s I 'UNITED STATES BUREAU OF EDUCATION BULLETIN, 1913. NO. 38 / WHOLE NUMBER 548 REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION ECONOMY OF TIME IN . EDUCATION 35* I JAMES H. BAKER CHAIRMAN % \ 4 ( WASHINGTON CONTENTS. Introductory. < ■■ V* M REPORT. Nature of inquiry * Length of the period of general education Educational principles involved- Vocational education. Sociological view Economy in elementary education^ * The high-school problem The college jrroblem Conclusion^ Page. 5 9 9 10 13 15 16 , 17 18 SPECIAL REPORTS. Educational principles? involved. Henry Suzzallo 20 20 The view of the philosophy of education. ( 1 ) The school system must provide three; typos of training 20 ( 2 ) The period for general education must*be shortened 2 k. (u) Collegiate education should end with the twentieth school year. . 22 (b) Elementary education should end with the twelfth year 23 (fi Secondary education should begin with the twelfth and end with * the eighteenth year :*w, ( 1,aV0 (,< ’operated with each Member of the committee in his special plutse of tho subject. ^ James II. Bake#, Chairman. V I \ * fe » 7 REPOR^ NATURE OF THE INQUIRY. This investigation was prompted by the seeming need of a com- prehensive view or the whole field of American education. Special problems were discussed in a fragmentary way! without considera- tion of related questions and without hope of even temporary con- clusions. The length of the college course, and the relation of the college to the university proper ^was a leading topic. But this involved the question of the length of the whole period of general education, the waste in elementary education, the place of the secondary school, the relation of educational aims to civic' needs and the ideals of our civili- zation, the definition of culture. The problem assumed this form: The period of general education is too long; economy in .the selection of subjects and topics and in methods will save approximately two years in the whole period of general education; ^rith greater efficiency in the earlier periods the college course may well end nominally at 20 instead of 22 ;' a redefini- tion °f culture may modify the preparatory period; the ideals of our civilization to-day may affect the.view of culture and desirable limit of formal tr aining . LENGTH OF THE PERIOD OF GENERAL EDUCATION. Bv reference to the original questions and summaries (p. 63) it will be seen that two-thirds of the correspondents would shorten the period of general education, and that the majority of these place the end of the college at 20 or earlier; the doctorate or the professional degree (for those including the college in their preparation) would be obtained at about 24 instead 6f 26 or 27. The lengtb^of the preparatory period’ln America- is exceptional. The German student advances at once from the gymnasium Uf the university. The French student enters the university from the lyc6e, except that for certain faculties a year pr two of supplementary preparation is required which may be taken either in the better lycdes or in the general courses of the university. The English student enters the university from the public school; and Oxford and Cam- bridge are universities in a sense not represented by the American college. The English university, besides the traditional course which has always had a special significance in England, offeh at the start a choice among* many groups leading to law, medicine, theology, of a 10 ECONOMY OP TIME IN EDUCATION. yrf knowledge of various sciences. It is understood that the nominal age for completing the secondary course in Europoan schools is the same as for our high-school graduation. ' Since the early New England college we have added four years to preparation and^ throe or four years to specializing for tho professions. Instead of converting tho college into a university, we have piled the .German university on top of our imitation of the English type (the college) without adjustment of the educational system, and tho con- dition is full of difficulties and absurdities. The early New England college m^t tho simple conditions of its day and served both as a school of culture and in a way as a profes- sional school. Until comparatively recent times it still performed a widely useful function as a broad preparation for business and the ..professions. But the recent rapid differentiations in professional commercial, and industrial life, and the increased demand for knowl- edge and skill in each lino, change the whole aspect of tho college problem in so far as in the past it represented professional training. . » Special education must occupy, in part at least, the place of the col- lege. To-day the college, interposed between the high school and the university, occupies an an omalo us position, and one that is no longer tenable unless important 'adjustments are made. The high school and the university include its former functions. A laige majority of tho opinions roceived express strong criticism of the waste in education and of unsatisfa ctory results, and contain * able suggestions of adequate remedies. B^tlhis belongs to a later , discussion. The committee agree (and for reasons which will appear) that . “ graduate ” arid professional studies should begin at about 20. They will attempt to show that the saving of two yearn in time need be no loss in education. The committee here present a provisional time scheme to be dis- cussed later: Elementary education _ _ Secondary education (2 divisions — A yearn and 2 yeanO College ; University (graduate school and profeesional schools).. . 6 to 12 12 to 18 18 to 20 or 16 to 20 20 to 24 EDUCATIONAL PRINCIPLES INVOLVED— VOCATIONAL EDUCATION . 1 . , Perhaps the most difficult part of 'this investigation is the one involving principles of education and the relation of vocational education to the main question. Here is a brief summaiy of the committee's views: 1. The period of general education must be shortened in order tnd vocation training— that of the Graduate and nrofesaim,*! * i ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION, H may fall within the period of greatest energy and adaptability. In other words, there must be an economic division of time in the i “plastic” period between general and special preparation for life. J Too long a period of preparation, general and special, may unfit for action. The age of 22 is too old to begin specialization, and 27 is too old to begin apprenticeship in a profession. 2. There is loss of interest and energy in a long preparatory period , of unmotivated study. i> 3* The fundamentals of elementary education — facts, habits, dex- terities, sentiments, etc. can be taught in six school years, allowing # tho elementary period to end at J2. 4. At the end of tho first six years of school the child requires new and varied interests, beyond those found in the elementary curric- ulum. Many believe that for physiological, as well as psychological, reasons a beginning in subjects and methods of secondary education should be made earlier. 5. By a division of the six-year high school into two periods, junior and senior, a large number would complete the first period; the plan would be adapted to an advanced grade of vocational school between 15 or 16 and 18 for pupils unable to continue a general course. The whole scheme then would provide for vocational lines Sf work beginning at 12, 15 or 16, 18, and^O. 6. For economy, subject matter should be made a means and not an end. The aim should be to gain a few fundamental facts, power and inspiration, and the ability to go alone. There is great waste in material and method. , 7. The idea of culture must be 'modernized, reinterpreted in terms of present-day need, in terms of the value of the individual in the industrial and tho social scheme. Every man has his own definition , of culture, and for a particular discussion it means nothing if not defined. The majority of our correspondents give culture a wide meaning and include whatever prepares for the large demands of life— personal efficiency, civic fitness, rational enjoyment. Each ^member of the committee would define culturo differently, but agree that it sho uld inc lucje-BQwer for.. the. higher appreciations of life. They further believe that culture may grow out of an education which is more conscious of its motives and spends less time in pur- poseless study. Culture in the sense of power of appreciation is not & “study,” but is due to timely suggestion, inspiring influence, and guidance. There is much waste in the 16 yoam of gdhoral education, and “culture” has been made the chief excuse for it. V * This report has to do primarily with the whole period of general t and special education for those who take both in their entire extents | But since the problem Qf vocational studies also affects the question* ■ran. 12 ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION. fc : • ' it can no't be omitted. The status of this problem in the United . States to-day is about as follows : 1 . It is understood that boys who, through the home, have gained •'some kind of manual skill, such as may be had by working in shops > or on the farm, have a great advantage in substantial character, and in a wise attitude toward life. . 2. Motor training in various forms is a recognized part of general education. Manual training has a well-recognized general educa- tional yalue. 3. Vocational education (commercial, technical, industrial, trade) is now making large claims on the public schools. 4. Conservative educators would connect all work looking toward a vocation with the present schools, allowing for it about one-fourth of the time, making it elective, making it preparatory to various industries, limiting the kind and number of industries selected by the conditions of each locality .. 5. A larger number would separate vocational work 'from the regular schools. 6. For a large class of pupils it is proposed to begin indus.rial education (general foundation for each of several industries, togotner with selected general studies) at about 12 and end at about 16. 7. A majority claim that .trade schools as such, leading to apprenticeships, can not be profitable before 16; that, whenever ""paqgjUc. trades are better learned in connection\|nth the shops, but that compulsory laws should secure part time itNichool for young apprentices. 8. There are special problems in highly congested centers that' would greatly modify the general principle and call for earlier and more technical preparation for industrial work. The co mmi ttee are in sympathy with the wise claims of industrial education, but believe that the heritage of the race in the form of. systematized knowledge will always bo the foundation of education. They believe that humanism in the form of interest in the thoughts and lives of men needs not less, but more, emphasis; that scientific knowledge, rational power, and aesthetic and ethical appreciation are the highest ideals of our civilization, but that lesSming will be more and more vitalized by relating it to the life of the present day. Representative opinion holds that our schools are not giving results proportionate to the time, in efficiency, culture, or character. There is a growing belief that in the name of culture much time is wasted, without securing real culture or substantial character, which is the pAme element of culture. As an economic ideal, the vocational t mov emen t looks toward preparation for skilled employment for thoae pupils who; otherwise wpuld leave schdol and become nfiaskslled The fact |)l$t pntfer jsjresant condition ppito Wv® 1 *i3r t •S3 ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION. 13 at the u&dof the sixth grade is an additional argument for the time scheme proposed by the committee. The demand upon the scientific and pro/ewipnal schools for thorough and extended courses calls for economy in all the preparatory courses (including the college). The I vocational movement in the end will not detract from the culture ideal, but will give it a clearer interpretation. We believe that noth-' * ing will be lost to the best ideals t)f our civilisation — power of reflec- tion or the need of transmuting wealth into scientific knowledge, literature, art, and ethical standards. Allowing for all historical differences, the results in older countries, in developing high intellec- tual powsr, confirm this view of the educational scheme. SOCIOLOGICAL VIEW . 1 r elatio n of our educat ional aims to civic needs haa_heen_too much neglected. ^JEvery kind of a scien£ificTl>liiiosophica]r and experimental metl i of studying education is in vogue, but the criticism of results, now so common, awakens us to Jhe need of a simple exami natio n of the ends proposed, a nd ad apting the means to thetod. Throughout the history of civilizatioSTo ducati on has been ^determined or modified. bj T the ideals and philosophy of the. people, i^d by material conditions of life, and we in America can not ignore the just claims of representative criticism outside of the calling. understand the conditiona-t If it is important to study education m terms of sociology, r the greatest need of the sociologist is to study his problems in terms of education. Teachere are beginnings take this view. Students of society acknowledge the need, but confess neglect of the related field of education. However, some truisms might be made a ho ginning 0 f investigation. We may suppose that the sociological view to-day would be j democratic in spirit and practical in aim, while regarding hi gher Kralu*. It would emphasize Service, efficiency, and, connected with these and in part growing out of them, the culture ideals of art, ethics, tend truth. It would give a new importance to the relation of man to hnen and Indicate motives and methods. Stress has been placed on man’s rel^on to nature; Sociology will become a science when greater i meaning is given the new humanism. New views of the needs of society changer the old aristocratic ideal of culture and make it democratic in opportunity and purpose. Th& ■ 14 ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION. «VJ. . rif m change requires that less time be given the old humanities and more weight be placed upon preparation for efficiency and a lan^ee. The scientific method, broad concepts, and the higher appreciation* must ever b& the foundation of citizenship and of practical activities; but a larger proportion of time must be given to the vocational aims. This ratio will be approximately determined as a quest ion of pro per I bal ance between receptive study an d practjcnl ate as I a question of the economic divisi on between preparation for lift and J active life. There has always been a selfishly^ unsociaT factoTTp culture, and the whole movement of to-day is to correct this n ecting higher education and all edu cation with dem ocrac y. If, as in Germany, professional studies began earlier, with tfcfi motive of service to the State, the false clement in culture would b$ largely eliminated and a better citizenship would result. It would seem evident that earlier specialization, beginning at about 20, would promote all industrial and scientific, interests, and would result in an expert knowledge of many problems of government and society. Moreover, there would be a distinct economic advantage, in terms of social fitness and intellectual power of the nation, in graduating earlier from preparatory courses, and carrying through real university training those especially fitted to profit by it. To consider the earlier years, many leave school at the end of the sixth grade why would be retained if practical Btujdips y^re offered them. This wou result in the efficiency of a larger number) and the training would have also a cultural value. , Of course this is another argument for the time scheme proposed. If we consider those who go through college and the professional school, by shortening the time the two additional years of active life and the greater power, hope, and enthusiasm of the earlier age would be a great economic advantage. It may be argued that here would be a loss in intelligent citizenship of the highest quality, because of the shorter culture pferiod. But we believe the better methods of educa- tion in the proposed scheme of economy and the larger spirit of service would prevent Tiny such loss. ^ Our great problem is to bring together the science and power of the schools and the popular will. The cooperation of higher education and democracy is the salvation of both. An educated aristocracy is not the ideal of the people, Tbut a learning that shall be serviceable and represent their highest needs, aspirations, and ideals. They accept / real culture, scientific power, trained skill, and are willing to pay for 1 them. But they believe there is waste, a nonsocial element, ineffi- { ciency in some of the ways and means. The scheme proposed would j tend to enlist the sympathy and support of the people. f ‘ ■ v * ! r ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION. 15 . economy nr elementary education.* period o P r P of accomplishtn^more 1 withh The ^ ^ Tb elemeDtar ? important reasons why in Germany Frai ce and Ene-1 Th mUSt b ® ary graduate is believed to be two V, ’ f , En f Iand tlle swond- graduates. Here are 8 1 r y« ^ gCD< ; raI survey of the the conditions above enumerated the f W 8elocted points. Under end in six yearn. 9° f ° rmal elemen ‘*ry period can to ? th. c ?s i 8 “4^‘ 1 t ,d ^i be *?t‘ w i th ihe ™<-*>oci»'.uit.bb presentation to pupils of amusing stuff ^ ? 0t mean harmful than that one suhW* nff* a • , doctnn e baa been more 1U all subjects should be taught alike - . er °. od 88 “other, and that | in absolute accuracy; ht^ture ^histo^^Md^!^ 18 * ^ and . ft daphne period ^re for culture. ' wd elementai 7 science in this j history two yearn earlier g tr y. elementary science, and «' 6778 *- » Snpi V»n SleUt’i «p«ei»] r*p«t, p. * 'W>Z'r. 16 ECONOI^Y OF TIME IN EDUCATION. m THE HIGH-SCh£oL^ROBLEM . 1 It 'will be seen by reference to^the original u questions ” (p.~63) that the majority of correspondents favori a change in the high-school period and that the preferences are for 12 to 18. The committee favor the change noted in a previous statement, for the reason that it will adjust itself to present tendencies more conveniently than any other, and because it represents, we believe, essential principles in the organization of education. The proposition to make the high-school pencil 2-1 8 or 12-16 and the college period 18-20 or 16-20 will adjust itself in, the following ways: (1) It begins high-scliool work at the proper time and continues it to the recognized Age of college admission or of beginning life (12-18); (2) it provides for a largo number who will enter vocations at 16 and adjusts itself to the idea of an inter- mediate industrial school '(12-16) ; (3) it provides for the contingency that the college course in the reorganized scheme will end with the sophomoie year and that the two years of college may be done in the university or in the larger high schools,, and that the independent colleges may make ,a four-year course (16-20), admitting from the smaller high schools at 16. It should be noted that this whole dis- cussion is a vastly different thing from the question of shortening the college course. Ab to economy of instruction, the following principles may be stated : (1) In general the principles recommended for elementary educa- tion apply equally to secondary education. (2) Simplify the courses of instruction ; cease multiplying subjects; concentrate on a few valuable studies — it is not necessary to take all the sciences in a high school; make college entrance requirements reasonable. The great mistake of our education is to suppose that quantity and, strain constitute education. Education is a question of doing a few essential things well and without overstrain. Tho college has committed a grievous mistake in^ demanding ever more in quantity rather than in quality produced under conditions of healthy normal development. (3) Ifis of prime importance that, so far as possible, subjects be vitalized and related to modern life, and be adapted to the pupil’s interests, capacity, and mental development. (4) The principle of selection obtains here — choice of subjects and of facts and principles under each subject; also differentiation of method — training from formal subjects, and knowledge and inspira- tion from certain content subjects. (6) By far the greatest emphasis is given by our correspondents to moral training and jDrqpaS*ation for citizenship. p t / ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION, 17 (6) Under the conditions recommended for elementary and second- ary education, the committee believe that as much can bo accom- plished at the ago of 18 as at 20 under present conditions, and that tho period now represented by the school and college can bo short- * enod at least two years. It is to be understood there should be less, rather than more, cramming, strain, and mechanical measure of values. Tho following quotations are apt: An interpretation of any (elementary) morse of study that will keep the amount of\ detail and abstract work down to a minimum; that will plan to make (be activities ) of the school akin to practical life;-that. will place tho development of , x , W er on the / part of the child to do something above the mere accumulation of facta, will, I am ^ confident, reduce the length of tho elementary interval. The experience of the American colleges goes Tar to prove the Germans correct in drawing the dividing line between literal and professional studies at the age «f 18 or 19. Onr boys generally stay at school until that age, and I want to ask, what is there to hinder the Bohools from completing a youth's lilmral education at that age? In other words, from taking over the work of the lira two college years? I think that there iH a possibility of enriching onr courses without putting too heavy a burden on the shoulders, or rather the heads, of our lsiys. „ THE COLLEGE PROBLEM . 1 In a way the whole previous study has boon made with reference to the college problem. The committee believe thtft shortening the whole period of general education is inevitable. and necessary; that college work must end at about 20, and university work must bbgin at that age. Since this result appears to be in the' near future, is it- not time for the universities to take hold of the problem and aid in the reorganization of .tho scheme of education ? A somewhat remark- able judgment appears in the summary of tho opinions of bur corre- spondents upon the subject of tho college and university. 3 Approx- imately ono-half favor ending the collogo work with tho sophomore year and boginning university work with the junior year— this work to count toward tho highor and professional degrees— and building the sdjo^of medicine, law, and engineering on tho present firet two ybars of collogo. In other words, tho university age is to be 20, instead of 22. Until the»oorganization and adjustment are effected the majority would the A. B. degree at its prosent standard, i allowing, however, almost any consistent group, cultural or profoe- \ sional, to be elected the last two years. The present tendency to the reorganization of the college is really preparing the way for the adjustment recommended:* We quote from a report made to the National Association of'State Universities and unanimously . add^ted. This part of the report was really intended to look forward to. the time when the university would be founded on two years of college. # 1 8«« Presided Bakwl spocial report, p. M \ - . .;*■'** J *. Hfaaa ssiL kMi *8SS Ml< B far onirtloni and mniM^ , : ff. .. 18 . T ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION. Present tendencies j>oint, in our opinion, then, to a definite differentiation in the work of the college at- the close of the sophomore year toward university work in the real sense. If these views are jii^t, wo suggest the following formulation of principles ^underlying the organization of such an institution, and we may define the standard American university to be an institution — * Which offers in the college of liberal arts and sciences two years of general or liberal work completing or supplementing the work of the high bJiooI ; Which offers a further course of two years so arranged that the student may begin work of university character leading to the bachelor’s degree at the end. and reaching forward to the continuation of this work in the graduate school or the professional school. In ^commending that university work l>egin with the junior year .of the college and that the professional schools lie based on the first two years of college, (he report is in line with present tendencies. It is in Record with the growing belief that the work of the last two years of college should be organized into groups that aim at more definite results and lead to greater efficiency. But this is only the first of many ‘problems. We are faring questions of the time beyond the junior year for atlainili the Ph. degree, of adjusting the scheme of counting the last two years toward both &rte and professional degrees, of the placo'of the A. B. degree, of the ago* when the period of general educatuni should end, and of a possible reorganization of elementary and secondary education. But these questions are hot ready for solution anddiardly belong to the work of the committee at the present time. When by economy — this does not mean more cramming, but, less — *as much can be accomplished in the elementary and secondary schools and in the first two years of college as is now done in the full 16 years, the last two years of college can count toward graduate and profes- sional degrees, and two years in tho ,wholo period can be saved. In other words, the graduate school and the professional schools consti- tuting the university would be bu^t on the first two /ears of college. The present device is a makeshift." Finally, this whole discussion, is to be understood as looking toward a very different thing than the shortening of the college course. CONCLUSIONS. The committee draw the following general conclusions : 1. The contemporary judgment is that the period of general edu- cation should be shortened at least two yoars. 2. This judgment is supported by tho‘ demands of society to-day, both practical and ideal. » 3. It is claimed that more will be accomplished for a people if tho preparatory stage of education ends at a reasonable period and special aims be emphasized while the nxind is at a high degree of adaptability, energy, and interest. 4. In the elementary and ^pcondary periods, economy through selection, elimination, vital methods, relation to modern life, would yield much better results, and little or nothing would be lost by the proposed change in time. ' 5. The American college irf its present form presents problems for . immediate sonHion; there is no longer an excuse for it as a mere four- ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION. '19 « year addition to the two earlier periods of education. The history of European education supports this view. This is not the same question as that of abolishing the college or of shortening the college course. 6. It is recommended that all university colleges organize the last two years in view of the coming elimination of two years in the whole period of preparatory education, and make therrw>f the university type in form and method. When the college decree con be reached at about 20, those two years can become a part of the real university, ^consisting of a reorganization pf the present graduate and profes- sional schools. 7. It is recoin rpended that the “National Association of State Universities" and the national “Department of Superintendence" be urged to continue their work on this problem — both the economy of time in the period of general education and the form of reorgani- zation throughout; that the “Association of American Universities" be invited to cooperate. Upon these bodies will rest the responsi- bility of a final solution. 8. To define the form of discussion, the following divisions of the entire period of general amfspeciaj education are proposed: Elementary education 6 to 12 * Second ary education (2 divisions — 4 years and 2 yearH) 12 to 18 College 18 to 20 or 16 to 20 University (graduate school and professional schools) 20 to 24 (Signed) James H. Baker, Chairman. f James II. Van Sickle, William H. Smiley, Henry Suzzallo, Albion W.' Small, ^ Committee. t 9 1 SPECIAL REPORTS. EDUCATIONAL PRINCIPLES INVOLVED. Henky Suzzallo. THE VIEW OF THE PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION. Any final plan for tho reorganization of American education must bo made with consideration of all tho factora involved in tho social and educational situation as wo find it. Tho special points of view of cultural and vocational education, the particular institutional •practices of olomontary, secondary, and collegiate training, and the .< oinands of tho philologist, psychologist, and sociologist must each be taken into account; but, finally, they must be related in a whole- some scheme of education that will respect every elenient in the situ- ation while it evaluates each and relates all. An integrating theory of educational reconstruction can hope to be sound and useful upon no other basis. The proposals here offered are therefore made from this broaa aild inclusive point of view. (1) THE SCHOOL SYSTEM MUST PROVIDE THREE TYPES OF TRAINING. °ur schools have no ottfor object in mind than to train men for an efficient social hfo, on tho assumption that in tho long rufr tho vast majority of men will lead a richer and happier personal existence if their activities aro harmonious with social welfare. Ordinary obsor- vation of the failures of mon and women in life indicate three typos of inefficiency: (1) They are not sufficiently responsive to the com- mon institutional demands which rest upon men in general The indifference of men to ordinary moral and social obligation's indicates a defect in the liberal education wliich is designed to bring them into appreciative cooperation with their fellows irf mattcre which concern the common gooch Or (2) they aro not adequately equipped with the knowledges and powers which make thorn resourceful contributore to tpe world’s work. It is already apparent that men must have a more adequate vocational education than existing institutions now provide. Or (3) they do not indicate a sufficient capacity for adapts ing their school training to the practical situations which everywhere condition concrete succoss in life, whether-, the domain be that of general political and social cooperatiotf or of specialized vocational workmanship. J ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION* T * J t 4 * 21 The school system is not solely responsible for these maladjust- ments, but its share is considerable* The history m the school’s relation to society seems to indicate that, under the conditions of our present social evolution, tho school’s part is constantly growing larger. It is therefore probable, as it undoubtedly appears to be* expedient, that the school system must asst line to proviso its mem- bers with a more extensive and eflicient trailing than it has hitherto undertaken. This total rare of tho individual will include ai* efficient, ^and economical System of education the mechanism gf which will preparo for three related but distinct types of adjustment . .Those" (J) A series of general, cultural, iiheral, or common schools — elementary, secondary, and collegiate- -The function of which will be to trauf men for the maintenance of a progressive civilization through » efficient momberslyp in the common human institutions in which each man must inevitably he a unit of influence/ (2) A series of nuu'O or loss specialized 'Vocational schools* extending from trado to professional educatioh— the purpose of whicli'will he to acquaint men with the informations, appreciations, and activities that are essential to personal working power in a chosen occupation. And (:{) a varhtd Tories of cooperations between school and other institutions whigh wijl guaranty an apprenticeship under actual living and working ‘ conditions, the supervision of which is to he dominated by educational \ ideals and controls that guarantee that the growth of the apprentice shall be a^nore.important consideration than his commercial produc- tiveness. The first of these needs has been somewhat completely, but not altogether efficiently, met. The second is provided for vory inadequately, tho higher levels of professional education having a traditional establishment to the neglect m the lower academic levels % of idustrial commercial, and agricultural education. The third is unprovided tor, cooperation between the school and tho oconomic institutions of men being a ne\v relationship which has hardly received more attention than occasional experimentation has provided. (2) THE PERIOD FOR GENERAL EDUCATION MUST BE SHORTENED*. If the school system^of the immediate future is to be organized with reference, to three types of training, instoad of one, the period of life allotted to liberal education must bo shortened, so as not to usurp the plastic and leisure poriodof life so completely as to deprive youth of its right to vocational education and' the training which apprenticeship under actual conditions provides. The p^piod of general education will still vary with mental ability and* economic status. Under any schomo of reorganization, some individuals will have only an elementary school education, others a high-school train- ing, and still others a -.collegiate course. But, oii the whole, there ought to be a relative shortening of the tin*o given to the cultural training ofjzjrrioua social groups, . ' /V.' ■ ; t 22 ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION. (a) COLLEGIATE EDUCATION SHOULD END WITH THE TWENTIETH SCHOOL YEAR. That class in^he community specially favored with mental ability and financial resource, and for whom the colleges arTS intended, should in general complete its liberal education by the end of the twentieth year. There are many substantial arguments for such a reconstruc- tion, only a few of which may be mentioned here: In the first place, the period of plasticity during which a human befog can bo profitably educated is not coterminous with life; people may be somewhat flexible and educablo to the end of life, but the period of greatest educability closes for most by the end of the twenties. # There is considerable variation in individuals, but, general', a man who has not found his work and place in life by tl5 time he has reached his thirtieth year is indeed* unfortunate. Ilia chances of success are greatly diminished. If the period of plasticity is thus confined, it is essential that every important and requisite mode of training fall well within the period of plasticity. Now, the modern contention is that a man’s adjust- ment to the world in which he lives is dependent upon three types of training: (1) A general or liberal education which will give him a command over those human institutions in which he holds a member- ship in common with other men; (2) a specialized vocational educa^ tion which will fit him for his particular economic function; and (3) an apprenticeship to his specific work and statiop in life which will snugly fit his theoretic education to the concrete and practical situa- tions which he must meet. If our scheme of general education takes till the age of 22, voca- tional education and- Apprenticeship, at least for those who go into professions, must be crowded into the six or eight remaining years of plasticity. This would seem to be a disproportionate allotment. More often than is desirable, if observation counts for anything, the college graduate is left without the eagerness arid adjustability to pursue hk vocational education $nd to undeigo the speoific and , somewhat trying Apprenticeship through which the world insists upon gassing its young. The ordeal of doing practical work in a subordinate position ought to be presented two or three years earlier to mfl&t college boyB, say, at the age of 23, when his professional school course is over. .