_ “Tournal oo’ NATIT Oorne EDUCATION ASSOCIATION STATES OF THE UNITED ie Boe < oa “3 en . - : “a - 3," Td Dn “Mik > > a” at January 1937 The Harrison-Fletcher Bill » The Cooperative Movement « Preserving Academic d & Underwood Underwoo Freedom +» The Case for Subjects in the Curriculum + Your Profession in the Making Two forms of approach are offered—either through Class-built A NEW, COMPLETE READING SERIES with important peatures offered nowhere else THE FRIENDLY HOUR READERS Beginning with the reading readiness stage, these books provide a reading program which avoids the usual difficulties the child encounters in learning to read. units based on experience, or the Reading Chart. This flexibility commends the Series to teachers with widely differing views. The Teachers’ Manuals are rich in suggestions and the Workbooks— ten in number—give increased significance to the reading lessons. The Teaching Equipment also includes Two Sets of Perception Cards with a Card Holder. An important feature of the Reading Chart is that when hung on the wall it can be opened like a book. With this system the child learns to read with ease because four years are given to the mechanics of reading instead of the usual three. AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY New York Cincinnati Chicago 4 For a Complete a Basic Language Course Select the new WEBSTER LANGUAGE SERIES This series of texts is designed as a complete course in oral and written English for the first six ele- mentary grades. It provides both text material and work type material — a logical combination of the helpful features of a workbook with the vital contents of a text book. Important Features Oral exercises closely related to the child’s daily life. 9 Pupil’s interest is assured by the varied character of the exercises. 3 The series is beautifully and under- standably illustrated The Webster Language Series Webster Language, Book I i. See In Preparation Webster Language, Book II for Second Grade Seciee a .- 96 Pages 8x11........25¢ Webster Language, Book III for Third Grade....... . 160 Pages 8xll........ 40c Webster Language, Book IV for Fourth Grade...........160 Pages 8xll........ 40c Webster Language, Book V te ee Oe oe In Preparation Webster Language, Book VI RE, ok nics cvsccetacaceneda In Preparation All prices subject to usual school discount. Write for additional information and descriptive literature WEBSTER PUBLISHING CO. 1808 Washington Ave. St. Louis, Mo. 53a Boston Atlanta Dallas San Francisco QUALITY TEXTBOOKS FOR COMMERCIAL CLASSES For forty years The Gregg Publishing Company has specialized in the production of textbooks for the education and training of efficient business workers. Extensive use in all types of schools is sound evidence of the value of Gregg books and of their effectiveness in the classroom. Their widespread use also indicates that they reflect the latest information and practice of the business world. You will appreciate the authori- tative quality of Gregg books. Here area few of our most recent titles: Typewriting Technique (a textbook for beginners), by NURS SE Wt RN Sig nd eras kh to a Reg te $1.00 Our Business Life (a junior business training course), by Jones. eneile for Every body, by Ely and Starch......... 1 Essentials of Commercial Law, by Whigam, Jones, and year course), by Fearon i, ee Bookkeeping and Accounting Practice, Part I (first half of a two-year course), by Lenert and McNamara.......... The English of Business, by Hagar, Wilson, Hutchinson, and Blanchard....... ; eemetaaaieamt asc. ae Business Mathematics— Principles and Practice, by Rosenberg. Essentials or Intensive Course.............0.cceccccecees 1.20 Complete Course een ite hats aes marcas s14 1.40 An Introduction to Transcription, by Adams and Skimin .60 All these and other modern commercial education textbooks will be on display at the New Orleans convention—Booth No. B34. THE GREGG PUBLISHING CO. New York Chicago Boston Toronto San Francisco London Sydney Betwe T BECON |] pointec that the s goes dow! study and war place there is | debase hu inferior c meet the forces. If powerful schools, t economic agement carried d save civil They mu to go fo down by and Ecor uary 192 social tre The one because | enterpris all the fF A [1] To room ea [2] To ful rear 3 | To take up r 4| To - | | wholes« | | = | The pa: \ attend all for delega | receive T] ? ship, to 1 Acceptanc | section | } the 1 nit D Cc. E postoffice })VOLU Between Editor and Reader T BECOMES increasingly apparent, as we have I pointed out again and again in THE JouRNAL that the school cannot save itself if civilization goes down. If the war spirit destroys freedom of study and teaching, the schools deteriorate. It war places burdens upon the public treasury, there is less for schools. If parasitic industries debase humanity, a weakened family life sends inferior children into the schools, which must meet the competition of powerful diseducative forces. If corporate monopolies become more powerful than the state and dominate the schools, the ideal of democracy is lost. If the economic system itself collapses thru bad man- agement and lack of vision, the schools are carried down with The schools must help save civilization if they are themselves to survive. They must help advance civilization if they are to go forward. In keeping with the goals laid down by the Association’s Committee on Social and Economic Goals | see THe Journat for Jan- uary 1934] special features dealing with major social trends are published from time to time. The one in this issue has special significance because the schools themselves are a cooperative enterprise carried on to promote the welfare of all the people. A FIVE POINT PROGRAM FOR 1937 [1] To do some individual work in the class- toom each day on personality and character. 2| To constantly encourage parents in the care- ful rearing of their children. 3| To encourage the finest young people to take up teaching as a career. [4] To work on the problems of the profession. [5] To help to maintain in the community a wholesome civic and cultural atmosphere. The Journal goes to all members of The payment of $2 active membership dues entitles a member to attend all meetings of the Association and its departments, to vote for delegates to the hinannennaiien Assembly, to hold office, and to receive THE JOURNAL. The payment of $5 instead of $2 entitles an active member, in addition to the privileges of the $2 member ship, to receive the Research Bulletins and the Annual Volume of Addresses and Proceedings. The payment of $100 gives the priv lleges of the $5 active membership for life. Subscription to non- Members is $2 per year; single copies, 25 cents. Advertising rates on application. Please report at once any change of address, giving old as well as new address. THE JOURNAL is a member of the Educational Press Association of America. Published monthly, except June, July, and August, by the National Education Association of the United States, 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W., Washington, D. C. Entered as second-class matter October 23, 1920, at the postoffice at Washington, D. C., under the act of August 24, 1912 Acceptance for mailing at specia] rate of postage provided for in section 110 ' } | | the National Education Association | | 3, act of October 3, 1917, authorized January 26, 1921. VOLUME 26, NUMBER I; JANUARY 1937 NATIONAL Journal EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES JOY ELMER MORGAN, Editor H. A. ALLAN, Business Manager VOLUME 26 NUMBER 1 CONTENTS FOR JANUARY 1937 The Philosophy of the Centennial The Harrison-Fletcher Bill Preserving Academic Freedom The Case for Subjects in the Curriculum HOWARD A. DAWSON EDITORIAL I N EDWARD G. OLSEN Ww CARLETON WASHBURNE 5 McDonogh Gave New Orleans Twenty-Six Schools An Evening with the Magazines Prevention of Disabilities in Reading arruur 1 The Cooperative Movement What the Choices Are Origin of the Cooperative Movement The Principles of Cooperation Farmers’ Marketing Cooperatives . Farmers’ Purchasing and Credit Cooperatives The Credit Union Movement Consumers’ Cooperation in the United States Cooperative Department Stores The Negro and Cooperation Cooperation in Great Britain Cooperation in Sweden Cooperation in Denmark Social and Ethical Results of Cooperatives Education by the Cooperatives Suggestions for Further Study Your Profession in the Making Commencement and Horace Mann Notes and Announcements The Honor Roll of the NEA For the Horace Mann Centennial CAROLINE S$. PFAFF 6 HAZEL DAVIS 8 - GATES, GUY L. BOND 9 BENSON Y. LANDIS II No Nw iS) wy NO _ Nv 1 JOY ELMER MORGAN an LYLE W. ASHBY 29 Published by the NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION of the UNITED STATES 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W., ORVILLE C. PRATT, President J. W. CRABTREE, Directors of Divisions Accounts & Records Mary J. Winfree ee rr re H. A. Allan Classroom Service Agnes Winn Field Service Charl Ormond Williams Membership........ T. D. Martin Research Secretaries of Departments Kathryn G. Heath Eva G. Pinkston Deans of Women Elem. School Principals Publications Associate Director Rural Service Secretary's Ofhice Superintendence Supvrs. & Dirs. of Instr.....Mary F. Hazell Washington, D. (¢ WILLARD E. Secretary-emeritus GIVENS, Executive Secretar) Joy Elmer Morgan William G. Carr Frank W. Hubbard Howard A. Dawson Harriett M. Chase Located at NEA Headquarters .S. D. Shankland [A- a IS TWO-FOLD . This two-fold purpose distinguishes the content and organization of text- books from that of reference books and supplementary readers. Examine Rand McNally textbooks—Note especi- ally their basic textbook qualities. Evaluate them in terms of the two-fold purpose for which textbooks are used. These textbooks are new, not revised—modern in content and method. Let us tell you about the basic textbook qualities of these books. New York No WOBBLY Legs on THIS Library Table . . This is the usual construction of leg to apron with tenons, \ leg joint. assuring absolute rigidity ‘The legs on Gaylord Library Tables never get loose and become wobbly. The reason is the extra care we use to anchor them in our own exclusive way. No other library tables are so sturdy so rigidly built. The legs just can’t get loose and weave. (See the illustration.) This may seem like a small detail to you, but it is one of the ways we can bring out the plus values that are built into all Gaylord Library Furniture and Supplies. GAYLORD BROS., Inc. ESTABLISHED 1896 Stockton, Calif. Syracuse, N. Y. Makers of Up-to-date Library Supplies and Furniture | A-4] THE PURPOSE OF TEXTBOOKS Rand MCNally CHICAGO . . to stimulate pupil-interest . » to guide pupil-learning HAPPY ROAD TO READING SERIES HEALTH AND SAFETY SERIES McCONNELL GEOGRAPHY SERIES DYNAMIC BIOLOGY DYNAMIC CHEMISTRY DYNAMIC PHYSICS (In Preparation) SCIENCE AT WORK (General Science) MAN’S ADVANCING CIVILIZATION (World History) ENJOYING LITERATURE SERIES & Company San Francisco | A New Approach | To a Basal Health Problem andiainas ALCOHOL ALCOHOL E HABIT FORMING AND THE [= HABIT-FORMING DRUGS WwW By GRANT L. DONNELLY, A.B.-M.D. Associate Research Professor, School of Pharmacology, The Medical School, University of North Carolina Illustrations by MARY deB. GRAVES ALCOHOL AND THE HABIT-FORMING DRUGS is a health book. Its purpose is to give to adolescents in their formative years in- formation of a simple, scientific nature about alcohol and various drugs that will help them to guard health in later life. Such in formation has not been impressed with any degree of emphasis upon the minds of children in the past and as a result few adults of the present generation have an intelligent understanding of the effects of the agents discussed in this book. This text is not a crusade against the use of alcoholic beverages and habit-forming drugs. It is without political propaganda. It is an attempt to give in a true, scientific and unbiased manner the effects of the use of alcohol and narcotics on the human body. In the evaluation of this work great pains were taken to write it in simple language. It is written on the vocabulary level of the work required for children of the sixth and seventh grades and by an author outstanding in the field of education and medicine GRANT L. DONNELLY i ; Send for Descriptive Circular List Price, 80¢, 224 Pages, 44 Illustrations, 12 in 3 Colors Established 1867 ALFRED WILLIAMS & COMPANY RALEIGH - PUBLISHERS - NORTH CAROLINA THE JOURNAL OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATIO} hy. fe Boston THE FORGOTTEN Any survey of vital forces in American education Wwithin the twentieth century must consider as of prime importance the junior-high-school movement. Recognition that the in-between years were a par- ticularly critical time in the life-span, that they might well serve far more vital educational ends han just “marking time”, came with the junior- high-school movement. YEARS New junior - high - school series provide definitely and distinctively for the interests and aptitudes of growing boys and girls. Beginning actively in 1909, the junior high school is today an established, growing force in American educational life. To aid it in the important work which it is trying to do, Ginn and Company offer, among many of their books suitable for the junior high school years, four new broad unified courses, with a wealth of opportunity for socialization, individualization, and guidance :— LYMAN-JOHNSON-McGREGOR Daily-Life Language Series (A three-book Series) RUGG Social Science Course for Junior High Schools (A six-book series) POWERS-NEUNER-BRUNER A Survey of Science (A three-book series) BETZ Junior Mathematics for Today (A three-book series) 1867 Makers of good textbooks for seventy years 1937 TINT NUNN TDI GOYN AWN Ds New York Chicago London VOLUME 26, NUMBER 1; JANUARY 1937 Atlanta Dallas Columbus San Francisco TEACH PRINTING IT DEVELOPS COOPERATION Publishing a school paper is a project in which stu- dents have a lively interest. Active participation in this enterprise, which enlists the work of many hands and minds, teaches the value of cooperative effort and helps the student to adjust himself to the needs of any group undertaking. Write for the free booklet “Why Teach Printing” which gives 12 reasons why a school printing course is essential. AMERICAN TYPE FOUNDERS DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 200 Elmora Avenue .. . Elizabeth, New Jersey [ Cont. from p. 30] Association of Teach- ers Colleges, and the National Association of Principals of Schools for Girls. On Saturday afternoon, the National Society for the Study of Education will present its yearbook on “Reading” in a joint session with the American Educa- tional Research Association and the Society for Curriculum Study. The evening session of the National Society will be devoted to “International Understanding thru the Public-School Curriculum.” The opening session of the Department of Superintendence will be the Vesper Service on Sunday afternoon. Loyalty oaths—There will be a move- ment in the various states for the repeal of the teachers’ loyalty oaths. Teachers inter- ested in this subject will wish to keep in touch with their members in the state legislature. A scholarship for the hard of hear- ing—The Nov. 1936 issue of The Lip Reader, published by the Department of Lip Reading of the NEA, announces that “Coralie Noyes Kenfield, a former presi- dent of the Department of Lip Reading of the NEA, ever devoted to the cause of education for the hard of hearing, gave additional evidence of her loyalty when she enriched the field of opportunity for the hard of hearing by her bequest of a scholar- | A-6 | Time—tours spent on various operations are major factors in the cost of PRINTING. Through care- ful planning and advanced pro- duction methods we have reduced the time element to a minimum. ship to the University of California at Berkeley.” Miss Kenfield left $5000 to the University for a scholarship to be named in memory of her friend, Eva Augusta Josephi. The scholarship will amount to approximately $250 a year. Competition is open to any hard of hearing young person in the U. S. Send applications to the Dean of Undergraduates, University of Califor- nia, Berkeley. Schools that are prophecies—The following letter is so admirably typical of the kind the Journat editor would like to receive more frequently that we are pub- lishing it in full: Dear Mr. Morgan: There is a new development in adult education out here which you will want to know about. The Center for Continuation Study, a building which will be used for those successful in their fields and in positions of leader- ship in their communities, was dedicated Nov. 13 and 14, at the University of Minnesota. The services will be given in institute form, no credits but much study, and will vary to meet the needs of the type of membership. Dr. Harold R. Benjamin, who has been assistant dean of the College of Education, has been appointed Director. The Center began functioning November 16, with a four weeks’ institute for managers of coop- erative associations. A number of other institutes are planned, for doctors, architects, students of international relations, pharmacists, clergymen, parents. The whole plan is characterized by flexibility. The standards for membership, entrance, type of study method will vary to meet the needs. The Consult us—any size job interests the “Master Printer” JUDD & DETWEILER IN THE NATION’S CAPITAL building is a residence hall equipped to serve 78 people with lounge, library, chapel, and refectory. The dedication conference which occupied two days and at which there were discussions as to the purpose of the Center and how best it could be met was a thrilling one. Dr. Alvin S. Johnson of the New School for Social Research, and Arthur E. Bestor, president of the Chautauqua Institution were guest speakers. President Coffman and Dean Benjamin outlined the plan, and the conference broke up into groups to discuss how the Center could contribute to the continuing education of the professional, civic, and cultural groups repre- sented. A panel discussion of “what should be the nature and extent of the University’s obligations to adult learners” brought out some fresh thinking on the subject including the bloc of leisure for professional people who cannot well shorten their day’s work but could shorten their year’s work. This particular adult education project isn't going to “jell” until it has worked thru experience. It is fortunate in having President Coffman and Dean Benjamin in charge. I hope you can visit it sometime and see it in action. Sincerely, BERNIcE Dainarp GestiE, man- aging editor, Minnesota Journal of Education. Freedom’s Light—Many schools are presenting this dramatic story of American education” as an assembly feature, or are broadcasting it over local radio stations. “Freedom’s Light” was broadcast nation- ally during American Education Week by the Educational Commission. Copies will be sent free on request while the supply lasts. Address the Educational Policies Commission, 1201 16th St., N. W., Washington, D. C. Policies THE JOURNAL OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ers “I merce art, th had years, educz ciati¢ ton I inter WF! 1937 T Sch SeSSI part lean Mor a Be ties. sub Pu Al A demand for special teachers— | The National Association of Teachers’ Agencies, in a recent report, presents an encouraging picture of the teacher place- | ment field for 1936-37. Of particular inter- est is the fact that during the past year there has been a distinct shortage of teach- ers “in the fields of home economics, com- merce, general shopwork, agriculture, and art, the demand taking up the slack which had accumulated during the depression years. . . . Probably the emphasis on adult education will create new opportunities in the public-school field.” “Interesting Facts About Japan,” a mimeographed statement available from the World Federation of Education Asso- ciations, 1201 16th St., N. W., Washing- ton D. C., for 1o¢ a copy, will be especially interesting to those planning to attend the WFEA conference in Tokyo, August 2-7, 1937. The Department of Elementary School Principals will have two general sessions during the convention of the De- partment of Superintendence at New Or- leans Feb. 20-25, 1937. The topic for the Monday afternoon program, “Building of a Better Citizenry thru Recreational Activi- ties,” has been divided into the following subjects: Reading for Leisure in the New Age—William S. Gray Remedial Reading for a Better Citizenry—Margaret White Sane Views of Sports and Their Uses in Elemen- tary Schools—Thurman B. Rice. The New Orleans and Louisiana Prin cipals will have charge of the Tuesday afternoon program, which is as follows: Group of French folk songs and dances—Pupils 0 McDonogh School No. 16 The Curriculum Study Program in Louisiana Murphy P. Rogers, Baton Rouge, La. Pupil demonstration: A unit of activity on th Choctaw Indians of Louisiana, by pupils of third grade, Audubon School, New Orleans An Experiment in Progressive Education—Dr. Phillips, director of elementary training school, Louisiana Polytechnic Institute, Ruston, La. Pupil demonstration: Humor in Reading—Pupils of departmental grades, McDonogh School No. 7 Moving Pictures of Various Activities in Hahn- ville, La., School—E. J. Landry, principal “Extra-Curricular” Community Services of the School—Agnes Hanley, principal, McDonogh School No. 23 Leadership in crime goes to 21- year-olds—This dubious distinction has for many years belonged to the 19-year-old group. According to J. Edgar Hoover, director of the Federal Bureau of Investi- gation, the arrest records received since June 1935 “reveal a shift in the majority of individuals arrested to the ages of 21, 22, and 23. Whether this is attributable to the 19-year-old group’s continuing its crim nal tendencies and be- | Cont. on page A-8 | VOLUME 20, NUMBER I; JANUARY 1937 FREE...a new picture album OF SOUTH AMERICAN COFFEE PLANTATIONS Miss Margaret Bourke. White, the famous photographer, has gone all over South America, taking pictures for us. In these wonderful photographs which we call “Coffee Through The Camera’s Lens” you will see life on the coffee fazendas as you've never seen it before. Whether yours is a class in Geography, Travel, Social Science, History, Economics or any other—you'll want this set of pic- tures. They are beauties ... every one of them. Order now for a most interesting picture trip to the Coffee Plantations of South America. Excellent for framing, too. AMERICAN CAN COMPANY 230 PARK AVENUE, NEW YORK CITY We Manufacture Cans ... We Do No Canning | 7 rT RRMA nee Trem rT Clip and mail to the Home Economics Department JNE-1 American Can Company, 230 Park Avenue, New York, N. Y. Will you kindly send me —____sets of “COFFEE THROUGH THE CAMERA’S LENS”. NAME OF TEACHER NAME OF SCHOOI CLASS or GRAD! NO. OF PUPILS CITY ia _STATE_ [Cont. from page A-7| coming second offenders, to the effectiveness of the con- certed drive against crime or to an improve- ment of economic factors is a matter of speculation.” “Our American Schools,” twice- weekly radio program broadcast by the National Education Association in behalf of teachers and schools, has completed a series of programs devoted to freedom of learning and teaching. One of the pro- grams describing the restriction of aca- demic freedom imposed upon Galileo, in- ventor of the telescope, was followed with an offer of a biography of Galileo to the listener who prepared the best brief essay on why teachers should have an opportu- nity to explain both sides of a question. The biography was offered by the NEA broadcasters as a select volume for some- one’s rare book collection—the biography was printed in 1832. Judges who rated the manuscripts re- ceived from the audience of “Our Amer- ican Schools” selected the statement on academic freedom written by Miss Mar- garet Klein, 123 Elliot Place, Bronx, New York City. Miss Klein is 18 years old and a graduate of Hunter College Highschool of New York City. At present she is pre- paring for secretarial work at the Mer- chants and Bankers School in New York FOUR FACTORS TOWARD GOOD 1 ne ae +: ages? 3 [ A8 ] i ee ae oo oe. City. Miss Klein’s statement follows: It is unfortunate that in some schools teaching is still achieved by means of the presentation of a fact or thought to the pupil and compeling him to