nor do you see what practical advantage it would be to you if it were all ever so clear and plain now. But you must know that if you did comprehend it we would be at the end of the matter rather than at the beginning, as we are — and that is impossible, I would gladly explain it, but I know that just now it would be idle for me to try, as the result of my trying could be productive of no more good than trying to cause the rose to bloom by tearing open the bud. Let us rather await the fullness of time, try- ing and trying, and enjoying trying to solve the riddle of description by draw- hig, and presently you will begin to look about you. Then you will appreciate the diiference between the way an object should be described from any point of observation, whether near or far. You will then begin to understand the difference between a picture and a description for mechanical purposes. You will then have reached the bed-rock, as it were, of both perspective and mechanical - constructive drawing, and on this you may erect a substantial structure as practical and as noble as you may wish. But this point cannot be reached in a day's work, nor by precept. You must grow to it. EXERCISE IV. Prob. 1. This figure ( Fig. 8 ) tells a story about the side of a man who is walking with long strides. You may try to describe how you think a man would look to you if he were coming toward you and walking this way. Let us try it together. You would see his head and face. Draw them. ( Fig. 9.) You would see the front of his body. Draw it. The next thing in order is to draw his feet and legs. What does a man do with his legs and feet when he walks ? He supports the body and pushes it forward. And where ^°' ®* are the feet when they support the body ? They are under him. Yes, they 862 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. are under him, under the middle of his whole figure; under the center •»/ gravity, or one on each side of a point under the center of grav- ity. Then if we draw a vertical line through the center of xu body, and draw the left foot on that line, it will be under hiiii. Then if we connect this foot with the left hip, we shall have the left leg described. The right foot is also under him, in this view, because it is at the other end of the stride ; but, since it is further off than the left foot, it may be described higher. So we will draw ^^- ^' the right foot higher than the left, and partially obscured by tht- left leg. Connect the right foot and hip, and both legs are described. The arms, extending straight forward and backward, as they do, will be foreshort- ened almost to obscuration. Draw them. This describes, in a general way. how a man walking with long strides would look to you if he were coming exactly toward you. If he were walking obliquely, however, it would be ilif- ferent. How different, you can see for yourself if you look. By observing'. you will see that hardly any two persons walk alike. Some are graceful ain\ more are awkward ; but, after all, there are only three ways of walking. Ni» one can keep his feet except they are under him, and the different gait< or styles of walking are due, principally, to the different methods by which thL* one condition is maintained. For instance, sailors, who are accustomed to walking on a rolling surface, spread the feet apart, to insure greater lateral stability, and roll the body first over one foot and then over the other ; otht- r j)eople, whether because of some deformity, or affectation, spread the feet apart and swing the hips from side to side, so throwing the center of gravity alternately over the feet ; but graceful walkers place the feet alternately uii the same straight line, the line of motion, a line on the ground vertically un- der the amter of gravity, the body is held erect and steady, neither swayiiiL' nor rolling, j)erceptibly, and the feet, in passing forward, are swung slightly outward. This last may be verified by observing the footprints in newly- fallen snow, where it will he seen that the scraped portion at the heel of eadi footprint, when made by a smooth, graceful walker, is in every case slightly curved outward. Prob. 2. Draw something that shall describe how you think this man would look to you if you were looking at him from a position directly above him. Let us draw it together. We would see the top of his |r^\i:fc> head. It would be described by an egg-shaped oval. (Fig. 10.) Draw it. We would see the tops of hi> FiaTioT shoulders. Draw them. We would see the right ami extended forward, and the left arm extended backward. Draw them. We would see both feet touching the central line of direction, the left iii fn)nt and the right beliind. Draw the legs and feet. Prob. 3. Draw something that will describe how you think this man would look if you were directly below him. DHA WING —A NE W ME THOD. 863 Let us try it together. We would see the sole of his left foot. Draw it. <^ Fig. 11.) We would see, a little more than three times its own length, and directly behind it, the other foot. Draw it. We would see the front of the right leg, and the back of the left leg. Draw them. We would see the right arm extending forward, and the left arm ex- ^**' ^^' tending backward. Draw them. The rest of the figure would be largely, if not entirely obscured. It may therefore, in this case, be disregarded and omitted. EXERCISE V. Prob. 1. This figure (Fig. 12) describes one aspect of a celebrated statue called the Discobolus, or the disk-thrower. The orig- inal statue was made by a sculptor by the name of Myron, Avho lived 480 years before Christ. He was noted for the skill with which he represented human and animal action in his statues. The best copy of the Discobolus is in the ^lassimi Villa, at Rome; it was found on the Esquiline, in 1782. You may try to make a drawing that shall describe how Tou think this statue would look to you if you were in front of it, on the line of direction in which he is about to throw the disk Let us try it together. We would see the top of the head, the side of the face, greatly foreshortened, and the back of the neck. (Fig. 18.) Draw them. We would see the left shoulder below and slightly back of the head, and the left arm unforeshortened and bent slightly at the elbow. Draw them. AVe would see the right arm above the head. Draw it. The body would be greatly foreshortened, and the right knee would be seen to the right of the left hand. Draw the body and the right leg. The left thigh would be seen to the right, and the left leg would be obscured. Finish tlie figure. Prob. 2. You may try to draw something that will show how you think this statue would look to you if you were behind him, if you were back of him on the line of direction in which he is going to throw the disk. Let us try it together. We would see the disk, the right arm, the right side of the body and the right leg, the one vertically under the other. Draw them. (Fig. 14.) The left foot would be described lower than the right, on the central line and resting on the toes. Draw it. We would see the left hip. Locate it. Connect the left hip and heel. The left shoulder would be obscured. The head would be mostly obscured, and the left hand would be seen to the ri^ht of the right knee. Finish. ® * Fio. 14. Fio. 13. 864 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. Prob. 3. Make a drawing which shall describe how you think this statue wotild look if it were seen from above. We will try it together. We would see the right arm. I>raw it. We would see both hips to the left and slightly beyond the elbow. Locate them. You would see the head in profile, beyond and slightly in front of the right shoulder. Draw it. We would see the left shoulder, only a little, just back of the head. Locate Fio. 18.^ it. Connect the head and left shoulder with the hips. Saving a little of the right knee, the rest of the figure is obscured. Prob. 4. Draw something that shall describe how you think this statue would lo* »k to you if you were below it. We will try it together. We would see the sole of the right fooU Draw it. Directly behind it, and but little more than a foot's length from it, we would see the left foot. Locate it. Immediately over, and partly obscured by this foot, we would see the left hip and the right hip by the side of it. Locate the hips. We would see the Fig. 16. rig^^ knee over the toe of the right foot. Locate it, and join it and the right hip. Connect the right heel and knee, and the right leg is described. We would see the left knee to the right and partly obscured by the right foot. We would see the right arm to the left. Describe it. We would ?ee a part only of the face and head, and something of the left fore-arm near the right knee. Locate them. These are a few characteristic exercises out of the infinite number that stand ever ready at the teacher's hand. They illustrate the method, and show, in a general Avay; how the ultimate aim is to be sought. It will be seen that the supply of material, in quantity and variety, is inexhaustible and inexpen- sive. All is to be had for the taking. It remains now only to indicate some of the results that may be fairly ex- pected from the application of this method, and to outline the successive im- mediate aims that will serv^e as steps to their final attainment. In operation it is expected that a variety of interesting problems can be provided with sufficient ease to insure the constant quickening of the pupil's curiosity; that the curiosity will induce an increment of thought-effort which will give, as a necessary consequence, an increment of intellectual capability: that the practice in looking at all objects from all standpoints, which this method affords, will develop that prime mechanical-construction capability which can foresee conflict of parts and thereby prevent construction mistakes; that, as the understanding grows, the child will become more and more keenly observant ; that because of what precedes, and because of the constant use of drawing as a means of describing conceptions, skill in execution of no ordi- nary kind will follow as a necessary incidental product, and must not con- DBAWIJ^G—A NEW METHOD, 865 oern us ; and that finally, so much being accomplished, a vocabulary, as we may say, having been acquired, drawing may be further employed in any Higher degree with certainty and profit. To these ends I would suggest that, in practice, it might be well to master one aspect at a time. Tjet the work begin with problems requiring the description of the opposite or reverse side of objects, until such comprehension has been developed that almost any figure describing almost any common object, being drawn on the Hoard, the class, as a whole, will make an intelligent attempt to describe the same object from the reverse side. When so much is accomplished, let the right-hand and the left-hand aspects be similarly mastered. After this, plan and elevation, the above and. below and oblique aspects, may be taken up in turn. Finally, as a means of developing the higher emotional faculties, the child should be given facsimiles of the work of the greatest masters in art, to re- produce and study as Benjamin Franklin studied the Spectator, This last is the plan advocated by Mr. Charles H. Moore, of Harvard University, who has prepared a set of studies which are admirably calculated to this end. ANNUAL MEMBEESHIPS TEAB ENDING JULY 1, 1891. ANNUAL MEMBERSHIP FOR THE YEAR ENDING JULY 1, 1891.* Bates, E. D., Birmingham. Bivins, J. W., Auburn. Bivins, Miss Sallie, Auburn. Breeding, W. T., Tuscumbia. Briggs, Mary W., Athens. Brockman, Annie W., Auburn. Buford, Miss Lizzie. Troy. Callu, Miss M. A., Tuakegee. Dallas. Miss M. B., Tuskegee. Dewberry, J. M., Troy. Handley.A. E., Gurle'y. Hebben, E., Birmingham. Hodges, Miss Fannie B., Gadsden. Hubbard, Mary, Lownsboro. Levengood, J. C., Talladega. Massey, Mrs. E. F.. Tuskegee. Massey, John, Tuskegee. Warren, Mrs. F. J., Tucson. Barnes. Alice, Little Rock. Boyce, Miss A. B., Little Rock. Burnett. Mary M., Little Rock. Copeland, Annie M., Little Rock. Corbin, TVm. H., Pine Bluff. Futrall, T. A., Marianna. Carrick, Leona, East Oakland. Gilmore, Nellie, Fresno. Grogan, B. R.. Anaheim. Haston, Cora Baldwin, Chico. Allen, Lou M., Colorado Springs. Anderson, Belle, Nathrop. Baker, James H., Denver. Beggs, Clara B.. Denver. Beggs, Robert H., Denver. Blakely, Maud. Oxford Junction. Brown, Helen M., Denver. Carter. Cora L., Denver. Christie, Jeannie. Fort Logan. CaUen, Frank, Denver. ALABAMA. Mitchell, T. J., Birmingham. Morgan, J. W., Montgomery. Palmer, Solomon, Montgomery. Phillips, J. H., Birmingham. Phillips, Mrs. J. H., Birmingham. Pusser, Jno. F., Troy. Russell, M. M., Springville. Russell, Mrs. M. M., Springville. Stevens, Charles M., Mobile. Torole, Amos, Mobile. Truss, G. M., Springville. Tucker, Exton, Hurtsboro. Tucker, Mrs. Exton, Hurtsboro. Tucker, Miss Fannie S., Hurtsboro. Tutwiler, Miss Julia S., Livingston. Williams, Mrs. Clifford, Huntsville. Woodward, A. R., Birmingham. — Alabama, 35. ARIZONA. ARKANSAS. Ish, Jefferson G., Little Rock. Jones, G. E., Little Rock. Kline, M. A., Little Rock. Rector, Mary A., Little Rock. Sare, Jessie M., Fort Smith. Thomas, Viola E., Little Rock. — Arkansas, 12. CALIFORNIA. Haston, J. B., Chico. Martin, Lillie J., San Francisco. Pierce. Edward T., Chico. Reed, Mattie E., Pomona. — California, 8. COLORADO. Cramer, Mary K., Denver. Dick, Fred, Denver. Dunlap, Annie. Denver. Furmiss, Lizzie E.. Denver. Gale, Robert, El Paso. Griggs, Herbert, Denver. Haskell, Annie N., Denver. Haskell, Mary E., Denver. Henderson, Miss Minnie, Grand Junction. Hinmann. K. S., Denver. * Very klodly prcpiired by ex-Secretary W. K. Garrett. -.55 - (86i)) 870 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. COLORADO — Concluded. Hobart, L. F., Denver. Holdridge. Adella, Leadville. Ingram, Emogene, Denver. John, L. F., Denver. Kemp, Misa Julia A., Longmont. Kilroy, Celia M., Denver. Kingsbury, Lilian V., Fort Collins. Knapp, \V. E., Denver. Liddell, Mary S., Denver. McClum, Kan L.. Denver. Mace, Miss Elizabeth, Colorado Springs. Mally, Anna E.. Cedar Rapids. Mason, E. H.. Denver. Mitchel, Alice S., Denver. Mitchel, Emma B. Denver. Overton, Hattie C. Denver. Ozrum, Ella E., Colorado Springs. Pease, Martha A., Denver. Person, Anna, Denver. Peters, Frank S., Denver. Rank. Miss Lettie, Central City. Rankin, Ida M., Duran^o. Rich. Mrs. Minnie B., Oenver. Risley, Hattie. Denver- Sailsbury, Celia A., Denver. Setz. Mrs. L. J., Denver. Smith, M. Alice, Denver. Stoddard, Luella, Longmont. Stevens, Eugene C, Trinidad. Stevens, Mrs. Eugene C, Trinidad. Stevens, E. H., Julesburg". Stilwell, H. C Denver. Sylvester, Myrtie, Denver. Thomas, Etta, Denver. Wegener, H. F., Denver. — Colorado, CONNECTICUT. Barber, Charlotte, New Haven. Benedict, Lula E., Bethel. Brockway, Bertha S.. Middletown. Brown, Lily C, New Britain. Brown, L. M., Washington. Caech, D. N., Norwalk. Chamberlain, M. B., Hartford. Cheadle, Miss Nellie, Brush. Couch, Geo. H., Bridgeport. Culver, Anna, Middletown. Dean, S. Grace, Massapeag. Ford, Mary E., Bridgeport. Geer, Eliza S.. Hadlyrae. Geer. Nellie W.. Ledyard. Oilman, Addie, Hartford. Oilman, Mrs. H. T., Hartford. Hart, C. H., Waterbury. Hopkins, Rose A.. Hartford. Hurd. Gteo. B., New Haven. Jennings, E., Southport. Jennings, Henry B., Southport. Judd, Miss M. A., Bethel. Nichols, E. W.. Bridgeport. Nichols, Mrs. E. W., Bridgeport. Norton, F. E., Guilford. Parrege, Jesse F., Meriden. Pierpont, Lucy M., W'aterbury. St. John, Henry, Hartford. Stevens, Geo. B., New Haven. Taylor, Annie A., Bethel. Wheeler, Frances I., New Haven. Wrighes, Mrs. G. F., Waterbury. — Ccnin*ct%<^'L ■'■ DELAWARE. Edwards, Augusta, Media. May, I. H., N ew Castle. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. - Delaurarr, :'. Allen, Belle. Washington. Benton, M. T., Washington. Bertossa, Frank, Washington. Bruce, F. S., Washington. Bryant, S. M., Washington. Cook, Geo. Wm., Washington. Dellkelt, E. A., Washington. Duckett, Mrs. W. G., Washington. Evans, H. R., Washington. Hurst, Jno. F., Washington. Jenner, N. R., Washington. King, Mrs. C. S., Washington. King, Daisy B., Washington. King. Metella, Washington. McGiU, Mary C, Washington. Mack, Miss Nellie M., Washington. Mason, G., W^ashington. Morgan, T. J., Washington. North, Miss Hilda, Washington. Powell, W. B., W'ashington. Presbrey, 0. F., Washington. — District of Columbia, 21 FLORIDA. Buchholz, L. W. Bloomingdale. Buchholz, S. W., Bloomingdale. Cuscadan, M., Tampa. Forrey, Miss Elena C, Bartow. Kern. Frank L., Lake City. Maddoz, M. J., Gainesville. Markoe, Annabel A., Jacksonville. —Florida, 1 ANNUAL MEMBERSHIPS. 871 GEORGIA. l».»s. Miss Mamie, Atlanta. $«?'lliiigrath, Miss Helen. Atlanta. loykin, Miss Alice, LaGrange. """liizler, Jno. D., Douglassville. r^icild. Miss L. A., Atlanta. ?'itzpatriok, Z. I., Albany. ?'itzpatrick, Mrs. Z. I., Albany, f f ancis, C. W., Atlanta. [n^hram, J. I., Washington. rTn,ckson, Miss Lily, La Grange. Jenkins, S. K., BarneaviUe. Johnson, Wm. D., Athens. McCuUoch, Mrs. E. M., Atlanta. Neal, Miss Kate, White Sulphur Springs. Scomp, H. A., Oxford. Slaton, Miss L. B., Atlanta. Slaton, W. F., Atlanta. Slaton, W. M., Atlanta. Smith, Euler B., La Grange. Smith, Mrs. E. B., La Grange. Thigpen, W. R., Savannah. Wimberly, Miss Halle, Bullards. Young, Miss Ida, Washington. — Georgia^ 23, ILLINOIS. Aclams, Elizabeth, Chicago. Xdams, Sophia B., Chicago. Aeling, Mrs. F. E., Chicago. Affeld, C. E. Chicago. Akeyson, Wm., Galesburg. A Hen, Miss Anna E., Englewood. Allen, Miss Elsie, Gilman. Allen, F. R., Galesburg. Allen, Mrs. F. R., Galesburg. Allen, F. S., Joliet. Allen, Jas. H., Gilman. Allen, Mrs. J. H., Gilman. AUing, Jas. C, Chicago. Alvard, Louis, Winnetka. Alger, Ellen S., Carbondale. Alger, Robt., Carbondale. Ames, Lula B., Springfield. Anderson, A. L., Lincoln. Anderson, Mrs. C. C, Lincoln. Anderson, I. B., Chicago. Anderson, J. H., Woosung. Anderson, Laura L., W-oosung. Anderson, May, Chicago. Anderson, M. Lizzie, Lincoln. Armstrong, Miss Lizzie C, Springfield. Armstrong, Mattie, Kirkwood. Ashworth, Miss Ada, Sullivan. Atkinson, Miss Ella, Quincy. Atkinson. Emma, Quincy. Aubere, Pearl L., Havana. Balckom, Charles, Chicago. Balckom, S., Chicago. Baldwin, M. A., Monmouth. Banister, Eunice S., Peoria. Banister, Florence, Peoria. Barler, Kittie L., Marengo. Barry, Marion, Chicago. Bartholomew, E. F., Rock Island. Bassett, Miss Kittie, Oak Park. Banmgartner, Elizabeth, Springfield. Baumgartner, Lou, Apple River. Beach, Jane A., Pullman. Beam, Miss Gracie, Bloomington. Beasley, A. W., Peoria. Beck, Lucy C, Crawfordsville. Benedict, Jessie. Edwards ville. Benedict, Mrs. Julia, EdwardsviUe. Bennor, Fred., Chicago. Bennor, Mrs. N., Chicago. Berine, Alice, Decatur. Berine, E. M., Decatur. Berryman, Etta, Apple River. Beverly, Carrie J., Elgin. Billington, Emma W'., Springfield. Black, Mattie E., Green Castle. Blair, Carrie, CoUinsville. Blake, E. M., Rockford. Blake, Jessie, Rockford. Blaurock, F. R., Argyle Park. Bliss, Geo. H., Chicago. Bomland, Mrs. Clara, Peoria. Bomland, Norman F., Peoria. Bordker, Mrs. H. A., Chicago. Borgesen, R., Springfield. Bowles, John T., De Kalb. Bowman, Miss Annette, Andalusia. Bradford, W'm. A., Chicago. Brazier, J. S., Greenview. Breed, Lena M., Princeton. Breed, Luella, Princeton. Bridge, G. H., Galesburg. Bridges, J. C, Kewanee. Brinkman, Miss M., Bunker Hill. Brown, J. M., Englewood. Brown, W. J. S., Matta. Bryant, Mrs. W. C, Chicago. Buchanan, G. V., Carbondale. Buchanan, Mrs. G. V., Carbondale. Buck, Miss Martha. Carbondale. Buck, S. O., Beardstown. Buck, Mrs. S. O., Beardstown. Bulger, Kittie, Chicago. Burke, Alice, Waterloo. Burnett, Gussie, Warren. Burns, Clara B., Morrison. Burns, Jas. C, Monmouth. Button, W. J., Chicago. Byrne, Maria J.. Seneca. Caldwell, Josie, New Holland. Caldwell, Mary, Carbondale. Calvin, Miss Oka, Decatur. Campbell, Miss Jennie C, Chicago. Campbell, Miss Stella, Chicago. Cannon, J. S., Monmouth. Caper, C. M., Peoria. Carlisle, Anna M., Chicago. Carter, Luvicy E., CollinsviUe. Chamberlain, W. H., Pontiac. 