* In the second place, the feasibility of such a reorganization of our schools is proved by experience both abroad and at ^ome. The theoretic grounds advanced find corroboration in thfr accepted institutional practice of European schools and in the results of American experimentation. '? * For the most part, England, Prance, Germany, and Other lees important European countries have a systems’ of school organization ECONOMY OP TIME IN EDUCATION. 88 % which proyides for a completion of the period of general education by about the eighteenth year. There are variations in the cases of both individual persons aqd particular institutions, but the general practice proves *the accuracy of the contention that the period of general education may be closed earlier than is the„ease with our general American practice without any appreciable loss of efficiency and, indeed, with an appreciable gain. The American school organization is, in its lengthened period of general education, an anomaly among national systems of educa- tion— an anomaly cfeated by an accident of history. Once the American youth completed his collegiate training four or five year earlier than now. This period has been extended by an increased standardization of the academic attainments of the lower schools, enforced by higher institutions. The German university and the English college, once parallel developments and roughly covering about the same age period, are, in America, treated as institutions of different grades, the German university being* Superimposed upon the Americanized English college. Such attempts as have been made in the United States to shorten the period of general training by two years substantiate the European experience. Wherever the professional ^training has been provided at the beginning of the junior year of college, we are led to believe that the articulation has been successful. 4 So successful has it bw in the eyes of the university administrators that the association of State universities has declared for a distinct articulation at the dose * of the sepond collegiate year. . • It would seem certain then that 'the period allotted to the general education of the group that goes to college should be shortened two full years, because: (1) Present American practice is an anomaly, the product of historic accident rather than of direct adjustment to human needs; (2) vocational education and practical apprenticeship absolutely require a fairer share of the period of plasticity than they are now receiving, and (3) educational experience carefully studied and interpreted indicates the irrationality of American organization and the efficacy of the suggested Reorganization. (6) ELEMENTARY EDUCATION SHOULD END WITH THE TWELFTH YEAR. When we pass to a consideration of that social class which stands at the opposite extreme of those who go to college, we fiiid many grounds that suggest the wisdopa of 'completing the elementary school at the close of six years of instruction. In^the first place, such expert testimony as we have indicates the presenoe of considerable waste time and energy in the elementary school. There is a very widespread belief among school men that * the fundamental facts, habits, attitudes, and ideals demanded by u ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION. the geneial needs of our civilization can be fixed in the nervous system of the child in six school years, particularly if the less useful parts of the course of study are eliminated and more efficient methods are introduced. ^/^In the second place, the compulsory-education law under our I Present organization gives society control of the child only long I enough to guarantee the ablest child eight years of general training. J ^ cft nnot guarantee him the additional years of vocational education required to make him an efficient, self-supporting, and self-rediant ^citizen. To shorten the elementary school to $ six years without impairing its efficiency is to guarantee every chiid who does not go to the high school some vocational education. The need to guarantee some vocational education to the retarded pupils is so important that many careful students of social conditions are ready to say that the compulsory school age must be extended to 16 years, so as to carry the least able elementary school children, who now get no further than the fourth, fifth, or sixth school year, through one, two, or three years of vocational education. In the third -place, the six-year Articulation is regarded not only as a better ending point for the general elementary studies, but as a better beginning point for the secondary studies. There are certain inner physiological changes that usher in adolescence that now occur 'v at about the time when the average child makes the transition from elementary to secondary school. The strain of outer and inner con- ditions are more or less coincident. Therefore, the resulting school mortality is likely to be larger than it ought to be; or school life is continued at a larger physical and nervous cost than ought to be the case. It would be a distinct gain for a child to get fairly well started and adjusted to his new school life, vocational or secondary, before the full weight of physiological and nervous changes are thrust upon him. The two adjustments can be better cared for in series than together. Again, it is the opinion of schoolmasters in general that, for those who have the peculiar mentality to go on tq the ordinary academic high school, it is decidedly more profitable to begin/ the foreign languages at 12 than at J4 years of age. The same advantage may be had in other su&jects where a large acquisition of facte is necessary to successful work. In the case of those children who are more given to action than to abstraction, it is equally profitable to begin to center their intellectual work about an active vocation early. To begin vocational education, with its practical life-career appeal, at lfratherthan at 14 is to save many children from tnsancy ancf disinterest. It will extend their school life so that they will not be too early driven into unprofitable mA futureless ©mployuaente. they will still take up much general % ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION. 26 training parallel with and motivated by their broad stydy of voca- tional work. Here -again the practicality of a reorganized elementary school period finds adequate sanction in Experience. We have only to turn to the concrete efforts in this direction that have already been made by ‘American schoolmen. Such experiments as have been tried in American school systems under practical operating conditions prove with certainty that the elementary school may be reduced to seven years; and that there is an almost equally strong -probability that an elementary school of six years would be fully as efficient. Where the seven-year school has been tried, the school officials very generally anticipate a six-year plan. The organization of junior high schools out of the two upper grammar grades and the first-year high-school class is a distinctly successful move in the same direction. Here the high school begins to reach down into the grammar school. The establishment of separate departmental schools in the elementary system, consisting of the two upper elementary'years and given over to manual activities, is the vocational movement beginning to claim its own from the elementary school system. All sorts of successful , experimentation tending to restrict the general elementary curriculum to six years give at least tentative, fragmentary approval to the practicality of the plan suggested. (c) SECONDARY EDUCATION 8HOULD BEGIN WITH TIIE TWELFTH ANT) END WITH THE EIGHTEENTH YEAIL If the previous contentions with regard to elementary and collegi- ate education are established, the period of secondary education will begin with the twelfth year. The question then -arises, When shall it end? As at present, at the end of the eighteenth year ? Or later, so as to include the freshman and sophomore years’ of college, thus abolishing the tertiary or collegiato division of liberal training ? These are questions difficult to answer, because they raise the problem of articulating our 'three types of schools for general education with each other and with schools for vocational education. They involve too, the need to know the valid distinctions which can Separate a con- tinuous system for cultural education into three distinct institutional units. The secondary’aW ol has tended to extend its limits upward to include the first two years of college, as well as downward to include the last two years of the elementary school. But the former tendency is comparatively slight. The mass of experience seems to favor the latter, as has already been suggested; and the theoretic considerations corroborate actual practice in this Erection. The inclusion of the two collegiate years in the high-schooTuriit is opposed by arguments of a sort difficult to overcome. The largest gap in our school system .ECONOMY OP TTMB IN EDUCATION. 26 exists between high school and college. - The most advanced teaching of a cultural type is very closely dependent upon tlie research of the university in replenishing its stock from advancing knowledge. The equipments required by college and university are more nearly coin- cident that those of college and high school. Endowed institutions constitute a larger proportion of the schools for higher education than they do for secondary education. An upward extension of the high school is so difficult as to seem inexpedient, while a downward extension seems logically to be a line of least resistance. On these grounds it is probable that, in the generality of cases, high-school , education will plan to include the period from the twelfth to the X. eighteenth year. The objections which have been urged against the inclusion of the collegiate years by the high school hold largely against any proposal that the college should attach to itself the upper two years of high school. Such a proposal is not seriously made. If it were, all our current tendency would be against it. Even the smaller colleges are tending to drop the preparatory academies or high schools which have so frequently been associated with them. The larger institu- tions did so long ago. The discussion of any such proposal to extend the college downward would therefore be largely academic. (d) THE SECONDARY SCHOOL OUGHT TO BE SUBDIVIDED INTO TWO ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS — A JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL AND A SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL. ? ' A six-year qnit in the elementary school is not objectionable.. The extreme immaturity of the pupils requires a long period for substan- tial achievement. The amount of basic knowledge and power to be acquired by them forbids selection of pupils^ and specialization of their activities at any' time within the first six years. But these arguments dp not hold in the case of the high school. T^e students are more mature; they are free from the restrictions of compulsory education; they are already discovering the personal interests and limitations which point toward specific types of training and life work. They feel the pressure that comes from the financial limita- , tions of their families. No matter how varied the offering of studies is, or how adjustable the privileges of election, the six-year course is not an attractive or practical scheme for all those who might be able to pursue their general course beyond the primary school. It ought 4o be, subdivided into two administrative sections: (1) A junior high school i three years* extending from the twelfth to the fifteenth year; and (2) a senior high school, also of three years, covering the period from the fifteenth to the eighteenth year. Snob s subdivision and point of articulation is necessary upon *ell *a individual grounds* A three-year junior high school ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION. 27 i ( i will assure a larger number of citizens possessing some cultural training of a secondary grade than a six-year high school. A point of articulation in' the middle of such a high-school systerp would afford an appropriate position for the establishment of vocational schools of a type now largely missing in the proposals for vocational schools. When we examine the schools’ traditional provision for vocational education, we find it almost confined to professional education. The more recent proposals and innovations deal almost entirely with the training for thoso commercial, agricultural, and industrial occupa- tions which may be entered soon aftor the completion of the elemen- tary course of study. A casual 4 analysis shows that the middle groups of occupations that aro distributed between the industrial ^ trades at one cxtremo and the i^pfessions at the other are not adequately cared for. Tho scheme of vocational education giust finally include these, if our provision is to bo efficient. .. The period of general education beyond the elementary school must provide frequent points of articulation, so that the inevitable seloctive function of the liberal schools may be supplemented by a series of vocational schools into which those who can not go on may be distributed. Under tho scheme thus far discussed, points of articulation between tho general scheme of education and a special series of vocational schools would be provided at the twelfth, eight- eenth, and twentieth years. The gap between the twelfth and the eighteenth year is too large to suit human nature, economic ability, or social neods, and should be broken in tho middle, say, at the fifteenth year. This is in line with tendencies already estab- lished, as no other suggested point of articulation within the six-year high school is. y (e) THE STANDARDS OF CULTURE MUST BE MODERNIZED TO MAKE OUB GENERAL EDUCATION EFFECTIVE. It is apparent that shortening the period of general education by two years necessitates moro economical methods than are ^now employed. But no policy of economy may bo applied that does not lake account of efficiency. All economies are relative to the purpose of our schools. What, then, is the object ?!f our system of general, liberal, or cultural schools? The descriptive terms themselves sug- * gest the various points of view by which the standards of our edmmon training are determined. In terms of the individual’s relative responsibility- for service, a general education prepares a man for the commonjiuties of life, those which are to a considerable extent uitspecialized. In so far as men enjoy membership in common institutions, they require com- 28 ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION. mon knowledge, habits, ideals, appreciations, manners, and powers. This common possession of men«is what guarantees social solidarity. Without it wc lose the ability to live and work together profitably and happily. Whore vocational training lays stress upon specialized responsibility for contributing through deeds, gonoral training puts emphasis upon the common appreciations and understandings which mon should possess to comprehend and check ovorv tradition and innovation which affect social welfare. V In terms of psychological freedom and restraint a liberal education implies that school training shall so train men for the situations of life that they shall feel free in their choico of personal action and at the same time find their decisions consistent with the public good. Tho processes of a liboral education will therefore tend to make personal and social will coincident. Respecting every fundamental instinct, impulse, and interest of human life, it will ronjold them in terms of accurate knowledge and abiding ideals, so that personal life' will enrich both itsolf and tho civilization in which it participates. v In terms of the wisdom which has been accumulated during the long course of our institutional development a cultural training gives the individual an efficient command over the intellectual, moral, sesthetic, social, religious, and vocational experience^ of our historic civilization. These oxporiences are to bo tho ovidonc.es upon which the conduct of his life is to be based, the materials for interpreting the situation, thoughts, ideals, and actions of his own lifo and time. Each of the three viows would aim to produce mor^ who would possess (1) that scientific knowledge and mental power which wttuld give them a firm rational command of lifo; ( 2 ) that sense of human kinship with their fellows which would insure a sympathetic attitudo toward other mon, an impulse to social serv^co and a respoct for the established moralities of civilizod life; (3) ''that sonsitizod esthetic appreciation which re^nstmets tho material world and organizes social rotations in nobler and* more congenial forms, and which guarantees a noblo disposition of tho leisure of life; and (4) that com- mand over personal action and expression which gives to human activ- ity that enchanting forcefulness which substitutes leadership for coercion. Such a view of the functions of our general or cultural education is a statement of our ideal need. In an imperfect world of men and external conditions, no full realization is possible. It would bo desirable to have men equally cultured, hut it is inevitable that they can not be. Our educational work is to approximate the fulfillment of these liberal ends to the fullest degree pdssible, considering the limited abilities, the restricted resources, and the short plastic period of human life. > l . vs-- r V& 1 -: teL&l m j ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION*" 29 In a rough way the school system makes such an approximation when it separates the period of general training into three units — elementary, secondary, and collegiate. Careful investigation of all the distinctions made between elementary, secondary, and collegiate education fails to reveal any large functional diffeiv ices. Collegiate education is an intensification and expansion of the culture of the secondary schools, as that of the secondary schools is an enlargement of the liberal training given in the elementary unit. U is partly because lawyers, doctors, ministers, and teachers in high schools, ^ more than any nonprofessional class, have a far-reaching influence j on the fundamental institutions of life that we demand of them a ; f preliminary education extending through the college. It is because the "skilled craftsman and the larger man of business' have a more general influence on common affairs than the unskilled workman and tho commercial shop-clerk that one group usually gees through high school and the other does not. The articulations express the degree of general training which society in its rough wisdom decrees as necessary to protect the wider social interests which tend inevitably to be affected by the spirit and method of a particular vocational i group. It is partly, too, because one series of vocations requires a I broader intellectual background and a firmer command over mental processes for its technique than another. Thus the differing units 4 • of goneral education represent rough groupings of training for wider or narrower ranges of social responsibility and technical skill, j In general, it is true that in our social world a man's cultural i responsibility and influence are established largely by his occupational placing. This intimate connection between vocation and culture has not been sufficiently considered in our theory of educational organization. It is important in determining the subdivision^ and articulations which should exist in the scheme of general education. It is particularly significant in the attempt to determine what degree of cultural training is practicable for various groups of men who are ^ to go through the general and the vocational schools. In the first place tho nature of the general education given within a single school unit is determined by the life led by those vocational groups to which that particular school unit mainly contributes. In the second place 9 it establishes tho nature of the additional social, civic, or cultural | training which should accompany and be dynamically associated with his vocational training. It is this that makes^vocational educa- tion breeder than vocational training (in the narrow sense that train- ing means mere importation of technical skills, to the omission of the I * social vision which is requisite in the solution of class problems). There is no way by which our schools can give an efficient social education save through surveying the social situation" and bringing the schools into, harmony with external conditions and needs. The 30 ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION. schools can not blindly fit their students into the life and culture of another Century. The needs of our own time and place are too imperious. Our cultural materials must be sifted so that obsolete values, facts, and disciplines are omitted and those most pertinent to present conditions retained. Our culture must constantly be modernized, that is, reinterpreted in terms of present-day need. The final worth of any knowledge, discipline, or culture that we have is to be measured by the answer it gives to the question, IIow does it increase the power of a man (with restrictions on his resources) to perform his part as a member of a family, a neighbor in the com- munity, a coworker in a vocation, a citizen of the State, and a unit in humanity ? The school can not answer this question merely by looking inward upon its own professional" and traditional values; it must look outward upon the estates of all manners of men, and note what the pressures of life demand of them. In modernizing our con- ception of culture, wc must recast our wholcWofessional consciousness in social terms. It is t he prime necessity an jiaking our general education efficient. (f) MORE EFFICIENT AND ECONOMICAL METHODS MUST BE USED, IF THE GENERAL SCHOOLS ARE TO BE RELIEVED OF OVERPRESSURE. The waste in our schools for general training has been apparent. It will become more irritating, once we attempt to shorten the period of education by two full years. It will be doubly vexatious when we dare to add the new aspects of human training that modern society requires. Perhaps just this additional pressure is necessary to make us urgent in the improvement of our educational methods. Then, perhaps, we shall recognize that a cultural education must be measured by standards of practicality, less obvious but just as cer- tain, as those which* obtain in preparation for breadwinning. Who * that is not superficial can doubt the practicality of a good character as a business asset? Who will not recognize the worth of a common stock of moral ideals, when two classes in the community wage unfair ' war upon eaefy other? It must be our business to tty to analyze more accurately than we have ever done the spiritual practicality of our general schools. Only then can we weed out our false practices . and our ineffective instruction, ft will be difficult to do, but it can be done, if we will only study men in the setting of a real social world. From the standpoint of the philosophy of education, jhere are three clear ways by which we can decrease the overpressure zn our schools: (1) We must rid ourselves once and for all of that fallacy which insinuates that education is to be completed for .*ny person within a given set of schools. \ A broad view of life tells us jt is experience k which educates. * We are made by the whole length and breadth of life. Other institutions than the school do mold the pupil’s character* ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION. 81 \ life beyond the school will continue to amend it. The school simply occupies a strategic position in human life because it works upon a plastic infancy with tools that are of very superior power, if rightly applied. But the fact heed not suggest that the school must com- plete any man’s education. 'More than anything else teachers ’ require the courage to leave things undone.} To make that possible, \ the teacher must not be content to teach students all the facts they need to know finally. The school can not do it anyway. It should J take the focus of its attention olf facts and forms perfectly learned and habits and attitudes completely fixed, and divide its attention' f. between (a) requiring a thorough acquisition of some fundamental things and (h) developing interests in the unmastered domains, along with the power to attack these fields when the grown man faces them in his adult life. The first economy in our education will come \through a completely changed point of view as to the school’s func- tion. It will take the emphasis off subject matter as an end, making it a means, and lay the stress upon the development of the child’s power to proceed alone. What! does it matter that a cliild does not ' know every tiling, if the school will make liim wish to do so and give him the power’ of independent thought and study ? Six years of school life are merely six years of opportunity to grow in knowledge and power. I jet the school do what it can in the allotted time, !j always remembering -that the child must be equipped to go on without the teacher. An incalculable waste occurs in our schools because this principle is violated. Fearful that the coupe will not be covered, that some fact will be left out, wo hurry, crowd, and coerce children till they have no further interest in books when school is done. Wo huvo taught them many facts superficially, but wo have slioq^ them of the powor to educate themselves. Children who have been in the presence of 1 g 0o( l literature for yoars never seek it again, bocauso tho teacher | has maltreated both the subject and tho children with his pedantic insistence on details. They acquire no more facts when school is done, because they have not been taught to work in freedom, without the admonitions and compulsions of tho teacher. We must aim to do more for human power, by striving to do less in tho way of giving * t| students information. j (2) We must reconstruct the course of study so as to eliminate that which does not need to bo known, or that which is of lesser importance and can be gained by the student after awhile. No mere profes- sional theory of discipline should be allowed to take precedence over real social need. The curricula of our schools must bo made in the light of our sodal surveys of what men need in knowledge, habits, powers, skills, and values. And these surveys need to be made accu- rately. If the vocabulary taught in spelling contains 3,000 wonts. 8778°— 13 3 ' 32 ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION. these should be the 3,000 words most frequently used in the social world, not some mere compilation made on the guess of textbook makers. If his mathematical computations arc taught him, they should correspond in fact and method with current adult practice. The selection of a course of study is always primarily a sociological matter; and every activity, traditional or innovative, should bo * eliminated when no relatively important social sanction can bo found llHt. All truth is useful, but in a few school years all truth can not be mastered; what is less important must be dropped if a more important element colls for its time. 1 (3) We must increaso^ho efficiency of our methods of instruction. S We are still dmdod into cults, as to teaching processes. If wo like \ the old, we suck to a traditional procedure; if we are tempera- mentally fond of the new, we welcome innovation. Wo do not know the relative efficiency of an old as opposed to a new method ; of a method used in one locality as comparod with another employed in other school systems. We must as a profession eliminate the loss efficient modes of instruction (a) by subjecting all our classroom procedure to the test of a comparative experimental pedagogy and /(b) by establishing some central bureau of pedagogical knowledge^ / which will keep the professional world informed as to methods and V their values. The wasto.in education will not be difficult once we have (1) attained a more natural' view of the school’s functions, (2) provided social surveys as a basis for constructing courses of study, and (3) established an experimental pedagogy for determining relative - efficiency. (0) OUR PROGRAM- FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION MUSTEK BROADENED. The inadequacy of our scheme for vocational education has already been suggested hi the previous discussions. It suffices to say that with four points of articulation provided in a reorganized system of schools for liboral education, there ought to bo provision for groups of vocational schools at each of these points. (1) At the end of the second year of college, we already have our professional schools, but they require some reconstruct itm (2) At the end of the six-year elementary schools we shall have our^lowor vocational insti- tutions. Wo must provide vocational schools for those who go to the secondary school, but not to college. (3) At the end of the third year of high school we must plan an extensive group of mid-vocational schools. And (4) at the end of the high school we must enlarge the alight provisions already in existence. Every type of vocational education must be established at ita, given pojnt of articulation on the basis of a careful investigation of vocational needs, in terms of the basic cultural education and th© . 1 ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION. 3g* additional vocational foundation required. The length of the course of each, and its content, must alike be suggested by economic fact. In assuming a new obligation for which our scholastic traditions have not prepared us, nothing is more dangerous than a careless assumption as to need and a predisposition as to school organization. The vocational courses arc more 'than likely to he extremely variablo ■ iirlength and the* school scheme should be kept sufficiently flexible to | ^ take account of this fact. f Vocational education ought not to bo mere trade training in skills. i\ It is no mere repetition of apprenticeship under expensive condi- j tions free from exploitation. It is a substitute institution superior j to apprenticeship, but still lacking in some of the latter’s good quali- 4 . If i-S in hict, a transition between cultural education and a ? shortened apprenticeship, when* hroml. human considerations are j still joined with die demand for industrial appreciation and produc- es five skill. The emphasis is not yet on t lu- •limit's product, hut op his J developing ability to produce. The. intimate connection between C liberal education ‘'and. vocational choice, already stated, implies that ? some general educational activities will still parallel the study.of a | special business. What is more important than that boys in a-voca- | : tiomil school shall hayf their power to adjust to new trade condi- f : tions preserved by a wider training than that involved in their pros- h pective job? What Is more important than that men destined to . ! become members of labor unions ».• directors of corporations shall i view their specific life work \v relation to the economic and social conditions and ideals which determine the common welfare? (A) A NEW SHORTENED' AND SCIIOOl.-SUPEK VIS ED APPRENTICESHIP MUST UK PROVIDED. . But when general and special education arc completed, the knowl- edge and skill acqmjed must be applied to very concrete circum- stances. The conc^5 c situation is a frequent factor in. determining success or failure. Some sort of apprenticeship is necessary, however much it will need to^be shortened. The last adjustment of men's powers to their station and work in life must be made with their growth in mind. Apprenticcsliin that Is to bo effective to this pur- pose can not be left to corporation, institution, or labor union. The factory may make it too narrow for the operative’s good; the hos- pital may turn its apprentice-nurse into a menial to save servants’ hire; the labor union may obstruct and delay die development of the apprentice to lessen the labor supply. Sound public policy requires that the vocational institutions in which men labor and the schools which educate them shall cooperate! It will be difficult to achieve, but it must be accomplished. The few experimental efforts, in this 34 ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION. direction have been too efficient as examples for us to Jonger delay the systematic attempt to provide an efficient apprenticeship under school control. The establishment of *such an institution wil^ re- quire 30'me readjustment of both school and work place, but the gain will warrant the effort that must be expended upon this stubborn problem. * - ^ ^ d) TIIE SCHOOL MI ST PROVIDE VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE. Almost all our discussion thus far has aimed at the morfe eflicient conservation and education of men’s powers. But a total view of the school’s relation to society indicates that it has selective or distribu- tive functions. Sooner or later, in fact soon rather than late, the school is confronted by the mental' limitations of the pupil or the economic inability of the parent. The two factors are selective. They decide which children shall have further schooling of the gen- eral type which lays the foundation for the more advanced special occupations. But this distribution of students among higher schools, vocation schools, and actual occupations is done very crudely. There is an appalling waste of human ability. Able men do hot find their proper work; less able individuals are thrown into responsibilities where their substantial powers arc not used and where their weak- nesses count heavily against them. The child out of school frequently drifts into an I&eupation that bears no promise for him by virtue of mere accidental opportunity or the suggestion of a follow. Employers and oven some shortsighted parents take advantage of the labor of , children without being considerate of their tdtimate welfare. The school must take over into its own hands more completely and more efficiently the work of vocational guidance. As the one impersonal agency, which has both individual and social welfare as its ideals, it is the safest trustee to distribute men and women to those tasks ii% life whero their abilities will count most and their defocts least. The school of the future can not escape iiiterest^g itself scientifi- cally in the problem of vocational guidanc^ 'Somewhere hi each schodl system there must be established a bureau carefully organized for this-purpose, and some porson in every school will, under compe- tent direction, ho active in^etennining the life /careers of youth. In this work three distinct factors must be taken into Account: (1) The physical *tad mental capacities of the child * in so far as they are revealed positively or negatively; (2) the economic capacity of the family to provide the necessary vocational education and apprentice- ship; and (3) the vocational opportunities open to men and women. Whatever vocational surveys of community life are needed must be provided, and each school must establish the cooperation it requires from home and economic institutions. w i, ERjt ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION. 35