accept it as final or suffer the consequences of failure or ridicule should a dissenting view be held. This type of education and training can do no more than create minds which are content to ad- here to any resolution placed before them, or else uphold fallacies believed true today but which will have fallen by the wayside in the forward march of progress. Of these, the latter is the most disastrous, for it is the narrow and closed mind that is forever im- peding science—erecting obstacles in the paths of truth and social betterment. In the dark ages, men were punished—tortured and put to death—for their freedom of thought; writings were destroyed; science was at a stand- still and so was civilization. When we think how doctors and men of other sciences were jeered at and mocked for their beliefs which are common- place today, when we know that even in the latter part of the nineteenth century Pasteur was called a fool and the works of Lamarck were considered nonsensical, we must pause for a moment and “cut down” on all the mocking we ourselves have con- sciously or otherwise been guilty of. Therefore, the fundamental reason for having teachers present both sides of a topic to the pupils is that they, the future citizens of the world, should form a double perspective by which to judge things in the future. New problems placed before them shall be weighed not solely in terms of old stand- ards but also the new, and thus be given a chance. In this way the evolution of progress will be given a chance to proceed at a more liberal rate leaving in its footsteps a better life and civilization. Nebraska’s unicameral plan— Civics classes will watch with interest Ne. braska’s experience with a one-house legis. lature, which meets for the first time on January 5. Instead of a State Senate of 3; members and a State House of 100, the new governing body will consist of 4, legislators chosen at the polls on a non. partisan basis. Albert M. Shaw of Los Angeles, president of the Department of Classroom Teachers of the NEA, made a two weeks’ held trip thru the state of Washington in November. He spoke to the teachers in about ten different cities and held many informal conferences with organization leaders, superintendents, and principals. “The Place of the Arts in Educa- tion” will be the general theme of the New Orleans meeting of the Department of Art Education of the NEA. On Feb. 25 a meeting will be held at 9:30 am and there will be a luncheon with program from 12:00 to 2:00. A good habit—V. M. Rogers, superin- tendent of schools, Boulder, Colo., recently sent $200 covering 100 percent enrolment of his staff, with the following significant comment: “We are glad to report another 100 percent year for our schools. It has become a habit with us.” THE JOURNAL OF The sunny disposition of this little boy is due in great measure to his abundant health. ee Good teeth aid health. That’s why there is a Reason, a Time and a Place for Chewing Gum. It HELPs supply natural exercise, HELPS increase circulation in the gums and HELPS keep the teeth clean. Give children gum to enjoy 5 to 10 minutes after every meal. University research forms the basis of our adver- tising. The National Association of Chewing Gum Manufacturers, Rosebank, Staten Island, New York. ) 0 THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Evils cation W matter. always t efs are | dents. € times V crowdec have SO physica of any kilful that W heavy, the re: Teache On versi 1921 t Schoo roled tion, | the tion. had ship | behir fessi¢ depr berst A. I A thr type ty pe fave unc 7 Sc W: po: an scl Evils of heavy teacher-load—Edu- cation will never cease to be an individual matter. Hence efficiency in instruction will aways be hindered when classroom teach- es are forced to deal with too many stu- dents. One individual conference is some- times worth more than several days of crowded classroom teaching. Teachers who have so many students that they find it a physical impossibility to follow the work of any of them closely, cannot do the most skilful teaching. Taxpayers should realize that when the teacher-load is made too heavy, poor instruction is very likely to be the result—Alice Vail, in The Arizona Teacher. One hundred percent amidst ad- versity—“Beginning with September 1921 the teachers of Bedford City Public Schools, Ohio, have been 100 percent en- roled in the National Education Associa- tion, the Ohio Education Association, and the Northeastern Ohio Teachers Associa- tion. During some of these years we have had our troubles in raising the member- ship fees as sometimes we were six months behind in our pay but our teachers are pro- fessional and have persevered thruout the depression in retaining a 100 percent mem- bership in these three organizations.’ — A. E. Moody, superintendent. A lecturer recently referred to three types of teachers: The rowboat type who have to be pushed, the sailboat type who go forward when winds are favorable, and the steamboat type who go under their own steam. The National Association of School Secretaries was organized in Washington, D. C., in July 1934. The pur- pose of this Association is to pool the ideas and ideals of school secretaries in a coopera- tive effort to improve their service to the schools and the community. Meetings have been held at the 1935 and 1936 conventions of the NEA. Meetings are planned for New Orleans in February and Detroit in July. The third Eastern convention is to be held in Washington, D. C., March 13 and 14 at the Mayflower Hotel. Persons interested in these meetings or in the bulletin of this association should write to the president, Louise B. Henderson, Cassidy School, Philadelphia. NEA membership recommended to CCC camp advisers—Carl Reit- man, district educational adviser, CCC camps, Fresno, Calif., reports that he has urged all educational counselors in his dis- trict to become members of the National Education Association. Seven new forum demonstration centers announced—The U. S. Office of Education announces | Cont.on p.A-11 | IT COSTS SO LITTLE ™ ...and Costs 4c MUCH Zo be SORRY! The Safest Place for Teachers Is Under |! the T.C.U. Umbrella Perhaps some people can afford to be- ( NS long to the “happy-go-lucky” crowd |\ XY who refuse to worry about “rainy ‘\ days’’. But most teachers are not that fortunate. They have to be sure of an All Checks Sent F =~ by Fastest Air Mail T.C.U. believes that help given quickly is doubly valuable How Welcome Is the T.C.U. Check £ “‘With hospital bills, doctor bills and loss of salary staring me in the face, what should come along but the welcome red, ° : . : white and blue air mail letter? The sub- income when disabled by sickness, acci- stantial check therein relieved the situa- dent or quarantine. tion tremendously. I’m so glad I took out this health and accident policy. The T.C.U. Bad Luck Hits 1 Out of S umbrella is a real umbrella and I, for one, am glad I am privileged to crawl under it.’” Teachers Every Year —Alberta Schwalbe, Los Angeles, Cal. Records show that each year one out of every Without Protection, No Teacher Is Safe 4 “ Again my hat’s off to T.C.U. for its five teachers loses time, due to illness, accident splendid service and promptness! How or quarantine. You can’t afford to take the em yd came to showing my policy to P ° pse this year—thoug was too poor risk. The better way to share, at small yearly and too healthy to be sick. But intuition, cost, your risk with thousands of other teachers _ past experience and T.C.U.’s reminders and then you will automatically share in all | won out. Once you've been covered by the the financial protection and benefits this great Umbrella, you wonder how you survived : : previously so unprotected.”’ organization of teachers for teachers . —Gladys E. Warren, Jefferson City, Tenn. brings to you. Only Good Words for T.C.U. “Ch k t b i il = Be Safe—Get Under ty. § con sean hams enliied ttn toe the T.C.U. Umbrella way in which I was treated by you. I have only the best to say about It’s such a comfortable place to be, even when your organization and your treat- you are well, because you have no worries. But when trouble comes, it’s like being in a FOUNDED ment of my case.’’ yaw cellar while the tornado rages outside. 1899 ee T.C.U. Protection is then priceless. Read the FREE INFORMATION COUPON ett To the T.C.U., 661 T.C.U. Building, —Mabel L.Wineford, Niagara Falls, N.Y. letters at the right, written by teachers who Lincoln, Nebr. Send the Coupon Today I am interested in knowing about your Protective Benefits. Send me the whole If you will act now and send the coupon, we will tell story and booklet of testimonials. you how you can get under the T.C.U. Umbrella. Then you will have a true friend in time of need. Send the coupon today. No agent will call. Name. J Teachers Casualty Underwriters aids 661 T.C.U. Building, Lincoln, Nebr. (This coupon places the sender under no ob tention) NO AGENT WILL CALL HORACE MANN MEMORIALIZED By LORADO TAFT What could be more fitting for your participation in the Horace Mann Centennial Celebration than the unveiling of the New Horace Mann Relief designed by the eminent Sculptor, Lorado Taft, just before his death and completed by his associate, Mary Webster, for this significant educational event? A fine portrait of the Father of Public School Education with a background of histor- ical significance designed as only Mr. Taft could design it—a valuable and permanent work of art for your school. A Brochure containing a beautiful illustration of this relief together with other Horace Mann Memorials and historical outline will be sent without obligation upon request to: CAPRONI GALLERIES, INC. 1914 Washington Street Boston, Mass. VOLUME 26, NUMBER 1; JANUARY 1937 [ A-g | SUMMER SESSION Colorado College Dr. THURSTON J. DAVIES, President June 21 to July 30, 1937 LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGE of the West offers graduate and undergraduate courses in Outdoor Sciences, Mathematics, History and the Social Sciences, including Education and Psychology, Language, Litera- ture and the Fine Arts, with emphasis on Drama, Music and the Plastic Arts in conjunction with the Colorado Springs Fine Arts Center. Course Subjects—Art Appreciation, Biology, Botany, Chem- istry, Design, Drama, Education, English Literature, The Teach- ing of English, Economics, Econometrics, French, German, Geology, History, Mathematics, Painting, Physics, Psychology, Religion, Sociology, Social Relations of the Child, Music, Dance. Economics Seminars—Summer Art Course Those who attend Colorado College Summer Sessions will have to attend Seminars of the Cowles Commission for Research in during four weeks from June 28th to July 23d. Colorado Springs Fine opportunity Economics The Summer Sessions of the Arts Center will be from June 28th to August 25th. Six Weeks of Cool Comfort in a Famed Scenic Setting Spend your summer vacation where living is enjoyable and learning a pleasure—in the wonderful Pikes Peak region. Rooms and meals in the College Halls and Dormitories for the six weeks, $60. Tuition, $40 for normal academic load of six semester hours; $25 for four semester hours; $15 for two semestér hours. For information address Dr. Ralph J. Gilmore Administration Building, Colorado College, Colo. , Director, Colorado 205 Springs, SAFETY IN PUPIL TRANSPORTATION Research Bulletin Origina cH —, oe 7 pact yolumes satisfac price a each m the set $18 Ov Busine Name- Addres Date-.- Vol. XIV No. 5 November 1936 This bulletin calls attention to ways in which pupils may be injured when riding on school buses and suggests ways of preventing such accidents. It cites state laws, official rulings, and actual safety practises which have proved helpful in eliminating school bus accidents. Both state and local school authorities will find it helpful in evaluating and improving their own activities on behalf of pupil safety. ¢ Price 25c each |< The following discounts are allow ed On two or more A copies of the same issue: 2 to 9 copies, 10 percent; YY 10 to 99 copies, 25 percent; 100 or more, 33% percent. g } Orders for $1.00 or less must be accompanied by . funds NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 1201-16th St. N. W., Washington, D. C. tion? The Life Membership emblem is a lasting symbol of professional spirit. Life Members receive The Journal, Research Bulletins, and annual Volume. The deferred payment plan puts this ideal membership within the reach of Use the blank below today. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES every true teacher. Mr. WILLARD E. GIVENS, Executive Secretary 1201 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C DEAR Mr. GIVENS: Please enrol me as a Life Member of the National Education Association on the deferred payment plan—ten annual pay- | will send my first payment of $10 on (date) and pin and my copies of the NEA publications to me at the address indicated below. ments of $10 each. AGGrOSS «50 cccusss City and State [| A-ro | Have you made your NEW YEAR’ S| RESOLUTIONS ? Did they include Life Membership in the National Education Associa- SLIDE Cos. Ravi0-Mar Kindly send my Life Membership certificate, card Lee eee eee ere rere rT eT ee ee Pe oe a ee Se ot he oe ee oe ee ee ee ee | oe ee ee ne ee fae Se Pe ee fe ee ee ae ee eee ee os ee ee a ee oe ee a ee 2 ee en ee er ee 2 ie © ae ee ee THE JOURNAL OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION we Would Like to Send You ® Free of Charge Rudyard Kipling Outwar¢ COMPACT EDITION Bound FOR CAREFUL EXAMINATION Originally 20 Vols. ® pmo 6 Vols. 500 Pages ® Fine Binding CHARLES SCRIBNE 7 S SONS, 597 Fifth Avenue, New York Send me on approval, all charges prepaid, the COM- PACT EDITION OF RUDYARD KIPLING, in 6 yolumes, bound in the famous Scribner Artcraft. If satisfactory, I will take advantage of your reduced price and send you $1.00 within 5 days and $2.00 each month for 9 months; otherwise I will return the set, at your expense, within 5 days. Cash price, $18.00 AB & L Balopticon will prove the most economical as well as the most efficient, means of teaching visually. There is a B & L Lantern Slide or Opaque Balopticon for every still projec- tion purpose. Write for a cata- log. Bausch & Lomb Optical Co., 684 St. Paul Street, Roch- ester, N. Y. OCCUP. ATION. AL INDEX Complete bibliography of current literature on occupational opportunities, requirements, and training. Published monthly. Five dol- lars a year. NATIONAL OCCUPATIONAL CONFERENCE 551 Fifth Avenue New York BOOK MANUSCRIPTS WANTED on all subjects. Write for free booklet. MEADOR PUBLISHING COMPANY 324 Newbury St. Dept. Y Boston, Massachusetts Make Your Own Slides on Your Typewriter—use— RADIO MATS Write for free samples Talk from your screen with quickly TYPEWRITTEN MESSAGES 50 Radio-Mats $1.50 White, Amber, Green Accept no substitute RADIO-MAT SLIDE CO., INC. 1819 Broadway Dept. E New York, N. Y. @ Ravi0-Mar 1S THE STATIONERY OF THE SCREEN UNIVERSA L PORTABLE RECORDING MACHINE A precision machined, compact outfit that positively eliminates all waver—Records at 33-1/3 or 78 R.P.M.—90, 110 or 130 lines per inch—110 volt A.C 100% synchronous motor- solid 16 in. turntable—Constant speed rim drive Complete switching arrangement for head set moni toring from playback or cutting head—Reinforced black leatherette carrying cases—-Unequalled value Superlative performance | | | | in either direction UNIVERSAL MICROPHONE CO., Ltd. 424 Warren Lane, Inglewood, Calif., u. S.A VOLUME 26, NUMBER 1} [Cont. from page A-g] that adult civic education thru public forum meetings will reach nearly 2,000,000 additional Amer- icans in the near future in seven new public forum centers. Set up under local control, the new demonstration centers will be es- tablished at Stamford and nearby towns in Connecticut; Dayton and vicinity in Ohio; Seattle, Wash.; Atlanta and vicinity in Ga.; two counties with headquarters in Waco, Tex.; seven counties centering -in Golds- boro, N. C.; and Delaware Co. in Pa. Civic teachers—Are your classes studying the national incorporation bill proposed by Senator O’Mahoney of Wy- oming? Raymond Clapper in the Wash- ington Daily News for Nov. 16, 1936, points out: “The idea is simple, that cor- porations doing interstate business should be incorporated federally. In other words, if a concern expects to do business in a number of states, Congress ought to lay down the terms under which that corpora- tion shall act. . . . What do we have now? Corporations pick out an easy state and incorporate there. Many of them pick on Delaware. In one office building in Wilm- ington the names of some 10,000 corpora- tions will be found on the wall directory in the lobby. ... They have no ‘home offices’ there except in the technical legal sense. It is a racket.” William Howard Taft recommended such a bill 25 years ago, so—as Clapper points out—the constitu- tional doubts about it cannot be very serious. Interpreting the school to the stu- dent—The relation of the school to good living and to social welfare is so obvious to teachers that they have generally neglected to study the school in the school. Every child every year should be taught some- thing about the schools—their history, pur- poses, achievements, and needs—locally, in the state, the nation and the world. How many teachers on their return from a teach- ers convention take the trouble to tell the children about it? How many talk about the work of the board of education and pay tribute to worthy service? How many will celebrate Horace Mann’s birthday next May 4 in their classes or schools? Institutional memberships—Action was taken at the Portland convention of the National Education Association to the effect “that no institutional memberships be recognized other than college library, university library, and public library mem- berships.” For these institutions the regular membership fee is $5 and includes sub- scription to THE JourNAL, Research Bulle- tins, and the annual Volume of Addresses and Proceedings. A \imited membership which includes only a subscription to THE JouRNAL may be had for $2.| Cont.on A-12 | JANUARY 1937 ROYA WINS AGAIN! for the 2nd consecutive year the WORLD'S TYPING CHAM.- PIONSHIP won with the New Easy Writing Royal is The World’s Typing Championship has been won for the second succes- sive year on a Royal Typewriter. Albert Tangora, operating a stand- ard model Royal, wrote at the un- surpassed rate of 135 net words per minute, for one hour, to win the 1936 World’s Typing Champion- ship at the International Commer- cial Schools Contest in Chicago. Victory in’ such a contest is proof positive, a clear-cut demonstration | of the outstanding superiority of | the New Easy-Writing Royal. The test of a typewriter is the type- | writer itself and the work it does. Royal invites you to judge the New Royal solely on this basis. Invite a demonstration. In your office with your own operators . . . Com- pare the Work. ROYAL Typewriter Co., Inc. 2 Park Ave., N. Y. C. Branches and Agencies the World over. | A-rr | M. E. Branom || L.J. Brueckner MINNEAPOLIS 720 Washington Ave., S. E. CALES A. M. Jordan Prudence Cutright OF Developed by Published by EDUCATIONAL TEST BUREAU EDUCATIONAL PUBLISHERS, Inc. NASHVILLE 2106 Pierce Ave. ATTAINMENT Mary G. Kelty W. A. Anderson August Dvorak _ | M. J. Van Wagenan_ | PHILADELPHIA i 3416 Walnut St. i BATIONAL COLLEGE S5Iist Year of EDUCATION Combine your summer course with unmatched vaca- tion opportunities. Make new and stimulating con- tacts in a world center of education. Preliminary and Advanced classes for Teachers in Kindergarten and Elementary grades— special clinical work in remedial reading. Also cultural sub- jects including History, Literature and Art. Socialized activ- ities Demonstration school, College Dormitory, June 18-Au- gust 6. 2-week special courses. 2nd Semester begins Feb. 1. Edna Dean Baker, President, Box 716-A, Evanston, III. ALBERT Teachers’ Agency 25 E. Jackson Bivd. Chicago, Ill. [ Cont. from page A-11]| 100 percent membership in DESP —Dr. Herman Browe, state enrolment chairman for Michigan, for the Depart- ment of Elementary School Principals, and his assistants have enroled the elementary principals of Detroit 100 percent in the National Department. Principals of Hunt- ington, W. Va.; Omaha, Nebr.; Kansas City, Kans.; Watervliet, N. Y.; Normandy, Mo., are also 100 percent in their mem- bership. ‘Publications A report on Minimum-Salary Laws for Teachers is being issued by the Committee on Tenure, Donald R. DuShane, chairman, with the cooperation of the Research Divi- sion. Minimum-salary laws are now in effect in 20 states. The report gives a de- tailed analysis of the 20 laws, cites court decisions affirming their constitutionality and providing for their enforcement, dis- cusses the relation of state school support to minimum salary laws, and quotes opin- ion and evidence on the effectiveness of these laws in operation. Members of legis- lative committees in teachers associations, and other groups concerned with the eco- nomic status of teachers, will find the re- port a useful source of information. Avail- able early in January; price, 25¢ per single copy. [| A-12 | | Cont. from page 34] Street, Hurricane, Long Branch, Providence Uran—Morgan County, Morgan County Public Schools, Devils Slide, Milton, Morgan High, North Morgan, Peterson, Porterville, South Mor- gan; Weber County, Weber County High Vircinta—Norfolk, Chesterfield Heights WaAsHINGTON—Seattle, Crown Hill, Leschi, North Queen Anne, University Heights; Spokane, Holmes; Walla Walla, Baker, Sharpstein West VirGinia—Parkersburg, McKinley Wisconsin—Jefferson, High; Kenosha, Elementary, Roosevelt; Madison, Randall; Milwaukee, William T. boygan, Horace Mann Wyominc—Kock Springs, Yellowstone McKinley 3rayton, Lowell, Sherman; She- CURRENT YEAR ALABAMA—Montgomery, Cottage Hill Ar1zonA—Wellton, Wellton Grammar ARKANSAS—Jonesboro, South CaLiFrornia—Chico, Chapman; Chula Vista, Otay; Elementary Colton, Garfield; Laguna Beach, Laguna Beach Public Schools, Laguna Beach Elementary, La- guna Beach High; Los Angeles, Menlo Avenue, Rockdale; Martinez, Martinez Elementary; Mon- terey, Oak Grove Elementary, Seaside Elemen- tary; Nestor, Southwest Junior High; Oakland, Dewey, Fruitvale, Bret Harte Junior High, Horace Mann, Peralta, Rockridge; Piru, Piru Public Schools; Placerville, Placerville Grammar; Pomona, San Antonio; Vallejo, Roosevelt Ele- mentary CoLtorapo—Canon City, McKinley; Denver, Colum- bine, Gilpin; Englewood, Washington; Greeley, Franklin; Oxford, Oxford Public DrELAWARE—Ellendale, Ellendale; Georgetown, Rox- ana; Wilmington, S. G. Elbert District oF CoLtuMsBia—Washington, Bunker Hill, Dent, Fairbrother, Crosby Noyes FLoripA—Florida City, Florida City Elementary; Homestead, Homestead Junior-Senior High, Neva King Elementary; Miami, Shenandoah Elemen- tary, Shenandoah Junior High GEORGIA—A mericus, Furlow; Decatur County, De- catur County Public Schools, Attapulgus Consoli dated, -Bell-Dixon Consolidated, Bethany Con solidated, Brinson Consolidated, Climax Con- solidated, Faceville Vocational, Fowlstown Con- solidated, Mt. Pleasant Vocational, Pine Hill Consolidated, Recovery Consolidated, Twin Lakes, West Bainbridge Consolidated Ipano—Pocatello, Bonneville; Moscow, Russell Ele- mentary ILL1no1is—Aurora, Center, Oak Park; Blooming- ton, Sarah E. Raymond; Chicago, Brenan, Ker- shaw; Enfield, Enfield Community High; Golden, Community High; Grand Chain, Grand Chain; Harrisburg, McKinley; Momence, Momence Pub- lic Schools; Peoria, Irving, Tyng; Peru, Peru Established 1885. The Agency for Supervisors, Critics, Grades, Special Teachers of Home Economics, Com- merce, Physical Education (women with degrees), Music, Art, etc. N. A. T. A. Ave., N. Y., Hyde Bldg., Spokane, Wash. Best schools our clients. Member *‘Correspondent”’ Agencies: 535-5th Public Schools; Roodhouse, Grade (Dist. No. 72); Sherrard, Community High INDIANA — Hammond, Lafayette; Indianapolis, Public Number 48, Public Number 52, Public Number 86; Muncie, Blaine; Tell City, Franklin; Vincennes, Lincoln High, Francis Vigo Towa—Ames, Ames Public Schools, Beardshear, Central Junior High, Louise Crawford, Lincoln, Roosevelt, Senior High, Welch Elementary, Welch Junior High, Whittier; Des Moines, Lucas; Sioux City, Webster, West Junior High; Waterloo, Waterloo Public Schools Kansas—Dodge City, Dodge City Public Schools, Central, Coronado, Junior College, Junior High, Roosevelt, Senior High, Sunnyside