872 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. ILLINOIS — Continued. Chapin, Carrie L., Galesburg. Chapman, Oertrnde. Galesburg. Chapman, T. O., Uermosa. Charles, M. A., Litchfield. Charles. Thos.. Chicago. Clancey. Jennie M., Chicago. Clark, J. S.. Latham. Clark, Mrs. J. S., Latham. Clark, R. N., Monmouth. Close, (). W., Chicago. Coates, Mrs. Clara A., Edwardsville. Colwell, L. \V., Vinden. Conant, W. C, Chicago. Conant, Mrs. W. C, Chicago. Conner, Miss Beth, Chicago. Connor, Lucy ()., Chicago. Cook, J. W., Normal. Cook, (). S., Chicago. Corbyn, Miss Edith, Quinoy. Cotton, J. B., Albion. Covey, C. C, Farmer City. Crowley, Miss Hester, Peoria. Crissey, Miss Alice, Chester. Crouch. Mamie G., Rozella. Culver, Mary E., Peoria. Curts, J. L., Howard. Cyrus, Mrs. J. M., Chicago. Dale, Miss J. E., Winnetka. Daniels, Ella F., Polo. Davey, Alice C, Chicago. Davey. Carrie B., Chicago. David, Miss L., Aledo. David, M., New Boston. Davis, Ellen, Galesburg. Dawson, Atta, Lovington. Dean, Mrs. J., Bloomington. DeButts, T. E., Mount Morris. DeGarmo, Chas., Normal. Dewey. Jennie, Chicago. Dexter, H., Galva. Dillman, L. M., Chicago. Dillon, H. M.. Dutton Station. Dodge, M. E., Chicago. Doughty, T. H., Chicago. Downey, Miss Laura, Atlanta. Doyle, R. M., Peoria. Durer, Lizzie, Edwardsville. Durr. Anne, Sterling. Dye, Estella, Pontiac. Easterly. Miss J. V., Chicago. Eaton, Mrs. C. L., Chicago. Eaton, Dora, Chicago. Eaton, Ira T.. Chicago. Eby, J. R.. Lanark. Eby, Mrs. J. R.. Lanark. Edmington, Mary, Chicago. Edward, A., Chicago. Edwards, J. F., Amboy. Edwards, Walter A., Decatur. Eisenraayer, Ida. Mascoutah. Elder, Ina, Carthage. Ellis. B. F., Peoria. Ellis, Mabel, Chicago. Ely, Mary E., Chicago. Emerson, Alfred, Lake Fore.*5t. Emery, J. W. E., Quincj. English, Mary L., Decatur. Esbjarn. G. A., MoLine. Evans, Miss Kate, Edwardsville. Evans, T. L., Decatur. Ewing. Mrs. W. B., KnoxviUe. Fager, Emma, Havana. Foy, Mattie E., Elgin. Felmly, David, CarroUton. Ferguson, Miss Salina, Rockford. Ferry, D. S., Chicago. Finch, Mary A., Terre Haute. Fischer. Lena, White Hall. Fisher, H. A., Wheaton. Fitch, A. G., Chicago. Fitts, Miss Alice, Chicago. Fleming, Mrs. G. W., Lanark. Fleming, Miss Hadessab, Chicago. Fleming, Martha. Chicago. Flynn. Mrs. G., Urbana. Flynn, Jay, Urbana. Foote, Eva A., Urbana. Ford. Alice M., Chicago. Ford, Chas. H., Chicago. Foster, C. B., Loami. Frantz, Annie, Bloomington. Fraser, Ella, Washburn. Freeman, J. H., Aurora. Frye, Alma R., Palatine. Frye. J. D., Bloomington. Furguson, G. A., Mendota. Futener, I., Chicago. Gamble, Sam W., Chicago. Gardner, K. M., Utica. Gastman, £. A., Decatur. Gayman, Angie, Champaign. Geddes, Edith, Rockford. Geddes. Louise, Rockford. Geer, David 8., Chicago. Gelder, P. Ada, Cairo. Gibson, J. W'., Oregon. Giffin, Wm. M., Englewood. GiUham, Clara, Alton. Gillham, Mrs. E. J., Mattoon. Gilmore, M. J., Springfield. Givler, W. H., Wataga. Givler, Mrs. W. H., Wataga. Goodhue, L. P., Chicago. Goodsmith. H. M., Chicago. Graham, Mildred, New Boston. Gramt, Nellie H., Peoria. Griffin, Blanche, Carthage. Griffin, Clara, Carthage. Griffin, Grace, Carthage. Gropp, S., Whitehall. Grossman, J. H., Mt. Carroll. Grum, Mrs. A. W., Pana. Guenther, Kate O., Blue Island. Guest, I. S., Springfield. Guest, Mrs. I. S., Springfield. Guensey, Miss Alice M., Chicago. ANNUAL MEMBERSHIPS. 873 ILLINOIS — CONTINUBD. iHclley, Miss Alice, Collins viUe. liil^ett, Mrs. George, Chicago. lalkett. Belle M., Chicago. ■iftlF»«#y, C. D.. Kankakee. tlalsey, Helen S., Kankakee. rlamilton, J. O., Monmouth. E^aiximond, Miss Eva, Jacksonville. Mammond, Laura M., Jacksonville. Uamixiond, Luella W., Hanover. Hannahs. Etta M., Chicago. Marne, Alice. Decatur. Harrison, Miss H. V.. Granville. Harrison, Laura A., Palatine. Harry, Mrs. G. I., Lincoln. Hart, S. E., Chicago. Hartley, Miss Susan, Chrisman. Harman, Mary, Normal. Harvey, Fanny, Farmington. Harvey, Lilian M., Paris. Harvey, N. A., Champaign. Hatch, W. H., Moline. Hanpers, J. B.. Chicago. Hauser, Isabelle, Mascoutah. Hau^on, Mrs. I., Moline. Haven, Carry, Savannah. Hecox, C. y., Ashland. Hecox, Mrs. C. Y., Ashland. Heidemann, Alvena C, Elgin. Heidemann, Alvena M., Elmhurst. Henderson, David C, Shabbona. Henderson, Mrs. D. C. Shabbona. Henderson, H. M.. Bloomington. Henderson, T. R., Leroy. Hendricks, Nellie I., Decatur. Henniger. J. W., Vandalia. Henry, Anna F., Bloomington. Hetzler, Alice, Bunker Hill. Heyward, F. S., Chicago. Heyward, L. M.. Chicago. Heyward, M. B., Chicago. Hicks. Anna L., Chicago. Hicks. D. F., Chicago. Hilyard, H. M., Waterloo. Hilyard, W. H., Waterloo. Hinchliff, William, Chicago. Hinsey, Blanche E., Peoria. Hirtz, Mrs. Warner. Freeport. Hodgman, Miss Carry, Princeton. Hodgman, Miss M. V., Princeton. HoHtitler, J. C, Decatur. Howland, George. Chicago. Howland, Mrs. Jennie. Sterling. Howland, Jessie, Sterling. Hudson, Frankie, Chicago. Hughes, Lizzie. Bloomington. Hurley, Gertie M., Peoria. Hussey, J. E., Springfield. Hutchinson, Miss Anna, Greenville. Hutchinson, J., Monmouth. Hypes, Miss Cornelia, Carbondale. Hypes, Mrs. Emeline, Carbondale. Ingersoll, S. W.. Canton. Irvine, Mamie B., Mt. Carroll. Jack, Catherina, Springfield. Jackson, J. W., Englewood. Jacobs, Miss Jennie, Hamilton. Jacobs, Miss Lottie, Hamilton. Jacobs, Miss Mary, Hamilton. Jacoby, Emma, Bloomington. Jagemann, Miss Carry, Staunton. Jagemann, Miss Lelia, Staunton. Jahns, T., Chicago. Jawly, Lilian, Rockford. Jeckel, Josie, Chicago. Jefifers, Charles E., Hayes. Jerome, Charles W., Carbondale. Johnson, Mrs. L., Chicago. Johnson, Mary, Chicago. Jones, G. M., Irving Park. Jones, J. L., Chicago. Jones, Lotta A., Hamilton. Jones, Mary E., Chicago. Jones, Richard D.. Normal. Jones. Winifred E., Chicago. Joslyn, Flora J.. Grand Crossing. Jumper, W. H. A., Jacksonville. Jordan, M. H.. Riverside. Justi, Lizzie, Chicago. Keating, Miss Kittie, Litchfield. Keating. Miss Mattie. Litchfield. Keefe, Miss Nellie, Rockford. Keenon, Chas. H., Quincy. Kelly. Anna. Chicago. Kelly. Kittie L., Chicago. KeUy. Margaret, Chicago. Kellogg, H. Amelia, Chicago. Kendall, Annie L., Carthage. KendaU, F. M.. Chicago. Kennedy, Ella, Peoria. Kilbourne. EflBe J.. Chicago. Kimmel. Frankie, Quincy. Kimmel, Florence, Quincy. Kinderwater, A. E., Chicago. Kinderwater, Mrs. A. E.. Chicago. Kirkham, Laura M., Carbondale. Kirkpatrick, Anna, Rock Island. Kletzing, H. F.. Naperville. Knollenberg, Carry, Jacksonville. Knowles, W. W., Chicago. Lakin, B. B., Streator. Lamb, Amanda, Rossville. Lamereau, Florence N., Bloomington. Lane, Albert G., Chicago. Lang, Miss Jeannette. Bloomington. Lang, Miss Kate, Englewood. Lange, Miss Adelaide, Bloomington. Larkin, E. L., Galesburg. Learans, J., Chicago. Lee, Richard H., Oregon. Leekley, A. G., Chicago. Leekley, A. J., Chicago. Leekley, L. G., Chicago. Lennon, B. F., Chicago. Leonard, Miss Alice, Lake Forest. Leonard, Bertha A., Chicago. Levin, Rosalie E., Englewood. 874 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATIOJ^. ILLINOIS — Continued. Lewis, Leslie, Hyde Park. Lewis, Matie E., Warren. Lingo, Chas. B., Norwich. Lloyd, Chas., Chicago. Locke, Miss Josephine, Chicago. Locke, Mrs. W. H., Hampshire. Luews, John H., £ast 8t. Louis. Luther, Lula G., Lamont. Lutz, Harriet B., Chicago. Lynch, Kate, Chicago. Lynch, Mary E., Peoria. Lyon, A. J., Dalton. Lyon, Mrs. A. J., Dalton. McAlister. Inez, Elgin. McCall, Miss Sallie, Decatur. McCan, Mrs. BeU, Pana. McConville, Katie C, Chicago. McConville. Lizzie, Chicago. McCord, Olive M., Oak Park. McDonald. Ruth T., East St. Louis. MacFaU, T. W., Quincy. MacGilvray, Mrs. L. Lock port. Mack, Mrs. Lottie A., Aurora. Mack, William S., Chicago. Mackay. Nellie, Chicago. McKee, Ida, Carthage. McKeen, Frank, Chicago. McKeen, J. A., Merritt. McLauchlin, A. L., Chicago. McLauchliii, Mrs. J. S., Ravenswood. McLeod. Miss Kate. Pana. McMillan, Mrs. Ida L., Monmouth. McMurray. F. M., Normal. Major, Cora, Eureka. Major, Lucy. Eureka. Maloney, Margaret R., Fairbury. Marsh, Miss Grace, Elgin. Marsh, F. L., Jacksonville. Martin, J. M.. Niles Center. Matthews, Laura E., Pullman. Matthews. Miss Marcia, Boynton. Matthews. Mrs. M. W., Urbana. Matthews, W. P., Pullman. Maxwell. G. N., Byron. May, M. C, Chicago. Meeker, Miss Gertrude. Sullivan. Meeker, Lilla C, Farmington. Meeker, R. Emma, Farmington. Mellor, Miss M. E., Winnetka. Mendousa, Clara L., Springtield. Meriam, Mrs. Angelina. Chicago. Merrick. Mrs. Hannah, Bloomington. Merrill, H. L., Palatine. Metcalf. Mrs. Alma S., Normal. Metcalf, Thomas, Normal. Meyer, Cora, Jacksonville. Meyer, Minna. Quincy. Meyers, Kate G., Springfield. Miller, Jennie P., Chicago. Miller, Lenore, Byron. Miller, Mrs. N. W., Bloomington. MiUigen, Vena, Sullivan. Mills, Isabella, Troy. Miner, G. F., Edwardsville. Mink, A. C, Galva. Minor, Louise. Peoria. Mitchel, Clara, Jacksonville. Mitsch, Helen, Chicago. Moe, Grace J., Chicago. Montgomery, Miss Laura, Deoatnr. Montgomery, Nellie M., Chicag^o. Moore, Elizabeth, Chicago. Moore, Mrs. M. A., Peoria. Moulding, F. C, Chicago. Moulding, Lizzie M., Chicago. Murphy, Mrs. M. A., Chicago. Myers, G. W.. Urbana. Narbury, Alice M.. Lombard. Neff, E. I., Brookville. Nelson, Mrs. K.. Kirkland. Ness, J. M., Arlington Heights. Newlon, Mrs. Nina. Collins ville. Nichols, H. L., Thompson. Noble, C. M., McLean. Noble. Mrs. C. M.. McLean. Norbury, Hattie B., Lombard. North, James M., Chicago. Olcott, J. M., Chicago. Oliver, F. E., Galena. Olsen, Minnie L., Chicago. Onstott, Emma. Mason City. Ort, Geo. F., Cairo. Osburn, Mrs. S. D., Jacksonville. Page, Mrs. Chas. L., Chicago. Palmer, Mrs. Adalinc, Pcmtiac. Patterson, Miss Jessie, Staunton. Patterson, Miss Ola J., Monmouth. Peabody, Selim H., Champaign. Peers, Mrs. Lela, Collinsville. Pennell, Miss Flora, Normal. Peterson, Miss Eda C, Galesburg. Phelps. M. A., Chicago. Phelps, Miss S. A., Chicago. PhiUips, Hattie A., Chicago. Phillips, Lidia E., Bloomington. Pierce, Nellie, Monmouth. Pitts, Mrs. Julia. Decatur. Pitts, Miss Minnie, Decatur. PoUard, Mrs. R. S., Chicago. Pollock, James B., Orangeville. PooUe, Geo. A. jr., Chicago. Porter, J. C, Monmouth. Porter, Miss Sarah, Bloomington. PoweU, W. W., Chicago. Power, Mary E., Chicago. Pritchett, Nettie C, Decatur. Put, S. D., Mendor. Pyatt, Edith. Jacksonville. Rafter, F. V., East St. Louis. Ralston, P. W., Roscoe. Rankin, Laura, Bloomington. Rankin, Luella, Bloomington. Reading, Miss Emma, Pana. Redfield, H. C, Evanston. Redfield, Katherine, Evanston. Redfield, Louise, Evanston. ANNUAL MEMBERSHIPS. 875 ILLINOIS— Continued. Re-od, Franoea, Wataga. Kee'cler, Mrs. May. Normal. K^^fier, R. R., Normal. Reose, J. E., Pana. Reidy. Elizabeth, Chicago. Reynolds, Catherine, Aurora. Rice. Mrs. M. H., Bloomington. RiQer. Eleanor, Pittsfield. Riley, Geo. W., Normal. Riley, W. B., Champaign. Rittenhouse, Maud, Cairo. Robbins. Miss Louisa, Quinoy. Ri>bbin8, Mrs. S. V., Lamont. Robertson, James L., Decatur. Robertson, Mrs. J. L., Decatur. Robertson, Nellie, Tallula. Robinson, Miss A. E., Chicago. Robinson, J. R.. McLansboro. Robinson. Miss Mabel, Hinsdale. Rodatz. Miss Agnes. Englewood. Rodgers, Mrs. M. F., Chicago. Rogers, Jennie L., Litchfield. Rogers, Mary S., Litchfield. Rose, Mrs. E. M., Farmington. Ross, W. F., Lee Center. Root, Jessie, Chicago. Rutherford, Kate, Peoria. Ryan, Miss Mary, Clinton. Sanders, Mary, Chicago. Savage, Reed, Paris. Sawyer, Helen, Jacksonville. Scandritt, Laura, Rockbridge. Schales, Thomas, Chicago. Schell, Emma, Quincy. Schneider, A., Weston. Schnarzkopf, Pauline, Edwardsville. Schureman, Mrs. C, Geneseo. Schureman. Miss Fannie, Geneseo. Schureman, Winifred, Geneseo. Schwarz, Jessie, Edwardsville. Schweilzer, Amelia, Chicago. Seeley, Levi, Lake Forest. Seeley, Mrs. Levi, Lake Forest. Seeker, Mrs. Chas., Freeport. Sharp, Cora M., Carlyle. Shepherd, Miss Agnes, Springfield. SheriU, H. J., Belvidere. Shields, Ella A., Chicago. Show, Clyde C, St. Charles. Sickels. Emma C, Chicago. Simon, Libbie, Chicago. Simon. Minnie, Chicago. Simpson, G. A., Chicago. Sisson. Fred M., Chicago. Sloan, Eliza. Peoria. Slyfer, Mrs. Katie P., Mt. Pulaski. Smalley, M. D., Chicago. Smedley, Mrs. Eva, Chicago. Smedley, Mrs. Ida, Peru. Smith, Alice E.. Ivanhoe. Smith, Anna N., Dixon. Smith, Mrs. Annie E., Jacksonville. Smith, C. B., Champaign. Smith, E. C, Dixon. Smith, Georgian a, Pana. Smith, N. R., Chicago. Smith, R. A., Dixon. Smith, 8. F., Dixon. Snelling, Carry E., Peoria. Snelling, Miss Mary H., Peoria. Snow, £. Bonnie, Batavia. Sommers, Miss Annie. Galesburg. Spooner, E. F., Chicago. Squire, Mary E., Chicago. Stanford, Miss Jennie, Marengo. Stansberry, Eliza J., Bloomington. Stanton, May, Staunton. Steele, W. L., Galesburg. Stephens, J. W., Anna. StillweU, M. L., Quincy. Stitt, Oscar, El Paso. Stiver, P. ()., OrangevUle. Strain, Edgar W\, Hillsburg. Strattan, Axa, New Boston. Stricklan, Hettie, Sullivan. Sturgis, EUa J., Macon. Sweeney, Mary H., Bloomington. Sweetson, L. C., Peoria. Tear, John H., Chicago. Teeple, C. G., Marengo. Thome, J. Herbert, Chicago. Thuneman, Mrs. Anna, Sullivan. Todd, Mary, Aurora. Tracy, Libbi, Chicago. Tracy, W'. W., Springfield. Tuhrson, Mrs. Henry, Sadorue. Turner, Alice I., Waverly. Vail, L. G., Peoria. Vandercock, E. N., Evanston. Vandershot, Mrs. G. A., Farmington. VanDuerson, Emma B., Paris. VanDuerson, Mrs. M. M., Paris. VanMeter, Bessie, Washington. Vitzthum, Eleanor M., Moline. Wadell, Maggie E., Canton. Walker, E. K., Lincoln. Walker, P. R., Rockford. Wallis, Mrs. Annie, Irving Park. Ward, Miss Carry, Quincy. Ward, Miss Mary, Bloomington. Watson, Miss Fannie, Chicago. Watson, Miss Nellie, Chicago. Weeks, Mrs. Mary C, Bunker Hill. Weiser, J. C, Chicago. Weld, Anna, Byron. Wells, Mary E.. Aurora. W'entworth, Mrs. A. A., Englewood. Wertz, Miss Adda, Bloomington. Westcott, Oliver S., Chicago. Westcott. Mrs. O. S., Chicago. Wheeler, C. Gilbert, Chicago. White, Daniel A., Chicago. W^hite, Miss Emma V., Princeton. White, F. N., Galva. Whitebread, Lucia, Edwardsville. Whitfield, L. L., Chicago. 876 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. ILLINOIS —Concluded. Whitmore, Eva B., Chicago. Wicks, Johu F., Decatur. Wilkes, Fayette, Woodlawn Park. Wilkinson, J. J.. Springfield. Willard, Miss Frances E., Evanston. Wilier, C. W., Amboy. Wilier, Mrs. C. W.. Amboy. Williams, J. A., Galena. Williams. J. B., Riverdale. Williamson. Mary H.. ("hampaign. Wilson, Mary, Chicago. WincheU, S. R., Champaign. Winslow, Lyman. Bloomington, Withers, Mrs. Sarah. Bioominj?t,i Wodetzky, Miss Anna. Lincoln- Worst, Edward. Lock port. Wort man. R. W., Chicago. Wortman, T. A., Chica|^o. Wylie, John, Pern. Wynu, Jonathan, Areola. Yocum, Emma M., Greenrille. Zittel, Carl, East St. Louis. INDIANA. Allen, Jos. P., Greencastle. Allen, Mary B., Greencastle. Alexander. Georgia, Indianapolis. Anker, W. H., Liberty Mills. Armstrong. Ollie. Covington. Ayres, F. E., LaPorte. Barbour, Louis, Terre Haute. Barnes, Richard (J., Bloomington. Barnes, W. A., Delphi. Bass, Florence. Indiana ]>ol is. Beck, Miss Anna. Crawfordsville. BedelL Ida. Indianapolis. Beivau, Glen J., Logans port. Beivan, Nellie C, Logan sport. Bell, G. A., Muucie. Bell, J. D., Clarksburg. Bennett, W. G.. Richmond. Benton. A. R.. Irvingtou. Black. Ida. Greencastle. Black. J. C, Michigan City. Black, Mrs. J. C. Michigan City. Blaker, Mrs. E. A., Indianapolis. Blunt. E. A., Mt. Vernon. Bond, Emma, Richmond. Borum, Ida, Odell. Braden, L. D., Greensburg. Brown, Leo, Indianapolis. Brown, Lily, Indianapolis. Brown, M. G.. Indianapolis. Brown. Wm. R., Indianapolis. Brown. Mrs. W. R.. Indianapolis. Burgess, Elizabeth T.. Fort Wayne. Burnett. Miss Alice W., Terre Haute. Burns. Mary, Indianapolis. Campbell. Mrs. F., Muncie. Caplinger. Kate M.. Madison. Carhart, Joseph. Greencastle. Carr, Miss Mona, Kokomo. Chambers, R. H., New Castle. Chambers, Z.. New Castle. Chandler, Miss Emma, Goshen. Cobb, Julia, Indianapolis. Condit, Emma, Terre Haute. Cork, Prudence, Indianapolis. Covault, Anna. Logansport. Covault, Ida, Logansport. Cox, Miss Ora, Logansport. Cox, Sheridan, Kokomo. Day, Jno. M., New Albany. DeMotte, Anna G.. Indianapolis. DeMotte. Annie. Indianapolis. DeMotte, W. H.. IndianapoUs. DeWey, Martha. Elkhart. Dickson, Miss Florence. Richmond Drum, Catherine, Indianapolis. Dye, Charity, Indianapolis. Eaton. Adelaide, Terre Hante. Elsebach, Christina, Terre Haute. Elsebach, Tillie, Terre Haute. Ehrhardt. Wm., Greensbnrg. Evans. Belle. Logansport. Farmer, E., Prairie^own. Fletcher. H. M.. Indianapolis. Fletcher. Mrs. J. W., India napolL-^. Fletcher, Walter. Indianapolis. Flick, Mary I., Lawrence. Flick, W. B., Lawrence. Foster, L. M.. North Vernon. Foster, Narcissa. South Bend. Fraley, Arthur, Linden. Frazer, Jennie D., Warsaw. Fredrickson, Anna E.. LaPorte. Funk, A. K.. Elkhart. Funk, Mrs. A. K., Elkhart. Gilchrist, Mrs. W. T., Greensboro. Gilman, Robt. G.. Terre Haute. Gilman, Mrs. R. G., Terre Haute. Gi'ave, Allen W., Richmond. Greek, Laura, Evansville. Green, Gertrude. Indianapolis. Habenicht, Ida, Evansville. Hahn, Louisa. Spades. Hailmann, Eudora, La Porte. Hailmann, W. N., La Porte. Harney, Mattie, Richmond. Harney, Susie, Richmond. Hawkins, Nathan. Richmond. Hay, Mrs. Sarah D.. Indianapolis. Hill. A. E., South Bend. Hill. Mrs. A. J.. Decatur. Hodgin, Mrs. C. C. Richmond. Hodgin, Cyrus W., Richmond. Hodgin. Mi.ss Laura A., Richmond. Hornbrook, R. S., Evansville. Hornbrook, Mrs. R. S., Evansville. Home, Miss Carrie C. Spiceland. Hubbard, C, Frankfort. Hubbard, Mary Q., Frankfort. AXJ^UAL MEMBERSHIPS. ^11 INDIANA— CoNotuDKD. iplxrey, W. R., Covington. •rsoll, Edith V., Graysville. »r«oU, H. A., Graysville. ^raoll, Mary E., Graysville. 