ern TH wg The NATIONAL ELEMENTARY PRINCIPAL BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION NEWER PRACTISES | IN READING IN THE | ELEMENTARY SCHOOL SEVENTEENTH YEARBOOK JULY i938 Vol. XVII, No. 7 "THE NATIONAL ELEMENTARY PRINCIPAL BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Published in October, December etn ten Ret and July by the Department of Bani ich aha oriamer thaw of the Association of the United States. Al Wechetey pincipe inistrative, supervisory, and teaching—are eligible to active beens gs areon t. ate a a $3 dues entitles acti bers to atten ; the department, “to hold Saber doomed the Bulletins. nea “a f ee ~~ be had by al I meer of the ~ agree ni Anca * n any phase schoo w peyin h ¥ wir They ere pe pai ail privileges except the right to woke pe hold office. me es 2 to bers is $3 of the Yearbook, $2; sing! ; ofthe Bae pet ag amen per ay Pa ried e © single copies” — prog November 20, 1922, at the postoffice at Washington, D.C, Sight Act of 24,1 Acceptance ‘tor. at ial rate of ie ided “Yor in Section 1108, Act’ of October 3,197, December 18,192 i Executive end Editorial Offices, 1201 Sixteenth Street, Northwest, Washington, D. C., OFFICERS OF THE DEPARTMENT, 1937-38 President, Mason A. Stratton, Brighton Retoutive Committee “Avenue Saha! Atlantic City, N, J. Maude A. Rhodes, Whitefoord School Atlanta. Sages Piret - Vicepresident, Edythe J. Brown, 316 Mrs. Edith es, Washington LaMonte Terrace, South Bend, Ind. Gatewood Sebooke 2 Norfolk, Va. | BeAinde Vicepresident, Isabel Tucker, Festus’ ~Ira_M. —_ 177. Gibson Avenue ade School, St. Louis, Mo. ains, N. Y. 7 Irvin A. Wilson, 437 8. Stone Avenue 4 Third Vicepresident, H B. Norton, Robin- ‘LaGrange, Ill. son School, Birmingham, Ala. Certification Division, Cassie F. Ro " Pourth Vicepresident, Arnold Gregory, Director, 2609 Bristol St., Omaha, Re ee erie Lincoln Park, Mich. Li mn, Director Division, Herbert Gi Bact Retirement elo M. Emma Brooke ; “ Basoutive Secretary, Eva G. Pinkston, 1201 Director, ‘Windsor, Ashtabula Counting Sixteenth St., N. W., Washington, D.C. Ohio, The contents of this venidiaak are listed i in the Education Index. Chairmen of Committees: “ Révorial: Committee for 1938 Yearbook Library. Committee "Maude McBroom, Iowa City, Iowa Dr. James W. Mates, Pittsburgh, Pa. Conference on Elementary E ducation Resolutions Committee ee —_ meager B. Joynes, Norfolk, Va. Harry H. Haw, San Diego, Calif. : ae Necrology Committee ' “Vigual Education Committee x“ Arnold Growory, Lincoln Park, Mich. Eugene H. Herrington, Denver, Colo, 7 ~ Tue Frontisprnce—Reading activities in a first-grade class. The children in this first-grade class varied in reading readi- ness, as measured by the Monroe Reading Aptitude Tests in the last month of their kindergarten year, from a percentile score of 28 to one of 95. The median was 75. No child had a mental age below six years and two months when he entered the first grade. In the first grade these children were grouped according to the results of the reading-readiness tests. No formal reading was in- troduced in the lowest group for several months, except as indi- vidual children showed readiness and were shifted to one of the other groups. The teaching was differentiated for each group and for individuals within the group, even to the use of different be- ginning reading texts. Experience charts supplemented the work in pre-primers. Library shelves furnished a wide range of mate- rials for individual children as fast as they called for additional reading. This photograph shows the class in a typical reading situation, with a few children at the reading table, others choosing books from the library shelves, a group practising together on direction cards, a group reading from an experience chart, one child “check- ing” another on the vocabulary of “farm” words, and still another child working on a drawing of a silo for one of the farm reading booklets. Reading charts, dictated by the children and containing material about the raising of their chickens, are seen on the black- board ledge. The blackboard shows the children’s plan of duties for the day with reference to their farm unit. During the year every child progressed as rapidly as he was able, and no one was permitted to have a feeling of failure. No promotions were made at mid-year. No school marks were sent to parents; instead, a note was sent at regular intervals indicating the progress of the child. When advisable, conferences were held with parents. On the Gates Primary Reading Tests, given in May, no child in this class had a reading grade-equivalent of less than 2.06. Fifteen children had reading grade-equivalents of 3.10 or higher. The median of the class was 2.98. The whole experience seems to indicate that in an ordinary school situation it is possible to dif- ferentiate teaching so as to meet differences in reading readiness. The photograph (by Kent), as well as the information given above, was supplied by the University Elementary School at the State University of Towa. Newer Practises in Reading in the Elementary School SEVENTEENTH YEARBOOK THE NATIONAL ELEMENTARY PRINCIPAL Bulletin of the Department of Elementary School Principals, National Education Association Vol. XVII, No. 7 July 1938 Price $2 Copyright, 1938 National Education Association THE EDITORIAL COMMITTEE FOR 1938 Mavupe McBroom, Chairman University Elementary School, State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa L. M. Frertscu Pease, Mathews, and West Avenue Schools, Austin, Texas CrcELIA GALVIN Lucretia Mott School, No. 3, Indianapolis, Indiana PREFACE HY PUBLISH another book on reading? In view of the wealth of \\/ information already available on the subject, this question perhaps calls for a brief explanation. In spite of the tremendous amount of literature—scientific and other- wise—in the field of reading, many important problems in this field are still unsolved. Only by continuous efforts to coordinate and use the results of research, critical thinking, and practical experience can efficient progress be made toward the solution of such problems. This yearbook, we believe, combines these essential elements to an unusual degree. Especially does it emphasize the practical application of theories and general principles. More than two-thirds of the con- tributors are located in public schools or in the elementary training schools of institutions for the preparation of teachers; most of the others are specialists in both the theory and practise of reading instruc- tion. Moreover, the book reflects the viewpoints and experiences of many different people, rather than those of a single author or of a small committee. Because of the yearbook’s broad scope, it does not deal systematically and intensively with every topic included. To permit a more intensive treatment, the Editorial Committee originally planned to limit the volume to reading problems in the lower grades. At the request of the Executive Committee of the Department, however, this plan was abandoned in favor of a more inclusive approach. As a result, workers at all levels of the elementary school will find here material of interest and value to them. Many references to other publications are given to facilitate further study of specific problems. The Editorial Committee wishes to thank especially all who sub- mitted manuscripts for the book. It regrets that space would not permit the inclusion of an even larger number of articles. The contribution of Dr. Richard R. Foster, assistant director of research of the National Education Association, who edited the entire book, is also gratefully acknowledged. The Division of Publications proofread the manuscript and otherwise helped to supervise the printing. Miss Eva G. Pinkston, the Department’s executive secretary, compiled the official informa- tion, arranged for meetings of the Committee, and gave other valuable assistance. With the publication of this yearbook, Miss Maude McBroom com- pletes her three years of service on the Editorial Committee. Her place will be taken by Mr. Jess S. Hudson of Tulsa, Oklahoma. Tue EprrortaL COMMITTEE [ 229 ] A CONTRIBUTION TO BETTER READING RE WE, as administrators and teachers, satisfied with our own pro- A grams of reading instruction? We ought to be doing a better job in reading than in any other major field of the curriculum, for in no other field has so much careful research been carried on. Yet both the amount and quality of the reading done by children and adults in general are disappointingly low. No, we cannot relax in our efforts to develop sound reading habits, interests, and tastes in children. The need for these attributes, both in school and out, is greater now than ever before. One way in which we can improve our work in reading is by study- ing the contents of this yearbook. Here we will find not only the results of research and critical thinking by specialists in the field, but also the firsthand experiences of principals and teachers in the supervision and teaching of reading. These contributions, together with the additional references suggested for study, should stimulate us to renew our attack upon the important problems of reading instruction. It is with no little satisfaction and pride, therefore, that we present this volume to the educational profession. It should have wide use not merely among members of this Department, but among all who are interested in elementary education. Administrators, teachers, and pro- spective teachers everywhere can obtain much inspiration and guidance from these pages. A word of sincere appreciation is due to the authors, editors, and headquarters staff members who made this yearbook possible. Their work, if the rest of us do our part, will be reflected in improved reading skills and attitudes among the children who pass thru our schools. Mason A. Srratton, President Department of Elementary School Principals [ 230 ] we — we \Y ry CONTENTS PAGE NE Sob saa ee bem pan ans Located a ee Pe 229 The Editorial Cc ommittee PRESIDENT’S MESSAGE A ContTrRIBUTION TO BETTER READING .. ae +. ae Mason A. Stratton, President, Department of Elementary School Principals CHAPTER I—DESIRABLE SCOPE OF THE SCHOOL PROGRAM IN READING 235 CHAPTER II—ReEaApING READINESS TEC ET CTT ETT Pee ee ee 247 Tue Nature AND MEASUREMENT OF Re ADING REA PRE 248 Wendell W. Wright, Professor of Education, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana IDENTIFYING MATURE AND IMMATURE First-YEAR ENTRANTS ............ 255 Ross H. Beall, Principal, Lee Elementary School, and Mossie Holmes, Director of Tests, Tulsa Public Schools, Tulsa, Oklahoma PRINCIPLES FOR INCREASING THE ReapINness To ReapD.................... 264 M. Lucile Harrison, Associate Professor of Kindergarten-Primary Education, Colorado State College of Education, Greeley, Colorado A ProcraAM To DeveLtop READING READINESS IN GRADE [................. 273 Marion Monroe, Specialist in Remedial Instruction, Pittsburgh Public Schools, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania THE SreecH ASPECTS OF READING READINESS 5 cs wins Aten teveelcee eee Lite 282 Irene Poole Davis, Specialist in Speech Education, ‘Akron, Ohio I RIOR 5 oo = ao hv cen cowrs etek dasewe oh ae eae 289 CHAPTER III—BEGINNING INSTRUCTION IN READING NS AOI oo oie inne hind wink rcs dated see Wessun . 290 Earty READING AS A THOUGHT- r-GETTING gn ee Tee ee ot, ene: 291 Mary E. Pennell, Lecturer in Education, New York, New York INTRODUCING READING THRU First-Grape ACTIVITIES.................... 298 Mary M. Hobson, First-Grade Teacher, and Grace A. Granger, Prin- cipal, Daniel Webster School, Indianapolis, Indiana BEGINNING READING BY A Non-Orat MeEtTHOp.......... ; 305 James E. McDade, Formerly Assistant Superintendent in Charge of Elementary Schools, Chicago, Illinois EFFECTIVE ProcepURES FOR DEVELOPING WorD RECOGNITION .. ...... .. ald Marie E. Wallace, Principal, School No. 64, Baltimore, Maryland ADAPTING EARLY INSTRUCTION TO THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD .......... . 819 Lethal G. Kiesling, Instructor in Elementary Education, State Teach- ers College, California, Pennsylvania A Review or SrupiEs oF READING VOCABULARY .................0.0e0000 328 Elizabeth Eloise Hebel, Supervisor of Third Grade, Training School, State Teachers College, St. Cloud, Minnesota PU IN sara 5 aarkc bs 514 ws Sib-a AO RT tL LA 337 CHAPTER IV—CULTIVATING APPRECIATION AND Goop TASTE IN READING EpirorIAL COMMENT............. ee re ae ee 338 THE IMPROVEMENT OF LEISURE READING sb Gyo, oes pls IME SR al os loc 339 Ernest Horn, Professor of Elementary Education, State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa [ 231 ] PAGE LireRATURE—T HE Step-CHILD OF THE READING ProGRAM. ... 347 Ruth Maria Moscrip, Supervisor of Sixth Grade, Training School, State Teachers College, St. Cloud, Minnesota ACTIVITIES FOR INCREASING CHILDREN’S APPRECIATION OF Goop LITERATURE. 353 Martha Whelden Scott, Eighth-Grade Teacher, and Grace A. Granger, Principal, Daniel Webster School, Indianapolis, Indiana A SeventH-Grape ReapinGc Cuvus................ 359 Kenneth E. Vayette, Principal, Reservoir Heights School, Peoria, Illinois Tue Art or CHorau SPEAKING..................0008. 363 Louise Abney, Head of Speech Department and Director of Speech Improvement, Teachers College of Kansas City, Kansas City, Missouri SELECTED REFERENCES............ Bee ee eee a ae a skate Sa CHAPTER V—Stupy READING IN THE CONTENT FIELDS eS ee Je icstirh 533 368 Work-Tyre READING IN TuIrRD-GRADE ScIENCE......... 369 Dorothy Gordon, Third-Grade Teacher, University Elementary School, State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa MAKING READING FUNCTIONAL IN THE SoctaL STUDIES Evelyn Benzler, Fourth-Grade Teacher, University Elementary School, Iowa City, Iowa READING AS IT FuNcTIONS IN FirryH-GrapE GEOGRAPHY ... 