Grade; Kingsdown, Kingsdown Consolidated; Lehigh, Lehigh Public; Spearville, Spearville Public Schools LovistanA—Acadia Parish, Acadia Parish Public Schools, Bozyone, Branch, Church Point High, Crowley High, Ebenezer, Egan Junior High, Estherwood High, Habetz, Higgenbotham, lota High, Link, Lyons Point, Mermentau, Mier, Oil Field, Pitreville, Rayne High, Richard, South Crowley; New Orleans, McDonogh Number 23; St. Charles Parish, St. Charles Parish Public Schools Matne—Camden, Camden Grade; Hartland, Hart- land Academy; Westbrook, Warren MaryYLanp—Brunswick, East Brunswick, High; Knoxville, Knoxville Public; Middletown, Mid- dletown Public Schools; New Market, New Market; Pasadena, Pasadena Consolidated; Rock- ville, Richard Montgomery High MassacHUSETTS—Melrose, D. W. bridge, River Street MicHiGAn—Adrian, Washington; Bay City, Corbin; Detroit, Alger, Angell, Arthur, John J. Bagley, Balch, Beard, Bellevue, Bennett, Boynton, Breit- meyer, Building Trades, Burbank, Burgess, Burt, Burton, Cadillac, Capron, Cartens, Cary, Cerveny, Chandler, Chaney, Clark, Cleveland Intermedi- ate, Columbian, Detroit High School of Com- merce, Douglas Houghton, East Commerce High, Edgewood, Edison, School for Epileptics, Ferry, Finney Elementary, Gardner, Garfield Interme- diate, Goodale, Greenfield Union, Greusel Inter- mediate, Hampton, W. G. Harding, Harms, Hig- ginbotham, Higgins, Holcomb, Thomas Houghton, Howe, Hubbard, Hutchins Intermediate, Irv- ing, Jacoby, Jefferson Intermediate, King, Lie- bold-Leonard, Lillibridge, Lingemann, Lyster, MacCulloch, Marcy, Marion Law, Marxhausen, Minden, McKerron, Neinas Intermediate, New- berry, Newton, Norvell, Palmer, Parke, Pasteur, Pattengill, Philip, Pingree, Post Intermediate, Preston, Psychological Clinic, Ravenswood, M. M. Rose, Ruddiman, St. Clair, Sampson Scripps, Sherrill, Smith, Southeastern High, Southwest- ern High, Thirkell, Tilden, Turner, VanDyke, Von Steuben, Williams, Wilbur Wright High, Gooch; South- THE JOURNAL OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION stimul: tours. South Greece Babsor --— — x 3 TRAVEL VENTURES OF DISTINCTION | Yost; Inkster, Inkster Public Schools; Saginaw, Emerson, Jones; Watervliet, Watervliet Public Basuto girl MINNESOTA—Minneapolis, Tuttle, Windom ” . , ; . : MisstssipPi—Biloxi, Dukate; Indianola, Marie Northern Stimulating experiences in foreign lands, not just Consolidated tours. Finest leaders, reasonable rates. Europe, Missouri—S pri td. Wotthenk Transvaal South America, Orient, Alaska, Egypt, Palestine, ae ae Springfield, Fairbanks | Greece and Russia. New HampsHirE—Candia, Moore; Nashua, Shat- Bend for thirty-two pege booklet A _ tuck Street; Newmarket, Stone WILLIAM M. BARBER —_— ogg) p Englewood, Liberty; Irvington, Bebeon Park tla tian 3arkeley Terrace; _Montclair, Edgemont; Plain- field, Irving, Jefferson, Lincoln; Plainsboro, Plainsboro; Camden County, Watsontown Clem enton Boro New Yorx—Brooklyn, Brooklyn Industrial High for Girls; Cutchogue, Cutchogue Grammar; Eg- gertsville; Eggertsville; Hempstead, Franklin, Ludlum; Huntington, Lower Melville; Lancas- ter, Colfax Heights; Lansingburg, Lansingburg Public Schools, Lansingburg High; Montauk, Montauk Public Number 6; Ogdensburg, Pub- lic Number 4; Point Pleasant, Durand-Eastman; Wantagh, Wantagh NortH CaroLtina—Cove City, Cove City Ounto—Akron, Fraunfelter, Howe; Allen Economy Rates, plus a downtown County, | ° ; Beaverdam Village, Perry Rural; Campbellstown, | || location, make the Annapolis | Jackson Township; Canton, J. J. Burns, Dueber, | > \) Lyour logical hotel in the Capital. | Fairmount, Horace Mann; Carroll County, Au o)| it There you'll find that personal at- j a Ec. ‘3 Harrisburg; Cincinnati, Sew- i\ yr 5h. CRE a a ing ocational High; Clermont County, Miami \ LEXY tention for which it 1S famous the Township, Mt.Carmel Public, Williamsburg Town world over. Write for free pictorial ship; Cleveland, Woodland; Columbus, Lane Ave- nue, Livingston Avenue, Mount Vernon Avenue, West Mound Street; Crawford County, Bucyrus Rural, North Robinson, Tire Consolidated, Whet- stone Rural, Jefferson Rural; Cuyahoga County, Forest View, Gilles-Sweet, Independence; Dayton, Gorman School for Crippled Children; East Cleve- land, W. H. Kirk Junior High; Hardin County, Blanchard-Pleasant Rural Elementary, McGuffey McDonald, Roundhead Rural; Lake County, Madi- son Memorial High, Mentor High (Mentor Rural map and special group rates. \ FREE PARKING “— ~ 400 Rooms with Bath from District), Mentor Special (Mentor Rural Dis S U M M E R 1 9 3 7 trict), Mentor Village, North Mentor (Mentor Rural District), Mentor, Salida, (Mentor Rural District), South Madison (Madison Rural Dis- ART TOURS—CLASSICAL TOURS | trict), Unionville (Madison Rural District); Lick- EUROPEAN AND ORIENT TOURS ing County, Jersey Elementary; Medina, Granger | Township; Rising Sun, Rising Sun Public Schools; Rittman, Rittman Junior High; Salem, Columbia. McKinley; South Euclid, Green Road; Sprinafield Township, Milheim; Troy, Edwards, Troy High; Van Wert, High, Lincoln, Anthony Wayne; Wapa koneta, Second Ward; Williamson Grade; Warren, Garfield; Wood County, Montgomery Township Public; Wyoming, Hillcrest; Youngstown, Hard- ing. Ox.taHoma—Bartlesville, Washington, Lincoln , Orecon—Ashland, North Pinehurst; Echo, Pine City; Pendleton, Pendleton Public Schools, Haw- thorne, Lincoln, Pendleton High, Washington PENNSYLVANIA—Alleghany County, Dickson; Brad- ford County, Asylum ‘Township, McDuffee Street, Barclay Township, Grover, Columbia Cross Roads, North Woods, Litchfield Consoli- dated, Overton Township, Sheshequin Township, Invaluable to Teachers Certificates given for College and School Board Credit A Mountain Pass in the Zwarte Bergen Pass Bureau of University Travel 21 Boyd St. Newton, Mass. >= a Sylvania Boro, Windham Township; Bradford, HE famous “Garden Route” of serena. @hulancaiin. Sent South Beationt; Reweedee, Stowrcilent Zo | includes Mosse : ; : iC ana, ani ~4ges M awe “ sage oe , . . or PUT ATEONAA cas ge ee one Horace Mann, Thaddeus Stevens; Johnstown, Bay, a quaint Indian Ocean resort > —s > Cypress; Sagamore, Sagamore Public | South Africa | Sour CanoLiNa—Newberry, Newberry Public —glorious Montagu Pass—the cANNOUNCES re, , PY, Mollohon, Speer Street, Wilderness” (an unusual name for est Ene | ° that it has acquired all rights to the Letter- South Daxota—Belle Fourche, Belle Fourche | a region of transcendent beauty), Series, “THROUGH AMERICA’S INDUSTRIES, Bultic Debees, Pate: Bourche Mawentaty, Bete picturesque Knysna, and George / / Fourche High - : ‘ : and all subsequent series of letters originally Texas—Houston, Berry; Shallowater, County called the “prettiest village on the sponsored by Rothra Educational Enterprises. — — Witharral Public Schools, face of the earth.” | Write at once for complete informa- Uran Lal’erkin, LaVerkin; South Sanpete Dis- By rail or motor, the “Garden tion concerning our New EDUCATIONAL neues — Sanpete. orig iblic ——_ Ri , a f he id’ . ia Axtell, Centerfield, Ephraim Elementary, Eph- oute is one Oo e wor S rares PROGRAM! raim High, Ephraim Junior High, Fayette, - a y lik ill Gunnison Elementary Manti High, Manti scenic treats——gem-like villages re oo INC. a a Png Mosc age vont G os cg oY that make one long to live there, u a oO, ew or ever oun yy, urcn reek, vaen, Farr est, Harrisville, Hooper, Huntsville, Kanesville, Lib- | towering mountains, primeval for- erty, Marriott, Plain City, Pleasant View, River- A trip to Switzerland next July!... The INNS and Beach, resorts of Muizenberg, Mossel Bay, dale, Taylor, Uintah, Warren, West Weber, ests. Wilson ° " 2 VermMont—Center Rutland, Center Rutland; Lud- This charming Cape Province re- low, Black River Academy; Rutland, Park gion includes the delightful coast Street; West Charleston, Charleston High | WasHuincton—Bellingham, Lincoln, Silver } } out's—charming little villages—native eating places AND The Black Forest, Holland, The Rhine, France and England. Metropolitan Travel Service, Inc. 260 Tremont St., Boston, Mass. ALL EXPENSE ORIENT TOURS SUMMER 1937 | Japan, China, Korea, Manchukuo Extension for Conference World Federation of Education Association, Tokyo, Aug. 2 to 7. Bookings must be made early. Ezperts in Orient Travel Write to TOURS INTERNATIONAL 2294 W. 2ist St. Los Angeles, Calif. VOLUME 26, NUMBER 1; WISCONSIN W vominc—( Sunnyland; Chehalis, Chehalis Public Schools, Chehalis Elementary, Chehalis Junior High, Che halis Senior High; Everett, Monroe; Seattle, Cascade, Detention Home, Bailey Gatzert, Har- rison, John Hay, Maple Leaf, Parkland, Ridge wood; Spokane, Bryant, Logan, Regal; Van couver, Columbian, Shumway Junior High; Walla Walla, Washington West Vrrointa—Acme, Acme Grade: Bluefield, Harry; Charleston, Garnet Owen; Huntington, Lincoln Elementary; Ingram Branch, Ingram Branch Public; Montcoal, Montcoal-Stickney; Norton, Norton Grade, South Charleston, Central Edison -Beloit, Gaston, Merrill, Parker, Roose- velt; Kohler, Kohler; Milwaukee, Hawley Ave- nue, Manitoba; Sheboygan, U. S. Grant, S. S. Junior High, Washington Harding, Jefferson; Laramie, Lincoln, Whiting “asper, Cheyenne, Corlett; JANUARY 1937 Port Elizabeth and East London, with their miles of white beaches and the sportiest sea bathing and surfing. South Africa not only abounds in beauty and marvelous sightseeing, with comfortable transportation— it offers Good Health in a climate of sparkling sunshine! DETAILED INFORMATION FROM ALL LEADING TRAVEL AND TOURIST AGENCIES. | A-13 HEALTH EDUCATION A program for public schools and teacher-training institutions. The Report of the Joint Committee on Health Problems in Education of the National Education Asso- ciation and the American Medical Association. 1930. BULLETINS These bulletins are a source of up-to-date in- formation concerning the teaching profession. Each issue is devoted to a subject that is vital to the progress of education and their value to school boards, professional classes and discus- (second edition) 251 p. CS EE rere Cloth Bound sericea AN EVALUATION OF SCHOOL HEALTH PROCEDURES Number V of the School Health Research Mono- graphs. The main objective of the School Health Study was to determine the effect of school health programs upon certain aspects of the health of children. Paper Binding Cloth Binding SCHOOL HEALTH POLICIES A preliminary study of group opinions, WI Wi oc vcd can aan $ 20 MAP OF HEALTHLAND Poster in black and white. Size 28” x 42”. Can be reproduced on the sand table CLASSROOM GROWTH RECORD sion groups may be clearly seen. The Nation's School Building Needs Vol. XIll, No. 1, January, 1935. 36 pp Salaries of School Employees, 1934-35 Wol. dn, Peo. &, Match, 1935; 32 pp... . . -:.. 000s Creating Social Intelligence Vol. XIll, No. 3, May, 1935. 96 pp The Teacher's Economic Position Vol. XIll, No. 4, September, 1935. 104 pp......... Better Reading Instruction Vol. XIll, No. 5, November, 1935. 56 pp The Preparation of Teachers’ Salary Schedules: Part |: Administrative and Fact-Finding Procedures Vol. XIV, No. 1, January, 1936. 48 pp..... The Preparation of Teachers’ Salary Schedules: Part Il: Drafting the Schedule Vol. XIV, No. 2, March, 1936. 48 pp The Efforts of the States to Support Education A new wall chart for classroom records of Vol. XIV, No. 3, May, 1936. 64 pp....---....-. height and weight through the school year. Encourages the educational use of weighing and measuring, through emphasis on growth as shown by gain in height and weight. Size 93-3/4” x 19” Handbook on Teacher Tenure Vol. XIV, No. 4, September, 1936. 32 pp... Safety in Pupil Transportation Vol. XIV, No. 5, November, 1936. 48 pp Discounts are allowed on two or more copies of the same issue: 2 to 9 copies, 10 percent; 10 to 99 copies, 25 percent; 100 or more copies, 3314 percent. Orders for $1.00 or less must be accompanied by funds. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES 1201 Sixteenth Street N. W. Washington, D. C. The following discounts are allowed on two or more copies of the same issue: 2 to 9 copies, 10 percent; 10 to 99 copies, 25 percent; 100 or more, 33-1/3 percent. Orders for $1.00 or less must be accompanied by funds. Write for complete list of available health publications. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES 1201 Sixteenth Street N. W., Washington, D. C. J THE JOURNAL OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Semciamanrtgs HE spc N: the best tion WI fundam commot est in t Antioch 1936 Jo Ing pos It show about t eagerne more t respons Americ Ther Horace country pressio1 price oO and c Powerf capacit of oth do no everyw in othe as NOV were ment which ers we The ournal OF « THE * UNITED VOLUME 26 NUMBER 1 of the NATIONAL «+ EDUCATION + ASSOCIATION STATES—JANUARY 1937 The Philosophy of the Centennial HE Horace Mann CENTENNIAL, sponsored during 1936-37 by the National Education Association, is the best opportunity which this genera- tion will have to interpret anew the fundamental ideals of the American common school. The keen public inter- est in the dedication of the statue at Antioch [reported in the December 1936 JourNaL| foreshadows the grow- ing possibilities of the Centennial year. It shows how earnestly the people care about their schools. It reveals their eagerness to understand the man who more than any other single person is responsible for the establishment of the American free public school. There is a close parallelism between Horace Mann’s day and ours. The country was then in the depths of a de- pression. The people were paying the price of war, greed, indifference, vice, and corruption—as they are now. Powerful leaders openly doubted the capacity of the people to rule and talked of other forms of government, as they do now. Fear and confusion were everywhere. Then as now, conditions in other countries were uncertain. Then as now, rapid social-economic changes Were creating the need for an enrich- ment and expansion of education for which neither the public nor the teach- ers were prepared. Then as now, people felt the need for a revival of the spirit of ' reform and for re-dedication to freedom and the rule of the people. , Because of this parallelism, the life of Horace Mann is not only inspiring; it is immensely and immediately use- ful. Altho Horace Mann started out as ia lawyer, statesman, and humanitarian, he made himself a schoolmaster in the highest sense. He gave sustained study }to every phase of child growth and school management. He set standards for progressiveness which have not even yet been attained. His sense of values was remarkably true. Above all he understood the relation between the _ = ~ NVOLUME 26, NUMBER TI; school and our democratic civilization. By studying his life as a whole and reading his addresses and writings, we get a perspective and a basis for com- parison which we all need. Even his human weaknesses and failures teach us lessons, for we too must meet them in ourselves. Looking at his labors against the background of a century, we can see how amazingly fruitful they were. There are more people today in our American highschools than the total population of the nation in Horace Mann’s boyhood. The teaching profession needs a com- mon mind and to achieve that mind it needs a common classic. For teachers in a democracy that classic is found in the life and writings of Horace Mann. These should be the heart of the library of every teacher. They are a corrective for our overspecialization, a safeguard against discouragement, a guide to our labors, a source of inspiration. The people in our democracy likewise need a common mind in their under- standing of education. They need to take a deeper interest in their children and in the improvement of their own lives, that they may be fully equal to the de- mands of freedom and democratic civili- zation. The life of Horace Mann ap- peals especially to laymen. During his lifetime his writings circulated around the world. He talked and wrote for the people. His writings are part of our American cultural heritage—worthy to be studied in every school and college for their nobility of thought, their beauty of expression, and their concern over the fundamental values of life. The Centennial year is a good time to establish the practice of teaching the school in the school so that young people will receive as a part of their preparation for citizenship a knowledge of the history, purposes, and achieve- ments of the institution by which de- mocracy maintains intelligence and free- dom. Every American school child JANUARY 1937 should understand that Horace Mann ranks with Washington, Jefferson, and Lincoln as one of the greatest builders of America. The publishing program of the Cen- tennial is perhaps its most important feature. Thru the books to be issued; thru material published in Tue Jour- waL; thru the programs for Horace Mann’s birthday, for commencements, and for Education Week 1937; as well as thru the press, radio, and the movie, this materiai will be given a wide distribution. The announcement of a Centennial edition of the long-out-of-print, 600- page Life of Horace Mann by his wife has met with generous expressions of appreciation (see page 33). The en- richment of the lives of individual teachers and citizens thru the study of the life of the greatest teacher America has produced is the purpose in repub- lishing this great biography. Our pro- fession has in the Life of Horace Mann a priceless heritage which should be in the personal library of every teacher. The story of Horace Mann’s struggles against the indifference and greed of his day will help us all in the present strug- gle to safeguard and improve the schools. To meet the need for popular, inex- pensive material, a little volume entitled Horace Mann: Hts Ideas and Ideals has been published. It contains, in addi- tion to a sketch of Horace Mann’s life, his inspiring Lecture on Education, his Letter to School Children, quotations. American and other This volume is suitable for use in school classes and for distribution to influential citizens. As we go forward into the Centen- nial year, let us appreciate the fact that the celebration is but an instrument. Its real significance is in the future, in the growth of the seed now sown, in the clarification of our purpose, the quick- ening of our imagination, the reinforce- ment of our courage, and the renewal of our faith—Joy ELMer Morcan [1] Senator Pat Harrison of Mississippi N ITS CAMPAIGN for Federal Aid, the National Education Association is seeking to safeguard educational standards and to lay the foundation for a new advance. The Harrison-Fletcher Bill was intro- duced into the last session of Congress by Senator Harrison of Mississippi and Congressman Fletcher of Ohio. It will be re-introduced by the same sponsors in the session beginning a few days after this JournaL is published. It provides for an initial appropriation of $100,000,- ooo and an increase of $50,000,000 a year until $300,000,000 is provided. The funds will be apportioned to the states and territories according to the number of children 5 to 20 years of age in each. The manner in which the funds shall be used is left wholly to the states. This article deals with two questions frequently raised regarding the bill. First, since the wealthier states are known to be several times as able to support education as the poorer states, should not this bill equalize educational opportunity among the states rather than provide the same amount per child to each state? There are several objectives that might be selected in apportioning funds to the states for education: [1] The sub- sidizing of special types of schools or instruction, such as vocational educa- tion; [2] the encouragement of the states to make greater effort thru the matching of funds; [3] the equaliza- tion of the support of general education thru large appropriations to the poor states and relatively little or no appro- priations to the rich states; or [4] the appropriation of funds to the states for the support of education somewhat in proportion to the interest of the federal government in the education of its cit- izens. As to the first of these two objectives, it can be said that in the past they have been found useful. The federal govern- [2] The Harrison-Fletcher Bill HOWARD A. DAWSON ment is now engaged in fields repre- sented by both. A survey of the opinion of educational administrators has shown that an overwhelming majority are in favor of continuing such programs now underway. With regard to further par- ticipation of the federal government in the financing of education, however, opinion predominantly favors appropri- ations by Congress direct to the states for education in general. The third possible objective, the equalization of school support, is gener- ally acceptable in principle, but exceed- ingly difficult and technical in practice. The legislative sponsors and friends of the Harrison-Fletcher Bill are unwilling at present to undertake the presentation of such a bill. The fourth possible objective, that of requiring the federal government to fin- ance in all states at least a reasonable part of the cost of the education of all children, is thought to be more gener- ally acceptable and certainly more prac- ticable from a legislative point of view. In introducing the Bill in the 74th Congress, Senator Harrison said: The basis of apportionment of funds to the states and territories is the number of children 5 to 20 years old in each state and territory. This method of apportionment is based on the principle that the federal government should provide for the sup- port of schools in all the states somewhat in proportion to the federal interest in education of the entire population. Admit- ting that the federal interest is, at this time, not subject to accurate measurement, it can be safely asserted that the amount pro- vided in this bill does not exceed the fed- eral government’s fair share of the cost of educating the citizens of the nation. Altho not designed primarily for that purpose, the Harrison-Fletcher Bill is a definite step toward equalization of educational opportunity as evidenced by the fact that the school funds in the poorest state will be increased 62.1 per- cent as compared to only 7.7 percent in the richest state. In the 12 poorest states school funds will be increased 36.7 per- THE JOURNAL OF Congressman Brooks Fletcher of Ohio cent as compared with only 10.1 percent! in the 12 richest states. Second, if the Harrison-Fletcher Bill becomes a law, how much will each state receive from the federal govern- ment as compared to what it pays into the federal Treasury? This question is not pertinent. If it were seriously considered with regard to all activities of the federal govern- ment, such as roads, post offices, district courts, public health service, agricul- tural services, rivers and harbors, a large! part of the federal services would be impossible. Such restrictions on federal activities are unwarranted from the point of view either of history or com- monsense. In some respects, this is a nation and not an aggregation of na- tions. The collection of taxes and the, distribution of services according to the needs of human beings, rather than ac- cording to the place of the tax collec- tion, is fortunately one respect in which the United States is a nation. Furthermore, the fact that most to-, bacco taxes are collected in North Caro- lina is no indication that this state pays’ the tobacco taxes. The same is true of; taxes from industrial and banking insti- tutions in the centers of wealth. The economic structure of the nation refuses , to heed state boundaries. Congressman Brooks Fletcher, in in- troducing this bill into the House, said: , It is unavoidable that thru the develop ment of our economic system, the increase, in the corporate form of wealth, and the, concentration of taxable wealth in the in- dustrial centers, the federal government ’ should more and more become the tax col- lecting and distributing agency. .. . Thetime has come, therefore, when the states must demand a return of some of the federal tax collections to be used for schools. ' Interest yourself in the passage of the ) Harison-Fletcher Bill. Ask your repre- sentatives in Congress to support it. Ask your lay friends to do the same. Do not depend on someone else to do your part. THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION In t Div heat ing one whi fun whi ten ana d c t |} I t ent! Bill ach -rNn- nto to-, aro- yays' e