3eT, Slizabeth. Indianapolis. rey, D.. Indianapolis. es, Gdith, Indianapolis, ten, Mrs. Sarah E., Indianapolis. tea, S. H., Indianapolis. ae. Smma, Kokomo. 1^^ £lla M., Greencastle. aney, Emily, Angola. nptRrSch. Henry. Terre Hante. nptasch, Mrs. H., Terre Haute, in^elsmith. Annie, Peru, iin^elsmith, Lucy, Pern. rainer, Lena, Terre Hante. ramer, W. N., Terre Haute. aFollette, H. M., Indianapolis. iamb. H. M., Marion. ^ane, Mrs. N., Indianapolis. jan)5\Forthy, Mrs. J. W., Worthington. ueach, Holland. Indianapolis. Lee, Mrs. A. E., Hartford City. Lewiss. Mary C, Terre Haute. Lewis, Prudence, Indianapolis. Link, Elizabeth, Greensburg. Ijink, Henry, Greensburg. Love, Flora, Terre Haute. Love, Miss Nelly, Elkhart. McArthur, W., Klepo. McCling. Catherine, Sugar Grove. McFarland, Lucy \V., Evansville. Maiius, R. M.. Indianapolis. Marchant, Sophia, Riclimond. Meehan, Kate, Princeton. Messick, Mrs. J. H., Noblesville. Mills, Emily W., Richmond. Mills, Gertrude C. Richmond. Mills, J. J., Richmond. Mitchell, Elizabeth B., Fort Wayne. Mitchell, Marcia, Terre Haute. Mitchell, Phoebe, Terre Haute. Moore, Grace E., Delphi. Mordan, Lizzie, Logansport. Murphy, Mrs. L. J. B., Jeffersonville. Nicholson, Miss A. C, Jeffersonville. Nicholson, Miss Mary E., Indianapolis. Nickerson, L. H., Indianapolis. Niner, Mary S., Newburg. Orfif, Miss Mary E., Fort Wayne. Patterson, J. P., Indianapolis. Patterson, Mrs. S. G., Union City. Patts, A. M., Indianapolis. Pauli, Mrs. H., Indianapolis. Pauli, Mary. Indianapolis. Peakes, Annie W., Terre Haute. Peter, Louis, Terre Haute. Potter, Mrs. O. W\, Logansport. Raleigh, Eldora M., Newburg. Reilly, Anthony, Madison county. Ridgway. Stella, Indianapolis. Robinett, S. J., Oregon. Robinson, Mrs. John, Indianapolis. Rodgers, W\ H., Madison. Rottman, Mrs., Terre Haute. Selleck, R. E., Indianapolis. Shelton, Mamie, Michigan City. Smith, Je.s8ie, Indianapolis. Snow, Frank, Franklin. Snow, U. 8., Franklin. Snyder, Cora, Angola. Stephens. Alice H.. Rushville. Stephens, Fred., Rushville. Stephens, H. S., Rushville. Stephenson, Josie, Michigan City. Steward, Eliza J., Valparaiso. Steward, Oliver, Valparaiso. Steward, Retta, Valparaiso. Stout. J. A., Prairie Creek. Suter, Anna, Aurora. Sweney, Bertha, Pierceton. Tearhew, Nellie E., Lima. Thayer, Mrs. M. S., Indianapolis. Thomas, C. W., Corydon. Thomas, D. W., Elkhart. Thompson, Mrs. L. C. Franklin. Thompson, Lida, Warsaw. Thompson, R. I., Franklin. Vawter, M., Indianapolis. Walters, F. M., LaPorte. Watts, Miss Grace, Knightstown. Wehrle, F. J., Brazil. Weir, Wm. C, Prairie Creek. Wieseham. Chas. E., Spades. Wieseham. Susan, Spades. Wieklow, Mrs. R. E., South Bend. Williams, Wm. J., Franklin. Williamson, M. D., Indianapolis. Wilson, C, La Fayette. Winnings, N. P., Indianapolis. Wisely, J. B., Terre Haute. Wood, Rose, Covington. Wright, Anna P., Indianapolis. Wright, Miss Bessie. Terre Haute. Young. Carrie E., Logansport. Zinn, Ella, Logansport. Zinu, Hattie, Logansport. - -Itidiana, 206. INDIAN TERRITORY. Rust, W. D., Oklahoma City. IOWA. Addington, Clint., Stacyville. Albright, Minnie, Lemara. Allen, J. E., Davenport. Allen, Miss Lizzie, Manchester. Allis, W. H., Stacyville. Amlie, Thom. R., Ridgeway. 878 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION^. IOWA — COMTIMUED. Anderson, Anna, Burlington. Anderson, Sallie, Clarence. Angas, Jessie, Burt. Arthur, Mrs. C. A., Cawker City. Atkinson, N., Davenport. Atwood, H. G., Northwood. Bach, Minnie, Marshalltown. Bach, Susan M., Reinback. Bailey, Jennie M., Algona. Baker, Josie H., Oskaloosa. Baker, M. M., Des Moines. Bakker, A. O., Bristol. BaUard, Mrs. S. A., EsterviUe. Barnes, E. C, Cresco. Barney, Lilian R.. North Branch. Barr, Miss Georgia, Des Moines. Barrett, Alta M.. Chester. Barrett, Ida M., Livermoor. Barrett, R. C, Osage. Barton. Vesta, Mason City. Bastwick. C. B., Clinton. Bastwick, O. P., CUnton. Bates, Hattie, Hardin. Beam. E. Bell, Clarinda. Beardshear, W. M., Des Moines. Beckmanu, Wm., Sioux City. Belzer, Anna, LaPorte City. Belzer, Dora, LaPorte City. Bend, Mrs. Adolph, Council Bluffs. Bennett, Mary J., Dubuque. Bentley, E. R.. Randolph. Berson. Mattie A., Marshalltown. Berry, Mary E., Clarinda. Betts, Geo.H., Bristow. Bickford, Allie, Webster City. Bingham. Lizzie, Estherville. Birchard, C. E., Davenport. Birchard. Mrs. L. M., Davenport. Blanchards, Chas. A., Wheaton. Bliss, Mary H., Iowa Falls. BoUen, Hettie, Perry. Bollen, Nellie, Griswold. Boughton, Lillie, Cherokee. Bowers, Fannie, Anamosa. Boy, Miss Ella, Mason City. Boyd, E. ()., Tipton. Boyd, W. R., Mechanicsville. Boynton, Jennie, Wilton Junction. Brammeier, Miss Minnie, Wilton Junction. Breckenridge, J., Decorah. Breckenridge, Mrs. J., Decorah. Brennan, Mary E., Lake Preston. Brine, Eliza A., Cedar Falls. Brown, Emma C, Dubuque. Brown, L. L., Cedar Rapids. Brown, M. T., Davenport. Brown, Sarah P., Des Moines. Bryan, G. W., Montezuma. Bryson, Edwinna, Ackley. Bruner, Laura, Toledo. Buechele. Mrs. J. L., Waterloo. Buesch, Emma C, Dubuque. Buck, Mrs. H., Grinneil. Buck, Prof. S. J., GrinnelL Buokan, Essie, Clarence. Buckingham, F. Ella, Dubuque. Burrington, Francis, Sioux City- Burrington, Mrs. F., Sioux City. Bushnell, H. T., Davenport. Butterfield, Agnes, Cedar Falls. Butterfield, Miss E., Independence. Butterfield, Mary, Eldora. Byllesby, Alice, Jesup. Calderwood, Carrie, Brooklyn. Calderwood, Etta, Brooklyn. Caldwell, Delia, Ottumwa, Calkins, Mrs. J. K.. Webster City. Campbell, E. T., Campbell. Car, H. C. Clarence. Carbin, J. C, Pine Bluff. Carpenter, Jennie, Missouri Valley. Carpenter, Minnie, Estherville. Carriel, Lura. J., Eldora. Carroll, Lizzie. Charles City. Carter, Mrs. O. P., Dyers viUe. Chaffee, S. M., Iowa City. Chambers, Mrs. C. E., Cedar Rapids. Chambers, Lue £., Cedar Rapids. Chapman, Josephine. Des Moines. Chawner, John, Oskaloosa. Clark, Amy E., Livermore. Clark, Lillie, Wilton Junction. Clark, Mevvie, Wilton Junction. Cleaves, S. J., Davenport. Coates, Mary, Remsen. Cobb. Mary, Vinton. Collinge, Vira S., Manchester. Coddington, Jessie, Jamesville. Comelimes, Annie. Marshalltown. Coughenour, W'. H., Le Grand. Conner, Gertrude, Le Mars. Cook, H. J„ Mt. Vernon. Cooke, Irene M., Indianola. Coonley, Grace, Bristow. Cost, Maggie A., Zwingle. Coughtry, Katherine, Waterloo. Cowan, Isabelle, Crimghan. Cowan, Lillian, Iowa Falls. Cowan, Janet, Paullina. Cowden, G. W., Grinneil. Cox, Mattie, Des Moines. Crandell, Helen C, Des Moines. Crooke, Mrs. H. H., Clarinda. Crowley, W. H., Sharp. Cunningham, Kate, Cedar Falls. Dark, Rosa E., Indianapolis. Darrah, Kate, Emmetsburgh. Davidson, H. H., Estherville. Davidson, Mrs. H. H., Estherville. Da vies, lona, Kellogg. Davis, Joanna, Lima. Davis, Lettie, Estherville. Deane, Chas. W., Sioux City. Denker, Mrs. Bertha, Lyons. Detwiler, Annie, Des Moines. DeWolf, Mrs. James, Vail. ANNUAL MEMBEBSHIPa. 879 IOWA — CONTINUBD. X>eYo, Gertrude, Clarence. I>ix^son, W. H., Algona. I>ob>8oii« Amanda, Marshalltown. I><.>cigre, Carrie, Fort Dodge. l>o]:iovan, Anna. Emmetsburgh. JOorelle, H. A., Northwood. JOoogherty, Sada, Marion. T>0'w. Mrs. F.. Davenport. Do-wner, H. E., Davenport. I>iilLe, Mrs. C, Des Moines. X>iiiican, Marion, Mason City. X>\iiigan, A. L., Mt. Pleasant. Dungan, Lizzie, Mt. Pleasant. X>iinning, Annie. Pumghar. Karhnrt, E. M., Des Moines. dllBon. Estella, Waverly. Elter, N. L., Tipton. Emott, Eva M., Iowa City. £iige, Jargen, Duubar. Engu, Selma, Northwood. EnBign, Clara, Cedar Falls. Ensign. Mrs. E. J., Mason City. Ensign, Francis, Mason City. Ensign, Laura, Cedar Falls. Everhard, D. V., Davenport. Faddis. Rebecca, Mankato. Fairchild, Mary, Clinton. Farr. Stella, Kamrar. Ferguson, Linn, Mechanicsville. Foley, Mary C, Sioux City. Foster. AUie, Goldfield. Fox, Anna E., Charles City. Fox, J., Nora Springs. Frame. Mrs. Mary, Shenandoah. Frank, J. C., Kossuth. Frank. M., Waterloo. Frank, Mrs. M., Waterloo. Frazer, Minnie, Caldwell. Fuerk, Louise, Davenport. Freer. H. H., Mt. Vernon. Freer, Mary, Mt. Vernon. Frink, Sadie R., Clarence. Frizzell, Mary E., Davenport. Fulhotten, C. A., Rockford. Fultz. F. M., Burlington. Gaunt, Nina, Carlisle. Gehing. Emma, Dubuque. George, Addie, Iowa FaUs. Gilchrist, Maude. Laurens. Glisan, Delia. Des Moines. Glisan. Sarah, Des Moines. Gohlmann, El., Sabula. Golden, Ethel, Vinton. Goodell, Hattie, Spencer. Goodell, Nellie, Spencer. Goodyear, S. H., Cedar Rapids. Gore, C. H., Garner. Graham, A., Sioux City. Graham, M. W., Hopkinton. Graves, Emily, Clarence. Green, Clara, Oskaloosa. Green, Olive, Bedford. Gregg, Eva, Cherokee. Griffith, Georgie, Iowa Falls. Griffin, Kate. Sioux City. GriseU, A. W., Hull. Grout, Francis, Waterloo. Griebeling, Ida, Newton. Grumbling, C. M., Mt. Pleasant. Guthrie, Mrs. A. B., Bedford. Hadley, S. M., Oskaloosa. Hadlow, Gertrude, Lyons. Haley, Miss Jane. Garner. Hamilton, Mrs. Wm., Denison. Hanson, Bertha, Clear Lake. Hanson, Nellie, Clear Lake. Harkins, Annie, Council Bluffs. Harmon, Eva, Northwood. Hartman, Belle, Carlisle. Harvey, Miss C. J., Des Moines. Harwood, Alice, Cedar Rapids. Hass, Lizzie, Newton. Hatch, John B., Des Moines. Hatch. Minnie T., Des Moines. Hatfield, Ida, Ottumwa. Hathaway, Nettie. Independence. Hatlaw, James E., Mount Vernon. Havens. N. A., Marshalltown. Hawkes, J. P., Keokuk. Hayes, Clara, Goldfield. Heald, E. L., Oskaloosa. Heath, A. M., Manchester. Heges, Cynthia, Tipton. Hegner, H. F., Decorah. Hennegin, Laura, Ottumwa. Henry, Iowa, Mount Ayr. Henry, N. P., Nora Springs. Hiatt, Vida Otis, Des Moines. Himrod, F. O., What Cheer. Hinchman, Mrs. C, Des Moines. Hinley. Alice, Ackley. Hill, Elma, Sioux City. Hillis, Hannah. Des Moines. Hills, Jennie, Minburn. Hirsch, J. F., Le Mars. Hocker, F. P., West Union. Hocker, Mrs. F. P., West Union. Hogg, Abbie, Columbus. Hooley, Mrs., Davenport. Hooley, Susie R., Davenport. Hooley, Mrs. Alice, Davenport. Hoon, Ida, Tipton. Hostetler, Mary, Marshalltown. Howe, Hattie E., Cresco. Howe, Frank, Hampton. Howe, J. H., Cresco. Howell, E. F., Des Moines. Howell, Emma, Des Moines. Howell, May, Des Moines. Howell, Mrs. S. J., Des Moines. Hungerford, Fannie, Chester. Ingham, Helen, Algona. Ingham, Mrs. W. H., Algona. Irish, Thos. M., Dubuque. Jackson, Carrie B., Newton. Jamison, W. W., Keokuk. 880 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. IOWA — CONTINUBD. Jamison, Mrs. W. W., Keokuk. Jarvie, J. L., EstherviUe. Jayne, J. M., Sloan. Jefferies, J. Q., Clinton. Johnson, Birdie, Chester. Julian, W. A., Merrill. Jump, Letta. Audubon. Kaley, Mrs. W. H., Marion. Kellar, Minnie F., Sioux City. Kelley, Metta M., Rockwell. Kellogg, Harriet, Grinnell. Kellogg, Mrs. R. M., Grinnell. Kelly, Nora, Cedar Falls. Kerney, C. Hattie, Living Springs. Kerwin, Mary, La Malto. Kidder, E. W.. Des Moines. Kidder, Mrs. E. W.. Des Moines. Kilgore. Belle, Washington. King. Amelia. Littleport. King. Charlotte, Des Moines. King, Miss Dora, Waterloo. King. J. W.. Des Moines. King, Mrs. J. E., Eldora. Kinney, E. Mabel. Le Mars. Kingsbury, H. I.. Hamburg. Kinsley, Lucy, McGregor. Klass, Clara, Washington. Klass, Cornelia, Washington. Knott, Nannie. Sioux City. Koye, Gertie, Calmar. Krentzer, Carrie E.. Marshalltown. Krieg. Clara, Littleport. Kurtz. Anna, Mt. Pleasant. Ladd, M. C. Paullina. LafFerty, Nellie B.. Eddyville. Lanfersweiler. B.. Fort Dodge. Lapham, Ella R., Osage. Larney, Margaret M.. Dubuque. Laughlin. Lora B.. Mt. Ayr. Leisner. Kate, Davenport. Leonard. Wra. E., Correctionville. Lewis, D. W., Washington. Lewis. Jessie M.. Waukow. Lewis, Mrs. M. H., Washington. Lichty, C. S., VVaterloo. Liebrick, MoUie. Burlington. Lietz, Fred, Clinton. Liverraore. Ida E.. Cedar Rapids. Lloyd, E. A., Iowa City. Lood. Isaac A., Iowa City. Lorenz. Lucy. Sioux City. Loring, Sarah M.. Le Mars. Loveland, Helen, Marshalltown. Lufkin, Nora, Newton. Lynch, Lizzie. Bedford. Maben, Alice, Forest City. Maben, Ella, Forest City. McBribe. Mary. Fraer. McCaulley, Allie, New Sharon. McCarty,'Mary E.. Sioux City. McCarty. Thos.. J.. Sioux City. McClure. Gertrude. Knoxville'. McCleery, Margaretta, Cedar Falls. McDonald, R. J., What Cheer. McDonnell, Amelia, Solon. McElroy, Lizzie. St. Donatus. McFarland, J. T., Mt. Pleasant. McGovern, Anna E., Cedar FalLs. Mcllwrick, Helen M., Creston. Mcintosh, Ella, Council Bluffs. McKennedy, Julia. Fraer. McKinney, Jane Amy, Decorah. McNaughton, Jos.. Council Bluflf:*. McPherson, Anna. Des Moines. Magnes, Franc, Waterloo. MaUy, Frank C, Cedar Rapids. Manchester, Fred F., Des Moine.s. Mangura. Mantie. Council Blufifs. Martin, H. E., Tabor. Martindale, C. W., Des Moines. Marvin, Ella, Manchester. Mason, Viola, Algona. Maxon, Viola C. Waterloo. Melick, Miss M. W.. Ottumwa. Mendenhall, Delia, New Sharon. Mendenhall. Miriam, New Sharon. Middleton. Lida, Davenport. Millen, H. G.. EarlviUe. Miller. Dan., Newton. Miller, Maria, Shellsburg. Miller. Marv, Melbourne. MiUerd. D. F., Mt. Pleasant. Milliken. L. M., Acklev. Mills, J. S., Toledo. Miner. Mamie, Kossuth. Mittelbuscher, Anna, Davenport. Mittelbuscher, Ed.. Davenport. Mixlaw, Hattie, Le Mars. Moore. Ella, Toledo. Moore, Mrs. J as., Davenport. Moore, Minnie M., Rockford. Moore, Orpha. Toledo. Morgan, Mrs. D. L., Newton. Morrison, Julia, Des Moines. Morrison. Rose. Des Moines. Mosher, S., Indianola. Mueller, Emma D., Dubuque. Mulgreen, Celia, Council Bluffs. Myers, J.. Davenport. Myers. Joel, Le Grande. Nagel, J. J., Davenport. Nawerth, Amelia, Fraer. Nelon, B. M., Sioux City. Nesbitt. Nina, Mason City. Neumann, Ida, Davenport. Newton. Miss Eva, Borne. Nichols. G. A., Fayette. Niles, Mary L., Anamosa. Nothomb, Henry E., Colo. O'Connor. Mary, Sioux City. Odell, Mina W., Waterloo. " Odle, D. M., Hull. Olson, Ole, Mason City. O'NeiU, Mrs. M. J., CouncU Bluffs. Osmar, Mrs. Delia, Hazelton. Osmar. E. B., Hazelton. ANNUAL MEMBERSHIPS. 881 IOWA — CONTINUKD. < >'^€»ns, Sada. Indianola. l.*«.lmer, Carrie M., Cedar Rapid». X^tilmer, Jessie T., Mt. Pleasant. r*tiliner. N. E., Lyons. t*n.riiielee, Ella M., Iowa FalLs. l*a.trick, G. T. W., Iowa City, l^atterson. Miss A. A.. Marshalltown. t*fitterson, Cora, Qriswold. I^atteraon. Sarah, Ashtou. l"*an^born, Mrs. A. M., Ottumwa. i^eet. F. D.. Iowa Fails. l?erkins. E. C, Delhi, l^erkins, Minnie G., Grinnell. l*erry. Henry L.. Marshalltown. IPeterson, Eva L., Garwin. l^iles, Mrs. S. J., Des Moines. l?lapp, F. W., Dubuque. I*lummer, Frank E., Des Moines. I*ratt, Emma. Sac City. l*rice, Mrs. H. L.. Cresoo. I^riest. Mrs. T., Council Bluffs. I*ugh. Ida M., Des Moines. Qnona, Clara, Norway. K.avenhill, Mrs. John, Davenport. Ravenhill, Mary S., Davenport. Reed, Etta L., Waterloo. R«ed, Kate B., Waterloo. Remick. B. L., Waverly. Rhine, Louie. Des Moines. Richards, James, Buffalo Fork. Richardson, Mrs. L. M., Davenport. Rickle, Mrs. B., West Union. Rigby, Archie E., Clarence. Rob bins, Geo., Davenport. Bobbins, H. E., Lyons. Roberts, Mary A., Des Moines. Robinson, Eva, Estherville. Robinson. F. S., Eldon. Robinson, Rebecca, Eldon. Rodgers. Sadie M., Tipton. Rodwell, W\ W., Union. Rogers, Arthur J., SpringvUle. Rogers. Mrs. C. P., Marshalltown. Rogers, Frances L., Marshalltown. Rogers, Mary F., Minburn. Roseberry, J. M., Defiance. Ross. Celia, Washington. Ross, Cordelia, Washington. Ross, Mrs. W. C, Council Bluffs. Rosser, J. W., Brush Creek. Rowland. Jennie, Adair. Royce, R.. Shellsburg. Ruby, L. Mae. Keokuk. Rush. Harland. Waterloo. Rush, E., Waterloo. Ryan, Mary, Northwood. Sabin, Henry. Des Moines. St. John. Mary, Des Moines. Schales, Kate, Des Moines. Schaeffer, Sophie. Dubuque. Schell, Ida L., Montezuma. Schmaltz, F. F., Muscatine. Scott, Orion C, Oskaloosa. Scurry. Julia, Eldora. Sebo, Louise, Luingle. Seeley, Adelaide. Clinton. Seifert, Eda, Ottumwa. Seerley, H. H., Cedar FaUs. Seitsinger, Lena, Tipton. Sennett. Cora. Burlington. Settle, Laura, Hull. Shaw, Jessie M., Audubon. Sheel, H. W.. Decorah. Sheffen, Lula P., Cedar Falls. Shepperd, B. E., Des Moines. Shipley, Josie, Decorah. Shipley, Max, Decorah. Shoecraft, F. C, Mt. Vernon. Shorthill, Lillian E., Marshalltown. Simonds, Flora E.. West Branch. Simpson. Harriette. Waterloo. Sinclair, Jennie, Livermore. Sites, P. S., Ackley. Skinner. Fedelia, Newton. Skinner. Nettie, Barnes City. Slater, Ella M., Aurelia. Slavens, Jessie. Colfax. Smith, Ada E., Algona. Smith, A. W., Davenport. Smith, Bertha D.. Des Moines. Smith, Mrs. D. K., Davenport. Smith, Jennie E., Iowa Falls. Smith. Josephine, Des Moines. Smith, Margaret, Sioux City. Smith, Otis E., Des Moines. Smith, Mrs. O. E., Des Moines. Smith, Mrs. P., Des Moines. Snider, Earl, Davenport. Snider, Jennie, Davenport. Soyster, Mrs. C., Quimby. Sprain, Emilie, Eldora. Springer, Chris., Mona. Stetson, H. L., Des Moines. Stevens, Arthur, Council Bluffs. Stookey, S. W., Manchester. Stratton. F. E., Davenport. Strem, A. E., Cresco. Strong, Mrs. A., Decorah. Strudevant, C. V., Clarence. Sukesdorf, C. L.. Davenport. Sullivan. Kate E., Waverly. Suplee, Fannie, Des Moines. Suter. H., Fort Madison. Sutton, Miss S. E., Franklin. Swann, Mrs. Geo., Indianapolis. Tamisiea. J. L., Missouri Valley. Tanner, Mrs. Mary A., Eldora. Tate, Clara B., Washington. Tate, Mary Alda. Washington. Taylor, Alma N., Mechanicsville. Taylor, C. A., Grinnell. Taylor, Harriet, Meriden. Temper, Sarah J.. Burlington. Terrell, Lizzie, Mineral Point. Thomas, Lizzie. Des Moines. Thompson, Sallie E., Cedar Rapids. 882 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. IOWA — Concluded. ThompRon, lAabella S., Davenport. Thompson. Nora F., Webster City. Tobin« Maggie, Mitchell. Toppe, E.. Des MoineR. Tonrtellot, G. M., Hopkinston. Tower, Jennie, Iowa Falls. Tower, Libbie« Iowa Falls. Treat, Miss Grace, Le Mars. Troutner, Cora E., Bradford. Turner. Ella, Bromley. Tyler, Emma, Marion. Unger, E. J., Keoknk. Uuger, Mrs. E. J., Keoknk. Updyke. Mrs. A., Lancaster. Upton, J. J., Garner. Upton, Mary W.. Garner. Vogt, Mary A., Dubuque. Wade, J. C Mount Vernon. Walker. Miss B., Sheldon. Watson, Belle, Le Mars. Watson, Wm. N., Quasqueton. Waugh, Mamie, Manchester. Webster, Cora B., Mankato. Weidel, Emma, Sioux City. Welbur, Irene S., Briston. WeUs, Nettie, Sac City. Welsh, Kate M., Dubuque. Wertzbaugh, Loretta. West Branch. White, E. H., Oskaloosa. White, Evelyn, Marion. White, Mabel, Oskaloosa. Adams, W. B., Garnett. Adams, S., Garnett. Addair, Adda, Holton. Alexander, Adelia. Lawrence. Arthur. Lucy A., Cawker City. Ash, C. J., Minneapolis. Ashbaugh. Z. R.. Topeka. Austin, L. L. H.. Topeka. Austin. Mrs. L. L. H., Topeka. Babo. Sopha H., Garnett. Bachellar, Bertha H.. Lyons. Bailey, E. H. S., Lawrence. Bailey, V. T., Lawrence. Barnard, Mrs. A. H.. Wellington. Barnard, A. W., Seneca. Barnett. James D.. Emporia. Beadle, Ida D., Dodge City. Bear, Mrs. S. J.. Topeka. Behoteguy, H. G., Emporia. Bennett. Belle N., Topeka. Benton, Miss Eva, Wellington. Benton, Guy P., Fort Scott. Benton. Mrs. Guy P., Fort Scott. Beezley, Maggie A., Girard.