376 Dwight Curtis, Fifth-Grade Teacher, University Elementary School, Iowa City, Iowa Reapinc To Sotve A HyareNe PropteM IN Grape VI........ 379 Isabelle MacDonald, Sixth-Grade Teacher, University Elementary School, Iowa City, Iowa SELECTED REFERENCES........ TT ee 386 CHAPTER VI—DIAGNostTIC AND REMEDIAL PRACTISES Hepewomtat, COMMENT... 06... eee cence 387 DiscoveRING Minor READING Dirricu LTIES AND THEI CAUSES 388 James A. Fitzgerald, Associate Professor of Education, Loyola Uni- versity, Chicago, Illinois DIAGNOSING Serious ReaDING DIFFICULTIES IN THE PRIMARY GRADES 397 Eva E. Gerstmyer, Director, Primary Grades and Kindergartens, Baltimore, Maryland CorrECTING THE READING DisaABILities oF NINE SELECTED PupILs 403 Edwina Deans, Primary Teacher, Central School, Evanston, Illinois A PracticaAL APPROACH TO REMEDIAL READING....... 411 Paul A. Witty, Professor of Education, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois A CooperaTIVE Prosect iN REMEDIAL READING. 416 Virginia Wise Marx, Psychologist, and Alice E. ‘Hinkley , Visiting Teacher, Westchester County Children’s Association, W hite Plains, New York Satucrep REFERENCES. .>...........00 ccc ccc cece. _ 42 CHAPTER VII—Provipinc READING MATERIALS IN THE CLASSROOM ne a ee CooPpERATIVE SELECTION OF BooKs FoR THE READING Proct RAM 424 Margaret R. Greer, Librarian, Minneapolis Public Schools, Minne- apolis, Minnesota Provipina Matertats To Meet INpivinvAL DIFFERENCES IN CHILDREN 431 Clarence R. Stone, Berkeley, California [ 232 ] 9 no ~~ PAGE Usrineo InpivipvaL Reaprnc MareriAts INstTeap or Sets or Ciass Reapprs 435 Marie R. Conroy, Assistant Principal, Public School No. 30, Rich- mond, New York, New York DeveLopING New ReapInc MATERIALS IN THE SCHOOL ................. 442 Nila Banton Smith, Professor of Education, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana Creatine Easy Reapina MareriAts In A City ScuHoou System.......... 457 Bernice Mundy, Curriculum Worker, and Evelyn R. Girardin, Super- visor of Primary Grades and Kindergartens, Public Schools, Balti- more, Maryland Provininc Reapinc Materia To Deve or Soctat ATTITUDES............. 464 Alice Hanthorn, Principal, Observation School, Cleveland, Ohio Tue Use or ADVERTISING LITERATURE AS MATERIAL FoR Stupy Reapinac.... 474 Elisa Ann Neal, Training Supervisor, Grade IV, State Teachers Col- lege, Platteville, Wisconsin RGIS TINS ooo oo ion 2h hbk 6 oka Sok De eve eee eae eee Deen ae 485 CHAPTER VIII—Usine ScHoou AND Pus.iic LIBRARIES I II 5 os bs dea iD ance iT Oe SE de 486 ProvipINnGc LiprARY FACILITIES IN THE SCHOOL...............0000ceeecees 487 E. P. O’Reilly, Principal, William Land School, Sacramento, California Tue Laer 20 A Visio: BOOB. . oss sf osice savas widecnceeres eeeee 496 Frances Pethick Nelson, Librarian, Cleveland School, Niles Center, Illinois ‘Fae Uses ov Exomantee er Critagit..... coco. gd ca ns ces Hadden ges 505 Bernice Mundy, Curriculum Worker, and Evelyn R. Girardin, Super- visor of Primary Grades and Kindergartens, Public Schools, Balti- more, Maryland How THE Pustic Liprary CaN CooppraTE WITH THE SCHOOL.............. 512 Agatha L. Shea, Director of Children’s Work, Chicago Public Library, Chicago, Illinois SELECTED REFERENCES....... big Sr x Garde om Wck och Obes celle Rte SE ATOR 518 CHAPTER IX—ORGANIZING SCHOOLS AND CLASSES FOR BETTER READING INSTRUCTION BEE SON oo es viavcasynns een. 3: sip Viaee ae a oa Aad eee eee 519 A READING ProGRAM ORGANIZED BY READING LEVELS....................55 520 Margaret L. White, Supervisor of Elementary English, Cleveland Public Schools, Cleveland, Ohio By URE FOES, FOIE aos os snes ce banes bsascdeawiede dasacniee 528 Anna Wiecking, Principal of the Elementary School, State Teachers College, Mankato, Minnesota AN EXPERIMENT WITH HoMOGENEOUS GROUPING IN READING.............. 533 Mary B. O’Bannon, Principal, Jefferson School, Berkeley, California ApAPTING ReapING INSTRUCTION TO DIFFERENT ABILITY LEVELS............ 539 Cora M. Martin, Associate Professor of Elementary Education, Uni- versity of Texas, Austin, Texas, and Golda Mullins Rochefort, Sixth-Grade Teacher, Demonstration School, Stephen F. Austin State Teachers College, Nacogdoches, Texas ORGANIZING INSTRUCTION WITH THE HE-p or A READING SPECIALIST........ 546 Edmund M. Forsythe, Principal, Abraham Lincoln School, Port Ches- ter, New York Provip1nc A Betrrer CoNTINUITY OF EXPERIENCE FOR PRIMARY CHILDREN.... 552 Jennie Wahlert, Principal, Jackson School; St. Louis, Missouri A PLAN For INDIVIDUAL READING IN THE INTERMEDIATE GRADES............ 557 Ray B. Dean, Principal, David Lubin School, Sacramento, California [ 233 J PAGE MEetTING INDIVIDUAL READING NEEDS IN Grape VII........ 564 Katherine S. Youngman, Teacher of Junior High-School English, Lucretia Mott School, Indianapolis, Indiana i CoMBINING INSTRUCTION IN READING AND LANGUAGE..... 571 Winifred Watts, Principal, Webster School, Okmulgee, Oklahoma OF a ee Oe 576 CHAPTER X—OTHER ADMINISTRATIVE AND SUPERVISORY PROCEDURES a 577 SomE Basic CoNSIDERATIONS IN RECONSTRUCTING THE READING PRoGRAM 578 Emmett A. Betts, Research Professor and Director of Reading Clinic, The Pennsylvania State College, State College, Pennsylvania Userut TECHNICS IN THE SUPERVISION OF READING ..... 586 Julia Letheld Hahn, Division Supervising Principal, Public Schools, Washington, D. C. AssIsTING TEACHERS AND PRINCIPALS THRU DEMONSTRATION LESSONS IN I, ccc cote ina ety we ease 594 Ruth B. Miller, Supervisor of Intermediate Grades, ‘and M. Catherine Cohee, Supervisor of Primary Grades, Public Schools, Baltimore, Maryland Deve.opine Loca ReapinG Tests ror Cirtywipe Use 601 M. Catherine Cohee, Supervisor of Primary Grades, Ruth B. Miller, Supervisor of Intermediate Grades, and Marie E. Wallace, Principal, School No. 64, Baltimore, Maryland INTERPRETING THE READING PROGRAM TO PARENTS _. 608 Helena Petrovitch Niegosch, Principal, Saticoy Street School, Los Angeles, California INTERPRETING THE PROGRAM THRU THE HOME AND ScHOOL ASSOCIATION 623 Ernest A. Choate, Principal, Kenderton School, Philadelphia, Pennsy]- vania Senuctep REFERENCES.....................00ccceees eee 628 REcoRDS AND INFORMATION LocaL PRINCIPALS ORGANIZATIONS..................... tests i nati. nish 630 SEcTIONAL PRINCIPALS ASSOCIATIONS....... ; 633 State Prrncrpats ASSOCIATIONS.................. - dis ad ; 635 I A II, 5.65: aces .cce di vine more'eaidotS)ala a peas rae Scare 18. 637 SR re Pe ee TOO ee eee 701 [ 234 J CHAPTER I DESIRABLE SCOPE OF THE SCHOOL PROGRAM IN READING’ may feel himself to be, needs to be persuaded of the importance of reading in the child’s program of development. But just what the nature of the reading program should be, how children should be introduced to its many phases, how differences in interest and ability among children can be met, what materials are most appropriate, and myriads of other related problems give pause to the most confident principal. N ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPAL today, however unprepared he THE PRESENT READING SITUATION Favorable aspects—Why is the problem of reading instruction so puzzling? In no other elementary-school field has the research been so extensive. A volume containing the briefest summary of all inves- tigations related to reading would be prohibitive in size. A bibliography of the books, pamphlets, monographs, and magazine articles written on the subject would run into the thousands. Searcely a reputable teachers college or university is without a course on the teaching of reading. Scores of standardized tests have been prepared to measure either the child’s progress in reading or his preparedness for it. Ac- cording to one of the latest time-allotment studies, more than 20 per- cent of the average total weekly time in our elementary schools is devoted to reading.” In no subject is there a greater abundance of use- ful and attractive textbooks and supplementary materials than in reading. Frequently the best teachers in a whole school system have been assigned to the first grade, where the child is most commonly in- troduced to the reading program. In addition to these factors within the schools themselves, at no time in the history of man has there been such an abundance of materials available to the public to read. Daily and weekly newspapers, weekly and monthly magazines without number, libraries either local or travel- ing, book clubs, and many other sources offer opportunity for reading, even in the smallest community. Evidence of inadequate reading skills and habits—Yet, in spite of this impressive array of factors which are favorable to a solution of the reading problem of the country, we find a disappointing if not a discouraging situation with regard to reading. A few pertinent facts 1This chapter was written by Maude McBroom of the Editorial Committee. 2 Mann, Carleton H. How Schools Use Their Time. Contributions to Education, No. 333. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1928. p, 26, [ 235 ] 236 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS or estimates which have been brought to our attention within recent years are these: 1. Approximately one-fourth of all failures in our elementary schools are due to reading 2. From 10 to 40 percent of the children in the first grade fail to be promoted+ 3. Reading accounts for 99 percent of the failures in Grade I, in city school sys- tems® 4. A large percent of the retarded readers (80 percent in one study at the inter- mediate-grade level) have normal or superior intelligence.” 5. Failure in school is a major catastrophe to many children. Recent experiments and the experience of child clinics indicate that serious disability in reading usually results in serious personal and social maladjustments.’ 6. From 8 to 15 percent of the school population is characterized by varying degrees of reading disability 7. At the end of Grade III at least 40 percent of all pupils have not enough read- ing ability to handle the fourth-grade reading curriculum without handicap” 8. Both the native and the developed reading tastes of most high-school pupils are at a relatively low level. According to one study, only 5 percent of such pupils read magazines, and the better magazines are absent from the list of those read.° 9. More than half of our college students do no optional reading of books; 16 percent occasionally read newspapers and magazines.” 10. Investigations of the voluntary reading of adults indicate preferences of rela- tively low quality.” 11. One experimenter (Gates) interprets his data as evidence that “there are probably no children physically able to go to school, with an I.Q. of 70 or more, who cannot be taught to read to the extent roughly commensurable with their men- tal ability.” * It would seem, then, that altho reading is considered very important, altho a goodly share of the child’s day is spent on it, and altho every physically normal child of any appreciable intelligence can be taught to read, a large share of our children fail completely to get an ade- quate start in the first grade; many of those who fail are children of high intelligence; and this failure has a very bad influence on their later social adjustment. Further, it seems that a large proportion of the total school population never acquires enough reading ability to 3 Percival, Walter P. A Study of the Causes and Subjects of School Failure. Doctor's thesis. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1926. * Betts, Emmett A. The Prevention and Correction of Reading Difficulties. Evanston, Ill.: Row, Peterson and Co., 1936. p. 69. 5 Percival, Walter P., op. cit. 6 Durrell, Donald D. Reading Disability in the Intermediate Grades. Unpublished doctor’s thesis. Cambridge, Mass.: Graduate School of Education, Harvard University, 1930. 7 Gates, Arthur I., and Bond, Guy L. ‘Failure in Reading and Social Maladjustment.’’ Journal of the National Education Association 25: 205-206; October 1936. 8 Betts, Emmett A., op. cit., p. 2. ® Gates, Arthur I., and Bond, Guy L., op. cit. 10 Peterson, Anna. ‘Leisure Reading of High-school Pupils.’”’ Education 54: 296-300; January 1934. See also: Byrns, Ruth, and Henmon, V. A. C. ‘‘Reading Interests of High-school Seniors.”’ English Journal (High-school edition) 25: 61-64; January 1936. 1 Gerberich, J. R., and Jones, Charles. ‘‘The Optional and Required Reading of College Stu- dents.’’ School and Society 38: 93-96; July 15, 1933. 12 National Society for the Study of Education. The Teaching of Reading: A Second Report. Thirty-sixth Yearbook, Part I. Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Co., 1937. p. 189. 18 Gates, Arthur I., and Bond, Guy L. ‘Reading Disabilities.’’ Journal of the National Educa- tion Association 25: 243-44; November 1936. Score OF THE READING PROGRAM 237 carry the reading load of the ordinary curriculum, and that many of those who can read have not developed reading tastes of a particularly high quality and do not read widely. Even in a country where compulsory education for the masses draws into the schools children of all degrees of ability and background, such an array of facts—if indeed they be facts—presents an inescapable challenge to education. Particularly is it a challenge to the elementary- school principal, who is closely in touch with, and responsible for, the immediate procedures of reading instruction in a given school unit. Factors retarding progress—In any analysis of the school factors which have contributed and are contributing to this distressing state of affairs, no doubt the following would be significant: 1. A lack of understanding on the part of administrators, and possibly of super- visors and teachers, of what an adequate reading program would encompass 2. The disassociation of much of the research in reading from actual classroom conditions, needs, and difficulties 3. The large classes in primary grades, making it impossible for teachers to give the individual child the attention he needs 4. The inability of the teacher (for various reasons—some of them her fault, many of them not) to meet the needs and interests of different children 5. Inflexible grading and promotion schemes, with rigid and uniform require- ments for “passing” 6. Lack of adequate materials to meet different age interests or to care for vary- ing abilities 7. In some cases, too early entrance of children to school 8. Poor teaching methods. It is the purpose of this yearbook to present the experiences and suggestions of many competent persons who have given attention to these factors in the reading situation—especially administrators, su- pervisors, and teachers who have been working toward the solution of reading problems in their own schools. — — = = — —_ =“ -- EssENTIAL ELEMENTS OF AN EFFECTIVE READING PROGRAM In order to have a common ground for the interpretation of the suc- ceeding chapters, a brief outline of the nature and scope of an adequate reading program in the elementary school is presented here. In general, such a program in any school will have the following phases: I. Developing Reading Readiness (usually in the kindergarten period, but ex- tending well into the first grade for some children) II. Beginning Instruction in Reading (usually in the first grade, but often ex- tending into the second grade) III. Using and Further Developing the Reading Tool (predominantly in grades beyond the first) A. In situations of a study nature (work-type reading) B. In situations of a recreatory nature (recreational reading) C. In purely oral situations (oral reading) 238 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS IV. Checking or Testing V. Remedial Work (if necessary) VI. Administrative Measures To Promote Better Results The details of each of these phases are suggested in the following pages. I. Developing Reading Readiness Purposes—(1) The school’s basic purpose in this phase of the pro- gram is to find out whether the child is physically, mentally, socially, and emotionally mature enough to begin reading, and to set up an en- vironment in which natural growth may best take place. (2) The school will also attempt to discover any handicaps of hearing, vision, speech, or motor ability, and begin suitable treatment; to locate and attack any problems in adjustment, such as extreme shyness, insecurity, fear of failure, emotional instability, and poor attention; and to discover any unusual cases of motor incoordination or poor memory. (3) The third purpose of this initial period will be actually to develop greater readiness for reading by such approaches as the following: a. Increasing firsthand experiences in order to build up clearer basic concepts back of words and ideas b. Building up and clarifying the child’s speaking vocabulary c. Giving the child some experience in expressing ideas in clear sentences d. Accustoming the child to the fact that symbols stand for ideas e. Acquainting the child with the physical make-up of a book, and with the left- to-right progression of symbols across the page f. Giving some practise in seeing likenesses and differences in words g. Accustoming the child to working with other children and to giving attention in a group h. Clearing up any mispronunciations, poor enunciation, or false concepts of words i. Giving the child who does not speak English some fluency in using the lan- guage j. Stimulating a desire to read. Specific procedures—The activities thru which reading readiness may be developed are those engaged in in any good kindergarten. They include (1) carrying out projects or units in science and social science, (2) taking trips and excursions, (3) discussing what is to be seen and what has been seen, (4) building, (5) looking at books, (6) taking care of pets, (7) bringing objects to school and talking about them, (8) making scrapbooks, (9) enjoying stories and poems read or told by the teacher, (10) reciting poetry, (11) dramatizing, (12) making collec- tions, (13) drawing, (14) dictating news for a school paper, (15)sign- ing up for school duties, (16) matching words and pictures, (17) choos- ing likenesses and differences in words or pictures, and (18) labeling necessary objects in the classroom. ScoPE OF THE READING PROGRAM 239 Materials—The minimum materials for adequate development of reading readiness are (1) blocks or crates or lumber for construction work, (2) tools, (3) wrapping paper or newsprint for scrapbooks, news- papers, and similar projects, (4) bulletin boards and easels for posting materials, (5) large crayons, paint, and brushes, (6) pictures, (7) card- board material for posters, labels, and signs, (8) plants, fish bowl, or other science materials, (9) printing set, (10) hectograph, (11) read- ing games made by the teacher for matching words and pictures or for identifying likenesses and differences (or commercialized sets for the same purpose), (12) picture and story books, including a good edition of Mother Goose, and (13) books containing other rhymes, verses, and songs.'* II. Beginning Instruction in Reading Purposes—The chief purposes of the beginning reading period are (1) to introduce the child to a large number of sight words and help make his recognition of these words automatic; (2) to give him means of getting for himself the new words he wants to read; (3) to help him develop desirable habits with respect to eye sweeps, eye fixations, and bodily control in general; (4) to build habits of reading which will result in thought-getting and not word-calling; (5) to build habits of attacking words and sentences with attention and vigor; (6) to keep each child working to his limit and progressing at his own rate, but not beyond that; and (7) to keep reading a happy and pleasant experi- ence for children. Principles of procedure—The most effective methods of teaching be- ginners to read have generally been based on the following principles: (1) no formal work in reading should be started before the child is ready; (2) if the child has had no previous experience in looking at books, he should be taught the normal progression of words, lines, and pages in a book; (3) the first symbols presented should be ar- ranged in the same kinds of units in which adults read, namely, words, phrases, or sentences (not isolated letters or parts of words); (4) all words should be introduced in meaningful situations; (5) not many new words should be introduced at a time, and those used should over- lap highly with approved word lists; (6) many—possibly more than 100—running words of reading matter should be furnished for every new word presented, at least in the early materials; (7) words pre- sented on the blackboard or on charts should overlap highly with the vocabulary of the beginning book to be used; (8) the first pre-primer %4 See Chapter II for further discussion of the reading-readiness program. 240 ELEMENTARY ScHOoOL PRINCIPALS should contain few different words, and the vocabularies of its various parts should overlap highly with each other; (9) children’s experiences should be used as a background for lessons (the intrinsic use of words) ; (10) methods which employ thought-getting should be emphasized; (11) interest and variation should characterize reviews; (12) schemes for identifying new words, whether phonics or other methods, should be used only as a tool for understanding needed words, and not as a means of emphasizing mechanical analysis; (13) only methods which provide for varying rates of progress and for varying degrees of diffi- culty in materials are adequate; (14) seatwork materials should be abundant, interesting, purposeful, and differentiated in difficulty for different groups; (15) small groups are essential for adequate atten- tion to each child’s needs; (16) adaptations in method, material, and teaching rate should be made for children of low mental level; (17) adequate progress cannot be made without an abundance of easy read- ing material, free from great vocabulary difficulties; and (18) frequent tests or checks over the actual material covered should be given each child. Materials—The following probably represent a minimum of mate- rials for adequate teaching during this beginning period: (1) charts, cards, workbooks, tests, and manuals which accompany the introduc- tory books used; (2) many pre-primers and a few easy first readers; (3) easy supplementary books or teacher-made materials containing much the same vocabulary as the beginning books; (4) easy supple- mentary material along the line of units studied in other subjects; (5) story and picture books for the library table; (6) teacher-made or com- mercialized seatwork materials; (7) wrapping paper and newsprint for charts and books; (8) material for cards and labels; (9) hectograph and printing set, or mimeographing facilities; (10) same materials as in kindergarten for carrying out activities; and (11) possibly a stand- ardized test.'® III. Using and Further Developing the Reading Tool A. In Study Situations Purposes—The chief purposes of study or work-type reading are (1) to be able to get one’s lessons in all the other subjects, (2) to solve prob- lems, (3) to answer questions, (4) to get information from maps, graphs, tables, and charts, (5) to get a background in a particular field of knowledge, (6) to organize data in response to a need, (7) to find the material one wants, which involves a knowledge of sources and of 15 See Chapter III for additional information on beginning reading instruction. ScorpE OF THE READING PROGRAM 241 how to use an index, a table of contents, references, a dictionary, and library card files, (8) to verify an opinion, (9) to evaluate material in the light of a problem, and (10) to increase one’s general knowledge. Principles of procedure—Whether one believes that a separate read- ing period is needed in the intermediate grades, or that correct reading habits will develop as an outgrowth of reading in all the activities of these grades, the skills to be developed remain the same. In work-type reading these are (1) the ability to locate quickly what one wants in reading, (2) the ability to comprehend it, (3) the ability to organize and evaluate it, and (4) the ability to remember it. In helping children to acquire these skills, it is desirable (1) that children be given material which they can read, but which stimulates their best endeavor (which means that children must be given wide experiences in a particular field before they can be expected to read profitably in that field); (2) that differences in ability be met thru differentiation in the difficulty of materials, in the amount of reading required of each child, and in the types of exercise required (no book designed for a single grade level should be expected to meet the needs of all the children in that grade) ; (3) that the skills be introduced and practised in meaningful situations, and not in isolated exercises to be done for their own sake (for example, exercises in using an index should be given because children need to know how to use an index in solving their problems) ; (4) that the selections used be of a kind which calls for study reading in real life situations (hence, a good story should not be analyzed or outlined or broken up into paragraphs for study, but should be read for enjoyment during the leisure reading period); (5) that an abundance and a wide variety of materials be provided to meet the reading needs of any group; (6) that frequent checks of progress be made; and (7) that in the higher elementary grades, at least, children be made fairly familiar with the commonest reference sources, with types of maps, charts, and graphs, and with ordinary typographical helps. Types of exercises—Among the most commonly used types of ex- ercises for developing these skills are the following: (1) answering questions, (2) filling completion blanks, (3) answering true-false state- ments, (4) matching words, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs with each other, with pictures, or with ideas, (5) making summary statements, (6) outlining, (7) finding words or arranging words in alphabetical groups, (8) making graphs, tables, or charts to illustrate material read, (9) interpreting graphs, maps, tables, and charts, (10) acting upon di- rections, (11) skimming to find data, (12) choosing important data, (13) taking notes on data, and (14) finding material to prove a point. 242 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Materials—The chief materials used for study reading are (1) work- type readers and workbooks, (2) textbooks in the other subjects, such as geography, history, arithmetic, and hygiene, (3) children’s encyclo- pedias and other general reference sources, such as the World Almanac, (4) dictionary, (5) supplementary books in the subjectmatter of units being studied, such as books on aviation, or Indians, or microbes, (6) pamphlets or articles published by state and federal authorities, by colleges and universities, or even by commercial firms in certain cases, (7) teacher-made materials fitting a given unit, and (8) children’s magazines, such as Scientific American or My Weekly Reader.