of; nsti- The uses , in aid: , lop ease the nent ” col- 1 the f the ools. | the pre- Ask not Yart. TION In the October JourNat, the creation of a Division of Teacher Welfare at NEA headquarters was announced. The follow- ing article discusses academic freedom, one of the fields of professional welfare in which this Division is at work. Other fundamental fields of teacher welfare to which the Association is giving spectal at- tention include salaries, tenure, and equality of opportunity. retirement, CADEMIC FREEDOM? Young man, academic freedom is not a right; it’s a privilege—and it’s a privi- lege that has to be earned!” This terse advice drives straight to the heart of a problem that properly agitates the edu- cational world today. Ideally, wishfully, desirably, academic freedom is the right to teach and to learn unfettered by ad- ministrative or pressure-group dictation. But actually, realistically, practically, it is a right which exists on sufferance. Educators who are concerned about the prevalent widespread attacks upon academic freedom would do well to analyze this vital distinction in terms of their own personal status in their own communities. Perchance they will then realize that the degree of academic free- dom permitted the teacher is usually proportional to a complex of three fac- tors: [1] The extent to which the teach- er’s expressed convictions upon contro- versial issues agree with those of the community’s dominant groups; [2] the actual defensive power of the profes- sional organizations with which the teacher is affliated; and | 3] the amount of personal respect which the teacher has earned for himself in his community. Every school administrator knows that the teacher who has made himself generally respected as a wellinformed, judicially-minded, and courteously con- siderate person has freedom to express opinions and engage in activities which would draw instant fire upon the heads of less respected people. If a commu- nity likes a teacher as a person it tends to be tolerant of his ideas. And if we assent to the proposition that the so- cially sensitive and professionally com- petent teacher has a moral obligation to keep his job, then it becomes clear that he has the obligation to make himself personally liked in his community. Know your own prejudices—All one’s thinking is inevitably colored by his VOLUME 26, NUMBER I3 PRESERVING ACADEMIC FREEDOM Edward G. Olsen previous emotional conditioning. It is therefore the first obligation of the as- piring teacher to dig out and to under- stand his own underlying “frame of reference”—his personal complex of atti- tudes, biases, and prejudices which have developed in reaction to past experiences and which now strongly influence or even dominate his thinking. Unless the teacher of controversial subjectmatter is careful to recognize and then honestly analyze his own pre-judgments and ra- tionalizations he can hardly expect to avoid being tripped up by them. Let him constantly inquire: Do I evidence an air of superiority as psychological compensation for felt feelings of feriority? Do I project my personal failures in life upon the “System,” and blame it for all my misfortunes? Do I want to find some personal devil upon whom to fix all responsibility for eco- nomic disaster-—the communists, the plutocrats, the international bankers, the brain trust, and the like? Do I naively indoctrinate my own particular social values in the guise of legitimate “edu- cation,” while I strenuously oppose dif- fering viewpoints as insidious “indoc- trination”? Remember the obligations of a scien- tist—Charles A. Beard has warned that “the teacher who asks for academic free- dom is under obligation to present his subjects in the classroom with calmness, in appropriate language, in the judicial spirit.” Emotional maturity is almost a sine qua non of academic freedom. The teacher must cultivate habits of emotional stability which will permit him to discuss and to analyze capital- ism or religious traditions with the same lack of emotion with which he speaks of tomorrow’s weather. This does not JANUARY 1937 mean that he must assert no emphases or possess no deep personal convictions, but simply that he must not display overt emotional behavior in the class- room. The teacher who wants to win and preserve his privileges of uncen- sored instruction must remain critical in his approach, balanced in his judg- ments, sincere in motive, and judicious in treatment of his subject. He should surely develop a wholesome sense of personal responsibility for improving and reconstructing the civilization of which he is a part, but above all he must retain his full intellectual and _profes- sional integrity, having sold out his mind to no man and no party. Analyze your community — Before beginning to teach in a strange commu- nity the astute teacher will survey that community in terms of its dominant in- terests and its present and possible ten- sions. He will discover so far as he can what the general spirit and the popular attitudes of that community seem to be, who its leading citizens and power- ful political figures are, what its indus- tries are and by whom they are owned, who the schoolboard members are and what their occupations and prejudices are, which is the liberal minister and what is the extent of his influence, what causes of friction between teachers and town have arisen in the past, and so on. He will endeavor, in short, to take ac- count of all factors which have or might have a bearing upon his own position as teacher in that community. This is certainly not to suggest that he ought to compromise his convictions upon funda- mental but only that by thus analyzing the local situation in advance he is better issues, able to foresee and so to avoid small indiscretions which may of- fend community sensibilities and so be- come points of irritation against him. Participate in community activities— Remember always that men tend to give or to withhold their allegiance because of emotional sympathies, and not after a rational balancing of the facts. Popu- lar acceptance or rejection of a teacher’s ideas will depend far more upon the total impression which that teacher makes in the community than it will upon his sayings alone, however wise they may be. Studies have shown that there is a high correlation between the average man’s feeling-tone and his per- sonal judgment. It is therefore essen- tial that the novice teacher deliberately set out to build up “status” for himself by becoming an integral part of the community as quickly as discretion per- mits. Most people have the “outside agitator” complex, and will quickly re- sent advice or criticism, no matter how friendly and valid, which comes from someone who is not yet “accepted.” If he is wise, the new teacher will there- fore enter fully into community activi- ties and will make whatever personal contributions to the community life his own talents and time permit. He will be constructive in all his sugges- tions, and will emphasize always the necessity of preserving the American traditions of democratic full civil liberties, and equal economic opportunity for all. government, Needless to say, he will respect community mores. Know your facts—The wise teacher will never express an opinion upon con- troversial issues unless he is prepared to substantiate his statements with chap- ter and verse from recognized sources. Unless he is absolutely sure of his facts and is able to name and defend his sources of information upon demand, he will inevitably lose prestige when challenged, and suspicion of exaggera- tion or even of fabrication will fall upon him. The effective educator will there- fore remember that facts are both shield and sword, and will arm himself ac- cordingly. He will discriminate care- fully between sources of information, and will be especially critical of state- ments which tend to substantiate his own point of view. Avoid stereotyped phraseology—Wal- ter Lippmann’s classic analysis of the “steréotype” and its role in blocking the thought-process deserves careful study [4] by every teacher. Lippmann pointed out that the use of such words or phrases as “agitator,” “Harvard man,” “inter- national banker,” “1oo percent Ameri- can,” “bureaucracy,” “regimentation,” “drive the communists out of Washing- ton,” and the like arouse violent emo- tional reactions in the hearer and there- by effectively block further critical rea- soning in that area of discussion. Such emotionalized slogans are the natural weapons of the demagog, but they will be carefully avoided by the educator who wants to cultivate in his students habits of thorogoing critical appraisal. This does not mean that he may not discuss the concepts involved, for that he must do if he is to be an effective teacher. It simply suggests that “almost anything can be said on any subject on any occasion if appropriate language is chosen,” as Dr. Beard has recently re- minded us. Fight shy of labels—There is a dis- tinct tactical advantage in not being vul- nerable to political labeling. It is cer- tainly the right of any teacher to join any political party which he favors, but exercise of that right is usually not strategic. Once the teacher has publicly pinned upon himself the insignia of some particular political faction, he will find people giving less consideration to the intrinsic merit of his views and more to his status as a party man. Critics will then tend to ignore the soundness of his views with the explana- tion that “of course he thinks that way —he’s a Socialist” (or a Liberty Leaguer, or a Democrat, or a Communist, or a Republican). The vitalizing teacher should be a keen critic of all political parties and a special pleader for none of them if he wishes to attain his maxi- mum effectiveness as stimulator of criti- cal thinking in his students. Expose fallacies; don’t suppress them —Wellinformed educators are keenly aware of the extent to which reaction- aries and radicals alike attempt to dis- tort or to suppress their opponents’ opin- ions, statements, and viewpoints. The critical teacher, however, has the clear obligation to present all sides of contro- versial questions to his classes, and to assure each side of a fair hearing. He would do well to bring reactionary, lib- eral, and radical speakers into the class- room for questioning by his students, for he will know that the best way to THE JOURNAL OF destroy fallacies ot fact and ot logic is to expose them to intelligent and criti- cal scrutiny. Thus his students will gain actual and invaluable practice in learning to challenge constructively all dogmatic their source of origin, and to accept no man’s opinion except upon the basis of the best evidence available. statements whatever Students pre- disposed either to blind conservatism or to unthinking radicalism should bene- ht equally by using this technic of searching classroom analysis. Appeal to practicality, not to moral: ity—Purely moral issues arouse little public enthusiasm today. The teacher who favors a basic reconstruction of our social-economic system will therefore find his efforts far more fruitful if he charges capitalism with incompetence and breakdown than if he merely points out that it is wicked and unjust. Like- wise, educators who oppose loyalty | oaths for teachers will do well to base their opposition primarily upon the fact that such oaths are threats to free schools, dangerous to democracy, fore- runners of fascism, and the like, and only secondarily upon the ground that teachers’ “rights” are imperiled thereby. Be tolerant of individuals—Attack in- stitutions, not persons. Flay irrespon- sible power, special privilege, but not in- dividual men and women. Remember that individuals are often better than the social system in which they live, and that all people are potential allies so long as they are not abused personally. When the individual is directly at- tacked, he is immediately on the defen- sive, and his own selfrespect compels him to solidify his opposition. One word more—Let the individual teacher become ever so discreet in his community relationships; let him con- sciously build up whatever personal status he can achieve—and he still re- mains relatively easy prey for any deter- mined reactionary attack. But let him ally himself with those professional or- ganizations which are already strug- gling against widespread teacher in- timidation, and he will find his own chances for scholarly freedom enor- mously increased thereby. For true strength lies only in unity, and in the long run it is collective action alone which can protect the individual teacher from the enemies of realistic education. THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION cor an sul act tie SW 1tl- vill in all eir n’s the re- or ne- of ral- ttle her ur ore he nce nts ke- ty ase the ree ind hat by. in- on- in- | ber an ind , SQ at- en- yels ual his on- nal re- im or- ug- in- wn lor- rue the me her on. [ON HE TRADITIONAL breaking up of the "[ cericutn into subjects, each of which was kept in a water-tight compartment, unrelated to the others and unrelated to the child’s life, has re- sulted in a natural and wholesome re- action. This reaction has led to “activi- ” ties programs, “integration.” Like most reactions, this one has swung to the opposite extreme. It is sup- posed that one center of interest must be the basis for all of the child’s work, and that it is a violation of sound psychology and of the child’s rights, to have a period in the day set aside for arithmetic and another period for spelling. I remember visiting a school that boasted of its “cen- ters of interest.” In one grade the “cen- ter of interest” for the month was fish. There the history had to do with the his- tory of fishing; the geography, with fish- eries; the reading was all on fish and fisher folk; the compositions were on the same subject; the spelling words were chosen from this field; even the arithmetic problems all dealt with the price and weight and quantities of fish. This swry may sound fishy, but I assure you it is true. project method,” and More intelligent attempts at integra- tion use some one activity—sometimes a chance activity resulting from the inter- est of a child—on which the whole class can center. As the children carry this ac- tivity or project forward, the teacher sees to it that they do not avoid any arithmetical, literary, artistic, or other implications—in fact she often drags in these implications by the heels. When she doesn’t, she guiltily smuggles in an arithmetic period or a spelling period and says nothing about it. A complete interrelation of all things a child studies is unimportant and un- necessary. Life itself is full of separate, unrelated activities. We adults go to a movie or a dance. We read a book, at- tend a luncheon or dinner. We go to a concert or a baseball game. We do cer- tain jobs that are parts of our vocation. We find no disintegration of our lives as a result of our divergent and diverse ac- tivities. On the contrary, the variety adds zest to living. What is really important is that each VOLUME 26, NUMBER I; The Case for Subjects 22 the Curriculum Carleton Washburne thing we teach the child be integrated with his own life and his experience. It must fulfill some need; it must give ex- pression to some impulse; it must con- tribute to some thinking. It must, in short, have significance. But the sig- nificance of one thing may be quite dif- ferent from that of another, and no harm whatever is done by variety of experience, provided that the separation is between one subject and another, and not a separation between the subject and the child. In mastering a skill, readiness and ripeness are necessary. Any test shows a wide divergence between the slowest and the fastest child in a class—the range is usually at least four years. To assume that one center of interest, one project, is going to result in learning processes that fit equally children of widely disparate stages of maturity is to ignore the facts. In mastering a skill certain technics need practice, and the amount of prac- tice needed varies with individuals. If all children in a class are trying to master the same technic at the same time with the same amount of drill, even tho it has been “motivated” by a project or “inte- grated” with the other subjects in a cen- ter of interest, the children are deprived of their right to wait until they are ripe before being required to try to master a topic. The psychology of learning is ignored. In mastering knowledge, a certain order and organization are needed. So, too, are certain foundations. To give a bit of knowledge here and a bit of knowledge there, because they happen to be related to a project or a center of interest, is to fail in the orderly develop- ment that characterizes the thinking of an educated person. It is manifestly absurd to suppose it contrary to sound education to be sys- tematic and orderly, to suppose that thoroness is the antithesis of good learn- ing. Yet the time has come when a per- JANUARY 1937 son almost has to apologize for a kind of education that develops a subject in an orderly, systematic manner. The answer does not lie in a reversion to the old compartmentalization of the curriculum, but neither does it lie in an attempt at complete correlation and the kind of “integration” which assumes that all subjects must be integrated with each other and with some center of in- terest or grow out of some one activity. The solution lies in having a basic course required of each child as he reaches the right stage of development, and including in that course only those items which really function or can be made to function in the experience and training of the child. Each of these things—call them subjects if you wish— should be taught in relation to the child’s life and interests. They should be taught when the child is ready to use them thru having his interest aroused and when he has reached that mental age found by research to be most suit- able to the learning of a given topic. And in doing this, the school may well use a number of the old categories— arithmetic is, after all, quite different from social science, and spelling is not related to creativeness and initiative. On the other hand, any balanced edu- cational program must provide a rich background of experience and activities. It must provide, thru electives and thru opportunities in connection with com- mon enterprises or activities, a chance for each child to find and follow his own special interests and abilities; a chance for him to use originality, creativeness, and initiative; and most decidedly op- portunities for him to work cooper- atively with his fellows and to develop a sound social consciousness. These are basic parts of his education. But so, too, is the mastery of those fundamental skills and that body of common knowl- edge which are essential to living in an organized society. [5] McDonogh gave New Orleans “TW RN Y- Caroline S. Pfaff The first, principal, and chief object I have at heart —the object which has ac- tuated and filled my soul from early boyhood with a desire to acquire a for- tune—ts the education of the poor, without a cost of a cent to them, in the cities of New Orleans and Bal- timore—From the will of John McDonogh. TINY SATIN SLIPPER and a bit of faded ribbon found reposing amid heap of papers—these are the foundations upon which rest the roman- tic stories that fill so much space in the brief biographical sketches of John Mc- Donogh, the great benefactor of the New Orleans schools. Tradition tells of a handsome estab- lishment at the corner of Toulouse and Chartres Streets in New Orleans in which the distinguished, courtly Mc- Donogh entertained with lavish hand. Early in the nineteenth century, still under thirty years of age and already signally success- ful in his quest for wealth, he was a marked figure in the Probably he often danced _ some fair lady, touching the shapely white hand lightly in the co- siflinn, or encircling with his arm the slender waist in the waltz of the period. When John McDonogh was approach- ing middle age, he became enamoured of the exquisitely beautiful Spanish girl, Micaela, daughter of Don Andreas Al- city. McDONOGH SCHOOL NO. 14, NEW ORLEANS—ONE OF JOHN McDONOGH’S MANY [6 | GIFTS TO THE CHILDREN THE JOURNAL OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION i CHILDREN PLAC- ING FLOWERS ON THE McDONOGH STATUE. monaster y Roxas. differences, would Because of religious marriage them have been unthinkable. The scion of a long line of Scotch Presby- terians, judged in the light of his well- known sturdy religious character, could never have bartered his faith and that of his unborn children for his love. The story continues. between Because of his hopeless love for the noblewoman who was destined to become the Baroness Pontalba, the despondent suitor melo- dramatically exclaimed that the name of McDonogh would be on the tongues of thousands long after that of Almon- aster had been forgotten. How foreign this boast to the prior and later serenity of the man! We wonder—had Micaela’s dainty foot ever pressed the slipper found years later buried beneath neg- lected business manuscripts? And what of the bit of ribbon? Later by a few years comes report of a second consuming passion that tore the heartstrings of a man whose life at this time was indisputably bound to the purpose which grew out of his first love affair and towards which, with indomi table will, he was now steadily working. Miss Johnson, the handsome daughter ASSOCIATION = of ha’ as ' tio lov <5 LAC- ON IGH ous em [he sby- ell- uld hat | vho 1eSs elo- me ues on- ign lity la’s per eg- hat of ore the —_ mi ng. er ON his } of a noted Southern family, is said to have captivated him. Religious opinions again formed a barrier, and the opposi- tion of her family prevailed over her love. She became a nun. Innumerable instances of the kindness and generosity of John McDonogh have been recorded. From the correspondence ve learn that he was rearing this little girl, the daughter of a dear, departed friend; or that little girl, the orphaned child of a distant relative. On Saturday, October 26, 1850, John McDonogh died. He had amassed real estate completely circumvallating the city and extending far out into the par- ishes. According to the terms of his will, his entire fortune, with the exception of a few bequests to his family and to char- itable causes, was to be divided between his native city, Baltimore, and the city of his adoption, New Orleans, for the erec- tion of free schools. Litigation and mismanagement les- sened the legacy and delayed the execu- tion of McDonogh’s plans. However, about $750,000 was finally turned over to the city of New Orleans, and McDon- ogh School Number 1 was built before the Civil War. It was described as “an elegant two-story brick building, ca- pable of accommodating 500 pupils.” It is still in use. After the War between the States, new schools were erected in rapid suc- cession. Today, there are twenty-six Mc- Donogh buildings in use in New Or- leans, some of the e early schools having been destroyed by fire or abandoned as obsolete. The last building finished in 1933 erected was McDonogh’s request to his benefici- aries, the children, “to plant and water a few flowers around my burial place,” is acceded to in New Orleans, where on the first Friday in May, thousands of children—a _ literal personification of Gr: bear flowers to adorn the McDonogh monument in Lafayette Square. This memorial was erected thru the donations of the children of the New Orleans public schools. It was gleaned thru the years by penny contributions from the children, for whom he so earn- estly labored that they might “find thru education a path to rectitude and virtue.” VOLUME 26, NUMBER TI: JANUARY HOOLS NEW ORLEANS CONVENTION > mp a nine-day period, February 17- 25, at New Orleans, over 600 men and women will address meetings of the Department of Superintendence and allied organizations. Beginning with its Vesper Service on Sunday, the Department will hold nine general sessions znd 36 afternoon discussion groups. About 150 meetings will be held under the auspices of other de-- partments and organizations. Eighty-nine breakfasts, luncheons, and dinners will be listed in the Official Program. Headquarters will be at the Municipal Auditorium, which is conveniently located in the downtown section. Its main arena has a seating