LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. OF" .0-:t0i The Utility of the Tree (Maple Sugar Making) 1. Is the tree tapped on all sides? If so, why? 2. How deep must the spiles be driven successfully to draw off the sap ? Would you tap a tree directly above or at the same spot tapped last year; or would you place two spiles one above the other ? Give reasons. 3. Why does the sap flow freer on warm days after cold nights ? 4. Is the sap of which we make sugar going up or down ? 5. How does the sugar come to be in the sap ? 6. Why is the sugar made during the " first run " better than that which is made later ? Why cannot you make sugar in the summer ? 7. Does it injure trees to tap them? 8. Do the holes made in earlier years become farther apart as the tree grows ? 9. What other tree besides the sugar maple gives sweet sap ? 10. What animals,( birds and insects are often seen in the woods during sugar making time? 11. Study the tracks of the animals on the snow in the woods; make pictures of them and tell what animals made them. AGRICULTURE IN SCHOOL YEARS 6 TO 8 After the explicit nature study ceases with the fifth grade, the pupil in the rural school may then be taken through the elements of agriculture in the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades. The work in these three grades should really be nature study, but agricultural subjects are the means. Some will prefer to call it nature study rather than agriculture. Its purpose is not so much to teach definite science as to bring the pupil into relation with the objects and affairs that are concerned with the agriculture of his region. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN RURAL SCHOOLS 45 When the pupil has completed his nature study in the fifth grade, he should have a good knowledge of the physiography of his region, and of the common animals and plants. He will then be able to carry his inquiries into the more specific field of the agricultural practice and operations. When he has com- pleted his eighth year, he should have a well developed sympathy with agri- cultural affairs and he should have a broad, general view of them. Entering the high school, he will then be able to take up some of the subjects in their distinctly scientific phases. If the high school has no adequate course in biol- ogy, then the student can be given a good drill in botany and zoology with particular reference to its agricultural relation, and this might be called " agri- culture;" but it would be better if the student could have his fundamental training in biology in the first year of his high school and let him take his agricultural science thereafter. The agricultural work in the high school should have a distinctly scientific value. It should be such as would count towards science entrance requirements in case the student should desire to enter an agricultural college. If the agricultural work in the grammar grades is to be of the nature-study kind and not of the science kind, it can then cover a somewhat wide range. In these grades, the pupils should not be put into "agronomy," "economics," and other technical subjects, but he should be brought into relation with his agricultural environment.. The following classification of subjects may be helpful as expressing the general judgment of the committee; but the value of the work will depend entirely upon the way it is taught. It is the judgment of the committee that in these grades (sixth to eighth) the work should not be taken up for the scientific point of view. However, all this work, as well as nature-study work preceding it, should be taken up primarily for its scholarship value. The committee does not desire to recommend work for the specific grades or parts of grades, but it believes that the following subjects can well be covered in grades from sixth to eighth inclusive, and preferably in the approx- imate order in which they are given. FIRST HALF YEAR: THE AFFAIRS OF AGRICULTURE The place that the farm occupies as a part of the community life. What the farmer's business is; what he does; what he sells; how he spends his year. What is the nature or kind of agriculture of the particular region. What outside help the farmer has; good roads; telephones, rural free delivery; experiment stations; colleges; markets. Gather rough statistics from the farmers of the neighborhood. Write up the farms of the district as to history, size of buildings, etc. SECOND HALF YEAR: THE SOIL Here may be introduced many experiments as to the physical conditions and texture of the soil. Soils of the neighborhood may be gathered and classified. Let the pupil classify the soils on his own farm and make a chart as to the soil dis- tribution. General ways in which the soil is improved as to plowing, tilling, rolling, cover- cropping, fertilizing, and the like. 46 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION SECOND YEAR: FARMING SCHEMES AND CROPS The general lay out of the farm; rotation schemes and mapping. Farm crops; the crops or their products themselves to be studied, sometimes in the school room. Ears of corn, for example, may be studied and "judged" as a part of the school exercises. The same may be done with potatoes, grains, and fruits. The crops to be studied as they are grown in the community; let each child report on the crops and the cropping schemes of his own farm. THIRD YEAR: ANIMALS What animals are a part of the farm enterprise, and why. What relation these animals bear to rotation of crops or other farming schemes. Relation they bear to the fertility of the land. Relative importance of different kinds of animals and why they are raised. Some general studies of the different breeds of animals and also "points" of specific animals and something of the judging of animals. Some observations may be made on feeding and the like. A good text-book treating in a simple way the soil and the plant and animal life of the farm may be used with profit to supplement the actual study of the things themselves. Supplementary reading matter, treating country-life subjects, may well be used in connection with this work. As the demand for instruction in the elements of agriculture in the rural schools is more general than that for any other phase of industrial education, some disappointment may be felt that the committee has not presented a detailed course in this subject, especially adapted to the needs of the district school. This matter was carefully considered by the committee. It seemed evident that to attempt anything in the way of a detailed course of study would, at best, result in a course adapted to a limited area. Agricultural conditions are so varied in this country that work which might be profitably undertaken hi the schools of one section, would not be well adapted to the schools of another section. For this reason the committee adopted a general rather than a detailed treatment of this subject. Courses more or less in detail are being worked out in different states adapted to local conditions. The dean of the College of Agriculture in Illinois has prepared a course of study in agriculture for Illinois, and the state super- intendents of Missouri and Indiana have prepared courses for their states respectively. In Wisconsin, for a number of years, a course of study in this subject has been published yearly for use in teachers' institutes. The agri- cultural college in Minnesota has prepared and issued a valuable bulletin on the teaching of agriculture in rural schools. The United States Department of Agriculture has issued a most excellent bulletin on this subject — Circular No. 60. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE CONSOLIDATED SCHOOL As the self-binder took the place of the reaper, the consolidated school seems destined to take the place of the rural one-room school, at least in all regions where a good soil supports a large agricultural population. The one- INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN RURAL SCHOOLS 47 room school is such a small unit that it cannot afford efficient instructors who make teaching a business. The teachers cannot afford to train themselves specifically for the general school work, nor for teaching the technical indus- tries of the farm and the farm home. A well-nigh universal lack of organi- zation of the course of study exists. The small rural school does not arouse sufficient interest in parents and pupils to bring about the best work. Rural- school houses and grounds show a lack of interest on the part of communities. The extended body of thought becoming rapidly available from experiment stations and agricultural colleges is not being successfully placed in these schools ; the teacher lacks preparation and the school lacks equipment. Even the introduction of school gardens on the grounds of the rural school, has been found most difficult because of a lack of knowledge of gardening on the part of the teacher, and because of the absence of persons to care for the garden during the long summer vacation. The teachers in the rural schools are not well adapted to uniting school instruction in the farm and home industries with the work the pupil does under the guidance of his parents, as for instance the chores and vacation work during the weekly and longer vacation periods. With a consolidated school covering a district of twenty-five or thirty square miles, the pupils transported at public expense, two or three acres of land, a school building with four rooms, and possibly an additional practice room; with the principal trained to teach agriculture, an assistant trained to teach home economics, and two other teachers to aid in general instruction, the consolidated school would provide instruction under almost ideal condi- tions. Half the land could be used for field crops on which instruction could be given in farm management, the rotation of crops, the fertilization of the soil, the cultivation and handling of crops, methods of handling pastures, etc. The other half of the miniature farm should be laid out as a combined campus and farmstead. On this, besides ample playgrounds, there should be timber plantations showing how to grow shelter belts and wood lots; also orchard, small fruit, and vegetable plantations, to show the varieties best to use and the methods of cultivation. There could also be minor experiments carried out, as with hot beds, grafting, plant breeding, etc. Here the principal could be supplied with a dwelling, that he and his family might be a part of the school life. There should be sufficient equipment to handle some outdoor instruc- tion, also some laboratory equipment for the practice room, both for the teacher of agriculture and the teacher of home economics. One of the most important possibilities in this kind of schools is joining the school instruction, concerning the farm and home, with the actual home work of the pupil. The total training which may be given a boy and girl with the rural school and the homes thoroly united in building up the char- acter, the knowledge, and the skill of the pupils is far greater than it is possible to give children in city life. With the well developed consolidated school, equipped with teachers able to give instruction not only in the common branches but in the common industries and home-making, the normal 48 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION development of the country boy and girl would be much better provided for than it now is. Teachers who are thus situated in a country school, with equipment and surroundings drawing the school work strongly toward country life, would be imbued with a spirit which would lead them to find in local environment material available for use in many of the general school subjects. The teachers would also be in a relation with the practical business and home- making of the community, and the school would be permeated with indus- trial and country-life subjects. All this would add to, rather than take away from, the interest in the general school work. Giving the parents as well as the pupils reason for faith that the consolidated school is useful in encouraging the farm boys and girls in country life, would lead the pupils to desire to remain longer in school, and would induce parents to encourage attendance thru a longer period of years, and thus the aggregate of educational results for the community would be increased. Besides the many things which may be incidentally brought into the school work, some such outline of industrial subjects as the following might be added to the general course of study for the first eight years: FIRST YEAR Plants familiar to the pupils. SECOND YEAR In the reading lessons, use in part themes from nature, the farm, and the home. Some general work with animals of the farm and locality. THIRD YEAR With the reading work, include nature studies. Under general exercises, devote some time to home life on the farm. FOURTH YEAR Include in the reading some country life literature. In the geographical lessons, include the geography and distribution of farm products. Under general exercises, include some work in agriculture and home economics. FIFTH YEAR In the reading, include stories of our country, and lessons in agriculture and home economics. In geography, include that part of physical geography which deals with the work done by Nature's forces in preparing soils. Under general exercises, include some work in garden and horticultural work. SIXTH YEAR The reading lessons should include some studies of animal life; the physiology should include the elementary facts of nutrition and food values. During this year the boys should be given some general exercises on animals; and the girls, in sewing. SEVENTH YEAR The reading should include matter pertaining to agricultural and household affairs. A brief study of field crops could be appropriately given, and some study made of co-operative agricultural enterprises, as co-operative creameries, co-operative grain market- ing, co-operative drainage, etc. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN RURAL SCHOOLS 49 Sewing should be continued by the girls. During this year literary society work should be taken up, that farm boys and girls may know how to work in public meetings; to carry on the operations of deliberative assemblies, etc., and this work should continue throughout the course. EIGHTH YEAR The reading on industrial subjects suggested for the seventh year should be continued as a part of the reading exercises for this year. Some attention should be given, in connection with advanced arithmetic, to land sur- veying and farm statistics. Further work should be included concerning animals and plants; for boys, exercises in wood work, and for girls, exercises in home economics. With the addition of a course covering the first and second high school years in the consolidated school, considerable more technical instruction may be given. NINTH YEAR In the first half of the year, work may be taken in agricultural botany, drawing of farms and farm buildings. A text-book treating the elements of agriculture more systematically and more fully than the subject has been treated in the special reading suggested for the grades, may be studied with profit. Sewing may be continued by the girls. During the second half of the ninth year, agricultural botany may be continued, and a brief course given in farm accounts for both boys and girls. A brief course in fences and farm conveniences could be added for the boys, and a course in cooking for the girls. TENTH YEAR During the first half of the tenth year the boys may take up the special subject of judging stock and seeds, and exercises in carpentry, while the girls should continue cook- ing and the study of foods. During the second half of the tenth year both boys and girls might be given the sub- ject of agricultural mathematics, while for the boys the practice work of judging stock and seeds could be continued, the girls taking work in household management and affairs. The work in the county and state agricultural high schools could be made to articulate directly with this practical work in agriculture and home-making, the students going away from home for only the third and fourth school years. Thus not only would the expense be less during the first and second high- school years, as the cost of travel and board would be saved, but pupils would be constantly developing and applying in their practical work at home the things learned in school. All parents would greatly appreciate a school plan that would enable them to keep their children at home until well thru the most critical period of youth. A consolidated school developed along the lines indicated could rapidly build up a splendid library of books relating to affairs in country life, and the people could be encouraged to use these books and also to build up libraries of general and technical literature in the country homes. The school would become a center for meetings and for general information, as well as a source of great inspiration thru the school work. 50 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION A well-developed, consolidated school plan would give new and larger educational and social units for our farm communities. Co-operative effort and enterprises would be greatly encouraged and developed and by the larger unit. For these schools of larger units, the state and county could provide many things of value to the pupils. Some technical subjects might be given by teachers travelling from school to school. Farm organizations, such as the grange, farmers' clubs, and farmers' institutes, etc., would find in these school buildings suitable meeting places where much valuable educational work could be carried on. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE RURAL HIGH SCHOOL In this class of schools which includes the village high school already mentioned, the industrial subjects recommended for the ninth and tenth years of the consolidated school should be offered. This work may be pre- ceded or accompanied by such portions of the subjects suggested for the seventh and eighth grades of the consolidated school as may seem desirable; and may be supplemented by work selected from the courses for agricultural high schools, as given in Appendix A and Appendix B. HOW TO MAKE A PLACE FOR THE INDUSTRIAL PHASE OF EDUCATION IN RURAL SCHOOLS Any proposition for the introduction of a new phase of educational effort into the work of the schools is met at the outset with objections. The poor results in the teaching of the common branches, too often apparent, are given as good and sufficient reasons why no other work should be attempted. It is assumed that the poor quality of these results is due to lack of time in the school and that, therefore, there is no time for anything else. The other objection is that the course of study is now overcrowded and that in the rural district schools especially, the variety and number of classes renders it impossible to organize and instruct additional classes in new subjects. As to the first objection, it may be said that the poor results in the teaching of the common branches is not due to lack of time on the part of pupils, so much as to poor teaching and lack of proper organization. The second objection is likewise not well founded, because the overcrowd- ing of the course is not due to the number of subjects, but to the attempt to teach too many things in these subjects which are not worth the teaching. The subject matter in the common school course of study needs a critical revision, not so much with the idea of eliminating entire subjects as for the purpose of cutting out matter now found in most text-books in the treatment of these subjects, and upon which much time is spent in the school without profit to the pupils. OF THE UNIVERSITY INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN RURAL SQ> 51 Text-books are made to sell ; most publishers recognize that certain detail of treatment of a subject is regarded as of vital importance by one super- intendent while another regards it as utterly without value. The argument of the publisher from the commercial standpoint is that if this detail is supplied, it will meet the requirements of the one, and can be omitted by the other, and thus the book may be accepted by both. In the rural schools the supervision is necessarily lacking in effectiveness, and the teachers not feeling themselves competent to make proper elimina- tions, undertake to teach everything in the book, which was made to include everything which anybody might wish to teach. In determining what matter may be eliminated with a positive gain to pupils, the following tests should be applied: Has it a value as usable knowledge sufficient to warrant its retention ? - Is there other matter of greater value as usable knowledge not now taught, but which can be taught if substituted for that of less value ? If its value as usable knowledge is not sufficient to warrant its retention on that ground, has it a value for training which will justify the expenditure of the time and effort essential for its mastery ? Is there other matter, of equal or greater value as knowledge but with a greater value for training, which can be put in its place and for which there is no time unless it be put in that place ? In no case is there any justification for the retention of any matter in the course of study, whatever its knowledge and training value, if its retention prevents the introduction of other matter having a greater knowledge value and an equal or greater training value. It is believed that the application of these tests would. result in such a pruning of subject matter in the present course of study, and such a recogni- tion of the knowledge and training value of industrial subjects, as would give them their proper place in the course of study without overcrowding it. It is recognized that this is not work which can be done properly by inex- perienced teachers. If properly done at all, it must be by those competent to judge of the needs of the child, the educational values of subject matter, and the limitations of teachers. The revision of the course of study on the lines here suggested would be productive of results of the highest value to the common schools. It is not necessary, however, to wait until this is accomplished before beginning the introduction of instruction in industrial subjects. Some time can be found for this work even under existing conditions. Such instruction may be given once or twice a week in place of other subjects on the program, omitting the other subjects on those days without material loss, especially