*® B. In Recreatory Situations Purposes—The outstanding purposes of recreational reading are (1) to enjoy one’s leisure time, (2) to satisfy one’s emotions or moods thru vicarious experience, (3) to be generally conversant on what others read and talk about, (4) to get a background in a field in which one is interested, and (5) to be generally intelligent in regard to literary references. The school is interested not only in helping the child to achieve these purposes, but also in stimulating him to read widely and to enjoy reading material of increasingly better quality. Principles of procedure—Recreational reading in the school seems to be most successful when based on the following principles: (1) the material used should be easy enough to be read with little or no diffi- culty as to vocabulary or ideas; (2) the range of materials should be wide in order to meet varying interests and varying reading levels among children; (3) the types of lessons or activities carried on should be of the same nature as those in which one engages when reading for pleasure in life outside the school; (4) the atmosphere of the class- room during the reading period should be characterized by a feeling of relaxation—of informal social enjoyment; (5) much of the material read should represent the free choices of children within their own areas of interest; (6) some attention should be given to the question of where children may find material which will interest them, as in collections of stories or lists of children’s books; (7) frequently interest and enjoyment may be added thru a correlation of recreational read- ing with music or dramatics; and (8) children should be introduced to many forms of literature—fiction, poetry, adventure, historical tales, myths, folk tales, legends, biography, and the writings of a given period or of a certain author. Types of exercises—The chief types of lessons which have been found useful in contributing to the purposes of recreational reading 16 See Chapter V for detailed suggestions on the use and development of study skills in the content fields. Chapters VII and VIII deal with the provision of adequate materials. Scope OF THE READING PROGRAM 243 are these: (1) free reading or library periods when children read as they please, (2) dramatizing appropriate stories, (3) using the back- ground of a story for a marionette play, (4) reading by the teacher to the children, (5) reading by individual children to the rest of the class, (6) children’s reading of poetry or stories by a given author, or stories of a given type such as fairy tales, (7) memorizing favorite poetry, (8) making “book riddles” for other children to guess, (9) talking over stories or poems one has read, (10) recommending books to others by means of a talk, poster, or other device, (11) having a program based on what has been read, (12) the teacher’s reading or telling part of a story and having the children complete it, (13) illustrating a favorite poem, character, or scene, and (14) making individual or class lists of books read. Materials—The materials to be used for this type of reading are lim- itless. However, altho anything which interests the child may be said to belong here, choices should be made which aim toward increasingly higher quality. Appropriate types of material include (1) recreational readers of different grade levels, (2) collections of poetry, (3) collec- tions of myths, legends, and fairy tales, (4) biography, travel, science, and history, (5) books which will give a background in any field in which the child is interested, (6) unit selections such as Heidi and Little Women, (7) children’s magazines, and (8) plays.'? C. In Purely Oral Situations Purposes—Chief among the purposes of reading in oral situations are these: (1) to entertain others, (2) to entertain oneself or permit greater self-expression, and (3) to enjoy contacts with a group. Principles of procedure—To help children attain these purposes, the school should (1) provide situations in which the oral reader has a gen- uine audience; (2) have the reader consider his audience in the use of his voice, in enunciation and pronunciation, in posture, and in the type of material chosen; (3) see to it that selections used for entertainment purposes are well practised; and (4) provide opportunity for the oral reading of poetry as well as prose. ; Types of lessons—Among the most commonly used types of lessons for the development of oral reading are (1) verse speaking, (2) giving plays for the rest of the class, (3) reading one’s favorite poem to the class, (4) preparing by groups to entertain the rest of the class, (5) memorizing poetry in unison, (6) preparing stories to read to other grades, (7) having mock radio programs, or actually broadcasting, (8) reading a story which is carried out in pantomime by other members 17 See Chapters IV, VII, and VIII for further discussion of school practises in leisure reading. 244 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS of the class, (9) practising for the announcement of numbers on a pro- gram, and (10) drilling on enunciation, pronunciation, and expression values. Materials—Each type of material suggested for the recreational reading program may be used for oral reading. Other useful materials include (1) poems or prose selections adapted for verse-speaking choirs, (2) lists of commonly mispronounced words, and (3) enuncia- tion drills.*® IV. Checking or Testing Purposes—The purposes of checking or testing may be (1) to find out whether or not the child is ready to read, (2) to give the teacher a general picture of how well the class as a whole has learned what has been taught, (3) to compare the accomplishment of the class with that of other comparable classes or grades, (4) to give the teacher a picture of the relative accomplishment or status of different members of the group, (5) to measure progress during a given period, (6) to diagnose the particular needs of any child or group of children, and (7) to give the child himself a picture of what he has done and what his needs are. Principles of procedure—Three basic principles of appraisal in the field of reading are as follows: (1) informal checks should be made frequently, particularly in the early stages of reading; (2) many prac- tise exercises should be of such a nature that the child can check him- self; and (3) the teacher should use the results of testing to guide her further teaching and training of children. Further discussion of the criteria, purposes, and technics of testing and checking is available in the Sixteenth Yearbook of this Department, Appraising the Elemen- tary-School Program. Materials—A variety of available tests may be used to help deter- mine the child’s readiness for reading instruction.’ In the field of read- ing itself a large number of standardized tests are on the market.” Several publishers of beginning readers provide checks and tests cover- ing the contents of their own books. Finally, teachers can and should make their own informal checking devices for use in many situations. V. Remedial Work This part of the reading program would not be necessary if a careful diagnosis of each child’s needs and a corresponding adaptation of 18 Some additional discussion of oral reading as a leisure-time activity will be found in Chap- ter IV. 19 See Chapter II, especially the article by Harrison. 20 For bibliographies including the names and publishers of such tests, see the list of references at the end of Chapter X. “oo -_ Pmt — —_— dn ad pee ~ - Score OF THE READING PROGRAM 245 methods and materials could be made from the beginning of his school career. Under present teaching conditions in many schools such a state of affairs seems improbable of attainment. Nevertheless, it is the ideal toward which all schools should be working. For the present, at least, a remedial program is needed in most schools.?1 VI. Administrative Measures To Promote Better Results No matter how competent a teacher or corps of teachers may be, they cannot be expected to carry the whole burden of providing an effective program of reading instruction. The school administration must establish conditions and set up machinery which will enable the teachers to do their best work. Among the administrative steps which have been found necessary or very helpful under certain conditions are the following: ; 1. Checking to determine the readiness of children to begin reading 2. Caring for differences in the readiness to read and in the progress of children by such provisions as a. Increasing the school entrance age for children b. Having a preliminary or “pre-primary” grade between the kindergarten and the first grade c. Having three sections in Grade I—A, B, and C d. Grouping children according to their readiness to read e. Delaying the beginning of formal reading until readiness is reached f. Differentiating the materials in Grade I, and making provision for dif- ferent rates of progress g. Eliminating grade lines and promotions until the end of the second or third year in school h. Educating parents as to their children’s needs and the school’s program for meeting those needs. 3. Reducing the size of classes, at least in the first and second grades 4. Providing adequate materials, including materials of different grade levels for the children in any one grade 5. Helping teachers to solve their problems with respect to individual differences among children 6. Doing something constructive with the results of tests 7. Surveying the local reading situation 8. Choosing some phase of the school’s reading problem for study 9. Planning some sort of remedial program if needed 10. Encouraging experimentation among the teachers 11. Keeping the teachers informed of recent books, articles, or research in the field of reading.” CONTRIBUTION OF THIS YEARBOOK It is with this total reading program in mind that the contents of this yearbook were planned. Each article, whether it be a discussion of principles, a review of methods, or a report of informal experimenta- 21 The purposes and technics of such a program are discussed in Chapter VI. 22See Chapters IX and X for descriptions of administrative and supervisory activities which facilitate better reading instruction. 246 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS tion under actual classroom conditions, touches upon some phase of this program. No attempt is made to give an exhaustive treatment of the program, but merely to present helpful material in those areas which seem to be of greatest interest, as evidenced by the fact that experimentation and study are being carried on in them. An outline of the whole reading program has been presented in this chapter in order to orient any particular problem, as well as to serve as a guide in thinking about the reading situation in general. alae the approximate dates of 1880 and 1918 educators considered the supreme function of reading instruction to be that of developing appreciation for and permanent interest in literature. In the years immediately following we found that the school public had swung over to an entirely different emphasis, that of developing the utilitarian type of reading ability or skill in rapid comprehensive silent reading designed to prepare children to cope with the great mass of practical materials with which we were surrounded. By 1925 we had emerged into another era, in which the methods and materials are not strongly directed toward the development of any one or two types of reading instruction, but rather are designed to develop the several different abilities needed in the varied pur- poses for which reading is used in well-rounded living.—Smith, Nila B., American Reading Instruction, Silver, Burdett and Co., 1934, p. 185. (Quoted by permission of the publishers.) Tm CHAPTER II READING READINESS EDITORIAL COMMENT TTENTION has been drawn repeatedly, in recent years, to the alarm- . ingly large number of pupil failures in the first grade and to the excessive proportion of retarded readers in all grades. While this situation may be due in part to poor methods and inadequate mate- rials of reading instruction, it is undoubtedly due also to the fact that many children are introduced to reading before they are ready for sys- tematic instruction in this field. Children entering the first grade differ widely in a variety of factors—mental, physiological, emotional, and experiential—which are more or less closely related to later success in reading. The reading-readiness program, as conceived in this chapter, aims (1) to measure and appraise these factors for each entering school child, whether in the first grade or in the kindergarten, and (2) to pro- vide such activities, experiences, and remedial treatment as may be necessary to prepare the child for the task of learning to read. Some readers may object to limiting the concept of reading readiness to preparedness for initial instruction in reading. This term has not infrequently been used to mean readiness for reading at any given grade level, and for reading material of any particular type. While no one would question the importance of preparing children at every level for the specific peculiarities or difficulties of the reading they are to do, the Editorial Committee believes that the term “reading readiness”’ will be more useful if its narrower interpretation is retained. Wright begins the chapter by reviewing the factors involved in read- ing readiness and the results of recent research on the validity of readi- ness tests. In the second article, Beall and Holmes describe an actual school program for distinguishing mature and immature pupils in the first grade. The next two contributions are concerned chiefly with the program for children who are not yet ready to read. Harrison presents basic principles of procedure, while Monroe gives specific suggestions for overcoming deficiencies in various phases of readiness. The last article, by Davis, discusses children’s speech as a factor in reading readiness, and suggests that the perception and production of language sounds be given more attention before reading instruction is begun. The list of selected references on page 289 provides an excellent basis for further study of reading-readiness problems.