capacity of 6000. The concert hall will accommodate an audience of 3300. The exhibit hall, under the same roof, provides for 281 booths. Veteran convention-goers will miss the pink railroad identification certificates. Last summer all passenger fares were reduced and at the same time special convention There are 18 small assembly rooms. rates were discontinued. In most cases the rates are lower than those formerly authorized for conventions. new The selection of New Orleans was pop- ular. On July 1, sleeping room reservations there exceeded those at St. Louis on the same date in 1935 by exactly 666 rooms. Hotel rooms are now exhausted. Superin- tendent Nicholas Bauer, aided by a citizens’ committee, has secured 1800 rooms in pri- address Sam Fowlkes, chairman, Housing Bureau, vate residences. For reservations, New Orleans Association of Commerce. The following discussion groups of the Department of Superintendence will meet on the afternoons of Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday, February 22, 23, and 24: Business Administration as It Applies to Materials and Financing—Homer W. An- derson, supt. of schools, Omaha, Nebr. Teacher Participation in School Admin- istration—E. W. Jacobsen, supt. of schools, Oakland, Calif. The Professional Status of the Teacher— L. W. Mayberry, supt. of schools, Wichita, Kans. The Professional Status of the Superin- tendent—W. H. Lemmel, supt. of schools, Quincy, Ill. Safety Education—Millard C. Lefler, supt. of schools, Lincoln, Nebr. School Finance—Lloyd W. King, state supt. of public schools, Jefferson City, Mo. Rural Education—Francis L. state commissioner of education, Bailey, Mont- pelier, Vt., and president, Department of Rural Education, NEA. Relationship of the Library to the Edu- cational Program—George M. Wiley, as- sistant state commissionei Albany, N. Y. A Public Relations Program for Schools —A. Helen Anderson, supervisor of pub- lications, Public Schools, Denver, Colo., and president, National School Public Re- lations Association. of education, Adult Education—S. M. Brownell, supt. of schools, Grosse Pointe, Mich. Our Professional Organization Problem —Edgar G. Doudna, secy., State Board of Regents of Normal Schools, Madison, Wis. The Curriculum—Frederick H. Bair, supt. of schools, Bronxville, N. Y. JACKSON SQUARE 7” the heart of the Vieux Carré of New Orleans. On the right can be seen the Pontalba Apartments built by the fair Micaela, the Baroness Pontalba of later days. 193 An Evening with the Magazines HAT IS A TEACHER WORTH P— Some teacher who is also a logician surely will reply to Jean Ricochet Boyd’s article in the De- cember 1936 Forum. It will be tempting to challenge the line of reasoning by which he concludes, on the basis of his own unsatisfactory five years of teaching science in highschool, that all teachers are overpaid because their work is of so little value to society. Mr. Boyd believes that most teaching deals with inert knowledge which people do not want to acquire. “The average youngster is interested in sex, athletics, sports, clothes, food, movies, radios, fireworks, parades, spec- tacles, Friday afternoons, Christmas, holidays of all kinds, the possession of things of all kinds, outwitting his par- ents and teachers and others who ob- struct him, and passing his grade in school. Add stock market and make a few other minor changes incident al- most wholly to advancing years and you have the list of things the average adult is interested in. Where, in all of this, is there any compeling necessity for math- ematics, history, literature, languages, science, and all the rest of it—except to those people who use a specific part of it in their work or business? .. . “But the average human does acquire knowledge. He does learn. When? He learns when he has to. . . . He learns when he is confronted with an element [8 | of immediate and compeling necessity, which may be either utilitarian or in- stinctive. And it is obvious that this sit- uation does not obtain as regards about 99 percent of the school curriculum. He does not need or want that kind of knowledge at that time... . “I do not mean to decry education. I am just dubious. Reasonable and ade- quate opportunity should be provided— for those who want it and can take it. Nothing more; for beyond that I doubt if there is anything one can do. I do not believe that I accomplished anything in the five years I tried it.” Communism on Plymouth Rock —Communism did not work for the Pilgrim Fathers, says Ray W. Sherman in the November 1936 Pictorial Review. After telling of the unsuccessful experi- ence of the Mayflower colony in 1621 and 1622, when the Pilgrims were pool- ing all resources in one common stock, he quotes Governor Bradford’s com- ment on communism, written three hundred years ago: “The experience that was had in this common course and condition, tried sundrie years, and that amongst Godly and sober men, may well evince the van- itie of that conceite of Plato’s and other ancients, applauded by some of later times, that the taking away of property and bringing in communitie into a common wealth, would make them happy and flourishing, as if they were wiser than God.” But where is the school, asks Mr. Sherman, that teaches this story of an American experiment with commun- ism? “Some way should be found,” he says, “to teach the simple truths that men have learned thru thousands of years of trying to make a living, have homes, and be happy.” Courses in eco- nomics are being taught in a few schools, which is a step in the right di- rection. Textbooks and teachers for these courses are not easy to find. But that should not prevent further efforts to provide children with basic knowl- edge that would protect them from false prophets and economic racketeers. What Is a General Education P— An education which will cultivate the intellectual virtues is the ideal which Robert Maynard Hutchins proposes for higher education. There will be no elec- tives in the college which Mr. Hutch- ins describes in the November 1936 THE JOURNAL OF THE Harper's, a junior college which will re- ceive students at the levels now found in the last two years of highschool and the first two of college. What he pro- poses is a single course of study to be provided for every one alike, or at least to the two-thirds who can learn from books. For the other third—“the hand- minded and the functionally illiterate” —he suggests that experimentation be continued so that in time general edu- cation may be available to them also. Says Mr. Hutchins: “The truth is everywhere the same. Hence education should be everywhere the same. . . “The free elective system as Mr. Eliot introduced it at Harvard and as Pro- gressive Education adapted it to lower age levels amounted to a denial that there was content to education. Since there was no content to education we might as well let students follow their own bent... . This overlooks the fact that the aim of education is to connect man with man, to connect the present with the past, and to advance the think- ing of the race. If this is the aim of education, it cannot be left to the spo- radic, spontaneous interests of children or even of undergraduates. . . .” The permanent studies which Mr. Hutchins proposes are the classics, with- out which it is impossible to compre- hend the contemporary world. He men- tions the writings of Plato, Shakespeare, Cicero, Milton, Galileo, Adam Smith, ' Newton, Aristotle, and Herodotus as , examples. “The false starts, the backing and filling, the wildness, the hysteria, the confusion of modern world result largely from the loss of what has been thought and done by earlier ages. . . .” To the classics Mr. Hutchins would , add the technics of study—grammar, rhetoric, logic, and mathematics. Of this ' course of study he says: “If our hope has been to frame a curriculum which educes the elements of our common human nature, this program should re- alize our hope. If we wish to prepare the young for intelligent action, this course of study should assist us; for they will have learned what has been done in the past and what the greatest men have thought. They will have learned how to think themselves. If we wish to lay a basis for advanced study, that basis is provided.” —Hazer Davis. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION re- ind ind ro- be -ast om nd- ite be du- Iso. ne, ere liot ro- ver hat nce we \eir ‘act ect ent nk- of po- ren Mr. ith- yre- en- ure, ith, as | ing ria, sult een uld lar, his has ich 10n re- are his hey >in ave J to ION Children with reading disabilities are shown us- ing specially prepared sup- plementary reading reme- dial material. Drawings made in connection with the unit are on the board. Arthur IL. Gates and Guy L. Bond Prevention of Disabilities 7 Reading in the December JourNAL, attention was directed to the fact that large classes, dearth of suitable materials, and other factors intrinsic in the modern school situation make it difficult for the teacher to understand and teach each pupil individually. This situation per- mits the development of difficulty in reading. The need of administering to the needs of individual pupils implies, of course, that pupils do differ markedly from each other. In this article, we shall discuss the character and significance of certain types of in AN ARTICLE on reading disabilities, individual differences which are of importance to the teacher of beginning reading. Several series of careful studies indi- cate that various types of constitutional limitations constitute handicaps in learn- ing to read. Many of the scientific studies of reading disabilities have concerned themselves primarily with such limita- tions as low 19, low mental age, various defects of hearing and vision, motor handicaps, speech defects, poor sense of word sounds, left-handedness, left-eyed- ness, emotional instability, weak atten- 26 VOLUME > NUMBER I, JANUARY tion, defective memory and imagery, motor incoordination, and so on. In gen- eral, should be observed that altho these and many other factors are a con- tributing or primary cause of difficulty in learning to read in a typical class- room, few such defects block the path to reading when adequate adjustments are made to them. For example, a severe case of astigmatism may result in serious difficulty or failure in reading, but if the visual difficulty is properly di: _ and corrected, if reading material ¢ suitable type is provided, and if a a able position for observing classroom work is given, the pupil may learn to read with little or no handicap. The relation of low mental age to the time of beginning reading is one of the most debated problems. Many students of normal and remedial reading are in- clined to think that few children can learn to read without risk of failure before they have reached a mental age of six and one-half years. If this were true, more than half of the children who are taught reading during the first term of the first grade in American schools 1937 would be handicapped. The facts seem to be that the typical program, pursued with a typical reader and only a moder- ate amount of supplementary material and taught by conventional methods, is a rather difficult one for most beginners. The initial stages of many programs are best adjusted to children who have a mental age of about six and one-half years or more. Other programs, how- ever, as shown in certain of our recent experiences in the Speyer Experimental Schdol and elsewhere, can be arranged which are equally welladjusted to pupils of lower mental age. In other words, it is both theoretically and practically pos- sible to organize materials and methods to teach children to learn to read suc- cessfully at the mental age of six years or any other higher level. Difficulties in learning to read result from failures to make any adaptation to these low mental levels and to teach the whole class with a program suited to only a part of them. The ultimate solu- tion of this difficulty is to determine the time at which it is most valuable for a child to learn to read and then to de- velop materials and methods which will enable him to learn without difficulty at this time. Recent experiments have shown that this may be done, provided other constitutional limitations which interfere with learning to read are de- tected and taken care of. It should be | 9 | noted that many of these constitutional factors, such as defects in vision and hearing, will be handicaps at any time the pupil begins to learn. They are not eliminated by postponing the beginning of reading. Some, in fact, may become more serious. Two decades of active work in the study of the causes of failure in reading point unmistakably to the need of a thoro canvass of the makeup of each child on entering school. Failure to recognize various types of constitutional limitations and levels of capacity are responsible in no small measure for edu- cational tragedies. Altho the necessary program of study of entering children will require the addition of technical workers to the staffs of schools, the costs of these services will be more than offset by savings resulting from avoidance of maladjustments, wasted efforts, and re- peating grades. A final source of failure in reading re- sults from starting the beginning pupil to work in a fixed and rigid program before he has acquired a background of certain necessary interests and skills. This consists in beginning formal in- struction in book reading before the pupil has attained “reading readiness.” Reading difficuities are avoided by be- ginning with the pupil at his own level and providing a wellrounded series of activities in talking; discussing; observ- ing simple picture books; learning a few important words such as one’s name, danger, exit, stop, go; acquiring4amfliar- ity with a few phrases; developing some of the basal skills, such as knowledge that lines of print and individual words must be observed from left to right. Properly managed, such a program will develop not only certain skills in han- dling books, pencils, and other objects, but an interest in using books and other materials. This policy is simply the ap- plication to the beginning stage of the principle of helping the pupil progress by easy and interesting steps which he is able to take successfully. Many of the difficulties in reading result from forc- ing the child to make abrupt changes and to attempt steps that are too difficult for him to take. If work were begun with the pupil as he is on entering school and carried on carefully from that time, there would be no abrupt transitions, no dangerous leaps at any stage. To the extent that the program is reasonably [ ro | adjusted to the pupil’s ability to make progress, difficulties and failures will be reduced. It should be noted that the prepara- tory or prebook reading stage will vary, not only with different children, but with different reading programs. In some programs the first lessons are very difficult and in others, very easy. Some programs provide a number of steps immediately preceding book reading which greatly facilitate the latter activ- ity, whereas others provide less ade- quately for the prebook reading. A definite formal “reading readiness” pro- gram is likely to present the same faults as an inflexible primary book-reading program. Both must be effectively ad- justed to varying individual needs. At the present time there is consider- able disagreement concerning what is embodied in “reading readiness” and concerning the school and _ preschool activities which contribute to it. Recent investigations seem to show that reading readiness is not a simple or single state of affairs. It embraces a number of dif- ferent abilities, interests, and habits, which a given child may possess in vari- ous degrees. Thus, one pupil may be very eager to read from a book and competent to handle the book as an ob- ject but he may be deficient in language control and have developed methods of observing printed forms which would almost certainly lead him to reversal errors and other difficulties. Another child may have an excellent technical equipment but little interest in book reading and insufficient background of language experiences for full apprecia- tion of typical beginning stories and in- formative selections. The latter child may profit most by a period of time THE JOURNAL OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION | devoted primarily to observations, ex. cursions, and other nonreading activities Reading readiness embodies a variety of different and often loosely related factors, each of which indicates the direc. tion for further training and experience. It is, therefore, important that a teacher be able to appraise the various special | interests, abilities, and habits, as well as the constitutional factors which are re: lated to progress in reading. Within re- cent years, fortunately, progress has been made in developing tests, questionnaires, | and other types of appraisal of both fea- tures of the pupil’s equipment. If the dire effects of failure in reading are to be avoided, it seems necessary that schools should provide for each entering pupil examinations or appraisals of at least each of the following character- istics: [1] Intelligence by means of individual nonreading tests. {2] Vision and hearing. |3| Speech and motor coordination. [4] Emotional and intellectual balance and stamina. [5] Meaning vocabulary and range of understanding. [6] Ability to understand and use Eng- | lish in class activities and conversation. | [7] Prerequisite reading abilities and interests, such as interest in books, ability to handle books, to recognize individual | words and phrases. 8] Ability to function in a schoolroom situation, including ability to listen to what the teacher or other pupils say; work | by oneself; cooperate with other pupils; | use pencils, chalk, paper. It should be noted that the informa-| tion required to enable a teacher effec- | tively to teach a pupil to read is of equal | importance in guiding him well in other | phases of school life including those | activities designed to further social and § . ss personal development. For successful management of a child in any situation, | a teacher should have, as an absolute minimum, such information about him | as these appraisals will provide. Inas- } much as these facts can be secured at the | present time at relatively small cost, it | is difficult to see how education can con- } tinue to require teachers to assume re- sponsibility tor the development of a child without them. To an engineer or } scientist or good business man, the fail- ure to secure such vital data, when it Pol a ( I | could be obtained so definitely and | cheaply, would seem preposterous, ex. tie’, lety ited rec. nee, her Cial 1 as re: | Te-| een res, | fea- ling that ‘ing f at “ter- dual ance and } ility dual | pom york | pils; qual | ther | hose and) sful | 10Nn, lute | him nas- the | t, it con } ; Fo r or) fail- n it and | ION | “$1500. On the other hand, Courtesy, Consumers’ Guide THE COOPERATIVE MOVEMENT URING THE LEAN YEARS since 1929 the cooperative spirit has increased measurably among the American peo- ple. Membership in con- sumers cooperatives has grown steadily during the depression, until now over three million of our citizens are members of various types tives. of coopera- A number of powerful forces are re- sponsible for this interest in the co- operative movement: [1] Even tho a certain degree of re- covery has taken place, mass unemploy- ment continues to be a major problem. In spite of increased industrial produc- tion, figures of unemployment for No- vember 1936—according to estimates of the Department of Commerce—showed g,000,000 still unemployed. [2] Concentration of wealth remains an ever-present Studies of the srookings Institution show that in the issue. year 1929—when we reached a peak in the national income and in the produc- tion of goods and services—12,000,000 families had an of less than 36,000 fam- income ) VOLUME 20, NUMBER TI; THe Urrimate Democracy— of the people, by the people, and for the people. It serves every type of human need, both economic and cultural. It thrives in every country where freedom is not entirely destroyed. It re- moves the causes of war and of internal strife. To a world disheartened by unemployment and torn by war, peaceful pathway toward a better civilization. The cooperative movement gives people a sense of responsibility for their own It is a most powerful form of education; people learn by doing; they develop faith in themselves and in each other. a The cooperative movement is the practical application of the Golden Rule; tt ts the ultimate democracy.—Joy Elmer . Mor gan. destinies. Benson Y. Landis ilies had yearly incomes in excess of $75,- 000 and aggregate incomes of $9,800,- 000,000. Even in 1929 seven-tenths of America’s families spent practically all their income for bare necessities. Cer- tainly the large proportion of our fam- ilies must have more purchasing power. [3] Too long have high pressure methods forced goods on an unwilling people. Too long has much of our adver- tising given us half truths and outright deception. Too long has the consumer been confused by inaccurate labels. [4] The federal government has been partly responsible for the increased in- terest in a better system of distribution. Washington, like the rest of us, has been discovering the consumer. The govern- ment has established consumer agencies JANUARY 1937 The cooperative movement ts it offers a compiling information in regard to price trends and publishing data that di- rectly assist the consumer. Altho these agencies have limited power, they are of great value as educational forces. [5] Many citizens fear recurrence of former trends toward war, only in other countries but in our own. They see crime rampant and believe that one of the major forces making for crime is a bitter economic struggle spurred on by our not great inequalities of wealth and income. [6] A trend of modern capitalism has been to make tenants of the people. Take farm tenancy. In 1880, 25.5 per- cent of our farms were operated by 1935, 42-1 percent tenants. The people no tenants; in were manned _ by longer own America. Today corpora- tions control much of our wealth, But another powerful institution, the cooperative, has arisen to challenge the powerful corporations. The purpose of this JournaL feature is to explore the development of the cooperative ment and to examine the possible con- move- tributions it may make to American life. [ 1 | Courtesy, Consumers’ Guide WHAT the CHOICES ARE ILL Rocers once said that there were certain areas of the coun- try in which it appeared that every citizen had published at least one pamphlet proposing a “way out.” We have citizens who want to go back to the days of free competition, those who want controled capitalism as under the New Deal, those who want fascism, those who want socialism, those who want communism, those who want the cooperative movement. Free competition—Many among us say it was individualism that made the country great and enabled the pioneers to subdue the continent. The men and women in the covered wagon did less complaining, it is being said, than do the American tourists riding comfort- ably in their automobiles. We must re- cover the traditional type of private busi- ness enterprise. Men and organizations must be free to take risks, to engage in great enterprises. In this process they will reemploy our millions of workers. Controled capitalism—This has been the trend for two generations. If unre- strained private enterprise leads to too many abuses, the state must step in as umpire and draw up new rules for | 12 | carrying on business. In 1887 an Inter- state Commerce Commission was estab- lished, originally for the purpose of pre- venting railroads from charging exorbi- tant rates or discriminating against shippers. Subsequent acts and court de- cisions have greatly added to the powers of that Commission. However, not only must the government control, some say, but it must also compensate for the deficiencies of our system and perma- nently supply work for those who can- not obtain it thru private enterprise. Fascism—The corporative, totalitarian state suppresses its opponents, discards parliamentary rules, It is extremely na- tionalistic. Fascism, as it has developed in Italy, has bolstered capitalistic institu- tions. Private property is respected