24 The committee assumes that the proposition to make the high- %chool period 12 to 18 or 12 to 16 and t he college 'period 18 to 20 or 16 to 20 will adjust itself in the following ways: (1). It begins high- school work at the proper tune and continues it to the recognized age of college admission or of beginning life (12-18) ; (2) it provides for a large number who will enter vocationsat 16 and adjusts itself to the idea of an intermediate industrial school (12-16); (3) it provides for the contingency that the college courso in'thc reorganized scheme will end with the sophomore year and that the two y/>ars of college may be done in the universities or in the larger high schools, and that the colleges may make a four-year course (16 to 20), admitting from the smaller high schools at 16. For, preliminary reports and discussions of (he problem of the cor mittee, see Proceedings of the National Education Association, Clev land meeting ( 1908 ), page 466 , and San Francisco meeting (1911 .page 94 . , ^«— I hope you will. contribute to the work of the gSnunittee by retur ing answers to the following questionnaire. The questions are sul mitted with the distinct understanding that they call merely fortl indiyidiial reaction of a selected group of sociologists. (The commith $6 ECONOMY OP TIME IN EDUCATION. wishes to know the present opinions of such a group, and will not interpret the opinions as attempts to make it appehr that sociologists claim to have established a scientific basis for dogmas on the problem, • Sincerely, y Albion W. Small. Questionnaire. I. What is your view of the time scheme et the committee? 2 What ideals of our present civilization Bhould fix the aims of the schools? 3. How will these aims help to make the “good citizen,' * who shall regard the problem of state and society, the efficient citizen? 4. Does “Culture ’’.require the present length of period of “general education”? 5. What is your idea of the proper balance between cultural and vocational studies for the welfare of society? 6. Is there a false element in “culture”— a selfishly unsocial factor? 7. What would be the effect of a shorter period of general education in correcting the ratio between an individualistic training and preparation for" efficiency- and v service? ~ , . • ^ 8. What would be the advantage to civilization of the specialized knowledge of a larger number of university men— the result of ending the preparatory period earlier? (The need of Earlier specialized knowledge for a differentiating civili-. f zation). 9. What would be the advantage or disadvantage of retaining in school a large claaB of pupils by offering them prevoeational education beginning at 12? 10. What of the economic advantage (considering those who go through the university) of entering active life while power is at its best? Of beginning to earn two yeara earlier? * II. What social losses Would you set over against the possible economic gains referred to in 10? ' 12. Would an earlier beginning of university (graduate ayd professional education) appeal more strongly to democracy— to secure sympathy and support? Digest of Sociologists' Answers to Questionnaire. (Nujnber of persons addressed, 100; number of replies received, 37.) Question I. 1. General approval— 16. a. Sixteen years minimum rather than average college entrance — 1. b. Must have four years in college — 1 . c. Save the two- years in the gradee— 1. d. SaVe the two years in high school and college, not in the grades— 1. t. Provide for two yeara in kindergarten— 1 . , /UJThree years high school and three years college favored— 1. g! 'Scheme favored if without loss of efficiency— 2. h. Save by cutting out or condensing useless subjects — t i. Make schedule to fit case — 1. 2. General disapproval— 1. 3>Unanswered — 1. . Question II. ^ * 1 . Utilitarian ideals. * o, Vocational, not including cultural— 2. 6. Vocational, including cultural— 4. ” x , c. Democracy— 8. T— — 75 ' ECONOMY 0* TIMS IN EDUOAMON. IQ. 1 " ."-’l® -5J 87 \ Question II— Continued! 1. Utilitarian ideals — Continued. e. Conservation — 1. / Utility— 2. g. Efficiency— 5. h. Scientific — 1. i. Tech nological — 1 . j. Adaptability — 2. f k. Efficient citizenship — 5. 1. Knowledge of the world— 1 . 2. Cultural ideals. a. To fit each individual to fitr. in highest sense— 3. b. Self-knowledge — 3. c. Self-culture — 1. * d. Self-control — I. e. Strong personality— 3. /. Appreciation of the beat things— 2. 9 . Culture in its broadest sense— 1. 3. Spiritual ideals. ~ а. Self-sacrifice — I. б. Service — 6. c. Christianity — 2. * d. Ethical — 4 tt e. Character—]. 4. Oiltural and utilitarian combined—]. 5. To improve the social environment — 1. fi. Unanswered — 10. Question III. t 1. By teaching the proper relation between society and the individual 2. By instilling ideal of service- A. 3. By preparing the individual to meet society- 9. 4 By creating a better educated class- - 1 . . : 5. Answer indefinite — I. 6. Unanswered — 2. а. Apparently misunderstood— 2. Question IV. ^ * 1. No— 20. _ 2. Yes, conditionally — 3. | 3. Equivocal — 2. ‘ j o, “Cultural” and “vocational” interwoVen-2. б. Not a.question of time, but of subject and treatment — 1. 4. Indefinite — 1. ' ■ Question V. * 1. Emphasis on vocational. , a. Vocational contain all culture necessary— fi. *. fr. Vocational longer than cultural— 2. ^ ’ c. More vocational than at present, desirable— 2 . Equal division in grades, vocational emphasis in tfllege — 1. ( Cultural is based on vocational— 1. /. Cultural 1 to S, vocational 2 to 3 — 1. g. Cultural 1 to 4, vocational 3 to 4—1. 2. Emphasis . * б. To society through the individual— £. < c. Unspecified — 10. d . Conditionally— 2. 2. Disadvantage — 1. 3. No advantage — 4. 4. Unanswered— 1. Question IX. 1. Advantage. a. Economic — 14. b. Cultural— 7. c. Unspecified — 6. 2. Disadvantage— 3. 3. Unanswered— 2, v • Question X. 1. Advantage. * a. Economic — 1 1 . b . Cultural— 3. J c. Earlier marriage— & d. Moral— 2. t . Conditionally — 8. /. Unspecified — 7 ' 2. Indefinite— 2: 3. Unanswered—!. ECONOMY OP TIME IN EDUCATION, r 89 Question XI. 1. None — 18. 2. Social loas. a. Economic — 3. b. Cultural— 2. c. Moral— 1. d. Spiritual or idealistic— 1, 3. Unanswered— 3, a. Quest ion apparently mumndenaood — ]. Quostiou XII, 1. Yes— 22. n. P^g^iblv— 1. 2. Not necoHHUrilv - 2. 3. Unanswered -A. ECONOMY IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. — Jahka H. Van Sickle. It is generally admitted that there is wastfi in ctiucfttioii. Jt is not denied by a single person among more than one hundred who , been consulted in the course of this inquiry that some of this wdff^s ' chargeable to elementary education. All agree that some saving of* tune is possible; but at this point agreement erases, though thd difference? in opinion as to how the saving is to be realized do not appear too radical for ultimate reconciliation. "There are those who would revolutionize the course of study from beginning to end for all P 0 !# 1 - There are others who" would change the course materially for two groups of pupils, the highly giftod and the slow. But a majority of th««e consulted seem in^the main to accept the course of study as it has developed, and tn'hope for improved conditions through elimination of nonossentials, substitutions, better teaching, and improved administrative adjustments. It is clearly impossible to move children through the course in definite chronological age groups. The differences in mental power arc top great for this, and we do not yet know enough about psychical ^ ago to use this term in speaking of groups of pupils in the various stages ol education. In fixing 1 2 years us the age at which elementary ' education should end and the secondary period begin, the committee - muflk.be understood as ignoring extremes of ability and speaking only of the^pable middle group of pupils. They must also be under- stood as accepting some clear definition of the work of grades one to six, such a definition, for instanoc, as that given in the Cleveland report - of the committee on the six yeare’ course of study. The six-year elementary period would concern itself with & natural period bf school life, the age of childhood, whereas under, the existing' eight or nine - grade organizations attention iB divided between two problems, that of the child and. that of the first yeariThf affsiescenoe. 40 ECONOMY OP TIME IN EDUCATION. One of the conspicuous causes of waste in elementary- education is the attempt to give the same preparation to all, regardless of wide differences in aptitude and the character of the life to be led. Clas- sifying the grades above the sixth as secondary will facilitate a differ- entiation in the upper grades which will permit some pupils to mako more direct preparation for business or the industries than is now possible, while other? continue to follow the more strictly academic program as far as may be necessary in preparation for managerial . positions or professional life. Without accurate and. detailed accounts of the results of actual trial under such an organization, positive assertions as to economy of time could not be made, yet the probability that time would thus be saved would seem strong. But enough commifhities have made progress in this important field to place the matter beyond the stage of more probability. Worcester, Indianapolis (2), Baltimore (3), Lincoln, Harrisburg, and Rochester, by maintaining special classes for exceptionally capable children, have shown that it is possible for able pupils to save one year between the sixth grade and the twelfth, with other advantages to themselves besides the saving of time. As .a rule we now wait un4ff pupils have completed the work laid out for eight or nino years before permitting any definite life motive to Income operative. By that tirao half our pupils have left us. Those who syrvivo and enter the high school have there their first opportunity to move directly toward some defi- nite goal. It is here proposed to create conditions favorable to the development of definite purpose two years earlier by ceasing at the ’seventh grade to require all pufnls to follow the same course of study. It is believed that earlier differentiation of courses would Ipsseif mortality among the slow and would result in more rapid progress among the capable. -One correspondent cautions, “ We can not make or produce maturity by hastening a process,” and another .adds, “It is a biological fact that children must have time to mature/' and this is quite true, but maturity advances at different rate^with ~ different children, -and any scheme of education that fails to discmhi- nate between those who develop slowly and those who develop ^ rapidly is not only irrational, but essentially undemocratic. The problcnvth&t must be solved before society can utilize to the full its human resources is how to make adequate provision for the rate of progress suited to varying grades and types of intellect without departing from the democratic ideal of equality of opportunity for all. Equality of opportunity and identity of opportunity are*fy from being equivalent terms, yet the necessity we have' been uiffler, particularly in our large cities, of educating children in “shoals" has unquestionably resulted in pushing uniform requirements too far, * thereby retarding the abler pupils and discouraging the weaker ones* Our educational machinery is so adjusted that as a rule even those ECONOMY OP TIME IN EDUCATION. 41 pupils who are quit© capable of meeting the standard of progress hero advocated have- little chance to do so. They can- advance only as the soldier does on tho march— at the pace of the army as a whole. We are assuming in this committee that it is possible and desirable to end the college arid begin the university at 20 instead of 22, thus saving two years during the whole period of education, and we readHy admit the responsibility of the elementary school for a share of this saving, but in accepting 20 as the age at which the college course should bo completed we have in mind the abler students, not all students. The ago of 20 may bo taken as properly marking the age boundary between general education and specialization for tho abler students, but to hold to this criterion for all students would ‘be equiv- alent to saying that only tho highly gifted should attempt to climb tho educational ladder as high us the college level -t hat only the gifted can be benefited by the higher education. This no one would think* of asserting, nor would one expect, the wide difference in tho ages of children in any given grade in the elementary school to disappear as tho some children advance into the high school and approach the college. These differences are very great. Among the (Sn^Jfen in sixth grade of any city tho range of ages is all the way from 1 1. years for the youngest to 14 or 15 for the oldest. Some children are as mature mentally at 12 as others are at 15, and they keep the lead they have gained and even increase it if they have a fair chanco to do so. They ought to have this chance, but the provision made for their unhampered progress should not deter the slower minds from entertaining college and university ambitions^ Our organization should be flexible enough to accommodate itself to all whoso circum- stances permit them to aspire to a college education, whether their mental make-up allows them to complete a college courso at the age here suggested or not. ” The flexibility noedod for tho attainment of this end should work equ&lly to tho advantage o*f the rapid and the slow. . After organizing olomentary work «n the basis of six grades, pro- viding for suitable differentiation, in the remaining grades of the present elementary period, and arranging for promotion by subject above the sixth grade, as much will have boon done in the direction of time saving below the high school as can be dontf through approve- ments in organizatipn. " This, however* is not enough. Standards are lacking by which to judge results. These must be developed ; and thereris no better point at which to develop and apply them than at the close of tho aix-yoar elementary period. The Cleveland report on a six-year course of study makes valuable suggestions in this direc- tion. Individual investigators, too, are striving to estjAlish standards. GommoiVs study 11 Spelling in the Elementary School,” Stone’s and Courtis's studies of the ability of pupils in arithmetic, Thorndike’s ***** fTT" 42 ECONOMY OP TIME IN EDUCATION. X i: and Ayres’s studies of handwriting, and the study of Standards in Composition, by Hillegas, are examples of the kind of work needed. We can not go f§r until we can agree upon common standards, for economy-^tTTSne in education must be relative to the results which we wish to secure. It is safe to report progress in this direction, for guesswork and merely personal opinion are slowly giving place to judgments based on systematic investigation. • In determining the essentials of a course of study and adopting measures of accomplishment, there is danger that, too narrow a definition of ‘‘essentials” will be adopted. Fixed knowledge of fundamental processes is no more and no less essential than mental attitude, habits of thought and emotion, and working ideals. Some- thing’ more than drill is needed to get these ingrained. The selection of suitable subject matter for work and study in the grades, the organization of this material with reference to the periods when important instincts, interests, pow r ers, and capacities become promi- nent, the development of dasirable ideals, motives, and habits in tfk* pupils-»fctese things must be considered when we undertake to say what are wio ‘q^Btials.” What a person wants to learn, he learns w quickly and eas^F We Waste time trying to make children learn things for which they are not ready. We should save time if Tt>y more delicate methods we sought to create in children a desire to know the , things adapted to their stage of development. Recent studies in retardation have involved the fallacy that the proper place of a child in school can he determined by agq alone. What is needed to put education on a scientific basis is an examina- tion of each child’s physical state and mental power at the beginning of school life, on the results of which all the work should be based. Here again is reason for encouragement, for when we recall the rapid spread of medical inspection in our schools and recent efforts to estab- lish a measuring scale for intelligence on a basis quite distinct from ordinary scholastic tests, it is safe to say that we are moving forward. There has been enormous waste through poor and misdirected teaching. Some improvement has undoubtedly taken place. The work of our normal schools has not been useless.^ At best, however, these schools furnish but a small proportion of ohr teachers. They do not as a rule attract students of more than ordinary ability and cultyre, and they can only begin the training which these students i^eed. In the customary two years devoted to theory and practice, a high-school graduate can not be converted into a full-fledged teacher. Both experience and after-guidance are necessary. There is enormous waste when this after-guidance is lacking. We have been accustomed to say “the teacher is the school,” and this is still true, but in ohr cities with their large^uildings and many teachers, 1 Individuality ife in danger of being submerged and progressivenesa 43 T» ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION. lacking stimulation. Superintendent, and supervisors suggest and encourage, but their contacts with teachers are relatively infrequent. Instead of being what they would like to have it, the school will be just about what the principal makes it. It is upon the principal,"' therefore, that large responsibility for improvement must be placed; so in a certain sense we are justified in modifying the well-known expression, the teacher is the school,” and in saying instead, ”the principaTis the school.” The right kind of a principal will help weed i out poor teachers, will make teachers of uncertain value into good teachers, and good teachers into better teachers. One prominent I . cause of waste in elementary education is the existence of inertia among school principals. Soon after the position is secured there comes a tendency to settle down into an easy routine. This ten- dency the superintendent, county or city, must counteract, if the > wast0 umior the heading “poor teaching” is to be materially lessened. , j What a laboratory a school principal has, and what an opportunity for the study, of educational problems f No university presses j equal facilities in this field. The principal needs to feel more keenly his responsibility ns a supervisor, but responsibility is not real unless I coupled with a large degree of freedom. How to secure the amount £ ' individual initiative that is desirable in principals and teachers ^ j* without impairing the unity of the school system is an important t * problem in school administration. Teachem associated with routine j ‘ principals are apt to become routine teachers, while, on the other ■j hand, an alert, and profess ional-nunde< I principal alwqys inspires his i ' tochers with zeal. In considering waste in education, therefore, no jj problem looms up larger than the preliminary and after- training of f suitable principals -Jfiivon a salary that will enable the superin- I tendent to select pPftAs of tested strength hnd character for these | positions, no effort is expended to better advantage in checking j waste than that which the superintendent devotes to conferences i jrith his principals. The principal can either make or mar the most ; carefully planned scheme', and in his hands rests the success or failure of any plans that may be formulated for economizing time in ele- mentary education. " • Prom the Cleveland Report on Six-Year Course op Study, (proceedings National education association, 1908 , pages 627-628.). I. What should be expected of pupils at the 'end of the sixth school year, age 12-13? ( Reading. Pupils should be able to get tho thought andexprees the thought in simple narrative prose and poetry, such as Robinson Crusoe and Paul Revere’s Ride. (6) Spelling. They should be able to spell correctly 90 per cent of the words com. ‘ monly used in their hotne and school vocabulary. * - (e) Writing. They should be able to write legibly and with fair rapidity. (d) Composition. (1) They should be able to compose and write a busineaf or eocial letter, iaconyenttonal form, on a simple assigned topic that properly .-comes >*s‘~ -a! M ,,.4 . f ? *•!**. Or - - - . L 44 ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION. K within the experience of children of their age. (2) They should be able to coinpoe© and wnte short descriptions and narrative on simple themes appealing to the natural interest of children rfnd falling within their experience. W Arithmetic. (1) They should be thoroughly familiar with number combina- tions (1-100) in addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. (2) They should be able to solve easy twoetep problems in arithmetic involving fundamental opera- tions. (3) They should be able to read and write readily integers and decimals to six places. (4) They should be able to Bolve easy one-step problems involving com- mon and decimal fractions/ (5) They should have some knowledge of percentage and its simplest applications to profit and lose and to simple interest. if) Geography. They should have a general knowledge of' (1) the oceans and continents, their relative size and locations; (2) the principal countries, their peoples and products, with a somewhat detailed study of the United States and its posses- sions; (3) the great river and mountain systems, especially those of North America, South America, Europe, and Asia; (4) 50 to 100 of the principal cities of the world, their location, peculiar characteristics, commercial, industrial, and artistic features of special interest; {5) the great trade routes. ' (^) Other subjects. \\ ith the aim of starting as many lines of interest as possible, pupils during the first six years should have instruction in drawing, music, morals, elementary science or nature-study, history, literature, calisthenics, constructive and illustrative handwork; but instruction in these subjects should be directed with the aim of developing habits of observation, power to thfnk and power to do, rather than with the aim of imparting information of definite amount. II. Suggested list of studies for pupil* of the seventh and eighth grades, periods 3a . minutes. .. Required subject*: English, including spelling, literature, composition, grain . . . 6-8 Arithmetic, with concrete geometry and algebra 5 Geography and history Music ...... 2 Drawing . ’ 2 Physical training (required of those whose physical condition needs it as corrective; optional for others) *2 Electives: * Manual training , Science * _ g Foreign languages (for each one given) : * 5 / It will be seen that the above list presents simply suggestions from which varying fcoureee of study may be worked out and correlated with courses now given in our high schools. Additional References. Kendall. What Modifications in Organization Are Necessary to Secure Suitable Recognition for Pupils of Varying Ability, Particularly the Ablest. Proceed- " ings, N. E. A., 1908, p._147. Strayer. Age and Grade Census of Schools and College*' Bulletin, 1911, No. 5, U. S. Bureau of Education. Van 8ickle. Provision for Gifted Children in Public School*. Proceedings, N E A 1910, p. 155. ' ‘ * Sam*, with statistical tables, showing result* within a definite perkxf of time 45 ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION. THE HIGH-SCHOOL PROBLEM. William II. Smiley. The reasons for the proposed provisional time scheme for the reor- ganization of American education, through which this committee believes that education in the United .States can be* made so efficient that two years may be saved to the individual student out of the present period devoted to general culture, for devotion to professional study, graduate school work, op business, have been so ably and fully, yet concisely, stated by the chairman, in his review of the subject presented to the National Council in 1911, that little need or can be added. My contribution to the discussion consists in emphasizing certain' phases of tt^p^bject that loom large before tfte secondary school- master because of the nearness and vital relationship of ljis work to the elementary school on the one side afld to the college upon the other. I ask pardon if in anything that I may say 1 seem to trespass upon the field of other members (ff thp committee. I feel sure, however, that no offense can be taken by the teacher of the elementary school at my saying that it is fair to expect of the student of the seventh and eighth grade increasing responsibility for harder work, for more inde- pendent work, and for greater power of sustained attention than at presents secured; nor by the college professor at my asking him to keep in mind that what is pedagogically right for the twelfth-grade boy of .June-*can differ but little from that which is right for the freshman of the following September. This is saying no more than this, that the last two years of the elementary school and the first two years of the college really belong to the period of secondary education. It is not wise to treat the student as too much of a child in the last two 'years of the elementary school; neither is it wise to treat him as wholly a man in the first two years of college. That - general cultural training should as a rule end, at the very latest, at 20, Instead of at 22 as is commonly the case now, is the belief of those who have given the subject the most careful study. This is two years older than such study commonly ends in the German gymnasium, the French lyc6e, and the famous secondary schools of England. ’ Of nothing am I more profoundly convinced than I am of the ines- timable value to the individual student himself, and to his country also, of his turning at the age of 20 to professional study or to business with that purposeful zeal which is characteristic of the professional student or the responsible young business man. Imagine, for aT“"‘ moment, the academic hosts of juniors and seniors utilizing, their intellectual energies with the enthusiasm characteristic of coining doctors, lawyers, and engineers. The 'contrast in attitude between the. two groups is generally acknowledged to be startling, and I con- 46 ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION. sequent! v have no hesitation in asserting that there had better be no | academic juniors or Seniors as long as this be true. The turning at the age of 20 to the preparation for tone’s own life task means far more than simply the saving of two of the best yeftrs of life to more efficient intellectual living, for it means added efficiency in living in ^all the years that are to como. There are no statistics on the college books of those that become habitual idling dilettantes between 20 and 22, but I venture to assert that there is liardlv a college man who , does not recall some with a more or less pitiful slorv of their varied } attempts *to find place in a society that looks with more or less impa- tience, if not contempt, upon the one whose acquisitions seem to havo weakened his power of initiative, his apparent interest in the prac- tical problem that diity requires him to tackle and cordial adapta- bility to circumstance. There should be no room in the American ] scheme of education for such desultory intellectual dawdling jus often characterizOvS the junior and senior years of academic study. It may be pardoned in a genius, but he is an infinitesimal deliberately * neglected in this discussion. Except for purposes of humiliating comparison in order to stir our pride, the question of accomplishing as much as any given foreign school with students of the same age ought not to enter the discussion. I desire to Urge, of course, so far *j as I have interest or voice in this report, that we secure the greatest efficiency possible under American conditions, saving time through all grades in all the ways so fully set forth by our chairman. But, even then, no matter.how far short we may fall of what the German or French or English schools may accomplish, I believe it best, both' for the individual student ant* for the society that his ideals of work help to temper, that after the age of ‘20 some kind of definite life purpose shall shape his choice of work, and that it be carried oil with the energy and enthusiasm that have always characterized profes- sional study. ' Ho who is to pursue a business career ess ho remains in college for professional specialized training in such direction, had better begin such at 20. The businoss man would prefer him to bo younger, but at least ho wants the youth while ho is teachable, obedient, anxious to win success, and eager to please by hard work. *T \ ie special reasons for including within the secondary period the years of instruction from 12 to 18, as contrasted with the customary 14 to 18, or, in actual practice, the more commort 15 to 19 period, are, in. the opinion of the great body of teachers of secondary subjects, very weighty ones. First of all, the ago of 12 soems to mark very fairly the physiological dividing line between childhood and youth. At any rate, the world over, the pedagogical wisdom of the past, as well as the more scientific pedagogical judgment of the present, agree that the best educational work can be done by a recognition of the 47 ' ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION. marked distinction between this elementary and this soeondarv stiem m education ; and that by organizing this secondary- field upon the principle that it