—Editorial Committee. [ 247 ] 248 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS THE NATURE AND MEASUREMENT OF READING READINESS WENDELL W. WriGcuHT Professor of Education, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana particular activity. This applies to walking alone, talking in sentences, reading a given primer, jumping over a stick two feet from the ground, writing a word, reading a standard school map, and thousands of other such well-defined activities. Children entering school at six years of age meet the task of beginning systematic read- ing with unequal abilities to engage in this activity. Requiring a child to participate in a systematic reading program before he is ready for it accomplishes little of value, is not economical of school effort, and may produce negative attitudes and emotional reactions to the school situation. It should not, then, be a surprise to find that one-fifth to one-fourth of the children entering the first grade fail to achieve in reading to a degree such that teachers feel justified in promoting them to the succeeding grade.’ These facts have been known for many years. Only recently, how- ever, has attention been centered on what might be done about it. Reading has been and will continue to be one of the most important educational enterprises of the lower elementary-school level. This is true whether it is taught as a subject or is the outcome of other activ- ities. Due to the social and educational importance of reading in the lower grades, and to the individual differences of children who come to school, the problem of reading readiness becomes highly important. The beginning of “systematic reading” has been changing rapidly. Any attempt to define the term is likely to be misleading. In this dis- cussion it means the use of more or less standardized commercial or teacher-and-pupil-made material thru which children are taught in some systematic way to read from the printed page. Examples of such material differ in approach, difficulty, interest, and method used. No doubt children are more ready, at any given stage of their development, for some types of systematic reading than for other types. \ ANY GIVEN AGE children vary widely in their ability to do a Factors AFFECTING READING READINESS There are many factors that influence the child’s readiness for sys- tematic reading. Altho a number of these factors are interrelated, it 1 Mort, Paul R., and Featherstone, W. B. Entrance and Promotion Practices in City School Systems. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1932. p. 49, ~~ READING READINESS 249 would seem worthwhile to list some of the more important ones sepa- rately, as follows: 1. Physical conditions a. Vision b. Hearing c. Speech d. Physical vitality 2. Mental abilities a. Mental maturity b. Abstract thinking c. Memory span d. Ability to distinguish likenesses and differences in word forms 3. Personal qualities and experience background a. Home conditions b. Breadth of experience c. Language d. Adjustability e. Emotional stability f. Interest in reading activities. Physical conditions—From much discussion and some scientific evi- dence concerning the vision of children of beginning school age, three practical conclusions may tentatively be drawn: (1) that the age at which the eyeball becomes normally spherical varies with different children, and that some children do not yet have normal emmetropic ” eyes at six years of age; (2) that visual difficulties, whether due to errors of refraction, low acuity, injury, imbalance, or any other marked deviation from normal vision, tend to have a retarding effect upon learning to read; and (3) that children without reasonably normal vision who try to make adjustments to the systematic reading situa- tion suffer strain and discomfort that in some cases may develop unnecessary nervousness and emotional disturbance. Reasonably cor- rect vision is an expectancy of systematic instruction in reading. Without it the child is not ready, with respect to that factor, to read. Normal hearing likewise is basic to the beginning of systematic reading instruction because some of the meaning attached to printed symbols comes from spoken words. While auditory acuity is signifi- cant, such factors as auditory span, auditory fusion, auditory percep- tion, and auditory frequency range may also have a part in hearing- reading readiness. Closely associated with the auditory function is the speech factor. The association of the printed symbol with the child’s vocal articu- lation is commonly used in teaching reading. Hence, articulatory dis- orders, both organic and habitual, may influence the child’s readiness 2 Refers to the normal refractive condition of the eye, in which, with the accommodating muscles relaxed, parallel rays of light are all brought accurately to a focus on the retina. 250 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS for systematic reading instruction. Approximately 10 percent of all articulatory disorders are due to organic defects and are largely clin- ical cases.* A very large majority of such disorders are due to poor habits of speech and are improvable under the influence of the proper model and the careful guidance of the teacher. It should be noted, however, that the method used in teaching beginning reading may easily affect the relative importance of both the speech and the audi- tory factors in readiness.* Physical vitality and general health affect the educational progress of children at all school levels. Consequently, a child whose physical vitality and health are good has an advantage in adapting himself to the systematic reading situation. So far as the child is low in these factors, he is likely to be handicapped by sluggish mental activity, excessive fatigue, short attention span, and emotional instability. A single measure or a group of measures giving an accurate picture of physical conditions would do much to promote a more adequate knowledge of such conditions in relation to reading readiness. Mental abilities—Mental growth, like physical growth, is a com- posite development of many component factors. So far as it affects reading readiness, we may refer to it under such headings as mental age and various specific phases of development. It is certainly true that some six-year-old children have not reached sufficient mental maturity (as measured by mental tests) to benefit by the usual instruction in systematic reading. The mental age at which systematic reading instruction may be begun most effectively will probably depend upon (1) other factors influencing reading readiness, and (2) the type of systematic reading instruction provided. However, as a ten- tative working basis, we may consider that children are ready to read after a six-year mental age has been attained (some studies suggest six and one-half years), provided other readiness factors are favorable. Certain special mental characteristics, such as memory span of ideas, ability to recognize likenesses and differences in word forms, and ability to abstract, are also important in reading readiness. Reading is psycho- logically a very complex process that requires the ability to do abstract and ideational thinking. The words on a printed page are abstract sym- bols both alone and in relation to one another in the sentence. The power of abstraction and ideation is very significant in reading. To some degree all of these special abilities may be measured by the usual men- tal tests, and to that degree we may accept mental age as a valid meas- ure of the mental aspects of reading readiness. 3 Louttit, Chauncey M. Clinical Psychology. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1936. p. 432. ‘For example, see the article by McDade in Chapter III.—Editorial Committee. READING READINESS 251 Personal qualities and experience—The children who enter the first grade in school are the products of physical and neurological inheri- tance and of approximately six years of environment. This six years of environment has influenced them in almost every way—physically, mentally, emotionally, and socially. Their readiness for instruction in systematic reading is to a degree dependent upon the effects of their environment. Some children have had rich and meaningful experiences; they come from a home in which children’s books are common, and from a neighborhood of stimulating play associates. From such an environment they have acquired meaningful concepts (soon to be built into word and sentence meanings on the printed page), interest in read- ing, experience in working in a group, and a good speaking vocabulary. Other children come from an environment that has not stimulated learning and growth in meaningful concepts, has developed no interest in reading or stories, and has resulted in a meager spoken vocabulary and a non-cooperative attitude. Necessarily these two groups of chil- dren are not equally ready to enter into the same program of systematic reading instruction. Moreover, in both groups many habits and per- sonal characteristics are already formed. A child may be timid, stub- born, inattentive, and emotionally unstable; he may expect help constantly in his tasks; and he may still use “baby talk.” Readiness for systematic reading must be considered in the light of these habits and personal characteristics as well as the concepts and skills acquired thru previous experience. As one considers the many factors involved in readiness for reading, it is necessary to recognize that the presence of one factor to a marked degree may overcome the lack of readiness in other factors. For example, thousands of children have undoubtedly profited well from systematic instruction in reading because of an interest in reading and a desire to read even tho their vision was far below normal. In any attempt to set up measures for determining reading readiness, the relative importance of the factors in each individual case needs to be considered. MEASUREMENT OF SIGNIFICANT FACTORS Measures of reading readiness are necessarily based upon an analysis of the factors that constitute readiness. A number of tests have been devised in an attempt to measure these factors in children. The valid- ity of these tests rests upon (1) the extent to which the factors chosen seem closely associated, on logical grounds, with learning in begin- ning systematic reading, and (2) the degree of agreement between the readiness test scores and pupil achievement in reading after instruction. 252 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Types of readiness tests—The factors found in the various reading- readiness tests available include the ability to compare letter and word forms, various auditory and visual capacities, speech articulation, ocular motor control, reversal tendencies, word-learning ability, under- standing of words and sentences, memory span of ideas, use of oral language, and range of information and experience. While no single test includes all of these items, most of the factors considered signifi- cant in reading readiness are included in some of the available tests.5 The relative significance of these factors has not been experimentally determined, however, and is an important subject for further study. In addition to the factors just mentioned, a complete inventory of reading readiness would probably include personal characteristics and habits, environmental factors, health status and physical vitality, emotional stability, social maturity, and mental age. Measures of all these factors, obtained either by tests or rating scales (or both), would not only give a rather complete basis for determining reading readi- ness, but would also point diagnostically to needed developmental activities to be carried on by the school. Prognostic values of tests—The validity of reading-readiness meas- ures depends ultimately upon their prognostic values. The important steps in making a prognostic study are as follows: (1) apply the selected measure or measures of readiness to pupils near the time of their entrance to the first grade; (2) allow a period of time during which instruction in reading is given; (3) obtain a criterion measure of success or achievement in reading at the end of the instructional period; and (4) find the relation between the results of the readiness test or tests and the results of the later test of success in reading. This relationship is usually indicated by the coefficient of correlation ® between the two sets of measures. A coefficient of 1.00 would indi- cate perfect agreement, and would show that under the conditions of the experiment, scores of other children on the readiness test could be used to predict with perfect accuracy the subsequent reading achieve- ment of those children. In the reports of prognostic studies of readiness measures, the co- efficients of correlation have varied from approximately .45 to .75, with a large number of them between .50 and .60. These are much lower 5 For a classified list of tests in this field, see the article by Harrison in this chapter.—Fditorial Committee. 