but state control of industry is almost com- plete. No class conflict between labor and capitalism is allowed. Industry is organized into corporations. There is complete regimentation under the con- trol of the state. Socialism—Altho variously defined, socialism generally refers to a system which provides for the control of the means of livelihood by the state or by the industrial workers. In the United THE JOURNAL OF THE NATIONAL Women’s Cooperative Market, “Farm-to-Home,” Bethesda, Md. States the aim of the socialists has been’ mainly an extension of public ownership of the basic industries—the railroads, coal mines, steel industry, large factories. Socialism would retain a considerable degree of private property in the form of consumers’ goods. It would have all utilities owned by the state and endeavor | to provide, by means of social insurance, for old age and security against unem- ployment and illness. Communism—Generally speaking, the communists have believed that the capitalist system is doomed to decay, Therefore, it is necessary for workers to organize themselves into small dis- ciplined groups, ready in time of crisis to take power from the capitalistic lead- ership. All communists base their doc- trines on the writings of Karl Marx, who emphasized a materialistic inter- pretation of history and economic evolu- tion. The experience in Russia has indi- cated that once power is secured, the communist minority will establish a dictatorship of the proletariat. The aim is to eliminate all privilege and to have eventually a classless society controled ! by those who work with hand and brain. The cooperative movement—The co- operative movement, which is thoroly in accord with sound American procedure and tradition, calls for the voluntary or- ganization of consumers to meet their ' needs. The method is slow and evolu- tionary; it emphasizes education and local group discipline. Experience has ! indicated that it results in the training of technical workers needed in the prog cesses; the establishment of great busi- nesses in which leaders receive rel: atively | small salaries; and efficiency in produc- ' tion. Its protagonists claim that the co- ope rative movement is a promising mid i- dle way. Many people who fear a strong ) \ central government look hopefully to | the cooperative because of its emphasis on voluntary methods rather than on state compulsion. Furthermore, the co- operative movement is being held be- fore us as a practical method whereby we may advance our ethical idealism— a way whereby we can bring justice and decency into economic relations and at the same time establish a system of pro- duction for use that will eventually in- sure plenty for all. EDUCATION ASSOCIATION | = een’ hip ads, ries, able n of all LVOr | nce, em- ing, the cay, kers dis- risis ead- doc- arx, 1ter- olu- ndi-. the h aim lave oled rain. > CO- ly in dure y or- their ‘ rolu- and has ning prox busi- ively \ duc- > CO mid- rong ¥Y to ORIGIN of the HE PLIGHT OF WEAVERS in the mills at Rochdale, England, in the early nineteenth century was typical of conditions in capitalistic industry at that time. The poverty among the industrial In fact, the years between 1840 and 1850 workers was almost unbelievable. may be called the “hungry forties” for The in the first flush of the industrial revolution, were startled at the rapidity with which men the industrial classes of England. Rochdale textile workers, were being displaced by machines. ‘In 1843 the Rochd: le weavers lost a strike and some found themselves with- out jobs. The “crazy weavers” met many times to consider a new way of organiz- ‘hey had the old dream of owning the factories and the ing their economic life. T | stores—and they brought their dream to earth by organizing themselves into a society of 28 members, one of them a } woman. From this humble beginning, the group worked out what are known } as the Rochdale principles, the tested = %¥ hasis } 1 on TION. ) methods of the cooperative movement. The Equitable Society of Rochdale Pio- neers first struggled with the question of capital. The savings of each member, a pound apiece, were pooled. At the end of twelve months their share capital amounted to $140. The Pioneers rented an old warehouse on Toad Lane, a street just about as unattractive as the name implies. Half of the capital went for equipment the building. The other half went for goods and improvement of —a small amount of flour, sugar, butter, and oatmeal. On December 21, 1844, Samuel Ashworth, the first employee of VOLUME 260, NUMBER I; Classing room for a modern cotton pro- ducer’s cooper ative COOPERATIVE MOVEMENT the cooperative, opened the doors of the store and announced that the Society was ready for business. The handful of weavers gathered to- gether in the store were not quite certain whether to buy or to run away from the enterprise. They had to submit to deri- of But the Rochdale Pioneers had known what it was to be laughed at before and they knew how to persist in spite of ridicule. Charles Howarth was the man mainly sion every sort. responsible for drawing up the purposes of the organization. They were put con- cisely as follows: [1] The establishment of a store for the sale of provisions and clothing. [2] The building of a number of houses in which those members desiring to assist each other in improving their domestic and social condition, may reside. |3| The manufacture of such articles as the Society may determine upon, for the employment of such members as may be without employment, or who may be sutf- fering in consequence of repeated reduc- tions in wages. |4] The purchase of estates. of land which shall be cultivated by the members when out of employment. |5| As soon as practicable, this Society shall proceed to arrange the powers of pro- duction, distribution, education, and gov- ernment; in other words, to establish a self- supporting home colony of united interests. |6] That, for the promotion of sobriety, 1 Temperance Hotel be opened in one of the Society’s houses as soon as convenient. ‘ The Rochdale Society, with 28 members and 28 pounds of capi- tal 1844 grew decade after decade which began JANUARY 1937 until now its membership numbers more than 44,000 persons and the capital is over half a million pounds. There were others who contributed to the origin of the cooperative movement. A predecessor of the Rochdale Pioneers was Robert Owen, an idealistic factory owner who could not forget the misery of the workers in England. He appealed to the factory owners and to his govern- ment to change conditions. Owen, who made his own factory a model for the nation, launched experiments aimed at bringing happiness to the laborer. Another man who preceded the Roch- dale Pioneers was William King, “the father of British cooperation.” Dr. King, a physician who spent the major portion of his time ministering to the poor, was not content to be concerned about dis- eases or the methods of making the sick well. He resolved, in addition, to do something about the overwhelming pov- erty that was one of the major diseases of the nation. He published a magazine called The Cooperator—in which, like Owen, he advocated that the workers own their machines. Like the Rochdale Pioneers, he appealed to groups of work- ers to start cooperative stores. As early as 1829 he reported the organization of a number of associations for mutual aid but they did not last. Neither King had the necessary technic to launch a permanent nor Owen movement. It remained for a group of hungry weavers to supply the method and the will for a cooperative move- ment destined of the earth. to spread to 40 nations [ 13 | PRINCIPLES of COOPERATION OOPERATION is a nonpolitical and voluntary method whereby the people unite and use their re- sources to supply their needs. The pur- pose is to get the largest possible direct access to the things that people want.” These are the words of J. P. Warbasse, who has been for many years president of the Cooperative League of the USA, the educational agency of the American consumers’ cooperative movement. Dr. Warbasse explains further: Thru cooperative societies the consum- ers perform for themselves the useful func- tions of supply which are otherwise per- formed by profit business, by the political state, by charity, or by the unaided in- dividual. These services are: The retail distribu- tion of commodities, such as food, cloth- ing, personal and household needs; the supplying of services such as banking, in- surance, entertainment, recreation, educa- tion, news, transportation, communication, housing, and health and property protec- tion; the supply of electricity, gas, heat, water, and other powers; importation and trading; the manufacture, production, processing, and warehousing of useful commodities; the production and sup- ply of raw materials such as metals, coal, wood, grains, fruits, vegetables, meat, and milk; printing and publishing; the conducting of such useful institutions as restaurants, hotels, laundries, and baths; the promotion of art, science, invention, and research; the adjustment of differ- ences between individuals such as can be effected by arbitration; the provision of useful work for labor as a means of liveli- hood; and the performance of all other services and the supply of all other com- modities such as people need for their common good. W hat are the differences between a corporation and a cooperative? THE CORPORATION [1] The business is conducted mainly for the benefit of stockholders. [2] Voting at stockholders’ meetings is carried on in accordance with the number of shares held. [3] Value of shares varies in accord- ance with market demands. Specula tion is not only permitted but encour- aged. [4] Earnings go to the owners in proportion to the amount they have invested. -[5| The incentive of stockholders is mainly that of profit-seeking. [ 14 | THE COOPERATIVE [1] The business is conducted for the benefit of the consumers. |2] Every stockholder has but one vote no matter how many shares he may own. There is no voting by proxy. [3] Shares of stock are sold at par value thru the cooperative. There is no speculation or watering of stock. [4] Share capital is paid the legal rate of interest. Earnings are distributed to members in proportion to their patronage. [5] The incentive of the member is quality, economy, and service. Sorters at work in a cooperative walnut plant One of the principles of the coope ative is that there shall be no religio political, racial, or social discrimination in membership. Members of cooper tives are, of course, members of othe community organizations and of pol tical parties. Sales are made for cash at prevailing market prices. This has been a testeg technic in most countries. Particularh when a cooperative is being established it is hardly in a position to engage it competitive price-cutting with — estab lished concerns. The cooperative usuall makes savings for its members, however and returns these savings by means 0 a dividend. In the United States we customaril) think of four types of functions per formed by cooperatives: Purchasing cooperatives—These are the most inclusive and probably most impor tant of all cooperatives. Ordinarily con sumers’ cooperation starts with a group 0 people who engage in the retail trade Consumers’ cooperation encourages _ the development of private property in cop- sumers’ goods such as homes, while at the) same time it works for the social owner ship of the means of production and dis tribution thru voluntary efforts. Credit cooperatives—Here is a special ized function performed by credit unions and associations of various types. Cooper ative credit organizations may supply both shortterm and longterm credit to theit members. The aim has been to provide credit at low interest rates and to take the! private profit out of the credit institution Marketing cooperatives—Agriculture is distinguished by individual production on the small family-size farm. But farmer need collective action when it comes t¢ dealing with distribution problems. Hence, there has come about a great development of marketing associations. Production cooperatives—Of these there are few on the North American continent’ They have been confined to isolated in, stances of industrial workers who have combined to own and operate a factory of a small group of fishermen who have or- ganized in order to process and can theif products. There is apparently an oppor, tunity for producers’ cooperatives among isolated groups that are exploited when’ selling their products in an unorganized way. Production cooperatives may also de velop out of consumers’ and marketing associations. THE JOURNAL OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION V h C -— ( « Oper 710U 1t1Oh )pere othe pol. ailing tester ulark ished ge in estab: sual) VeVer ins ol narily 3 per re the m por y con up oi trade s the 1 Con. at the) yw ner: id dis. pecial: unions ooper y both; their, rovide ke the! tution ure 1 10N on) armen nes t Henct. pment > there tinent.’ ed in, » have tory of ive oF n their oppor, among when’ anized Iso de: ‘keting ATION wr ¥ FARMERS’ MARKETING COOPERATIVES ANY A CITY PERSON will tell you glibly that farmers are rugged individualists and that urban dwellers are experienced in methods of working together. But the people who have joined cooperatives in significant numbers in the United States farmers. are Over 2,000,000 of the nation’s 6,800,- 000 farmers are members of at least one cooperative. Of the 20,000 farmers’ asso- ciations, 8794 were engaged primarily in marketing, had a gross membership of 2,490,000, and did an aggregate business of $1,343,000,000 in 1935. The farmers’ ventures into commerce by means of cooperative marketing as- sociations have been described as one phase of the peaceful agricultural revolu- tion which during the past four decades has brought about marked advances in methods of production, distribution, and consumption. Cooperative marketing is one of the most significant of the Amer- ican rural movements. Informal farmers’ cooperation in the United States dates from the early 1800's. Not until after the Civil War, however, when the Grange made its appearance, did we have widespread application of the tested technics of cooperation. In the I8go’s farmers’ grain elevators, cream- eries, and cheese factories began to ap- pear in the Middlewest and Northwest. VOLUME 26, NUMBER 1; Later on, livestock shipping organiza- tions were formed. Fruit growers, nota- bly those producing citrus fruits, began to organize. There was a growing recog- nition of the fact that individual market- ing had failed the farmer. Therefore, of necessity, farmers banded themselves into marketing associations which prom- ised them protection, better rewards, and more efficient distribution. Cooperative marketing by farmers rarely means direct marketing to the consumer. That has not been found practical in the United States. It means a setting up of a marketing agency owned and controled by farmers to per- form services otherwise rendered by an individual or a privately owned cor- poration. There have been three main types of farmers’ marketing associations in the United States: [1] A large majority are strictly local enterprises with an average membership of 40, organized mainly to market grain, dairy products, livestock, fruits, and vege- tables. Minnesota, Iowa, and Wisconsin lead in number of these organizations. local associations have been formed for business efficiency [2] Federations of in many sections. One of the earliest of these was the California Fruit Growers Exchange organized in 1895 as a central selling agency serving local and district JANUARY 1937 Packing oranges in a Califor- nia mutual orange association associations. “Land-o-Lakes” butter is a product of a selling agency serving hun- dreds of local creameries in the Northwest. [3] Spectacular movements for the or- ganization of statewide or regional mar- keting associations have included farmers in a large area. The first such organization was started among the raisin growers of California in 1912. In the postwar period large numbers of farmers joined organiza- tions of this type for the purpose of mar- keting cotton, tobacco, and grain. The author is of the opinion that the first and second types described above have demon- strated staying power that exceeds that of the third type. Localism has been both a strength and a weakness of the farmers’ marketing movement. These community organiza- tions are deeply rooted in the social life of the community. The members usu- ally know each other well. The man- ager is generally a farmer. The cooper- atives, which are formed to solve local problems such as handling costs, grad- ing, and selling, frequently handle sev- eral products of the community. The success of these cooperatives has fre- quently been due to the social and spir- itual cohesion of the members. However, the business advantages of purely local associations have in most cases been few. The cooperative with an average membership of 40 farmers does not handle a large volume of products and is unable to apply the most efficient methods of distribution to the enter- prise. Local co-ops have seldom made much impact on any large market. The managers are not usually the most skil- ful marketers available. Organization has often been on a loose, insecure basis. The great need is still the development of centralized marketing agencies that preserve the democratic principles of historic cooperation. National Cooperative Council, with headquarters in Washing- ton, established by farmers’ cooperatives to promote their interests. It includes 51 large cooperatives, with which are afhli- ated 4000 farmers’ marketing and pur- chasing cooperatives having 1,450,000 There is a members. In the year 1934-35, these co- operatives did a business of over $1,000,- 000,000. [ 15 ] FARMERS’ PURCHASING and CREDIT COOPERATIVES the United States have not only been exploited in the processes of selling their products but also in the processes of purchasing their supplies. It would appear that the glories of rugged individualism have largely vanished. HE FARMERS of During the past 25 years American farmers have been pace-makers in the organization of purchasing cooperatives. In 1913 there were 111 farmers’ purchas- ing cooperatives doing an annual busi- ness of about $6,000,000 a year. In 1935 there were over 1900 such organizations with a total membership of 790,000 farmers and doing a total business of $187,000,000. The Farm Credit Administration re- ports that “these organizations have be- come of increasing importance in the cooperative field.” It is estimated that one-eighth of the total farm supplies of the nation are now bought thru coopera- tive agencies. The main supplies are feed, seed, fertilizer, containers, spray materials, twine, oil and gasoline. A rapid development of cooperatives han- dling oil and gas for farm members has taken place recently. During the past ten years there has been a marked development of large- scale cooperative purchasing associations among farmers. An example of this type of an organization is the Eastern States Farmers’ Exchange with headquarters at Springfield, Mass., which reports more than 62,000 members. The Ex- change was organized in 1918 for the purpose of cooperative purchasing of feed, seed, and fertilizer. The annual turnover in terms of volume increased | 16 | from 4290 tons in 1918 to more than 325,000 tons iN 1935 In agricultural sill a unique method has been worked out between the gov- ernment and cooperatives thru the work of the federal farm credit agencies dur- ing the past 20 years. It does not seem to be generally known that the United States now has at least one complete public credit system. Its facilities are available only to farmers. These impor- tant federal credit agencies, now admin- istered by the Farm Credit tion, have Administra- loaned $3,700,000,000 during the past three years to farmers. For the most part, the federal credit agencies do not deal with farmers di- rectly. Rather, loans are instances to over made in most cooperative associations which in turn make loans to the in- dividual. This feature has given added strength to the farmers’ credit system. American farmers may secure long- term or mortgage credit thru the Fed- eral Land Banks which began to func- tion in 1917. One-third of the nation’s farm mortgages are now owned by the Federal Land Banks, the loans made thru 5000 local Farm Loan Associations. In 1923 the federal government estab- lished the Intermediate Credit Banks which make loans to cooperative associ- ations or to local banks. These institu- tions have met the need for loans run- ning for periods of 6 months to 3 years. They are made usually for the purpose of development, for the purchasing of equipment, and sometimes for produc- tion or marketing. THE JOURNAL OF THE NATIONAL Courtesy, Consumers’ Guide Within the past two years, 557 local production credit associations have been formed thruout the country. Within the reach of almost every farmer, they make available to those who can qui alify, short term credit for a term of not over one year. Each local organization serves an average of about 5 counties. Many farmers’ cooperatives have been encouraged and developed by the large} farm organizations such as the Grange, the Farm Bureau, and the Farmers’ Ed- The Ohio Farm Bureau Federation, a strong ucational and Cooperative Union. and vigorous organization interested in cooperative marketing, credit, purchas-' ing, and insurance, has taken action to, encourage the organizations not only of farmers but of city consumers. More than half of the farm property of the United States that is protected by fire insurance is covered by mutual fire | insurance associations owned and con- troled by farmers. The Cooperative Di- vision of the Farm Credit Administra- tion reports that there are now about , 1900 farmer-owned mutual fire insur- ance companies in the U. S. Fully half’ of these have operated continuously for , over 50 years. The first dates back more than 100 years. During the past two dec- ades the business of f the se farmer mut- uals has more than doubled. During the past year farmers in vari- ous sections of the nation have pioneered } in organizing cooperatives for electrifi- cation, working with the newly organ- ized federal Rural Electrification Ad- ministration. EDUCATION ASSOCIATION local been n the nake short one San been large | Inge, The rong “din chas- ' yn to, ly of erty d by | fire ! con- - D- istra- | bout | isur- half ’ y for , nore dec- mut- vari- ’ ered > trifi- gan- Ad- TION VER 1,200,000 people are members () of about 5400 credit unions in the United States. The credit union is the cooperative agency which meets the shortterm credit needs of the individual with average or small income. The credit union idea originated Germany in 1848 with Frederick Wil- liam Raiffeisen, whose life motto was: “Inasmuch as ye have done it unto one of the least of these my brethren, ye have done it unto me.” In the 1840's as mayor of the small town of Flammers- feld, he strained every nerve to find a new way of helping peasants and towns- people to deal with an extreme financial depression. Myron T. Herrick, formerly ambassador from the United States to France, and a student of cooperative credit, said of Raiffeisen: His strength lay in his indomitable will, his persistent fidelity to ideals, his ability to toil long and hard to make practical use of whatever theoretical knowledge he possessed, and above all his deep religious nature... Many Catholic priests and Protestant ministers acknowledged that his work for cooperation had more effect on the peasantry than all their sermons and ministrations. The credit union idea first began to grow on the North American continent in Canada, where a credit union was or- ganized in 1900 by Alphonse Desjardins in Levis, Quebec. In 1909 the Massachu- setts credit union law was passed. At present forty-one of our states and the District of Columbia have laws author- izing the organization and providing for the supervision of credit unions. In June 1934, the Federal Credit Union Act was passed by Congress and approved by the President. It permits federal charters for credit unions that meet the necessary requirements any- where in the United States. A federal credit union system has been established and its administration centered in the Farm