constitutes a definite whole, in the life of the indi- vidual, the soundest intellectual growth ri II ■* The- virtue of secondary teaching lie* in larpo measure in iu. duration, in it* .low 1 influence upon the- intellect. The bent teacher. need ,he help of ,„ne if ,|„. v wish not to furnish the memory will, hastily acquired and badly digested knowledge, hut lo ad upon the intellectual habits and to accomplish the education of t lie mind, which is trulj t'flHentml aim of fHicondary instruction. " hen 0,10 S(, ; >S in i>tiiy intellectual cfliciency result ing from the fact that Dr. ( oinpayr^s busts is the eonunon one, whether it be in the old-fashioned classical gymnasium or the reformed oynmasinni or whether it l,e in France in the lycfio or in England in iltc famous schools that for centimes have furnished the leaddfs of the nation in all the ideal activities of men, one can not fail to he impresses! with the fundamental importance attached to the formation of right intel- lectual habits and ready use of faculties throughout this early period of education. More startling still is the suggestivenhss to an Ameri- can, in a gymnasium maintaining a progymnasium for boys from 6 to !», to hoar the fine work of the highest class -attributed to the fact that their earliest formal instruction lmd been received under just the samo educational conditions as their latest, in other words that' the, elementary work had been finely done. An examination of the curricula of good European secondary ' schools and the papers set for graduation will convince any one that ; at the completion of their course boys of 18 have completed work in I the fundamental subjects of literature, mathematics, and science j oq u iva.lont to that offered in the . sophomore year of American col- I logos. This committee hi its scheme allows a'handieap of two voarc I more than this to the American boy for the completion of equivalent i work An observer of the work of the European schoolboy is bound to ask, ‘How account for this evident precocity?” Many replies . containing, elements of truth may bo made, hut the fundam-ntal I reasons are startlingly obvious to the inquiring American and may- be veiy briefly stated. The Eyropean student spends his homo study j m making himself facile and sure of that in which he 1ms been core- j fully and accurately, instructed during his class hour, while the I American spends his preparatory hours in learning, too often hi slov- enly and inaccurate fashion, that in which he might have boon instructed m but a fraction of the time, while the time of his class j hour is spent m examination of the extent of his failure in learning ! leaving little time for real instruction or for drill in testing the accu- 1 racy of his understanding of the matter orally presented The con- 5778*— 13, — 4 . I. vy * r 48 ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION. sequence of careful learning from the instructor at the class hour 13 this, that the catching of the few mow points presented becomes habitual, and the class work is marked by an eager gripping attention which to tho stranger is startling. The readiness, clearness, and fullness, with which difficult and some- times involved statements are returned by students is a revelation of the possibilities of scholarly attention. Work of this character can bo observed in any subject and will impress the American listener with much tho same feeling of astonishment as in the times past he may have listened to rapid logical analysis by students skilled in the art of solving difficult problems in mental arithmetic. Real and ready intellectual power of this type is tho heart of worthy work in any subject, and there should be the exportation by the teacher of securing it from the earliest years, in work suited to the age of the individual. The steady accretion of skill and power from year to year will account for most of the advantage exhibited by the European student. While this, to my mind, is the strongest reason for the efficiency, at any stage, of the foreign elementary and secondary school, for the most striking result of all, the sum total of final accomplishment, there are other important considerations- that deserve mention. The high standards of professional training de- manded of both elementary and secondary teachers before they are .allowed to teach; the homogeneous home* eftnditions in which stu- dents live; the greater length o| tho school day and the school year; and the atmosphere of hard work in which everybody lives, but especially the children; these are some of the factors' contributing to fine results. While the work of the schoolroom has zest and fire, there is completo absence of nervous hurry and drive; indeed, there seems to be a leisurely certainty of reaching the desired goal. One ^ gets the impression that the getting of knowledge is the incidental thing and the student’s ability to handle what he knows Is the teach- er’s greatest concern. x The enrichment of the grammar and high-school courses of study has resulted with us in crowded programs and bulky textbooks. Jn much of the work abroad there is no textbook except as made froha day to day by the slow extension of the student’s notes, which are made with care and deliberation and most sharply supervised. Th^ habit of formal accuracy in mihutias is acquired so early that the ^ - question of its being a hardship seems never to have arisen. The teacher described in his “Memorials” by a shrewd Scotch ' judge as being “though a good man, an intense student, and filled, but rather in the memory than in the head, with knowledge, as a schoolmaster as it is possible tenancy, ” exhibits a type of scholar * almost impossible to produce unuer the kind of instruction which Dr. CompayrG has in mind, but the kintf of scholar which our Euro- ECONOMY OP TIME IN EDUCATION. ' 49 . pean critics believe they find to be a common 'product under our methods of measuring intellectual power by the quantitative- ways ' which .seem to be made preeminent in the minds of our teachers by tho fact that they are emphasized as mental yardsticks for units of V : annual accomplishment in school propram and college catalogues. • ° ’ . . 1,1 our t(mt 'hinp body is freed from its nightmare of completing ' subjects, or courses of study, there can be no expectation'of the kwid •o teaching in which, the emphasis is .everlastingly upon thoughtful • 1 resjionse hv the student rather than upon the matter presented by ’’ the teacher. It is not an unfair criticism of much of our instruction - both elementary and secondary, to say that the panorama presented i by the teacher makes hardly more impression upon tho class than 3 the moving-picture show upon its spectators. j Our problem will never be solved by the elimination of matter | h< ' ro “J 1 " "' ,UU ' r ,llm! " hlch w, ‘ n K« - e«> to call waste. What is really wasted is the children's time when tlm method of instm tion is such * lhut . - v can thinking, sometimes under the guise of atten- tion) without the teacher's discovering the- real situation The two yearn desired can be saved, one in the elcmenUiry and one in the I secondary period ; it will' be done, however, if ' it be done by improving the tlunkmg as exhibited in oral or Written expression in' every grade. It must bo umlemtood by tho teacher that knowledge ' ' of subject matter is subordinate to sharpening the correspondence 1 between word and idea and fixing the. same, for ready use in future learnmg. Tho readiness of recall of the German student in any grade ' ■ ' « amazmg. lie is held' accountable, for sharply distinguishing that' ! which ho knows fropi that which he does not know; not only 9 „ but his experience is so vivid that he can recall when he leartiM what he ! knows. The readiness and minuteness with which he will tell a story change a criticized word or phrase, or quote a construction simile to th<3 one under discussion proves that wo have underrated the capacity of our own students in similar regards. This method of class discipline followed through the secondary period will bring our students to the end of the same with readier use of all. their intellectual powers for either study or business in short, far better educated in the best, the true sense, though the stopping point bo two years earlier than the present one. In all this plea to recoghizo a secondary period of education lasting * from 12 to 18, it is unnecessary to carry the associated idea of a j costly high, school, maintained as a separate institution. ' The kind of instruction that I lmvo in mind should bo given in every grade room. It may have been already begun in any building where a departmental system has been instituted for the seventh and eighth ’ grades. For departmental teaching, if successful, demands a stronger ' i I. 1 50 , ECONOMY OP TIMKEN EDUCATION. teacher, and possibly tliis is the best way of improving the present elementary 'instruction and thereby saving waste and securing the efficiency so unmistakably* demanded by the general public. But there must be no less than a revolution in the traditional ideal of instruction drilled by habit into the warp and woof of the teacher brain throughout his own elementary and secondary school experi ence, to which he subconsciously reverts, unless he be unusual, as soon as he faces his class. There must be less of merely hearing children recite; there must bo less of interesting talking, not to say lecturing, by teacher; there must bo less of expressive reading* without thinking ^on the student’s part; in short,” there must be everlasting matching of the Student’s mind and knowledge against jthe teacher’s mind and knowledge, an interlocking of wits in old-fasliioned Socratic ways, to secure education at its best. The field of myth, of world history, of natural liistory, of the literature cjf the fatherland is covered astonishingly well* in the early years of the German gymnasium; but it is perfectly plain that care is taken that information grow no faster than ready use of word correctly matoliing idea. Language under these conditions becomes a real gymnastic that gives daily proof of growing intellectual power; and this being so, no one has to worry' about attainment on reaching the age of 18. No more would vrfc in America, given similar instruction. * jj* THE COLLEGE PROBLEM . 1 James H. Baker. ECONOMY OF TIME. Upon the subject of economy of time in education I have had the . benefit of scores of opinions and experiences of active teachere fully • and frankly stated. If conclusions reaffirm a value in some principles f that are old enough to have a history, I beg that I may not hear the . usual cheap argument of “not up-to-date. 0 A view that does not accord writh presont ideas may be both retrospective and prophetic. These criticisms are prominent: There is much waste in general education, including elementary, Ihcondary, and college. Of the . •• material employed little* has permanent valuo, or indeed any value whatever, apd less is retained. Of tho methods used, only & ^ - part gives power or character. Results are not proportionate to the time and expenditure, and the . public are asking for. shorter time, < v,; greater efficiency, land an adjustment of educational aims to real civic needs, both practical and ideal But reform is slow. We are bound kS 1 Part oft report ofprofr**, ondar tho tttU "Roorfanitatton of Amten Kdaettko/’ Nationl Bdch . MtWi UU. 1 ECONOMY OP TIME IN EDUCATION* * gj by traditions difficult to break. The question is complicated by all sorts of minor or inconsequent inquiries, when it should be a simple oneof looking at the obvious goal and taking the direct road to it. lhe first remedy is selection and elimination as applied to subjects and topics of study. The maxim of ‘ faithfulness in small things” does not mean indiscriminate emphasis' in use of the material of learning. Judgment of relative values is a cliief need of the teacher. Vjuality, not quantity, has a new significance to-dav. Knowledge .and power come from the use of a few typical things by methods that beget thought; inspiration often springs from a word with a flash of insight. For instance, more would be gained bv thorough under- standing of a dozen chief processes in arithmetic than by any number of mechanical solutions of problems; more by using a dozen leading principles and experiments in pli'ysics thgn by ‘‘completing the text* book. In ehynentary science, mot hod and interest are of fint value While much reading in history' and literature is desirable, thought and inspiration come from a wise use of a few selections. I was intro- duced to Homer and to mythology by hearing an old farmer recite a passage from Pope s Iliad, and read Macaulay's England on hearing a quotation from it with appreciative comment. “Books that have hejped me, and favonte poems that have inspired, *rc few The, essence of Stevenson is contained in a letter, an anecdote, and ? pi^yer. Read Stevenson, of course, but study these and get them into the soul. If it is objected that this is a condensed-food theory I rep y that it is not necessary to eat the husk and shell to enjoy the mdk m the coconut. Extent of ground covered as a criterion for promotion or for admission to college is the American standard of quan- tity applied to our education. Let the teachcro, or rather the respon- sible superintendents and principaLs and loading educatore, employ ‘'PnTl,^^ 0 their ? n T tl0ns ’ antl P lwlaim thp gospel of quality^ 8 ? e CUm J cul L um was a Proat idea, but it has been subject endless abuse and the tunc has come to apply the philosophy of the “simple life” to education. 1 y 9 °jr e J ° f ecoJlolily “ “dapting method to the nature of the subjwt. 'The doctrine that all subjects have a like value, should ' be taught m the same way and produce the same results, I believe to Si ! 7 u and J cvory whero harmful. It applies the methods of St sitei-- 1 “ hkt<) ' 7 and Ktoratur °. an(1 actions the ^ ^ , entrajlco requirements-a devico convenient . enough for the colleges, but destructive of any well-balanced orean- lzation of high-school courses. Subjects of prime importance whose principles hayo the widest application are especially fitted to cultivate awuracy, pereeverance, and endurance. Others should be taught by other methods requiring less of the pupil’s time 'and eneigy. Some .-t* ''V ;\ 'i , : ■ ?_ — p ?“ 62 ECONOMY OP TIME IN EDTTOATIOIff. fields should be covered by reading, talks, and lectures with no view to examination. To repeat — time can be saved in elementary and secondary education by varying the method of instruction according to the need of the subject. I know this involves the question of whether “general” education is theoretically possible. If we were dependent upon certain humor- ously artificial and inconsequent laboratory experiments on the sub- ject, we should be in a sad case indeed. Fortunately, common-sense generalization from human experience rejects hasty inferences from inadequate experiments. It would be well, before it is too late and “general” education is reckoned among the lost arts, to send a questionnaire to the old boys and learn how many are stout in the belief that their real education came from drill in arithmetic, English grammar, Latin, and formal logic; that from these studies they gained accuracy, power of thought and expression, the detective and determining skill of the scientific method, and readiness to discover fallacies in thd^ field of argument and of business; that their system, accuracy, and scope in practical affairs are largely due to formal training. We know that general power means nothing except as constituted by specific elements — certain ideals of method and of attainment, ways and means in study and investigation — but theso do “transfer” or “spread” and cover other fields of mental effort. Moreover, general principles thoroughly grasped have endless points of contact with concrete instances; and deduction, with applications, from formulated knowledge is a chief work of general education, and is the most efficient and economical. Easy ways, infantilo induc- tions, scatter-brained methods have become fetishes— and I am still mindful of the just claims and the beneficent features of the ruling educational doctrines. Waste occurs in certain culture work of the grades. Too little may be left to , soul development through. the influence of natural surroundings. Artificial teaching of what should be spontaneous growth, imparting inspiration by rule, formulating sentiments are unpedagogical. Nature is subject to too much paternalism ftl&ce in thq time-table is not needed for many culture influences; they come, if at all, through a personality or a suggestion and are inci- dental to the day^ work. Many faults may be committed in the name of. kindergarten and qf nature study. Other ways of economy may be merely mentioned: Avoid excesr aive use of rules of method; spve time from the laboratory for a knowledge of theBubject; for interest and motive* create a vision of the value of the be9^ things; use illustrations from the life nf to-day, and' in every way vitalize the work of instruction. By some nieans, eonstruotive or destructive, banish lazy indifference* which was Wisely regarded by the early church as a deadly sin. ECONOMY OP TIME IN EDUCATION. gj The elementary and secondary periods of instruction should give\ the tools of education, the methods of study, the power of work, \ some important knowledge of selected subjects, and the desire to ! learn, and the ability to think. It should plant a growing sense of > appreciation and a healthy philosophy of life. - By the' methods sug- gested it is believed that as much can be accomplished at 18 as now at 20, as much at 20 as now at 22; that the whole period of educa- " tion, general and special, can without loss be shortened at least two years. THE COLLEGE. I Here we reach the college and its problems. I have little patience with some criticisms aimed at culture education and the follies of col- lege life; they are frequently the carpings of ignorance or prejudice that lead nowhere. There is reason, however, for an intelligent examination of the whole question as related to economy of time The serious faults t,f the college are due to the length of the whole period of general education, and the elements of inefficiency and waste This country should adopt either the English or the German type of university, but not both. In foreign countries the student enters the university nominally at 18, directly from the secondary ’Sfiool We interpose four years of college-largely a waste of time and method. Do not misunderstand at- this point; the idea is, not to lower the standard of. American education, but rather to readjust • and strengthen it. It is proposed to end the college and begin the umveraity at 20 instead of 22, thus saving two years. Of course, it is humiliating to concede that our preparatory education must be prolonged even two years to equal the standard of the English or German secondary school. But, if we may draw safe conclusions from the report of the English commission and from the Oxford experience with American students, we are lacking in thought power and perseverance— and because of methods that in part can be reme- died. The university, that is the graduate school, and the last two years of college should be shaken together and reorganized into one division of education, namely, a real university, preparation for which should end at 2^ Progressive university colleges have al- ready prepared the way by approximating the last two years to the university type. The plan would eliminate the duplication between high schools and colleges, and reduce the time limit of preparatory education.. It -would offer university methods earlier— an immense pedagogical gain. It would have another advantage. The Ph. D. candidate now proceeds, always under careful guidance, through four years of high school, four years of college, and three or four years of graduate work. Any one whose originality and efficient power .sun vive the test is indeed a proven man and worthy of responsibility. For the college teacher an earlier university course and subsequent 64 ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION, independent study, original production, and long probation would be more than a substitute for this work of supererogation now offered. In view of such considerations the- committee referred to have agreed provisionally to a time scheme as follows: Elementary education G to 12 Secondary education (2 divisions: 4 years and 2 years) 12 to 18 C P 1 ! c 8 e -; -- 18 to 20 or 10 to 20 l Diversity (graduate school and professional schools)...., 20 to 24 The tools of education can bo acquired at the ago of 12, and there are reasons why high-school methods should begin at about that age, when so many pupils loavo the elementary schools. Tho division of the secondary period into four years and two years lends itself to the plan for industrial education, as will be seen later. Moreover, smaller high schools can end at 16; larger high schools at 18 or 20. Small col- leges can take pupils from 16 to 20, thus maintaining a four-year course. Tho universities can retain two years, namely, from 18 to 20. Let us see what are tho essential consequences of this time scheme in terms of pedagogy. Many processes of mental training are easier in the earlier years. Beginning high-school methods at 12 will meet the need of pupils who at that ago are restless and aro seeking larger and more varied interests. Twenty is a better age to begin genuine university work than later, when the mind is less elastic, energetic, and adaptable. Elimination of useless material will stimulate the interest of pupils and result in harder and better effort— the time would be filled with important work. It lessons the period of work that to tho pupil appears void of purpose. It makes a better division of time between receptive study and the larger motor activities. Moreover, we must consider results, in view of the just claims of our civilization to-day. Educational aims must be adapted to civic needs. The history of education sIiowb that it has always been closely related to tho dominant needs and ideals of tho people at any given period. There is no doubt about the public attitude to-day. The schools will be compelled so to reorganize as to meert them in the most efficient way. The proposed time scheme makes a bettor economic division betweon preparation for life and active life. It enables men to become established in life earlier and to give more of their best years to social service. It will keep a larger number in school through tho elementary and preparatory period. It will eliminate waste and foolishness, and thus make more serious and efficient citi- zens. By introducing earlier the methods that produce power, ymd • by selection of the fittest, the proposed reorganization of college knd university will enhance the intellectual strength of the nation. It is not intended to make the preparation of teachers a ■distinct part of this subject, but it pan not be wholly omitted. For secondary teaching, scientific knowledge and power are the firat req uisites Here ERIC ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION. 55 a little leamingis a dangerous thing. Sound scholarship, such as only the best college and university courses can furnish, alone will remedy the weakness which foreign critics believe they discover. High schools and colleges agree that study of education must be part of the teacher’s preparation. . College departments of education have here a great field. They can firing the student’s mind in contact with the masters of educational thought; they can uso the pedagogy found in great literature- the host source of the wisdom and inspiration of teaching; they can encourage independence and originality in the * acquisition and use of principles; they can conduct their work on the plane of liberal culture, and in an atmosphere of scholarship and rotjne tv* n * Th(!' problem of reorganization includes very distinctly vocational education, and only a beginning of the solution.has been made in this country. The excellent report of tho council committee last year (lSHO) makes unnecessary more than a summary of Hie situation and some suggestions on the questions involved. The material interests of the country must be promoted by the extension of commercial, mdustriul, technical, and trade instruction. The rights of the indi- vidual and the welfare of society require nra^tical training leading toward useful occupations for a large class of youth whose period of education ls limited. There are two views of the means of accom- plishment. A large my^ber would provide separate 'schools. The more conservative would felftte a ll such work to tho regular schools, select tho mdustfies emphasized in each locality, and make the train- ing for them merely preparatory. This special work would be elec- live, and occupy about one-fourth of the school time. Preparatory uidustnal courses are placed at the age of 12 to 16; trade courses as such, leading to apprenticeships, at 16 to 18. It will be seen that the time scheme previously discussed, making the high-school period 12 to 18, with two divisions, four years and two years, readily adapts itself to these needs. Of course in largo cities there are special prob- lems calling for earlier technical preparation for various industries. I believe that most progressive men, who represent high schools and colleges, in a general way tafcc the affirmative of this question. They also stand for the professional and technical side of the uni- . versitiesf. Many university colleges are “vocationalizing” the last two years, allowing or requiring students to choose studies leading to engineering, medicine, law, teaching, business, or at least to select a particular line of culture. . But men who take a broad view can not go the entire way with the radicals. To bepn industrial training before the foundation of education is laid, to the principles of science only 'as growing out of industrial needs or the applications of Bciancn without. INDUSTRIALISM AND HUMANISM. 56 ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION. to yield children to the merciless demands and economies of trade, to provide vast and expensive special equipment of every kind, when the great problem is to connect all vocational tr ainin g with existing plants and actual industries, to ignore all culture- and deny the pos- sibility or value of general education— these are at least objectionable propositions. # The true aim is to maintain a balance between the material and the spiritual side of our civilization and between skill and foundation principles. If there Ls a demand for the practical, there is also an insistent claim for the humanistic side and for pro- found scientific knowledge. There are two kinds of philosophy that largely dominate the life of America — that of Bacon and that of Rousseau. We recognize the marvelous stimulation to human thought and material civiliza- tion of Bacon’s influence and the beneficent humanitarian influence of Rousseau. *But the misuse of the one fosters the evils of the day- worship of power, success at any cost, materialism; from 4ho other springs the doctrine of the individual temperament with all its evils of pursuit of inclination, unwise election, easy methods, cheap amuse- ments, and anarchy of soul. These two influences rule too much our schools and enter too much into our national life. Any reorganization of education will fail unless it is pervaded hy sound pedagogy and a healthy philosophy. /y I believe we must adapt to present needs the essential principles of humanism. There is not time, nor is it necessary, to go into the history of humanism, point out its virtues and faults, or make a careful definition of it. We may assume what it should mean to-day u It believes in the value of organized and transmitted knowledge, in discipline from studies, in selection ob^e best. It accepts and use's the best in tradition, and works on the plan of ‘keeping civilization alive. It believes in pure ideals, in standards of excellence and char- acter. It appreciates the importance of the higher viewpoint that shows things in their right proportion, extent of vision, the self- possession that is not swayed by mob sentiment or led astray by long discarded false doctrines. It advocates a culture that has a moral backbone. It places character above success, and wisdom above knowledge. Since humanism is interest in the lives and thoughts of men as revealed ip language, .literature, and history, it may include all the implications of his nature. Hence it stands for an idealism that makes of the universe a living thing, sees in it a universal will, holds as supreme some form of reverence, and a mighty faith in the ^affirmative side of things. Withal it stands for real progress, wise sympathy, and a democracy that gives a just opportunity for nobility of intellect and character. There never was so great a need of an intelligent view of the place of humanism in education. Leaders of educational thought have ECONOMY OP TIME IN EDUCATION. 57 hero their greatest work-nothing short of giving teachers and the ' public a sound philosophy of life, a true estimate of real culture and the ways and means of making humanistic studies effective in edu- cation. For this high service of the teacher are needed, first, a strong personality, a cheerful outlook, an idealistic view, a power of appr^ elation ; second, a knowledge of the means of education for power of vital moral training, of imparting inspiration by the deeds Lad thoughts bf men This view is not an argument for classics, only for the principles of humanistic study; it does not neglect science or m us ry; it endeavors to mamtam a proper balance in education. The peoj^ie demand that the spiritual side shall find a place in our schools and in our national life, and any scheme of reoiganization must reckon with the fact. I know the etliical "significance of science and of industry they give society a kind of material moral backbone. But many mechan- ical occupations require morals more than skill. As machinery more and more does the work of the world, the demand for responsibility will increase he sense of duty that prevents waste and loss and acci- dents. The lack of efficiency in most industries and professions when it is not a lack m foundation education, is largely moral Humanism regards not the work only, but man’s attitude toward it JThe business world will make a fearful economic mistake if it insists on making of youth machines instead of men. SOME OPINIONS ON THE COLLEGE PROBLEM. A copy of the preceding paper was sent to the presidents of Ameri- can Universities, asking a reply especially upon the main question of ending the period of general education at about 20. The following extracts from replies are valuable- contributions to the subject- Prmderd Nwholas Murray Butler. -In my judgment the college course can, and should, be completed when the normal student is 20 yearn of age. The reason that it is not now completed at that point is, in my judgment, due to poor organization of elementary-and secondary education, to wasteful methods of teaching, and to lack of cooperation betweeifhome and school. , Benjamin I. Wheeler.— 1 think it is in the highest degree •fndTk 6 i t l hat i What W ° cal y econdar y education should reach dowJ •and take the two upper grades of the elementary schools. There are two reasons for this: First, these two upper years, having bZ wcupied in the first place by merely formal expansion, are filled now saw us , secondly, 14 is too lute to begin the acquiring of the Sd«rl°f • eign *i a ? 8 ^ a f e ' • 1 ? iere 8110111(1 be added *k°> I think, the con- sideration that industrial training should begin not later than 12. Students should enter college at about 1 6 . They must not be allowed, however, to launch out into the muddy sea" of free election. The 58 ECONOMY OP TIME IN EDUCATION. Maai fim.two years must have a suitable organized curriculum; the break should come at the age of 18, between sophomore and junior year. I am persuaded that the long-drawn-out series of years which we have put into our career for the Ph. D. is a mistake. ' After a man passes the age of 1,8 lie ought to hurry fast toward his goal; prior to fhat he ought to go slow. This is. why the barrier ought to he at the end of the sophomore year; the barrier must be there to prevent the flood of free election from washing away aU the landmarks of requirement President Charles 11. Van Ifisc.- So far as my experience goes it is in accord with the division of years proposed for the different lines of work in your article which Ton send me. The only unification winch I would make is that tins is a scheme for persons who have sufficient ubdity to take advantage of college or university work, r.nd with the understanding that they remuin continuously in. school. President A. Boss lHU.—l believe it to be entirely feasible to save two years in the course of our cultural or general education in thi^ country and thus to make it possible to establish real universities. You will be interested to know-, if you have not already noted it that with the opening of the university this fall we require the first two years of the arts and science course for admission to ativ professional or technical school. This is the natural sequence to n step taken here about five years ago in requiring generul training for freshmen and sophomores, specialization of juniors and seniors idjtlic college of arts and science. It will not be long, I believe, until we will be viewing the first two years of work as a virtual preparatory depart- ment. We have gotten a few largo high schools in’tlie State to add a fifth year, and wo shall soon have them maintaining two years of what they will regard as a sort of graduate work in the high school. Tins situation however, does not in itself bring about the economy of time aimed at by you. That reorganization must come chiefly it7?o "• the elementary school, which the pupil should leave at about 1 2 years of age. President Charles 0. Mercia.