6 The coefficient of correlation is a mathematical measure of relationship between two series of factors. The lowest possible correlation is 0.00 and the highest possible is 1.00. Correlations can be either positive or negative. A positive correlation indicates a tendency for the factors to increase or decrease together; a negative correlation indicates a tendency for one factor to increase as the other decreases. — a , S TT I | = SN ee Ve ye | , ~ yy” | | Te READING READINESS 253 than the correlations necessary for individual guidance of pupils on the basis of test scores alone. However, it has generally been found that when reading-readiness test scores are combined with other measures, such as ratings of personal characteristics and mental test scores, the coefficient of correlation is raised. A further study of the reported data shows that when the criterion of success in reading is made up of more than one reading test, or a combination of reading test and teacher’s marks, the coefficient of correlation is higher. These facts suggest that by broadening the basis of prediction (by including a larger number of significant reading-readiness factors in the predictive measure) and by increasing the validity and reliability of the criterion of success in reading, we may anticipate a coefficient of correlation between pre- dictive and criterion measures high enough for individual guidance. Coefficients of correlation, however, do not give a complete picture of the value of reading-readiness tests. If a critical point on these pre- dictive measures could be determined, below which we feel sure a pupil will not succeed in systematic reading, the test results would help materially in making administrative adjustments to pupil needs. Such measures may further point out specific needs of children that can be dealt with immediately in the school situation. Practicability of tests in the school—In considering the use of reading-readiness measures, it is important to appraise their practi- cability in the school situation. A measure that requires from forty-five minutes to an hour to give to each pupil separately is out of the question for all pupils of the first grade if the teacher is to use it with only the help and advice of principal or supervisor. Available data show that by combining scores on a group reading-readiness test with a teacher’s ratings of pupils before beginning reading, reasonably high coefficients of correlation are obtained with standard reading test scores, or with the teacher’s marks in reading, or with a combination of these two criteria of success.’ Therefore, it would seem practically advisable (assuming that a physical examination is given to children entering the first grade) to propose (1) that teachers and principals use group reading-readiness tests and teacher rating of all first-grade entrants; (2) that additional individual physical and readiness tests be used with doubtful cases; and (3) that continued scientific studies be made, using a broader basis for prediction to determine the most significant readiness factors, and attempting to develop still more valid measures of success in reading. 7 Wright, Wendell W. Reading Readiness—A Prognostic Study. Bulletin of the School of Educa- tion, Vol. 12, No. 3. Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University, 1936. 46 p. 254 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS AFTeR TESTING—W HAT? Administrative steps to be taken with pupils who are not ready to do systematic reading will be markedly influenced by local conditions. Such factors as the organization of the school, availability of a kinder- garten, type of reading program, methods of promotion, and many others will affect administrative decisions. One of the most common administrative practises is to defer the beginning of systematic reading for those not considered ready for it. This is often done by establishing a junior first-grade group which does not begin systematic reading until a period of prereading activities has been completed. In some places the systematic reading is postponed for all pupils for several weeks or months. The widespread establishment of kindergartens would not only aid materially in building up meaningful experiences and good habits of living in school, but would increase the period of diagnostic study and remedial work needed by many children. An educational program that provides a background of real, rich, and varied experiences before taking up systematic reading material will do much to meet the problems of readiness in reading or in any other phase of school work. Much progress has been and will continue to be made in this direction. Beginning reading material of the better kind, both commercial and teacher-developed, reflects an awareness of reading-readiness problems and makes an intelligent effort to meet them. Some of the elements of readiness for systematic reading are dis- tinctly matters of growth and maturation within the child. There is little value in attempting to hurry them. For example, the maturation of the eyeball will probably not be influenced to any degree by pre- reading activities; for this the schools must await natural development. On the other hand, many factors are largely matters of environment and habit, and can be improved by proper instruction. The meager- ness of a child’s experience can be supplemented, his “baby talk” can be overcome, his habits of work can be improved, and his interest in reading can to a degree be aroused. To sit and wait for all the factors of readiness to develop naturally would be as foolish as to try to hurry the maturation of others. The school, to best serve those not ready to benefit by instruction in systematic reading, should both postpone such reading and provide a vital program for the non-ready-to-read pupils. The nature of such a program is indicated more specifically in the other contributions to this chapter. READING READINESS 255 IDENTIFYING MATURE AND IMMATURE FIRST- YEAR ENTRANTS Ross H. Bran Principal, Lee Elementary School and Mossiz Ho_mMes Director of Tests Tulsa Public Schools, Tulsa, Oklahoma are ready for systematic instruction in reading presents a chal- lenging problem to administrators and teachers. This problem has several aspects, as follows: Te Fact that not all first-year entrants to the elementary school 1. Insistence on the part of parents that their children be given systematic instruction in reading soon after they enter school 2. A feeling on the part of administrators and teachers that children must be pressed into a program of systematic instruction in reading at an early date 3. The necessity of providing a modified program of instruction for those pupils who are not ready for instruction in beginning reading 4. The need for discovering soon after entrance those pupils who are probably not ready, and those who are probably capable of successful achievement in beginning reading. The first two aspects of the problem, as listed above, require a cam- paign of education for parents and educators. Parents are inclined to think that their children are being neglected if they are not taught to read soon after the opening of school. Administrators and teachers too frequently feel that failure to proceed with a program of systematic instruction in reading soon after pupils enter school is an evidence of inefficiency. Both viewpoints are mistaken, for they place emphasis upon achievement in a prescribed course of study rather than upon determining the individual needs of the child and providing instruction to meet those needs. The third aspect of the problem is a matter of curriculum construc- tion. Many schools have been slow to provide an adequate program for pupils who are too immature to profit from systematic instruction in reading. With the rapidly growing literature in this field, including the numerous courses of study developed for pre-first-grade pupils, there seems to be little excuse for the lack of a profitable program of in- struction for these pupils. The fourth aspect of the problem—that of discovering which pupils are too immature and which are mature enough to profit from sys- tematic reading instruction—is fundamental to each of the other as- 256 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS pects, and is the one with which this article is primarily concerned. The following discussion is based in large part upon the experience of the writers in attempting to identify these types of children in the public schools of Tulsa, Oklahoma. Tue READINESS TESTING PROGRAM General characteristics—An adequate testing program for first-year entrants should provide for the identification of mature and immature pupils with reasonable accuracy, and should provide data which may be used for convincing parents and school people that there is a real need for differentiating these two groups. Since proper classification of first-year entrants is not possible until the test data are available, the testing program must be easy to administer, must yield results promptly, and must provide measures that are reasonably reliable. It should also permit the diagnosis of children’s specific weaknesses, such as visual and auditory deficiencies. Such a program will include several different kinds of measures, as no single measure has been found to be adequate. Moreover, even the best measures available at present cannot be followed blindly, but re- quire careful judgment on the part of teachers and administrators. This is due to the fact that reading readiness is a composite of many factors, some of which are not adequately measured by existing tests. Details of the Tulsa program—The present program for the identifi- cation of mature and immature first-year entrants in Tulsa makes use of four specific factors, namely, chronological age, mental age, intelli- gence quotient, and the score on a reading-readiness test. In addition to these data, the teacher’s judgment with respect to the child’s readi- ness for systematic reading instruction is taken into consideration. This program, which has been followed for the past six years with only minor changes in the tests used, is reviewed briefly in the following paragraphs. 1. Approximately 60 percent of the first-year pupils have been tested by the Stanford-Binet intelligence test! during the last semester of kindergarten. 2. Those first-graders who have not attended kindergarten are tested at the beginning of school in the fall with the Detroit First-Grade In- telligence Test.? 3. All first-year entrants are given the Metropolitan Readiness Test.? 1 Stanford Revision of the Binet-Simon Scale, published by Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston; necessary material supplied by C. H. Stoelting Co., Chicago. 2 Published by the World Book Co., Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York. er 1ed, 2 of the rear ure nay real 1 of ble, ults | uch ted [n- ess READING READINESS 257 4. In case of grave doubt or violent disagreement with respect to the test results for a child, a second or even a third (and different) test of intelligence or readiness is given. 5. A beginning has been made in the use of the Betts Ready to Read Tests * and in the testing for, and correction of, visual deficiencies. 6. In the light of the data thus obtained, teachers are instructed to classify first-year entrants as pre-first-grade or regular first-grade pupils except in cases of extreme deviation. In such cases the children are classified as kindergarten pupils or as “specials,” depending upon the nature of the case. While making decisions with respect to the classification of a pupil, the teacher is expected to supplement the test results with her judgment of the pupil’s readiness or lack of readiness for systematic instruction in reading. That is, the pupil is not arbi- trarily classified on the basis of the test data alone, but on the basis of the test data and the teacher’s judgment of his readiness for begin- ning reading. A definite weakness in the present program is the lack of a means for guiding the teacher’s judgment. The plan for the future is to correct this deficiency thru the development of a pupil-rating chart which will help to guide the teacher’s judgment when she at- tempts to classify pupils. 7. In general, pupils who are classified as pre-first-grade pupils are given a modified program of instruction designed to develop a readi- ness for reading. The length of this program varies from school to school, being determined very largely by the judgment of the teacher. Whenever, in the teacher’s judgment, a pupil or section is considered ready for systematic instruction in reading, either the pupil is trans- ferred to a regular first-grade class or the entire section is given sys- tematic instruction in beginning reading. This procedure is open to criticism because it undoubtedly encourages some teachers to crowd pre-first-grade pupils into a program of beginning reading sooner than is really advisable. This tendency is due partly to the fact that no ade- quate program of instruction has been outlined for these immature pupils. Such a program, however, is now being developed. APPRAISAL OF THE TESTING PROGRAM Findings of other investigators—Experience has shown that the chronological age and the intelligence quotient are helpful in distin- guishing mature and immature first-year entrants only when consi- dered in relation to each other. In other words, the child’s mental age is more significant than either his chronological age or his I.Q. alone. 8 Obtainable from the Keystone View Co., Meadville, Pennsylvania. 