- Berlin, Cathran, MoPherson. Bishop, Mrs. C, Holton. Bishop, H. P., Holton. Bloss, John M., Topeka. Bloss, Mamie B., Topeka. White, Mrs. T., West Union. Whited, Myra, Eldora. Whittington, A., Mt. Vernon. Whitney, Mary A.. Ackley. Wickham, Kate, Council BlnflFs. Wier, A. H., Mason City. Wier, Mrs. A. W., Mason City. Wigg, Ella, Quasqueton. Wilcox, William, Mason City, Williams, Daisy, Greene. Williams, Ella D., Waterloo. Williams, E. V., Marion. Williams, Mrs. M. C. Marion, Williams. May. EstherviUe. Wilson, A. C, Des Moines. Wilson, A. G. B., Hopkinton. Wilson, Louise D., Cedar Falls. Wilson, W. S., Sheldon. Winn. Stella, Newton. Winzer, Paula, Burlington. Wood, George, Bristow. Wood, Grace. Fraer. Woodward, C. F., Eldora. Wright, D. S., Cedar Falls. Wright, Kate, Oskaloosa. Wright. Wra. P.. Osage. Wyant, Libbie M.. Cedar Fails. Wynkoop, B. B., Believue. Young, tf. B., Davenport. Young, Mrs. J. B., Davenport. Zimmerman, Lizzie, Gutt^nbnrg. KANSAS. Bonnell, Kate, Wichita. Bowen. E. H., Manhattan. Bracken, Pamela, Minneapolis. Bradley, Ella, Bloomington. Brawner, Mame, Axtell. Brayson, Ivana M., Wichita. Broderick, Annie R., Holton. Brown, Alice M.. Rice. Buck, James A., Robinson. Buckingham, Lallie, Lawrence. Buckmaster, Carrie E., Oskaloosa. BusaU, Kate, Pittsburg. Bushnell, Carry, Concordia. Burns, Flora E., North Lawrence. Canfield, J. H., Lawrence. Carll, Anna L., Sterling. Chamberlain, Mary E., Humboldt. Chapman, E. R., Fort Scott. Charles, Mollie, Oswego. Clark, Frances, Concordia. Clark, Jessie, Wichita. Clark, Kate B., Wichita. Clarkson, Jennie M., Topeka. Clendennen, Daisy, Delphos. Coffman, O., Sterling. Cole, Mrs, G. E., Girard. Cole, Mary A.. Coldwater. Cole, Nettie R.. Girard. Conable, Miss Laura, Axtell. ANNUAL MEMBEBSHIPS, 883 KANSAS — Continued. i»«.l3le, Mabel, Axtell. i\'w?'«y, T. W., Independeuce. • <>1, I^. H., Glasco. »:3t* Bertha M., Beloit. >x, Clyde. Beloit. •c>s*t=«, Etta, Portia. "<->?»«, Wib., Portis. rozier, Mrs. R. J., Abilene. uiiningham, Nellie B., Memphis. Tirtis, Mrs. M. E., St. Marys. 'virtis, Rachel, St. Marys. >sixiiiiiast, Florence, Clay Center. >f\irimast. Jennie, Clay Center. ->iitxiinast, Olive, Clay Center. Otividson, Wm. M., Topeka. Oa^is, Mary B., Ellsworth. Oayton, D. F., Anthony. I)«Hiii, Eliza C, Wichita. tJeam, Hattie M., Wichita. Dennis, Geo. D., Bennington. I>e Weese, Naomi B.. Lyons. "Diamon, Fannie E., Stockdale. L>iamon, Vesta, Stockdale. OodKe, Allie M., Beloit. Dodj?e, Anna, Dodge City. I>ouglas, Lillian. Holton. I>Tinkin, Frank, Wichita. Dunn. Mrs. J. F., Wichita. Dutton, J. H., Miltonvale. Eacker, Helen N., Delphos. Egen, Thomas. Cherokee. Emick, F. J., Miltonvale. Everest, H. W., Wichita. Everest, Mrs. H. W., Wichita. Fairchild, Miss E. D., Reamsville. Fairchild, F., Reamsville. Farmer. Sadie, Cawker City. Fegtly, E. E., Wichita. Fegtly. J. J., Wichita. Ferguson. Minnie, Wellington. Ferriss, Mrs. A, P., Bennington. Ferrifls, Bessie, Bennington, Fisk, Ellen W. A., Lawrence. Fitch, Clemma, Wichita. Fitzpatrick, Frank, Leavenworth. Fletsch, Mrs. E. B., Fort Smith. Forrester, J. D., Lawrence. Frazier, Mande, Clay Center. Frim, Ella, WaterviUe. Gardner, Mrs. Dora E., Emporia. Gilmore, Josephine, Lawrence. Gilmore, Mary G., Lawrence. Glad, J. W., North Topeka. Grandle, H. M., W eir City. Grates, Matis I., Osborne. Gray, Ura, Canton. Gregory, LeRoy, Hartford. Haimes, Mrs. M. D., Manhattan. Hale, Oscar, Holton. Hall, J. 8., Topeka. Hardy, Miss Clara, Haddam. Harris, C, Parsons. Harris, Idella, Clay Center. Harris, S. Grant, Cherryvale. HeweU, Mattie E., Topeka. HiU, O. C, Hiawatha. Hilton, L. B., Clvde. Hilton, W. D., Clyde. Hoaglin, Sue D., Holton. Hodgson, Mrs. Ellen, Hutchinson. Hogg, Mrs. B. F., Columbus. Holderman, D., Olathe. Horner, Clara H.. Atchison. Howard, J. L., Olathe. Idol, Cordie, White Cloud. Ingram, Mrs. G. WiUiams, GrantviUe. Irwin, A. B., Highland. Johannes, Wm., NortonviUe. Johnson, H. M., Holton. Johnson, Retta, Downs. Jones, Geo. W., Topeka. Jordan. Annie M., Topeka. Jordan, Josiah, Topeka. Kansen, WiUiam, Wicat Kansen. Katner, Frances E., Troy. Kemper, Marie, Columbus. Kemper, Minnie, Columbus. Keffer, John, W'ichita. Kibbe, E. A., Seneca. Kingsbury, A. S., Smith Center. Konantz, Emma B., Ft. Scott. Konson, Mrs. C. S., Kansas Wickat. Lansdon, C, Ft. Scott. Lawder, Chas., Lundsboro. Ijawrence, C. D., Hiawatha. Lenger, H. M., Emporia. Lindholm, Mrs. Annie, Lindsborg. Lingleton, Ralph. Osborne. Loban, Mrs. E. F., Victor. Loomis, Mrs. C. M., Clay Center. LoveweU, Bertha E., Topeka. Lovewell, Paul A., Topeka. McClintock, O. P. M., Topeka. McElroy, H. E., Wichita. Mclntire, M. A., Fulton. Mclntire, O. S., Fulton. McKernan, Ella, Topeka. McMiUer, Lizzie, Wichita. MarshaU, T. L., Osage City. Mason, Fred L.. Lawrence. Mason, ViUe. Beloit. Mathias, Allie, Leavenworth. Mathias, Mary, Leavenworth. Michael. H. M., Wichita. MiUer, Celia, Independence. MiUs, C. J., Blue Rapids. MiUs, Lina, Blue Rapids. MitcheU, Anna, Lawrence. Morgan, I. B.. Sabetha. Morrison, H. B., Tescott. Murray, A., Valley FaUs. Myers, John Q., Holton. Myers, Mrs. Kate, Holton. Myers, Maud, Valley Falls. Myers, May, Holton. Myler, E. W., Cottonwood FaUs. 884 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. KANSAS — CoNCiiUDED. Naylor, Carrie, Holton. Nevison, Mrs. W. W., Lawrence. Newell, Callie, Topeka. Newlin, Clara M., Emporia. Newlin. Mrs. J. A., Emporia. Olin. A. S., Kansas City. Olin, Mrs. A. S., Kansas City. Peet. Martha E.. Delphos. Pember, Lydia. Osborne. Peters, Chaa., Wyandotte county. Peters. Minnie, Wyandotte county. Pursel, Helen. Columbus. Ransom. J. H.. Ottawa. Read. Willie, Leavenworth. Read. Mrs. W., Leavenworth. Read, William, Leavenworth. Reas. Mary A.. Minneapolis. Reed, Jessie. Clay Center. Regnier, Mrs. John, LouLsville. Richards, K. E., Delphos. Ritter, Mary. McDonald. Ritter, Mattie, McDonald. Ritter. Nellie, McDonald. Robert. W. F.. Kansas City. Rood. Mrs. H. H., Minneapolis. Rosenthal, A.. Wichita. Ross, Anna C, Fort Scott. Saxe. Sallie L., Wichita. Schofield, Annie E., Geuda Springs. Schofield, J. G., Seneca. Sco^gin. M. A., Wichita. Scott, Clara H., WeUington. Scott. Ira I., Wellington. Scott, Izora M.. Fort Scott. Shannon, Sadie. Smith Center. Sharp, Sallie S., Wichita. Sherrett, Isa, Hiawatha. Sherrett, Margaret. Hiawatha. ShuU, Etta C, Wichita. Shull. N. P., Wichita. Slater, Belle. Thayer. Slater, Raymond, Thayer. Smith, Etta, Oskaloosa. Smith. May. Olathe. Smith. Mark B., McPherson. Smith, Hattie, Seneca. Smoke. Delia M., Wichita. Spencer, C. A., Mankato. Stevenson, Lida, Marshall. Stevenson, W. C, Emporia, Stren, Laura B., Wichita. Stewart. Lillian, Speareville. Stewart, Manda. Speareville. Stilson, Mrs. O. H.. Seneca. Stocks, Fred. Blue Rapids. Stocks, S. A., Blua Rapids. Sturgis, J. M., Topeka. Swayze. H. G.. Topeka. Swayze, J. C, Topeka. Thomas, Chester. Water ville. Thomas, Mrs. Hannah. Waterloo. Thomas. Jackson, Waterloo. Thompson, Addie, Troy. Thompson. A. H., Topeka, Thompson, Mrs. F. G.. Topeka. Thompson, J. W., Waterville. Thompson, Mabel, Topeka. Thompson. Mary, Waterville. Thompson. N. B., Waterville. TindaU, Eva, Lawrence. Tindall, Mrs. O. L.. Lawrence. Tobin, Tina, Highland. Tripp, Julia, Topeka. Troutman, Viola, North Topeka. Tucker, C. W., Arlington. Wark, Lizzie F., Arkansas City. Weller, J. A., Lecompton. Wilkinson, J. N., Emporia. Williams, Vesta, Grant ville. Wilson. Harry G., Topeka. Winans, Geo. W., Topeka. Withe, Rosethe, Edgerton. Wood, Anna S., Garden City. Wood, Emory M., Baldwin. Woodford, E. H., Winchester. Woods, Mary, Topeka. Woolsey, Atta, Mankato. Wright, Mrs. L. B., Seneca. Young, Geo. C, Wichita. Young, Geo. N„ Esk ridge. Youngroot. Alma. Osage City. YoneU, T. A., Wichita. - -Kansas^ ^7.5, KENTUCKY. Abbot, Miss Ida M., Crescent Hill. Anderson, Miss Gertrude, Bowling Green. Banta, C. W., Harrodsburg. Barre, Alice, Bowling Green. Bartholomew, Susie M., Louisville. Blacker, Lida R.. Louisville. Bronson, Ella, Louisville. Bryan, Miss Anna E., Louisville. Clarke. Miss Jennie. Louisville. Cross, W. ()., Louisville. Dempey, Miss Maggie. Louisville. Duncan, E. D., Lexington. Duncan. L. D., Lexington. Gibson, M. D., Lexington. Goodwin, A. C. Owensboro. Grunder, George, Louisville. Hill, Mary D.. Louisville. HiU. Pattie S., LouisviUe. Knighton. Miss Hadley, Louisville. Miller, Miss Bettie, Louisville. Miller, Miss Elulie, Louisville. Mullen, W. S., Louisville. Norris, Lizzie L.. LouisviUe. Prater, E. W., Blgomington. Price, Agnes A., Louisville. Price, Mary S., Louisville. Schmutz, Albert, LouLsville. Semonin, Celeste, Parkland. ANNUAL MEMBEBSHIPS, 885 KENTUCKY— Concluded. Sinipson, Miss Frances Cm Louisville. St alia rd. T. B., Lonisville. Stewart, J. Q. A., Frankfort. Stewart, Miss Rosalie, Frankfort. Stoddart, Mrs., Louisville. Stoddart, Grace, Louisville. Stoddart, Nellie, Louisville. Symonds, A. Alfred, Cloverport. Warren, Mary Lee, Louisville. Welman, Miss Lula, Louisville. — Kentucky, 39, Albert, A. E. P., New Orleans. Byrd, C. E., Monroe. Chambers. H. E., New Orleans. Conrad. Miss I. M., New Orleans. Geddes, E. E.. New Orleans. Gunby, A. A., Monroe. Gunby, Mrs. A. A., Monroe. LOUISIANA. McCoy, A. D., Mansfield. Moore, Miss Minnie, New Orleans. Ramsey, Geo. J., Clinton. Townsend, Miss A. J., New Orleans. Williams, Miss Emma, New Orleans. Williams, Mrs. S. F., New Orleans. — Louisiana.^ 13. MAINE. Allen, Mrs. M. J., Machias. Fernald, M. C. Orono. Fernald. Mrs. M. L., Orono. Furlong, E. M., Portland. Giles, M. Rose, Portland. Graves, F. E., Saco. Greely, J. H., Palermo. Haynes, Grace J., Gorham. Hill, Mrs. G. F., East Corinth. Humphey, Miss M. E., Yarmouthville. Jordan, B. R., Brunswick. Jordan, Mrs. B. R., Brunswick. Jordan, L. Frank, Brunswick. Knight, Miss F. 8., Portland. McCobe, Raymond, Machias. McCobe, Mrs. Raymond, Machias. Maxwell. H. W., Larston. Oakes, Mrs. C. C, Yarmouthville. Page, Evelyn R., Bucksport. Potter, Mrs. A. A., Brunswick. Potter, Carrie N., Brunswick. Ridley, Annie C, Brunswick. Rowe, Edith N., N. Yarmouth. Rowe, N. A.. N. Yarmouth. Slattery, Mrs. Emma, Brunswick. Stone, Gertrude, Kent's Hill. Stone, Winifred, Kent's Hill. Sylvester, Alice, Portland. Thomas, A. M., Houlton. Varney, Mrs. Wm. W., Bath. Weasill, Myra K., Auburn. Woodland, Hattie A., Droden Mills. — Ifaine, i Alford, Mrs. Clara, Baltimore. Beatty, L. L., Centerville. Chapmann, C. H., Baltimore. Farbes, Ira L., Vassar. Adams, C. H., Beverly. Allen, Lucy E., West Newton. Arle, E. D.. Boston. Atwood, Mrs. J. E., Somerville. Audins, Miss Norma, Worcester. Austin, Elvira L.. Boston. Babson, Albert D., Gloucester. Bacheller, Albert L., Lowell. Bailey, F. F., Boston. Bailey, J. W., Waltham. Bailey, Mrs. P., Boston. Bailey, T.. Boston. Ballard, Chas., Worcester. Ballard, Sarah M., Worcester. Bancroft, Henry L., Worcester. Bangs, Mary, Boston. Barnes, Louisa J., Boston. Barnes, Wm. T., Boston. Barrett, G. H., Groton. Barrows, Evelyn, Wellesley. —56 MARYLAND. Franz, Emma E., Baltimore. Smith, Mrs. Sarah F., Baltimore. Worthington, John D., Bel Air. — Maryland^ 7. MASSACHUSETTS. Barrows, Marion E. H., Hopedale. Barry, Florence S.. Lynn. Barton, Geo. H., Boston. Bettinson, Addie M., East Cambridge. Bettinson, James W., East Cambridge. Bettinson, Louisa M., East Cambridge, Blaisdall, Anna K., Boston. Boyden, Albert G.. Bridgewater. Brackett, Susie C, Lynn. Brown, Helen M., Lowell. Brown, Sylvester, Wollaston. Bryant, Bartholomew, Norfolk. Bryant, O. B\, Boston. Bryant, Mrs. O. F., Boston. Burbank, John G., Peabody. Burbeck, Mrs. J. N., Peabody. Burgess, Lucy L., Boston. Butters. L. H., Boston. Butters, S. H., Boston. Campbell, Elizabeth, Everett. 886 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. MASSACHUSETTS - Continued. Carter. Mrs. Mary A.. Boston. Carver, Miss E., Westfield. Case. Elmer, Hadley. Churchill, Geor^ie S.. Jamaica Plain. Clark, Chas. N., Northampton. Clark, Ellen ()., Sudbury. Clark, Harry C. Boston. Clark. John B., Northampton. Clemence, Mary E., Southbridge. Cleveland, M. L., Boston. Cleveland. Sarah. Boston. Cockrane. M. J., Franklin. Coffin. Carrie I.. Newburyport. Coffin. Mrs. C. \V.. Newburyport. Coffin, E. F., Newburyport. Ci-ary, Hoyt, St. Paul. L^iel>erg, Amelia, Mankato. E ^le^ii, Johauna, Delavan. t^ixinell, Medora. Grove City. L»ixisley, L. F., Minneapolis, I^ittell, E. H., Stewart. l^it^tle, Clara L., . X^oosemoore, Anmic, Huntley. I^ord, L. C, Moorehead. l^othrop, V. W., St. Paul. ILioiile, W., St. Paul. I^owry, Mrs. E.. St, Paul. Ill xitz, Maggie E.. Lake City. Lntz, Thomas H., Lake City. Ijyinan, Ida M., Granville. Lyrich, James, Wiscoy. Lynch, Mary E., Winona. JLiyon, Blanche, St. Paul. Lyons, J. E., Montevideo. Jjyons, Mrs. J. E., Montevideo. Mackey, Helen, St. Paul. McCall, M., West Duluth. McCaine, Addie, St. Paul. McCann, Lizzie B., Hamline. McCardy, Chas. W., Winona. McCaughin, Mary, Waseca. McCleary. J. T.. Mankato. McConnell, Grace M., St. Cloud. McConnell, Jennie A., St. Cloud. McCord, Mrs. W. B., Minneapolis. McCormick, Miss E., St. Paul. McCormick, Johanna. Norwood. McCormick, Maggie F. V., Norwood. McCauwan, Jennie, Winona. McCroden. Maud, Merriam Park. McCrory, A. G., St. Paul. McDonough, Delia, Grand Meadow. McDonough, Julia, St. James. McDonough, Mary. Grand Meadow. McGee, Charles, St. Paul. McGrorty, Eugenie F.. St. Paul. McGriUis, O., Hubbard. McGuame, Anna, Winona. McKenna, Emma, St. Paul. McLeod, Christie, Rushford. McLeod, H. C, St. Paul. McLeod, R. C, St. Paul. McManus, Anna, Spicer. McManus, Loa, Mazeppa. McMartin, Grace. Claremont. McMillan, Mrs. E., St. Paul. McMurry, Chas. A., Winona. McNown, Clara I., Appleton. MeOnat, Mary, Red Wing. Madigan, Margaret. St. Paul. Madison, Nellie, Marshall. Maguir, Anna. St. Peter. Maguir, Kate. St. Peter. Mahaflfy, Sadie, Canton. Mahoney, Miss A. M., Minneapolis. Maloney, Berzie, Waseca. Mamon. M„ St. Paul. Manual-Training School, St. Paul. Manchester, J. E., Alexandria. Marren, Maggie, Rochester. Marriam, Winifred, Brown's Valley. Marshall, J. C, Dodge Center. Martin, Mrs. M. M., St. Paul. Mather, L. W., Minneapolis. Mathews, Abbie, Breckenridge. Matthews, Josie, St. Paul. Mattson, Evelyn, Breckenridge. Masmi, C. F., Ada. Max field, Myra, Austin. May, Alice, W^inona. May, Mrs. Thomas, Winona. Manz, Macy, Verndale. Mead, Effie, Mankato. Meguin, Winnie, St. Paul. Meilike, L. A., St. Paul. Melian, Anna, Genoa. Merrill, D. D., St. Paul. Merrill. Mrs. D. D., St. Paul. MerrUl, G. E., St. Paul. Merrill, H. A.. St. Paul. Merrill, L. K., St. Paul. Merriner, C. D.. Jackson. Merritt, S. A., Winona. Mesh, Christiana, Barrett. Mikkelsen, Martha, Delavan. Miller. Ada, M.. Lake City. Miller, Carrie. St. Paul. Miller, Emily L., Roscoe. MiUer, John C, Delhi. Miller, Lillian A., Roscoe. MiUer, Lucia M.. St. Paul. Mills, May E., Buffalo. Milnor, F. L„ St. Paul. Miner, J. P., St. Paul. Mink, Jennie, Winona. MitcheU, Mary G., Eyota. Montgomery, Mary, Welcome. Moveil, Anna, St. Paul. Moore, Anna, St. Paul. Moore, Julie L., Duluth. Moore, John, Crookston. Moosbrugger. Ellen, New Canada. Morrison, Mrs. J., Waterloo. Morrison, Rose B., Minneapolis. Morrissey, Roseline, Stillwater. Morrow. Anna A., St. Paul. Morse, Ethel, Beaver Falls. Moses, A. Helen, Empire City. Moses, M. J.. Empire City. Mosher, E. H.. Utica. Mosher, Roy, Utica. Mostur, Elias, Norway Lake. Mueller, Francis, New Ulm. Mueller, Lena. St. Paul. MttUer, Frederick C, St. Paul. MuUahy, Ella R., St. Paul. Mullen, Ella, Wabasha. Mulvanay, Maggie, Mantonville. Murdock, Emily T., Wabasha. Murphy, G. E., Madelia. 894 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATIOI^. MINNESOTA— CoNTiNTJKD. Mnrphy, Julia, Blooming Prairie. Murphy, Mary E., St. Paul. Naughton, Mamie, Grove City. Nedobyty, Anna, St. Paul. Neil, Oscar H., Holden. Nelson. Augusta J., North St. Paul. Nelson, L. T., Vasa. Nettleship. Lillie M., St. Paul. Newton, Elizabeth, Cedar Mills. Newson, M. G., St. Paul. •Nichols, Wilna, Duluth. Nix, Amelia, St. Paul. Nix, Robert, New Ulm. Noble, Cora B., Mankato. Noble, Hattie L., Mankato. Nolan, Mary, St. Paul. Noonan. J. M., Graceville. Norcott. Clara, St. Paul. Norcott. Martha. St. Paul. Norris, Ella L., Minneapolis. Norton, Annabel, Northfield. Norton, M., St. Paul. Norton. M. G., Winona. Noth, Emma, Anoka. Nott, R. N., St. Paul. Nutter, Mary, Sherburn. Nygreen, Caroline, Elizabeth. Ober. Winifred. Austin. O'Brien. Miss K. L., Faribault. O'Brien, Lily Y., St. Paul. O'Brien, Mary, Willmar. O'Connell, Anna A.. Minneapolis. O'Connell. J, F., Gibbon. O'Connell, J. E., Minneapolis. O'Connell, R. D., St. Paul. O'Conor, Josie J., St. Paul. Ohr. Frances D.. St. Paul. O'Keefe, NeUie, Hastings. Olds, Mary L., Duluth. Olsen, H. F.. WiUmar. Olsen, John W., Albert Lea. O'Neill. Mary G., St. Paul. Opsahl, O. H., Albert Lea. O'Rourke. Lizzie, Enterprise. Orton, L. C. St. Paul. Osborn, Georgia, Monroe. Osborne, Mary, St. Peter. Osborne, Rosamond, St. Peter. Otis. Grace. St. Paul. Palmer, May. Minneapcrtis. Palten, Alicia, St. Paul. Papenhagen, Martha, St. Paul. Park, Anna. Caledonia. Parker. E. A.. St. Paul. Patterson, Emma C. Rochester. Patterson, H. G.. Litchfield. Pattison, Edith, St. Cloud. Peabodv, Eunice D., St. Paul. Peabody. Sarah E.. St. Paul. Peavce. Elizabeth. St. Peter. Pease, Mertie L., Pipestone. Perrin, H. E., Mankato. Peters, Rose, Crow River. Phelan, Alice F., St. PbhI. Phelan, B. M., St. Paul. Pickard, Anna C, St. Paol- Pickett, Cora, St. Paul. Pierce, Sarah W., Faribault. Pike, Susie S.. Minneapolis. Pitts. Fannie A., St. PauL Place, Mrs. C. S., St. Paul. Pointer, E. G., Duluth. Porter, Anna S., Mankato. Porter, A. H., Minnehaha. Porteri Edgar L., St. Clond, Powell, Eva L.. Warren. Pratt, E. C, St. Paul. Pratt, Eunice, St. Paul. Prescott, Flora E., Preston. Public Library, St. Paul. Putnam, A. L., St. Paul. Putnam, K. E., St. Paul. Putnam, Mary A., Battle Lake. Quing, Thomas F., St. Paul. Quingley, Mary, Wabasha. Rector, Jennie, Wells. Redding, Addie E.. Plomvier. Reed. Flora. Farmington. Rehfeldt, Clara M., New Ulm. Reid, Margaret, Mankato. Reinecker, Miss A. F., St. Paul. Regan, Mary, Winona. Remington, Alice, Northfield. Rendohl, J. O.. Hurdal. Rice, Ann E., Oronoco. Rice, Carl J.. Sacred Heart. Rice, Emma D., St. Paul. Richardson, F. M., Brown's Valley. Richardson, J. M., La Sueur. Richardson, Julia, Duluth. Richardson, Nellie, Winnebago. Richardson, Nora J., Elgin. Riley, Mary, Westport. Roach, D. L., Brown's Valley. Roach, M. E., Brown's Valley. Roach, Mrs. M. E., Brown's Valley. Robertson, Margaret, Rochester. Robinson, Ida L., Fairmount. Robinson, Lucy M.. St. Paul. Rocheleau, M. F., Moorhead. Rocheleau, Mrs. M. F., Moorhead. Rockwell, Minnie E., Rushford. Rodgers, Al. J., St. Paul. Rogers, Frank K., St. Paul. Rohneder, Anna. Winona. Rooke, Annie, Beaver Falls. Rosanne, Mrs. Emily, Le Roy. Rosenfeld, L., Ramsey. Rowe, Georgia, Springfield. Rowe, Lucy, North R-edwood, Rucker, Lena, Farmington. Ruddy, H. E., St. Paul. Rudolph, A. B., Duluth. Russell, T. F., Stephen. Rydee, C. N., St. Paul. Safley, Agnes E., Windom. ANNUAL MEMBEB8HIP8. 