Credit Administration. Seven peo- ple may start a credit union, but the group should have at least 75 potential members. The credit union simply re- ceives deposits from and makes loans to its members. As a rule loans are made without collateral, on the security of indorsed notes. Three-fourths of the credit unions in the U. S. have been organized since 1929. One of the oldest and largest credit unions is that among the employees of VOLUME 26, NUMBER I} CREDIT UNION MOVEMENT the New England Telephone Company. It was started in 1917 to serve members living in the Boston area but its services are now available to nearly all employees of the system. These employees now have 8 credit unions and 2 cooperative banks, with total annual receipts ex- ceeding $5,000,000, This represents re- markable growth from an experiment begun by 20 employees with $20 almost 20 years ago. The Waukegan, Ill. Cooperative Credit Union was organized in 1930 with 12 persons as incorporators. This is a onedie union that has grown up within a consumers’ cooperative. At the end of the year 1931 there were 90 mem- bers and the total assets were over $3000. At the end of the year 1936 there were 286 members and the total assets were ‘almost $35,000. During every month of the credit union’s existence it has added new members to its ranks. A public-school teacher in Pittsburgh, Pa., found herself hopelessly in debt. Some of her colleagues who wanted to rescue her found she was paying 42 per- B-y-Yololulel t-te 17-01 -n ane) gr “We Own the JANUARY 1937 cent interest on loans. Investigation showed that Pittsburgh teachers had borrowed $125,000 at 30 percent interest from one company alone. The teachers thereupon organized a credit union with lower interest rates. Within three years the credit union had a flourishing or- ganization with assets of $150,000 and had paid dividends on the investments of its members. Parish credit unions have been or- ganized largely as a result of the deep interest taken by various Catholic or- ganizations in the subject of cooperative finance. A parish credit union national committee has been set up by the Cath- olic Rural Life Conference. Over 60 credit unions have been started, mainly among the rural Catholic churches of the nation. An example is St. Andrews Credit Union, located in St. Louis County, Mo., organized in 1927. It started with 48 members; two years later the number had increased to 185 and gains have been made since. An example of a rural credit union is the one at Ellenville, N. Y., a village of 4ooo people. The credit union which started with a handful of members, early in 1936 reported a membership of 400 ‘and assets of about $100,000. When the union was started 13 years ago, it represented a daring venture in coopera- tive banking. It has never engaged in a drive for members. Large depositors have been turned away so that the credit union might meet the needs of persons with small savings. Interest has 4 2 been brought down to 4) percent. Cows’ a annenecennmnanonre nanan neneemaeuncaetie som Nansen rn ce CONSUMERS’ COOPERATION in th UNITED STATES N THE UNITED STATES consumers’ co- operation is rapidly moving to town. During the depression, membership in consumers’ associations has increased at a rate of about 10 percent a year. The associations are doing a business of over $1,000,000 a day. Perhaps the first attempt at consum- ers’ cooperation .began in Boston in the pre-Rochdale days, when a tailor named John G. Kaulback organized a buying club which later became a store. Local societies were organized by the hundreds and each operated a store, but the move- ment of population westward and the Civil War almost put an end to the movement. There was another wave of consumers’ cooperation in the early 1870's. The Knights of Labor and the National Grange encouraged coopera- tive purchasing. Most of these efforts failed. Out of them came a movement known as the “Sovereigns of Industry,” which functioned in the Northeast, be- ginning in 1874. This movement also rose and fell. Consumers’ cooperation in the United States has been a slow de- velopment as compared with that of a number of other nations. In the early 1g00’s immigrant groups in the Eastern states began to organize cooperatives, using the methods they had known in Europe. In 1915 was organized what is now the Cooperative League of the USA to serve as a central educa- tional agency. It gives advice and assist- ance to cooperatives and to individuals endeavoring to organize cooperatives. The League publishes an official organ, now called Consumers’ Cooperation. It is estimated that there are now about 4000 consumers’ cooperative societies (in addition to the credit unions) with about 1,000,000 members. This includes the or- ganizations operating retail stores, the farmers’ purchasing groups, the oil and gas stations, and those carrying on spe- cialized activities such as housing, baker- ies, insurance, telephone service, medical care, and other services. Periodicals with large circulation and the modern journals of opinion have paid considerable attention to the co- operative movement. For example, Scribner's Magazine for April 1936 pub- lished an article entitled “The Masses Go into Big Business,” by Bertram B. Fowler. Many new organizations have been formed thruout the U. S. during the last three years, In Flint, Mich., for example, a cooperative organization was formed in 1933 with 8 members and a capital of $22. At the end of 1935 it had 260 members and operated a cooperative grocery store with a monthly business of $3000. Consumers’ Cooperative Serv- ices in Chicago, organized by g people in 1932, functioned as a buying club for a year, then opened a grocery store near the campus of the University of Chicago in 1934. It is now doing a yearly busi- ness in excess of $35,000. A cooperative oil station in St. Paul, organized in 1930, RURAL ELECTRIFICATION IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES FARMS SERVED HOLLAND i GERMANY SWEDEN ONTARIO Each farm represents 10% of oll forms [ 18 | FARMS NOT SERVED Courtesy, Rural Electri- 4{dministration fication now does an annual business of $40,000 and returned savings of $3000 to its members in 1935. In Columbus, the Ohio Farm Bureau Cooperative Associ- ation assisted a group of city consumers, led by a member of the faculty of Ohio State University, to organize a coopera- tive oil station. It also serves as a buying agent for coal, fuel oil, and dry cleaning. Consumers’ Cooperative Services in New York City, which started business in a small cafeteria in 1920, now has 11 cafeterias, a credit union, bakery, and lending library. The cafeterias served more than a million meals andetook in a total of $434,396 during the 12 months ending March 31, 1936. Savings returned to members were over $20,000. This is the cooperative association that found itself paying 30 percent more than the wages called for in the NRA code for the restaurant trade. Consumers’ Coop- erative Services was the only employer which appeared before the NRA and asked that the code wage rate be in- creased. This cooperative, which has paid special attention to the maintenance of wage rates thruout the entire depres- sion, recently adopted a rule that the highest salary paid in the organization should not exceed five times the min- imum wage. Examples of older cooperatives in towns and cities are the stores in Cloquet, Minn.; Waukegan, Ill.; Sault Ste. Marie, Mich.; Dillonvale, Ohio; Maynard, Mass.; and Fitchburg, Mass. Each store has been doing a business averaging half a millon dollars a year. National Cooperatives was organized in 1933 as a purchasing agency for exist- ing cooperatives. It served 891 retail co- operatives thru the 11 wholesales that are federated in the national agency. During 1935 these units carried on a total business of almost $26,000,000. They handled 51,000 automobile tires “and tubes, 20,000 cars of motor fuel, 4,851,000 pounds of twine, and large quantities of other products. E. R. Bowen, general secretary of the Cooperative League of the USA, con- tends _ that distribution is necessary in an age of automatic power production. Distribution of purchasing power thru patronage dividends on pur- chases will not only produce economic justice but will also permit increasing amounts to be produced and distributed each year.” “consumer THE JOURNAL OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 00 its the ICI- rs, hio Ta- ng ng. in ess Il nd ved na ths ed is nd the for Ip- yer nd in- 1as ice he on in- in in ult 10; ISS. ESS ar. ed St- cO- lat cy. a ey nd OO ies yn- ng ed This is the modern, attractive interior of a Swedish shoe store, owned and operated cooperatively NEW FoRM of consumer cooperation in the United States is now being organized, Edward A. Filene, the noted Boston merchant, believes that co- operative department stores are neces- sary as an outlet for modern large-scale production. These stores are to be founded on wellknown cooperative prin- ciples. To encourage this development, Mr. Filene has established the Consumer Distribution Corporation, a national management organization, with $1,000,- ooo capital supplied by him. Before a store can be established in a community, there must be a sufficient number of per- sons interested in consumers’ coopera- tion to supply the needed local capital. This requires education as to the ben- efits to be derived from cooperative or- ganization. One suggested technic is to organize discussion groups of not more than 20 members in each group. When 10 groups are organized, a central co- operative committee is to be formed composed of one representative from each group. This committee will then consider the possibility of organizing a store. It must estimate the approximate sales volume for the first year. For ex- ample, cities having 500,000 population and over should expect annual retail sales of $2,000,000 and over as a mini- mum; those with 200,000 to 500,000 pop- ulation not less than $1,000,000. A steady campaign is planned to or- ganize as many local groups as possible. As the number increases, they are given representation on the central committee. Those converted to cooperation must be willing not only to purchase from a store but also to purchase shares which will provide the necessary capital. The pur- chase of one share at $10 is necessary for membership but a person may pur- chase as many more as he wishes. How- ever, to prevent control from falling into the hands of a few people a member has only one vote no matter how many shares he holds. The shareholders in a local store will not receive more than 6 percent on their investment. The financial benefit that members receive is in the form of divi VOLUME 260, NUMBER 1; COOPERATIVE Reproduced from “Swedish Cooperative Wholesale Society’’ DEPARTMENT STORES dends on their purchases. Nonmembers may purchase at a cooperative store, but they do not receive dividends on their purchases. The dividends they would have received had they been members goes into a reserve which may be used for educational purposes, for expansion of existing enterprises, and for loans to newly organized stores to assist in ini- tial financing. Usually cooperative enterprises charge competitive market prices. However, if cooperative organizations can be oper- ated at lower costs than profit-making enterprises, cooperatives should be able to sell at lower prices. By so-doing they may compel profit-making enterprises to reduce their prices, as has been done in Sweden. It is estimated that the minimum capi- tal necessary to start a store should be one third of the expected annual sales. For example, $1,000,000 of yearly sales would require $333,000 of capital. Community committees, it is esti- mated, must try to accumulate locally as much capital as possible. Seeking outside aid for even temporary financing in- JANUARY 1937 volves going into debt and may be dan- gerous to the success of the enterprise. The cooperatives might purchase on favorable terms stores operating on an unprofitable basis, if they have the nec essary facilities, because no payment for goodwill is required. If all conditions seem favorable, the Consumer Distribu- tion Corporation will make a survey of the project to discover whether it is a promising venture. If no going store can be found, the central committee must make a survey of buildings which seem suitable. Here again the Consumer Dis- tribution Corporation will render aid by surveying the essential factors. Mr. Filene has declared that the de- pression convinced him that “a system of retailing, to be most effective now, must be a system in which the customers are not only securing every possible as- from the distributors but in which they know and feel that all the profits are to be theirs.” He believes that a better distribution of the goods and sistance services which our economic system is capable of producing is “our basic eco- nomic problem.” | 19 | The NEGRO and COOPERATION HE NEGRO has found a new hope in consumer cooperation,” said J. L. Reddix, a teacher in the public schools of Gary, Ind., in a recent address. Mr. Reddix has had a large part in the development of Consumers Cooperative Trading Company of Gary, perhaps the most successful consumers cooperative among Negroes in the United States. This entire page is quoted from the ad- dress of Mr. Reddix: Let us give a brief picture of a typical industrial city, with a large Negro popula- tion, in the winter of 1932. I shall use my own city of Gary, Ind., as an example. At that time about 21,000 of the city’s hun- dred thousand were being fed by relief agencies. About one-half of the total Negro population of 20,000 were on relief. Gary is a one-industry town and at this time the steel mills were all but closed. Only one of the city’s thirteen banking institutions re- mained open. The situation looked hope- less. A group representing some 20 families and also several teachers met in the Roose- velt Highschool to discuss ways of combat- ing the ravages of the depression. We de- cided that the only hope of the group was to organize as consumers. At the first few meetings we collected about $24 with which we started a buying club. One of the members visited each family weekly and collected orders. Arrangements were made with one of the local Negro mer- chants to fill and deliver these orders. However, practically no savings were made by this arrangement. About three months later the group was fortunate enough to rent a closed store with fixtures. The store employed two helpers. One of the members who had an ancient truck made deliveries. These were trying times for the young cooperative, which was laughed at by the merchants in the neigh- borhood. But the organization struggled along thru the spring and summer of 1933 with a turnover of about $200 per week. Successful cooperative organizations do not grow up overnight. Many hours of effort must be given unselfishly to it. We believe that the most important single fac- tor in our progress at Gary has been our educational program. We realized from the beginning that if a cooperative business were to help our people, they must be able to distinguish it from ordinary profit busi- ness. They must study its fundamental philosophy, ideals, and history. In the fall of 1933, the educational committee made arrangements with the director of adult education of the Gary schools to start a class in cooperative economics as a regular course in the evening schools. The class now requires two instructors, one giving a course in “History and Philosophy of Co- operation,” the other, “Organization and Management of Cooperatives.” The crea- tion of this class proved to be a tremendous stimulus to the success of the organization. | 20 ] Courtesy, The Cooperative League THE JOURNAL OF THE The women members of the class organ- ized an active guild. In the spring of 1934, the educational committee published a pamphlet, “A Five- Year Plan for Lifting the Social and Eco- nomic Status of the Negro in Gary.” The first item on the program called for the opening of a large modern grocery store and meat market. The buying club store described above was closed and the new store opened in August 1934. In November the Consumers’ Cooperative was organized to take care of the credit needs of the mem- bers, both for grocery accounts and other- wise. Our organization has now reached the stage of rapid and healthy growth. Persons who a few months ago were skeptical are now becoming loyal supporters. We have over four hundred members and we give employment to seven persons regularly. Our turnover for 1935 was $35,000. What can consumer cooperation con- tribute toward a solution of the problems of the Negro in America? First, the program of cooperation is one of mutual selfhelp and it is only thru self- help that any people can lift themselves permanently. The capitalist system has been benevolent to the Negro: It has given him YMCA’s, schools, and a dole. But does it leave him with his selfrespect? Does it leave the race permanently parasitic? Does it cure Negro poverty? Second, cooperation contributes toward interracial goodwill. In Gary, for example, a splendid spirit of interracial cooperation was shown by officials of such organiza- tions as the Indiana operative Association. Farm Bureau Co- Third, consumers’ cooperation is within the present capacity of the Negro. Cooper- ators start with the simple phases and grad- ually develop toward the larger. Coopera- tion continually widens the field in which the common people’s minds may function. When we consider the limited field in which the Negro mind has been permitted to function in the social and economic life of America, is there any wonder that the Negro has been impoverished both men- tally and physically ? Fourth, it is an inspiring sight to watch the new spirit that comes to a lowly people when a cooperative is developed among them and to see them realize that they have achieved for their mutual good. It is fine to see former mill hands and laborers serving on boards of directors, managing stores, controling finance. The Negro has found a new hope in consumer cooperation. A few of the members of the Valley Consumers’ Cooperative, Cincinnati NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION An- nal ve- co- ‘he ore ore ew ber red m- er- the ns are ave ive rly. on- ms yne elf- ves has ven oes s it 0es ard ple, ion iZa- . Co- hin yer- ad- "ra- ich in ted life the jen- tch ple ong hey t is rers ing has ON COOPERATION zz GREAT BRITAIN Lake front view of two terminal ele- vators owned and operated by a Ca- nadian cooperative ITHIN 20 years after the Roch- dale Pioneers organized in 1844, there were over 400 similar asso- ciations in England. In 1863 these local associations took the first step toward federation by organizing the North of England Cooperative Wholesale Indus- trial and Provident Society. Tho prog- ress at first was slow, within two years it was evident that the principle of feder- ating local units into an efficient whole- sale organization would succeed. In 1869 the Wholesale built a Manchester. warehouse in After ten years there was a demand from the locals that the Wholesale, in addition to acting as a purchasing agent, produce for the consumers who were members. First a jam factory was estab- lished, later a soap factory and a shoe factory. Today this federation, known as the Cooperative Wholesale Society, is the largest business in England. It has 150 manufacturing plants which make more than 200 products for its members. It has its own cooperative banks, the vol- ume of whose business is second only to that of the Bank of England. Today there are about 1200 local con- sumers’ cooperative associations in Eng- land, with a total of over 7,200,000 mem- bers. One-eighth of the retail trade of the country now passes over the cooper- ative counters. In the midst of the world crisis the cooperatives of England have maintained the money wages of their VOLUME 26, NUMBER I; employees at the 1929 level and as a re- sult the purchasing power of their em- ployees has increased. During the de- pression, while the corporations of the United States were releasing people from their payrolls, the cooperatives of England increased employment by over 30,000 persons. Cooperation in England did not grow without struggle and pain. In the early years there was a confusion of aim. Fur- thermore, the economists, educators, business leaders, government, and intel- lectuals of 1844 were divided into those who did not know what was happening in Rochdale and those who, knowing, ridiculed the experiment. But by 1870 a different story could be told. In the pe- riod from 1870 to 1890, the lecturers and writers on the movement included a dis- tinguished group of Christian Socialists, including J. M. F. Ludlow, F. D. Mau- rice, Charles Kingsley and John Stuart Mill. About that time, too, the trade unions began to be interested. Meanwhile, there arose a new leader, J. T. W. Mitchell, a great prophet who has influenced the cooperative move- ment of Britain from that day to this. Chairman of the Cooperative Wholesale Society, his vision and faith shaped the course of that organization during the critical years. In describing the reasons for the re- markable development of the coopera- tive movement in England, Beatrice JANUARY 1937 Webb—one of the noted historians of the cooperative in England—writes: It is not that these cooperators have been men of exceptional ability... . They have, it is true, been men of character, and often even of moral distinction, because they have been attracted to the work not by the vision of “making money” for them- selves, but by the satisfaction of rendering a public service. . . . They achieved for their societies a financial success because they adopted a system of organizing indus- try which (besides being based on moral- ity) proved to have a solid economic foundation. In England today every employee of a cooperative society carries a trade union card. Horace M. Kallen, the emi- nent American philosopher, says after studying the English cooperatives as em- ployers, that they have been much more favorable to organized labor than pri- vate employers have generally been. The right of labor to organize is automat- ically recognized. Cooperative employ- ees are members of a special trade union of their own. Joint boards, representing the cooperatives and the organized em- ployees, have been set up for the adjust- ment of disputes. The British Union, founded in 1869, carries on propaganda Coc perat ive and education. In 1919 a cooperative col- lege was established in Manchester. The Union also carries on extensive publish- ing activities. [ 21 | THE BUTCHER, THE BAKER, THE CANDLESTICK MAKER IN SWEDEN. COOPERATION zz SWEDEN N 1934 the editor of the St. Louis Post-Dispatch noticed a report from Europe to the effect that Sweden was the first nation to recover from worldwide depression. He thought there might be a story for the United States and immediately dispatched a member of his staff to Sweden. The result was a series of articles by Marquis W. Childs. Recently the Yale University Press has brought out Mr. Childs’ illuminating book entitled Sweden: the Middle Way. Within the past year numerous ar- ticles about Sweden’s accomplishments have appeared in the American press. Isaac F. Marcosson, writing in the Sat- urday Evening Post, said: The roster of the idle in Sweden has gone from the top figure of 180,000, re- corded late in 1933, to 43,000, or less than 1 percent of the population. The backbone of Swedish recovery is a vital democracy. . . . It expresses itself in the cooperation that, in fair economic weather or foul, has been the mainstay of economic stability. . . . The educational program includes so- called group conferences of 25,000 work- ers in K. F. [ Kooperativa Forbundet, “Co- operative Union” | shops and factories. . . a correspondence school . . school . . a summer . «a summer resort....K. F. publishes a weekly magazine with a circu- lation of 500,000 and a fortnightly review. The Swedish cooperative movement has the reputation of being a “trust buster.” The Swedish movement first followed the Rochdale principle of sell- ing at market prices but it soon aimed to destroy private monopoly by competing directly with the great trusts. In one commodity after another the coopera- tives have forced prices down. The co- operative union, a central federation, to to carries on wholesaling, manufacturing, propaganda. Over one-third of the fam- ilies in Sweden are enroled in coopera- tive associations. The 750 co-ops now carry on over one-fifth of the retail and wholesale trade of the nation and man- ufacture about 10 percent of the goods. As an example of the way the co- operative union has benefited the con- sumer and successfully competed with the most highly organized private en- terprise in the world, let us consider the case of electric light bulbs. For many years Swedish consumers thought they were paying too much for bulbs. For example, in 1928 the prevailing price for a 25-watt lamp was 37 cents in Sweden. About this time the cooperative union began to study the possibility of produc- ing electric light bulbs. In May 1931— in cooperation with the wholesale so- cieties of Denmark, Finland, and Nor- way—the Swedish cooperatives helped to form the North Europe Luma Co- operative Society. They built a plant and production was begun. Even while the cooperative plant was being constructed, private enterprises reduced the price of light bulbs in Sweden from 37 cents to 27 cents. Soon after the Luma coopera- tive lamp appeared on the market it was made available to the consumer at 22 cents. Even this price represented a safe margin to the cooperative producers; the private manufacturers and distributors immediately proceeded to meet the price of the cooperatives. In the first year of its operation the cooperative plant serv- ing the Scandinavian countries made 3,000,000 lamps. The Swedish coopera- tives have given publicity to this experi- ence in production and distribution, and THE JOURNAL OF From “‘Swedish Cooperative Wholesale Society’’ Packing house, crisp bread fac- tory, and Luma electric light plant—typical Swedish co-ops Swedish consumers recognize what has been accomplished. The Swedish cooperatives have also made a demonstration of low cost hous- ing. Today in Stockholm, a city of over a half million people, nearly 15 percent of the families live in cooperative apart- ment houses. Co-op insurance societies have also been successful in Sweden. Marquis W. Childs observes: It is obvious that the men who direct this great enterprise are impeled by more than a monetary motive. They take a pride, which is not unlike a species of family pride, in the achievements of the organization. This is apparent as they show the visitor thru the Tre Kronor mill that rises like a massive cliff above the blue water of Stockholm harbor, pointing out the latest machines and the newest and most efficient laborsaving devices. . . It is an evidence of vitality that younger men are coming on to replace those who have built up the organization. The cooperative enterprise is man- aged by Albin Johansson, who is widely regarded in Sweden as “the most astute merchant in the country.” Johansson re- ceives a salary the equivalent of about $5000 a year in the United States; the salaries of other executives are in pro- portion. Sweden has been fortunate in having its cooperative movement led by a man who combined business genius with cooperative methods. Johansson, who began as a shop clerk at the age of 17, is today a leader in the nation’s public affairs. He lives in a three-room apartment to avoid the criticism that he “enjoys a life of luxurious ease at the expense of the cooperative movement.” This success story differs from those fed to the American public for decades! THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION — “hh a> rr —_—.