258 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS This conclusion has been confirmed by other investigators. For ex- ample, Morphett and Washburne* obtained correlation coefficients of .50 to .65 between mental age and ability to learn to read, and found this relationship to be higher than that between reading progress and either the intelligence quotient or the average of mental and chrono- logical ages. Harrison® reported that altho an adequate mental age does not insure reading success, a mental age of at least six years seems necessary to make success probable, and that the probability of suc- cess is greatly increased if a mental age of six years and six months has been attained. Wright,® in studying the relation of mental age at school entrance and teachers’ marks in reading after one semester of instruction, found that 50 percent of the children with mental ages of seventy-two months or less received failing marks, while only about 2 percent of those with mental ages of seventy-eight months or more received such marks. Woods * recommended that children with mental ages between seventy- six and eighty months be considered as borderline cases, pointing out that while many of them are mentally ready to begin reading, some are still too immature because of other factors. Such findings as these indicate that mental age is one of the most crucial factors in determin- ing a child’s readiness for reading, but that, like chronological age and 1.Q., it has serious limitations if used alone as a measure of readiness. The use of the Metropolitan Readiness Test may be criticized because it measures many of the same factors that are measured by intelli- gence tests. Harrison * reported a correlation of .79 between scores on this readiness test and the average of mental ages obtained from three primary intelligence tests. Nevertheless, the test does provide a veri- fication of the mental-test data, and also a broader base from which conclusions may be drawn as to the child’s readiness for reading. It is longer than primary intelligence tests and gives more detailed infor- mation about abilities closely related to pupil activities in the first grade. Wright ®° found the best means of predicting success in reading to be a combination of scores on the Metropolitan Readiness Test and teachers’ judgments on a pupil-rating scale. Prediction of reading achievement in Tulsa—To throw further light on the value of the readiness-testing program in Tulsa, the test results 4 Morphett, Mabel V., and Washburne, Carleton. ‘“‘When Should Children Begin to Read?” Elementary School Journal 31: 496-503; March 1931. 5 Harrison, M. Lucile. Reading Readiness. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1936. p. 7-8. 6 Wright, Wendell W. Reading Readiness—A Prognostic Study. Bulletin of the School of Edu- cation, Vol. 12, No. 3. Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University, 1936. p. 24. d 7 Woods, Elizabeth L., and staff. ‘‘A Study of the Entering B1 Children in the Los Angeles City Schools.” Journal of Educational Research 31: 9-19; September 1937. 8 Harrison, M. Lucile, op. cit., p. 76. ® Wright, Wendell W., op. cit., p. 16. Seep eet - ee READING READINESS 259 for first-year entrants in the fall of 1936 were compared with the reading achievement of the same pupils in May 1937. The measure of reading achievement used was the Tulsa Reading Progress Test No. 2. In this test, constructed by the director of tests for the city school system, the entire vocabulary was selected from the basic textbooks in reading for the first grade. The test consists of 100 items, arranged in the order in which the words are presented in the basic textbooks— that is, the words that occur in the pre-primer are used first; the new words that appear in the primer then follow; and the new words in the first reader make up the balance of the test. The items are arranged in six different types of reading exercises, namely, visual-visual asso- ciation, identification of a word with the corresponding picture or object, auditory-visual association, and three types of comprehension exercises. The reliability coefficient '° of the test has been found to be .98 for 700 cases selected at random, which means that the scores are highly reliable. The results obtained from this test in the spring, together with the data on readiness factors obtained in the preceding fall, are summarized in Table 1. These data are based upon a sampling of 1325 children, or approximately 50 percent of the first-year entrants enrolled. This sample is believed to be reasonably representative of the entire group. No attempt was made to trace the records of pupils who had moved during the school year; consequently, the data are for pupils who remained in the same school thruout the year. It is important also to note that the group included white children only, and that not more than 2 percent of these were foreign children. The mean intelligence quotient of 105.2 may prompt a question in regard to the representative- ness of the sample, but this mean is not excessive for the Tulsa public schools. Previous experience with the Metropolitan Readiness Test had indi- cated that there were certain critical points in the distribution of scores on this test—that is, pupils who scored 90 or above were, in general, strong capable pupils; those who scored between 75 and 89 were prom- ising first-grade pupils; those who scored between 60 and 74 required some definite preparation prior to formal instruction in reading; and those who scored 59 or lower required a longer period of such prepara- tion. Accordingly, the pupils represented in Table 1 were divided into four groups on the same basis. Group I included pupils who had made the highest scores, while Group IV included those who had made the lowest scores on the readiness test. 10 Determined by the split-halves technic and the Spearman-Brown formula. ue ws saad ed a calleies he “LE6T AB Ul pourezgo ‘Z ‘ON 789.7 ssai004q Ouipvay vsjn, J VY} UO Sa10dg » “UBOUL 94} GAOGE UOIBBIAVP P1BpUvysS BUO yUIOd B PUB UBAUI BY} MOJEG UOIBIADP psvpuBys GUO YUIOd B UVaM4eq [[BJ SAS 94} JO SP1Iy}-OM} Ajezeultxoidds ‘seioos JO UOTINII4SIp [eulIOU BUT ‘UBeUT 94} MOE PUB DAOQGE SosSBd [VNPIAIpUl Jo pveids JO UOTSIJedSIpP 9Y} JO DINSBAU B SI, UOTPBIAVP PIBpUByS,, 9 ]J, ¢ ‘OLGI Jequiejdeg ul peulE}go ‘jsa,7 ssauippay uDpj0d04Ja py BY} UO Sa100g » *peurquios sdnoid inoj [[B 103 pus ‘Ay pus ‘]T] ‘TT sdnoiy 10} sendy peel ApIepImMIg ‘sjulod FG] Jo UOTVBIAep PJBPUBIS B YIIA ‘489, JUDMIBAVIYOV BZulpval ay} UO Q°gg JO 2100S UBSU B PUB ‘sy},UOUI 2°g JO UOIPBIAVP pivpuTys B Yd ‘sqUOUI Q°2/ JO 2BB [BOIZO[OUOIYO UBS B ‘syUOUI Z'g JO UOTBIAVP pivpurys B 471M ‘syjyuoU! 6°28 JO 938 [ejJUSUI UU B ‘sjUuIOd FF] JO UOIBLADP PivpusBys B YIM ‘gQ*GOT JO querjONnb souesT]]e}UI UBOUI B '48a} SITY} UO G26 JO 91008 UBeUI B PBY ‘389 SS9UIP¥al-ZuUIpval Vy} UO JOYyZIY 10 YG JO 891008 apBUI OYM stidnd jo Zurystsuod ‘T dnoiry :37q0) poay oS PIL ZL 8°92 FOr 0°08 0°91 2° S01 coh =| 6110 cze‘T peulquios sdnoi3 [TV 9° Lz 0 FF 6°L 192 o'8 8°89 6&1 ¢° 16 £°SP 6g 90 19% AI oS 9°49 6°L GOL pL €°LL 91 8°Z0r 19 FL 909 STE III L°9t 8°8L VL O° LL SL b°Z8 Pel 6 LOT 0°28 68 CL 9Lé II vst 9°98 L°9 9°LL 8 6°28 v Fl 8°60I 6°46 6IT 9} 06 OLE I (1) (TT) (OT) (6) (8) (2) (9) ($) (¥) () (2) (1) O18 é ’ ‘propos: | A | “propuongt | MRC | Spocruee | mmm | Apert | wee | were omer 40 anoury 28aH00g (SHINOJ] NJ) (SHLNOW NJ) SINALLOAY p8auo0og — INGWGAGIHOY ONIGVaY SHADY TVOIDOIONOUHY sapy IVINA| GONADITIALNI SSANIGVAY-ONIGVAY SINV4LNGY UVAA-LSUI ONOWV LINAWAAGIHOY DNIGVAYY INGNOASHAg JO GNV SHOIOVA SSAUNIGVAY AO SINGWNSUOSVAP—T ATAV.L [ 260 ] PEON READING READINESS 261 Table 1 shows that the means for Groups I and II exceeded the mean for the entire pupil population on each factor measured, while the means for Groups III and IV fell below the mean of the entire population on each factor. In other words, those groups of pupils whose mean scores were above the average of all first-year entrants on the Metropolitan Readiness Test, also averaged higher than all first-year entrants in I. Q., mental age, chronological age, and reading achievement at the end of the school year. The reverse was true of those groups whose mean scores were below the average of all first-year entrants on the Metro- politan Readiness Test. It should be emphasized, however, that the relationships observed for groups of pupils were not always found in the case of individuals. This is shown by the spread of I. Q.’s, ages, and reading achievement scores above and below the means far each group, as measured by the standard deviations in columns 6, 8, 10, and 12. For example, some of the pupils in Group III (with readiness-test scores between 60 and 74) made reading achievement scores above the mean for Group I (in which all the pupils scored 90 or above in reading readiness). This overlapping of the groups with respect to various measures indicates that no single factor can be accepted as a sure indicator of future success in reading. Several different factors must be considered, and even then good judg- ment is necessary to determine for each child the relative importance of each factor. It is clear also that no matter how a pupil may be classi- fied with respect to reading readiness, his individual needs must be con- tinuously studied and his program modified from time to time in ac- cordance with significant changes in his needs. In spite of individual variations, it appears that the mean scores given for the pupil population as a whole in Table 1 (except in reading achievement) may be used as rough guides in determining a child’s readiness for systematic reading instruction in Tulsa. That is, these means may be regarded as critical or danger points, and if a child falls below any one of them his readiness for reading should be seriously questioned. Careful consideration may reveal that a deficiency in one factor is compensated for by an average or superior status in other factors. In general, the larger the number of factors in which a child is deficient, the fewer are his chances of succeeding in beginning reading. In interpreting the data in Table 1, it should be borne in mind that they represent pupils in thirty elementary schools. The results were obtained under normal classroom conditions, including such factors as absences due to sickness, pupil indifference to achievement, and varia- tions in methods of teaching. = 262 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Furthermore, while it was intended that all pupils who were classified as pre-first-grade pupils—that is, too immature for successful achieve- | ment in beginning reading—should receive a modified program of in- | struction, this aim was not realized in every instance. Where a modified program was attempted, the length of the period given to such instruc- tion varied widely. t Limitations of the program—Obviously, the testing program just de- scribed is inadequate for diagnosing the specific weaknesses or disabili- ties of those pupils who are not ready for beginning reading. Such diag- nosis should logically follow the program outlined above. This program is a survey procedure, making possible an early classification of the pupils who probably can profit from instruction in reading, and bringing to attention those who need special diagnosis and treatment. As stated above, a valuable adjunct to the testing program is the teacher’s judgment. The writers’ experience indicates that, to be most | effective, this should be a guided judgment, and that the necessary | guidance probably could be best secured thru a pupil-rating card. Thru the use of the teacher’s judgment in connection with the test data, many errors in classification may be avoided. At best, the measures used in the program outlined in this article take into account only a few of the significant factors in reading readiness. By means of a pupil-rating card, many other factors may be taken into consideration in classifying the child. A similar conclusion by Wright ™ has already been mentioned. ea SUMMARY The conclusions drawn from the data presented above, and from other studies carried on in the Tulsa school system, may be summarized as follows: 1. Pupils entering the first grade at the normal chronological age and with intelligence quotients below 100 have a small chance of attaining the median level of achievement in reading that is attained by first- grade pupils at the close of the first semester. 2. Pupils with intelligence quotients from 100 to 114 and who are at age for the grade have about a fifty-fifty chance of attaining the median level of achievement for the first grade at the close of the first semester, while pupils with intelligence quotients of 115 or above show marked superiority in achievement. 3. The following appear to be critical points in identifying mature and immature first-year entrants: Score on the Metropolitan Readiness Test... ...... 76 meneame GRNURE cic cecacesceaes Gace 105 SE oso os cy uch atu EeL, cadlseas 80 months NOPD PR ko vive veep acess cdadcearuas .... %@@ months 11 Wright, Wendell W., op. cit. — °° oa her | as and ing rst- > at lian READING READINESS 263 If a child falls below any of these points, his readiness for reading should be seriously questioned and investigated further. 4. A valuable adjunct to test data in the classification of first-year entrants is a pupil-rating card which permits the teacher to rate pupils on factors pertinent to reading readiness that are not measured by test scores. 5. The testing program for first-year entrants should provide not only for identification of mature and immature pupils, but also for diagnosis of the specific weaknesses and disabilities of individual pupils. 6. A modified program of instruction designed to promote reading readiness should be provided for immature first-year entrants. This program should extend over a semester at least, and in some instances thruout the year, depending upon the maturity of the child. © 1x significant types of pupils have been clearly identified, S namely, those who have already made some progress in learning to read, those who are just ready for reading, includ- ing pupils of different levels of capacity, those of normal men- tality who are not prepared for reading in one or more respects, those who are retarded mentally to a greater or less extent, those who are unable to speak English, and repeaters. Through the use of primary classification or intelligence tests and care- fully planned language and construction activities, teachers should determine the general status of pupils with respect to reading readiness and provide instruction adapted to the specific needs of each distinct group—Gray, William §S., in A Better Beginning in Reading for Young Children, Bulletin of the Association for Childhood Education, 1932, p. 11. 