895 MINNESOTA— Continued. aailsbury, Ada B., Winona. :^t. John, Geo. £., Zumbrota. S a Homers, L. F., Keron Lake. r^anders, L. M., St. Paul. Sargent, T. T., Hutchinson. Sarles, Deborah, Midneapolis. Sauer, Bertha, St. Paul. Saunders, C. F., St. Paul. Sawyer, Addie W., Duluth. Sawyer, Harry B., St. Paul. Scanlaw, Miss J., St. Paul. Schenk, Helen, St. Paul. Scott, Anna, Thielmanton. Scott, Chas. B., St. Paul. Scott, Mary A., Albert Lea. SeU, A. T., Hills. Seward, Clara M., Lake Crystal. Shaleen, A. A., Lindstrom. Shanley. Emma C, St. Paul. Sharpe, Belle. Mankato. Shearer, Mattie L.. Pt. Douglas. Shearer, Charlotte, Elysian. Sheen, E. S., St. Paul. Sheffer, Myrrah. St. Paul. Shellback, Augusta, Mankato. Sheppard, C. R., Bird Island. Shepard, Irwin, Winona. Shepard, Mrs. Y., W'inona. Sheran, Mary, Waseca. Sherin, S., St. Paul. Sherwin, Wm., Lake Crystal. Simmons, Jessie F., St. Paul. Sloan, Marion L., RocheBter. Slock, H. W., St. Paul. Slitten, P. R,, Wiilmar. Smith, Claribel, Minneapolis. Smith, G. C, St. Paul. Smith, Helen A., St. Paul. Smith, Inez I., Lu Verne. Smith, Kate, St. Paul. Smith, Lulu, Rochester. Smith, L. B., St. Paul. Smith, Mrs. M. J., Litchfield. Smith, Mary L., St. Paul. Smith, Stella, Rochester. Sraithson, Drusilla, Stillwater. Smitz, W. J., Albert Lea. Smyth, Drusilla, Lake City. Somers, Maggie, Brainerd. Sousteby, Georgine. Red Wing. Southworth, Mary L., Wabasha. Sparrell, Delia S., Lake City. Spates, Miss A. E., St. Paul. Spates, Miss J. L., St. Paul. Speckmann, Bertha, Winona. Speckmann, Emma, Winona. Sperry, A. M., Wasioja. Sprague, Sarah, Minneapolis. Stafford, John, Minneapolis. Staker, Minnie, Winona. Stauffer, S. H., Burbank. Stanford, E. A.. Oak Center. Stapleton, Julia, St. Paul. Stapleton, M. A., St. Paul. Stapleton, Miss M. E., St. Paul. Stanton, Ella M., Sauk Rapids. Stanton, Geo. A., St. Charles. Start, Sam. S., Lu Verne. Stegner, Rebecca, Faribault. Steyens, E. S., Winona. Stevenson, R. R.. Eyota. Steward, D., Rochester. Stewart, Maud G., Northfield. Stewart, Nina C, Northfield. Stockwell, Lucie J., Minneapolis. Stokes, Gertrude, St. Paul. Stone, Mrs. Elnora, Rochester. Stone. M. A.. Anoka. Stickler. D. A., St. Paul. Strom, Cora L., Bird Island. Strong, Fanny L., St. Paul. Strong, Jas. W., Northfield. Strunes, J. J., Montevideo. Sturtevant, A. A., St. Paul. Sullivan, Margaret, Blue Earth City. Swan, Marta, Wabasha. Swanstrom, Mrs. M. M., St. Paul. Swarts, Florence E., Chatfield. Swift, Ward W., Argyle. Sybourne, Thos., St. Paul. Sylvester, Electa, Plainview. Taggart, Margaret, Campbell. Talbot, A. E., Minneapolis. Taner, Amy, Faribault. Tarnson, Thos.. Barneville. Taylor, E. A., Chaska. • Taylor, Kate, Lake Benton. Taylor, Robert, Kasson. Telford. Stella, Hastings. Terry, Jane L., St. Paul. Throdahl, Alma, Mankato. Titus, Ida A.. Owatanna. Tong, Mary M., St. Paul. Topping, Dora L., Litchfield. Torrens, John L., Oakland. Trace, O. F., Royalton. Traynor, Ella, Franklin. Traynor, Maggie, Franklin. Truax, Mrs. S. N., Mantorville. Tugleckjel, Ole O., Sacred Heart. Turner, Mary, Verndale. Unghis, Mrs. L. D., St. Paul. Vandyke, J. A., Plainview. Van Valkenburg, J., Mankato. Van WMe, Mary E., St. Paul. Veigle, Amanda V., Mankato. Venn, John, St. Paul. Virtue, E. J., St. Paul. Vordale, S. ()., Harmony. Vosburgh, E. G., Foyntain. Wabbstraw, M., St. Peter. W^aisin, A. M., Milan. Wait, S. L., Marshall. Waite, F., Winona. Wakefield, Emma, Litchfield. W'ales, M. V., St. Paul. 896 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATIOJ^T. MINNESOTA— Concluded. Walker, E., St. Paul. Walker, Millie B., Buffalo. Wallace, D., Mankato. Walsh, Anna B., St. Paul. Walsh, Peter L., Norwood. Walshie, May, Hastings. Wanger, Mamie B., Fosston. Ware, Ella, St. Paul. Warner, Mrs. Lois, Blue Earth City. Warner, Saidee, St. Paul. Wasson, V. R., WeUs. Watson, Hattie, Farmington. Watson, Mabel, Morris. Waufle, Mae E., Hamline. Way, Estelle, Lurrine. Way, L. H., Lurrine. Webster, Abbie, Aurora. Webster, Fannie, Aurora. Webster, Jennie, Aurora. Webster, W. F., Moorhead. Weld, Frank A., Fergus Falls. Weld, Mrs. Frank A., Fergus Falls. Welsh, C. D., St. Paul. Welsh, H. H., La Verne. West, W. M., Faribault. Wheaton, E. F.. St. Paul. Wheaton, G. W.. Minneapolis. Wheaton, W. W., Minneapolis. Wheeler, A. H., St. Paul. Wheeler. Sheila V., Wood Lake. Whitimore, E. F., Minneapolis. Whiting, Nellie E., Wabasha. Whitman, A., St. Paul. Whitman, Jessie L.. St. Paul. Whittemore, Belle T., Clear^rater. Whittier, Lucy E.. Empire. Williamson, M. E., Cannon Kalls. Wildes, Annie L., Mankato. Wildes, Hattie R.. Mankato. Wilkins, E. C, Montevideo. Wilkins, Mrs. E. C. Montevi<3eo- Wilkins. Frankie. Sauk Cent«?r- Willard, Julia H., Red Wing. Williams, Florence, St. Paul. Williams, Isabel St. Paul. WiUiams, J. A., St. Paul. Williams, J. F., St. Paul. Williams, Lenne F., St. Paul. Williams, Lou, St. Paul. Wilson, Alma I., Mankato. AVilson, Clara M., St. Paul. Wilson, Frank T., Stillwater. Winkley, Emma L., Faribault. Witbreoht, George, St. Paul. Wolcott, Hattie A., Minnesota IL»ake. Woleben, May, Mankato. Woodbury, A'. A., St. Paul. AVoodley, O. I., Sauk Center. Wooldridge, Clara, Hamilton. Wounwood, J. A., St. Paul. Wright. EUzabeth, St. Paul. Yost, Anna, St. Paul. Young. John, Stillwater. Young. R. H., Minneapolis. Yourex, Mabel, Detroit. Zahongi. Rachel. St. Paul. Zeiske. Chas. A.. Courtland. Zumbach, Paul, St. Paul. - -Minnesota^ i MISSISSIPPI. Baird, Miss R. W.. Greenwood. Barnett. Mrs. S. S.. Vicksburg. Beall, Miss Clara. Lexington. Burrus, J. D., Rodney. Cameron, Miss Lula. West Point. Cooper, Mrs. J. G., Water Valley. Davis, Mrs. W. T., Pass Christian. Dickey, L. T., Lexington. Dickey, Miss Mary E., Lexington. Dickey, Miss Sallie, Lexington. Ervin, Miss Adeie. Columbus. Everett, Mrs. J. H., Franklin. Hefiin, Miss Hattie, Sardis. Henderson, Miss Mamie, Deaconville. Hill, Thursa. Sturgis. Ivey. Mrs. M. C, West Point. Jackson, Miss Mollie, (ixford. Lacey, Mrs. E. P.. Satartia. Leigh. Miss Mamie, Batesville. McFarland, Geo. P., Water Valley. McLeod, Miss Onida, Harrison. McLewora, A. G., Greenwood. Miller, E. D., Holly Springs. Mitchell, S. C, Clinton. Moore, E. E., West Point. Moore, L. J., West Point. Morgan, Miss Mary L., Water Valley. Parrish, Epper, Oakland. Parrish, R. I.. Oakland. Parrish, Robert. Oakland. Philips, Helen, Batesville. Preston, J. R., Jackson. Reeves, Miss Emma, Black Hawk. Reeves, Jackson. Washington. Reeves, Miss S. A.. Black Hawk. Riley, J. D., Hebron. Ruffln, Miss Kate, Courtland. Sale, Mrs. Annie T.. Aberdeen. Smith, Mrs. A. G.. State Line. Smith, N. A., State Line. Tyson, Miss A., Greenwood. Watson, Miss Annie, Lexington. Woofter, T. J., West Point. Wright, H., Vicksburg. — Mississippi^ il ANNUAL MEMBERSHIPS. 897 MISSOURI. .dl, Alias L. M., Butler. t* X. nnder. T. J., Mary viUe. lt*ti, Mary A., Weston. lt*ii, Nora C. Weston. iiil»ler, B. S., St. Louis. inil>ler, Mrs. B. S., St. Louis. ixclx-e'virs, Clarke, MaryvUle. iiilre^vvs. Miss Isabella M., St. Louis. iidr^^srs, Louisa M., Maryville. riiolcl. Miss Florence W., Lexington. Lttel>erry, S. A., La Grange. $itil«^y. Mrs. J. A., St. Louis. Murker. Miss Mary A.. Brookfield. 3ecfe, Mrs. M. A.. Marshall. Benxiett, A. S., Nevada. Beiitley, Hattie E., St. Louis. Bert ley, Mrs. A. W., Kansas City. Blair. Miss J., St. Louis. \^\«.tTieT, Samuel, St. Louis. Blythe, Mrs. S. J., Sugar Lake. Booth, Thomas, St. Louis. l^ooth, Mrs. Thomas, St. Louis. Boulton, Payne A., Rocheport. Hrant. Miss Katie, Savannah. Bxennan, Nellie, St. Joseph. Brink. H. L., Kansas City. B runner, Geo. W., St. Louis. Burgess, Miss Abbie E., Kansas City. Bargess, Mrs. E. H., Kansas City. Butler, Wm. M., St. Louis. Cane, Lutie H., Mexico. Carhart, Ida M., Warrensburg. Carlson, August, Kansas City. Clark, Miss Laura A., Rush Hill. Coleman, Miss K., Salisbury. Comstock, J. R., Kansas City. Cook, Miss Emma J., Mountain Grove. Cooper, Elizabeth, St. Louis. Cooper, Kate F., St. Louis. Cooper, Rose M., St. Louis. Cooper, T. F., St. Louis. Cooper, Mrs. T. W., St. Louis. Cox, Miss M. E., St. Louis. Craig, L. N., Maryville. Craig, Mary E., Maryville. Davis, D. B., St. Louis. Deerwater, Frank, Montrose. Degman, Catherine A.. St. Louis. Dempsey, H. G., Cape Girardeau. Dickson, Mrs. E. A., Kansas City. Dixson, Miss Kate E., St. Joseph. Douglas, B., Independence. Doyle, Eugene, St. Louis. Doyle, Kate, St. Louis. Dugan, G. E., Sedalia. Dutcher, Mrs. C. H., Warrensburg. Eggleston, Carrie W., Macon. Eickenberg, E. C, Camden. Elliott, Miss Dean B., Keytesville. Ellis, M. T., St. Joseph. Endicott, Jos. A., St. Joseph. Fleming, Eva, St. Joseph. Force, Miss Phcebe, St. Joseph. Fox, Ellen E., Kansas City. Frame, Mrs. Ellen W., St. Joseph. Fruchte. A. C, St. Louis. Gaines, Maggie M.. Harrisonville. Gibbs, Miss Delia. St. Louis. Goetz, Miss Emma, St. Joseph. Goode, Jennie A., Lexington. Goodlett, Gilbert C St. Louis. Goodlett, W. C, St. Louis. Gordon, Kate G., Lexington. Gordon, Leila, Lexington. Greenhow, W. T., St. Joseph. Greer, Mrs. E. 8., Lexington. Grover, Lizzie L., Warrensburg. Gunn, Lily B., St. Joseph. Gustafsen, C, Kansas City. Hach. P. A., Cape Girardeau. Hackett, Miss Helen, Kansas City. Hackstaff, Cate S., St. Louis. Hall, Miss M. L., CarroUton. Hance, Virginia E., Hannibal. Harnett, Mrs. Mary E., Wentzville. Harris, Miss Bessie, St. Louis. Hart, H., St. Louis. Healy, Louisa C, St. Louis. Healy, Mary A., St. Louis. Hendricks, Miss A., Kansas City. Hereford, Miss Jennie, Odessa. Hickman, Grace S., St. Louis. Hickman. Mrs. M. M.. St. Louis. Higgason, Miss Josie, Independence. Higgason, Miss NeUie, Independence. Hisey, J. C, Kansas City. Hitch, Mollie, Wentzville. Hitch, R. M., Kansas City. Hoffman, B. F., Columbia. Horton, A. D., St. Joseph. Hughes, H. C, Kansas City. Hughes, Mrs. H. C, Kansas City. Hunter, Lula, Westport. Hunter, Miss M. W., St. Joseph. Hyde, Miss Alice, Salisbury. Hyslop, Charles, Maryville. Hyslop, Delia M.. Maryville. Jahansen, Mrs. J., St. Louis. Jahansen, Miss Rosalie, St. Louis. Jandon, T. P., jr., Kansas City. Johnson. Ollie A.. St. Joseph. Johnson. Ralph, St. Joseph. Jones, Wm. H., St. Joseph. Kaley, Amelia, Hannibal. Kemper, J. F.. Maryville. Kerr, Mrs. L. H., Fulton. Kerr, Miss L. H., Fulton. Kerr, Miss S. B., Fulton. Kiall, G. W., St. Louis. Kierman, Miss Nora. Huntsville. Knobel, M., St. Louis. Lassyon, Minnie S., Nevada. Lawrie, Mattie B., St. Joseph. Lawson, J., Kansas City. Lee, C, St. Louis. Lincoln, C. F., Kansas City. 898 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATIOJff. MISSOURI— Concluded. Lon^, L., St. Loiiin. Lynch, Florence, Mountain Grove. Lynch, Mr8. W., Mountain Grove. Lynch, W. H., Mountain Grove. McAfee, Samuel L., Parkville. McCartney, L.. Hannibal. McDonald, VV. A., Fairmont. McFarland, Eva, Kansas City. McKean, Georgia, Kirksville. McMeely, T. E., Shawneetown. McNette8, M. E., Kansas City. Maher. Albert, St. Louis. Markham, Miss Fannie. Ironton. Marquess, Wm. H.. Fulton. Marquess, Mrs. W. H., Fulton. Martin, Helen. Macon. Marshall, T. C, Alma. Martin. Ella B., Kansas City. Martin. R. G.. CarroUton. Martin, Mrs. R. G., jr., CarroUton. Mason, Effie L., Hij?j^insville. Medbury, Alice, Kansas City. Menche, Miss Lula. St. Louis. Merrick, Jennie, Hannibal. Merwin, J. B.. St. Louis. Milligan. Laura E., St. Louis. Moran, Eldon, St. Louis. Morse, G. S., Columbia. Morse, Louise, Kansas City. Mueller, Miss Bertha, St. Louis. Mugan, M. D., St. Louis. Naiswaiger, C. R., Kansas City. Nan. Mrs. Alice, St. Louis. Nan. Miss Bessie. St. Louis. Newbold, Mrs. ()., Odessa. NickersDn, Bet tie, Warrensburg. Nickerson, Katharine, Warrensburg. Nugerhart, George, St. Louis. Oliver, Josie. Macon City. Osborne. Geo. L., Warrensburg. Pallock. W. W., Mexico. Papplegate, O. H., St. Louis. Patrick, J. N.. St. Louis. Penn, H. C, Columbia. Perkins. B. M., Kansas City. Perkins, Chas. E., Kansas City. Perkins. \V. W.. Kansas City. Peters. F. H., Mexico. Peters. Mrs. F. H., Mexico. Phillips, Hiram, Columbia. Phillii)s, N. H., Columbia. Philpott, Blanche, Salisbury. Porter, E. D., Columbia. Porter, Mrs. M. M., St. Joseph. Price, G. B., Kansas City. Prindle, Mrs. L. E., Kansas City. Puckett, Miss Lizzie, Kansas City. Randal. N. C, Bonne Terre. Randall, N. P., Cape Girardeau. Rawlee, B. L., Mt. Vernon. Rawlee, Julia E., Mt. Vernon. Richcreek, Miss A. M., Hannibal. Riley, Mrs. T. E., St. Looia. Rill, Miss Lizzie, Fulton. Riugliug. Clara C, St. Loais. Ringling, Julia, St. Louis. Ringo, Miss Lena, Arcadia. Robinson, M., Macon. Roehl, C. J., Charleston. Rucker, Miss A., Huntaville. Russell, Mrs. Bell. Charleston - Russell, D. R., St. Louis. Russell, J. J.. Charleston. Rutherford. Bertha. St. Lonis. Rutherford, Cornelia, St. L(onii«. Sanburn, Mrs. Mary D., Warrens bun?. Scharff. L., St. Louis. Schauffler, R. M. E.. Kansas Citj. Schentz. Alvina, Buchanan. Sheldon, Chas. S., KirksviUe. Sheldon, Mrs. Helen .\., KirksviUe. Sherman. Helen A., St. Joseph. Sleppy, Carrie M., St. Joseph. Smith, Miss Mary, Lexington. Smock, Kate, Lexington. Snowden, Cora, St. Joseph. Spears, Miss Fannie, Lexington. Spears, Miss Maggie, Lexington. Stall, Miss Caroline, Independence. Stephens, Mrs. T., Kansas City. Stith, Stella, St. Louis. Tharpe, F. D., Kansas City. Theilmann, Louis, Applet on City. Thurmon. Nora, Loubakin. Miss May, Butte. Daziks, C. W., Great FaUs. Oovrney, Miss B. P., Butte. • Ea^on, W. B., Helena. Ellis, Mrs. Minnie, Big Timber. Ferria. Gertrude, Helena. Fraiiiasman, Charles V., Butte City. OilcHrist, Mary P., Great FaUs. Oilpatrick, Mrs. S. C, Helena. Oroeneveld, E. J., Butte. Oroeneveld, Mrs. E. J., Butte. Helt, Nellie F., Miles City. Humbert, W. C., Helena. Jacobs, Evelyn, Big Timbers. Joyce, Charles M., Butte. Lawler, Josie L., Deer Lodge. Lawlor, W. V., Butte. Marshall, Mary, Miles City. Manuel, Mrs. Fred., Helena. Old, Verna T., Miles City. Ostien, L. A., Miles City. Patterson, A. L., Butte. Pax son, E. E., Butte. Russell, J. R., Butte City. Shipman, Carrie E., Bozeman. Steere, E. A., Butte. Thompson, Lizzie, Anaconda. Teague, Mary, Butte City. Templeton, J. C, Helena. Trial, Thomas M., Stillwater. Wolfe, Marguretta, Deer Lodge. Young, R. G., Helena. — Montana^ 37, NEBRASKA. Aid rich. Miss C. M.. Central City. Anderson, O., Madison. Armstrong, J. T., Beatrice. Armstrong, Mrs. J. T., Beatrice. Ashf<»rd, Mary, Homer. Atchinson, Chas., Alliance. Ayer, Myra V., Papillion. Baer, J. S., Waverly. Bald-win, C. M., Alma. Banker, Lizzie L., Omaha. Barnum, Kate, Blue Springs. Bellington. Sadie, Lexington. Bennett, Nellie, Omaha. Bertram, Mrs. A. M., Lincoln. Bertram, Miss Susie, Lincoln. Blakeslee, S. E., Lincoln. Bliss, H. E., Fairmont. Bliss, M. E., Fairmont. Bradley, Alice M., Omaha. Brandon, H. W., Tecumseh. Brandon, Mrs. H. W., Tecumseh. Bromer, Lily M., Omaha. Brown, Miss L. E., Neligh. Buncher, Jennie M., Lincoln. Buncher, Kate M., Lincoln. Bumann, A. M., Omaha. Gary, C. P., Fairbury. Gary, M. T., Fairbury. Caswell, Ida M., Omaha. Gobb, H. E., Omaha. Gole, Mrs. F. W., Fairmont. Conway, J. C, Crete. Corbett, H. R., York. Corevin, Minnie, Omaha. Cornish, Mrs. L. A., Omaha. Crandell. Frankie', Fremont. Cranston. A. 8., Omaha. Crossby, C. W., Norfolk. Crow, Alice, Nebraska City. Davles, Ellen M., Omaha. DsTis, Minnie F., Beatrice. DaviR, S. R., Omaha. Doolittle, Ella, Lincoln. Dysars, Ida, Omaha. Emnis, D. R., Omaha. Evans, Matilda, Omaha. Fenton, M., Aurora. Fike, L. W., Nelson. Ford, L. B., Lincoln. Frazier, Carrie L., Grand Island. Fringan, M. M., Lincoln. Frost, L., Lincoln. Frost, L. A., Lincoln. Glidden, E. W., Neligh. Graham, R., Fremont. Guthrie, Minnie L., Grand Island. Hart, Mrs. C. B., Bloomington. Hart, Miss L. Ella, Bloomington. Hem pel, Teresa, Piatt smouth. Hobbs, Evelyn A., Omaha. Hoffman, Mrs. W. S., Lincoln. Honefus, F., Lincoln. Hopwood, Mina, Holehege. Hornberger, J. A., Norfolk. Howard, Alice Frost, Lincoln. Howard, Geo. E., Lincoln. Hunter, D. M., Bladen. Hunter, Mrs. D. M., Bladen. Ingersoll, Nellie W., Tecumseh. Ireland, Jessie M., Papillion. Ireland, Nellie, Omaha. Jardine, Miss Jessie, Ashland. Johnson, Mary, Omaha. Jones, H. B., Lincoln. Julian, W. A., Minden. Kellogg, H. M., Aurora. KeUogg, Mrs. H. M., Aurora. Kent, Mrs. Mary E., Omaha. Kerney, C. Gertrude, Plattsmouth. Kerr, Lucy V., CoUins. King, OUie, Beatrice. Lamb, May D., Grand Island. Lane, Geo. B., Lincoln. Langhan, K. E., Detroit. 900 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. NEBRASKA— Concluded. Larkin. Margaret, Vicksburg. Larton, Ed., Nebraska City. Larton, R., Nebraska City. La Rue, Myra, Omaha. Lloyd, Ella F., Nebraska City. Lenfest, Lucy E., Edgar. Lewis. Burr. Lincoln. Littlefield, Emma D., Omaha. Littlelield, Lillian A., Omaha. Lutiechild, Miss A. E., Fremont. Lyon, L., Callaway. McCabe, Kate, Omaha. McClusky, F. D., Lincoln. McCoUum, Mr. H. B., Central City. McCool, Lyde E., Omaha. McCut, Jennie B., Omaha. McKee, J. R., Fairfield. MoKinley, Cassie, Ponca. Marble, Jeannie L., Omaha. Martin, Edith, Beatrice. Maxfield, Mrs. Gertrude, Beliwood. Miller, O. M., Stanford. Montgomery, R. J., Omaha. Morgan, Eliza C, Peru. Moulton, Fannie, Hay Springs. Nelson, Ellen, Craig. Nelson, Louisa, Craig. Newman, J. P., Omaha. Nichol, E. A., Wilcox. Norton, Helen I.. Omaha. Ostien, H. C, Neligh. Parmelee, J. B., Nebraska City. Parmelee, M. G., Nebraska City. Parmelee, Mrs. N. K., Nebraska City. Phelps, S. E., Shelton. Quackenbush, Mary £., Omaha.. Raden, C. Van, Lincoln. Rath, Nellie, Orneola. Rays, Lucy J., Omaha. Reed, Effie, Omaha. Ring, Charles M., Cheney. Ring, Fannie M., Cheney. Robinson, Emily J.. Omaha. Rogers, Helen, Omaha. Ross, Mrs. L. R., Central City. Scholl, F. S., Hubbet. Schroer, Mary. Ponca. Snook, Velina L., Beatrice. Staples, Mabel, Neligh. Stark, D. J., David City. Teickey, J. B., Lincoln. Thompson, Sarah S.. Omaha. Thompson, J. C, Esdaille. Torrance, Nat tie, Fremont. Tusrill, Mrs. T. B., Schuyen. Sweedy, L. T., Aurora. Ward, Agnes E., Fremont. Watson, C. H., Omaha. Welch, Carrie, Columbus. Wells, Ella, Columbus. Wheeler, M. £., Lincoln. Wilson, Allen B., Nebraska City. Wilson, W^. L., Nebraska City. — Nebraska. 