— In the muttor of reorganization with reference to the time element, it seems to me that, if you do not speak the last word, you at least speak words that can lend logically only to • the lost word upon this subject. We. Americans' have been so afraid of not being thought original that wo have sometimes suffered loss by our unwdlinposs to copy. It is too bad we have not profited more than we have by our knowledge of the organization of-tho German primary and secondary schools afid universities. When you apply tins discussion of the time element to industrialism, I also • ™ th y° u 83 V 0 . 1,16 general principle. However, I do not admit that because a subject has a vocational trend its study loses aU cultural value and also entirely fails to contribute to mental fr« » ‘ 11 u?'T er ’ T Uing t0 admit that as vocational subjects are usually taught they add only to our stock of tools. If we were v~- . d ■ ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION. 5Q bettor prepared to teach these subjects properly, we might not need to make this differentiation. However, as I "said, it seems to be pretty clear that up to a certain point of growth, the age of 20 or thereabout, those subjects should be pursued which contribute most largely to mental growth and which introduce one best to the world of human interests. On the other hand, I do not believe that it is going to be possible to ignore the tremendous demand for so-called secondary technical instruction. I believe that an immediate prob- lem will be how to answer this demand and still save your general scheme. I resident Arthur II. — I am in hearty accord with your pen- era! statement. I believc.that men should finish the ordinary college course by the time they are 20 years of age and be prepared either for business, some other occupation, or for graduate work* One saving of time might be made, in the college course, where there is * great loss from dissipation of time and energy by the ordinary college student. It would not be at all difficult to shorten the time spent in a good high school and good college by a strong student. It appears to me that we bught to be adjusting our work rather to tho ambitious student than to the unambitious or mediocre student. President David Starr Jordan .—I quite agree with the main features. President A. Lawrence Lowell .— I agree with you entirely that the pace is too slow in our education and the age is too old. As a friend of .mine remarked, I think the trouble begins in the nursery. It is the habit now to begin several years too late, and frequently children are sent to kindergarten at an age when they ought, to have finished that and begun the primary. These years are never made up. On the other hand, I do not wholly agree with what you say ubout the college. I believe that, four years in college, for those who can afford tho time and use it properly, is perhaps the most valuable part of education, and on the other hand I think that the atmosphere of the high school is not the best to develop full-grown faculties. I should like to see boys leave the high school at 17 and college at 21. President Arthur T. Hadley .— Why must we make definite choice between the English and tho German systems ? Tho English system prepares for public service, and does it well. Tho Gorman system prepares for professional efficiency, and does this well. Why can not wo prepare, for both ? It seems to mo that it is far more important that we should continue to do the things that we do, however imper- /fectly, in preparation both for public and for private service, than to attempt to have everybody alike. My general judgment of the plan, therefore,- would be that if we had to standardize in any form, your . plan probably represents the direction in which we could go with' the leadt harm, but I am not convinced of the wisdom of attempting to make everybody aliK% in this matter just yet. APPENDIX. PRELIMINARY REPORT ON NEED OF INVESTIGATION ~OF THE CULTURE ELEMENT AND ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION. James H. Baker. (A) INTRODUCTION. In 190:Ut the Boston meeting of the National Education Association a committee was appointed in the Council of Education to report upon the desirability of an inves- tigation of "The Culture Element and Economy of Time in Education.” This roip- mittee, as a committee, has never reported, beyond suggesting two or three topics for investigation. The subject was revived at the 1907 meeting of the council, and the wnter was asked by the president to make a preliminary report upon it. It. is to be remembered that this is not even a preliminary report, of |n investigation, but a pre- liminary report upon its desirability -an examination of the field to see if treasure is contained within ita limits. I am aware of the limitations to the value of the questionnaire as well as of its proper uses, and it haa ita uses. When such an investigation as this is proposed the first step is to seek experiences, facts, opinions, and tendencies, as concerns the sub- ject, and I believe umwualiy.rieh retume have been secured in this instance. I sent out several hundred copies of a circular inquiry to men carefully selected among the following: Presidents of universities; professors of education; superintend- ents of schools and principals of high schools; sociologists and business men. Eighty replies were returned. The number of replies from each group is in the order of the groups named, few being received from sociologists and business men, although a second special inquiry was sent them. The questions, a summary of the opinions, clarified extracts, references to articles, experiments, and investigations, and a valuable additional bibliography, furnished for this report by the National Bureau of Education, are submitted. The quefitions were made as searching as possible for the general view to be obtained. The replies as a whole show exceptional knowledge, conscientiousness, knd interest on the part of the writers, and very little perfunctory work or more disposition to find fault appearing. • I think I may here present a general impreseioifof the whole, before calling alien- tion to the questions and summaries. The first impression is that there is reahand widespread dissatisfaction with tho results of education, especially as related to the time expended; that there is a grow- ing consciousness of tho need of adjustment to new ideals; that there Is a demand for reinvestigation and reorganization. The people are ready for the leadership of any representative body that will attempt to reduce to some degree 0 f order educa- tional theories, methods, and standards. It is a surprise to me to learn that two-thirds of the correspondents believe tho period of formal education should be shortened Md that "very many would place the age-limit at 24 or earlier. All ask for a shorter ' Iupit, or bettor results for the time, or both. They recognize that since the early - ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION. 61 New England college, education has added eight years, the high school has taken the plgce of the college, four years havo been set apart for the higher degrees; that the college to-day occupies an anomalous position, without a well-defined function- that each unit of the system is yearly.increaaing its demands; that quantity is the ideal mtljer than quality. There is a disposition to call a halt along all the line and ' have an inspection. There is also a strong sentiment that culture must bn redefined that it niven. much of the field which formerly was regarded as exclusively practical' The waste of time in elementary education, the need of reforms in secondary educa- 11 e n °. 0< " definition of the college and of its relation to the professional school arc emphasized with substantial reasons assigned. I was doubtful about the value of l ie question relating educational aims to social needs, but much wisdom is shown m the replies and a majority claim that real culture will not suffer if we pay reasonable anontni" to efficiency and economy of time. The last question asking for summary views upon the whole problem of t he organization of education in this country brings oul many valuable Hu^gentionn. R There is nearly unanimity of opinion that* much time is wasted in elementary education, and a large majority claim that the time should he shortened. That there are too many odds and ends, topics and subjects, is a common criticism, the teaching ami the lack of knowledge of ends aimed at. having their share. Time can be saved by making a distinction between first-rate and tenth-rate facts; not trying to teach everything that. good ; limiting the work to the tools of duration; teaching content studies differently from the method in formal subjects; keeping durational aims in view Upon the whole, the judgment regarding vocation studies in the elementary schools is conservative and good. A striking suggestion is to provide studies which take the place of the work children formerly did with their parents in the home on tne farm, or in the whop, A majority favor a change of the high-school period, the preference being for 12 to 18. Some advocate two divisions only for the dominantly cultural education since a distinction between the aims of the high school and of the liberal college does not exist. Important reforms in the high school arc freely proposed by nearly all. Amongst these are simplifying the courses, efficiency in character-making, directing jhe work toward well-defined ends, improving the leaching. I believe that as noted under elementary education, some subjects should he presented in a way to invite and inspire, and not for formal discipline, and that they should require little propare- tion. No greater mistake has been made in recent years than using the same rigid method fur al 1 studies. This practice is based ou an exploded doctrine that attained great dignity a few years ngo. Many people thank their stars that they did not get their literature and history in the modern elementary and secondary school Voca- tional needs are generally recognized, and various schemes are offered for providing practical courses A typical scheme is grouped electives leading in practical direc- tions, him offered in connection with the regular high school. The length of the college course is put by the most at four years, but this is done by those Who believe college entranpo should he much earlier, and hy those who would begin university work with the junior year, as well asjvy those who would preserve the college intact. Evidently they would first make a r^justment of the college and the professional school in accord with present tendencies, and leave for a later solution the less important problem of requirements for thpA. B. degree And here is the most significant fact of the whole report: One-hal/of the correspondents would have university work begin at the junior year-work that gives scientific power— with groups leading to the various professional degrees or the Ph. D. degree the last two years counting toward those degrees; and would 1 complete the prefer monal work or Ph. D. workin two years more, or six years after college entrance. One great university has already advertised substantially suA a plan. In the inde- poadent recon^endations for reorganizing the college are some interesting plans- 62 ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION. this voices the .sentiment of many: “I would thoroughly reconstruct the American college from top to bottom, for it retains its name, having lost it# character.** They do not shrink from specifying the kinds of reform. One would adapt the college to the years l(i, 17, 18, and 19. A few point out what business men really appreciate in the college graduate: The subjects of study, activities, moral and phy si co-moral qualities, practical traits, and show wherein the college as now organized fails to meet, the demand. The logical order 6f this inquiry may not appear at a glance; the time clement- id related to the culture element, and the culture element in turn is related to the needs and ideals of society to-day. AtVdiffcrent times many educators have expressed to mo the belief that relating the jiiqniry as above is a hopeless and profitless under- taking. -However, I am unable to see how a thorough investigation of American education could fail to connect aims with needs. The. history of education can be understood only in connection with the history of civilization, the conditions, needs and. dominant thought of different, eras. We c tin not understand our problem' unices we study our educational aims as related to our civic needs—the time, means, ami methods— in view.of results. Germany has had the wisdom to do this, and aims its instruction toward service to state and society. [ wonder whether Ve shall not yet ■ reexamine Persian, Spartan, ami Rmijan, £u* well as Athenian* education, and learn many things to our advantage*. I wish to add here that, to the end proposed above, educators must throw light on their problem from public opinion when formulated and expressed by intelligent representatives. What are the needs of society to-day? If one’ may believe the “crowd of witnesses,” they are, in plain terms, efficiency, real culture , and responsible character - 'nothing new, but peculiarly our needs at the present time, and the schools are not giving the people satisfactory results. Those three demands of real life suggest the weakness of our education and the ideals to be empha- sized. Nothing is changing so radically as the definition of culture, and thi H i H shown in the replies to the fifth topic on the relation of the subject to the demands of bus£* w ' ness and society and the ideals of our civilization. All agree that smattering, how- ever extended, is not culture, and that one may possibly cover the eight years of high school and college and not get an atom of culture. Culture, in my mind, is the i nsi ght and. inspiration from knowledge; it is closely related to efficiency and’char- acter. People* are demanding that young men bo made ready for life, and, that they be trained in a character that will stand modern tests, and that they shall gain real culture and not the mere show of it. I refer to the extended “Extracts” (p. 03)- Upon ’ this subject as well worth reading. The topic asking for summary views on. the organization of education in the United States gives much freedom and scope, and the answers are suggestive in many direc- tions. The replies may be summed up under the heads: Modifications of the school . system; organization of the system; vocation Clement in. education; preparation of teachers; educational aims; means of educational progrelS, etc. Some belie\o wo are now nearly ready for the German plan. The need of eliminating comparatively valueless material throughout is emphasized. Great stress is placed upon organiza- tion, National and State, and the need of some central power or representative body that shall unify and standardize and shall make use of discovery and the various means of progress. There is a .general recognition o?^ the need of practical studies throughout the school system, 44 branching off at different, points from the central line of general culture.” I have never seen more strongly emphasized the demand for / forceful, wise, inspiring teaching, and this ij.uot the only recent powerful expression of the same idea. The connection between means and the ends to be reached are duly discussed. The faults of election, the superficial quality of our education, th\ need of solidarity in our system, an interesting paragraph from IYof. James op “ Motor! education,** the importance of recording school experiences .and providing means of) interpretation in a central bureau are found in the 1 tot. ' 1 ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION. 63 f We are slow to adopt new ideas, and the views here represented will not be welcome to all teachers and professors. But I see nothing in all the tendencies noted which will not strengthen education and dignify the position and work of the teacher and the professor. In a scheme of readjustment most college departments in universities (which now in ppirit and in method are largely high-school departments) would become of university grade. Moreover, the scheme would include the wavs and means to develop productive scholarship in this country. I recommend strongly a careful reading of the “Extracts,” including the? “Questions and Summaries." for they are a compilation of up-to-date material of riph value upon the greatest present problems It must be understood that this is not a report; this is not the stago for it, and I have not presented many of rtiy own views. I have given a summary of the returns to an inquiry. I am convinced that the conditions warrant an invnstisjhtion, and under auspices of this body. The work should relate the time clement to culture and culture to social needs. Vocational training should he a part of the investigation, and .also the question of organization of the educational system; indeed these are now a necessary purl of the original subject. As to the things to be investigated, there is enough wisdom in the views already compiled; as to the methods of investigation a properly selected committee will find its own ways. If this work is to be pursued bv this council, a committee should be appointed ably representing elementary educa- tion. the secondary, the collegiate and university, the field of social'science and of the science of education. Such a committee should enter upon a thorough investi- gation along the lines already marked out. cooperate with other national organizations that majj he pursuing similar inquiries, formulate results, and unite in a final report with practical recommendations. This report is so much material for the work of ' such a committee. * (B) QUESTIONS, SUMMARIES, EXTRACTS . 1 Questions: * ^ 1 (a) At 7 that age should formal general and special education end , normally marked out for attaining a professional degree or the PhD. degree t . V the cntir€ period of general and special education should be shortened , where should time be savedt ' / Summary: 1 (a) Two-thirds would shorten the period informal gencral’and special education, and nearly half of all the replies name the age limit as 21 years or earlier. 1 [b) If the time is to be shortened , the order of preference is as follows: 14 All along; M in the elementary school arid the high school ; in the elementary school and the college; in the elementary school: in the college; in the high school and the college; in the college and the professional achoph M$e than half of these preferences include the elementary period, and more than half include the college. Extracts: * 1 fa). “It is rather difficult to name an age. I should think that all the work of die ele- men tary, secondary, general collegiate work, and. the work for the Pb.D. and pro- fessional degrees should end when the! normal pupil who has had no" intomiptiou is 20 years old An intelligent scheme of this kind would result, I sincerely believe, in a much higher average of intelligence for the sum total of humanity. It would ndt interfere with Uie geniuses going on and no doubt would result in the discovery of many more able and valuable m6n and women.” ' m 3 1 Sm Extracts, Coodnsed and RMiranfcad, p. 81 6778° — 18 5 64 ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION. ‘‘My figures require a shortening of the time, inasmuch as the medium age of grad- uation from American colleges is at present 22 years and 10 months, and the require- ment in advanc#ottt is three or four yean. In my opinion this much time shotnd be saved by rapid, promotions throughout the elementary school system, by flexibility in the high-school course, and by similar flexibility within our present college course. If these measures should not suffice, it would seem better to me to sacrifice the length of the college course rather than that of the professional course.”" “The great objection to our present condition is not so much that too much time is spent in studying for a profession or for life in general, but rather that the purely prep- aration stage is too long extended. With this objection I agree; and I think that the ultimate solution will involve, in the later Btages of education, a combination of prac- tical work, producing income, and along the lines of the professibn studied, with systematic study leading to tne professional degree. TTie period would in conse- quence not' so much be shortened as modified.” “I think that education given by actual contact with the world should begin some- what earlier than now, aasuming-tnat it does generally begin now about the twenty- fifth anniversary of the birthday.” “Leas and less will the prospective lawyer study biology’ and the prospective physician constitutional history. The engineer will not study Latin, nor will the prospective teacher of modem languages study physics and chemistry. Two things we know to be true: Any of the traditional subjects of general education may be iftade a highly selective agency in determining abifi^ for the professions; and, in profes- sional preparation, the demand is steadily Mreaaing. By means of ajtemative courses, high-school work should begin a general preparation fo> the professions.” “Dawdling and dissipation of thought must be avoided. If concentration and -thoroughness are maintained, the time element is relative to circumstances of students, with the general principle that the more complete the foundation the better.” r ‘Th$ complete course of preparation contemplates the students who are preparing for the meet complex and responsible positions in life. I think the ripening of a student’s powers and hie maturing are as important for such a career as the definite facta that ne gathers in the course, or even the definite training that is mapped out for him.” “I am quite skeptical of the value of the Ph. I). degree to men under 30.” “It would be well to have students enter college at about 16; to complete four years of carefully graded work udfler good instructors and in small groups, and, then at 20, or the end of our present sophomore year, go on to the university, which should treat subjects from a* technical, professional, ana research basis, requiring the two years now called freshman and sophomore for, entrance. It is a pity that a . B. nas been advanced two years in quantity since 1880 , rather than in quality.” f * “If the first two years of the American college undergraduate course were recognized as a continuation of the student's secondary, education, and these two years were com- bined with the high-school course as a general culture preparation for life and for later professional study, our young men could dispense with tne upper h&lf of the under- graduate course and pass at once to their professional training. ~ “ I believe that time should be saved throughout by lew attention to details, length- ening a litfie perhaps by more attention to generalizations.” “The strong student should be permitted to shorten the time. Time should not be the. chief elfement of consideration. Quantity and quality of work qfiould deter- mine the question of degrees.” “I should say that, if a degree, especially, the baccalaureate degree, represents ability and attainment, ana not merely time spent, then time could t>e saved in the college by the strong, able, and ambitious.” “'Hie high school suffers directly by the hyperconscious effort to prepare for some studies, above. I believe we would get better college preparatisn if tbe*high schools were utterly to forget it.” “I question first the advisability of endeavoring to shorten the entire period of general and special education. Our civilisation is becoming more and more complex.” ERjt ECONOMY OP TIME IN EDUCATION. 65 Questions: 2 (a) Is there important t eatte of time in elementary education! (6) Should thi period of elementary education he thortenedl Where and howt (c) What provision should be made in One period, for “ vocation ” tchooU or s tud ies! JjOWY (d) Please refer to experiments in this country or elsewhere to shorten the period of • elementary educatum, ■ to articles, papas, etc., bearing upon the subject or organization* that are investigating any phase of it Summary: . 2 (a) Five-sixths say time is wasted. 2 (6) Two-thirds think time should bo shortened. 2 (c) Less than one-third favor vocation studies in the grades? Extracts; 2 (a). be the i^iT^ ° f P u P‘ 1 ,- re80ur «?. where concentration ought to' by conservit^ene^ hoSS^nd^duJn non^n^ls^ 8chool - and rtudi « “ d - diversions from pupiba^vMce.'rwldt j . < ?_ and , Dew . me . dltx ^> 8Ch0 ° 1 ' ° D accoUnt of ,he •"* of great, strong, enthu- wittmrtfc, Md’^phy* 8 f0rm ° f Udmotivated a>nd ineffective reading, writing, of ‘sc^UMdS^ 8 ° UrCe8 ° f ^ in th?grade8 iB due ™ k of medical inspection as giX-wulta , ^’ h " ic . al schools can be just ified when they say they get b«cauM ^fli! I th^nS) £d to id^fe?. UDd D0W neCeBBar y- evcn more ,imo than is now occupied could be , ’ ' 2 y (6). pruning of the element p£ElS 1 “ "" ^ *"• ihortened »>y Cueing the «*. \ 66 ECONOMY- OF TIME IN EDUCATION. fettdon and placing them in separate grammar schools at age of 9 or 10, where concen- tration and continuous progress are possible; also by a closer articulation of high school and grammar school. ** “Yes. In accordance with the individual. By a more scientific adjustment, as the finite of child study, of the studies to the development of the individual. Em- phatically far leas time set out for formal reviews. By sticking to the elements of the subject. By application to the doctrine of apperception. By following social and concrete interests. ” “Yee. By fitting the course of study to the individual. A large number of chil- .dren can easily complete the grade work in six or seven years, others need nine or ten.” ‘‘Grades 1 to 6 m i gh t be shortened: (1) Prune and vitalize subject matter; (2) reduce size of classes; (3) improve teacher both ‘ methodically ’ and inspirationally; (4) reduce lay control of the school — make teachers and principals more inaependent. ” . By a course of study implying a more vitalizing content and a more varied and expensive procedure. The present plan of procedure and mere textbook instruction, maide four walls, is the easiest and cheapest possible, but not the best obtainable Cast out much worthless Rubbish; make the clear distinction, all the way through, between first-rate facts and principles and ^tenth-rate — a distinction which is not always known or made by the teachers now 1 employed generally. ” ~ “By more elastic classification, more attention to the individual, and teaching that * is more direct and positive. ” “By some omissions, but chiefly by better teaching and by getting children to see the relatione of what they are doing to ends that they deBire to reachT^’ B L r J 0t to . teach everything that is good. Select the beet and do the work ^ thoroughly ; also use industrial or manual training to vitalize academic instruc- • “Time could be saved on geography and arithmetic and reading. ” “Yes. By omission of parts of arithmetic, grammar and physiology, by bettor cor- relations and by better teaching. The drill work could be shortened greatly, if it were better conducted. Much more could bo accomplished in the content^! dies If the teachers did not teach thorn with the method suitable to the formal subjSFts^’ “Geography can be cut in the middle, arithmetic can be largely curtailed, and many other studiee can be treated in like manner. One of the-things in school that we mis- take is to take the natural development of the child for the work of the schools. ” “Yes. Very much less work should be done in arithmetic. The shortening pro- cess would be aided by the adoption of the metric system. But even without this adoption, we are at present spending a third more time than is necessary. Time could be saved, also, by dropping much of our technical English grammar and putting in a foreign language. There is also great waste in teaching geography, and the military and political details in history. In general, our courses of study need to be remodeled in the interest of better pedagogy. ” The. boy and the girl could spend time outside the ordinary school and learn many useful things and then accomplish as much in the common branches of learning taught in the primary schools as by going to school an the time. ” “It seems to me that the period of elementary education should be confined to the mastery of the tools of education — that is, during this period the emphasis should be placed upon this phase of the work. Fcfr pupils who do not wish to prepare for high- school work, certain kinds of manual work could be advantageously offered during the seventh and eighth years in place of technical grammar and some parts of arith- owtic. Those who plan to enter the high school could advantageously begin the study of foreign language, elementary akebra, constructive geometry and elementary science bo that they could finish the work of the high -school course one -or two years earlier than is customary under existing conditions. ” 4 ‘I think two years might be given to the high school if the high school Could be se being preparatory and begin to be liberal at the very begirf- MN ltRiriff H flTVOrfjYlOnfol onJ t.. depended upon to cease! « • I . * , - y a ^ w L/T? UUviai Av WIv Vvi j Utt mngof these added vears, using departmental methods and meeting the appetite mfonnatio while it f let up 1 for the present on the elementary school effort at training for IT L t vuu KUUUl OllUTt at W aiBlHg , Then t&© Mgh s c hool might well enrich its curriculum, putting lees pressure on ECONOMY OF "TIME IN. EDUCATION. 67 sH-jSSSSaSiS®® smmimMmn eniik ” d re, ° r y ° U 10 plaC09 When} there “ tt I»*tive public demand for length- r, tor as^r b • • . 2 (e). I ^SH^g . §SsES= SSSSH «* u «•■“ » i«w- p»™ » MpiSSSiSg s theoretical aide Renmanwhip .?■ ■.v.., , ; V! *'• ~ economy op time in EDUCATION. 69 Scmxaby: ~ 3 (a) A majority f&vor a change of the high-school period. 3 (6) A majority of these choose the period 12-18, a lees number 14-20, and a few 12—16. 3 (c) Nearly all think important reforms are needed. 3 (d) The replies are practicailyunanimous in favor of vocation schools or studies. Extracts: 3 (a). ,, ,I he higb-echool Period should reach to 18, and should actually be six years for 1 tV11 l g T P L ara , te BchuolB for children from 12 to 14. for^’ly I differentiation of the work of tho last' two (trades of the elementary school and a He preeSve'somewhTt th^d qllite romtnon - wil1 accomplish every end tmd’ preserve somewhat the democratic character of the school.” J 3 (6). “At 12 specialization should begin either for vocation or tar college.” My belief is that the threefold division of the cultural Dart of ediirarirm mentary, recondary, and higher, is due to accidental historical conditions and thatonlv hTehlr^Tt^n^^^ 0 ^^ 81 . 1 - 8 do . minantl y cultural should exist— elemental an£ ate . 3 (c). in ^T^ 001 - ed . ucati(,n should be based on the realization of the fact that it is the period of inspiration and the formation of ideals. The teaching should t^em in too h^W the pupil .lJ° ?™ e \ ta few ^neralization^nd to abZ.- tnem in the broadest way posable in the things of life.” , y • Ji«f^ nee<3 j n l 0re i^? roug n 1 Q688 ’ initia live t and moral emphasis. There is too much the grades on, the 'great effort Should grow oUh^upih ^d^k b to thS- “ d ^ work ® ve ^ F^ild as a personality. Let nature cut her capers under niODer euid- weakest child w^^os^wlre r“' ' 8ha " be alike ~ which means like the traini ? : K ^r life, citizenship, vocation, and service. Some frttdom of election course, for thoee iftys anclgirle who are com pel led to drop out at tfe end oHhe grammar school or earlier } Our system neglects tfik great cla£ of ttoung X D l e 2S M & d o^irid°X^ l?!!to ?OP , for . th , clr ne t da “ mrthoee who are ableto go to high school “ara”^ . everyth mg to mduce them to take these courees forsix orlventen bettorS^t^hera ” f ^ ° f im P rovemont *» the school is along the line of mart Jauh, with toe quality of the teaching. In classics and mathe- ,2™^ ’ ” 0t .!f a . 1 enou gh; pot sufficiently concrete nor correlated with life JUrfTilS? 8 " H 16 Same criticism, or tie latter part of it would apply, and in both science ““ ° f ^ - to PP p4»Td^ . nak^iX^to™ 1 'tkIT’ but %** ^ uld if we had competent princi- c 2L ur ® efl themselves are too remote in interestand in' value from the world of reality. Perhaps the moat important reform tocome in om^gh ' 70 teCOttOMY OP TIME IN EDUCATION. schools. will be to plan 'for. half-timing by boys and girls who must cam part or all of their own living .’ * “ Yes. Too much time consumed in what we might call educational padding. Tte subjects that specially prepare for citizenship, such as history, civil government, and economics, should^ be emphasized for the general purpose of giving a political education and for the special purpose of holding young men in nigh schools until they finish their work/’ - “Eliminate much of the mathematics, and emphasize a continuous course of litera- ture. Have elementary ethics constantly urged, ft is the sheerest nonsense to attempt trigonometry in the high school. The principal should not teach an hour. Vigorous devotion to the intensive study of the humanities, with such other studies on the aide as may seem necessary to illumine the major subjects of thought— this should be the constant endeavor of this high-school period/’ “Simplified course of instruction. If a fitting school holding to the main subjects, e. g. t mathematics, English, history, and Latin; fewer sciences taught aa types of the scientific method, not necessary for a child to take all the sciences in the high school.” “A large amount of matter now covered in the course should be throwm out. Less attempt should be made at encyclopedic knowledge and the idea of culture more thoroughly emphasized.” “Concentration on a few valuable studies of central importance.” “Excessive multiplication of subjects, and the lack of thoroughness in a, few. ” “Yes There should be far less linguistic study and more culture of tastes and character ” “I think so decidedly, in the direction of greatly increasing the informational out- look of the pupil, instead of monopolizing his time" with a few formal subjects used to 1 train his mind.’ ’* . “The course should be extended downward, more industrial work should beintn*- duced, better teachers should be employed, and more attention should be given to the training of boys and girls, with the emphasis upon character elements.” “Better provision for college preparatory work side by side with ( d ) vocational work for those not headed for college, a closer and more comprehensive differentiation should begin in the high school.” , “We need to recognize the differing cultural, vocational, and social ends of various groups of high-school students, and i«# prepare ior these. Some private investigations are now being carried on in New York City regarding the feasibility of a two-year high-school course, or courses, for children who will probably enter the labor market just after 16. ” “The high -school period should be used to realize these aims — I,* Vocational— pro- fessions, business-commerce, managerial, mechanical industries; II, Social and politi- cal; III, Cultural.” “Yea, much of the work done in our high schools to-day is pedagogically faulty. In the fust place, there, is a haphazard sort of an elective system. Jn the second place, the facts and topics taught in the variouajdudies are not well selected and therefore are not well organized, In the third place, many of our high-school teachere are indifferent as to thelmportance of adapting the subject matter to the pupils’ interest, capacity, and mental development. There is a tremendous waste go mg on in this way in our high schools to-day. In the fourth plaee*, the college-entrance requirements impose an unreasonable burden updn the high schools. These requirements are too much under the greatest needs to-day is intelligence applied to sensible college-entrance require- ments throughout the country. This is especially true of English. Many of the books required by the college-entrance requirements to be taught in our high schools, anertaught in the way that looks toward the examinations are beyond the pupils’ mental vision. Such work stifles interest in fine literature.” i m.i/i l. , . . ^ 2 ,?.ra and°one n.cdld'Xm^S^there^ n' ft 2^,,“ this WOuld be the m °« oft^T^ and laboratory methods of Instruction i'^hemistry and physira'b botan°v t md 0 h ?< i 0ne9 ESES^SS sasS^ .™ F cte, h if,' , iJ™ S" SrtSfS’ r d ”,‘ il d r'" p iu SSSEM? sSsjS>. Th « “—•»«- «' »» «■■*»* ilS'KXS 3 (rf)-. inierfenTwithfe SA ,^'. without at all able to have longer hours forTelndurtri^ ^k ’' The PUpi ‘ a “* “ d I do not believe that vocation schools should u or any very considerable number of them, for in s< our schools and bankrupt our taxpayers, but I belie might be extended both downward and-upward ” uActtal .SW! ie\^Thai ike to teach all of the trades, ig we would simply overload tat our manual -training course s^§|S^SSSpS “By introducing ‘ vocation ’departments and ha'ving ‘vocation ’studies as electives ” evei^“'igh V whc^Tm v£U£° U ' d b , ? arra P« ed separately or in groups in SSwfiofaS*' “ ° Pt,0n8 ’ JUSt “ ° r Spanish or pQcs or __ ^ 'WJ»i 72 •• ECONOMY OP TIME IN EDUCATION. "Vocation studies may be- introduced but they Bhould always be those in which a large culture element is to be found. They should also be taught with the culture ^aim uppermost.'* “ Yes. By grouped electives, by providing in connection with the regular school* work facilities for training in simple business methods, wood and iron working, use of tools and simple principles of construction of buildings, elementary principles of gardening and farming, sewing and cooking, stenography, etc. , Each school should endeavor to adjust its capacities to the needs of the community supporting it." "Ido not believe that the present academic and theoretical high school, which is only a traditional preparatory school, somewhat but not yet sufficiently modernized, and which enrolls only such a small percentage of the school attendance, is calculated to fit for life in all lines, and hence I believe should be vocational i zed, or vocation schools established in large numbers, both in cities and country, to suit the local de- mands.’* "Mere academic education will not necessarily fashion good citizenship in growing youfi^ Physical, expressional work, which will ingrain habits of industry and induct those who are to work into useful trades, is in the direction of good citizenship. TI19 boy who is to be a tradesman is as much entitled to the State's consideration, in the way of some preparatory help, as the l>oy who is to l>e a lawyer, doctor, or professor. Germany leads the way in her continuation schools." "Should provide manual training, brandling into trade activities, with definite exercises and specific vocational aim; or commercial training, definite, thorough, ? radical. These schools might also provide preparation for higher technical schools, n addition, above one-half time should be given to science, mathematics, English. In large schools, separate 8chla should be provided for commercial high-school students and fore provided for a large number, and should have a large amount of purely cultural work.’ "In the case of nearly every boy and girl, yes. Every high school should be a uni- versity of the arts and handicrafts. Our cities need agricultural high srhcxds and the country districts need industrial and commercial high schools. \Ve need no rural or urban castes. To every child should bo opened up the encyclopedia of life. Refer- ence to Springfield, Mass., and District of Columbia” "Probably trade schools should be provided for boys over 12 who wish them and evening trade schools for employed boys and men. In this, great care must be used to see that the privilege of choosing is not ultimately destroyed. Except for a special class of students, a cosmopoli tan high school is preferable.’’ ‘VV system of ‘intermediate industrial schools.’ In the ordinary high school, also,, there may be some recognition of vocational needs." "Yes. By providing schools for young mechanics and artisans where thev may receive a modified high-school education and at the same time acquire still in technique along some industrial line." 3(«). References are made to Chicago Trade Schools; High School of Commerce in Boston; High School of Practical Arts in Boston; Menomonie, Wie.; Industrial Arts High School in Milwaukee; McKinley High School, St. Louis; Indianapolis Manual Training High School; Manual Training High School, Louisville; Commercial High School, New York City) School of Education, the University of Chicago; vocational schools of Wurttemberg, Germany ; Report of United States Commissioner of Educa- tion (1898—99), Vol. I, pp. 1132, 1133; Report of the Massachusetts Industrial Commis- sion; "Industrial Immswement School" in Columbia College Record; Continuation Schools of England, Sadler; Education and Industry , Ware; A Modem School , Prof. Hanua. Regarding length of high school, references are made to ex-8upt. Balliet’s investigations in Springfield, Mass.; 8t. Joseph High School; Central High School, ~ Kansas City; Joliet (111.) High School. ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION. 73 Questions: (а) (б) (1) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) (4) (5) ( 6 ) (0 TF/taf should be the length of the college course f » Would you advocate the following scheme? To end college work with the sophomore year , but allow four years as now, for the A. B. degree. * m To let university work begin at the junior' year-va* that gives scientific power-^with groups leading to the various professional degrees or the Ph. D. degree, the last two years of colkgc counting toward those degrees. ' To require two years of college for admiseion to all professional schools 7 0 com P lele 'Ac professional work or Ph. D. wofk in two years more or six years after college entiyince. To let the college do the first two years of the professional wofk, instead of allowing the professional school, as now in many cases, to do the last two years of college work. To consider the possibility of advantageously building the engincerirw school upon the first two years of college. If noLdn accord with the above , please describe your oum view • ' ^2!e h % S,an fr in ,' ° / bU 1 r,eSS nen ' SOfar as y0U can vhal « 'Ac I aluc of a college training for young men who arc going into business? it, Please describe devices now in use to shorten the college course; refer to any Si MMAKY : a ° r paper * UP ° n lhe >UhjeCt anda,,y in " eg, '9 a, '°’>* now being conducted. 4 fa) Nearly all favor four years, though a few advocate three years or dividing - the college between the high Bchool and the university. - 4 lb) It will be seen from the summary which-, follows that fully half favor this 4 (h\ * b0gin Unlv S rshy ' TOrk 'he junior vear. 4 Kb, (1) One-half favor-endmg college' 'work with the sophomore year but allowing four years for the A. H. degree. ' ■* <6) <2 ' 0n ®-^ M would bc * in university work with the junior vear, and count the last two years of oo! lege toward higher degrees 4 {b, (3, Most of the replies would require two yours of college for ^trance to , the professional schools. \ 4 (6) (4) One-half would give professional degree or'Ph. D. degree in two years after the H. A. degree,. r 4 (b) (5) Two-thirds would have the college do the first years of the professional* 4 (b) (fi) A large majority would build engineering on two years of college 4 (d) Two-thirds think college preparation is valued by business men though the opinion is usually jxjreonal. * ~ Extracts: * 4 (a). ‘‘The German gymnasium and university plan is moro^ationfll th*.n nu» u i college and university, or professional school I wni.lH E , 1 anour P : W h «chool f be spent in special preparation, rather than fn strictly professional study^” should undoubtedly begin at 20 in the majority of cases whether 5!£k^ - cnrnf „ , h ' ' , j d< * re e will continue on the present basis I think it will he yond tne A, B.^ Evidently medicine and the venous engineering lines will re quire 74 3 ‘ ECONOMY OP TIME IN EDUCATION. I I practice or fieldwor^ in one form or another, and we must see to! it that the doctor’s degree also procured this.” ; “I would not shorten the college course, but rather amalgamate it into the high school (or college if that is to be the higher school). Here we have a six years’ course. The rest of the college work I would unite with that of the professional school, which may be regarded as the university. This should have at least a four years’ course, bat I am inclined to think that some practical bread-winning work should be pos- sible before the course is completed. Probably there should f>e 'two professional de- grees; one permitting some of the lower kinds ofr profeasionarwotk, as certain classes of law cases, of medical practice or teaching. The higher degree may then be regarded as a condition for promotion.” it 4 .( 6 ) , ‘‘There are many things about this scheme that commend themselves to me. I believe we-ehou Id keep the good results that come from libera! training in a four years’ course in college for those people who do not care to work up to a professional degree. On the other hand, for those who wish to secure a professional degree. 1 believe that the last two years of the college course Bhould count toward such degree. ” “I am inclined toward the view that all liberal arts degrees should be abolished- that colleges should give the opportunity to gain culture, but should not certify that it has been gained. In professional and -technical schools I believe that the be«t of general culture will yet be found in the biographies of leaders in the line studied ami in a history of the development of the occupation and the sciences and social life related to it.” While the public -schools have been of late years much improved, especially in the VVesJSpi and Middle Western States, the colleges and universities (so-called), espoc- the East, but also elsewhere, have deteriorated , if we measure their standards by their educative value. This decline is due to the character of their curriculum' the character of their method, above all to the character of their teach crri^especiallv of the younger men). I am only voicing tte judgment of the most experienced anil thoughtful when I say that fully one-half of all the courses offered, and the Work done is of almost no educative value whatever. I would, therefose^tooroughly reconstruct the American college from top to bottom; for it retains its namo^vffig lit its charac- ter. (1) I would reduce the number, and increase the thoroughness, in the subjects required for admission; (2) reduce the time to three years, from 17 to 20; (3) reduce the foolish and expepsive and needless exhibition of courses offered, tanking them much fewer, and much more thorough; (4) make two-thirds or three-quarters of the cumculum required ^compelling such studies in language andliterature, mathematic s and physical science, and in the Psychological sciences, as are preparatory and intri ductory to professional and PhT©r*hnliea; (5) clean out the whole hotchpotch of courses which have the name, but can never have the substance of true professional studies. Business demands trained and disciplined men; if the college would do this of course their graduates would be in demand in business circles.” I recommend (2) and have made a repgrt to our board of trustees uiging its adop- . ro 1D the freshman and sophomore years to be required. for entrance See Bulletin American Academy of Medicine, No. 103.” I can not see how any man of education can afford to do without tho studies which usually come into his work during the junior and senior years in college Those are the years of enlaigement above all others, the period when the horizon expands and the larger mental relations are established.” . ‘‘The chances are in favor of the work being better done if Urn college course should * take on two years of basic science training for medicine rather than that tho medical school should pretend to do the scientific work which is almost certain to be better done in •'University laboratory.” “Reference is made to the new “Cooperative Engineering Course” of six years in operation in the University of Cincinnati, in which the students work in the* shone eyery alternate week.” 1 (4 (fi) If wo are to have the 12-year common-school course, then terminate the college cqurae with the sophoofore year. I would save the two ytfhre needed for the collSe course by amplifying the grade work and shortening the tithe there two years, includ- ing the high-school course. j ' • “I believe heartily in organizing thecollege course on vocational basis in the main.” ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION. 75 r SlSStL^3l* iv 3 site Kca types of professional schools, some admitt.^^tCb^s' of hij* h*l ^.£k” mU requiring the two years’ college work and oth^r^iS^ =3^SpaM§Isil life 20, C 21^ ' e §2> yCarfl ° f ° hl d 9 1C,1G ’ 17 ’ ^ 19; Profoasional, Ph. D., years of child’s • inlrT,^ 0 C V >lre " W . hlC lt sll0lll<1 bo ra »de — sav even for or apainstTuUirc sh.dv and a own There is perhaps danger in education stepping over intORcience’s ow n f ountrv to get a degree with which to meet a mere stage in education If -Wp Ssartesi S ls ft 0 L < * lf iT nl ; , cla T a of coII Ti? Rtudont « should bo recognized\xn(r m ot Th Tl ere ^ «* 11 « Ufstz i£Fv™^ calamity of major importance; the college still h As a most important Dlarc Hu in ky ¥i»i«S it b. ...<«» tb, high school „d \ 2tut C ? Uy $ ^ or,h D “kota plan is as follows: Students’ reports each semester- A (excellent) to which attaches 1. 3 credits; B (good), to which •aa h™ T f ^,!,w 1 (“ tw '^‘ory), to which attaches.! credit; D (p^bki to X&Xs l ^od.l ' siindar*uf dint n^'"^ thc . n ’"' ,ber F years of the college course. I suggest a plan K f " 0 " 7 operation for engineering students ft thc Umvet^iy of Qincin nf (ho ™ u ? P , ^ 8tue school two weeks and in thc ifhops and offices f the manufacturing and engineering plants of the city two weeks The nlnm im ;p;^ m, i^irCtii^orr^ & th ^ cr oi» n x t stats & iton^ »k g ^S £& 8 PraCti(,a ’ kn0 ^ ^ ■ \ 4(<*K . ntau!” ° DQ \ beheve that 0,6 average business man cares much for a college-trained manwh^rilSl?^ 1 ^ 8 ? e J° 019 con r lu 7 on Ahat a college educarion for the young man who is going to be a business man is of comparatively little value. ” y n ® JOk 76 ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION. “My experience with reference to the value and influence of university training on young men in business is that those who have material success in business enterprise are usually not those who have graduated from a university.” ^ “ I regard a college training for young men going into business unnecessary. The curriculum of a college is not generally along practical lines, but while not essential, it has a tendency to enlarge the faculties, etc. The average business man is a wor- shiper of the ' Golden Calf— he is after the ‘Mighty Dollar’— the spirit of covetousness .seems to permeate his system, and when old age overtakes him he is at a loss to know how to occupy his time." - 4 “None. I refer to the typical business man, and not to the great business man. The latter unusual person is in favor of a sane college course in history, languages, sciences, history courses, economics, English, verv thorough; German, biology, phfsics. chemistry, histoiW of philosophy, algebra, and geometry with trigonometry. Not many see much value now in Latin or Greek that is hot to bo had from four years of German (or Spanish or two modern languages). This course is to be taken by a youth whtKtakes part in the social and athletic life as a doer of things. Business men as I know'them— manufacturers, wholesalers, railroad men — desire in the young manju*-' tain morbi cuialities-^beyiri^ rules and instructions implicitly, promptness and punc- tuality, arithmetical perfection, rapid and legible, handwriting, facility and accuracy in English,^ I call these ‘moral’ qualities, and so they seem to me, and they are glad to vet also the vouhg man who knows a great deal of geography, of civil government, * ana of general information. They desire also certain physio-moral qualities, such as cleanliness, neatness, and orderliness. This is to say, they desire health, strength, and discipline. They like frankness, openness, courage toward thejjwelves, and dis- cretion toward all others. Our school courees fc can not develop th^Sequalitios for two reasons — our teachers do not themselves manifest them and our courses are not designed to produce them." . * . "We have a much bigger question of the value of the college course 'than the unim- portairt miery of the business man. I believe the college does often tend to disqualify lor cerlam tvpos of usefulness, but the risk iR always taken of overcult ivating shallow soil, antf that risk is certainly enhanced byL)oth college teachers and college courses who have lost sight of the claims of humanity and human interests. If the college affords no considerable part of the experience that qualifies, the business man is justified in drawing the attention of tke college to the limitations of usefulness which the candidate still suffers |rom, though the college has tried to do its humble part in removing those limitation^. For my own part L, see a sure road to this end. Let the college course be sincerely and seriously a part 6f vocation, too definite to attract the ‘elective' students; too hard to attract tha*man\who is too lazy to go to work at a serious business; too exacting* to bo satisfactorily done by the unmotivated trifler who goes to college kindheartedly acquiescing in his parents’ fond wishes, with § Superior indulgence of their amhition, I seem to have reached a point where I am demanding a business training for college instead of discussing a college training for business. And as an educational question, I think this is a. consideration of far greater importance.” - v - "The business of the world becomes more that of directive energy from skilled and trained minds. The college education is becoming more ana more essential to the business man. Also his position in society and public life is determined by college education. The college eoureo should favor his selection of those subjects which best fit him for his business career.” 1 - "Without question the men with college education who hay© gone into business have soon forged to the front. Instances of this fact are numerous in my limited acquaintance, numerous, 1 mean* compared with those who have not had the benefit of a college training. l^haveTbeen teaching for a number of years in manufacturing centers, and I know that this condition is tiye in great manuftffcturing plants.” "They (college men) think; few people (or educated people for that matter) do. They are systematic. They have many bits of knowledge that are useful sometimes when least expected.” "I think I caur testify from actual' experience that the college training is of very great value to young men who are going into business.”, . "So far as l can judge, business men value highly th4 training which young men who are going into business get in college! In the last 10 years there has been a marked difference in the attitude oi business men toward college training.” s * „ \ . y*- ERIC economy of time in education: 77 tha trailing; Z whoTrb ^nVin^tna^^^arv^he^S 1 ^ ^1°* C ° U ^ of a college course and aaaociatfon with other young men ^rortheVme n™'""? as a disciplinary process is entirplv voi..oKi n menjjent on the same pursuit, trained man >. better rounded and better fittedV wl.ato^hc undor.akel ' ° g “‘ tn\ C n° y I X l X i "a g n i L 0f, ’ m0re P ™ Ctica, , v «^ to » r™* man going into buaineaa business men maintain '"hat* a*™* Wo einYiit^on 11 '^ man ' V ® ry few broad-mindwi jsU'IT uZ .■isrs.s'.ir ^ S5 g&teaBS&S* pM ™ *•« s^iwsHis^ « Association 'lie port, XX I 575- “I^ncrth if tl,!rii 1 ?. l90 ?,» £• filo f v 4 ^rtam #ar 1903 ; Calendaf Sute Un.veraitv i,h f f > a ^ly ptvpara- •at^y vocational. |£hcr caao i, would Sixteen years of school wnrlr • ■ . ***» - •Oi-.p-O*. univo C ^o a rk d LTinV^w^ 1 "^ ° f c ^ lturo - Retter'epend mo”re“,^ £ cultural. 7 lTicoSrv iwn o Ti ^, Pr?paratl0 7 more^etfureAr and more largely job) support ^hetnaelvM^d ^ad double sesaiona boys ffiigh t (irking on the Le ■*S?J 43S& SS^SS^St^SZ- "; b0, * u> r»- 1 ,hi “ k n 8 ECONOMY OF TIME DT EDUCATION. literature — what man has thought and felt. I might sum up what I would gladly have time to say at length, that I do really suid heartily believe that the best way to adjust . students to the intelligent demaadp of busines is to adjust them to the interests of society and, so far as may be, to the ideals of our civilization?” “ The general feeling respecting preparation for life and the exactions of the present business demands make it almost necessary that young men prepare for their life work in four or five years after completing a high-school course. People that look a little farther ihto the future feel ana see the importance of a certain period of the col- lege life of a young man being devoted to cultural subjects. Putting everything * together^ I am inclined* to think that there should be about six years devoted to the . preparation for life after completing a high-school course, and that fully two years of the college career should be given up to cultural subjects.” “ Since Lhave been in college there has been a distinct drift away from studies that had very little virtue outside of their alleged disciplinary- effects, to studies that com- bine both discipline and useful information. This drift should be encouraged. Tlu> dri ft is alwayB away from intentionally making things * hard,’ or giving things only ^^Mbeause they are ' hard . ’ The easiest w^ys of acquiring knowledge are beginning to/Te * , Realized as bard enough for all disciplinary purposes. This realization is to be ennrur- 'aged. ' / “Any subject studied -from the standpoint of civilization, that is for serviefC is just as cultural, and moje so, than the old classics studied for ideals only. H might be stated this way, that subject is most cultural which is most serviceable to humanity from a dynamic standpoint. All industrial, vocational, and other subjects, when studied and realised in life for a richer life and deeper civilization, are cultural afid . at the same time meet the business interests of life. The business interests of the coun- try, as I interpret them by conversation, by mingling with business pdtfple, by read- ing, and by a study, as it were, of the new life, t hin k too much is consumed by educa- tion without equivalent results. When oar modern civilization is measured up and properly interpreted, it seems to me that the criticismb^of the business interests are justified. The point of difficulty for us to overcome is, when making a study of the problem, to rise above our well-fixed habits, prejudices, and schooling. It is very natural for us to interpret, with our experiences, which are those of the educational clois- ter. When teaching, we should teach from the standpoint of the pupil as to ability * experiences. Is it not the same with the mass?” “ It does not meet the conditions. It requires tdo much tinje to get Veady to begin, and causeetoo many, to be deprived of the values of educational institutions.” “The world will come much earlier to the right point of view if archaic college professors will give up some of their ideas regarding a distinction between culture and utility. If college men will only*aee to it that a college training jnakes men use- ful and ibore broad-minded, the world W^ll appreciate the college more. Thb univer- sity should be a pl^ce where everythingviseful' under the sun is taught and everything useful has a place in the university, and anything useless has no place in it. ” " If consciousness first arose and developed fot a very practical purpose, namely, the better adjustment of the organism to its environment; and if reason itsplf, from its beginning, appeared and developed in response to the same practical demand and need, it seems to me thattherp is room in all our education to-day for a larger element of the touly practical ip the good sense.” ^ “Cultufer willVeme best by an enrichment of vocational life. Xh is is real culture. ~ , The ideals of opr civilization are essentially rational jo that thewrequire each indi- vidual to maintain himself economically, participate actively W social control, and attach worth to his own method of life. ‘Culture * has been a borrowed thing since the Romans began aping tUe'Greekl) Vocational preparation is entirely in harmony with culture in best sense, and there is doubtless plenty of time for each.” “Business, society, civilization demand of ti ro w orld's workers a certain minimum 'of equipment and maximum of achievement. "Whep academic * requiremen ts are so heavy that in order to complete them the intending professional man has to work on t his preparation past the time of his greatest energyjmd efficiency and adaptability in ms chosen work; society is the loser.” “For men an^women who need the education— as education quite as much as . productive ser " in other directions — of getting early into (heir nonacademic call- ings, there isevidently need of squeezing a lot qf Water out of our curriculum, - From my point of vieW Ihe wohlena ishew b> do thie'fqr thrmanyin a way that will not t desiccate the tor/ > " ■ --■ *,.?-"■* *. - *'-£' y * -*,v7 ,r £ v.:. x.-v r va/’* V ’ • v**' v v ~ > - ** . ■- j ' ~ v l. * ECONOMY of time in education. 79 0 °!rZkl i 'd!^^ der T d £ e hu ">^tion of industry. wide^ompetiS)n^cd Th 1 S . tumties in the opening 0 f our rnntinonf Q n A Z, 01 • w ? rW , aD ° t “ e unusual oppor- make it desirob^thafthe time element ahoiffi^f 1011 * fo 5 °* » fortune * we* may persuade our youth not to violH t *u *! 0t 100 exte nded in order that particularly ** ^P^on of neglecting education/ dependence 'Zn^AZ^l Snd^.^lonJd ^ £ f ther - 1116 W* adaptation. He i B unable to get into tSe st?Sm noSiS’ 1 ”* “dependence and • world bo Iouf poring over boots ifttin , rt hings when iso la tod from the ie too long. ^ mfdem eKidn^ T " .'t ducali ^ M“»H the attain and excluded too long. The modern demand ta fn? P ^ and woman isolated into things while ph^ic and iSufthe se^ of a 5 tat io^ 8nd WOme “ to «* attamta^K^^ is not that 100 “uch period is too tang delayed We need not lew t *| at P*? re *y preparatory a better condition ofthe variouretamenta.” ^ tune in «>uc.S^ but . *i° rr T e r n ^ dmdtt * d ' ^ schools and the high schools in the main ^Jjool. The elementary society and business to-day/* * P ^ tln ^ of demanded by demands upon^he'tim^lemfm' by'tht pr^toction^ TSJlfand ' ’“ffi 1 - * defend ite in favor of the necessity of these demands/ . 1 of g0 *t. and efficient testimony (modes) does the lend itself to the development of our youth for ^hp nw j % ^ e ’ | to be acquired) formity to the practices of our W mi? « t B ° f * K '? i llfe and ?n *>n- is now proceeding from which weallhav% erpft?hrv^!! en, T/ anBWer tilat adjustment public opinion, a more determined mibli^^tt^kJ^ are a more enlightened hotter b^ i pre apparol™^^^^^ children and W to^ a ^ n ^differe P mS^ *b^d ^1 v^tim ** 1 an l ^ ece * a 7 for all to move more or less rapidly and nartlv 4 ^/ l ! e condlt , lonB ability vocational interests. This c^ifFerentuuiorf m»v corresponding system from ffiurthto ei^V^l v^r inS ** p ? v,dod b X a ‘dcubfctnv** fering intensity and*spjS, or by mn£t&h£ li^ flcho ? Is . with dif ’ that we shall sooner oVlat^ ^ It is pertain which brighter pupils suffer in the erodes Thl^Amolf WMte 1 , tu ^ e interest chief means of promoting ideals of humanitv coI,e f e u Probably the brotherhood, the worth of man m mi/*M ««// C® c ^ | ty. culture, the sense of human peculiar to o’ur Luo^tWe ^ dX^T^ P Vic « °/ “•terialisH or fo c “rta il its 'facilities or diminish ita Aievemelta U 'L' ,yBtem nationalise. If it should be reduced to two years we couM T?^en*our tea^gas. 1 ! are as therewith.” ' assuming tne professional course or contemporaneous upon^ducatioKs a means of“ ttoinS* gr^ter^fflciMcvTn^ ^ ^ aJftiSSS °b^th^^i^^.