if the new subjects are given in the following order: The first exercise to be given during the first half hour of the day, the second exercise during the second half hour of another day, the third exercise during the third half hour of the next day on which it comes, and so on, until in a number of weeks each 52 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION half hour in the day has been used for one of these exercises. The omission of the regular recitation of any half hour in the regular program once in two or three weeks will not interfere with the progress of the pupils in the regular subjects of the course. The period for general exercises may properly be employed occasionally for the new line of work. If the teacher succeeds in interesting pupils in the industrial subject under consideration, much work may be secured outside of the regular school hours. SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF AGRICULTURE AND DOMESTIC ECONOMY IN RURAL COMMUNITIES The education which the country boy and girl ought to receive should put them in touch with their environment, and should awaken an intelligent interest in the things immediately about them, and make clear to them the possibilities for intellectual activity and development for the individual who lives in the country. It should make clear to them the necessity for something more than hard physical labor for success upon the farm. It should make evident to them that a trained intelligence brought to bear upon the problems of a farm life is a necessity for the highest success, and that when so brought to bear, if coupled with industry and economy, will produce financial returns secured by only a small proportion of those who find their life work in the cities. If these premises are correct, then it follows that the country boy and girl should have opportunities in schools open to them and which they are able to attend, for securing a more intimate knowledge of the things with which they are likely to be concerned in after life than is now afforded. They have a right not only to this knowledge but to the kind of training necessarily required in securing it. It is most important to them also that thru this knowledge and training there shall come the development of a new set of interests which under present conditions rarely exist. To assume that the country boys, 95 per cent, of whom secure in the district schools all the education which they receive in any school, should be compelled to enter upon their life work with little or no knowledge of the plant and animal life about them with which they will have to deal, of the quality and composition of the soil from which they are to secure their livelihood, wity no appreciation of the fact that successful agriculture demands the application of a wider range of scientific principles than any other vocation, with no knowledge of the facts and principles of science applicable to agri- culture and with no interest in them, with no appreciation of the fact that modern industrial development, with its improved means of transportation and communication, makes the problem of competition as vital a one for the farmer as for the merchant and manufacturer, and without the training which accompanies the acquisition of these kinds of knowledge, is to deprive them INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN RURAL SCHOOLS 53 of the very things which are essential to success in their life work, as measured not only from a financial standpoint, but from the standpoint of the develop- ment of the individual. To say that the country girls, who secure in the district schools all the education which they receive in any school, should be compelled to enter upon their life work with little or no knowledge of those things which are essential for the proper administration of a home and the rearing of chil- dren, and without the training involved in securing and applying such knowledge of the art of home-making as may be systematically taught, is to deny them the essentials for the highest success in their life work. No one who knows anything of the teaching in the country schools will contend for a moment that the pupils in those schools are securing this knowl- edge and training. No one who knows the facts as to the age at which a majority of the pupils leave even the district schools to begin work, will claim that all that ought to be done for them can possibly be done .under existing conditions in those schools. This is true because the comprehension of the basic facts and scientific principles which it is necessary to know and apply in successful farming and in the work of the girl in the home, cannot be secured at the early age at which most pupils leave these schools. Practically the only opportunity afforded for the country boy to secure any working knowledge of the scientific basis of agriculture, or for the country girl to secure any systematic training in the art of home-making, outside the hard school of experience, is that given in the agricultural colleges. These institutions are doing a grand work, not only in the development of the young men and women who attend them, but for the material development of the country as a whole. But at the present time, the number -of students attend- ing any one of these institutions in any state is only a small fraction of those who ought to have other opportunities for industrial education than are now open to them or can be opened to them in the elementary schools. If every agricultural college in the land were filled to its utmost capacity, the number of students in attendance would still be only a small fraction of one per cent, of the great number of country boys and girls who receive no education beyond that which the district schools offer. Of the students graduating from the complete courses of the agricultural colleges, few go back to the farm. Their services are in demand as teachers and in experimental work. Those who do go back to the communities from which they came and put into practice what they have learned in the agri- cultural college, even tho they have not completed a full course, show the beneficial results of the kind of training given there. The influence of their practice is felt by others and is ever widening. That influence would extend much more widely, and improved modes of farming would make more rapid strides, if opportunities were offered for awakening the interest and intelligence of the boys in every farming community in the state, in matters which vitally concern the people of those communities. 54 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION The high schools, as existing in the cities and villages, offer but few oppor- tunities for the country boy or girl to secure the kind of training which will be most valuable for them if they are to remain upon the farm. They will get in these schools a general training such as comes from a study of books, but the farmer is to deal, not with books alone, but chiefly with things; and the high school does not effectively train its pupils for this form of activity. It becomes evident, then, that it is desirable not only to modify in some con- siderable degree the work now done in the district schools, by offering in them some instruction in the study of nature, and in such of the elements of agri- culture as is within the comprehension of the pupils attending them, but to organize a class of secondary schools in farming communities which shall undertake to carry on this work beyond the elementary stage and make it accessible to the country pupils at low cost. It would seem that in most states the county is the smallest unit which should be made the school district for the maintenance of the secondary school of agriculture and domestic economy. Two types of secondary agricultural schools have been referred to under the "Classes of Schools." The committee believes that a presentation of the plan of organization, purposes, and scope of work in each of these schools will be of value to those interested in industrial education. The courses of study and outlines of industrial subjects taught in these schools furnish valuable material for those who are seeking to develop phases of industrial education in the rural and village high schools. Appendix A treats of the county school of agriculture and domestic econ- omy as developed in Dunn county, Wisconsin. Appendix B treats of the agricultural high school as developed in Minnesota. Appendix C presents articulated courses in industrial subjects in the consolidated rural school, the agricultural high school, and the agricultural college ; as prepared by W. M. Hays, at the request of the committee. Appendix D presents a syllabus of elementary course in agriculture, pro- posed by a committee of the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations, and published by the United States Department of Agriculture — Circular No. 60. PREPARATION OF TEACHERS TO QUALIFY THEM FOR GIVING INSTRUCTION IN INDUSTRIAL WORK IN RURAL SCHOOLS In this report four classes of schools are specially considered as adapted to the needs of rural communities, and in which various phases of industrial education should be given. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN RURAL SCHOOLS 55 The first, or lowest in rank, is the one-room district school; the second is the consolidated school; the third is the rural high school, which is located in the country or in the small village with a rural clientage ; and the fourth is the agricultural high school. DISTRICT SCHOOL TEACHERS The members of the teaching force in the school first mentioned are thruout the greater portion of the country, without professional training, and even on the side of academic training, their attainments are in many cases very limited. As has already been indicated, it is practically -impossible to do any con- siderable work in industrial education in many of these schools because of the immaturity of the children. In those schools where a number of the pupils are of sufficient age to make this instruction of value, something may be accomplished if teachers are adequately prepared to undertake the work. But so long as the district-school teacher is prepared in the district school, or in the district school with a little supplementary work in a city high school, very little can be accomplished in the way of such preparation. In those states where district-school teachers are graduates of normal schools, provision should be made in the normal school courses for giving such instruction in nature study and the elements of agriculture and in house- hold affairs, as will enable the teachers receiving it to give the elementary instruction possible in the district school. As in most of the states few of the graduates from normal schools are employed in the district schools, but little can be accomplished from this source. In a few states, notably in Wisconsin and Michigan, distinct training schools with more limited courses of study than are maintained in the state normal schools have been established for the specific purpose of training country-school teachers. Schools of this class should give the instruction necessary to prepare their graduates for this line of work. The work to be given in the training or normal schools should not be confined to the study of text-books. While in some cases the text-book may serve as an aid to instruc- tion, provision should be made for the carrying on of observation, experiment, and practice work adapted to the needs of the district schools. A statutory provision requiring all teachers in the rural schools to pass an examination in nature study and in the elements of agriculture would direct their attention toward this subject and its literature, and would stimu- late school authorities to provide the necessary instruction in those schools whose students become teachers. In those states where reading-circle work is carried on, at least one of the reading-circle books might be chosen with reference to the treatment of subjects of agricultural instruction. The careful study of such a book by the district-school teachers would broaden their knowledge and be an aid to them in teaching the subject. Summer schools in different parts of the state devoted to work in nature 56 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION study, agriculture, manual training, and domestic art would supplement the work of the training schools and the study of the text-books. These schools would naturally be attended by teachers expecting to teach soon in the . district schools where pupils are old enough to make instruction in these subjects possible. In those states where teachers' institutes are carried on, the major portion of the institute period might very properly be given for one or more years to these three subjects. This would give an opportunity for some experimental work to supplement the work previously done in the text -books by those who had not had any special training. This plan would be of little value in the short institute held during term time. In the summer institute, from two to four weeks in length, much might be accomplished. CONSOLIDATED SCHOOL-TEACHERS For the consolidated schools where the greater number of pupils complete the elementary course and a respectable number carry on the work for one or more years beyond the elementary course, more extended work in the field of industrial education may be undertaken, and therefore a broader prepara- tion on the part of -the teachers becomes a necessity. As most of the teachers in these schools would be drawn from the state normal schools, in those states having that class of schools, provision should there be made for a more extended course of training in industrial subjects. One teacher properly trained could carry on this line of work in the different grades of the consolidated school. In other states, summer schools should be organized in connection with the state agricultural college, offering courses specially designed to meet the needs of these teachers. Such institutions might very properly offer a course extending thruout the year specially adapted to meet the needs of teachers in this class of schools. The limitations on salaries in the consolidated schools, due to the limited area and property valuation of the district, would doubtless make it impos- sible to secure graduates of agricultural colleges to give instruction in such schools. For the work in manual training and domestic science, teachers could doubtless be secured from training schools preparing teachers of these sub- jects, who could also teach certain of the academic branches. RURAL HIGH-SCHOOL TEACHERS In schools of the third class named above, the industrial work, whatever it is, must be carried on by one or more of the regular teachers as a part of their teaching work. These schools are too small and the funds for their support too meager, in most cases, to warrant the employment of special teachers of industrial subjects. The suggestions made for the preparation of the consolidated school INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN RURAL SCHOOLS 57 teacher, for giving instruction in agriculture, manual training, and domestic science, apply with equal force to the high-school teachers now under con- sideration. AGRICULTURAL HIGH-SCHOOL TEACHERS For the agricultural high schools, the teachers of industrial subjects should have the kind of training given in the best agricultural colleges, and in the best training schools for the preparation of manual-training teachers and teachers of domestic art and economy. These secondary schools, whether as state or county institutions, must have such a standing as to command the confidence and respect of the com- munities supplying the student body. They must be able to do much more than merely teach the pupils who attend them. Their influence and activities must reach the farming population in the community, and work designed to reach adults outside the school room must be organized in ways which will be helpful and which will firmly establish these schools in the estimation of the public. For such work, it is clearly evident that the best teachers obtainable must be secured. The work and influence of a single teacher in such a school will do more to establish industrial education on an assured basis of support in the minds of the people than the work of hundreds of poorly prepared teachers in the district schools. AGENCIES AVAILABLE FOR CO-OPERATIVE EFFORT WITH THE SCHOOLS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION Certain things may be attempted and carried on through organized effort of societies or individuals, as has been done in Illinois in the production of corn, in New York thru the extension work of the agricultural college in connection with Cornell University, and thru the efforts of the Patrons of Husbandry, the farmers' institutes, and agricultural societies in different states, which in some way become a part of the school effort but not a part of the school course of instruction. The work accomplished thru some of these agencies in Illinois and New York is given as furnishing illustrations of effective educational work supplementing the efforts of the schools. THE WORK OF THE BOYS' EXPERIMENT CLUBS AND OF THE GIRLS' HOME IMPROVEMENT CLUBS IN ILLINOIS In some states the cooperation between the farmers' institutes and the country schools, with the county superintendent as an intermediary, has been very much to the advantage of both. In a very marked way this has been true in Illinois. The Agriculture College and experiment station directly reaches the institutes, the institutes reach the schools, and the school children carry to homes and farms not represented at the institute meeting much of the 58 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION instruction given there. To illustrate: The Winnebago County Farmer Boys' Experiment Club had, in 1904, a membership of four hundred and twenty-five, and the Girls' Home Culture Club an enrollment of three hundred. For three or four years the boys have been growing high-bred corn and taking an active part in the annual county institute. Each boy is furnished about five hundred kernels of corn and enters the competition to see what he can do with it. In his annual report for 1904, County Superintendent Kern makes this remarkable statement: On the Funk farm, the 1902 breeding block record for ear No. 99, planted in a single row, showed a rate of yield of eighty bushels per acre of seventy-pound corn, while the multiplying record for 1903, planted in five-acre plots, show that plot No. 10, planted from the progeny of ear No. 99, yielded at the rate of ninty-mne and one-half bushels per acre of the same weight of corn. The boy of the Winnebago County Farmer Boys' Experiment Club who won first prize in the corn contest for 1903 had a plot of corn which yielded at the rate .of one hundred and twenty-five bushels per acre, while several others had plots that approached the one-hundred-bushel mark. The applied pedagogy connected with these exercises included statement of methods employed, an itemized account of the cost, (estimating time at thirty cents per hour), the value of the product, and the profits of the enterprise. This year Supt. Kern has distributed five hundred and twenty-five pounds of sugar beet seed among seventy boys in his county and they will do experi- ment work in sugar beet growing. The school population of Mason County, 111., is 5,515. The country school enrollment included 1,145 boys, and 990 girls. The Boys' Club, March, 1905, had grown to one thousand and the Girls' Club to about eight hundred. The following statement secured from the county superintendent, Mr. Matthew Bollan, vividly illustrates his method of work: We spend a great deal of time teaching children things, which might be better spent in having them do things, under wise supervision. There is nothing that counts for so much in character building, it seems to me, as that the boy or girl shall do something that requires a sustained effort, something that may not be finished in a day, but requires time and planning, the final accomplishment of which is dependent somewhat upon influences outside of the boy's own resources. I was not particularly sorry when one of my boys reported to me that his corn field, which had been very carefully prepared and planted, had been literally washed away by a heavy rain two days after planting. He must learn sometime that "the best laid schemes o' mice and men gang aft agley." I sent him another* ear of Learning and asked him to prepare another plat and try again. Feeling that we could better enlist the parents in the work of what I am pleased to call the revival in the study of agriculture, and in the hope that our boys and girls might be taught to do things as well as made to know things, I have organized in our county what is known as the Mason County Boys' Experiment Club, and the Mason County Girls' Home Improvement Club. The purposes and plan of work for these clubs are quite similar to those of like clubs which have been organized in other counties of the state, particularly in Winnebago county, where Superintendent Kern has succeeded in awakening an interest in things agricultural. The nucleus for this organization of boys was about two hundred who had been induced to enter a boys' corn contest three years ago, securing the seed through the secretary of the State Farmer's Institute. Although INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN RURAL SCHOOLS 59 something more than two hundred boys obtained seed, only fifty-five were able to exhibit their work at the farmers' institute in which the contest was held. This was the largest show of boys' work that had occurred in our county up to that time. Immediately fol- lowing that institute we began planning for the organization of the boys and girls upon a much larger scale. Circulars were sent from the county superintendent's office to the two hundred boys and to the teachers of the county, explaining the plan of work for what is now our Boys' Experiment and our Girls' Home Improvement Clubs. Boys and girls between the ages of nine and eighteen years were admitted to membership, allowing each to designate the particular kind of farm or household work he or she cared to under- take, but making it obligatory upon all to undertake some special work that should be strictly his own or her own. Registration blanks were enclosed with these circulars, and as a result the names of seven hundred and sixty boys and six hundred and ten girls were received. By far the largest number