147 NEW HAMPSHIRE. Austin, F. D., Nashner. Austin, Julia M., Nashner. Barnes, Mary F., Manchester. Barnes, Dick E., Bristol. Blake, Annie F., Manchester. Blake, Harriet L., Manchester. Brawn, Annie, Rochester. Brown, Edith S., Hampton Falls. Burbank, A., Exeter. Daniels, Belle R., Manchester. De Le Croix, Mary R., Hampton Falls. Epps, Annie J., Francistown. Epps, Geo. D., Francistown. Fisher, I. H., Milford. Hitchcock, Geo., Hanover. Jones, J. G., Manchester. Joslin, Jessie F., Walpole. Kelly, NelHe B., Franklin FalL?. Morss, Chas. H., Portsmouth. Morss, Mrs. Chas. H., Portsmouth. Nims, Marella S., Keene. Otleson, T. J., Merrimack. Quimby, M. Emma, Concord. Quimby, Mary S.. Concord. Rodgers, E. A., Oxford. Rogers, Alice, Oxford. Robinson, E., Manchester. Robinson, T. E., Manchester. Sanborn, H. W., Oxford. Secombe, A. C, Milford. Verrill, G. S., Alexandria. Verrill, Sarah F., Alexandria. — Neiv Hampshire, 32. NEW JERSEY. Brackin, M. Fannie, Newark. Branum, Sarah N., Newark. Cook, E. H., New Brunswick. Dominick. Ida B.. Jersey City. Downing, A. G., Newark. Memmon, Mary A., Newark. McLeod. Eunice A., Newark. Peters, Minnie L., Newark. Petrie, Genevieve, Plainfield. Poland, A. B., Jersey City. Reynolds, T. C, Bayoune. Roome, Ella J., Butler. — Netc Jersey. i2. ANNUAL MEMBERSHIPS. 901 NEW MEXICO. k.lle>n8worth, Allen, Ft. Bayard. NEW YORK. Vcla,ir, Robert, Brooklyn. V^ams, Mary E., Brooklyn. A^ixdrews, Mrs., Oswego. A^nj^el, A. W., Union Valley. A.sp>inwall, Miss, Buffalo. A.«3^inwall, Mrs. H. A., Buffalo. A^t^iunwall, J. D., New York. At -wood, I. M., Canton. At -wood, Myra C, Canton. Bo.l)cook, C. E., Auburn. iiaker, Everett L., Buffalo. Iin.ker, Geo. E., Buffalo, Baker, Jennie L., Buffalo. Baker, S. E., Suspension Bridge. Balck, Geo. T., New York. Baltell, Mrs. P., Morristown. Banchnan, Mrs. M. T., New York. Barber, Jennie L., Richville. Bardeen, C. W., Syracuse. Barner, J., Lafargeville. Barner, Mrs. J., Lafargeyille. Barnes, Thos. G., Boston. Barney, H. H., Belleville. Barr, W. J., Batavia. Barrows, Franklin W., Buffalo. Belknap, Emmet, Lockport. BeU. W. L., New York. Betts, J. A., Pulaski. Bitt. Mrs. Jacob, Buffalo. Brockett, Mrs. C, Jordan. Brockett, E. M.. Cambridge. Brockway, Emma, Brooklyn. Brown, E. N., Farmersville Sta. Brown, F. H., Elmira. Brown, Fred., Edwards. Brown, Lyman F., Carmel. Brown, Mrs. Lyman F., Carmel. Buckley, Dr. J. M., New York. Buckelew, Sarah F., New York. Buer, Elizabeth, Buer Hill. Buell. Mary L., Schenectady. Canefield, Annie S., Oswej^o. Canefield, Mary B., Oswego. Carter, Hannah J., New York. Cassety, James M., Buffalo. Caughlin, Mrs. J., Watertown. Caughlin, Theresa, Watertown. Chapin, A. P., Rochester. Chandler, John W., Jordan. Cook, Allie, Mohawk. Cook, W. L., Champlain. Craig, Alida B., Lisbon Center. Dailey, Elizabeth, New York. Dale, W. E., Brooklyn. Davis, Laurie A., North Collins. Day, Alice F., Hornellsville. Dewey, Melvil, Albany. Dixon, John, Brooklyn. Dolph, J. M., Port Jervis. Downing, B. L., Brooklyn. —67 Downing, Mena, Brooklyn. Dwyer, John, New York. Edgar, Miss Pierce, Salem. Edminster, C. F., Brooklyn. Edwards, A. T., Brooklyn. Edwards, Mary, Brooklyn. EUis, S. A., Rochester. Ely, Miss A. N., Poughkeepsie. Fairchild, Anna P., Ilion. Ferguson, Anna, Schenectady. Field, Mary C, New York. Fitch, Lucy A., Brooklyn. Fleming, Miss M. A., Buffalo. Flitner, Clara L,, New York. Fonord, Mrs. L. M., Buffalo. Fox, Miss Ida, Buffalo. Frant, Amelia Earle, Buffalo. Goode, George, Genesee. Gorton, Charles E., Yonkers. Graves, Emma A., Cuba. Grimes, J. M., Limestone. Grimshaw, C. D., Loraine. Grimshaw, C. L., Loraine. Griswold, Jessie N.. Scriba. Grow, W. R., Loraine. Hackett, Lizzie, Salem. Hale, Marie L., Rochester. Hamlin, G. B., Buffalo. Hamlin, Mrs. G. B., Buffalo. Harris, Miss A. L., Norwich. Harsen, L., Ellicottsville. Hayes, E. N. C, Rochester. Hayes, E. P., West Stockholm. Hayes, Miss H. M., Rochester. Heald, George H., Chappaqua. Heffley, N. P., Brooklyn. Henderson, Thomas, Oswego. Henderson. Mrs. Thos., Oswego. Hicks, C. F., Potsdam. Hitts, B. F.. Spragueville. Hitts, Mrs. B. F.. Spragueville. Holmes, C. W., Medena, Houghton. Mattie, Greenwich. Howk, E. B., Watertown. Hutchinson, C. E., Phtenix. Hutchinson, Mrs. C. E., Phoenix. Jacobsen, Martha E., Jamestown. Jacobsen. M. P., Jamestown. Jewett, Franklin N., Fredonia. Johnson, Emma A., New York. Jones, E. N., Sarfitoga Springs. Kane, T. F., Cohoes. Keeney, Mrs. Julia, Johnsonsburg. Kellogg, A. M., New York. Kenyon, H. O., Adams. Kerr, Dora V.. Collins. King, Dr. James M., New York. King, L. C, New York. Lindsley, M. J., Metuckaw. Loomis, F. M., Kenwood. 902 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. NEW YORK— Concluded. McDonald, Mary, Woodville. McFadden, Lestia, Lisbon Center. McGowan, Annabelle, Buffalo. McQowan, Eliza B., Buffalo. McLean, Chas. D., Brockport. McLean, Mrs. Martha, Brockport. McOwan, B., New York. Marshall, Carrie O., Buffalo. Marshall, P. T., Horseheada. Manvell, William H., Brooklyn. Merwin, A. G., Brooklyn. Milni. James M.. Oneonta. Mitchell, Mary M., Adams. Morrison, R. H., Albany. Murphy, Mary 8., Syracuse. Newcomer, Mrs., Lock port. Xewson, H. D., New York. Nicholson, Mrs. R., Huntington. Nobel, Daniel M., Edwards. Pallock, Charlotte, New York. Palmer, F. B.. Buffalo. Palmer, Francis B., Fredonia. Palmer, Mrs. F. B., Fredonia. Pards, Carlos, New York. Pards. Mrs. Miriam, New York. Parker. Julia J., Buffalo. Parshley, F. E., Brooklyn. Parsons. Winifred, Hornellsville. Payne. Chas. H., New York. Pease, Blanke B., Belmont. Pease, Laura E., Oswej^o. Pelton, Arthur, Castile. Perry, Louise A., Elizabcthtown. Phippen, Emma E., Potsdam. Poole, Mary E., Watertown. Pooley, Anna H., Buffalo. Proud. Celie G., New York. Proud, Mrs. J. C, New York. Reas, Miss Kate, Nunda. Reese, Maria H., Buffalo. Reeton. J. E., Brooklyn. Roberson. Florence C, Greenwich. Roberts, Hester A., New York. Rockwell, Louis H., Albany. Rohr, Amelia, Corfu. Root, M. A., Buffalo. Rulison, Martha, Mohawk. Ryon, Chas. M., Kingston. Sanbarn, Chas. G., Sanbarn. Sanbarn. Mrs. C. G., Sanbarn. Scofield, Belle M., Brooklyn. Scott, Mrs. A. R., Genesee. Sebring, L. B., Schenectady. Sebring, Mrs. E. N., Schenectady. Seymour, H. W., Canton. Sheldon, D. E., Oswego. Sheldon, F. A. B., Oswego. Sheldon, L. A., Oswego. Sherman. Lucy A., North Collins. Skinner, Chas. R.. Albany. Smith, J. Fred, Fishkill. Smith, J. M., New York. Spitzmiiler, Minnie. Buffalo. Stahl, M. K., Lockport. Stark, Mary E., Buffalo. Stone, Fred O., Monroe. Stone, Hattie E., Monroe. Sullivan, Geo. A., Albany. Surdam, C. E., West New Brighton. Syphax, Maria, Brooklyn. Taylor, Estelle, Orchard Park. Taylor. Joseph S., New York. Thomas, A. P., Port Chester. Thomas, Mrs. A. P., Port Chester. Thompson, Jennie D.. Poughkeepsie. Thustace, Mrs. Jane, Buffalo. Tibbitt, Jno. H., Oswego. Tooker, W. F.. Brooklyn. Tooker, Mrs. Miriana S.. Brooklyn. Toomey. Miss Annie K.. North Lawrence. Van AUen, D. D., Camden. Vanderbelt, Mrs. J. O., Geneseo. Van Duzee, S. B., Rochester. Van Oem, N. A., Edwards. Van Ness, R. C, East Orange. Vermilya, C. A., New York. Vincent, John H., Buffalo. Wait, Edward, Lansingburg. Ward, Edward G., Brooklyn. Warner, J. G., Oswego Center. Warner, Mrs. J. G., Oswego Center. Washburn, Mrs. W.. Adams. Whitney, Barney, Ogdensburg. Whitney, Mrs. Barney, Ogdensburg. Williams, Florence, Canastota. Williams, J. M.. Mexico. Williamson, Jane £., Malone. AVilliamson, Jessie G., Malone. Wilson, Caroline, Belfast. Winter, Andrew J., Buffalo. Wood. Mrs. Lucy E., Camden. Wood, Marian T., Camden. Wright. J. E., New York, AVright. Mrs. J. E., New York. Young, Enoch, Buer Hill. Young, Eveline, Buer Hill. Zabriskie, Josiah H., Mt. Vernon. Zabriskie, Matilda, Mt. Vernon. —Xew York, 22S Price, J. C, Salisbury. NORTH CAROLINA. Wilcox, Miss M. E., Beaufort. —North Carolina, 2, NORTH DAKOTA. Aldrich, Miss Mollie, Grand Forks. Anderson, A. D., Grafton. Argall, H., Grafton. Argall, Lolo, Grafton. ANNUAL MEMBERSHIPS. 903 NORTH DAKOTA— Concluded. A. x-xiold, E., Larimore. ^BeAton, Miss Marion, Devil's Lake. ^B^«cher, Mrs. D. H., Qrand Forks. ^B^Trigan, E., Milnor. :Bic5kford, M. O., Wahpeton. Booth, C. E., Minot. ^Brown, Miss Sadie, Arvilla. :Bi:irke. E. T., Durban. iBxirke, Mary J., Fargo. Oallahan, J. F., Fargo. Oaxneron, Miss Maggie, Hillsboru. Oliampins, Imogene, Fargo. Olapp, W. J., Bismarck. Olapp, Mrs. W. J., Bismarck. Olemmer, C. H., Grand Forks. Oobb, Arthur E., Grafton. Oocks, Laura, Larimore. Oooks, Madeline, Larimore. Orabtree, Mary E., EUendale. X>avidson, Sadie, Jamestown. DeOroat, C. S., Hillsboro. Denny, O. T., Jamestown. Devine, J. M., La Moure. £|rbert. May, Minnewaukon. Estes, L., Grand Forks. Evans, R. M., Minto. Eancher, L. B., Devil's Lake. Fellows, Mrs., Fargo. Freeman, W. E., Mapleton. Fuller, N. N., Larimore. Galehouse, Gussie, Carrington. Glossop, Helen M., Gilby. Haas, John, Fargo. Haas, Mrs. J. A., Fargo. Hadley, Lydian, New Rockford. HaU, H. L., Buffalo. Harrington, Miss Mary, Grafton. Herzman, R., Fargo. Hill, Alice M., Fargo. Hanaker, Belle, Wahpeton. House, W. M., Wahpeton. Hurlbutt, H. M., Northwood. Ingmundson, Minnie E., Milton. Irwin, Miss Eva H., EUendale. Kennedy, Joseph, Hillsboro. Kent, Miss Eliza, Fargo. King, Miss W'. E., Menokan. Lauterman, Miss Ida, Hillsboro. Abbott, Charlotte, Fostoria. Aborn, Frank, Cleveland. Adair, Miss Agnesse, Upper Sandusky. Al'Jcroft, EUa. Linwood. Adrich, Elizabeth, Cincinnati. AUyn, Mrs. Carrie, Frankfort. Ames, F. P., Rockland. Anderson, A., Findlay. Andrews, Calista, Oberlin. Andrews, M. A., Oberlin. Atwater, Mrs. B. W., Youngstown. Austin, C. B., Delaware. Aitell, Carrie L., Cleveland. Lauterman, Mrs. Jane, Hillsboro. Lauterman, Miss Sadie, Bismarck. Lovin, Leila, Tower City. McCarthy, S. D., Casselton. MoKercher, Mary, St. Thomas. Mc Williams, J. C., Larimore. Maroley, Annie L., Grand Forks. Marcley, Walter, Grand Forks. Mares, Miss Irene, Wheatland. Matterson, H. H., Hillsboro. Merry, Mrs. C. A., Jamestown. Montgomery, F. F., Jamestown. Montgomery, Mrs. F. F., Jamestown. Murphy, Kate E., Grafton. Norton, A. J., Thompson. Norton, Miss Kate, Casselton. Norton, Miss Mary E., Casselton. Ogden, John, Ashley. Parnmum, Anna, Mayville. Parsons, Mary, Grand Forks. Perrine, Lura L., La Moure. PoUack, Rosalie, Casselton. Rank, Nettie C, Northwood. Richtmyer, Cora E., Larimore. Riddle, Delia, Melnor. Rider, O. P., Bismarck. Rivers, Miss Julia, Ludden. Rivers, Miss Mamie, Ludden. Rosenberger, Miss Evelyn, New Rockford. Ross, Mrs. R. C, Park River. Seelye, W. K., Mapleton. Shelton, H. C, Northwood. Shirley, M. A., Grand Forks. Sikes, Hattie, Galesburg. Smith, C. O., Casselton. Smith, Mabel G., Emerado. Staples, S. A., Absaraka. Stephenson, Miss Mary, Edgeley. Stocking, W. P., Sheldon- Tyler, Laura J., Edgeley. Warren, E. M., La Moure. Wheeler, Mabel. Casselton. Whitman, N., Fargo. Williams, W. R., Hatton. Wing, Annie B., Bathgate. Woods, A. L., Grafton. W'right, Jennie E., Valley City. — North Dakota, 99. OHIO. Baker, Francis, London. Barker, Ardia, Willington. Barlow, Mrs. Carrie, Columbus. Barlow, Hellen, Columbus. Barnes, Josephine, Wooster. Bartley, Mrs. Hattie, Toledo. Bastford, James, Delaware. Bastford, Mrs. J. T., Delaware. Bastian, Miss Rose, New Lexington. Bateman, M. E., Bellefontaine. Beck, John K., Piqua. Bell, Miss Ernestine, Hart's Grove. Berry, Bertha, Urbana. 904 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. OHIO — Continued. Black, Marie, Bowling Green. Bleecker, A. E„ Hailton. BlockHon, Mary E., ZanesyiUe. Boahreght, Jennie R., Hillsborough. Bohling, Lena, Cincinnati. Bonebrake, L. D., Mt. Vernon. BowleB, J. W., Savannah. Boyd, Misa Kate. Athens. Boyd. Miss Lucy, Xenia. Boyd, Miss Maggie, Athens. Boyd, Mary R., Martin's Ferry. Boyd, Samuel, Martin's Ferry. Bradbury, E. P., Cleveland. Bradbury, Jessie. Cleveland. Brand, L. B.. Belief ontaine. Bratlen, Mrs. F. D. M., (Mncinnati. Brehm, Josei>hine, Cincinnati. Brehm, Mary, Cincinnati. Brokmann, Mrs. B., Cincinnati. Brown, Fanny. Portsmouth. Brown, Ha Hie, Wilberforce. Brown, L. W., Akron. Brown, Nellie, Portsmouth. Brown, Sarah, Marysville. Brown, Thomas, Marysville. Brumbaugh, N. J., Union. Buck, Miss Ara, Toledo. Burk, Anna, Cincinnati. Burnley, Anna, London. Burns, Mrs. E. K., Canton. Bushnell, Miss Lucy, Oberlin, Byers, Clara E.. Cleveland. Campbell, L. L., Hubbard. Carpenter, W. M., Lima. Case. Miss R. C, Bowling Green. Caverly, Sarah, Riverside. Chance, Fanny B., Ijondon. Chandler, E. E., Cleveland. Charles, Miss Bessie, Eaton. Charles, Sarah. Eaton. Clark, W. A., Lebanon. Clay pole, E. W.. Akron. Clay pole. Mrs. K. B., Akron. Clemens. I. M.. Ashtabula. Cleveland, Miss L. A., Washington. Collins, S. A., Xenia. Collins. Sarah K.. Xenia. Colt on, Mrs. Alice. Belief ontaine. Colwell, H. S., (Jranvilie. Condit. Ida M., Dayton. Conklin, Kate, Cincinnati. Conklin. Mrs. Lizzie. Cincinnati. Cook. E. S.. Coluinbuf. Cook. Isoline. l^-Ilevue. Cooper. Mrs. Kniily. Toledo. Corson. <). T., Cainbridj^e. Cowles, Marv A., Brunswick. Cox, E. B., Xenia. Cox. E. S., (Miillieothe. Crane. M. A.. Toledo, Crider. C. B., Columbus. Cubburt, Sophia. Fremont. Dailey, O. F.. WDoster. Davenport, C. A., Ada. Davenport, John, Ada. Davi8, Mrs. Mary, Wooster. Davis, T. K., Wooster. Dickson, Agnes, Oberlin. Dickson, Edith, Oberlin. Disman, Mias Lizzie, Lima. Dobbie, Belle, Columbus. Dohrman, Miss C. R., SteubenriUe. DonnaUy, Elizabeth. Morrow. Dryer, Mary D., Gahanna. Dugan, Carrie E.. Delaware. Duncle, Eli, Athens. Dutton, Kate E., Cleveland. Ellis, Ashton, Hamilton. Ellis. John M., Oberlin. Ellis, Miss Josephine, Oberlin. Enlon, Mary R.. Bridge[)ort. Ernst, W., South Euclid. Evans, Annie, Newark. Evans. Maggie. Newark. Farr, Miss Lizzie. Eaton. Fetters, A. E., Alliance. Fisher, J. C, Coshocton. Fisher, Mrs. J. C, Coshocton. Fockeur, Nellie, Toledo. Forney, Julia, New Philadelphia. Frederick, Nellie, Canton. Frendley, F., Youngstown. Frendley, Mrs. Mary, Youngstown. Friday, L., Athens. Furness, Mary, Cincinnati. Gallagher, Charles. Steubenville. Gallagher. James D., Steubenville. Garges, Mrs. Isabella. Zanesville. Garst, Henry. Westerville. Gety, I. S., Columbus. Gilland, L., Barnesville. Gilpatrick, J. L., Granville, Glover, N. E., Akron. Godett, Miss Mary. Oberlin. Gordon, Grace. Toledo. Gray bill, Dessie, Mass ill on. Gregg, Ada, West Alexandria. Greiser, Herman, Hamilton. Griesmer, E. E., Eaton. Griffin, Leila J., Columbia. Griffith, Clara S., Cleveland. Grossman, Ello. Cleves. Grossman, Kate, Mt. Pleasant. Halbach, Minnie, Toledo. Hall, Tate, Gahanna. Ham, Thos. F., Wauseon. Ham, M. D. F.. Wauseon. Hanpert, Charles. New Philadelphia. Harnit, S. F., Toledo. Harris, R. L., Cincinnati. Hjirtzell, Jos. C, Cincinnati. Haynes. Miss Lily, Poland. Hazeltine, Miss Celia. Hudson. Hefferman, Nellie, Green Bay. Hicks, B. C, Cincinnati. Hicks, C. R., Cincinnati. ANNUAL MEMBERSHIPS. 905 OHIO - - Continued. I^Viland, J. S., Cincinnati. .Tl\, Marion a., Toledo. . » il€*s, F. A.. Mt. Union, i >iles5, Mrs. F. A., Mt. Union. » K>ver. Mrs. (). D.. New Philndelphia. < > vinel, Su.sie, T(;ledo. \il>bard, Mary C. Ashtabula. iifTinan, J. G., New Lexington. I vifTmiin, Mis.s Nettie. New Lexington. I \ilin, L. U.. Green ford. I varth, Sarah, Cohimlnis. i-itw, Mis8 E. C. Clevehmd. ' siokson. Mrs. Lizzie. Zanesville. I trrahek, John. Oberlin. J t >hii.^on, A. B.. Cincinnati, lolinson, Mr?*. A. B.. Cincinnati. •J *.»n€\'<, E. A., Massillon. -J * iiies. Hattie A., Newark. -1 4. > lies, Mary C. Cincinnati. Ki?n^le, .\nna, Columbus. Ivellog^r. Julia, Linwood. Kennedy, Nellie M., Hamilton. Kiinmel. M. A.. Poland. King. W. B., Eaton. Kirby. Harriet K.. Wa.^hington C. H. Knopf, Eva S., Columbu.-*. Krau-skopf, Mrs. B., West Chester, r^aird, Mrs. A. E.. Cleveland. Law. Laura E.. Cadiz. Leonard. E. E.. ^Vest Liberty. Lewis, Henry A., West Andover. , 1 jit tie, Florence. Mechanicsburg. Loomis. E. S., Berea. Lot t ridge. Lida, West Alexandria. Lukens, J. F.. Lebanon. Lyon. E. D.. Berea. McClarron, J. W.. Nashville. McClellan. Corie, Cable. McClure, Mrs. J., Marietta. McDonald. J. M.. Picpia. McDowell. N. B.. Wooster. McFarland, Kate. Cleveland. McKinney, Anson. Riverside. Mcpherson, William. Toledo. Mapes, Emma, Evansport. Marshall. Nora, New Paris. Martin. H. P.. Canton. Marvin, Mrs. E. A., Cleveland. Meek, J. A., East Palestine. Meek, Lou L., East Palestine. Meloy, Annella J.. Hudson. Messer, Mrs. Fannie D., Warren. Messer. M. ()., Warren. Miller, Jennie E., Fostoria. Minor. Mrs. L. C, Eaton. Mitchell, Isaac. Ripley. Montgomery, R. B.. Columbus. Montgomery. Mrs. R. B., Columbus. Moore, B. J., Belle vue. Moore, David H., Cincinnati. Moore, NeU R., Toledo. Moore, W. E., Bellefontaine. Morford, Curtis R., Ashtabula. Morgan, W. H.. Cincinnati. Morris. Frank, Columbus. Morris, Margaret, Wyoming. Morrison, M. W., Ashtabula. Morse. Anna J., Toledo. Morton, J. H., Garrett sville. Mosbaugh, Margaret, Cincinnati. Munger, Miss Carrie, Oberlin. Murfett, Almina, Cleveland. Murrey, K. J., Cincinnati. Murrey, S., Cincinnati. Maylor, J. ^L, Tiffin. Neff. F., Delaware. NefT, L., Delaware. Neill. Elizabeth M., Cleveland. Nelson. Florence, Piqua. Nicholls, J. S., Columbus. Nolbrock. J. H., Hannlton. Norton, Mrs. James, Garret tsville. Odell, Mrs. U. H.. Dayton. Oldaker. Kittie. Hillsboro. ()ls^field. Taylor, Jerry, S[)riiigfield. Taylor, Zacliary, Springfield. Tenney. Mary E., Oberlin. Thomas, Anna L., Williamsburg. Grubbe. Mrs. 8. G.. Salem. McElroy, E. B., Salem. McElroy, Mrs. E. B., Salem. Looney, James P., Hillsboro. Thomas, Mrs. Belle, New Holland. Thomas, C. L., Lily Chapel. Thompson, A. H., Cleveland. Thompson, E. M., Cincinnati. Thorp, E. A., Elyria. Tivisa, Gteo. R., Yonnffstown. Twitchell, H. E., Hamilton. Turrell, Catherine, Geneva. Vance, Mrs. Mary, Urbana. Vance, Sophie, Van West. Vinton, Ida C, Canal Dover. Vogel, W. H., Cincinnati. Walke, Matilda L., Cincinnati. Walker, Lizzie, Troy. Walker, Scott, Troy. Wallace, Sarah C, Urbana. Ward, Lottie, Marion. Warnioke, H. F., Cuyahoga Falls. Weaver, T. B., Perryaville. Webb, W. W., AlUance. Webster, Mrs. J. W., Delphos. Welton, Addie M., Cleveland. West, Ettie L., Mt. Vernon. West, Florence B., Fredericktown. West, L. F., Fredericktown. W^est, M. A., Cleveland. W'est, R., Mt. Vernon. Westcott, E. B., Oberlin. White, Bert H., Coiumbus. White, Mrs. B. H., Colnmbus. Whitlock, Mrs. M. J., Delawai-e. Whitlock, W. F., Delaware. Wiesenthal, Louis G., Cincinnati. Wilgus, Mary W., Xenia. Williams, Mrs. Delia L., Delaware. Williams, Wm. C, Delaware. W'ilmot. Eleanor H., Columbus. Wilson, Gerhardine, Cincinnati. Winchester, W. H., Oberlin. Yowell, R. C, Cincinnati. Yowell, Mrs. R. C, Cincinnati. —Ohio, 361. OREGON. Rigler, Frank, Oregon City. Sabin, EUa C, Portland. Young, F. G., Portland. -Oregon, 7, PENNSYLVANIA. Adams. Emily J., Harrisburg. Adams, Kate B., Harrisburg. Adams, S. E., Harrisl>urg. Atkins, Mrs. Mary. Erie. Atkins, Minnie E.. Erie. Baird, Milton I.. Pittsburgh. Bartlett, J. Henry, Philadelphia. Barton, Alice R., Alleglieny. Barton, J. F., Shippensburg. Barton, M. C, Akersville. Bartine, D. W., Philadelphia. Blaul, Louis, Philadelphia. " Boettcher, Mrs. W., Allegheny. Boettcher, Miss Sophia, Allegheny, Brickenstein, H. A„ Litetz. Bryer, Lizzie R,, Reading. Campbell, Eliza J.. Philadelphia. Carter, R. S., Harbor Creek. Chapman, A. M., Philadelphia. Coleman, C, Pittsburgh. Creighton, Elizabeth, Pittsburgh. Dickey, M. E.. OU City. Dickey, Miss Margaret E., Oil City. Edwards, Augusta, Media. Erhart, E. F. M., Erie. Fausett, W. M., Pottsville. ANNUAL MEMBEBSniPS. 