^. of M»y ^nonMii. The foyenW^o 80 "icONOl^Y OP HUS IN EDUCATION. • «J to do more work and better work in a shorter time. There seems to be only one thing to do— cut out part of the work. For if students are overworked in a four years' course now, what are you going to do when the course is reduced to three yean? Our old system h** a tendency to introduce, as conducted now, machine-like methods which " seem to be against culture rather than in favor of it. ” "It is a serious, question, I think , whether education should attempt to fix and define standards or to accept standards set for it by the demands of society and civili- zation of to-day. A certain amount of conformity to standards se^hv modern social forces is necessary, else the young graduate will find himself in a world for which he is unprepared. Nevertheless the school and college must not blindly follow external leadings; they should be molders of public opinion. There is a very general feeling that much time is wasted in college — that the work of the world is delayed a year or two by the frivolousne® and emptiness of what is called * the life ' in college. “‘The colleg^ouree is undoubtedly fundamental ttrany success. This is the time when ideals are fixed irrevocably, when views of life are broadened, when a philoso- phy of living is born, when no thought whatever should^lure the student away from considerations of obligations to fellows, of duty toward one's self, of fidelity of purpose. The student should not have thoughts centered on self, but upon the other fellow; when altruism shall take deep root. If such a time be well employed, fewer bankers will occupy cells in bankers’ row, fewer engineers will be dismissed for incompetency, fewer so-called college men will win the contempt of the man of practical affairs. Culture should relate to fundamentals in society, business, civilization. ” "There is the other side to this question that,we must recognise, the material devel- opment of our age and the demands on us from that side, but if we yield to that, we must be appreciative of what is costa, and ther danger is that we may allow it to cost more than the results are worth. My whole thought is that to get the beet results out of our education, there must be time for the growth and development of the pupil and the student, a time for though and observation and meditation, and the fixed standards and ideals as well as the acquiring of facts. " "Business and society are not so eager to get men at work, as to get efficient men. Thete are sufficient workers in all spheres of life, but capable men are at a premium. If education means anything, it means increase in efficiency. Instead of worrying about getting men to work earlier, educators peed to worry about the quality of their product. The entire educational problem to my mind reduces to this ; How shall we .produce the highest type of manhood? The man is the great thing; his business and nis service are secondary. " 4 *The demands of society seem to me to be in greater measure than evef before for thoroughly trained men, liberally and professionally; rather than for a quack and short- cut trail g. e can spare these young men, can give them the time, and t^e money can be forthcbming^to give them tne best, so that in the end . they may make the most of themselves and be most useful to society. Make the training ever richer, better, more effective rather than shorter. The professions do not all stand on a level in this • matter. I do not think the demand for shortened courses is as great as it was five yean ago. * "A high degree of specialization counts for industrial efficiency. If this is accom- panied by great narrowness, of view, it counts ^gainst political, moral, and eesthetic efficiency. Just now there is little danger r* : real evil is in the moral, the political, and th^ < dent studies his subject in its wider relations, its history, its social meaning, he may get something of high cultural value. ” "It seems to me that the present ideals, both in the bifidnesB world, and in cur uni vend ties, are.so largely pragmatic that only scant consideration is likely to be given to those phases of education which do not seem to have any very direct bearing upon the life of the individual. As .the more ideal values of our civilization develop, the greater will be the place for that more general culture Vhich is not practical in the narrow sense of the wmdi” « - ' V "The demand that is the real’ need of society to-day is for higher and greater cul- ture iu all classss. Culture makes the manstrong and sound bodily,, brings the intel- lectual powere to the highest pitch of development and cultivates a real sense of moral obligation to self and others. The time elements are harder to deal with. We ought to - ■ lethweducation that of eoctoty that. *iil giye the young people th< egiuning with either the seventh or the ninth grade. I think it desirable that a professional direction be given to the upper half of the four yean 1 college course. o» that specialized studies, leading toward original research, begin in the junior year. The most likely places for a possible saving of time in such a scheme as this are in the last two years of the elementary school -course, and in the six years following the completion of the sophomore year in college.” “The college, standing between the high school and the university, occupies the most ambiguous position in our educational system. Its course of study and the time re- quired for it depend largely upon the work a man is to take up after leaving college.” “University, entered, as in Germany, about 19 or 20, and affording special training in everything possible (whether merely erudite or applied science), astronomy, philology, history, engineering, medicine; etc. Length of time indefinite, normally about five years.” “ I believe that the ideas indicated in the preceding pages can be carried out by the following changes: (1) The development of select high schools into strong and well- equipped institutions giving a six-year course leading to a degree; (2) the undertaking by some colleges of all the preparatory work Ahd the giving of a degree in six years fronj the elementary school: (3) the expansion of some colleges or universities with profes- sional schools embodying a large part of their highefr liberal work with the professional courses; (4) the division of the professional course with a preparatory course of two or three years according to the profession, after which practical work can be begun in the lower departments of the profession, and a Inter course of two or three years that can be pursued, in part at least, while the student is in practice or after several years of “A -considerable diminu tion of the quantity element in college-entrance require- . mente. The college should come down to life and. to the people. They should come down to meet the high school planned as above, rather than resiirp the huh school to . come up to its (the'college’s) arbitrary and unpractical requirements. The college*, course mould be four yean, so plaiined that the student may drop out at the end of two to enter the professional school, dr so that, shtyild he remain » he may complete fas ywafU eimringbisA.B.degree/ 1 ; ; of unnecessary auttect matter in' SlemenUry subjects, Different Unde of high schools $meet pujd 0|»- w ii m ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION. 88 meal, scientific, industrial re to. Schools of ‘practical arts’ for girls. Recognition of different types of colleges: the ‘liberal culture’ college is but one of these type*. More recognition of vocational aims in the junior and senior yean.” “I think that it (the school) is too mechanical. Let a bright boy orgirl finish the grammar school course in five or six years if possible. As tcksubject matter, it deals too much in ‘smatterings.’” ” If I were to arrange divisions of educational groups, I would have a primary divi- sion covering five years, a secondary division covering the same period, and a collegiate period covering three yean. These periods should simply indicate norms. The first period would be a formative one, the secondary a vocational one, the collegiate period a technical one, and the university period a profe&sional one. #The spirit of the American child is to do something, and do it ne will . If the school does not give him a chance he will quit it. We should really be proud of this initiative; instead, we hear educators deplore it. Dropping out of school is because of the violation of this natural impulse to do; keeping it repressed. Many who remain in it are depressed.” “The tendency is to get away, more and more, from the monastic system and to educate men and women more in real life for real work. The greatest defect of our educational system is this neglect of those who have to go to work at about 14 years. Courses of study and reading should be provided for them which will fit in with their work hours. Their practical work, studies, and reading should be systematized and coordinated for them by competent authority. Every city should have a corps of advisors or teachers to take care of these young people and to see that their education . is earned on as long aspbssible. A public-works high school is one way of doing this. ’ ’ “ The organization of education in the United States appears rather idealistic than realistic, theoretic than practical, except in our polytechnic schools.” “Knowing and doing need to come into closer relations. The president’s address to American teachers in Washington is one of good value. It shows what Americana want for American youth.” * • “ I believe that there should be greater elasticity in our courses of study, so that thoee who go into vocations at a comparatively early age may prepare themselves for these vocations in the grades, high ‘school, and college to a larger extent than is at present possible. For example, I would introduce manual training and domestic economy into all gradeand rural schools, at least as elective work : I would introduce as wide a variety of vocational courses (commercial, manual training, etc.) aq possible into oifr high • schools and would make a number of technical and semi technical courses elective even * m our colleges of liberal arts . I believe we have fai led hitherto in educating the faculty 1 • of ex preeaion t ^ lp0U P* hands.’ I would make it possible for a B. A. graduate to go from the Grqpk recitation room to the blacksmith or carpenter shop ana have the one hne of work count equally .with the other toward the B. A. degree. I always look for*' * B.-A. men for the deanahips of my colleges of engineering. I Believe that, similarly, the holders of both B. A. and; say, the M. E. degrees would make better deans of our colleges pi liberal arts.” “Vocation training, trade schools, if one must say it. which, however, include cul- ture studies, are needed for pupils who complete an elementary education must i turn aside to practical affairs; and vocational schools parallel to the college’age, such aa we have in the better mechanical and agricultural colleges, will win a larger place One deplorable defect in our system is the lack of scholarship breadth, and training on the part of the elementary school teachers and to a large extent on the part of the high school teacher. The best results for either culture pr efficiency can not be obtained where the teachers lack culture knd training. Despite the normal schools the condi- tions m many States are depressing.” * r “There is need of more industrial and commercial work throughout the comae, not to be required of all, but to be optional for those whose circumstances are such that they must soon be thrown upon their own resources. I believe that opportunities of this sort should be provided in the regular public schools. To de this would be more expensive than to provide special schools, but it would pay, for it would preserve&e . Americap democratic apiritjhroyghout the educational system at the same time that . i 1 economic distinctions made necessary by differences in , individual ability and foawdfj l cijcunnjtancc#.’’. ^ »lidarity; of bur educational system . Frofeerional,tM& : 05 $ Bchoohrfwuld ke wclowly coordinated with the^E* ? .tv. 1 - r -vV/:- .* - c • K/sJ; »-.v iESsaw - r . i - v ■■ ■' ‘ 84 ECONOMY OP TIME IN EDUCATION. \ “I think* there is another line of approach to this subject which would depend on ax pressing our educational aims in the tour specific fields of physical, vocational, social (moral and civic), and cultural ends, and then making our adjustments to the needs of varying groups, with which society and education must deal. ’ ’ yf u I think some way should be found of getting part of one's education while engaged in productive work ” \ ‘ * I believe the greatest waste is in the dilettante attack on the elementary subjects in „ late primary and the secondary schools. Bringing to bear upon the country at large the necessity of great training schools for trades or the general mechanical proficiencies upon which trades depend , seems to me the vital problem of present-day education.- A differentiation in the middle of the high school wnich shall give an optional trend simi- p lar to the gymnasium and realschulen in Germany, but still more largely directed to- % ward trades, might be a desirable first step. I am in favor of getting the first two years of a medical and again of a law course witninthe limits of theA.B. degree." “ I would have the Commissioner of Education a member of the President’s Cabinot, and dignify his office by giving his department a larger scope and more vital relation to our educational system. I would establish a great national university at Washington, with all departments of leamingprovided for. I would ha vp a State university in every Commonwealth , except in New England , and the incorporated colleges and universities associated with it in the closest relations that can be secured. I woifld have the super- intendent of public instruction the head of the State system; and have him, assisted by the university, make up a system of accredited schools which he would yearly have inspected. I would leave the rest of the system much as it is, except provide for a system of trade schools, and labor for closer relations between all grades of schools. The county training school should be a trade school as well as an agricultural and normal school." “ As at present the unit in the system of education khould be the State, with much more emphasis than has been put upon it. There should be opportunity for State-wide education in high schools, as well as in State universities anti State normals. There should be the consolidation of schools in connection with political units, as a township. The educational system in a 8tate should be recognized as a department of State government, and practically made coordinate with the present executive, legislative, and judicial departments. Ix)wer schools, under State standards, should be accredited * 80 that there, may be free pathway for the promotion of students from the bottom to the top of the system. These State system a should have some sort of Federal coordination in a bureau of education at Washington, developed into a department with a cabinet officer, and with a national graduate University for graduate work only, along the ljnes of a bill for a national university proposed by the National Association of State Universities " 44 Education to-day from the kindergarten to the university is lacking in effective organization. The rapid scientific progress has in a large degree brdugnt alxmt this condition of affaire. Racial experience accumulates so rapidly that the educational organizations have to be continually remodeled. If the race would stop accumulating experience ror five years, we could get well systematized courses of study, but that of course is impossible. We are trying to do too much in our colleges, secondary schools, and in our grammar schools* We are trying to., teach too many facts and too many topics; we are not relating such fafcta and topics properly to tne learner ’b no wer of comprehension. In our overemphasis at times upon the rights of the individual /we * are making serious mistakes in our elective system. It is an easy matter to be too lax in allowing students to elect those things which appeal to them because they are easy. Tbe grout* system of electives is much better. ' But if we taught much fewer things in our school and college work , we should give a much more thorough preparation fear lue . ’ ’ 4 ‘The Bureau of Education of the National Government should he advanced in dignity and power. For a laige class of our population who can not take dip time to attend institutions of a -higher character, vocational schools should be*provided. B a ch State system of education should be so organized as to make it a State system in deed and m truth." “ I ft® very firmly of the opinion that we have advanced tar enough in our civic life to risk a more centralized totm of educational procedure. 1 believe we could learn something from the French organization of public schools, that our Oommia- •foner of Education should be of sufficient authority amd dignity to be* member of the! ‘r^ent^Oatoet.^ ♦ r ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION. 85 The eBtabluhment of an educational ByBtem is a matter of evolution Older is padually emerging from chaw, and this process can not be greatly hastened The - ^ d ° n ?-, t T d&y “ *<> endeavor to formulate a plan of ideal organization, to be fulfilled as conditions seem favorable. Such an ideal plan would bSpAatronv fn e r n ^ml^f I ^ nt 5 UVe) na j° nal t** 1 /' whoe e duty it should be to unify standaide for primary, secondary, academic, and professional education." * Ot lZ o h , e aK?^ li2 ?; ti0 ^ f edl ! cat i on ought to^e su ? h as wUl bring the opportunities for at least a Mgh-echool education home to the great majorit/and not the favored few To supjwrted 1 ^ 0Ught ** C0Unty and towIlBhi P schools everywhere organ&ed and an( L u “^ tie8 need ter be defined by law. It should be possible, as in Germany, for a student to go from any secondary school in any State to any c^lleae in the land without oss of tilfae I hope the day will come when no one cm te^hTiS 1 without a full normal-school course of training, and no one in a high KdiooJ without at least a college training, plus a year of professional study and prac- “The question of education everywhere is a question of teachers* and cortainlv pWrf Pf 66611 ^ ^ tate methods good teachers can not be secured, at least in the rural ttDd e , VCn high schools. The teachers of the rural schools of the Natkm M U Ca “’? fl w , eTe 25 or 35 a g°» for a strong element of young eq have left the work at the call of more remunerative opportunities. ‘"I believe there is room for some degree of nationalization of education." hp'n J« h ?„ . e ^‘ Cati0I l “ ra .*f onalil >' Instructors have not much to build on; hence in taking a boy in charge it is a matter of memory." 1 th ““ y " h u°i e re P eI " the suggestion af business’ men that our children should I®* 11 ® T m 4 e evei T {bought save only the one of practicality. The American b* 8 “? business with the business of the world, per bc. When we shall have developed his highest potential, in his physical, ethical, and intellectual nature then P^PPP^unity to tost his powera with his’fellows;’ he soon wiN d^veVhL b£t .and will be achievmg effectively for himself and for the country.” T 1 ** ^ wayB to o comprehensive to be considered very briefly. IngeneraL , eduC . a “ on . “i 1 “ f enera l 1 y pursued in the United States is inclinid tob2 T y m tbeee latter days of elective and special courses in our col leges bel ?? VBr m tb.® old-tune college curriculum set out by men of knowledge t ^ e y^®rtainly can judge what is better for the average youth than that youth himself. Let the youth receive duch a 1 11 No school that u regarded as primarily ‘preparatory’ tosome other school has . yet achieved a real educational reason for bring. . There can fcfjgUoubt that when real culture u through with thebachelor s degree, commerce willtSSf high value upon it reinstate Umthmew propriety as a ‘degree '-a mere atop in the oW ^the h \ l T° n £? V?w the colle «\ and the c °Hege deserves to live to bachelor a degree I should like. to see the. college course and its degree* *! 1 i,4 v ® d f S m ^ pre T re °. { ‘bt* discussion, being allowed itsplace as a divergentfimb Pi^bereducaUon whosemtognty is to be tested by itself. The colleges, bothered ben«th the wings of all-absorbing universities, are too fast lodng character as colleges by UiesuffocatingsucUon of specialization which sucks out every serious thougbtof SaS^T ept °? $® “f?" 1 do ! I «- No Pe™on of normal ami 2~£? r • b of® b® blamed for losing all taste for a task whose chief end consciously set before him, is to do the task simply to be able later to do-somAother task whore claims can not yet be presented. Educational chaos muddles themind of any school a “ er "“y. of Bt *« ea *44. itself as possessing any righto whatever in the rimnires over the preceding stage. We should beableto read the title of the college • hl?fK^£E. , ‘^ e 4 k n,U>n S edH ^ ti< f a1 ’ 5 0t P re J 5ai » tor y.’ institutions. 1 object to deefl. **** length and character of its .course, the very question of itonghttoMy»pftrateexiirt«iceAtzlI,ia^court, which, I cl aim, has no jurisdiction in ff **)*«“»“ 1 'eg®, if own special tyis ‘highit’ education, arid iffaithfiilly Which P^treto ‘ i-SV'.C'. 86 ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION. “Great need* are: (1) More money, and more men in the schoolroonfe of upper* elementary and high schools; (2) greater economic aqd official independence and Free-, dom of the teacher; (3) more attention to practical usefulness, and the culture of powers and appreciation and enjoyment,. ‘the unbought and wholesome joyB of life. The righteous and enlightened will. ” “(1) We should encourage endowed enterprises, of all grades and plans. (2) We should raise slowly but steadily the requirements for teachers in all grades and posi- tions, including State and municipal superintendents. (3) We must have better boards of education. To get them we need small raembertmip, election at large and election at special elections upon the petition and nomination of the citizens (not over four or five members). (4) We should have better fundamental sckoob legisla- tion: (a) Minimum salary law; (6) minimum professional requirements for teachers; (c) pensions for thoee invalided for any reason; ( d ) one year of rest on full pay every seven years (all the sprine of life is out of nearly all our experienced teachers) ; {e ) proper school buildings. (5) We need better and many more professional schools for teachers. (6) We need to separate in public opinion, in fundamental legislation, and in board rules and regulations the relative duties of boards and of superintendents.” ' “I have a suspicion strong enough almost to amount to a conviction that bookwork up to the age^of 13 or 14 Ought to bo almost abolished, and that the basis of education up to that age should be almost ’exclusively motor, dancing, games, music, drawing, manual training of every sort, with reading and writing taught early of course, and ciphering, but very little methodical instruction out of books.” “My own interest in school matters has been in methods of testing school results rather than in policies themselves.# 1 have urged strongly more attention to current school records so devised as to m*Jfe’poeeible an analysis of experience.” “Questionnaires will never settle great educational problems in controversy. Every school should be a laboratory or should, at least, be preparing materials for educational research. Every county, city, and State superintendent of education should bo in ' position to tell truthfully and legibly the experience of tho pupils and teachers under his supervision. The national Commissioner of Education should bo able to collect and to interpret facts as to methods and rdbults in all parts oi the. United 1 States. A small part o/thq energy that Is now expended in squabbling over controverted theories could; if properly directed, insure the truth about what is liappening and point the way to what ought to bo madq to happen. w • “We are working out a system of education in the true Anglo-Saxon way, i. e., by experimenting ana trying first one thing and then* another — now going ahead and now backing up and starting again. The process is slow and painful, and sometimes dis- , but it suits the genius of our race. " Some other peoples would lay down a principle and then work up to it, but we deduce the principle from our experience. But wt> shall ‘get there,’ I am confident/” “The medium age of graduation from American colleges is 22 yearn anNot trying to teach everything that is good.” “Sticking to.the elements otf the subject.” \ “Pruning and vitalizing subject matter.” “Confining period of elementary education to mastering the tools of education.” “Not overemphasizing military and political details in history.” “Putting less time on forma] reviews.” “Not teaching content studies with the method suitable to the formal subjects.’ “Fitting the course of study to the individual.” “Following social and concrete interetf^.’ “Using industrial or manual training to vitalize academic instruction.” “Teaching children relations of what they are Doing to ends that they desire to reach.” Separating the brighter pupils destined to a profession and securing concentration and continuous progress.” * “Introducing secondary school work in the higher grades.” “Beginning the study of foreign language, elementary algebra, constructive geom- etry, and elementary science, thus saving one or two years of the high school.” 2 (c). Provision for vocational schools or studies: “Providing studies which take the -place of the work children formerly did with their parents in the home, or on the farm, or in the shop.” “Placing greater emphasis on the practical aspects of nearly all the subjects.” “Setting apart from one-sixth to one-fourth of the time for some elective interest.” “Putting in manual training, elements of commercial practice, etc.” “Providing vocational training for defective and irregular pupils, who for these and other causes are over age.” “Converting first our legislatures and our boards of education, and next our teachers. v (Within one year I have visited the schools in 23 of our largest cities, and I confess ' complete diaheartenmgnt in respect to further development in many of them.) ” “Employing for vomion&i work one tffco is a teacher as well as cook, plumber, or dressmaker. (There A ^lntoet no such persons at present alive in America.)’’ | *'* • - j J 1 :l . 'Y'i. — — " — 1 I 88 ^ BCONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATJjN. R(fer to Question 3, page 68. 3(6). ' ^ - "Six yea re, 13-18; (or the first two years simply differentiating the work of the elementary school.” "At 12 specialization should begiD either for vocation or college.” "Only two divisions of education that is dominantly cultural should exist, elemen- tary and higher. At present the distinction between the aims of the high school and liberal college does not eiist. The student at 20 should l>e ready to enter a professional * course.” 3(c). Reforms of high school are — "Simplify course of instruction; it is not necessary to take all the sciences in a high school.” "Adaptsubject matter to the pupils’ interests, capacity, and mental development.” "Concentrate on a few valuable studies. Cease multiplying subjects.” "Have less educational padding.” "Make college-entrance requirements reasonable.” "Emphasize, like the Greeks, the value of continuous and systematic attention to the development of the human body.” "Banish from the high school elementary attitudes and relationships.” " Emphasize elementary ethics.” "Emphasize character elements,” "More training for character; less of the purely bookish elements.” "More thoroughness, initiative, and moral emphasis.” "Emphasize history, civil government, and economics for citizenship.” "Make more real ; dess formal. ” • "More vocational; less textbodk work.” "More training for life, citizenship, vocation, and service.” •"Organize courses on basis of general vocational activities, with so-called culture coming from the wisdom of knowing what the world is like, what it wants, and what one can do about it.” " Correlate industrial studies with what is known as purely academic studies.” "Recognize the-differing cultural, vocational, and social ends of various groups and pfepare for these.” \ '^Provide for a classical, a general-scientific, a commercial, a domestic-economy, a manual-training, or a technical course.” ^ S pend ing oneJiGurlh. to one-half the time in vocation work.” "Manual training branching into trade activities, or commercial training, definite, thorough, practical., In some eases pert time might be spent in actual shop or factory.” "By rouping electives, by providing in connection-with the regular high-school work faaining i simple tmabiMs methods, : wood and iron working, use " of gardening am} , ** taming, mwiognnd cooking, itenognphy, «|c ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION. Refer to question 4, p. 73. ‘ 4 # 89 Length of college course: The German gymnasium and university plan is more rational than our high school college and university or professional school. Annex the first two years of the coll lege to the secondary school and allow the students to enter the graduate or professional school of the university at once.” ' “ Professional work should undoubtedly begin at 20 in the majority of cases.” 4 (6). Beginning university at junior year: /* ‘ ‘ I have recommended (2), and have made a report to onr board of trustees urging its adoption here m 1913 the freshman and sophomore years to be required for entrant*.” Keep four years for those not aiming at professional degree, but have last two years for the others count for professional degree.” “i 1 " Phonal and technical schools 1 believe that the bee" of general culture • will yet be found in the biographies of leaders in the lines studied, and in a history of the development of the occupation and the sciences and social life related to it ” ‘The chances are in favor of the work being better done if the college course should take on two years of basic science training for medicine, rather than that the medical school should pretend to do the scientific work which is almost certain to be done btetterin a university laboratory.” “ The colleges and universities Cso called ), especially in the East, but also elsewhere have deteriorated, if we measure their standards by their educative value. I am onlvk voicing the judgment of the most experienced and thoughtful when I say that fully one-half of all the courees offered and the work done is of almost no educative value 1 W ,° Uld ’ the . re . ,oro - thoroughly reconstruct the American college from top to bottom; for it retain* its name, having lost its character. (1) 1 would reduce and lnt ‘ re “ e the thoroughness in the subjects required for admission- (2) reduce the time to three years, from 17 to 20; (3) reduce the foolish and expensive and needless oxhibiuoirof courses offered, making them much fewer and much more thorough; (4) make two-thirds or three-quarters of the curriculum required— com- pelling such studies in language and literature, mathematics and physical science &nd “ th ® * }lencee “ are Preparatory and introductory to professional and Ph. D. studies; (5) clean out the whole hotchpotch of courses which have the name, but can never have the subftance of true professional studios. Business demands trained and disciplined men; if the colleges would do this, of courae their grad ua tee would be in demand in buainess circle.” 4 (c). Other vjewe of organization of college and univendty: 44 1 would save the two yeare needed for the college course by simplifying the grade work and shortening the tune these two years,” <4 I would suggest the following scheme;- ' ■ ’ Jf- “Elementary school, years of child’s life, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11. “High school, years of child’s life, 12, 13, 14, 16. • * “College, years of child’s life, 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 . / “Professional, Ph. D., years of child’s life, 20, 21 22 ” “The University of North Dakota gives additional creditor supefior work, thereby shortening thetime for excellent students.” ^ -S' ' “ Groupmibjects as minor electives or minor requirement about a major core of si^- * jecm in which advanced work must be done, and which may eveh make the now pmttfcjd, premedical, etc.** B p 90 ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION. ' “ It is easily possible to make the college course so e&ty by elective courses and avoid- ance of advanced work that it never forces the choices which should bo made, say, even for or against, future study and a learned profession .’ * • * r “The graduate school loses educational perspective when it assumes to influence the college course.” ' / ’ 4 '- anything „*de.J has no ‘ITho drift is away from alleged disciplinary effects to studies that combine both discipline ami useful information.” ‘•Cuhure will como beat by an enrichment of vocational life. Thin is real culture Culture lm« been a borrowed thing since the Romans begun aping tho Creek- Yoca- Uonal proparaticjii is entirely in harmony with culture hi the best sense ambthere is doubt lew* plenjv of time for each.” “ business society, civilization, demand of the world’s workers a certain minimum of erj uipment and maximum of achievement . - Sooiet y is the loser if academic rco n ire- mciits carry a man past the time of his greatest energy, effieienev, and adaptability ” 1 hero ‘^evidently a need of squeezing alot of water ouLof our curriculum “ ' rhu modern demand is for young men and women to get into things while plastic and full of the senso of adaptation.” ♦ ' 1 - “It is desirable that the time element should not seem too extended, in order t hat wo may persuade onr youth not to yield to the temptation of needing education, panic, I lari \ t*o-callcd cultural education.” “Make 1 helming ever richer, better, more effective, rather than shorter.” I think thiit the tnie ideals of our civilization demand high cul ure and an ahtm- ilance of t ime in our education schemes. One great need of our country now is men jffho can think straight.” " ■ - * ^ Refer to Question 6, page 81. * “ It it were possible to reorganize the whole of education in the United Stale’s now I believe that we are more nearly prepared for the German system than we ever would have boon before now.” J have elementary education too far and crowded our universities to tho ‘ TherMfi four units in our educational system; fcach element magnifies its own functions; and each- unit seeks to control the units below itself, and to increase still , further the burdens they are carying. * * y 4 ‘ I think it desirable tliat a pcofeesional direction be given to the uppor half of the - four-year college course, or that specialized studies leading toward original research begin in tho junior year." ' “One correspondent gives instances of students, prepared privately, nonessentials being omitted, who recently entered college at 14 and 16 and graduated successfully. ” . I would advocate considerable diminution of tho quantity element in college- , entrance requirements.” - , “We must eliminate unnecessary subject matter in elementary subjects; must have d^erent kinds of high schools to meet the needs of different kinds of pupils. ” . • ’ schools try *°* t ° l *° t0 ° muC * 1 ‘ n 0l,r colleges, secondary schools, ap'd in our grammar ’ “ I believe the greatest waste is in the dilettante attack on the elementary subjects ip the late primary and tho secondary schools. A differentiation in the middle of the high school which stall give aft optional trend similar to the Gymnasium and Real Schools in Gfonpany mightbede^imbl©.” ^ • Mi' .v*. . * ECONOMY 07 TIME IN EDUCATION. ORGANIZATION OF THE SYSTEM. kindergarten to the university is lacking in effective 92 , ‘‘Education to-day from t£ organization.” “I would have the Commissioner of Education a member of the President’s Cabi- net; would establish a great national university at Washington; would have a State university in every Commonwealth except in New England, and the incorporated colleges and universities associated with it in the closest relations that can be secured ; would have the superintendent of public instruction the head of the system.” “The educational system in a State should be recognized as a department of State government. State systems should have some sort of Federal coordination in a bureau of education at Washington.” “We should have a strong, central (representative) national body whose duty it should be to unify standards for primary", secondary, academic, and professional education.” “Colleges and universities need to be defined by law. It should be possible, as in /Germany, for a student to go from any secondary school in any State to any college in the land without loss of time.” VOCATION ELEMENT IN EDUCATION. " The tendency is to get away more and more from the monastic system and to edu- cate men and women more in real life, for real work. The greatest defect of our education system is this neglect of those who have to go to work at about 14 years.” “Dropping out of school is because of the violation of the natural impulse to do, keeping it repressed.” “Some way should be found of getting part of one’s education while engaged in productive work.” “I would have vocational courses of various kinds branch off at different points from the central line of general culture.” “ I would make it possible for a B. A, graduate to go from the Greek recitation room to the blacksmith shop or carpenter shop, and have the one line of Vork count equally with the other toward the B. A. degree.” » “People think a trade school a very good thing for their neighbor’s sons.” * BETTER TEACHING. “One deplorable defect in our system is the lack of scholarship, breadth, and train- ing on the part of the elementary-school teacher, and to a large extent on the part of the high -school teacher.” “We need more men in the schoolrooms of the upper elementary and high schools. We need better and many more professional schools for teachers.” “The lack in education is rationality. Instructors have not much to build on? Hence in taking a boy in charge, it is a matter of memory.” # ” Teachers of the rural schools of the Nation are not as good as a class as they were 25 or 36 years ago.” <7 EDUCATIONAL AIMS. tY- • f • • “We might express our educational aims in the four' specific fields of physical, vocational, social, and cultural ends, and then make our adjustments to the needs of varying groups with which Bociety and education must deal.”