of boys agreed to undertake the cultivation of corn, but the variety of work indicated to be undertaken by them covered a very wide range, including the raising of corn, potatoes, cowpeas, popcorn, peanuts, sweet potatoes, turnips, beans, celery, cabbage, and various other vegetables, poultry of various kinds, pigs, and in one case, cattle. Parents took active interest immediately, and one gentleman gave his boy, who had hitherto taken little interest in his father's work, a fine heifer for whose care, feeding, breeding, etc., the boy was to become entirely responsible. Parents generally promised to furnish seed for those who had agreed to undertake the raising of the different varieties of vegetable products, except corn, and to secure eggs from pure-bred poultry breeders for those who were to raise poultry. Immediately following this first corn contest and just before the present clubs were organized we undertook an excursion to Champaign. It was widely advertised at the farmers' institute and thru the schools, and as a result we took more than six hundred persons to the University of Illinois and its experiment farm. The results of that day's excursion have been far reaching in their beneficial effects upon the farm work of the county, and were somewhat directly responsible for the large and enthusiastic membership of both of the clubs. Each member of each of the clubs was furnished with a small button especially designed for the purpose. The funds for purchasing these buttons and for purchasing the seed corn for thje boys were provided by an appropriation of $50 from the county board. We had selected from the best corn breeders nine bushels of the best seedcorn we could get, and had the same shipped to the county superintendent's office. In the interim between the receipt of this seed and sending it to the boys, probably one hun- dred and fifty farmers came to the office and looked it over. There were a few of them who had much better corn in their cribs, but none of them brought it in to make comparison. Shortly before the time for planting, this corn was sent out, one ear (about one thousand grains) to each boy. Before sending, the ear was carefully described upon the clasp-envelope secured for that purpose, the description including the weight, cir- cumference, length, number of rows, number of grains, proportion of corn to cob, etc. Thus each boy had before him the name of the variety and the description of the in- dividual ear from which he was to grow his corn crop. The pupils who were to raise poultry were given some assistance as to where to secure the eggs for their beginning, and in most cases that assistance came from the parents at home. Duplicate lists of the boys and girls, with postoffice address and kind of work under- taken, were sent to the congressman from our congressional district, and from three to five bulletins from the United States Department of Agriculture, indicated upon the list by number, were sent to each member. By this means there were distributed in the various farm homes of our county something like four thousand bulletins. Besides these, a number were received from the University of Illinois. Our teachers in most cases interested themselves in the work of the clubs, altho no time was taken from the regular school program. The county superintendent devoted some attention to the work 60 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION of the clubs during his annual visits last year, and it was not an unusual thing for the boys to bring into the schoolroom one or two ears of corn during the intermission period and ask for a corn talk. The county farmers' institute, in order to accommodate itself to the new order of things, took on new life, and by the assistance of a live local committee, secured about six hundred dollars with which to pay liberal premiums to the boys and girls for their work and meet other expenses of a great institute. The expectations of the farmers' institute management were not disappointed, for 377 boys brought out and exhibited corn, besides a large number who had other products, and more than fifty boys and girls exhibited poultry. The girls' department of plain and fancy needlework, cooking, and flowers was equally well represented. Some very accurate descriptions of the raising and caring for the corn were presented, but this part of the work was somewhat neglected because there was not time to do clerical work necessary to make it succeed. Upon the whole, the boys' corn was a'very fine exhibit. The two highest grades given by the expert judges were awarded to two boys under thirteen years of age. I think several distinct things have been accomplished by the existence of these two clubs, among which may be named the following: A general awakening of interest among the farmers, expression of which may be seen in many different lines. Some good seed corn has found its way into every nook and corner of our county. Of course, there are some who will adhere to the idea that the corn which has been grown for the past twenty years and which has run out in every particular except in size of ear, is good enough, but these are few. There are now seven hundred young corn judges who are able to make life miserable for the man who knows better than the seed man, especially when his product passes into the hands of the judges beside theirs. It has transformed the farmers' institute from a moderately quiet affair, meeting in some obscure place and managing to spend the $75 apportioned by the state for the purpose of conducting such institutes, into what is regarded as the great meeting of the year, fur- nishing an excellent program, which reaches the ears of an ever widening circle of inter- ested farmers and housewives, and which paid last year for its program and premium list a little more than $600. Best of all, the boys and girls have been enabled to discover for themselves the value of wisely directed effort in the selection of seed and in the care and cultivation of their crops. They have seen, also, something of the reward of such effort, for some of them have been able to sell their corn readily for $1.50 per bushel, while that of their parents brings the customary 40 cents. It is in such ways as these that the enterprising county superintendent may stand as a middle-man between the experiment station and the children on the farms. In Cook County (Chicago) one of the assistant county super- intendents, Charles W. Farr, during the month of April, 1905, held a series of ten "corn meetings," the announced purpose of which was to consider with the schools of an entire township, and the parents of the children: (i) The growth and fertilization of corn, emphasizing the possibility of breeding it with the same degree of care with which animals are bred; (2) to study thorobred ears of corn furnished for the purpose by professional corn breeders; (3) To consider samples of corn furnished by local farmers with reference to the selection of seed; (4) to encourage the boys to send for seed corn and enter the annual contest; and (5) by means of samples to set forth clearly the printed matter offered to the farmers by the state experiment INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN RURAL SCHOOLS 6 1 station. These meetings were well attended by old and young, and the most enthusiastic interest was awakened. All this means more and better corn, of course. But it means much more. The attitude toward farm labor — all labor — is changed. The combination of intelligence with manual labor arouses a quality of interest which gives farming as an occupation, an even chance with other occupations to appeal to the boyish imagination at the time when he is beginning to think about his life work. Superintendent Farr is the author of a formula which tells the whole story. ' ' Seed + Soil + Moisture + Heat + Boy = C ORN. " The plan of organization and work of boys' experiment clubs and girls' home-culture clubs in Illinois, as described, has been adopted in a few localities in Ohio, Wisconsin, and Texas and possibly in other states. The systematic study of the cultivation, breeding, and judging of corn carried on by the boys in Illinois, thru definitely organized effort, has made available for them and their fathers the results of the scientific investigation of this cereal, carried on by experts in the agricultural college of the state, and will add hundreds of thousands of dollars to the value of the yearly corn crop in Illinois. All such work properly directed and organized is a move in the direction of awakening new interest and a practical intelligence in the affairs of the home and the farm. It reaches the parents and affects them in useful ways. Out of these experiments and activities will come an organized body of knowledge in form available for the teacher and for use in the schools of the country. Such clubs may be organized in every state in the Union for specific work on the particular products of the locality, provided there are men and women in these states who will make a study of local needs and inaugurate lines of effort, which will appeal to the interests of the community under definite practical plans of organization. AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE EXTENSION WORK IN NEW YORK Some of the enterprises connected with the Extension Work of the College of Agriculture of Cornell University provide means whereby the public may be roused to an interest in industrial education. The nature-study work of that institution is an explicit movement in this direction. It was inaugu- rated some years ago as a propaganda to arouse the people of the state to the necessity of education by means of the common objects and affairs of the environment. Its purpose has been to relate the education to the actual daily life of the pupil. One of the enterprises of this nature-study work is the read- ing-course for teachers. Another is the organizing of children into " junior naturalist clubs." These children are organized in the schools through the teacher. Every year the clubs are reorganized, since the pupils go to higher grades, or leave school, or the teacher may change. These clubs are working nature-study units. The character of work that they chiefly take up is sug- gested each month by the Junior Naturalist Monthly. This lays out special 62 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION pieces of work each month and asks questions or suggests lines of inquiry which can be answered only by the pupils going directly to the objects them- selves. The club members write letters or "dues" in their response to these suggestions. As showing something of the extent of the work the following figures may be given: Up to March 27, of the present school year (beginning October, 1904) 446 junior naturalist clubs have been organized in the schools of New York state, with a total membership at that date of 13,525 children. At that time there had been received 934 sets of dues, containing altogether 20,718 letters, from the children. These children are mostly in the earlier grades. The subjects of these letters cover a wide range, although a few general subjects always stand out very prominently as the choice of the children, as the following figures show: Letters on the horse 2,839 Letters on the Canada thistle 392 Letters on the pumpkin 3,382 Letters on the seed travelers 760 Letters on the squash 2,145 Letters on the silo I>79° Letters on the dog 2,794 Letters on the woodpeckers 1,102 Letters on the chipmunk 1,659 Letters on the pine and hemlock trees 1,219 Letters on the alfalfa 983 Letters on the sumac 1,161 Letters on the soil 500 Letters on the cow 885 This and similar work has come to be an established enterprise in New York State and nature-study work and elementary agriculture are now to be provided in the syllabi of the state education department. Another of the enterprises of the Cornell College of Agriculture are the farmers' reading-courses. These are designed for farm men and women. The reading season comprises the five months from November to March inclusive. Each month is devoted to a lesson. That is, five lessons are issued each year. Each lesson has a blank quiz or discussion paper which is to be returned to the Reading-Course Bureau of the College of Agriculture. When one series is completed the reader takes another series the next winter. In the farmers' reading-course five series are now provided for (twenty-five lessons in all). In the farmers' wives' course three series are now provided for (fifteen lessons in all). These lessons are furnished by the College of Agriculture and the courses are free to residents of the state. Altho this reading-course enterprise is not designed primarily as a supplement to public- school work, it is nevertheless in the broadest sense an educational movement and in many ways affords a means of spreading the propaganda for nature- study and agricultural training. For the week ending March 27, 1905, the number of persons reading in these two courses were as follows: INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN RURAL SCHOOLS 63 Farmers' Reading-Course: Series I. Soil 2,582 Series II. Stock 3*524 Series III. Orcharding 1,238 Series IV. Poultry • 1,282 Series V. Dairying 435= 9,061 Farmers' Wives' Reading-Course: Series I. Farm house and garden 6,056 Series II. Farm family 4,4io Series III. Sanitation and food 6,066= 16,532 25,593 The agricultural colleges can be a most important factor in suggesting the kinds of work best adapted to the local needs, and in furnishing in proper form the necessary information for carrying on the work successfully. The committee believes that there should be connected with every agri- cultural college in the land at least one man charged with the duty of organ- izing in pedagogic form such results of experiment work as can be brought within the comprehension of the farming population, old and young, and profitably utilized by them. He should also be the representative of the agricultural college in the field among the farmers. He should organize efforts to bring this knowledge to their attention and to have it applied for economic results. Thru properly established relations with the state and county superintendents, farmers' institutes, the Grange, and such other agencies as are available, he should undertake to secure the organization of the boys' and girls' clubs and of clubs of farmers, and farmers' wives, for practical study and experiment in definite lines of production work, and for the reading of matter of practical value in the concerns of the home and farm. PATRONS OF HUSBANDRY The Patrons of Husbandry affords one of the best means of bringing the need of industrial education to the people. The Grangers established on an educational basis, and has officers and committees whose duty it is to keep the order informed on questions of public interests. In New York, the State Grange has established scholarships in the College of Agriculture of Cornell University. Subordinate granges are always ready to discuss questions con- cerned with the betterment of the rural schools. CHILDREN'S WORK AT FAIRS There is good opportunity to interest the teachers of the schools and the general public in the nature-study and agricultural work by means of exhibits at the town, county, and state fairs. The drawings, specimens, collections, and essays that result from work in the schools make very attractive exhibits. At the county fair in Bath, Steuben county, N. Y., the children's work has been a prominent feature for a number of years. There is a children's day, on which children are admitted either free or at a very small price, and special 64 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION arrangements are made to have their exhibits on view. Expert judges are secured to award prizes for the essays, collections, plants, and the like. The children of the public schools of Syracuse, N. Y., and vicinity have made a very creditable exhibit for a number of years at the state fair. They fill a fifty-foot tent with the plants of their growing. The nature-study bureau of the College of Agricultural of Cornell University has sent letters and circulars to the managers of the county fairs, urging them to offer on their premium lists small sums for the products of children's gardens, for collections of named grasses, and in a few instances for weeds. During the fair season it is the purpose to keep in touch so far as possible with these various displays by speaking to the children and inspecting their exhibits. The most popular exhibits are expected from village schools having a principal and teachers who are especially interested in this kind of work. Similar effort to interest the rural-school pupils and teachers in making a showing of their work at county and state fairs, and to interest the people in the educational work of their children is made in other states and should be encouraged everywhere under proper control and guidance. APPENDIX A THE DUNN COUNTY SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE AND DOMESTIC ECONOMY HISTORICAL STATEMENT In 1899 the Wisconsin legislature appointed a commissioner to investigate and report upon the methods of procedure in this and other states and countries in giving instruction in manual training and in the theory and art of agriculture to the public schools. Among the recommendations in that report was one for the .enactment of a law author- izing counties to establish secondary schools of agriculture and domestic economy. The legislature in 1901 enacted a law providing for such schools and proffering state aid to the first two schools thus 'organized. In 1902, two schools of this class were established; one in Menomonie, Dunn county, and the other in Wausau, Marathon county. There was a good attendance at the opening of each school which has steadily increased each year. The legislature of 1903, increased the number of schools entitled to state aid to four, increased the amount of aid in each case, and authorized two or more counties to unite in establishing and maintaining a school. COUNTY AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL LAW The following is an outline of the Wisconsin law creating and assisting county schools of agriculture and domestic economy. (Chapter 288 of 1901, as amended in 1903.) Sections i, 2 and 3 create the schools of this class and provide for county school boards of three members. Sec. 4 allows two or more counties to unite in one school. Sec. 5 makes the county treasurer the school treasurer. Sec. 6 names branches to be taught. Sec. 7 requires a plot of three acres for farm practice. Sec. 8 makes the school free to students in any county helping to support such school. Sec. 9 makes the state superintendent also superintendent of such schools. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN RURAL SCHOOLS 6$ Sec. 10 provides for list of four such schools when approved by the dean of the College of Agriculture and the state superintendent. Cost of maintaining a school is to be reported to the State Superintendent. School must be maintained eight months. The state shall pay each county maintaining such school "a sum equal to two-thirds the amount actually expended for maintaining such school during the year, provided that the total amount so apportioned shall not exceed $4,000 to any one school in any one year." POSITION OF SCHOOL IN STATE SYSTEM The chief purpose of the county agricultural schools, as now established in Wisconsin, is to popularize agricultural education more than can be done by a well-filled state college. The schools are subordinate to the state college in that they are not so advanced, especially in their academic subjects. Students are admitted directly from the rural schools. Most of them would never go to an agricultural school, if this new class of schools were not brought close to them. Some students board at home and help with home chores, others visit home at the end of each week and are dominated by the home spirit thruout their school life. Certainly these county schools in Wisconsin reach a class of pupils that would not feel that they could spare the money necessary to attend the State Agricul- tural College. And yet there are students, who, after getting the work of the county school, will feel like continuing their education and will attend the State College of Agriculture. Several graduates are already planning such a course. More county schools of agriculture will help fill the State College of Agriculture to overflowing. GENERAL EQUIPMENT The Dunn County School of Agriculture has three buildings located on a half block in the center of Menomonie, the county seat. Here there is still room for poultry runs and a small garden for girls' practice. Philanthropic citizens and the city gave these grounds to the school. The school farm consists of six acres located on the county fair grounds nearly one mile from the school. Here the boys of the school have practice in farm, orchard, and nursery work. The area may be increased from time to time. BUILDINGS FOR THE AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL The school has the use of four buildings : The main building is 42 by 96 feet, three stories high, built of brick. The first and second floors are devoted to the uses of the School of Agriculture and the third floor to the County Teachers' Training School. A glass wing 30 by 30 feet is used for greenhouse purposes. The mechanical building is 24 by 50 feet, two stories high over a high bank basement. The horticultural building is 28 by 50 feet, two stories high over a bank basement. The basement story is what gives the building its name, as it is used for potting of plants, grafting and budding lesions, winter storage of cions, roots, bulbs, and tender plants. The farm tool house, built by students, is 14 by 1 6 feet, one story high. The carpentry and blacksmith shops are supplied with the best of tools, substantial and handy benches (made by students), forges, anvils, vises, lathes, circle saw, steam engine, gasoline engine, etc. The sewing department has its cutting tables, work tables, sewing machines, tracing boards, and wardrobes. The kitchen equipment, of utensils, dishes, tables, cabinets, ranges, food sets, cupboards, sink and refrigerator, is complete in every detail. The laboratory is provided with apparatus necessary for chemistry, physics, plant life, and soil experiments. Facilities for stereopticon illustration are pro- vided. Machinery and tools for use on the farm and garden are of the most modern types. The equipment in the dairy includes cream separators, Babcock testers, combined churn and worker, ripening vat, milk heater, scales, and complete set oT utensils. Poultry quarters are constructed on model plans of economy and cleanliness. The department is supplied with two incubators and two brooders. Brooders were built by carpentry students. The best types of farm poultry are kept. 66 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION In regard to building and equipment it should be remembered that for the amount which the county has expended it has two young institutions established, viz., the Agri- cultural School and the County Teachers' Training school. Much has been saved by building for two schools at the same time. The entire property of the two county schools (Agricultural and Teachers') has cost the county $23,035. But the total valuation of the property including the small farm is $39,103 . 