907 PENNSYLVANIA— Concluded. Citr on, D. F.. Northeast. 1-kt.oii, Mrs. D. F., Northeast. '«ti«r, W. J., Pottstown. tT-t>el, H. K., Lititz. ><:>t. Z. H., Nashville. Brown, Mrs. Z. H., Nashville. ANNUAL MEMBEBSHIPS. 909 TENNESSEE— Concluded. Buckley, Mamie, Memphis. Bnrkhardt, Berdie, Covington. Cannon, Miss Honora, Shelby. Chambers, Sndie, Nashville. Collier, Carmine. Murfreesboro. Cone, M. D., Athens. Consadine, Mary, Nashville. Crawford, Alice ()., Nashville. Crawford, John P., NaahviUe. Dudley, Guilford, Nashville. Farmer, Ella, Lynnville. Finegan, D., Nashville. Oarrett, W. R., Nashville. Garrett, Mrs. W. R., Nashville. Gattinger, Gussie, Nashville. Goodmann, Prof. Frank, Nashville. Grannis, W. J., Lebanon. Grannis, Mrs. W. J., Lebanon. Gynes, Mrs. Ellen. Nashville. Hailey, Ellen B., Memphis. Hess, J. W., Memphis. Hess, Mrs. J. W., Memphis. Higbee, Jenny M., Memphis. Hill, Judson S., Morristown. Holmes, Geo. D., Covington. Hownald, J. L., Sequatchee College. Hufifaker, H. D., Chattanooga. Huffaker, Mrs. H. D., Chattanooga. Jackson, Mrs. Jno. A., Pulaski. Jackson, Lizzie, Nashville. Johnson, Miss A. M., Knoxville. Johnson, Mrs. A. M., Knoxville. Jones, Mrs. C. S., Memphis. Jones, J. A., Lebanon. Jones, Wharton S., Memphis. Kilpatrick, Bessie, Bell Buckle. Kinkead, Chas. S., Nashville. Knight, Mrs. A. C, Athens. Lampson, John L., Nashville. Litton, Miss Annie, Nashville. Litton, Miss Maggie, Nashville. McKercher, Peter, Memphis. Moore, J. ()., Middleton. Mosrell, A. R., West Knoxville. Moulton, M. A., Nashville. Moulton, M., Nashville. Neal, Sammie P., Nashville. Nixon, B. A. J., Shelbyville. O'DonneU, Nellie, Memphis. Parks, W. G., Shelbyville. Patterson, Mrs. M. L., Knoxville. Patterson, Orton, Knoxville. Pinkerton, Tennie, Franklin. Powell, Maud, Knoxville. Randle, Mrs. W. S., Nashville. Ready, Horace, Murfreesboro. Ready, Mrs. Horace. Murfreesboro. Ridley, Annie A. S., Nashville. Schott, Chas., Nashville. Schott, Josie. Nashville. Schott, Mollie, Nashville. Seay, Frankie, Nashville. ShaVpe, C. F., Nashville. Shea, T. J., Middleton. Smith, Geo. H., West Knoxville. Stockton, C, Lebanon. Stratton. Lizzie, Memphis. Stump, H. C, Nashville. Summer, Mrs. M., Nashville. Sutherland, Bessie, Nashville. Sykes. M. F. A., Nashville. Taylor, Lillian. Nashville. Vance, Miss B. H., Nashville. Watson, W. T., Memphis. Webb, John M., Bell Buckle. Webb, W. R., Bell Buckle. Wells, Ida B.. Memphis. White, R. S., Nashville. White, W. F., Knoxville. Wiggins, B. L., Sewanee. Williams, Miss M. L., Memphis. Williams, J. M., Nashville. Wright, D. S., Nashville. Wright, Mrs. D. S., Nashville. Wright, W. A., Athens. — Tenixessee. 97. Adams, Mary Pink, Marshall. Baldwin, Joseph, Huutsville. Bishop, S. A., DaUas. Burleson, Rufus C, Waco. Carrington, Mrs. Julia, Gainesville. Cole, Miss Ella, Dallas. Cole, J. R., DaUas. Cole, Miss May W., Dallas. Cotton, Agnes A., San Antonio. Hailey, R. B., Huntsville. Atwood, Oscar, Jeffersonville. Avery, S. V., Burlington. Bacon, Emma, Bellows Falls. Barry, Miss Mary A.. Bellows Falls. Beach, H. Emeliue, Westford. TEXAS. Hogg, Alex., Fort Worth. Hooper, Oscar H., Austin. Jones, R. D., San Antonio. Kealing, H. T., Austin. Overton, Jessie, Schulenburg. Powel, Lillia, Marshall. Reilly, Margaret, Austin. Rounsavalt, R. ()., Waco. Sutton, W. S., Houston. Warren, Mrs. E. F., Fort Worth. — Texas, 20. VERMONT. Bealy, T. N., Washington. Beers, Mrs. K. V., Burlington. Black, Clara M., Burlington. Black, Mary P., Burlington. Brownell, Mrs. M. M., Burlington. 910 THE ITATIONAL EBTTCATIOKAL ASSOCIATION. VERMONT— CoNOLUDKD. Feniif Mrs. Franoio, Rutland. Ferrin, Ella L., Randolph. Folsom, Ellen, Waitsfield. Griswold, D. C., Jeffersonville. Hall, Mi88 £. L., Richmond. Hartigau. John A., Winooski. Harvey, R., Shelby Spring. Howe, Geo. 0., Waitsfield. Huntley, F. M., Northfield. James, A. L., Middlebnry. Jenkins, L. E., Chester Depot. Kelly, Mrs. S. E., Burlington. Latham, B. C, South Royalton. Latham, Ella C, South Royalton. Letson, Eva B., Burlington. Owen, Joseph, Bolton. Owen, Mrs. Joseph, Bolton. Pierce, Arthur W., Barre. Pray, Susie B., Burlington. Remington, M. M., Waterbury. Sandon, S. W., Burlington. Spaulding. Lois, Rutland. Smith, Orvis A., Winooski. Sulloway, L., St. Johnsbury. Sulloway, Mrs. L., St. Johnsbury. Taft, A. O., Burlington. Taft, Elihu B., Burlington. Tyler, J. R., Burlington. Webster, John P., Lyndonville. Wetherby, H. F., Burlington. — Vermont 40, VIRGINIA. Young, Lee BeUe, Fishersville. Bemiss, D., Spokane Falls. Bingham, J. S., Ellensburgh. Brown, Mrs. S. M., Orting. Young, W. P., Fishersville. — Virginia* 2. WASHINGTON. Dillon, Rev. Isaac, Whatcom. Gault, F. B., Tacuma. Wineland, M. Maud, Tacoma. — Washington, €, WEST VIRGINIA. Anderson, J. Carl, Wheeling. Anderson, Mattie C Wheeling. Anderson, W. H., Wheeling. Boyd. A. C, Wheeling. Boyd, Beulah, Wheeling. Boyer, Minnie, Huntington. Brown, Miss M. M.. Charleston. Burgess, Miss Addie, Huntington. Clark, J. P., Charleston. Davis, Florence P., Wellsburg. Dean, Miriam, Wheeling. Emblen, E., Wheeling. Hageman, Mrs, B. C, Wellsburg. Huntington, Nellie, Huntington. Adams, Mrs. E. J., Beloit. Adams, J. G., Jefferson. Adams, Myrth, Beloit. Agnew, Matilda B., Stevens Point. Albee, Mrs. G. S., Oshkosh. Ames, J. N., Oregon. Andrus, M. D., Mason. Angell. Helen, Wisconsine. Armstrong, Mary, Portage. Babcock, Edith, FaU River. Babcock. Gertrude A., Eau Claire. Bailey, Miss S. M., Janesville. Barber, Mrs. A. H., Lancaster. Barber, Miss Elva. Lancaster. Bayard, Julia A., Elkhorn. Beach, W. H., Madison. Beard, Martin T., Milwaukee. Beard, Nellie M,, Hudson. Becker, Matt., Butle. Johnston, Emma L., Huntington. Johnston, Libbie, Huntington. Laidley, Cora P., Charleston. Laidley, Geo. S., Charleston. Lee, Jas. M., Huntington. Nichols, E. M., Wheeling. Patrick, M. M., Charleston. Peyton, Miss M. M., Charleston. Snodgrass, Bert, Benwood. Straus, W. M., Parkersburg. Swift, Miss M. E., Wheeling. Vasser, W. E., Brooklyn. Wilcox, J. F., Charleston. — West Virginia, 27, WISCONSIN. Beebe, S. Irene, Wiota. Begley, Anna, Hurlbut. Bentley, Kate E., Schofield. Bergwall, Charlotte, Milwaukee. Bern hard. Bertha, Madison. Berry, Lydia B., La Crosse. Bever, Creorgia, Ogema. Bird, John P., La Crosse. Blancher, Mattie, Prairie du Chien. Bliss, Fannie P., Eau Claire. Bloss, Annie E., Oshkosh. Boers, Henry C, Milwaukee. Bosshard, Emma, La Crosse. Bowman, Bernhard, New Holst^in. Bowell, H. J., Merrill. Bradbury, Mary F., New London. Bras, Hattie M., Oshkosh. Brat, Julia E., Oshkosh. Brat berg, Edwin H., Holman. ANNUAL MEMBEB8HIP8. 911 WISCONSIN— Continued. Jrier, W. J„ River Falls. ^ra^w^n, Ida M., Lodi. Sroholt, K., Thorpe. Bro^wn, C. E., Madison. Brown, Laura, Royalton. Brown, Liillian, Mernel. Hrown, W. O.. Sturgeon Bay. Bunnell, M. L., Mauston. Burke, Anna C, Fond du Lac. Burnell, F. N., Milwaukee. Burns, Mary B., Eau Claire. Busack, Anna A., Milwaukee. Busack, Rosette, Milwaukee. Bushmann, Mrs. P. A., Whitewater. Bushnell, Esther M., Bayfield. Calnan, Esther, Kobb. Cameron, E. C, Pewaukee. Carey, Jas. L., Appleton. Cepesley, G. W., Milwaukee. Chandler, W. E., West Superior. Chapman, Flora E., Virogno. Chough, E., Kilbourn City. Christie, Jennie M., Berlin. Clark, Lillian, Berlin. Clarke, Mary L., Milwaukee. Cliff, Jessie, Arkansaw. Connor, Mary F., Loken Creek. Conrow, Emma L., Grantsburg. Conway, Maggie, Kilbourn City. Conway, Mary, Kilbourn City. Conway, Mary, Janesville. Cook, Genevieve, Portage. Cooke, Ida M., Green Bay. Cornelius, Florence E., Madison. Crane, Delia M., La Crosse. Crain, Maud, Janesville. Crittenden, Mrs. J. H., Milwaukee. Crowley, Mrs. W. H., Thorp. Cummings, W. L., Centreville. Cummings, Mrs. W. L, Centreville. Curtis, Lizzie J., Janesville. Cushman, Susan E., Ripon. Daly, Mary, Oshkosh. Daniels. Carrie, La Crosse. Davis, Nancy M.. Oshkosh. Davis, Lewis E., Rockland. Davis, Sophia, Milwaukee. Den^ler, Clare, Madison. Dengler, Rosa. Madison. De Sombre, Minnie, Fond du Lac. Dewey, Elmira A., Waukesha. Dewey, Ethel, Waukesha. Dixon, E. C, Kilbourn City, Dixon, Susie, New London. Donaldson, N. S., La Crosse. Dooward, Flora, Woodland. Dowelring, Rose, Arena. Doyle, Nellie E., Ft. Howard. Dudgeon, R. B., Menomonie. Dnnbery, Mrs. Jessie, Mauston. Dynes, Sarah A., Columbus. Eakin, J. A., Wausau. Eastman, Mrs. L. M., Berlin. Edwards. J. T., Madison. Edwards, M. E., Minneapolis. Een, Andrew P.. Stevens Point. Ellington, Sadie, Salisbury. Ellsworth. Georgia. Oshkosh. Ellsworth, Sarah J., Oshkosh. Ely, A. E., Milwaukee. Evans, Albert, Oshkosh. Evans, H. J., Menasha. Evans, Mrs. H. J., Menasha. Evans, Mary E.. Racine. Evans, S. A., Mauston. Fair bain, Julia C, North Greenfield. Farrington, Clara D., Milwaukee. Felhlandt, H. F., Oshkosh. Fellenz, Maggie, Campbells port. Fellenz, Carrie, Campbellsport. Felt, Emily M., Platteville. Felt, Susan A., Beloit. Fitzgerald, Josie, Oshkosh, Fillmore. F. H., Milwaukee. Fowler, F. H.. La Crosse. Fowler, Mrs. F. H., La Crosse. Foote, Mary L., Sparta. Finch, Mary L., Roseudale. Finley, W., River Falls. Francis, Lizzie, Darlington. Frawley, M. 8., Eau Claire. Fredette, Agnes G.. Oshkosh. Freeman, Emma, Sparta. French, Florence, Waukesha. Frost, Carrie A., Almond. Gaylord, Catherine, Green Bay. Gifford, Geo. B., Milwaukee. Gilday, Kate L., Racine. Gillan, Mary J., Milwaukee. Gill an, Silas Y., Milwaukee. GlanviUe, Annie, Dodgeville. Goodrich, J., Durand. Gould, Marie, Manitowe. Granger, Ida, Calhoun. Gray, Ada. Darlington. Griswold, Mary E„ Lancaster. Graham, Julia, Platteville. Greening, Mary, Whitewater. Gregory, Eva, La Crosse. Halsey, R. H., Oshkosh. Hamline. Jennie, Green Bay, Hanchett, Nellie, Sparta. Hanscome, Miss A. M., La Crosse. Hanson, Pauline, Browntown. Hardy, Albert, La Crosse. Harris. Nettie, Cuba City. Haylett, E. G., Milwaukee. Hayward, Vernie. Platteville. Hebard, Aggie, Lake Mills. Hefiferman, Stella, Green Bay. Heitmann, Alma, Milwaukee. Hemmenway, W. R., La Crosse. Hendershot, P. D.. Benton. Hennecke, Caspar, Milwaukee. Hennecke. Sophie, Milwaukee. Henry, Adele L., Jefferson. 912 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATIOy^. WISCONSIN— Continued. Herms, William, Wntertown. Hewitt, P. H., Manitowoc. Hewitt, Mrs. P. H., Manitowoc. Heydon, Gertrude I)., La Cror^se. Hickerson, Alice, Grantsbuix. Hickok, W. H.. Shawano. Hickok. Mrs. W. H.. Shawano. Hill, F.dith C\, Rosondale. Hill, Martha, Horicon. Hintz, Louisa, Whitewater. Hoirniau, Edith. Black Kiver Falls. Holhrook, Miss L. D., La Crosse. Holbrook, Mrs. L. I)., Ija Crosse. Hornick, Hot tie E., O.^hko^h. Hosford, Ma^^^•lret. Whitewater. Hoskins, W, J., ^Vaterloo, Hoyt. Judson E.. Coluinhiis. Hui)bard. Ella, Killxmrn (Mty. Hubbard, Etta, Ft. Atkinson. Hubbard, GeoiMria. Elk horn. Hubl)ard. Mari(»n. Elk horn. Huff. LilliaTi. Clintiuiville. Huj^rlu's. Nellie, Hec-^eville. Hunner, (iuy L.. Eau Claire, le^'^rett. Adji IE. A])i.hton. liinian, Lola, Clinton Junction. JetTery. Ji.s. A., Shell Lake. Jensen, Annie, (irei'n Hay. Jensen, Rebecca. (Jreen Hay. Jones. Ellen L.. Hillside. Jones. Eli/a A., liacine. Jones, Laura .\.. H.iciue. Jcuu's. Lizzie E.. Kacine. Jone-*. Jane L.. HilUide. Jones. Susan, Milwaukee. Judd. Mary C.. JefTer-on. Kfivanaj^h. Mar;^uerite. Clear Lake. Keaverv. MaL'U'^ie. Burnett. Keith. L. S., Whitehall. Kelleher. MarLjaret. (heen Bay. Kelleher, Minnie, (Jreen Hay. Kellot^'^r. Edith A.. Janesvilie. Kern, Claire, Sparta, Ketchani, E., Hoyd. Ketchiun, Nettie. Hoyd. Kibber. Mrs. C. W., Watcrtown. Kimball. Mrs. G. \V., Janesvilie. Kimball. Ina. West Superior. Kimball. L. K., Janesvilie. Kimball. Fannie. Pine Kiver. Knnberly. Mi-^s S. E.. Nenn)h. Kint(. Nellie. Spooner. Kinne, Ella. We-^t Superior. Kinne. May, Ellsworth. Ki[>p, C. D.. Kice Ijake. Klee, Joseph. Fond du Lac. Knapp, W. M.. (\)lfax. Knehuel. Mrs. E. F.. Milwaukee. Koontz, Mrs. J., Waupaca. K(»sanda. Lillie L., La Crosse. Kuehnel. G. F., >Hlwaukee. Kuehnsted. Lucy, Applet on. Labor, R. E., Waukesha. Laing, Mary, West field. Lake, Lillie A., Viroqua. Lamb, Carrie L., Oshkosh. Lauagan, Mrs. A.. Shell Lake. Larson, J. F.. Diamond Bluff. Lathe, H. B., Hazel Green. Lawrence, Hat tie. Sparta. LeClair, Rose. Green Bay. Lei hammer, Martha, Milwaukee. Leihanimer, Mrs. W.. Milwaukee. Lennau. Miss \\ „ Milwaukee. Lembecka, Mary, Watertown. Lenahan. Miss Annie, Mineral Point. Leonard, Lou A., Spooner. Lewis, Emma, Custor. Liebe. Mary. West Superior. Linke. Libbie. Hillsbaro. Livinj^.nton. J. M.. Sparta. Li)we. Mrs. F.. WVsttield. Lowell, F. A.. Waupaca. Lowry, I). 1*.. La Cros-e. Lurd. Hat tie, Waupaca. Lroesey, Hattie. Madison. Luzadder. A. F.. Trempealeau. McArthur. Eda, Baraboo. McCarty, Nellie, Rich wood. McClelland. E. C. Juneau. McConnell. Myrtie, We^r Salem. McCumber. Anna L., Fond du Lac. McCutchan, Mary L.. Whitewater. McDoujrall. L. A.\ Platteville. Mcr)t)well. Clara. Mt. Sterling. McElroy, Clara. l*rescott. McCtaidey. Miss I^. A., Fond du Lac. McGretrar, J. K.. Eau Claire. McCrre^ar, Ida K.. Eau Claire. Mclntyre, Anna, Milwaukee. McKeever, Ma<^j^ie, Frun Belle. McIiCnnan, Annie. Kenosha. McMahon. Addie. Watertown. Main, W. E.. Madison. Mann, Mrs. J. D., Woodland. Planning, Mrs. J. W., Columbus. Morgan, ("arrie E., Appleton. Markle, Minnie, Waukesha. Marsh. C. O,. Two Rivers. Martin, Ida E., Hudson. Martin, Jennie, Orej^on. Marvin, Jennie, Oshkosh. Mats(m, Mrs. L., Berlin. Melay, Anna. Shullsburg. Meyer, B. H., Port Washington. Micliaels. Etta, Berlin. Miles, Hettie, Oshkosh. Miller, Frank N., Fisk. Miller, Ida, Tomah, Miner, Bert., Berlin. Miner, Mrs, H., Berlin. Moore, Ella M., Brodhead. Morrison, Mrs. E., Prairie du Chien, Morrison, R. J., Prairie du Chien. Moser, Lena. La Crosse. MuUer, August, Milwaukee. ANNUAL MEMBERSHIPS. 913 WISCONSIN— Continued. ^luUer, Johiif Milwaukee. INdixller, Maria, Milwaukee. TMunn, Dora, West Salem. ^lurdock, Gertrude A., Ashland. ^Inrphy, Mary G., Milwaukee. ^Inrray, Florence M., Green Bay. l^afFy, Ella, La Crosse. >^agle, Annie, Manitowoc. INageler, John G., Janesville. Needham, ()., Midway. Neff, Miss Addie, Nullesville. Nehs, Estelle, N,, Wauwatosa. Nelson, Arvilla, Brodhead. Nelson, Mary A., Sheboyf?an. Nelson, Mrs. P. T., Hartford. Nelson, Tena, Grantsbur^. Neuhaus, Brinca, Burlington. Newman, Belle, Eau Claire. Newhall, Laura, Oasis. Noer, P. J., Stoughton. N orris, Grace, Janesville. N orris, Mrs. S., Janesville. North, Alice, Milwaukee. Nugle, Anna, Manitowe. O'Connell, John. Tomahawk. O'Connor, Isabel, Manitowoc. O'Connor, Nellie, Manitowoc. Olds, Jennie, Hudson. Olmstead, Lizzie, Neenah. Paine, Edith, North Greenfield. Parsons, Belle, Berlin. Paulson, Emma, Clinton. Pedrick, S. M., Ripon. Peterson, Nettie C, La Crosse. Pierce, Mary K., Berlin. Pinkham, Susie, Fond du Lac. Porter, C. W., Hager City. Powell, J. F., Marinette. Proctor, John, Neenah. Proctor, Mrs. M. P., Neenah. Pugh, Fanny E., Bangor. Quinn, Kate C, Oshkosh. Redfield, Edith A., Milwaukee. Reed, H. W., Menomonie, Rewkema, William, Milwaukee. Reynolds, S., Oshkosh. Richmond, Emma, Lodi. Richter, EmUie, Manitowoc. Riordan, J. E., Sheboygan. Robinson, C. F,, Whitewater. Roche, Aj^nes, Oshkosh. Roche, MoUie, Hillsborough. Ro89, W. M., Footville. Rothchild, Flora, Lancaster. Ruegg, Mrs. A.. Rockfield. Ruegg, Nellie, Rockfield. Ruuge, Augusta, Sauk City. Sale, Mrs. Annie T., Aberdeen. Salisbury, Agnes H., Whitewater. Salisbury, Albert, Whitewater. Sawyer, Alice M., Bangor. Sawyer, Mrs. D. J., Oshkosh. Sawyer, Miss E. F., Oshkosh. Saxe, Emma G., Oshkosh. Schaefer, J. C, Menomonie. Schiess, Mollie, Milwaukee. Scott, Edwin I., Cushing. Sears, Martie S., Waukesha. Seamenn, Cora, Maiden Rock. Sell, 0. A., Reeseville. Sell. W. F., Necedah. Sercombe, Winifred, Milwaukee. Severance, Sara L., Superior. Sheldon, Anna, Westfield. Sheldon, Mrs. T. H., Darlington. Sheridan, Jas. J., La Crosse. Shipman, Sarah, Appleton. Sholtz, Arthur H., Oregon. Shultes, Alice H., River Falls. Shutts, Geo. C, Whitewater. Siegmond, A. L., Ft. Howard. Siegmond, Emma, Ft. Howard. Smalley, D. H., Fond du Lac. Smith, Alpha. Milwaukee. Smith, Belle, Waupaca. Smith, C. M., Marinette. Smith, Edith, Augusta. Smith, Edwin R., Manitowoc. Smith, Mrs. E. N., North Greenfield. Smith, F. W^., Lamartine. Smith, F., Milwaukee. Smith, Hattie, Neenah. Smith, Jennie, Wauwatosa. Smith, May E., Green Bay. Snider, Fred B., Kilbourn City. Snyder, Jessie F., Clinton. Spalding, Alice, Esdaile. Steel, Miss K., Milwaukee. Steel, Lilian, Milwaukee. Stiles, Clara, Columbus. Stiles, Eva L., Lake Mills. Stock, Anna K., Peru. Stone, Dora H., Oshkosh. Stoney, Etta N., Clinton. Stoweli, Chloe N., Whitewater. Strahl, Mary, River Falls. Streckenbach, Louise, Green Bay. Sutherland, James, Janesville. Swart, Rose C, Oshkosh. Sylvester, C. H., Whitewater. Talbert, Geo. A., Beaver Dam. Taylor, H. L., Milwaukee. Teague, Belle L., Shullsburg. Terry, H. L., Lake Mills. Thorne, Mrs. H. T., Pratt. Tollefson, Mrs. E. F., Menomonie. Torrance, Mary D., La Crosse. Townsend, Fannie, McFarland. Tracy, Julia, Merrill. Tracy, N. S., Waterloo. Truesdale, Wilton W., Ripon. Turner, Edna, Delavan. Upham, A. A., Whitewater. Vanolinda, Mary G., Neenah. Volland, A. J., Racine. Vosburgh, Elva, Oshkosh. 