— eee ect yre ol he ley rill lue yut nd It yer ho in- ely re- ut he ro- in by US Nn, n’s ym he he SC CS: A cooperative creamery in Denmark, land of cooperation NOTHER SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRY that has continually been held up as an example for the American people, particularly for the American farmer, is Denmark. The Danish cooperative movement and the remarkable educa- tional institutions—the folk highschools —have succeeded in transforming what was a hopeless peasantry in 1860 into an agricultural society that is probably as efficient, as satisfactory as any on the face of the earth. In the 1860’s more than 4o percent of the farms were operated by tenants, exactly as in the case of the United States today. Today farm ten- ancy is practically eliminated in Den- mark. Two generations ago the propor- tion of illiteracy among the adult popu- lation was high. Today Denmark is re- ported to be a literate nation. The rebirth of the Danish people be- gan shortly after the war between Den- mark and Germany in the 1860’s, which resulted in the defeat of Denmark. The land was worn out; the people, discour- aged; the national spirit, at a low ebb. Fortunately, there emerged leaders among the people. Among the most noted of the leaders was Bishop N. F. S. Grundtvig, a clergyman, educator, and prophet, who became the father of the folk highschools, or people’s colleges. Over one-fourth of the young people of rural Denmark have attended these people’s colleges. One of the earliest of these schools put its motto on a sign be- fore the main entrance. It was a quota- tion from the Dane, Enrico Dalgas “What is lost outwardly must be won inwardly.” The Danish farmers began to recog- nize the necessity of changing their prac- tices. The Western farmers of the United States were producing a surplus of grain, much of which was shipped to Europe at prices lower than those pre- vailing there. As the Danish farmer could not compete with the cheap grain from the American prairies, he shifted from grain crops to animal products. The rise of the cities in Western Europe provided a market for the bacon and the butter and eggs of the Danish farmers. The farmers’ cooperative movement in Denmark was begun under the lead- ership of Stiller Anderson with the or- VOLUME 26, NUMBER I; na JANUARY 1937 COOPERATION zx DENMARK ganization of dairies in 1882; there are now over 1400 of these local creameries. In 1887 cooperative bacon factories were started; these within recent years have handled 85 percent of Danish bacon pro- duction. The farmers also have organ- ized over 700 societies for the export of eggs, over 1300 feed purchasing societies, over 1400 fertilizer societies. Total mem- bership in these agricultural production and marketing associations is over half a million. Most Danish farmers are members of several local cooperatives. These are united in the Federation of Danish Cooperative Societies. The consumers’ movement has also been highly developed in Denmark. The first cooperative store was founded in 1866 at Thisted in Jutland under the leadership of Christian Sonne. By 1885 there were 200 cooperative stores; today there are more than 1800. As in most other nations, the organization of retail stores was soon followed by their feder- ation into wholesales. Cooperative credit has also been ex- tensively organized in Denmark. Small cooperative banks, federated in a cen- tral bank with headquarters at Copen- hagen, serve the individual member. Loans on real estate are made available thru cooperative building societies. In Denmark, as in Sweden, the cooperative movement has been accompanied by a labor movement and by political action on the part of both urban workers and the farmers. The railroad, telegraph / lines, and long distance telephone lines are owned and operated by the state. The railways are used to serve a social purpose rather than being operated for the benefit of stock holders. The farmers and the workers are the ruling classes. Denmark seems to have taken a great many steps toward eliminating the ex- tremes of wealth and poverty. The Danes have achieved a wide diffusion of the ownership of homes and of con- sumer goods. They have, by cooperative effort, made it possible for farmers and workers to secure credit at low interest rates. They have socialized the state to a remarkable degree and have put thru credit legislation providing for health, old age, and unemployment insurance. Maurice Francis Egan, formerly Min- ister of the United States to Denmark, comes to the following conclusion: Denmark is above all a land of coopera- tion and a land whose people are very highly civilized. In fact, no people existing are more literate, more interested in things of the mind, more advanced socially, than the Danes. Frederic C. Howe, wellknown Amer- ican journalist, who has for many years been a student of Denmark, writes: The culture of the country has literally issued from the soil. There are more news- papers read per capita in Denmark, and a higher degree of intellectual curiosity about all kinds of subjects, including political and cultural ones, than in any other coun- try with which I am familiar. [ 23 | saree oe a SOCIAL and ETHICAL RESULTS of COOPERATIVES HE FINEST PRODUCT of the coop- eratives is the cooperators,” says I. H. Hull, pres- ident of National Cooperatives and general manager of the Indiana Farm Bureau Cooperative Association. “The coopera- tive movement is an exemplification and a practical application of the Gol- den Rule.” In 1912 two commissions went from the United States to Europe to study agricultural cooperation in the various nations. One was the official Congres- sional group, whose report resulted in the establishment of Federal Land Banks. The other was an_ unofficial group known as the American Com- mission for the Study of Agricultural Cooperation in Europe. One of the members of that Commission, C. O. Gill, then secretary of the Commission on the Church and Country Life of the Federal Council of Churches, reported in 1914: Toyohtko Kagawa The rapid expansion and magnitude of these organizations are not more impressive than their social effects. . . . Cooperation has had a most marked effect on the promo- tion of thrift. . . . Cooperatives are pro- moters of business integrity. They are promoters of democracy. . .. Coopera- tion is a great developer of responsibility among individuals. . . . Illiterate men are taught to read. Neighbors who were ene- mies become friends. Many men make great sacrifices for the cooperative move- ment. Some leaders think of cooperation as a sort of social reform and in some cases almost a religion. . . . Many agricultural societies impressed the investigator as Christian institutions quite as much as did the churches in that country. Mr. Gill tells of the social contribu- tion of Raiffeisen banks in Germany: They supported infant and continuation schools. They furnished schools with maps, musical instruments, and other equipment. They made grants to village libraries, or- ganized circles for reading and acting, and | 24 | established clubs for adults and juveniles. They conducted village institutes; built meeting halls; and established children’s savinys banks, telephone services, and arbi- tration courts. They organized gymnastic societies, local nursing centers, infant aid associations, and anti-tuberculosis leagues, and engaged in other work of great variety. Courtesy, Rural Electrification Administration In 1919 the Roman Catholic bishops of the United States adopted a program of social reconstruction which included the following statements: The astonishing difference between the price received by the producer and that paid by the consumer has become a scan- dal of our industrial system. The obvi- ous and direct means of reducing this discrepancy and abolishing unnecessary middlemen is the operation of retail and wholesale mercantile concerns under the ownership and management of the con- sumers. In addition to reducing the cost of liv- ing, the cooperative stores would train our working people and consumers generally in habits of saving, in careful expenditure, in business methods, and in the capacity for cooperation. When the working classes have learned to make the sacrifices and to exercise the patience required by the ownership and operation of cooperative stores, they will be equipped to undertake a great variety of tasks and projects which benefit the community immediately and all its constituent members ultimately. ... No machinery of government can THE JOURNAL OF operate automatically, and no official and bureaucratic administration of such ma- chinery can ever be a substitute for intelli- gent interest and cooperation by the in- dividuals of the community. Walter Rauschenbusch, one of the great prophets of social religion, de- scribed cooperatives as one of “the powers of the coming age,” and added: The cooperative associations represent a new principle in economic life, clearly of Electricity—which is being made available to rural America thru the Rural Electrification Administration —lightens burdens a higher ethical quality than the principle dominant in capitalism. . .. They have proved what a fund of good sense and abil- | ity lies unused in the lower classes. . . . They are creating everywhere trained groups, capable of assuming larger respon- sibilities when the time comes, and a new spirit that can afford to look down on the | exploiting spirit of capitalism. Thus the achievements of these humble cooperators are the beginnings of a higher business morality. Toyohiko Kagawa, noted Japanese, leader, who spoke to tens of thousands of people in the U. S. in 1936, says: Personally I am pouring my prayers and the reddest blood of my life into the work of carrying forward this quiet, undramatic economic reformation. . . . Christianity in the early centuries had power to readjust economic values. Lately, Christianity has not done much to readjust the economic system in terms of religious values. Chris- tianity now needs some new method in order to influence a world with tremendous machinery and equipment, a world ac- tually suffering from plentifulness. How shall Christianity change the economic sys- tem? Thru cooperatives, which are the love principle in economic action. THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION nd 1a- lli- In- he he d: ta of ple ave bil- } ned on- lew the , the rors 1ess ese nds and ork atic y ip just has mic Iris- | in lous ac- low SYS- love ION EDUCATION Dy MARITIME MIRACLE is the phrase used to describe the methods used and the results attained by the Extension Department of St. Francis Xavier University in Nova Scotia. This University has carried on a uni- que project of adult education aimed largely at the organization of coopera- tive institutions so that there will be a better life among the farmers, fisher- men, and miners of Nova Scotia. Dur- ing the war the University conducted a people’s college for adults. From time to time since, its professors have con- ducted study clubs for adults who are struggling to learn about new economic practices. Last year there were goo study clubs, each enroling about 10 persons. As a result of study clubs have come cooperative buying clubs. Twenty-five of these have already evolved into con- sumers’ cooperative stores. Cooperative production has been begun in lumber mills, factories for canning lobster meat, and other processing plants. These co- operative societies have also marketed their products. Forty-five credit unions have been started with a total capital of $90,000. This widespread experience in co- operative selfhelp in Nova Scotia has re- sulted in a new interest in education not only of adults but also of children. In the fishing village of Dover, cooperative ef- forts resulted in both a factory and a credit union. In one year the surplus re- turned by the cooperatives to 55 families was $4000. Dover then established a two- room instead of a one-room school for its children. The Central Cooperative Wholesale, with headquarters at Superior, Wis., during the past several years, has con- ducted 8-week training schools for pro- spective employees of cooperative stores. The last annual meeting of this cooper- ative voted to participate in the establish- ment of a national cooperative college with other interested central coopera- tives. Minnesota, thru its State Department of Education, has prepared curriculum materials on cooperation which is made available to schools and to such adult study groups as may request them. Wis- consin is the first state to enact a law VOLUME 26, NUMBER 1; th COOPERATIVES requiring the teaching of cooperative marketing and consumers’ cooperation in the public schools. The following statutes became effective September 1, 1935: Every highschool and vocational school shall prescribe adequate and essential in- struction in cooperative marketing and consumers’ cooperatives. . . . The govern- ing boards of the university, state teachers colleges, and county normal schools shall provide in their respective institutions ade quate and essential instruction in coopera- tive marketing and in consumers’ coopera- tives. ... The state superintendent of public instruction and the dean of the col- lege of agriculture at the state university shall cooperate in the preparation of out- lines to be used by teachers in the courses offered . . . and they shall have the power to request the assistance of any teacher or professor in any of the schools of the state in the preparation of such outlines. They may also make a recommended list ot material now in pamphlets or books for guidance to teachers of these courses. . . . In granting certificates for the teaching of the courses in economics, the social studies and agriculture, adequate instruction in co- operative marketing and consumers’ co- operatives shall be required. A Recreation Cooperative has been organized with headquarters at Dela- ware, Ohio. It is described as “a national mail order cooperative for the promo- tion of cooperative leisuretime activities such as music, dancing, drama, games, etc., and for the supply of necessary ma- terials and equipment.” The officers of JANUARY 1937 Courtesy, Consumers’ Guide The wise consumer buys ac- cording to quality standards the Recreation Cooperative also organ- ize institutes for the training of recrea- tion leaders. “On the theory that co- operative economics and cooperative play go hand in hand,” the Noble County, Ind., Farm Bureau and the cooperatives of the county, have for several years stressed cultural and recrea- tional as well as economic activities. In the summer of 1936 over tooo per sons from 30 states attended 12 cooper- ative institutes maintained by con- sumers’ cooperatives and their educa- tional agencies in the United States. In- struction was given in technical questions for officers and employees of cooperatives and also in general consumer problems for members of cooperatives and others interested. The Ohio Farm Bureau, with headquarters in Columbus, Ohio, has published a Guide Book on the organ- ization and literature of discussion groups entitled “Cooperative Discussion Circles.” During the school year 1934-35 there were 137 student cooperatives on 112 college campuses. More than 150 colleges, members of the Midwest Debate League, argued the merits of consumers’ cooperation as the chief subject for intercollegiate de- bate this fall and winter. The subject was, “Resolved: That the Further De- velopment of the Consumers’ Coopera- tive Movement Is Socially Desirable.” VERY PERSON interested in education and democ- racy may well study the fast-growing cooperative move- ment. This 16-page JoURNAL feature will be found useful in the following classes: Eco- nomics, history, current events, sociology, social problems, ag- riculture, banking, commerce, home economics. The Consumers’ Counsel, Agricultural Adjustment Administra- tion, Washington, D. C., will send free upon request Sources of Information Regarding Cooperatives, a useful list of agencies interested in cooperatives. Among governmental agencies pub- lishing data of use to students and teachers are the following: Farm Credit Administration; Consumers’ Project, U. S. Department of Labor; Bureau of Labor Statistics, U. S. Department of Labor; Consumers’ Counsel, AAA—all in Washington, D. C.; and Tennessee Valley Associated Cooperatives, Knox- ville, Tenn. Voluntary agencies of the cooperative and related groups that give services to students and teachers include: Cooperative League of the USA, 167 West 12th St, New York, N. Y. The National Cooperative Council, 1731 Eye St., N. W., Washington, D. C. Regional Educational Agencies: Central States Cooperative League, 3954 West 27th St., Chicago, Ill.; Eastern States Cooperative League, 112 East roth St., New York, N. Y.; Northern States Co- operative League, 458 Sexton Building, Minneapolis, Minn.; National Coopera- tive Women’s Guild, Box rooo, Superior, Wis.; Credit Union National Associa- tion, Madison, Wis.; Public Ownership League, 127 N. Dearborn St., Chicago, Ill.; Consumer Distribution Corporation, 330 West 42nd St., New York, N. Y. Periodicals publishing current in- formation on cooperatives include: Consumers’ Cooperation. Monthly. Co- operative League of the USA. 167 West 12th St., New York, N. Y. $1 a year. Cooperative Journal. Every other month. 1731 Eye St., N. W., Washington, D. C. $1 a year. News for Farmer Cooperatives. Monthly. Farm Credit Administration, Washington, D. C. 50¢ a year. | 26 | SUGGESTIONS for FURTHER STUDY Courtesy, The Cooperative League Guide. Twice a month. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Wash- ington, D. C. Free. Consumers’ The following bibliography will be found useful to students of the coopera- tive movement: General Hughes, Hugh J. Cooperation Here and Abroad. Minneapolis: Northern States Cooperative League, 1933. 48p. 10¢. A comprehensive treatment of cooperation in many nations. Kallen, Horace M. The Decline and Rise of the Consumer: A Philosophy of Consumer Cooperation. Order from the Cooperative League for $2.75. 1936. 484p. Farmers’ Movements Elsworth, R. H., Statistics of Farmers’ Cooperative Business Organizations. Washington, D. C.: Farm Credit Ad- ministration, 1936. 129p. Free. The story of American farmers’ marketing organiza- tions. Knapp, Joseph C., and Lister, John H. Cooperative Purchasing of Farm Supplies. Washington, D. C.: Farm Credit Admin- istration, 1935. 92p. Free. Extent of farm- ers’ cooperation in buying. Myers, W. I. The Farmers’ Stake in Cooperative Credit. Washington, D. C.: Farm Credit Administration, 1936. 18p. Free. Consumers’ Cooperation Cowling, Ellis. 4 Short Introduction to Consumers’ Cooperation. Bloomington, Ill.: Central States Cooperative League, 1935. 43p. 15¢. A basic interpretation. ETERNAL AS THE UNENDING CIRCLE HARDY AS THE EVERGREEN PINE Symbol of the Cooperative League THE JOURNAL OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Fowler, Bertram B. Consumer Cooperation in America. Order from the Cooperative League for $1. 1936. 305p. An account of the recent growth of consumers’ cooperation. Parker, Florence E. Consumers’ Credit, and Productive Coopera- tion in 1933. Washington, D. C.: Bureau of Labor Statistics, De- partment of Labor, 1935. A com- prehensive review. Warbasse, J. P. Cooperative Democracy. 3rd ed. Order from the Co- operative League for $1.50. 1936. 285p. A thoro discussion of the consumers’ co- operative League, 1936. 24p. 15¢ Webb, Beatrice. The Discovery of the Consumer. New York: The Cooperative League. 32p. 10¢. A brief analysis of the fundamentals of a society based on con- sumers’ cooperative organization. Credit Unions Bergengren, R. F. Credit Union: A Co- operative Banking Book. Madison, Wis.: The Credit Union National Association, 1931. $1.50. A valuable treatise on credit union organization and development. Federal Credit Unions. Washington, D. C.: Farm Credit Administration. Cir- cular 10. 1934. Describes cooperative thrift and loan associations. Cooperation in Europe Bowen, E. R. Sweden: Land of Eco- nomic Democracy. New York: The Co- operative League, 1936. 24p. 15¢. Childs, Marquis W. Sweden: The Mid- dle Way. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1936. I7Ip. $2.50. An interpretation ot Sweden’s economic democracy. Goldmark, Josephine; Hollman, A. H.; and Brandeis, Alice G. Democracy in Denmark. Washington, D. C.: National Home Library Foundation, 1936. 158p. 25¢. The remarkable story of an enlight- ened people. Webb, Beatrice and Sidney. The Con- sumers’ Cooperative Movement. London: Longmans Green & Co., 1921. $7.20. A thoro historical study. Hall, F., and Watkins, W. P. Coopera- tion: A Survey of the History, Principles, and Organisation of the Cooperative Move- ment in Great Britain and Ireland. Man- chester, Eng.: The Cooperative Union, Ltd., 1934. 408p. $3. 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