85. The difference is made up largely by gifts from manufacturers and citizens, and by articles made by students in the School of Agriculture. COST OF RUNNING THE SCHOOL The state law authorizes any county (not to exceed four) to build and1 equip a school of agriculture and pay the running expense for one year. After that the state will pay two-thirds of the annual cost of maintaining the school — not to exceed $4,000 for each school. Experience of two years shows that the annual running expense is about $6,000, two-thirds of which is paid by the state and only one-third by the county. The assessed value of taxable property in Dunn county is about $10,500,000. Any person with an assessment of $100 will pay less than two cents to support the school. Property assessed at $1,000 requires a payment of less than 20 cents a year, to run this school. Thus it is seen that the annual cost is almost nothing to the individual tax-payer in the county. When such are the facts, all who may have had some fears regarding the matter of annual cost may feel at ease; for surely a county in an agricultural region can easily support its own "farmers' school." CORRELATIVE LINES OF WORK FOR FARMERS AND TEACHERS Much agricultural information is disseminated from the Agricultural School to the farmers of the county. Directions for planting, suggestions as to varieties, combating noxious weeds, helping establish co-operative creameries, planning barns, silos, school- houses, dwellings, devising ventilators, selecting stock, and many other subjects are taken up by the instructors with individual farmers. The school has done a great deal of milk- and cream-testing for farmers for the purpose of helping to improve dairy herds. On the school farm such new crops are tried as should be used by those living in the section. Many hundreds of bulletins on special farm topics have been placed in the hands of farmers desiring information on these subjects. A novel feature of the school's work in Dunn county is the introduction, thru the rural teachers, of elementary agriculture and manual training into district schools of the county. By an interchange of classes with the County Teachers' Training School the Agricultural School teaches the rural teachers to handle these subjects in their school in a very creditable manner. CHARACTER OF THE INSTRUCTION In all the instruction in the Dunn County School of Agriculture the useful side of the knowledge and training given to the students is emphasized. This is the principle on which the school is founded. The extended knowledge which the farmer must have should be made as practical as possible. At every point the school is made to co-operate with the farm, the shop, the dairy, and the home. The manual-training courses are made far more practical and useful than such courses usually are. Nearly all of the time of the classes has been engaged in making articles of use on the farm, in the home, in the school and shop. The same feature of useful training has prevailed in domestic economy, plant life, farm accounts, study of soils, poultry, and in fact all subjects. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN RURAL SCHOOLS 67 SCHOOL ATTENDANCE The Agricultural School continues growing in numbers and usefulness. While the attendance is not so great as we may reasonably expect it to be in a few years it is better than the highest expectations of its warmest friends. The total enrollment the first year was 64 — 40 young men and 24 young women. The average age of all was nearly 18 years. The second year the enrolment reached 79 — 45 young men with an average age of i8J years, and 34 young women with an average age of 19. Eighty-five per cent, of the students are from the farm, and all are preparing for life on the farm. ATTITUDE OF STUDENTS To show the attitude which the students in the school have toward it, the following question was asked: "Why should rural young people attend the Dunn County Agri- cultural School?" A few of the answers may be of interest here. " In sewing one may learn to make her own garments." "We can learn good housekeeping, sewing, laundering, how to plan a house, how to work quickly and quietly." "We learn a great deal about the food value of different food materials, and the right way of cooking foods." "It offers the most practical course in domestic economy of any school I could find." "We learn the effect of diet upon the health, and how to prepare foods in the most healthful manner." "We learn the easiest, quickest, and best way to do our work." "I love housework, and by attending this school I have learned many things that will make it easier; also many ways to economize time, strength, and money." "Attending this school has made me more interested in all work." "I have learned the care and use of all tools used by the farmer." "In my opinion it prepares students for a much more pleasurable and prosperous life." "To secure practical training in blacksmithing and carpentry." " I came here because I know that I will become a better farmer and American citizen by it." "It is necessary for the future farmer to have a course in such a school to enable him to be the most successful farmer." " It teaches how to farm with success, how to keep a farm in good order; what crops pay the best, and what ones are the hardest on the land." "I have learned how to run an engine; the proper care of milk and cream, and how to make good butter." "The school has helped me to secure twice the wages I could get before." "We learn that a farmer's life and work is not all drudgery." The graduates of the school are all following agricultural pursuits and are in all cases putting into practice many of the things they learned while in school. This is a good standard from which to measure the success of the school. County schools of agriculture cannot be a success unless the farmers of the vicinity take an abiding interest in them. The experience in Wisconsin shows that the farmers look upon these schools with much favor. They are proud of them. A farmer will speak of the school as "the farmer's best friend," "the best place to send our boys," "the col- lege for the rural classes," and in such complimentary ways only. REGULAR COURSE OF STUDY The regular course covers two years of eight months each, beginning in October and closing in May. YOUNG MEN: FIRST YEAR First Term: Work with Soil, *5; Carpentry, d. 5; English and Library Reading, 5; Business Arithmetic, 5. Second Term: Soils and Fertilizers, 5; Dairying, d. 2; Carpentry, d. 3; English and Library Reading, 5 ; Farm Accounts, 5 ; Rural Architecture, d. 2. Third Term: Plant Life, 5; Vegetable, Flower, and Fruit Gardening, 5; Poultry, 3; English and Library Reading, 5. *The numerals denote the number of recitation periods per week; d. signifies double period. 68 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION SECOND YEAR First Term : Plant Life, 5 ; Blacksmithing, d. 5 ; Economic Insects and Diseases, 5 ; English and Library Reading, 5. Second Term : Animal Husbandry, 5 ; Blacksmithing, d. 5 ; United States History, 5 ; English and Library Reading, 5. Third Term: Animal Husbandry, 5; Vegetable, Flower, and Fruit Gardening, 5; English and Library Reading, 5; Civil Government, 5. YOUNG WOMEN: FIRST YEAR First Term : Cooking and Sewing, *d. 5 ; English and Library Reading, 5 ; Business Arithmetic, 5. Second Term: Cooking and Sewing, d. 5; Home Economy, 5; English and Library Reading, 5; Laundry, 2. Third Term: Cooking and Sewing, d. 5; Plant Life, 5; Poultry, 3; Hygiene, 5; English and Library Reading, 5. SECOND YEAR First Term: Cooking and Sewing, d. 5; English and Library Reading, 5; Economic Insects and Diseases, 5. Second Term: Cooking and Sewing, d. 5; Chemistry of Foods, 5; United States History, 5; English and Library Reading, 5. Third Term: Cooking and Millinery, d. 5; Home Nursing and Emergencies, d. 2; Vegetable, Flower, and Fruit Gardening, 5; English and Library Reading, 5; Civil Government, 5. WINTER TERM SHORT COURSE There are large numbers of young people who, from lack of means or time, are unable to take an extended course of study, but whose usefulness in the world would be much increased by a little special training. Their earning capacity in the household or on the farm is far from what it might be. The winter short course at the Agricultural School is for the benefit of such persons. The short course is primarily intended for persons of advanced age, and younger pupils should plan to take the regular course. The complete short course covers two winter terms, twelve weeks each, beginning in January and ending in March. The following are the subjects: For men, first winter: Science of Agriculture, Farm Accounts and Commerce, Dairying, Farm Carpentry, English. For men, second winter: Feeding and Care of Stock, Soils and Fertilizers, Farm Blacksmithing, Rural Architecture, English. For women, first winter: Home Economy, Cooking, Sewing, Laundering, English. For women, second winter: Cooking, Sewing, Millinery, Personal and Domestic Hygiene, English. REQUIREMENTS FOR ADMISSION In order to pursue the work of the regular course, students should have a common school education. Young people thru with their country school may enter this school. Persons in doubt as to their ability to enter are urged to write or call on the principal of the school. Application for admission to the school should be made in advance by writing to the principal of the Agricultural School, Menomonie, Wis. TUITION FREE Tuition is free for students living in Dunn county, and at present the amount charged for students from other counties is only ten dollars per year if paid in advance, or if paid by terms is as follows: Fall, $4; winter, $5; spring, $3. Books are rented by the school at the rate of 25 cents a month for all a pupil needs. COST OF LIVING The cost of living near the school is very little greater than the cost of living at home. Students find board and rooms in private families at prices ranging from $2.50 to $3.25 per week. Students often furnish their own rooms from home and board themselves for about $i .00 or $2 .00 per week or less. *The numerals denote the number of recitation periods per week; d. signifies double period. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN RURAL SCHOOLS 69 OUTLINES OF SUBJECTS AND METHODS SOILS AND FERTILIZERS This course includes the nature, function, origin, and wasting of soils; texture, com- position, and kinds of soil; humus of the soil; soil moisture and its conservation; capil- larity, solution, diffusion, and osmosis; soil temperature; relation of air to soil; physical effects of tillage and fertilizers; sources of loss of the elements of fertility; function of manures and fertilizers; nitrogenous fertilizers; potash; phosphates; purchase and use of fertilizers; particular needs of special crops. The work of the course is supplemented by the examination of many kinds of soils and subsoils, samples of fertilizers, and an exami- nation of results obtained in various experimental tests. In the study of soils the classes use text-book and laboratory methods. The physical laboratory serves as a suitable place for considerable soil work. This is supplemented by experiments in the greenhouse and in the grafting room. Numerous experiments, such as those suggested in Chapters I to VI of Bailey's Principles of Agriculture are per- formed by classes. POULTRY RAISING Poultry quarters are constructed on model plans of economy and cleanliness. The department is supplied with facilities for artificial incubation and brooding. Brooders were built by carpentry students. Bone and meat grinders were given by manufacturers. The best types of farm poultry are kept. A term of lectures on poultry raising rounds out the practice work in this subject. Some of the topics considered are: Planning, arrangement, and building of poultry houses and runs; characteristics and special uses of the various leading breeds of poultry; breeding, feeding, and management of fowls for eggs and for market; managing incubators and brooders. INSECTS AND DISEASES Losses due to insect life; transformations; economic bearing of insects with biting and with sucking mouth-parts; careful study of the worst insects of the farm, garden, orchard, and household. Both injurious and beneficial insects are studied from life and from specimens in the laboratory. There is considerable practice in making and using spray materials, such as emulsions, poisons, and fungicides. These are applied in the greenhouse, gardens, and private plantations. Students thus become familiar with differ- ent forms of spraying apparatus. The most important plant diseases of the northwest are studied with a view to checking their ravages. SCIENCE OF AGRICULTURE For short-course students the subject matter varies only a little from the winter term work in the regular course. This avoids a multiplication of classes. One subject given only to the short course students (men) covers the general science of agriculture in a broad way. A suitable text is used in this class, and a number of reference books are used by means of a topical method of recitation. DAIRYING Thoro instruction in the care of milk, cream, and utensils; principles involved in crevning milk by gravity and centrifugal processes; full instruction in regard to running farm separators and the manufacture of butter. Students receive practical training in the ripening of cream, churning, working, and packing of butter, testing the value of milk and cream by the Babcock method. This practice is carried on in a well-equipped dairy, containing cream separators, Babcock testers, combined churn and worker, ripening vat, milk heater, scales, and complete set of utensils. Students run a boiler and engine in operating the machinery. The sloping cement floor and brick walls make the creamery quite sanitary and modern. Milk is bought from farmers who haul it to the dairy, and the butter is sold at the highest market price to local customers and stores. The purpose is to give young men very thoro training in those lines of the business as will serve to make them better creamery patrons, and teach them to furnish the products of the highest quality, and conduct the dairy herd with the greatest profit. Students wishing to become butter makers take additional work in the subject — in figuring income of creamery, cream checks for patrons, overchurn, and other mathematical work. Advanced students are given additional practice in handling starter, making butter, and all details of the business. Inspection trips are made to some of the best creameries of the county. 70 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION PLANT LIFE 1. This work begins with elementary nature lessons from plant life. This leads readily to studies in regard to how plants grow, how they feed, their effect on the soil, lessons in pollination, germination, natural and artificial methods of propagation, as layering, grafting, budding, and by cuttings. Lessons are given in plant physiology with experiments in the laboratory. In the study of plant life very little of the old-fashioned botanical work of the high school is taken up. No technical, systematic botany is intro- duced, but the characteristics of the families of plants which are of greatest economic value are considered. Much field work is included in the course. 2. Studies of varieties for cultivation; comparative values for marketing, for feeding, and for fertilizing fields; studies in grasses and other forage crops; corn, wheat, and other recently improved grains; best methods of harvesting, curing, preserving, including use of silo and shredder; methods of marketing, etc. Plants of the market garden receive special attention. Students become familiar with the most common weeds and how to combat them. RURAL ARCHITECTURE AND DRAWING Mechanical drawing is practiced in the shop and class room, where working drawings are made for use at the carpenter's bench, or to be followed in the construction of dwellings, barns, granaries, silos, poultry houses, machine sheds, cupboards, cases and other indoor structures. Students are encouraged to plan buildings and other structures that are needed on their home farms, and to make lists of material showing cost of same, and cost of construction. PRINCIPLES OF PHYSICS A brief time is given to experiments in the laboratory, teaching those principles of physics which are most applicable to farm practice, such as heating, lighting, ventilation, water supply, friction and lubricants, principles of pumps, eveners, pulleys, and engines. ELEMENTS OF CHEMISTRY A short study is made of the more common chemical elements and their chief com- pounds. For the young men these lessons lead up to the study of the composition of soils, fertilizers, and feeds. For the young women the elementary chemistry forms a groundwork for the chemistry of foods. FARM ACCOUNTS AND COMMERCE A very small proportion of farmers in the west keep farm accounts. A very thoro course in this subject has been worked out for this school. The students formulate accounts in books suitable for home use, in all subjects found dealing with farm work of today. A brief study of commercial law of importance to farmers is taken up. Business forms, contracts and land survey are studied; making of inventories; memorandum forms; time books; accounts with grain crops; stock accounts; purchases and sales; notes payable and receivable; cash accounts; other farm accounts, and practice in keeping same; plans and purposes of co-operative and other economic organizations. BUSINESS ARITHMETIC Review of fractional forms, measurements of wood, walls, land, tanks; compound and denominate numbers; special computations suited to farm practice, such as income from da ry cows, feed rations, cost of buildings, cost of fencing, cost and contents of silo, silage and other feed needed for a herd. The work prepares the pupils for better under- standing of operations in farm accounts class. VEGETABLE, FLOWER, AND FRUIT GARDENING — FARM PRACTICE This includes the principles of gardening of vegetables, flowers, and fruit; garden tillage; irrigation; rotation of crops; structure, use, and care of hotbeds; seed-testing; protection from frosts. Practice is given in the growing of various garden flowers and vegetables. Six acres of land are provided on the county fair grounds for classes in this course. Farm machines of the best types are freely given by manufacturers for advertising purposes. A few necessary tools purchased by the school make the farm equipment quite complete in this line. On the farm a number of new crops are being tried. A good nursery of several thousand trees is started by the students. Such leguminous crops as alfalfa, soy beans, cowpeas, vetch, field peas, and alsike clover are being tried to illustrate their value in improving soils as well as in producing forage for stock. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN RURAL SCHOOLS 71 The students are taken to orchards in the county for practice in pruning, and to the best small-fruit and other plantations to study methods of culture and management. (See also notes on stock feeding and care.) ANIMAL HUSBANDRY The work in this subject is chiefly divided into two terms' work under the subject of "Feeds and Feeding" and "Care of Animals." The study is made very practical by trips to the best farm barns in the county, to learn methods of housing, feeding, and hand- ling, by careful examination of many sound and unsound animals of all kinds. Consider- able stock judging is carried on by classes in connection with the subject. Students become very familiar with all types of farm animals — beef and dairy cattle, light and draft horses, lard and bacon hogs, mutton, and long-wool sheep. The best stock men in the section are invited to address the classes. An expert veterinarian gives a series of practical talks to the classes, which are of immense value. Care of Animals. — Care of animals in stables and yards; judging for age; unsound- ness in horses; training and breaking colts; treatment of balking, rearing, runaways, pulling on bit; causes and cures of lameness such as laminitis, corns, and shoulder troubles; study of pulse and temperature; giving medicine, use of enemas, counter irritants, anes- thetics, disinfectants, antiseptics; treatment of wounds, abnormal growths; dehorning, castrating; studies in breeding and attendant troubles; diseases of bones, such as bone spavin, ring-bone, side-bones, big knee, splint, dislocations; bog-spavin, wind-puffs, curb, knee-sprung; diseased teeth; impaction of rumen; colic in horses, scouring, con- stipation; diseases of breathing and nervous system, and skin; such parasites as lice, scab, mange, bots, worms; such diseases as glanders, blackleg, abortion, tuberculosis, cholera; azoturia; poisonous foods and their antidotes. Feeds and Feeding. — Feeding farm animals, as the horse, fattening steer, dairy cow, dairy calf, veal, fattening sheep, young lambs, pigs and fattening hogs; special studies, such as influence of wide and narrow rations when fed to milch cows; studies of special feeding experiments; attendant care and management for rearing lambs, calves, colts, and pigs. Feeding stuffs: Study of composition and feeding; value of leading feeds and special feeds of the farm; importance of leguminous plants for green forage and hay; special influence of feeds; study of feed tables and figuring rations for farm animals. GARDENING FOR WOMEN Theoretical instruction and practical application; making and maintaining a farm garden; seed testing; germination percentages; planting record; construction and use of hotbeds; soil temperature; transplanting, potting, and repotting; garden plans; staking and labeling; handling of produce; marketing; methods of propagation; gar- dening for home consumption; gardening for profit. A suitable area for gardening purposes lies between the agricultural school buildings and gives abundant opportunity for practical work by the young women of the school. All kinds of profitable garden crops are raised. A new greenhouse, heated by hot water, furnishes means of teaching the propagation of house plants in cold weather. FARM BLACKSMITHING How to fashion from stock iron various articles useful on the farm, such as tongs, cold chisels, punches, rings, chain links, clevises, brackets, harrow teeth, etc.; how to use and take care of files; how to construct a serviceable forge and to otherwise equip a shop for farm blacksmithing; original exercises in repairing broken parts of farm machinery; something of the nature and structure of different kinds of iron and steel, as well as some knowledge of the processes by which each is produced. Especial attention is given to the process of welding iron and steel, and of tempering tools of steel. Some attention is given to mixing and putting on paints; repairing tinware; care and opera- tion of engines and other farm machines. The blacksmith department is equipped with portable forges, anvils, and a few simple blacksmith tools for each student. All the work is of a very practical nature. Incidents of the manual-training work are the operation of steam and gasoline engines, motors, and other farm machines; renovating and repairing dilapidated machinery. Students and farmers are encouraged to have farm shops of their own. FARM CARPENTRY Instruction in carpentry is given in the workshop and includes the following: How to care for, sharpen, and use in a practical way such ordinary carpenter tools as should be used on a farm; work on models that will teach how to make the different kinds of NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION joints, splices, etc., necessary in the construction of buildings, machines, cupboards, and a variety of useful and ornamental articles for the home; the construction, in miniature, of parts or a whole of different buildings, demonstrating principles and methods employed. Each member of the class will make, during the course, a number of useful articles that he may take home with him by paying the mere cost of material. Splicing and tying ropes is given the boys in this class. The carpentry is not mere manual training, as taught in high schools. It is "farm carpentry." After the necessary preliminary work the students soon learn the construction of buildings, machines, cupboards, paper racks, mail boxes, match holders, milk stools, book cases, and a variety of useful and ornamental articles for the home and farm. In the Agricultural School the classes in carpentry have ceiled and done the interior finishing of the poultry department, and the gymnasium. They have made the work benches and tool racks for the carpentry department, and hardly a week passes without showing the completion of a number of articles for school use. The farm tool house was built by the students. The carpentry department is equipped with such tools as should be used in farm shops. Equipments too elaborate for use on any farm would have a detrimental influence upon the students. Simple, plain tools of the very best quality are used. Besides the bench tools some power machinery is available for advanced students. COOKING The cooking department is equipped as nearly like a home kitchen as is consistent with the number of students to be accommodated. Wood and gasoline ranges are used instead of individual gas plates. Convenient cupboards and kitchen cabinets are such as should be in any well equipped home. Even the work tables used by the pupils are models of convenience in every respect. Food sets, showing the composition of each of the standard foods, are conspicuously placed for constant reference and study in the preparation of meals. Students get practice in preparing and serving meals to each other and to numerous visitors. The course in cooking includes a study of starchy foods, potatoes, cereals; quick breads, and other flour mixtures; a study of the yeast plant and its action; bread-making; vegetables; cream soups; meats, their food value and methods of cooking; soups; desserts; planning cooking, and serving simple meals. During the second year dietetic values of foods are taken up, and each student plans a meal correctly balanced as to food nutrients, and serves it to the class. Numerous special foods are prepared by the class covering subjects of the first year in a more advanced way. The classes prepare foods for outside orders and food sales such as cakes, breads, candies, and desserts. They prepare and serve at banquets, parties, institutes, and other gatherings. CHEMISTRY OF FOODS A study of oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon, carbon-dioxide; composition of body; composition of foods; sugars; starches; fats; protein; mineral; digestion of variqus food stuffs; adulteration of foods; bacteria and molds; preservation of foods. This work is given chiefly by means of laboratory experiments, the students working upon and analyzing food stuffs. INVALID COOKERY Invalid cookery is taken up as a special branch of the work in cooking. The value of absolute cleanliness and daintiness in serving in invalid's tray with its effect upon the patient is taught; special diet for fevers and other individual cases; the making of gruels, broths, and other dainty and nutritious dishes; special diets for convalescents. SEWING The sewing department is equipped with sewing machines, draughting tables, and everything necessary to teach the girls the best methods of making their own garments. They furnish their own material and use the finished products. They make underclothing, shirt waists, skirts, wool dresses, and children's dresses. The students become skilled both in hand and machine work. The course is divided as follows: (i) Draughting, cutting and making by machine suits of underclothes, cotton waists, and dress skirts. (2) Draughting, cutting, fitting, and making wool waists, unlined wool skirts; children's ornaments. MILLINERY The millinery, like the other practical work of the course, is not intended for pro- fessional use. The aim is to cultivate simplicity of taste and teach making the best use of materials and means at hand. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN RURAL SCHOOLS 73 The course includes the making and trimming of hats and bonnets; study of the harmony of colors; discussion of taste in selection of bonnets, hats, plumes, frames, tips flowers, trimmings; the renovating and use of available material already on hand. HOME ECONOMY The course in home economy is designed to cover the broad field of the home left untouched by the special branches like cooking, sewing, and laundry work. An outline of the work is as follows: The house plan, drainage, sanitation, ventilation, heating, and lighting; household furnishings and their care; house-cleaning and sanitation; cleaning and preservation of clothing, carpets, rugs, and floors; household accounts; use of bank accounts and check books; relation of income to expenditure. Charts and drawings are used; visits are made to dwellings with model features; good features of modern homes are discussed by members of the class. HOME NURSING The lessons in home nursing are to meet the need in so many homes where the care of a sick one devolves on the family. A professional nurse is not always obtainable and not always necessary, but a knowledge of what to do and how to care for a patient intelli- gently is of great value to every woman. The course includes care of sickroom and bed; duties of nurse; care of patient; precautions in contagious diseases; disinfection of patient and room; special diets for the sick; nursing of special diseases; diet for children. EMERGENCIES The aim of this course is to give students the knowledge that every man and woman ought to have, of what to do in cases of accident while waiting for a physician. The work is given by means of lectures with occasional illustrations. The course includes circulation of the blood; hemorrhages and how to stop them; treatment and dressing of wounds; bandaging; artificial respiration; unconsciousness; poisons and their antidotes; fractures and sprains. LAUNDERING A well-equipped modern home laundry is used to teach the principles of laundering. Special attention is given to the removing of fruit and other stains, and disinfecting; special treatment of flannels, silks, prints, and laces; fixation of colors; composition and action of various soaps, soda, bluing, borax, and washing powders; making and using cold and boiled starch; care and use of irons; polishing devices. Each lesson is made practical by laundering material selected for the occasion. HYGIENE Kinds of respiration and changes produced by respiration; clothing as it affects health; function of the skin, and necessity for cleanliness; bathing; exercise and rest; general causes of diseases; infectious diseases and prevention of their spread; digestion and assimilation of foods; diseases due to improper nutrition of the various tissues; quantity of food required for heat, energy, and tissue. The class uses the school laboratory. Demonstrations are given with microscopes, digestion experiments, models, and charts. CIVIL GOVERNMENT The practical application of the provisions of the state and federal constitutions are studied with a view of making all students more valuable as citizens. Township and county governments are studied in some detail. UNITED STATES HISTORY The subject is reviewed and detail studies made of the progress of the country with text and reference books, during the second year of the course. ENGLISH AND LIBRARY READING These two subjects are taken together. The work in English is adapted to the needs of the classes, but attention is given to correct expression and usage rather than to exhaus- tive study of technical grammar. Literary masterpieces are made the chief foundation for English study. Library books are read by all students, and all are urged to read several good books each term. The selection of books is approved by teacher in charge. Reports of this reading are made in class. 74 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION APPENDIX B THE MINNESOTA AGRICULTURAL HIGH SCHOOL ITS PURPOSE It is the aim of the School of Agriculture to train its students to become useful citizens as well as good farmers and housewives. The home life of the students at University Farm is supervised by members of the faculty, and it is the aim to provide such interests outside the regular school work, as will assist in rounding out the characters of the young men and women. Literary societies afford opportunities for experience in writing, public speaking, and debate. The faculty assist at the receptions and social gatherings which provide social pleasures and experience. In the work of the Young Men's Christian Association and the Young Women's Christian Association there are opportunities for training in co-operative religious activity. Student and alumni clubs, and organizations, and a progressive periodical, The Farm Students' Review, published by the alumni, aid in teaching the students how to work for the better- ment of agricultural conditions. The school of agriculture offers a practical course of study designed to fit young men and young women for successful farm life, and it serves as a preparatory school for the college of agriculture. For the young people who cannot pursue the full college course the school supplies a training in the general branches, supplementary to the grammar school work, and a thoro course in the leading branches of agricultural knowledge, put in practical form, by means of the constant application of lessons in the field, laboratory, or workshop. The methods employed are always practical. The teaching is so conducted as to educate the students toward the farm, and to develop in them a love for farm life, by showing them the possibilities of such a life. The school has been successful in this respect, and over eighty per cent, of its graduates take up agricultural occupations upon leaving the school. The details of this work, the division of the time for the various subjects, and the range of work required of the students, will be found outlined in the following pages. Thru the endowments and appropriations, of state and national government, the school is maintained without tuition charge, except an entrance fee of $5 to residents and $10 to non-residents, and the co-operative arrangements are so conducted that the stu- dents are able to secure excellent board at low rates. The young men and women of the state, who desire to become farm home makers, are cordially invited to enter the course at the school of agriculture. They are urged to come with suitable preparation — that is, the complete mastery of the common school branches; previous farm experience; and to come with the intention to do earnest and conscientious work. ADMISSION All male students are required to have had six months farm practice before entrance. Applicants for admission will be examined in English grammar, arithmetic, history of the United States, and geography, unless they present state certificates, or approved county diplomas, showing that they have completed the eighth grade work in these sub- jects. Students from the city or village schools will not be admitted unless, in addition to the above requirements, they present certificates from the principals of such schools showing completion of eighth-grade work and honorable standing in deportment. Appli- cants whose home schools do not afford complete instruction in these common branches, may be admitted with not more than two conditions, which must be removed, according to instructions given the student upon admission. State High School Board certificates are accepted for work in English, physiology, algebra, geometry and civics. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN RURAL SCHOOLS 75 Students applying for admission after the opening of the term will, in addition to the regular entrance examinations, be required to show proficiency in the work done by the class up to the time of their application. Those who cannot enter by the first of Novem- ber should wait until the beginning of the winter term. FEES With the exception of an entrance fee of $5 to residents, or $10 to non-residents, the school makes no charge. All other expenses are arranged by co-operation of the students. EXPENSES The school expense for the year does not exceed $85. This amount does not include the cost of the required military suit for boys, traveling or personal expense. The cost to the student for board, heat, light and laundry is the actual cost of main- taining the table and caring for the house. This does not exceed $3 per week. The school year covers a period of twenty-four weeks. REQUIREMENTS FOR GRADUATION First, the completion of the prescribed course of study with an honorable standing in deportment. Second, an essay of not less than one thousand words upon a topic connected with agriculture or home economics. Third, for young men, a practical experience in field work at the University farm or elsewhere, as shall appear in reports received from responsible sources. *Blacksmithing [2 *Carpentry [2 J] Military drill [2 Agriculture [3 Gymnasium [i COURSE OF STUDY FIRST (c) YEAR: FIRST TERM Agricultural Botany [5] *Drawing [2] Music English [5] or • *Laundering [2] Physical culture [2] *Sewing [3] Social culture [i] Field agriculture [3] SECOND TERM Agricultural botany [5] *Farm accounts [2$] Music or literary society work Comparative physiology [5] **Study of breeds [4] *Carpentry [2$] *Drawing (farm buildings) [2] *Blacksmithing [2$] Military drill [2] Breeds of horses [i] Gymnasium [i] fCooking [2] *Drawing (farm houses) [2] Physical culture [2] * Figures in brackets indicate the number of hours per week in which the subject is pursued. All work in subjects marked thus* extends through double time in the daily program. t Three periods. ** Work outside of class not required. 76 AM 770AM L ED UCA T1ONA L A SSOCIA TION SOURCES OF TUITION REVENUE There are two sources of revenue that may be used for tuition purposes — state and local. 1. State revenues. — There are four items that go to make up the state school revenue, as follows : (a) A school tax of n cents on the $100 of taxable property of the state. This yielded in 1903, $1,698,868.59. This tax is collected semi-annually by the county treasurers and turned over to the state treasurer. It is then distributed to the different school corpora- tions in proportion to the number of pupils enumerated — all children between the ages of six and twenty-one. (6) Interest on common school fund loans paid by borrowers. In 1903, this amounted to $401,829.06. The common school fund is a permanent fund, and in T9O4 it amounted to $8,032,654.79. This fund has been accumulating for many years. The constitution of 1851 provided that certain funds and revenues and all fines and forfeitures should go to this fund, the principal of which is kept inviolate, the interest alone being used for school purposes. This fund is apportioned among the different counties and loaned at 6 per cent, interest on first mortgages on real estate. Each county is held responsible for both principal and interest, so losses are impossible. It is distributed on the per capita basis, that is, in proportion to the number of children in each corporation enumerated. (c) Interest on the congressional fund. In 1903 this amounted to $144,981.53. At the time Indiana was organized as a state, congress appropriated the sixteenth section of land in each congressional township for school purposes. By an act of congress passed in 1828, the state was authorized to sell these lands and to create a trust fund to be loaned for the benefit of the schools. Most of these lands were sold when the lands were very cheap. As a result, the congressional fund amounts to only $2,465,983 .65. In a very few instances the lands have been kept, and now the income is almost sufficient to support the schools in those localities. Other states who have school lands should see to it that they are kept and properly managed for the benefit of the schools. (d) A special tax of three-eighths of a cent on the $100 for the benefit of school cor- porations which are now unable to pay the minimum wages to teachers and to maintain schools for the minimum term, six months. This tax will yield about $85,000 annually, and the proceeds will go to about one hundred of the poorest school corporations of the state. This is a new law and embodies a new feature — additional assistance from the state, provided a corporation taxes itself 40 cents on the $100 and is still unable to support its schools properly. 2. Local tuition. — The state funds are inadequate to pay teachers' salaries, so the law provides for raising funds locally, to supplement those provided by the state. There are four different ways in which money is raised locally for tuition purposes, as follows: (a) Local tuition tax. — This tax varies from nothing to 50 cents on the $100 ot taxable property, and from nothing to 25 cents on each poll. It is levied by the township trustee, with the approval of the township council in the townships, and by the school board in each town and each city except Indianapolis. The funds arising from this tax can be used only by the school corporation making the levy. (&) Surplus dog fund. — Indiana levies a dog tax for the purpose of creating a fund to pay for all animals or fowls that may be killed or maimed by dogs. After all such claims have been paid, the balance of the dog fund goes into a common fund in the county to be distributed to the different school corporations of the county in proportion to the num- ber of school children enumerated in each school corporation. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN RURAL SCHOOLS 77 COURSES OF INSTRUCTION AGRICULTURAL BOTANY This subject is taught with special reference to its bearing upon the everyday problems that present themselves to the farmer and gardener. It is profusely illustrated with flowers and plants from the greenhouses and nursery. Some instruction is given in the use of the compound microscope. Students are thus enabled to study intelligently, in an ele- mentary way, the tissues of plants. By this means they get a clear idea of the general principles of plant structure and vegetable physiology. AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY In agricultural chemistry one term is given to the study of the elements and com- pounds which are of most importance in agriculture. This work is planned to prepare the student for intelligent study of the subject of the chemistry of foods, soils, and fer- tilizers, and at the same time to familiarize him with the more important chemical changes which take place in everyday life. Laboratory practice forms a prominent feature of the work in agricultural chemistry. In the chemistry of foods, the composition of plant and animal bodies, the chemistry of the plant and of its food and growth, the chemistry of animal nutrition, digestibility and value of foods, and the laws governing the economic uses of foods, are some of the subjects considered. The composition and the utilization of farm crops for food purposes, and the application of the principles of chemistry to plant and animal life form the basis of this work. AGRICULTURAL PHYSICS The general principles of the science are taught, special stress being laid upon those which to the greatest extent enter into the business of the farmer. About half the time is devoted to experimental work, which includes capillarity of soil; diffusion and osmosis of gases and liquids; heating, lighting, and ventilation; farm machinery in particular, pumps, eveners — especially three- and four-horse, pulleys, milk-testers, centrifugals, incu- bators, wind-mills, steam- and gasoline-engines; friction and lubricants; tensile strength of wire and binding twine of different grades; lightning and lightning protection. The foregoing indicates the character of the work, the attempt being to give the student an acquaintance with the laws of nature that he may act with reason and work to advantage. AGRICULTURE Soils; selecting and planning farms; subduing the fields; drainage; irrigation; fences; roads; buildings; water supply; groves; farm life and the relations of general science in agriculture. ' • ,".. • Farm management: Remodeling farm plans; rotation of crops; manuring; pro- duction and management of farm manures, green manure crops, and the place of com- mercial fertilizers in field management in various parts of the state; farm administration, management of the fields in relation to fertility, to weeds, to yields, to live stock and to profits. Keeping weeds down by helpful crop rotations, careful field work, and good methods of farming generally; study of botany and habits of the various species of harmful weeds; methods of destroying each class of weeds. ALGEBRA Algebra is optional during the third year. This work covers Well's New Higher Algebra through simple equations. Special attention is given to literal notation, negative numbers, the equation and factoring. BLACKSMITHING The students are instructed in the management of the forge and fire, and in bending, shaping, and welding iron and steel. They are required to make links, rings, hooks, bolts, clevises, whiffletree-irons, tongs, cold-chisels, punches; in short, to become familiar with all the operations necessary to enable them to do their own repair work when they return to the farm. Particular attention is given to rapid and accurate welding and to the shaping and tempering of steel tools. The forges used are such as any farmer can make for him- self, and each student is taught to make his own tools, so that he will be able to furnish his shop with very little outlay. BREEDS OF HORSES The aim in teaching this subject is to familiarize the students with the types of horses best representing the breeds adapted to the conditions that obtain in the state. Score cards are used, and standards of excellence made for comparative work. 78 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION BREEDING Students receive instruction in the principles that govern breeding; on the influences that affect heredity and in the care and management of breeding stock. Pedigree receives careful consideration, and each student is required to make out pedigrees of two or more pure bred animals. They are also required to become familiar with methods of keeping live stock records of all kinds. CARPENTRY Instruction is given by means of lectures on the care and use of the common carpenter tools, such as should be found on every farm; also on methods of farm building con- struction, framing, laying out rafters, stairways, estimating building material, painting, etc. In the carpenter shop students are required to make such exercises as will give them some practice in using carpenter tools. They are required to make mortise joints, splices, drawing boards, hammer handles, eveners, cupboards, etc. Each student is required to file his own saws, sharpen his planes, chisels, etc., and to lay out rafters for buildings. CIVICS During the last term of the course students receive instruction in this science, and graduate with a good understanding of the origin, necessity, nature and various forms of government, and the machinery employed to carry on public works, establish justice and provide for the common defense; of the organization and management of local institutions, the town, the village, the city, and the county; the manner in which states are created and the affairs administered; the three departments — legislative, judicial and executive — and the functions of each ; the interdependence of the state and its citizens, as well as the powers and obligations of each, by due attention to which the state may be strengthened and the condition of its citizens ameliorated. The relation of the state to the general government; the constitution and the powers it confers; and the provisions for amendments, are taught. The more important prin- ciples of commercial law, including contracts, agency, partnership, corporations, and commercial paper, receive attention. Instruction is also given in the United States method of surveying public lands. COMPARATIVE PHYSIOLOGY During the first year students take one term ,of applied physiology. This is an effort to connect technical physiology with the necessities of everyday life. The work includes a study of the general plan and structure of the body and the various individual tissues of which it is composed; also sources of heat and energy, digestion, and the relation of food materials to the various tissues of the body. Considerable attention is given to diseased and innutritious foods, food adulterations and narcotics. The circulation is studied with especial reference to the relation of the blood and lymph to tissue nutrition and tissue waste. Accidents, including poisoning, are studied for the purpose of giving a practical knowledge of what to do in emergencies. Considerable attention is given to the subject of clothing, the various materials in use being considered with reference to fitness for special purposes. Some time is also given to the study of common physiology, of the organs of circulation, digestion, respiration, nervous system, and the relations of bacteria to the common diseases, especially such diseases as consumption, typhoid fever, etc. A brief study is also given to the subject of digestion in the lower animals. The class work is illustrated by means of large charts, skeletons, manikins, and dissections. Important points of difference between human and animal physiology are pointed out in preparation for the third year's work in the veterinary class. Matters of home and personal hygiene are interwoven with the physiology work. COOKING The course in cooking extends through five terms of the curriculum as given below, with the subjects covered in each term: (C) Second term — Kitchen management; care of cooking utensils and silverware; measuring and invoicing; cooking vegetables, cereals and breads. (B) First term — Cooking meats, preserving fruits and vegetables. (B) Second term — Eggs, beverages, soups, salads and table service. (A) First term — Marketing and care of foods; dairy dishes, made over dishes, invalid cooking. (A) Second term — Desserts, food rations, dietaries, confections, bills of fare and dining room. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN RURAL SCHOOLS 79 DAIRY CHEMISTRY The chemical and allied changes which take place in the handling of milk and its manufacture into butter and cheese, and the application of these principles to the pro- duction of milk and its products form the basis of this work. DAIRY HUSBANDRY Farm dairy lectures. — A course of lectures is given in farm dairying, giving instruction in the care of milk and utensils, explaining the principles involved in creaming milk by the gravity and centrifugal processes and giving full instruction in regard to running farm separators and the manufacture of butter and cheese in the farm dairy. Dairy practice. — Students receive practical training in the most advanced methods of creaming milk, ripening cream, churning, working and packing butter, the manufacture of sweet curd cheese, and measuring the value of milk by the Babcock test and lactometer. This practice work begins the third week of the first term and continues through the school year. Dairy stock. — During the last half of the first term students receive instruction in regard to characteristics of the various breeds of dairy cattle, their origin and comparative adaptability for the dairy. Lectures are given upon the points desirable in animals intended for the dairy. The students have practice work in judging dairy stock. Feeding. — During the second term lectures are given covering both the scientific and practical phases underlying the principles of feeding. Practice work is given in compounding rations and estimating the comparative value of food stuffs. DOMESTIC CHEMISTRY The combination of human foods to form balanced rations, dietary studies of families, cost and value of foods, losses in the cooking and preparation of foods, cereal food products, animal food products, adulterations of foods and their detection, fuels, soaps, dye stuffs and colors, composition of common household utensils, the household water supply, preparation of home made baking powders, bakers' chemicals, composition, food value and characteristics of tea, coffee, chocolate, cocoa, molasses, honey, vinegar and spices, the grading and testing of wheat flour and the chemistry of bread making, form the essential parts of this work. DOMESTIC HYGIENE Several lectures by a physician will be given upon maidenhood, maternity and infancy. These special lectures will be supplemented by the regular lectures which consider the health of the family as dependent upon pure food, pure water, personal cleanliness and proper habits as well as upon heredity. The aim is to impress the truth that a knowledge of and obedience to the laws of hygiene are essential to the preservation as well as the restoration of health. DRAWING The student is taught the practical value of drawing for the purpose of designing and arranging buildings, machinery, etc. He makes drawings of the shop exercises, then works from his own drawings, thereby learning the application. Designs are made for dwellings, barns, outbuildings, and machinery. As practical subjects for their designs students are requested to bring from home data for plans of build- ings needed on their farms. Estimates are made of the amount of material required and cost of construction. DRESSING AND CURING MEATS The instruction given the boys consists of demonstration lectures on the preparation of meat for farm use. They are required in addition to take two weeks' practice in dress- ing, cutting, and curing such meat as is likely to be used on the farm. Work is also given them in selecting and judging fat stock, and in judging dressed meats. ENGLISH (C) The first year's work in English consists of almost daily practice in the simpler forms of composition. Applicants for admission to the C class should be familiar with the inflections of nouns, pronouns, and verbs, the definitions and classifications of phrases and clauses and the common case constructions. (B) Once a week thruout the school year the members of the B class will prepare short essays, and submit them for criticism. (A) At the option of the English Department a series of literary programs will be presented in chapel by the members of the graduating class. The numbers will include 8o NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION abstracts of leading magazine articles, biographical sketches, book reviews, and selections from fiction; special prominence will be given to authors depicting American life. ENTOMOLOGY AND ZOOLOGY The class in entomology receives instruction of a practical nature. The course is divided as follows: Classification of insects; habits and life histories of injurious forms with special attention to insect pests found in Minnesota. The nature of different insecticides and methods of application are discussed. The student spends some time in becoming acquainted with the appearance and habits of beneficial insects. Each student must collect fifty insects representing at least twenty-five different kinds. FARM ACCOUNTS The work in accounts is applied to the transactions which the student meets in the various duties on the farm. He is taught to keep his accounts, that he may know at any time the profit or loss of any department of his business, and is thus enabled to plan intelligently. FARM ARITHMETIC Instruction in this subject consists of the application of its principles to all kinds of farm problems, where measurements of material, extension, capacity, etc., are required. The student is prepared also to handle with ease the mathematics of the technical courses in the school. FEEDING The principles of feeding as applied to the production of horses, beef, cattle, sheep, and swine, are taught. Special attention is given to the choice and preparation of food for animals during different periods of growth and during the time they are used for breed- ing purposes and to summer feeding and pasturage. Practice is given in compounding rations that will include in the best manner the food stuffs commonly produced on the farm. Practical lessons in feeding are given at the barns under the supervision of an experienced feeder. Each student thus learns the requirements of each class of stock. FIELD AGRICULTURE Selected portions of agriculture and field crops for girls. FIELD CROPS Place in the rotation; preparation of the land; planting; cultivation; harvesting; storing and marketing of grains, field roots, fiber crops, sugar crops, grasses, clovers, and other forage crops; planting, care and use of pastures and meadows. Laws of heredity and variation; possibility of increasing values; improvement and formation of varieties; general facts as to methods of breeding; specific plans of breeding leading field crops. FORESTRY Includes the consideration of the formation and care of wind breaks and shelter belts ; the laying out and planting of home grounds; discussion of the hardiness, habits and value of our native and introduced trees; and the methods of propagating them. FRUIT GROWING Fruit growing is taught with reference to raising fruit for market and in the home garden. GEOMETRY Geometry is offered in the second term of the third year, as an elective in place of civics to those who wish to prepare for a college course. This work covers the first two books of Well's Essentials o} Plane Geometry. GYMNASIUM WORK The gymnasium is a large, well-lighted, two-story brick building. It is well supplied with light and heavy apparatus for general gymnastic and athletic exercises, together with such appliances as are necessary for the development of a symmetrical body. Besides being fitted up with the finest apparatus, it possesses space and equipment for sprinting, pole-vaulting, hurdling, high and broad jumping, shot putting, etc. Class work in physical training is required of all undergraduate young men not INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN RURAL SCHOOLS 8l excused on account of physical disability. Courses are offered on the heavy apparatus, in corrective work, class drills, and athletic training. In addition to the regular class drill, a certain part of which consists of training in athletic sports, the school is represented by a strong basket-ball team, a track athletic team, hand-ball team, and an indoor tennis team. HANDLING GRAINS AND MACHINERY Practical suggestions for the best methods of harvesting, shocking, stacking, and storing of cereal grains. Machinery, adaptation of the various kinds, with reference to the soil, weeds, season, etc.; adjustment with especial reference to durability, convenience in manipulation, etc. HOME ECONOMY The lectures are a study not only of the just proportion between expenditure and income, but of definite proportion in the expenditures made for existence, comfort, culture, and philanthropy. A study is made of the sources of income, especially of the income from the farm in the form of house, food, and luxuries; the purchase of clothing, house- hold stores and furnishings is considered from the standpoint of the suitable. The relation of cash and credit to cost is also considered. Attention is given to savings and form of investment, a bank account and the use of a check book. Students are required to sub- mit an account setting forth in detail the use of a certain named income expended in the support of a family for one year, embracing not only every item of necessary home expense, but also an outlay made for travel, luxuries, accident, sickness, or other emergencies. The habit of keeping a household account is calculated to strengthen the judgment in the wise use of money. HOME MANAGEMENT The subject includes both housekeeping and home-making, and the instruction is based on the belief that housekeeping is a business as important as it is difficult, and that home-making is the noblest form of human endeavor. The care of the house and house- hold belongings, of the food and the clothing, as well as the ordering of family life are considered in their relation to an adequate plan for home management. To start the student in the right way of becoming mistress of the business of housekeeping and home- making is the end sought. The practical benefit to be derived from the knowledge students gain in the cookery, sewing, dairy, laundry, and other classes, is emphasized and shown in its relation to an adequate plan for the daily program for the home. HOUSEHOLD ART Lectures upon house and grounds, noting the distinctive character of the country home; the sanitary conditions involved in the selection of the site of the house; also the influence of the outlook; an elementary study of architecture in connection with planning a house which will provide "a place for everything" required in housekeeping operations and family life ; instruction in the fundamental value of color, form and design in embody- ing beauty; training the taste and emphasizing the laws of hygiene that should influence the selection of materials and styles in the finishings and the furnishings of the house. MEATS The instruction given to the girls in the subject of meats pertains to the selection and value of different classes of meat, and to the best methods of curing and preserving. LAUNDERING In the first term of C year several lectures are given and practice work is provided in washing, ironing, starching, polishing, cleaning, and pressing clothing. LIBRARY The agricultural library now contains six thousand books and about six thousand pamphlets, including reports and bulletins. Aside from the large number of pamphlets and other publications of the different agricultural institutions and societies, a large number of the most important technical and agricultural magazines are kept on file, bringing together all the agricultural literature of any importance. The librarian of the United States Department of Agriculture having inaugurated a system of co-operation with agricultural college and experiment station libraries, sent an assistant -librarian who spent two months reorganizing the agricultural library. Students and teachers can now readily find literature desired, in so far as it i*ollected in the library, and the thanks of the department are due to the secretary of agriculture for the valuable 82 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION aid given. Further co-operation with the Department of Agriculture and the Congres- sional Library is being arranged. LITERARY SOCIETY WORK Any student belonging to a recognized society of the school may receive credit in the course of study for the work done therein by registering at the beginning of the term, and submitting to the teacher in English all essays to be read by such student before the literary society and rehearsing to said instructor all essays, readings, or recitations with a view to correct pronunciation, expression, etc. MILITARY DRILL All male students of B and C classes, not physically unfit, are required to attend military drill. The students form an infantry battalion of four companies. Students are instructed practically in the schools of the soldier and company, extended order and military calisthenics, and theoretically in the schools of the soldier and company. Officers are selected from class A, non-commissioned officers from classes A and B. The battalion is considered a part of the Corps Cadets of the University. MUSIC Instruction is given in this subject, not with the purpose of making trained musicians, but to introduce the students to the elementary principles of this art, and to develop in them a love for this most valuable factor in home and social life. Illustrated lectures, in which music by the masters is used, are given at stated intervals. PENMANSHIP In penmanship the student is taught to write a plain hand with rapidity and ease. Daily drills are given using a free forearm movement. PHYSICAL TRAINING The work done in this department aims at symmetry, co-ordination and control rather than mere physical strength. It is planned to improve the functional activity of the body and to counteract and correct tendencies to incorrect development, especially those resulting from the artificial life of civilization. The work of the beginning class is free hand, based upon Swedish principles, and directed especially to deep breathing, correct carriage and posture. The work of the advanced class includes light apparatus aesthetic movements for suppleness in action and grace. Vigorous games are given to both classes. PLANT PROPAGATION In this subject the principles underlying the development of cultivated varieties of plants and seed testing are taught; also the propagation of plants by seed, cuttings, grafting, and budding. The work of the class-room is illustrated by the orchards, nurseries, forest plantations, gardens, and greenhouses on the grounds of the experiment station and by visits to commercial nurseries and greenhouses near by. POULTRY The instruction in this subject will include the following topics: History and charac- teristics of the leading breeds of poultry; breeding, feeding and management of fowls for eggs and for the market; planning, building, and arrangement of poultry houses; manag- ing incubators and brooders. A model poultry house, containing hens of the most improved breeds, incubator cellar, workroom, etc., has been provided, where experimental work and practical instruction are carried on. SEWING The course in sewing consists of five terms' work. During the first term the student receives instruction in the elements of sewing, including different stitches, seams, hems, darning, etc., also practical talks on the use and care of all the implements belonging to the sewing basket. The second year's work consists of cutting and making plain garments, drafting of underwear, children's clothing, shirt waists and cotton dresses, taught by a very simple method, using only the tape line and square. The third year the more difficult work of dressmaking is taken up; drafting pat- terns, cutting and fitting of dresses. Lectures are given on textiles, wearing and selec- tion of materials. Tne study of harmony of color is given special attention. The course is designed to make each graduate capable of doing all kinds of sewing required in the home. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN RURAL SCHOOLS 83 SOCIAL CULTURE A course of lectures is given on the usages of society, including manners, behavior, the voice, conversation, forms of address, invitations, etc. Suggestions are made in refer- ence to reading, literary taste, and the choice of books. Especial stress is given to the thought that the family life ought to be the highest expression of good society, and that next to the power of thinking correctly is the power of approaching others with ease and speaking with tactful directness. SOILS AND FERTILIZERS The composition of soils, and their properties, the sources of plant food, the kinds and amounts of food required by crops and the best ways of supplying these demands, the various forms in which plant food exists in the soil, farm manures, their uses and action upon the soil, the income and outgo of fertility from the farm, soil exhaustion and soil improvement, the rotation of crops, as based upon the chemistry of soils and the principles governing the conservation of the fertility of the soil form the more important features of this subject. STOCK JUDGING Score cards are used to an extent sufficient to familiarize students with that method of judging, and special efforts are made to do systematic and closely critical work in the selection of animals representative of the breeds and for breeding purposes. Living specimens are used and rings will be made up for the student contests in stock judging. In connection with the work in dressing and curing meats, the judgment passed on live animals for the block is verified by score cards, judgment of the dressed carcasses and by actual block tests. These tests are made by the students and bring out the percentage of meat in each commercial cut of the carcass. The quality of meat is passed upon in this connection by experts, and a careful report made to ascertain the type of animals best calculated for the production of the most meat of the best quality. STUDY OF BREEDS This work covers a discussion of characteristics of the leading pedigreed breeds of beef cattle, sheep and swine adapted to northwestern conditions; the environments to which each breed is especially suited; and practice in the selection of animals that are representative of the various breeds. VEGETABLE GARDENING Vegetable gardening embraces the study of garden tillage, irrigation, and rotation of crops; transplanting; formation and care of hotbeds; study of garden insects; and the growth of various vegetable crops. VETERINARY SCIENCE During the A year the student takes up a course of study in veterinary medicine, the purpose of which is to fit him for intelligent care of his farm stock. In this course the teaching is done by means of lectures, distribution of mimeographed lecture notes after each lecture, reviews and clinical work at the hospital maintained for this purpose. Lectures are illustrated by means of charts, manikin of horse, skeleton of horse, and various other appliances. The lectures consist of a series on each of the following subjects: Elementary anatomy; elementary pathology; cause and prevention of diseases; diagnosis and treatment of common diseases, examination for soundness, and a final short course on common medi- cines, studying their effects, uses and doses. At the hospital clinics students are enabled to examine and care for a variety of cases and to learn the elements of diagnosis for the more common diseases and forms of lameness. APPENDIX C PREPARED BY W. M. HAYS, BY REQUEST OF THE COMMITTEE INDUSTRIAL COURSE IN THE CONSOLIDATED RURAL SCHOOL, THE AGRICULTURAL HIGH SCHOOL AND THE AGRICULTURAL COL- LEGE ARTICULATED INTO A UNIFIED SCHEME The articulation of studies in agriculture and in home economics or, as it is more often called, domestic economy, thru the consolidated rural school, the agricultural high school, and the agricultural college, heretofore has not been attempted. To demonstrate 84 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION that this is practicable, and to frame a basic attempt from which the several school faculties may work in articulating schools of the three classes named, the outlines below are presented. These include also the studies not relating to agriculture or home economics, that some idea of proportions as well as of placement and gradation may be shown. The published course of study for the rural schools of Wisconsin, the course of study for the Minnesota Agricultural High School and the collegiate agricultural course of the Uni- versity of Minnesota were used as the basis of this outline, with additions, omissions, and changes to suit. While the articulation was kept prominently in mind, the plan was pursued of giving in each lower grade those practical things which promise to be especially valuable to the pupil who drops out. It is hoped that this outline will also be an aid to those who are responsible for the courses of study in rural schools of smaller unit and those interested in formulating courses of study in agricultural high schools smaller than the Minnesota Agricultural School, after which the high-school course of this scheme is modeled. That these three schools designed to educate for country life can be articulated, as the city graded schools, the city high school (including the city mechanics arts high school), and general and technical courses of the state university, or other college, designed for city life are articulated, is made evident by this outline. It will be seen that this scheme will also enable pupils to transfer from country school to city school, or vice versa, up to the end of the second high-school year without great loss, thus better unifying all schools, of country and town. It is proving no more difficult to grade the instruction in agriculture and in home economics in primary, secondary, and collegiate courses of study than it was to distribute work in English or history thruout these three classes of schools; tho as yet, owing to the newness of these subjects, the process has not proceeded so far in the former as in the latter. In blocking out this scheme of nature study, agriculture, manual training and home economics for country youth, it is understood that any given school must adapt it, to its own conditions, giving such parts suited to its own grades as its surroundings, equip- ment and teaching force may render practicable, arranging for articulation with other schools where possible. Thus the teacher in the one-room rural school might be able to take up a few of the nature-study courses designated for the first five grades and some of the courses in agriculture and home economics, outlined for the sixth, seventh, and eighth years. The teachers in the two- or three-room rural school could give still more of this work; and those pupils who are able to attend the agricultural high school would thus be better prepared there to take the advanced work provided in science, manual training, agriculture and home economics. The consolidated rural school provided with a teacher qualified in agriculture and a teacher trained to instruct in home economics, and two or more teachers to assist in the general instruction, could care for the entire ten grades. Even here, however, the course as outlined would necessarily need to be modified to suit local needs, equipment, and preparation of the teaching force. Books and other helps on nature study, agriculture and home economics for use in these variously organized rural schools and following the general scheme outlined, could be provided by makers of publications and apparatus, and could be fitted into the respec- tive grades by any school organization using them. The agricultural high-school course cannot be at once completely reorganized in county agricultural high schools or even in large agricultural high schools in state districts of larger size. Each school will be compelled to receive pupils with various stages of prepa- ration in the general school subjects and often with no school instruction in agricultural and home economics subjects, tho usually with more or less careful home training and experience in these practical lines; and it has been found that a large percentage of those who enter with but poor preparation become strong students and continue to gradua- INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN RURAL SCHOOLS 85 tion. On the other hand, local conditions, as the short time the pupils will remain in the agricultural high school and the limitations in the way of equipment and teaching force, will make it quite impossible to secure uniformity in requirements for graduation. In time it may be possible to approximate the uniformity reached in this respect in city high schools, tho such uniformity is by no means a matter of prime importance. The main thing sought should be to give more training to all, however early or late in the course they may drop out of school. The course below is given only as a sort of gu'de and a standard which all such schools may strive to reach. Where a state can organize consoli- dated rural schools fully developed according to the general plan given, it is believed that the agricultural high school may be given its definite portion of school work much as outlined, and that the agricultural collegiate course will develop strongly and naturally beside other collegiate and university courses. Making practical education universal in the lower schools is the real problem, and the chief function of the higher schools is to make possible some technical education in the lower schools where all pupils may receive some benefit. The courses in agriculture, forestry and home economics in agricultural colleges are gradually approaching a uniform standard, with requirements in amount similar to those established for entrance into the undergraduate course in universities. The desire to rank with other institutions is, however, of less importance to the state than that the college shall prepare teachers for lower schools, leaders in the industry of agriculture and in home-making, and investigators and advanced teachers. Since studies in these technical branches are rapidly rising in value as means of education or culture, in addition to their technical value, agricultural college courses promise to hold a position beside the general courses, if indeed, they shall not be ranked as broader because they both educate and pre- pare for definite work. CONSOLIDATED RURAL SCHOOL COURSE FIRST YEAR Reading. Writing. Spelling. Music. Language. Nature study. Number work. General exercises. SECOND YEAR Reading; using in part themes from Music. nature, the farm, and the home. Hygiene. Spelling. History. Language. Drawing. Number work. Nature study. Writing. General exercises. THIRD YEAR Reading; nature stories forming a part. Geography. Spelling. Hygiene. Language. History. Arithmetic. Nature study. Writing. General exercises. Music. FOURTH YEAR Reading; country life literature included. Geography; should include the distribu- Spelling. tion of farm products. Language. Hygiene. Arithmetic. Drawing. Writing. Nature study. Music. General exercises. 86 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION FIFTH YEAR Reading; including stories of our country Geography; including in part physical and lessons in agriculture and home geography in respect to the work done economics. by nature's forces in preparing soils. Spelling. History. Language. Physiology. Arithmetic. Nature study. Writing. General exercises. Music. Literary society work. Drawing. SIXTH YEAR Reading; lessons should include animal History. life and adventure. Drawing. Spelling. Physiology; including principles of nutri- Language. tion and food values. Arithmetic. Co-operative enterprises. Writing. Agriculture; ist half-year, the affairs of Music. agriculture; 26. half-year, the soil. Drawing. General exercises; for boys, wood work; Geography. for girls, sewing. Physiology. Literary society work. SEVENTH YEAR Reading and literature. Music. Spelling. History. Grammar. Co-operative enterprises. Arithmetic. Agriculture; farming schemes and crops. Writing. General exercises. Geography; combined with physical Literary society work, geography. EIGHTH YEAR Reading and literature. Geography. Spelling. History. Grammar. Agriculture; animals-practice work. Arithmetic; including farm problems, land General exercises. surveying and farm statistics. Literary society work. Music. Ninth and Tenth, or First Two High School Years are Placed in the Consolidated Rural School NINTH YEAR (D HIGH SCHOOL YEAR): FIRST HALF-YEAR Agricultural botany (4) Elementary algebra (5) English (4) Drawing — farms and buildings (2) Rhetoricals (i) Boys Girls Rural engineering (3) Sewing (2) Agriculture (i) SECOND HALF-YEAR Agricultural botany (4) Elementary algebra (5) English (4) Farm accounts (4) Rhetoricals (i) Boys Girls Fences and farm conveniences (2) Cooking (2) INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN RURAL SCHOOLS 87 TENTH YEAR (C HIGH SCHOOL YEAR): FIRST HALF-YEAR Plane geometry (5) Physiology — foods and feeds (4) Civics (4) General history (5) Rhetoricals (i) Boys Girls Judging stock and seeds (i) Sewing (2) Carpentry (2$) SECOND HALF-YEAR Plane geometry (5) English (4) Agricultural mathematics (4) General history (5) Rhetoricals (i) Boys Girls Judging stock and seeds (i) Sewing (2) Carpentry (2$) AGRICULTURAL HIGH SCHOOL ELEVENTH YEAR (B YEAR): FIRST HALF-YEAR Fruit growing (3 Higher algebra. Agricultural physics. Drawing Poultry Dairy husbandry (2) Boys Girls Carpentry (2) Social culture (i) Military drill (2) Laundering (2) Gymnasium (i) Physical culture (2) SECOND HALF-YEAR Solid geometry (5) ' Elementary chemistry (5) Agricultural physics (5) Dairy husbandry (2$) Boys Girls Drawing barns (2) Home management (i) Study of breeds (2) Drawing farm houses (i) Military drill (2) Sewing (2) Gymnasium (i) Physical culture (2) TWELFTH YEAR (A YEAR): FIRST HALF-YEAR Chemistry of plants and animals (5) Forestry (3) Entomology and Zoology (5) Dairy chemistry (2) Boys Girls Breeding animals (2) Cooking (2) Veterinary (2 J) Household art (i) Blacksmithing (2$) Sewing (2) Military drill (2) Physical culture (2) Gymnasium (i) SECOND HALF-YEAR Plant propagation (3) Farm management (2) 88 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Boys Girls Breeding crops (i) Meats (i) Field crops (2) English (4) Dressing and curing meats (i) Pedagogy (4) Feeding animals (3) Cooking (3) Soils and fertilizers. (5) Sewing Veterinary (2 1) Home economy. . Blacksmithing (2^) Dietary studies. 1 Military drill (2) Domestic hygiene (i) Gymnasium (i) The outline below is made somewhat elective, the specific statements following show what is included in each of the subjects from among which the student may elect: FRESHMAN YEAR A. Required for Graduates of Agricultural High Schools TIRST SEMESTER SECOND SEMESTER Mathematics (4) Mathematics Drawing (4) Chemistry Botany (4) German, French or Spanish. German, French or Spanish (4) Botany 4) 2) 4) Military drill or Gymnasium (2) Military drill or Gymnasium (2) English literature (2) NOTE. — A modern language elected must be pursued for the full two years. B. Graduates of City High Schools take in lieu of the above freshman course a full year of prescribed technical work in agriculture or home economics in an approved agri- cultural high school, choosing technical subjects as from the agricultural high-school course given above. SOPHOMORE YEAR FIRST SEMESTER SECOND SEMESTER Rhetoric (3) Geology (3) Agricultural chemistry (4) Zoology (3) German, French,or Spanish (3) Agricultural chemistry (4) Agricultural physics (2) German, French, or Spanish (3) Military drill or Gymnasium (2) Agricultural Physics (2) Zoology (3) Rhetoric (i) Military drill or Gymnasium (i) JUNIOR YEAR FIRST SEMESTER SECOND SEMESTER English (3) Agricultural economics (3) Elective, academic (3) Elective, academic (3" Elective, academic (3) Elective, academic (3 Elective technic, major (4) Elective technic, major (4 Elective technic, minor (4) Elective technic, minor (4 SENIOR YEAR FIRST SEMESTER SECOND SEMESTER Elective, academic (3) Elective, academic (3 Elective, academic (3) Elective, academic. Elective, academic (3) Elective, academic 3 Elective technic, major (4) Elective technic, major 4) Elective technic, minor (4) Elective technic, minor. (4) NOTE. — The figures in brackets indicate the number of weekly recitations of the respective studies. Minor agricultural subjects cover not more than two semesters' work in the junior and senior years. The major agricultural work subjects, including a gradu- ating thesis and a year of practical work, is to be carried through the junior and senior years. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN RURAL SCHOOLS 89 APPENDIX D* SYLLABUS OF ELEMENTARY COURSE IN AGRICULTURE** I. PLANT PRODUCTION Structure i. THE PLANT.. . Feed Grow Seeds Physiology — ^ how plants Reproduce by Bulbs Cuttings Grafts , Buds Trace life history from seed to seed, noting pol- lination, crosses, hybrids, etc. 2. THE ENVIRONMENT or THE PLANT Climate Soil f Light , I Heat I Moisture I. A,V J Study these in relation t o plant growth Nature and functions Origin Properties Classification Temperature Aeration Moisture Distinguish b e - tween light and heavy soils, porous and im- pervious soils, soils that bake and those which do not, etc. Main classes, such as sand, clay, loam, peat, silt Man- age- ment Tillage Drainage Irrigation Enrich- ment Farm man- ures Commercial fertilizers Impoverishment Cropping — rotation *From Circular No. 60, issued by United States Department of Agriculture, December, 1504; published by permission of the United States Department of Agriculture. **In this syllabus the same general arrangement of topics has been made as in the higher courses out- lined by this committee, but it is of course to be understood that the treatment of these topics by the teacher in the common school should be brief) simple, and elementary. NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION FARM CROPS. 4. FRUITS Classification Individual crops. (Study one or more of the leading crops of the region.) Include only the most general classes, such as cereals, grasses, legumes, tubers, etc. Name Place in classification Varieties Preparation of soil Selection of seed Testing of Seed Planting Cultivating Weeds Diseases Insects Culture Protection from pests Harvesting Marketing Birds Mammals One or more of the leading fruits of the region should be studied in the same manner as farm crops. ANIMAL PRODUCTION DOMESTIC ANIMALS — THEIR TYPES AND BREEDS Horses Cattle Sheep Swine Poultry Bees Draft Trotting Roadsters, etc. Dairy Beef f Wool \ Mutton 2. CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF ANIMALS , DOMESTIC Feeding Hygiene Bring out leading char- acteristics of one or two leading breeds of each type represented in a given region Only the most general state- ments regarding the food requirements of different animals and for different purposes, and exercises in compounding rations suitable to a given region Water supply Exercise Shade Condition of f Comfort inclosures j Ventilation as to [ Cleanliness Preparation and care of product Marketing product HI. DAIRYING i. THE DAIRY Cow Type { A more detailed study of the dairy type than was given under animal production Feeding, care, and management INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN RURAL SCHOOLS ~ ... / How determined Composition | Relation to price f Stables Handling Cleanliness «*,£, L Vessels Straining Relation to souring or tainting of milk * Aerating Cooling 2. MILK.... For consumption as milk or f cream \ Putting up in cans or bottles. Marketing f Putting in - - . , For condensing] cans and [ hauling For cheese making Uses Creaming \ By setting in pans By use of separator For butter mak- Churning j Temperature Kinds of churns ing Salting Coloring Working Packing k Marketing IV. RURAL ENGINEERING It is not thought that the pupils in a rural common school will be prepared to study the problems involved in rural engineering from the view point of the engineer, but it is hoped that there will be some opportunity to examine the plans and structure of good types of buildings, fences, roads, etc., and to devote some time to drawing simple plans of farms, buildings, and other works. The importance of good roads, hygienic water supply and sewage disposal, and of caring for farm machinery should be emphasized. Size and location of fields Location of buildings, fences, drains, and roads (House Barn Outbuildings Fences i. FARM PLANS. 2. CONSTRUCTION OF BUILDINGS AND WORKS. Water system Sewage system Roads f Only in regions Irrigating system -I where irrigation [ is practiced Interesting facts regarding the devel- opment of farm machinery in a way to encourage the more general use of improved machinery The importance of caring for and repairing farm machinery V. RURAL ECONOMICS Most of the topics under rural economics are too broad to be included in a brief course in agriculture, or too complex for the comprehension of common school pupils. It is thought, however, that some of the general principles of marketing and farm accounts 3. FARM MACHINERY. NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION might be taught in this connection. The main factors in marketing will probably be best considered in connection with the disposal of particular products as indicated above under plant production, animal production, and dairying. The following topics are appropriate for this course: i. MARKETING... 2. FARM ACCOUNTS. Preparation for market Choice of market Transportation Method and cost of sale Feed and milk records Crop records Breeding records Inventories Bookkeeping This is to include only the most gen- eral suggestions and a discussion of the importance of keeping full and accurate records A. C. TRUE, H. H. WING, T. F. HUNT, H. T. FRENCH, J. F. DUGGAR, Committee of the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations. DISCUSSION LORENZO D. HARVEY, superintendent of schools, Menomonie, Wis., chairman. — It was not the thought of the committee, and it will not so appear in the report, that all classes of children should take this distinctively agricultural work in rural schools. Cor- respondence was carried on with the state department of education of every state in the Union, with agricultural colleges, and with leading teachers and others interested in this work; and we thus secured information as to the existing sentiment thruout the country. We found a large amount of interest in the southern states, the north central states, some of the western states, and some interest in the eastern and the remote western states. We found that but little had yet been done, and that there was a lack or preparation on the part of the teaching force, and a lack of organized material available as subject-matter for instruction. A large mass of material still unorganized, but in process of organization, thru individual effort, will rapidly become available. With this information, the com- mittee undertook to formulate a report which should present an argument for industrial education in rural schools. The committee expects that there will be some disappointment that more industrial work is not recommended for the distinctively rural schools. The committee investigated that matter very thoroly, in countries where this work has been undertaken, and reached the conclusion that only a limited amount can be done in one-room rural schools. There is no case where the experiment has been successful over any large area. It has been tried in France and in other countries of Europe; it was tried in Canada formerly, and it has been tried there again under conditions more favorable than anywhere in the United States. We do not want to lead people to believe that the proposed work can be done successfully in elementary schools where teachers are not prepared and are changed every two or three years. In large numbers of these schools we do not find pupils who have reached a stage of maturity ready for scientific work in industrial subjects. The com- mittee has formulated a course for the consolidated schools, for graded schools, and for high schools, and the committee thinks that those who find the one-room schools ready for this work can take suggestions from this report concerning these other three classes of schools. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN RURAL SCHOOLS 93 The possibilities of this work in secondary schools were discussed by the committee more than any other one phase of the subject, and the committee agrees that there should be a new type of secondary schools for industrial training in rural communities. We believe that this can be given without leaving out any of the work now being done in these schools. We find that there is a lack of text-books in agriculture, and that of those now in use, and of those being prepared, some are good and some are poor. CHARLES D. MC!VER, president of State Normal and Industrial College, Greensboro, N. C. — I was struck with the frankness of Chairman Harvey in saying that this work cannot be put into full operation at once. I would not discourage an optimist. An optimist is useful; but we must not in matters like this be too optimistic. I do not agree fully with the report that this teaching is desirable for rural schools chiefly. Why not teach agriculture in urban schools ? This subject is large enough to teach in every school from the kindergarten to the university, including theological seminaries. I would rather a child should get the method by which a plant drinks water than that he should learn what states touch the ocean. Do not imagine that any lessons in books will teach people to love the drudgery of the farm. If a man can see something in the future that is worth obtaining, he will work with good cheer. It takes more capital than anybody supposes to manage a farm on scientific principles. It is not necessary to teach actual agriculture in the schools. We can make the subject interesting as a theoretical study; I would rather study the theory of farming than the theory of cube root. We must learn how to teach. We must not try to teach too many things. It is the time for us who are leaders of our profession to temper the judgment of the world, to guide it and keep it from being foolish. I have thought of many things that might be done in a rural school. A great deal of good might be done by a cultured woman, who could get someone to buy the utensils of domestic service, which many of the children have never seen. An exhibit of the labor-saving devices for the dining-room and the kitchen might do more good than teaching books. There are many people who have never seen even one well-served, neat meal; nor have they seen how a meal should be eaten. As eating is to go on for a long time yet, people should learn how to eat. Serving a meal once a month for instruction, or even once a year, would help pupils to learn how to eat. It would make a teacher ridiculous to try to teach agriculture to children whose parents know more about the subject than the teacher will ever know. I have no fear as to the danger that one subject may crowd out another. I have no fear about agriculture crowding something out. The interest of the people in this subject is so great that it is entitled to crowd some things out of the schools. Only the subjects that the people love will crowd other subjects out. A. C. TRUE, director of the Agricultural Department, Washington. — It seems to me that the committee has taken a very safe and sane view. If their recommendations are carefully studied by the great body of people, they will commend themselves fully, and if they are put into operation, great good will come to the people of this country. We are just entering on a period when the agricultural people are becoming acquainted with the advantages that will come from the application of science to their work, and they are ready to demand that something shall be done which will give their children the benefit of the work being done by the Department of Agriculture and by the experiment stations. It is, therefore, with great pleasure and satisfaction that the friends of agriculture have seen the rapid growth of interest in this subject in all educational associations, and above all in this greatest of educational bodies, the National Educational Association. It is abso- lutely essential that the subject of agriculture shall in one form or another be taught in the public schools. It is well that educators should recognize that fact, and deal with the problem in such a way as to reach the right solution of it. This involves a general improvement of the public schools. The government is spending every year on agricultural colleges and experiment 94 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION stations two million dollars, and on other work of the department at Washington more than six million dollars. Much of this expenditure must go to waste, unless the results of this work can be disseminated among the people. A million people attend the farmers' institutes every year. The printed matter from the department and from the experiment stations is widely disseminated; the correspondence with intelligent farmers is extensive; but the great mass of the farmers are not being reached. We must open the eyes of the boys and the girls of the farm, so they may see what can be done when they come to matu- rity. Teachers should know that the schools are to be a large factor in opening the eyes of the children to the work that the general government and the states are trying to do for the people. The children of the rural schools should have work that will help them in their spheres, just as nature study will help the children of the city schools. The country children, as a rule, are familiar with the operations of the farm, and with the ordinary processes of agriculture and it is not so necessary to teach them how to do these things as to teach them why these things are so done. G. STANLEY HALL, president of Clark University, Worcester, Mass. — The first thirteen years of my life were spent on the farm, and I learned so much that I became conceited. Later in life I took lessons in certain industries in Germany. My pride took a great tumble when I went to Tuskegee and learned that the colored people there could do more than I could do. To my mind, the movement in Canada solves the question. It is not the high schools, but the normal schools where this work is introduced in Canada. If you train teachers, this work can be done in the schools. Possibilities are practically unlimited. In the south of France, for instance, they have dairy schools and schools for almost every industry. There are, as I remember it, 62,000 school gardens in France today. It seems to me an anomalous thing that we have a classical man at the head of almost every school here, whose chief care concerning trades is to avoid conflict with trade unions. We are smitten with the notion that we must study and teach processes and not products. We should reverse this process and study what the children need. They should make toys in the lower grades, and then in the higher grades simple physical apparatus. We must not forget that there is a sentimental side to this subject which can reinforce the industrial side. W. M. HAYS, assistant secretary, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. — Heretofore our entire school system has looked toward city life. Not only the city graded schools, city high schools, and state universities, but the non-public schools, and even the rural schools, have given an educational trend toward the city. The teachers, the textbooks, the ideals, emphasize the city professions, while the important everyday affairs of the farm and the farm home, by sheer neglect, have been discredited even in the rural schools. Congress, in starting a system of agricultural colleges, took the lead in inaugurating a separate system of country life education. The fifty agricultural colleges have become so many infection points. As city life education has gradually become a unit by the articulation of city graded schools, city high schools, and state universities, so country life education is becoming a unit. The agricultural college is the apex of this new system ; the agricultural high school is growing into the central portion; the consolidated rural school and the one-room rural school are to be the great base of this structure. The system in country life education and the system in city life education are to have even better relationships than now. Young people can more readily go from the country life system to the city life, and from the city life system to the country life, pro- vided outside of school they will gain the necessary practical experience in actual life. It is not possible to prevent it being easier for country boys and girls to go into city life than for city boys and girls to go into country life. A great deal of the body of agricultural knowledge and instruction furnished by the INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN RURAL SCHOOLS 95 agricultural colleges, the United States Department of Agriculture, and the fifty state experiment stations, and like agencies abroad, can be taught in the rural schools while the children are yet with their parents. This body of knowledge cannot well be taught in the city high schools. There the instruction is under city environments, and the equipment cannot be satisfactory. In rare cases will the point of view of the city teacher be right. If rural schools can be organized into larger units, with one teacher adapted to teach- ing agriculture and another to teaching home economics, the boys can learn how better to plant and manage farms, and the girls how better to conduct the farm home; and thru the children the parents can be brought into more intimate touch with the industrial educational work of the school, both that they may help in the pupils advancement, and that they may secure for home use many things such schools can bring to them. The proposed consolidated rural school should be truly a farm school. It should be in a farming community, and should have a ten-acre farm, with a cottage for the principal, who should be trained in agricultural teaching. With half this ten acres equipped with groves for shelter belt; with ornamental trees, shrubs, and flowers; with ample play- grounds; with small farm buildings; and with the other five acres devoted to field crop experiments and demonstrations, the agriculture is placed alongside the three R's for the boys. A woman assistant trained to teach home economics, with the small equip- ment necessary for teaching cooking, sewing, home decoration, etc., could in like manner place home economics alongside the three R's for the girls. Much practical education in farming and home making are best managed by the co-operation of the parents and the teachers. The union of home industrial work and school work in rural schools is the point in which the farm youth has his greatest educational advantage. As the city high schools, with some aid from normal schools, prepare the large number of teachers required by the city primary graded schools, so the one agricultural high school in each ten counties, with its several hundred students, supplemented by short courses in normal schools, will be the natural agencies to train the teachers for rural schools. It should be observed that the consolidated rural school taking the place of seven one-room district schools requires that one instead of seven teachers knows how to teach agriculture, and that one instead of seven knows how to teac.h home economics. The cost of a system of country life education, with the consolidated school in every district five miles square, with an agricultural high school in districts of ten counties each, and with an agricultural college in each state, will be somewhat more than the cost of the present system of educating those people who remain in country life. It will cost the state considerable to build the consolidated rural schools, and to provide well-equipped agricultural high schools; also to increase the equipment of the state agricultural colleges. It will also cost more to pay the smaller number of teachers, and to pay for the necessary school vans, than is now required to pay the larger number of poorly paid teachers in the small rural school. The annual expense of running agricultural high schools will also be a considerable added expenditure; and there will be need of increased expense for agricultural colleges. But the direct benefit from increased production, making the cost of producing farm products less to the farmer, and giving them at cheaper prices to the cities, will more than justify the expense all along the line. The increased civilization in country communities, the better preparation for city life for those who are to leave the farm for the city, and the more wholesome and more delightful relations between city and country will be priceless additional advantages. During the last few decades our country has been placing on its feet a splendid system of higher education for city life, developed in sectarian colleges — great universities not belonging to the state — and in great state universities. City high schools in many cities have gained a permanent place, joining the well-nigh universal primary and deservedly most popular graded school with the university, making a well-articulated system of education for city life. g6 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION The agricultural college, representing higher education in agriculture, has gained a permanent place. Agricultural high schools have successfully entered a place between the rural schools and the agricultural colleges. The consolidated rural school, with agriculture and home economics made permanent, is rising above the horizon for all sec- tions where a rich soil provides an income with which to support a strong system of county schools. The one-room district school in sections where consolidated rural schools cannot be afforded is beginning to be improved, and made more nearly to meet the needs of boys and girls who are to manage farms and farm homes. These schools will gain methods and informaton from the superior work being organized in the consolidated rural school, both in general subjects and industrial education relating to the farm and farm home. They can do only a part of the work of the highly organized farm school, and can do it only partly as well. The elements of country life education are being wrought out. Nearly all states are succeeding with agricultural college education, agricultural high-school education is flourishing grandly in certain localities, and primary agricultural education is being worked out item by item. Some states are succeeding with consolidated rural schools; others have succeeded in placing agriculture in their district schools; some are making some suc- cess at training teachers for these two classes of rural schools. In not a few states literature is being written for the teacher of agriculture and home economics in the rural school. Organizing all these forces into a system of country life education, with the consolidated rural school at the base, the agricultural high school in the middle, and the agricultural college at the apex, all financed as splendidly as we have financed the primary graded school of the city, the city high school, and the city-life part of our colleges and univer- sities, is the main thing now to be done. Teachers, legislators, farmers, and all other citizens should consider this matter more seriously. The sources of funds from which to draw money with which to inaugurate and carry forward this education should be most carefully investigated. The best plans to use in erecting buildings and equipping them under each local condition should be carefully and comprehensively wrought out. Provision should be made for greatly enlarging the agricultural classes in our state colleges of agriculture, that more teachers and investigators may be prepared. Agricultural high-school provisions of very large capacity are needed, not only to furnish technical high-school instruction to boys and girls who are to farm and be farmers' helpmeets, but to provide the armies of teachers needed in an adequate system of reorganized rural schools. Never before was there being accumulated such vast masses of wealth in real and personal property. Never before was America's average acre of land so valuable to sell nor to rent or work. The annual production per capita, both in the agricultural industries and in the non-agricultural industries, is larger now than ever in our history. Our annual expenditures, our annual increment of wealth, and our total wealth having increased to such immense proportions makes possible many things not heretofore within reach. What can better serve the interests of the rural population, and of the city population, than for the nation and the states to inaugurate plans for co-operating with county com- munities in placing technical instruction in agriculture in the rural schools on a parity with each of the three R's and other general subjects, in placing education in city industries on a basis equal to education in academic subjects in city life schools, and in placing home economics in its deserved place of practical efficiency alike in schools devoted to city life and in schools devoted to country life ? LEWIS H. JONES, of Ypsilanti, Mich. — The suggestion that this work must begin with the consolidation of rural schools is a matter of greatest importance. Now, if we are going to extend this work, we must show somewhere one rural school actually doing this work. OSCAR J. CRAIG, of Montana, — The subject of agriculture is in the required public- school course of Montana. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN RURAL SCHOOLS 97 JOHN W. COOK, of Illinois. — The demand is so great for normal-school teachers in the village and city schools that the country schools cannot compete in securing trained teachers. I am contemplating the organization of a modern rural school, but it would need to be within a mile or so of the normal-school plant. How can I get the pupils for it, when all the children within that distance come to the city schools ? JAMES M. GREEN, of New Jersey. — The agricultural population of New Jersey is not large, and those who are engaged in agriculture now are seeking to prepare for the occupations of the city. When we try to start an agricultural school, there are no com- munities that have pupils for such a school. In no agricultural neighborhood in New Jersey can there be found ten pupils expecting to follow agriculutre. In such accepted studies as botany, zoology, chemistry, and physics we can lay stress on agricultural topics, but when we come to present the agricultural phase of these subjects as the chief work, the pupils do not take them. AUGUSTUS S. DOWNING, of New York. — This is a burning question with us in the state of New York. The state has made an appropriation for an agricultural college at Cornell. The people of our state are demanding of the educational department that it shall put into primary and secondary schools, as well as the rural schools, a course in agriculture. We want to put into the schools something that will keep the boys and 'the girls from leaving the farm and going to town. You cannot stop this exodus from the farm until economic conditions are so adjusted that the scale tips even. The teacher trained in the normal school gets more money in the town than in the country, and goes to the town, as you and I would. Our state is giving training to rural-school teachers in training schools with the hope that the rural schools may get well-trained teachers. The gentlemen urging industrial training differ as to whether the processes or the product shall be taught. I urge that the process is the important thing. In order to teach the boy on the farm, you must show him that if he learns his business he can have the product of his labor. When he works on the farm for his father, he gets nothing for his work. He hires out to clerk in the store and gets his wages, and spends these wages as he pleases. LORENZO D. HARVEY, chairman of the committee, being called upon to close the discussion, said: At the last meeting of the committee it was decided to present to the Council the question whether there should be a committee to continue investigations on this subject. This committee believes, as the result of its investigation, that the investi- gation should be continued. I want to add in response to the suggestion of Dr. Hall, that the committee does not think there is anything to learn from Canada. The experiment there shows that success is impossible when the teachers are not prepared. Again, the Canadian example does not meet our case, because all the support given there is given by Sir William MacDonald, who has sent men there to superintend the work. That system cannot be incorporated into our schools under present conditions. What Dr. Hall says is true of the normal schools abroad, but the work done there by the secondary schools has been done in response to the demands of the public. As he says, we have not the large number of schools here in proportion to our large population. As the suggestion concerning the man living on the grounds and cultivating the garden, we have little prospect of establishing work in that line. Our school gardens fail because during the long vacations in this country, their care is impossible. 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