914 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION'. WISCONSIN— Concluded. Walker, Minnie, La Crosse. Waters, Nora C. Portage. Webster, Emily F.. Oshkosh. Webster, Lillie B., Milwaukee. Weeks, Ajj^nes J., Sheboygan. Weeks, Ellen G.. Sheboygan. Weeks, Mary J., Kenosha. Weihe, Herman, Milwaukee. Welch, Isabella. Milwaukee. Welsh, Myscia H.. Darlington. Wernick, E. V., Hillsborough. West, Prof. Allen B.. Reedsburg. West, Hattie E., Reedsburg. Wight, Hortense. La Crosse. Davis. Minnie M.. Laramie. Lee, F. W., Laramie. Lee, Mrs. F. W., Laramie. Best. E. E.. Manitou. Bryce, Geo., Winnepeg. Calder, J as. A., Winnepeg. Day, Miss Carrie E.. Winnepeg. DesBrisay, Mnry. Winnepeg. Eyres, Ag^ie. Winnepeg. Foulds. Geo., Winnepeg. Goggin, D. J., Winnepeg. Gral*man, K. F. A.. Brandon. Haliday, M., Winnepeg. Haliday, M. B., Winnepeg. Hodge. Martha M.. Winnepeg. Kerr, Emily, Winnepeg. Brown, C. S., Toronto. Brown, L. A., Toronto. Beth, Mary. Dorchester. Clarke, Annie L., Vankleek Hill. Coe, Jno. W., Toronto. Ferguson, W. B., Toronto, Hughes, Jas. H., Toronto. Kennedy, Dawson, Peterboro. Knowles, James, Toronto. Curtis, H. H., Montreal. Wilcox, H. H., Oshkosh. Willett, Emma, New London. Williams, Winnie J., Racine. Willis, Robert, Mifflin. Wise, J. R., Madison. Worsley, Agnes, Burlington. Worsley, Alberta, Sylvania. Woodard, Lulu, Tomah. Wovel, Blanche, Ellsworth. Writh, J. H., Milwaukee. Yorty, Edith, Brandon. Young, Mamie E., Prescott. Zimmerman, Chas. F., Milwaukee. — Wisconsin, 443. WYOMING, Smith, N. S., Laramie. Wilds, Mary J., Sundance. — Wyoniin^j, MANITOBA. Laut, A. M., Winnepeg. Mabee. M.. Winnepeg. Mabee, Geo., Winnepeg. Mabee, Mrs., Winnepeg. Macdonald, A., Winnepeg. Macdonald, M. F., Winnepeg. Mclntyre, Daniel, Winnepeg. McKercher. D. W., Morden. McLean, H. S., Brandon. Sparling. J. H., Beulah. Talbot, Alice, V.'innepeg. Young, Maggie A., Winnepeg. Zinkan, Tilla, Winnepeg. — Manitoba, 26. ONTARIO. Lowe, Wm. F,, Toronto. May, Mrs. Geo., London. Sherin, Henry, Peterboro. Sherin, Jno. C, Lakefield. Sing, Samuel, Valentyne. Vankleek. Maud, Vankleek Hill. Whitney, Mrs. A. E., Morrisburgh, Whitney, W. A., Morrisburgh. — Ontario. 17. QUEBEC. Fuller, J. L., Montreal. — Qxuhec. IISTD EX INDEX. Al>orn, Frank, A New Method In Drawing, Act of Incorporation, Adams, Charlei* K., Sngfife«ftionf) on National Educational Exhibit of 1893, Addre»)»eH of Welcome, O. O. Cnllen D. L. Kiehle, Lord, W. R. Merriam, D. D. Merrill, Cynw Northrop, Irwin Shepard, J. W. Strong, Address, President of Music Deimrtment, Administration and Organization of State Supervision, Most Effective Plan, Admission to College, Uniform Beqnirements for, Agrlcaltnral College, Conditions of Success, Place and Function of, Suggested Course of Study in, Albee, G. S., Discussion, Allen, Jerome, Discussion, Allyn, Robert, Discussion, Amendments to the Constitution, How Made, American Educational Exhibit in 1893, Anderson, W. H., Discussion, Annual Memberships, List of, Appointment of Teachers, Plans for, ApportUinment of School Funds, Art Department, Proceedings, and Addresses, Art Education, Moral Value of, PAOS. 858 8 403 75-84 78 77 80 75 79 81 818 432 705 215 213, 219 223 137 479 343, 854 7 313 380 789 789-807 141 Instructlcm in the High School, Utility and Value of, 640 Attendance and Scholarships In Lower Grades, Effects of Preparatory High Schools upon, 624 IntheCouncIi 303 Auditor, Report of, 37 Bakor, James H., High School as a Finishing School, 633 Report of Discussion on Education of GIrl.s, 343 Baldwin, Joseph, Discussion, 125, 344 Report on Educatlrin of Girls 338 Bardeen, C. W., American Educational Exhibit of 1893, 411 Discussion, 234 Effects of Preparatory High Schools, 624 Resixmse to Addresses of Welcome 91 Burniu'd Fund, Report on, .............. 61 Bartholomew, E. F., Spiritual Element In Education, 696 Bartholomew, W. H., Discussion, 513 Bechdolt, A. F., High School as a Fitting School, 617 BegKs, Robert H., Value of the Tonic Sol-Fa System, 821 Blair, Henry W., A Problem in CIvillxatlon 276 Blanchard, Charles A., Discussion, 685 The People and the Colleges 662 Board Members, School, Selection of, 368 Board of Directors, Defined, 6 Meetings of, 7 —68 (917) 918 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. Board of Dlrecton*, Minutex of Meeting?, PowerHOf, Bottrd of TruHt^en, Annual Report of, Defined Powers and Diitlen of, Boone, R. O., A Chair of PediiKo^T* Di!«curtfl Sui>ertntendence in, . . . 4**" City School Boards, Const Itutlon and Powers of, iv* MiMle of Administration, . . . :Cf Select l«m of Members, . . S>» Departments, -tlT Systems, 4*T Organization of, ............ 31'i Relation of State to, ♦:»: R*»port t>f Committee on, »B. 3^** Classic**, Educational, ........... 3> Clas«*l float Ion an Mission of TiV CommlttA.»e on City Schcxil Systems, Report of, *»» Supplementary Re|MJrt of, ..... . 5IS"* FMucatlonal Literature, Report of, 321 Education of Girls, Rei>ort of, 38« Elementary Education, Report of, . S4j» Exhibit 32 Report of, vj Honorary Members, ii Necrology, ............ 'H INDEX. 919 ^xxunlttte on Necrology, Report off Nomenclature of Manual Training, Report of, Nominations, Report of, Normal Schools, Report of, Pedagogical and PBychological Observation, Report of. Permanent Secretary, Report of, Publication, Defined, Resolutions, Report of, School Systems, Supplementary Report of, . C-7 ommltteea, CSouncil, (Constitutional,) 42 761 32 24 760 108 50 7 22 39 368 290 (Standing,) 294 for Educational Exhibit of 1898, (Suggested,) Oommon-School Branches from a Professional Standpoint, Oompulsory Laws and Their Enforcement, .... School Law of Oregon, Oondltlons of Membership, Constitution of the Association, GouncU, Control and Influence of College Fraternities, Convicts, Education of, Conway, Clara, Discussion, Cook, £. H., Discussion, Ck>Operatlve College Government, Plan of, ... . Cooper, Oscar H., Compulsory Laws and Their Enforcement, Correlation of Subjects in Elementary Programs, Council, Amendments to Constitution, Attendance, By-Laws, Committees ^Constitutional), (Standing), Work and Duties, .... Constitution of, Duties of, Executive Session of, Fees, Honorary Members, Meetings of, Members, Membership (Constitutional ), .... Minutes, Officers for 1890-1891, Proceedings and Addresses, ..... Report of the President, Secretary, Treasurer, Standing Committees, Work of Committees, County Supervisor, Duties of, Course of Manual Training in Orammar Grades, . Primary CIasse.s, . Professional Rending (Educational), Study for Agricultural College, .... State Control of, Courses, Shorter College, To Meet a Popular Demand, . Criticism in Normal Schools, Popular, Ife? Proper Influence on School Supervision, Cullen, 0. 0., Address of Welcome, Currlcnlum, Normal School, Defects In College Discipline. Definition of Educational Literature, De Oarmo, Charles, Relation of Instruction to Will-Training, 419 739 186 194 6 5 289 707 601 346 441 685 667 186 200 292 303 292 290 294 291 289 291 300 290 293 290 292 289 296 292 , 364 41 296 803 294 291 436 839 828 331 223 463 668 750 468 78 718 678 327 118 920 THE NATIONAL BDUCATIOITAL ASSOCIATIOI^. Demand, PopnIar« for Shorter College Goursea, for Severance of the High School and the Unlvenlty, Department of Music, President*H Address, . *. Proceedings, Art Education, . '" Elementary Instruction, . '• Higher Instruction, Industrial Education, Joint Session of Elementary with Manual Training, ... 'T Kindergarten, . '-k Music Instruction, Normal Schools, "*." Secondary Education, f/ Superintendence, . >' Departments, Named, Officers of, ...» Development of Modern Systems of Education, . •*' Dickens^s Novels, Educational Ideas in, Tu Dick, Fred, Discussion, >' Dickinson, J. W„ Dickinson, 4". Directors, Board of. Defined, ' Meetings, ~ Minutes of Meetings, "s Powers of, I Directorship, Perpetual, U Directors, Life, 1* Discipline, Defects in College, ftT- Fonns of, and Discipline of Forms, 'it- Dougherty, N. C, DiscusMlon, 5SS BeiK>rt of Discussion on Educational Literature, 3J1 on City School Systems, ■S6 Draper, A. S., Discussion, «»; Drawing, A New Method, S** as Manual-Training Work, ^.at High-School Work in, Ta' Normal-School Work in, J«i' Report on, St. Paul Exhibit, . . . (>1 Duties of Association Officers, $ Council Officers, 291 Ears and Eyes Have Th<«y, 56» Eaton, John, American Educational Exhibit In 1893, 3?I Educational Classics, 3> Exhibit of 1«93 331 Dlnplay Based on Age of Pupils, ¥*t Clii<*slficatlon of, 4 School Inhness In the Kindergarten, 565 Hall, G. Stanley, Amerlain Educational Exhibit of 1898, 431 Hancock, John, American Educational Exhibit of 1898, 42ti' Discussion, 346, 354, 362, 389, 4S9 Report on Education of Girls, S»« Response t« Addresses of Welcome, 94 Hand and Eye as Instruments of the Mind, 83S Training of the, 8S5 Harris, W. T., Discussion, 318, 882, 833, 344, 353, 356, 3B1 Report on the Henry Barnard Fund, 51 Pedagogical and Psychological Observation, 106 Supplemental, 113 Response to Addresses of Welcome, ST The General Government and Public Education 4«1 University and School Extension, 342 Hewett, Edwin C, Report on Permanent Secretary, 50 Treasurer's Report, ,. » Hicks, Mary Dana, Discussion, 15T Hlgbee, E. E., American Educational Exhibit of 1893, .401 Memorial, 42, 304 Higher Instruction, Department Pn)ceedlng8, 658 Proceedings and Addresses, 639-713 High School and University. Demand for Severance of, (S3 as a Factor in Mass Education, WS Flnishlng-SchfX)l, IKB Fltting-School, 617 Purpose and Scoije of History in the, 64* Utility and Value of Art Instruction In, . . 64»» Work in Drawing, 7»> High Schools, Effect on Attendance and Scholarship in Lower Grades, W4 Hinsdale, B. A., Discussion 817, 88S, 343, 345, 955, S63 INDEX. 923 EiVn^tclfUe, B. A., Report on City School Systems, Supplementary, Historical Library In a HiKh School, Sugi;€wtions for« IriLeoration, Act of, Indian Education, ludividuality and Originality vs. Organization and System, InduHtrial Education, Department Proceedings, Proceedings and Addresses, Influence and Control of College Fraternities, of Educational Literature upon American Educational Systems, . Manual Training in Elementary Schools, Popular Criticisms ni>on School Superintendence, .... Inetual .17 MemberH, Honorary, in Council, 299 Memorial, Elnathan Ellsha Hlgbee, 43, 3M William Mitchell 44 Edward Olson, 46 Matilda H. Ross, 44 Robert G. Sannderson, 43 Mental Effects of Form In Subject-Matter, T53 Merriam, W. R., Address of Welcome, .75 Merrill, D. D., Address of Welcome, K Method In Drawing, A New, 858 Mills, J. J., Discussion, 677 Milne, James M., Discussion, 443 Mind, Eye, and Hand as Instruments of. 896 Minutes, Board of Directors, 3rt Council, 296 Department of Art Education, 789 Elementary Instruction, 685 Higher Instruction ©8 Industrial Training, 7Si» Kindergarten Instruction, M5 Manual Training and Elementary Instruction, 837 Music Education, .811 Normal Schools, ' . . .717 Secondary Education, 615 Superintendence, S^ Joint Session of Elementary Instruction and Manual Training, .... 827 Mission of Color, The, 796 of the Kindergarten, By an Outsider, .547 INDEX. 925 'Bftlt<^ell, William, Memorial, 44 Itfodelins in Clay as a Means of Education, 855 IdLode of School Board Administration, 859 'Modem S7«t«ms of Education, Development of, 309 Itf oral Condition of the Negro, 273 Instruction In Schools, 446 Value of Art Education, 141 Morality and Ck>Uege Training, 690 Morgan, Thomaa J., American Educational Exhibit of 1893, 431 Discussion, 491 Indian Education, 491 Morris, Margaret, Music as a Factor in Education, 815 Music, a Factor In Education, 815 Begular and Required Branch of Grade Work, 819 Department, President's Address, 813 Proceedings, 811 and Addresses, 811-823 Name of Association Changed, 9 NashviUe Meeting, Receipts from, 35 National Council of Education, Proceedings, 389 and Addresses, 289-364 Necrology, Report of Committee on, 42 Negro, Christian Education of, 276 Education in the South, 497 Southern Views on, • 602 Moral Condition of, 273 Poverty of, 272 Newell, M. A., Discussion, 444, 494 New Method in Drawing, 858 New York School Laws, Improvement in, 91 Nicholson, Mary E., Discussion, .343 Letterof Transmittal (St. Paul Exhibit), 52 Report on Education of Olrls, 388 Nomenclature of Manual Training, Report of Committee on 761 Nominations for 1890-91, Committee on, 22 Report of, 24 Normal Department, Proceedings, 717 and Addresses, 717-766 School Curriculum, 718 Work in Drawing, 802 Schools, Criticism In, 750 Report of Committee on, 750 Northrop, B. O., Dlscusimmlttee on Education of Qlrls, 388 Elementary Education, 348 Exhibits, 52 Necrology, 42 Nomenclature of Manual Training, 761 Nominations, 24 Normal Schools, 760 Pedagogical and Psychological Observation, 108 Permanent Secretary, 60 Resolutions, 39 St. Paul Exhibit, Drawing, 62 Form and CJolor, 68 Kindergarten, 66 Manual Training, 66 School Exhibits, ........ 66 President of the Council, 41 Treasurer, 36 of the CouncU 303 Report on the Henry Barnard Fund, 61 Requirements, Uniform, for Admission to College, 706 Resolutions, Conunittee on, 22 Report of, 39 Discouraging Preparatory Departments, 633 Kindergarten Department, 346 On Spelling Reform, 38 Responses to Addresses of Welcome, C. W, Bardeen, 91 W. T. Grannis, 94 John Hancock, 94 W. T. Harris, 87 J. W. Johnson, 93 E. B. McElroy, 88 President of the Association, 84 Secretary of the Association, 86 E. P. Smith 92 F. Louis Soldan, 89 Homer B. Sprague, 88 Treasurer of the Association, 86 A. E. Wlnship, 90 Richards, Zalmon, Discussion, 363, 361, 446 Report on Necrology, 42 Rickofr, A. J., Discussion, 618 Rickoff, Mrs. A. J., Discussion, 619 Ross, Matilda H., Memorial, 44 Rounds, C. C, Discussion, 343, 366 SablD, Henry, American Educational Exhibit of 1893, 406 Organization and System va. Originality and IndiYlduallty, 228 Report on Manual Training, St. Paul Exhibit, 66 Saunderson, Robert G., Memorial, 42 Schaeffer, N. C, Discussion, . , 210 Memorial of E. E. Hlgbee, 304 Scholarship and Attendance in Lower Grades, Effects of Preparatory High School on, 624 School and University Extension, . . .• 242 Boards, City, Constitution and Powers of, 368 Mode of Administration of, 369 Selection of, 368 Curriculum, Nonual, 718 Exhibits (St. Paul) 66 Funds, Apportionment of 380 Schoolishness in the Kindergarten, 566 School Laws in New York State, 91 Organization, Needed Reform In, 312 Records, 379 Statistics as the Basis of Legislative Action, 377 Wliat Should be Collected, 877 928 THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. School Supertntendence Id Citleei, 'A*' Proceedlngn, ar and Addresses, 367, j42 SyHtems, City, 44T Reports on, 909. 35* Science Training in Primary and Qrammar Grades, S96 Scope and Purpose of History In the High School, .64* Scott, Charles, Discussion, STi Secondary Instruction, Department Proceedings, €li and Addresses, 615-S5 Secretary's Response to Addresses of Welcome, hS Seeley, Levi, Pedagogical Training in Colleges where there is no Chair of Pedagogy, €73 Severance of High School and University, Demands for, 639 Sewing in Schools, 856 Sheldon, W. £., American Educational Exhibit of 1898, 429 Discussion, 819, 33t, 353. 9Ba Value of Educational Literature to Student and T^icher, S21 Shelleck, Rhoda E., High-School Work in Drawing, 790 Shepard, Irwin, Address of Welcome, 79 Kindergarten Training and Primary Schools, 554 Shorter College Courses to Meet a Popular Demand, 668 Slavery, its Bearing on the Race Problem, 268 Smith, E. P., Response to Addresses of Welcome, 93 Soldan, F. Louis, Discussion, 306, 319, 83*1, 33S, 346 Educational Ideas In Dickens's Novels, 734 Response to Addresses of Welcome, W Value of Educational Literature to Teacher and Student, .... 338 Sol-Fa, Tonic, Notation, Value of, 821 Southern Views on Negro Education, 503 South, Negro Education in the, 497 Special Meetings, how called, 7 Spelling Reform, 38 Spiritual Element In Education, 096 Training in the Kindergarten, 551 Sprague, Homer B., Response to Addresses of Welcome, 88 Standing Committees, Council, 194 Starrett, Helen E., Kindergarten Work by an Outsider, 647 Stat* Control of Course of Study, 45S Quaimcation of Teachers, 4S4 Schools and Parish Schools — Is Union Possible r 179 Supervision, Plan of Organization, 433 System of Education, Essentials of, 441 Statistics, School, as Basis of Legislative Action, 877 Stearns, J. W., Correlation of Subjects in Elementary Programs, 200 Steere, E. A., High School as a Factor in Mass Education, 645 Stetson, H. L., Shorter College Courses, Popular Demand for, 668 Stockwell, Thomas B., American Eort on Educational Exhibits for 1898, . . . . ST2 Superintendent as an Examiner, 314 Supervision, State, Effective Plan for Organization of, 483 Sux)ervisor, County, Duties of, 436 Supervisory Duties without Authority, 313 Supplementai'y Report on City School Systems, 358 Pedagogical and Psychological Observation, .... 113 System and Organization vs.- Originality and Individuality, 228 Systems, City School, 447 Reports on, 909, 358 Tarbell, H. S., Discussion, m INDEX, 929 Taylor, A. R., Recitation EstlmateA, 744 Teacher and Parent, 608 Teachers' Reading-Circle, . . . . • 82B Terms* of Office, 6 Tents for Promotion, Examinations as, 127 Thayer, J. B., DlscuHHlon, 196 They Have Eyes and Earo, 660 Tonic Sol-Fa Notation, Value of, 821 TralnlnKt Manual, In Elementary Schools, 842 Orammar Oraden, 834 Primary Claiwes, 828 Pedagogical, in Gollegea where there is no Chair of Pedagogy, 678 of the Hand, 835 Transmittal, Letter of (St. Paul Exhibit) 52 Treasurer of the AsHOclatlon, Response to Addresses of Welcome, 86 Treaimrer'8 Report, 1889, 36 Council, 308 Trustees, Board of. Defined, 6 Powers and Duties of, 7 Report of, 36 Tutwller, Julia S., Our Brother In Stripes, in the School-Room, 601 Uniform Requirements for Admission to Colleges, 706 Union Between State and Parish Schools, Possibility of, 179 University and High School, Demands for Severance of, 629 School Extension, 242 Utility and Value of Art Instruction in the High School, 640 Value and Utility of Art Instruction In the High School, 640 of Art Education, Moral, 141 Clay-Modeling as Branch of Education, 855 Cooking as Branch of Educa-ion, 867 Drawing in Manual Training, a'SS Educational liiterature to Teacher and Student, 321, 328 Sewing as Manual Training Work, 856 Tonic Sol-Fa Notation 821 Welcome, Addresses of, i . . 76, 84 Wellington, I. M., Discussion, 211 West, W. M., Purpose and Scope of History in the High School 648 ^liatHave the People a Right to Ask from the Colleges? 662 ^Tieelock, Lucy F., They Have Eyes and Ears, 560 \Miite-Cross Movement in Education 159 Pledge, 172 ^liite, E. E., Discussion, . . . ^ . . 317, 318, 319, 332, 345, 355, 362, 465, 495, 519 Report on City School Systems, 309 Wiggins, B. L., Forms of Discipline and Discipline of Forms, 96 WiUard, Frances E., Whit€»-Cr<»ss Movement in Education, 159 Williams, Mrs. D. Lathrop, Discussion, 336 Teachers' Reading-Circle In Education 325 Will-Training, Relation of Instruction to 118 Wlnchell, Alexander, Geology in Early Education, 587 Wlnship, A. E., Discussion, 386 Response to Addresses of Welcome, 90 Wine, H. A., Discussion, 390, 467, 496 Woodward, C. M., Discussion, 363 ReiK)rt on Nomenclature of Manual Training, 761 Wood-work as Manual Training, 857 Work in High School Drawing, 790 Normal School Drawing 802 of the Kindergarten, By an Outsider, 547 WArld'8 Fair, See Educational Exhibit of 1893 391 Wright, John, Discussion, 712 /r- llllllilll,. ., 3 2044 030 034 O37 I » ».»' Date Due -^^- 't.' * SEFTinOlfi Oe^- 2 0 200! n..*iiii. .i^*2*iT r