* “No school that is regarded as primarily preparatory to some other school has yet achieved a real educational reason for being. I should like to see the college allowed its place as a divergent limb of higher education whose integrity is to be tested by itself.” ECONOMY OP B7 EDUCATION. 93 KLKftTO 8TSTXM. V Education superficial. “In our overemphasis at times upon the rights of the individual, we are making serious mistakes in our elective system.” • «. “In general I think education as it is generally pursued in the United States is inclined to be superficial.” Solidarity of if Hem. “I believe in the unity and solidarity of our educational system. Professional, technical, trade, and continuation schools should be as closely coordinated with the elementary schools, high schools, and colleges as possible.” % » MOTOR EDUCATION. I have a suspicion strong enough almost to amount to a conviction that hook work up to the age of 13 or 14 ought to be almost abolished, and that the basis of education up to that age should be almost exeludively motor— dancing, games, music, drawing, manual training of every sort, with* reading and writing, taught early of course, and ciphering, but very little methodical instruction out of books.” MEANS OF INVESTIGATION OF PROBLEMS. “Questionnaires will never settle great educational problems in controversy. Every school should be a laboratory, or should at least be preparing materials for educational research. Every county, city, and State superintendent of education - should be in position to tell truthfully and legibly the experience of the pupils and teachere under his supervision. The national Commissioner of Education should be able to collect and to interpret facts as tojnethods and results in all parts of the United States.” . e “I urge strongly more attention to currept school records, so devised as td make possible an analysis of experience.” (D) BIBLIOGRAPHY. [Prepared by the U. S. Bureau of Education for this Report. The figure* refer to the numberd questions , summaries y and extracts , p. 63^86] EDUCATION— WASTE. f .2 (a) Alan, JohnS. Saving.time in school. Ohio educational monthly, 61:657-62 Novem- ber 1912. Atkinson, Daniel B. The conservation of. our most valuable resources. Wyoming school journal, 7; 135-38, March 1911. Baker, James H. Economy of time in education. Report of progress. Colorado school journal, 26: 24-27, September 1909. - * Tbs N. S. A. committee of five. Dr. Baker, dN&aa*. Punkef, Frank F. The elimination of waste in education. 6iena educational news 6; 23-29, March 1910. Chamberlain, Arthur H. The loeet chord in education. In Southern California teachers’ association. Council of education. Report, 1909. Clark, J.V. Leaks in the school system. New Mexico journal of education, 8: 36-39, January 1912. Coffman, Lotus D. Mobility of teaching population in relation to economy of time. School and home education, 32: 292-96, April 1918. 94 ECONOMY ^OF TIME IN EDUCATION. Coontz, J. A. How to reduce waste in education. Missouri school journal, 27 : 242-47, . June 1910. Elson, W. H. Wast^and efficiency in school Btudies. American school board journal, 44: 25-26, March 1912. Judson, Harry Pratt. Waste in educational curricula. School review, 20: 433 — 41 1 September 1912. Maine.* State superintendent of public schools. The elimination of waste in educa- tion. In his Report, 1909. Waterville, Sentinel publishing co., 1910. p. 37-49. ' Pa/ris, Thomas G. Devices for saving the time of the teacher. Journal of education, 77: 129-30, January 30, 1913. * * Seely, Levi. Waste in educational processes and administration. Normal instructor, 16: 19, 47, December 1906* Thompson, Frank E. Economy of time in elementary education. Colorado. school journal, 28: 10-12, November 1912 ^ * Wallin, J. E. W. The rationale of promotion and elimination of waste in the elemen- tary and secondary schools. J oumal of educational psychology, 1 : 445-66, Octo* ber 1910. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION— SHORTENING. 2 (6). * Balljet, Thomaa M. Saving pf time in Elementary and secondary education. 7n National education association. Jouriial of proceedings and addresses. 1903. p. 317-22. N Cambridge, Mass. ‘ School committee. Six years: Schools so classified that pupil may complete grammar school course in four or five years. In its Report, 1908. p. 45-51. Colorado tenchere* association. Committee. Relation of our educational ideals to present-day civilization. School journal, 74 : 193-95, 218-19, February 23, March 2, 1907. Dewey, John. Shortening the years of elementary schooling. School review, 11: 17-20, January 1903. . Eliot, Charles W. Shortening and enriching the grammar school cause. In National education association. Journal of proceedings and addressee. 1892. p. 617-25. Greenwood, James M. \ seven-year course for elementary schools and a five-year course for secondary schools. In National education association. Journal of proceedings and addresses, 1907. p. 290-94. Hartwell, Charles S. Promotion by subject and three-year courses. In New York^ state teachers’ association. ^Proceedings, 1906. p. 21-27. "School education should not be divided Into three periods of four years each ... but into two periods of six years each.” * £ Lyttle, E. W. Should the twelve-year course of study be.equally divided between the elementary and secondary schools? In National education association. Journal of proceedings and addresses, 1905. p. 428-33. National education association. Report of the Committee on an equal division of the twelve years in the public schools between the district and high^schools. In its Journal of proceedings and addresses, 1907: p. 705-10. ' , ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS — VOCATIONAL TRAINING. 2 .(e)- ' / Adams, J. B. The working girl from the elementary school in Nqw York. Charities and The commons, 19: 1617-23, February 22, 1908. 4 A study of 78 girls who toft school before completing the elementary grades. Throws light on the advantage* of vocational education. ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION. 95 Hailey, Henry Turner. Elementary nr hook ju* a factor in imly stria! education. Manual training mugukine. 11: 210-301. April 1910. Bain, A. Watson. Preparation in the elementary school for industrial ayd domestic life. Elementary Hchml teacher, 9:167-77, December 1908. *‘T)tie course of study suggested is frankly anti primarily planned at a training for vocaiim ; blit it would !>c a prepamiion for avocation as well.” Baldwin, William Alpheus. Industrial-social education ldr the primary and pram- mar schoyl grades. In Eastern manual training association. Proceedings, 1904. Philadelphia, Pa.. Publish^ hv the Association, 1905. p. 104-12. andoOicrs. Industrial-social education. Springfield [Mass.] Milton Bradley company, 1907. H7 p. ill.us. 8°. The work of the ilyannis normal school tn the industrial tfhiumg of the grade children, liyauin.' public school. Bunser, Frederick G, Vocational work below tlie high school in its bearing on the growing ideal interests of children. In Illinois state teachers’ association. Journal of proceedings, 1908. Springfield, lib. Illinois state journal on.. 1909. p. 153-58. Burnham, Frederic Lyndon. Industrial education in the public schools. In Massn- chusetts. Board of education. Annual report, 1900-7. Boston, Wright & Potter printing eo., 1 90S. p. 253-64 (Appendix D) Cheney, llowoll. The eduralioiial needs of the larger towns and cities, In Con- necticut. Board of education. Repiirt. Hartford, Pubfcahcd by the State, 1909. p. 547-00. “The industrial training can not bo the predominating discipline until about a sixth grade is reached. Even then it should l>o designed especially for those . . . who go |no) further with a general inudlcciual course.'' Cniwshaw, Fred Illume. Manual training in the Franklin school. [Peoria, 111.) In Western drawing iynl manual training association. Report, 1905. p. S6-l(|k . II mission. p. 101- JH. Clay-work, sewing, tool-work, etc., in’ihr grades. Ptxld, Alvin K. Butter grammar grade provision for the vocational need* of those likely to enter industrial pursuits. Manual training magazine, 11:97-107, Ihvember 1909. . Dnpp, Katherine Elizabeth. The place of industries in elementary education. [Rev. ed. Fourth impression] Ghiragu [University of Chicago proas] 1909, 270 p, 8°. " Contains discussions regarding the significance of Industrial epochs; the origins of attitudes that underlie industry; anil practical applications. PhUosophkyU in character. Downing, Augustus S. The meaning of industrial education to the elementary schools. In National education association. Journal of proceedings and addresses, 1909. p. 380-85. % IUsnisses t he course of study: vocational education, etc. Proper, Andrew Sloan, The adaptation of the schools to industry and efficiency. In National education association. Journal of proceedings and addresses, 1908, p. 65-78, % * Reprinted. "Wc can not escapo the far* that the elementary schools Are wasting time, and that the lack of balance In tho educational system is menacing the liahuice of the country . , , The demand that, the programs of the schools shall l* more rational and the work of the teachers shall fit children for definite duties with more exactness is heard on every side.*’ Elson, William H,. and Bachman, F. P, Different courses for elementary schools. Educational review, 39: 357-64, April 1910, Work In Cleveland, Ohio. Haney, James Partop. Vocational work Jor the elementary school. Educational 1 review, 34:335-46. November^ 907. . Outline of ooune; p. 343-44. Reprinted. 6778 *— & 7 1 96 ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION. American school board Harris, James H, Wage earning among grammar grade journal, 45: in, November 1912. An effort to dlsoover how many boys in the Dubuque down) elemeniury schools were earuuig money In out-of-^cbool employments. Harvey, Lorenzo Dow. Manual training in the grades, i: lenient a rv H-hool t earlier. 7:39(M07, March 1907. lieeter, S. L. Economy of time ami energy in treating the i»t sturk [etc.] Ginn and company [1912] 132 p. ilhis 8°. O) stents.— l. K ducat tonal aud practical values of th* ftrte and ui-hisirial aris. A Mirvey of the progresatoo of work through Upgrades. 3-7. tirades I lo \ III, Sneddek David S. Differentiated programs of study for older children in elemen- tal schools. Educational review, -1-1: 138-39. September 1913.* ItObp ost imut ion of the wtipt. ■' a complete scheme of secondary education should uiclu'lt* not only one or more of Hit* four-year programs as now rouimonly found buf aL*) flexible iwu-ymr programs of study, all containing English lileratiire. English expression, general science, social science, and nn option from one of the four great fields of pruclical arts study— namely . agriculture, industrial and practical art', and commerce. ' \ Snowden. Albert A. Industrial education in pub lie school system*. With special reference to grades below the high schools. In New Jersev state tcjihor> association, Proceedings. 1908. p. 19-2.), # ‘■pen. or. Anna (iarlin. Wliat rail (he (-rade srlinol .1.) |..r i iui list r ial\-. lu t -u ! i..n . In National society f<>r the promotion uf industrial education. Proceedings [1909] p. US-ofi. HIGH SCHOOLS-LENGTH OF COURSE. 3 ItiL . Hidhet. Thi'tna> M. urn/. Aldrich, (». L, "The time limit of secondary education. Etl in at m icd review. 2 5 : 433-54. May 1903. pr,,wn J. Maiilev. In what respects should the high school be nuxlified to meet twciiMoth-century iTomauds? School review, 12: 503-08, September I91M. 1a tended high s. h.*ol, SchtMil review, 14: 00. January 1900. Uloveland. Hoard of (‘duration. The Cleveland technirul high school. In its Annual rep. it. I9djk . rieveland. Hoard of education. 1907 p. .84-99. plans, ill us. i of study, buys. (is. g.rls, p. w ^ i or i lie fuur-n uiw ter plan, four years' work m three y«w>. (.ai tier. J.ihn Palmer. The high school' [Short course] In his Annals of educational pr« >i:rcss in 19>0. Philadelphia and London. J. H. Lippineott oo.. 191 1 . p. 145. < ieorgia cducat ional association. Uoiiun it tee on high schools. Report. Matron, 1911. 12 p. S°. ('ordains suggestive course for two. thw. and four-year high schools. (; men wind. James M. Seven-year course for elementary schools and five-year course for secondary schools. Education, 27: 550—55, May 1907, Hand. William II. High-school manual. Uolumbin. S. C., University of South ( aro- lina. 1907. 91 p 12°. i Bulletin of the University of South Carolina, Part XI, t Ictobor 1907 » Suggestive courses of study for two, three, and four-year high schools: p. 7-16. Hartwell, Charles S. Economy in education. Educational review, 30:b>9-..^ September 1905. Illinois university. A scheme for the more complete correlation of the two and three year high schools with accredited high schools and academies. Urbana, Uni- ' ^entity erHfilinois. 1908. 5 p. 12° t University ot Illinois bulletin, vol. V, no. 12) ~ Sachs, Julius, . The elimination of the first two college years: A protest. Educa- tional review. 3° 188-99, December 1905. Suggested courses for three-vear high school. In Georgia. Dept, of education. Thirty-ninth annual report. Atlanta, Ga., (\ P Hvrd, state printer, 191 1. p. 180-94. 8°. The two-veu r high school course [Chicago] Sierra educational newB, 7.43, September Two-year high school couree in New York. American school board journal; 37: 24, * August 4908, 98 * ECONOMY. OF TIME IN EDUCATIOlf. HIGH SCHOOLS^SIX-YEAR PLAN AT WORK. Brown. .1. Stanley Joliet township high school. S: 25-28, January 1913. HIGH SCHOOLS —REFORM. * J;r). Baldwin, W. A. The high., school, its weaknesses and suggested modified ions. Report made to the New England association of school sujieriiitondcnts ltd Dav Report made to the New England association of school suj>eriiitomlcnts Hu*, ton. New England publishing company. 19U). 12 *p. 12 C . cis, N. F. Is the present inode of granting ceifiii cate- rights To prcparutorysrlmoE satisfactory? School review, 15:145-52. February 1907. / Parlin, Charles U The twentieth-century high school. [Oshkosh. Castle Pierce press, 1010) 1<> p. !2°. y Piene, E. (’. Reforms in the curriculum of the secondary school. School review. It!: 2G5-GG, April 1008. Robinson, E. \an 0. Waste in high-school education. School review, v 422-2G, September 1900, VOCATIONAL TRAINING. 3 W). * ^ Brown, James Stanley. ( ommercial and industrial high schools versos commercial and industrial courses in high schools. In North central association of colleges and smmdary schools. Proceedings. 1908, Chicago, Published by the Asso- ciation, 1908. p. 13fM3. and other*. The placg of vocational subject* in the high school enrriculugi. In National sorfety for Ihe scientific study of education. Fourth yearbook. Bloomington, ill., Pantagraph printing ;uuf stationery company 1905 pt 2: 9-52. Brown, John Franklin. Vocational training [in the high school] 7n his The American high school. New York,. The. Macmillan company, 1909. p. :i69-7:i, Burnham,* Frederic Lyndon. Supervision and the teaching of the mannal arts iif the high school. Report, hi Massachusetts. Board of edumtion. Annual* report, 1907-08, Boston, Wright & Potter printing co., 1908. p. 2G7-9G. (Appendix I).) Call, Arthur Deerin. The socialized or vocational vs. the composite high school. 7n National education associations. Journal of proceedings and addresses >912. p. 174-80. Also In American school board Journal, 45: 8-9, October 1912. .* Carman, George N. Promotion of industrial education by means of public high schools. Western journal of education (Ypsilanti) 2: 1-12, January 1909. tCntargemoot o( paper read at tbe National aocioty for the promotion of. Industrial education, Atlanta, 1908, under title: “ Promotion of Industrial education by means of trade schools." Crawahaw, Fred D. What can the high 8chooU. da better to help the industries? Manual training magazine 13: 19S-204, February 1912. * ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION. * 99 Davenport. Kugomc Industrial education with Hjjoi-ial referer. <• in the high n< hon®ciation. Yearbook. |!M)ii-ll«)7. i> 2I-3U. ^ I ''‘nhigh, John H. Soim* problem-; of tlu* secondary school. In S( houhuu-d«*rs‘ association of Now York and vicinity. Annual report. lt#0S- HUM. p. 7- 17. Ulscussion; j>. 17-20. ^ "Total neglect of either the vocational nr social uims innsi equally surely result in fat lore to adapt t lie school to t ho n 1 needs of a eoinm unity " Kviue*. Charles S. Technical training in die Ecrkeloy high school. Ilerkelev. Ual., 1910. [22 J p. illu<. Hi 3 . ([Berkeley. Cal., Hoard i if education] Pam- phlet no. *1 ) ► lam, .1. u A new feat tire in school work. Mississippi educational advance, 2: 12-1 1, March 191:1. At McUonib, Miss., the superintendent of schools has perfected un arrangement with the master- tun tunic oi iiimous If. If. to.'s building and repair simps hy which Iku s nmy take their high m-IumI course with extended practical work in thosliops. The arrangement is founded uj>un the jd.m of having two hoys net as a unil, so 1 1ml while one is in school the other is in shop, and vice \ cr-^'i Knr their shop work tho I my sure ptiid, cnelt making from $15 t£ $18 jmr month. National education asocial inn of the United States. Subcommittee on indiislriiil atul Icilniical education in the secondary school. Report,’ In its Journal of prnrivdiitL's and addresses. 1910. p. 721-00. New Hampshire. Superintendent of publieinHirurtum. The influenee of aero ml ary schools upon movements of population and U|>on vocation. . In his Kejmri . . C^in-urd, HKhS. p. 2iil-70. * Ifipruiti'd — Work in peeondary whooln having industrial courses. In his Report . Cuiirnrd. 1!KIS. p. 2Si)-;102. illus. J Nyc. h. H. Rational Vocational work in smaller high school Pennsylvania School journal, 59 : (A >2 -oOti, April 1911. % • I he voeaUun.il training of sixteen high school*, in reply to circulars of inquiry. Person Harlow Si afford. Ideal organization of a system of secondary schools to pro viilo vocational training. Sehnol r6view, 1 7 : d04 — 1G, June 15109. Uynearsyn. Edward, foopemtion of tho business men of Pittsburg witl^H^»om- luetcitd department of its high school. School review. IS: 333-3K, May 1910, Sargent. Waller. Tho place of manual vrifi in tlu; secondary schools. School review, IS: 99-197. February 1910. Sloan. Terry 11. The organization of tho arts in the high schools. Educational bi- monthly. ■!: LS2-90, February 1910. Toledo. Ohio. Hoard of education. Now cosmopolitan high schools. In its Report, I90S-09. p. 71-79. illus. plan*. A oompPde ?y stern. of different luted courses, rultujul ntyl vocational, 11 olio ring nil lhtve lun-s nf academic, manual und commercial (mining, and placing equal emplia-is nfH>u each." Upton. H. H. High school attendance as influenced hy commercial and trchnhal , training. In Illino^ stale Uracheijs’ association. Journal of proceedings. 1902. Springfield, III., PlnlUpe broe., stale printer*. 1903. p. 127-33. ' Wightinan, H. J. Technical) course iu 4iigh schools. School journal. 7-1: 24S-AI, March 9, 1997. ' * “ In the typo of course which 1 am advocating, the yalue of each thkfg made lies iu the fact that It haa a definite purpose In the later work and life of the pupil.” - p ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION. 101 Hartwell, Charles HL Economy in education. Ediicatiuual review, 30: J r*9-l 7 7 September 1905. > *• Mar Lean, James A. The length of the college course. /r* National association of state universities. Transactions and proceedings, 1907. Bangor, Me., Bangor (■imperative printing co. p. 59-05. Massachusetts institute of technology. Five-year underg^uatc courses. Ilulfcain-projirnmnii', June 19W. p. Th'imas, M. Carey. The .collct’c. Es /magazine, Flint, Charles W. <■/ al. Three-year college December 1897. Ihdi. K. H. ( i d lege work and the A . H. in three years. Harvard graduates’ magazine, 9: 330-:'“. March HK)1. Hart. A . 1C Actualities of the three-year A . IS. degree. Harvard graduates n, 10: 201-7, December 1901. * Sticknev. Albert. Considerations on. new Harvard methods. n. d. 32 p. Printed far private distribution. Two-year college course. Outlook. 72: 39-1-95, Octnlter IS, 1902. — ... Current literature, 33: 517, November 1902. tIME ELEMENT IN EDUCATION. Andrews, F„ Benjamin. Time and age in relation to the college curriniltim. Educa* tional review, 1: 133-45, 'Fcrtruary 1891. riminnati, Ohio. Superintendent of schools. Percentage of time given to each study. in different cities. In his Annual report. 1909. p. 38. Klevon leading Chios. i le/claiul, Ohio. Superintendent, of schools. [Time allotment of studies in the elementary-grades] In his Annual report, 1!K)8, p. 34, 30, 39, 41. In 10 othw cities: p. 30, iiiX. * Economy of time in education. Symposium. In National education awnciaiion. Journal of proceedings and addresses, 1912. p. 507-21). Articles by J. II. Van Sickle, II, H. Wilson, K. K. Thompson, and J. II. Francis. Hartwell, Charles S. Economy in ■education. Educational review, 30: 159- 77, , ^ SoptemI>cr 1905, Lornrnen, 0. P. The time element in education. South Dakota educator, 20; 5-10, March 1907. - — - Time in education. Outlook, 50; 125-20, .June 12. 1S97. McMurry, Frank M. What omissions arc advisable in # the present ccnrso of study, % and what should be the basis for the same? In National education associa- tion. Department of superintendence. Journal of proceedings and addresses, 1904. p. 1 9-1-202. PHYSIOLOGICAL AGE. CrampTon, (*. Ward. The influence nf'physiolugical itge upon scholarship. Psycho- logy clinic, 1: 115-20, June 15, 1907. - ■ ■ - Physiological age - a fundamental principle. American physical education review, 13 : 141-^4, 214-27, 2G&-83, March, April, May 1908 . * 102 ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION. CULTURE ELEMENT IN EDUCATION. Armstrong, A. C. Gorman culture and the universities. Kutm-ixi i* »n:il review, 45: 325-: in, April 1913. , * Burgess, 1. 11. Cultural motive in the school. Kdurutinn. 28: 574-S4. May 1908.* Dexter, Edwin Grant. 11 igli -grade men in college and nut. popular m iotu e mt mt lily, March 1903, iarri.snn, \V. 10. A modern ideal o*< iilnn**. Xcw Movim journal nf e.lueat I'.n. ti ; 10- Id, February in, 1010. Henderson, Charles II. Education ainl the larger life. Rn«inh. Honghum. MiMliti 'A (•(!., 1902. :tsti ]). m . Miller. H. J. Value of a uniwrdiy edm-ation. West mi nsier review. ins* :;J7 -l?S f September PH)7. ^ ? Morris. Edward P. The college and tin* intellectual life. Yale rrvu-w. *2: 4 50-09. | April 1913. 1 Penniman. JnKiah II. Wlifit can mir selends arnl colleges do in the way of itnparlitur culture an distinguished trout knowledge? In Srhoulmnsters’ assoi-iatiuu of ‘ New York and vicinity.* Ann lal rt»|>f >rt . 1!H)1-|!H)A. p. 03- 74. Ryholt, D. Education, h>r cuitiip*. Olpu educational monthly, hi: 3oraI cnlture: Athenian and American. In Schoolmasters’ association of New York and vicinity. Annual, re pi n't, |!K)">-190(;. p. St CM. Thwing, t'harlcft l*\ The pre-eminence uf thy college graduate. h> hj a Within college walls. NW" York, Baker A Taylor re. [ru. 189:1] p. loii-Sl. PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS - ENTRANCE REQUIREMENTS. 4 (6) (3) Sec also 4 (6) ( 1 ) and 4 (b) (4). Under, Nicholas Murray. Professional schools ^and tile American college, Educa- tional review, 24:7)03-17. December 1902, ,. r Arpuos for ontnim'fl to profession.il schools, after two years of ••€» lle^c. Soo also Journal of oUncathm, 471, April £1, 190s. Eliot, ('harlot! W. 1’hc requirements fur admission to professional schools. In Awn- ciation of American universities. Journal of proceedings and addresses, De- cember29-3l, 1902. Published by the association, 1903, p. 30-35. Discussion: j>. 43-^2. Yale university. President. [Should professional schools require collegiate degree as entrance condition] In hia Report, 1901-1902. p. 13-29. V. COLLEGE TRAINING AND THE PROFESSIONAL SCHOOL. 4(6) (5).. J • Baldwin, S. E. The*readjii|Jment of the collegiate to the professional course. In Lt*l. U. S. Bureau of eduratimi. Report of the Commissioner for the year 1899-1900. v. 1. [T. 615-28. X , Benedict, A. L. Time allowance in the combined collegiate and medical course. Bulletin of the American academy of medicine, 6: 121-54, 343-W, Decibel-, 1902, June im ^ Reports of oommittec. . ^ * Bryan, W. D. Combined courses in academic and pmfeaaional work. In Association of American universities. Journal of proceeding and addresses, 1910. p. 17 - 26 . ' ■ plscunlon: p. 2S-M. Resolution* submitted: p. 24-2i. ECUNOMV OF TIME IN EDUCATION. 103 Duller. Nicholas Mlimij* (Mi penujttint: students to tr.)p* Studies in professional M'hei U while pursuing a regular undergraduate n.urse . In Culleir" *t * i u t Un nf i lu* United Staler* and Maryland. 1S91. p. A-VAH. I »■ id in.’ Jehu M . The relation • -f day mi versity in the medical and ■ -i I ut j u*. >i » * — - i- I schools. Northwestern lancet. September HM)A Kinirsburv, .) T. Should l\vn \eai> in college work he required in prcpura i >* 'U Ur |imi.-vd..|ia! ( niirsi^’’ 4 A. N.uinual unsocial inn *.f Mate universitm- . 'I'i an>- aetinii'* and proceeding 1907. Bangor, Maine, Cooperative priming f'. j) ''U-Mi . j iwel 1 . A l.aw retire. 1 'nllrge m tidies and pn -fessiunal training. Kdueai i--n.il re\ imv, \J. U^-’JAA. October. l!H I \ .a : i>! iff~ 1 1 study in I Ian .ml inm rr-il y. ] llu>( rail'd w ith uraplui; slalisi n »•:- Ulani/.. Samuel The college a- a preliminary t»» the professional nnir-f W t-e.-min journal of education, in: March (Win. ( \ auder \ - •« r . Albert . Should the recent.-* resist or college n -arses a- I le - ei|Ui\ ah-ni of th- 1 tir>t yi-ar in a medical svlnml. In N" w V"i*k iState,. tiniversiu I I’d coiiveeat ii-n. ’p. 2M’-. si>vi*n year 1 , for i !:-• no. * HIGHER EDUCATION ANVjBUSINESS PURSUITS. ‘ t u/i. ^ * Converse, ,J . 11 H igher education Ur Business pursuits and manufaci urine Annals of die American academy of political ami social seienee. 28: 115-?.i. July 1900. Elliott, Howard ’J[he college man in Business. North Dakota university. Quarterly journal. March 1911. p. I AM At. Statencal. ' ^ I'osH*?^ Will iam T The trial h >n hei ween collide similes and num^ in life Science, n < , A2.7HI-7, November IS, DMO tabled I'.a't'to C'. Ot^. • Srr also \dmini5irniii)ii of iIm 1 odlf^o ciirrit uUmii. Hn.-imi, Heuuhit-u MiMlm v- pl’dlj t*y Siinn* 1M l T her. Iluppiod. 11. J. CiJlege men in business Annals of the American acadciin of political and Atcial science, US: 58-09, July 1900. n sw also World lo-day, U: s;i7-.u, August tsmo. Parry, David M. and othrrs. What can a university contribute to preparation Ur business life? In Michigan political whence as-.-riation Publication-, v--l. 5. p 95-1 AO. ttk Patton. Simon N. University train ini* for business nirtu^Edueat iotial review. 29; 217-AA, March 1005.' Pcraot), Harlow S. Tin* college graduate in trade and industry. Education. 27: 589-000, Jutm 1907. Scott, NVil Muni Amaaa. Education of business niui. World to-day, 9:87S~s2. August ■ 1905. Thomas, M. Uurcy, NVliu i college men do. School journal, 74:5s!). June S. J.907, » . ■ .- .j- INDEX. Apprenticeship. school-supervised, 33-34. Baker, J. 1!., anti preliminary report, 5; the college problem, 50-57; preliminary report on need of investigation of the culture element and economy of time in education, 60-93. Baltimore, Md.. elementary education, economy, 40. Bibliography, economy of time in education, 93-103. Business men, and college training. 75-76. Butler, N. M., on college problem, 57. Cleveland, Obio. «ix*year txuirse of study, 43-44. College entrance requirements, problem. 16. , Colleges, division of time, 19; length of course. 22-23 % 73-77; problems, 10, 17, IS, 50-57. Srs also Cniversitics. Committee of investigation. *5-6. Couo*es of st utly. European secondary schools, 47; reconstruction, 31-32; reference^, 44; six-year. Cleveland, Ohio, 43-44. Tommerrial studies, time for beginning, 46-47. Compavre. Dr ., on the latest revised program of secondary education in* France, *47. Culture, modernizing of standards, 27-30. Culture and time elements. relations to life. 77-81.. Culture element in education, 60-93. Cultural education, discussion, 45; modernized. 11-12. Degrees, discussion, 18; vamp of Fh. D., 64. * . Department of superintendence, cooperating committee, 6. Elective system. 93. Elementary cducatinn, division of time, 19; economy, 15 . 23-25, 39-44; waste of time, 61, 65-68. Elementary schools, six-year plan, 24. / England, length of period of general education, W. France, length of }>eriod of general education. 9; secondary education, it* vised pro- gram, 47. General and special education, shortening of period, 63-64. General education, length of period 9-10, German gymnasium and univmry plan, 73* * Germany, length of period of general education, 9; professional studies, 14; reasons for superior progress, elemeptary education, 15; secondary education, 47, 49-50 Graduate and professional studies, economy of time, 10. Hadley, A. T., on college problem, 69. Harrisburg, Pa., elementary education, economy, 40, High schools, problem, 16-17; shortening of perjod, 68-72 ; six-yeai^and vocational education, 11. ^ , Hill, A. R., oireollegtft problem, 58. / Humanism and industrialism, 65-57. ■. ^ ^ ' Humanities, intensive study, high schools. 70. . ' Indianapolis, Ind., Mementary education, economy, 40. Industrial education, problems, 12. - ** .106 >r*’ . 106 INDEX. •otmniitec. ij; tv^Kiri on rtx»r- Iridustrialism and humanism, 55-57 . Instruction, economy, secondary education, 1 (>. Jordan, D. S., on college problem, 59 . Junior high schools, 25-27. Languages, foreign, elementary schools, 24 Length of period, general education, 9-10. Lincoln, Nebr., elementary education, ci-tmntny. 40. Lowell, A. L, on college p rob lent, 59. Manual training, elementary schools, *17 Mercia, C. 0., on college problem, 58-59.'“ * National Association of State Universities. c|H*mting < .ganization of collegia, 17-18. Nature of the inquiry*, 9. New England college, early, 10 . * Organization of education, 81-86, 92. Overpressure in schools. methods of relief, 30. Preliminary report (Baker), ltu4on (1903 i. 5 Preparatory period. length* 9. ttfofesBional studies, 73-74. Questionnaire, digest of wK'iolqgists* answers, db- 39 . Reorganization of education, plans. *20-35 Retardation, recent studies, -42. Rochester, N. Y., elementary education, economy, 40. Secondary education, divisions of time, 19; France. rovi-rti program. 47 ; 1 imo limits 25- 1 26. See also High schtxds. Senior high schools, 26-27. Six-year course of study, t'leveland, Ohio, schools, 43 - 44 . V Six-year plan, elementary schools, 4 1 . Small', A. W. , the sociological view, ;4($-39. Smiley, W. U., The high-school problem, 45-50. Sociological view, J3- 14, 35-39. Students, high school, scientific physical development, 71 Suzzallo, Henry-, Educational principles involved, 20 - 35 . Teachers, problems, 43. Teaching, waste, 42-43. Textbooks, -bulky, 48. Trade education, provision for, 67. Trade schools, status, 12. Universities, graduate and professional schh*. division of lime. 19: problems, 18. See alto Colleges. Van Hise, C. R., on allege problem, 58 . Van Sickle, J. II., Economy in elementary education, 149-44 Vocational education, and retarded pupils, 24; discussion, 68 ; principles involved, 10-13; program broadened, 32-33; tendencies, 92. Vocational guidance, provisions for, 34-35. Vocational schools, and trade education, 71 Wheeler, B. I., on college problem, 57 - 4 > 8 . Wilde, A. H., on college problem, 69. Worcester, Mass., elementary* education, economy, 40, -_ri- ERiC