264 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS PRINCIPLES FOR INCREASING THE READINESS TO READ M. Lucite Harrison Associate Professor of Kindergarten-Primary Education, Colorado State College of Education, Greeley, Colorado AILURE at the initial level of reading instruction is more disastrous to the pupil than failure at any other time. At this level attitudes toward reading resulting from success are very important to later achievement. It is here that keen joy in successful progress aids the child in sustaining a high degree of effort thru the long periods of drill and practise required for building the basic skills and mastering the essential tools of reading. At this level, also, many a pupil who experi- ences failure acquires the mind-set that he can never learn to read. It is sometimes years before he finds that this is not true. The reading-readi- ness program seeks to promote success with its desirable effects, and to prevent failure with its many detrimental effects. Causes or Fatture THat Can Be REMEDIED The causes of failure at the initial level of reading instruction which can be remedied will be discussed in this section. Those which cannot be remedied, such as low native intelligence, will be omitted. The causes which can be remedied or removed before reading begins may be classi- fied as intellectual, physical, and social. Lack of training in specific intellectual abilities—A child’s general intelligence may be high encugh to allow him to enter the reading process, but may be untrained in some of its specific aspects to such a degree that failure will result. General intelligence, of course, cannot be altered, if it is defined as innate ability to take on learning—a commonly accepted definition. We can, however, increase the child’s opportunities to take on certain types of learning, as well as the amount of guidance given him in perfecting certain abilities within the limits set by native intelligence. If such opportunities and guidance have been lacking, a reading-readiness program can be of great assistance to the child. There are few data as to the specific abilities which are common to general intelligence and to reading ability. However, a few abilities which are often inventoried in arriving at a measure of intelligence have a high degree of correlation with reading success. In the opinion of the writer, these may safely be called specific intellectual abilities re- lated to reading. The following ones seem to be improved by training: 1. Facility in the use of a broad field of meaningful concepts 2. Facility in the use of ideas in problematic thinking READING READINESS 265 f 3. Ability to carry a wide span of ideas in memory 4. Facility in the use of language, including (a) vocabulary, (b) simple English sentences, and (c) enunciation and pronunciation 5. Ability to see likenesses and differences in details of graphic form 6. Freedom from reversal tendencies. a There is ample evidence not only that proficiencies in these abilities are closely associated with reading success, but also that deficiencies Is in them definitely interfere with learning to read. Such deficiencies are s F usually present in cases of reading disability. It is, therefore, sensible rf to ascertain which of these abilities are deficient in children, and to le ff provide prereading instruction which will promote their development. ll Physical deficiencies—A child’s physical development may have been le | impaired or delayed in some aspects to such an extent that interferences i- occur in learning to read. The visual, auditory, and motor aspects of is physical growth seem most closely allied with ability to profit by ordi- i- | nary reading instruction at the initial stage. When these factors are io impaired, reading achievement by ordinary teaching methods is often : greatly delayed or quite impossible. If deficiencies of these types are noted, provision should be made for their correction. If they are too ' severe to be remedied, another approach to reading must be used which h does not place too great demands upon these physical factors. tf Slow or abnormal social development—A child’s social development me likewise may be slow or abnormal, resulting in a lack of ability to ad- i- : just to the usual environment of reading instruction. If such is the : case, the child often has difficulty in profiting by that instruction until al he has been given ample time and the necessary guidance for making gf an adjustment to the situation. He must be aided in adjusting to (1) a f living socially with a group of children of his own age, (2) working re in a group where all have equal rights to opportunities for instruction 7 as and to the use of materials, and (3) entering into typical school pro- 28 E cedures of group instruction. At the same time he must develop indi- e ; vidual habits of work in the group which will enable him to grow at eo ut his own rate. a § D1AGNostTic PRocEDURES . f To determine what factors in the threefold development described si) above may interfere with learning to read in individual cases, available diagnostic procedures should be applied at the preparatory stage of reading instruction, preferably before entrance to the first grade. The following types of procedures have been found valuable: tests of intel- o ligence, readiness for reading, laterality, vision, auditory equipment, motor ability, speech, information, and language ability; examinations of physical and emotional well-being; observations of social, emotional, 266 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS and environmental factors contributing to reading; and an analysis of the results of any previous instructional program, including language abilities, conceptual breadth, attitudes toward reading, ability to see likenesses and differences, and knowledge of the direction of reading and writing. * Tests and inventory outlines may be chosen from the following ac- cording to the facilities available in the local school system: * 1. Intelligence tests, such as the Stanford Revision of the Binet-Simon Scale, the Minnesota Pre-School Scale, the Merrill Palmer Pre-School Scale, the Arthur Performance Scale, the Kuhlmann-Anderson Intelligence Tests, and the Cole-Vin- cent Test for School Entrants. 2. Readiness tests, such as the Monroe Reading Aptitude Tests, the Van Wagenen Reading Readiness Tests, the Metropolitan Readiness Tests, and the Betts Ready to Read Tests. 3. Laterality tests using the Smedley Dynamometer, and informal tests of per- formance in laterality as suggested in the Betts Ready to Read Tests, in the Mon- roe Reading Aptitude Tests, and in Witty and Kopel’s Diagnostic Child Study Record, Form II, for Sensory and Physiological Functions. 4. Vision tests, such as the Betts Visual Sensation and Perception Tests, the Snellen Chart Test, and the Eames Eye Test. 5. Auditory tests using an acceptable audiometer, a reliable whisper test as sug- gested in the Betts Ready to Read Tests, and auditory tests such as those in the Monroe Reading Aptitude Tests. 6. Motor tests, such as those of manual speed and steadiness in the Monroe Reading Aptitude Tests, of ocular-motor control as found in the same battery of tests, and of vertical and lateral balance of eye muscles as found in the Betts Visual Sensation and Perception Tests; also informal tests of motor control. 7. Speech inventories as given in textbooks on the subject,* and in Blanton and Stinchfield’s Speech Measurements? 8. Information tests, such as those in the Van Wagenen Reading Readiness Tests, in the Metropolitan Readiness Tests, in the Monroe Reading Aptitude Tests, and in the Sangren Information Tests for Young Children. 9. Language tests, such as those in the Van Wagenen Reading Readiness Tests, in the Metropolitan Readiness Tests, in the Monroe Reading Aptitude Tests, and in the Stanford Revision of the Binet-Simon Scale; informal tests of sentence length and complexity; and vocabulary inventories. 10. Physical, emotional, social, and environmental inventories, such as in Witty and Kopel’s Diagnostic Child Study Record, Form III, Parts 1, 2, 3, and 4, and Form VIII; and in Harrison’s “Individual Chart of Reading Readiness.” * 1A diagnostic chart for making such an analysis is found in: Harrison, M. Lucile. Reading Readiness. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1936. p. 143-49. 2 The lists of measuring devices given here are not exhaustive, but include some of the most practical means of diagnosis which can be used outside a clinic or laboratory. The publishers may be located by referring to up-to-date bibliographies of test materials, such as: Buros, Oscar K. Educational, Psychological, and Personality Tests of 1933, 1934 and 1935. Studies in Education, No. 9. New Brunswick, N. J.: Rutgers University, 1936. 83 p. For further details concerning diagnostic facilities, see: Harrison, M. Lucile, op. cit., p. 106-28. 3 Prepared by P. A. Witty and D. Kopel, Psycho-Educational Clinic, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois. *A good test of consonant production is found in: Peppard, Helen M. The Correction of Speech Defects. New York: Macmillan Co., 1925. p. 55-56. 5 Distributed by C. H. Stoelting Company, Chicago. ®See: International Kindergarten Union, Committee on Child Study. A Study of, the Vocab- ulary of Children Before Entering the First Grade, Washington, D. C.: the Union (now the Association for Childhood Education), 1928. 36 p. 7 Harrison, M. Lucile, op. cit., p. 143-49. j : i t Ji ( CO mr e f f ie rT is a a TERR Eee READING READINESS 267 11. Results of any previous instructional program, as inventoried in Harrison's “Individual Chart of Reading Readiness.” 12. Instructional materials such as Everyday Doings* and Before We Read? The data obtained thru these measures should be analyzed to deter- mine for each child what factors are slow or abnormal in their develop- ment. Factors which can be accelerated or directed toward the normal should be worked upon thru definite remedial instruction with appro- priate materials. REMEDIAL MATERIALS AND METHODS Remedial methods should be used as soon as any deficiencies are detected. These remedial measures may begin as soon as the child enters the kindergarten, and should continue until the deficiency has been removed or reduced to a level at which it will not affect reading. While the help given remedial cases should be based upon the same general principles as the instruction planned for normal cases, there are a few specific principles that the remedial teacher should be very careful to follow. They are: 1. Most of the remedial training should be done individually or in small groups if satisfactory results are to be attained. 2. Continuous and detailed analyses of pupil needs and progress must be made so that all help given is pertinent to the immediate and ultimate needs of the child. 3. The remedial materials used must be abundant. interesting, well organized, and skilfully used according to the pupil’s needs as he progresses from one step to another in his development. 4. The teacher must show personal skill in aiding and guiding the pupil thru the periods of frustration which are certain to come in cases of extreme difficulty. She must be understanding, kind, and patient when he fails to make progress, and enthusiastic and appreciative when he scores successes. 5. She must be skilful in using the child’s special abilities to compensate for his disabilities. She must, however, never cease to work toward the removing of deficiencies which affect his learnings. The following paragraphs suggest types of remedial methods and materials which may be used by the ordinary classroom teacher as she works with the individual child to eradicate his deficiencies in reading readiness. '° Stimulating Mental Development 1. The possession of a broad field of meaningful concepts and facility in their use are essential to meaningful reading. Studies of the concepts § Hahn, Julia. Everyday Doings. Pre-primer of Child Development Readers. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1935. ®Gray, William S., and Monroe, Marion. Before We Read. Curriculum Foundation Series. Chicago: Seott, Foresman and Co., 1937. 10 For more specific suggestions as to method, see the article by Monroe in this chapter.— Editorial Committee. 268 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS contained in reading materials used by first-grade children indicate that the concept vocabulary is much heavier than the recognition vo- cabulary. In a recent study of ten primers and ten first readers, *! ap- proximately 2400 different word forms were found, but these symbols carried over 4000 different meanings or concepts. Each of the 2400 words and their 4000 different meanings, ranging from one to twenty- four meanings per word, must be familiar, easily understood, and readily used by the child if the reading of these books is to be mean- ingful to him. This situation places a heavy burden upon the teacher whose re- sponsibility is to supplement a meager meaning vocabulary. The most effective means is to make it possible for the child to have a variety of important and interesting firsthand experiences. To these must be added a greater number of important and interesting vicarious experi- ences. It will be possible to supply the latter in greater numbers than the former, altho firsthand experiences are more effective in develop- ing rich, meaningful concepts. 2. Facility in the use of ideas in problematic thinking is important because meaningful reading requires not only the recognition of mean- ing, but also its application to the everyday purposes and problems of the reader. If the reader is to make practical applications of what he reads, he must be able to carry out the processes involved in purposeful thinking or problem solving. It is necessary, therefore, that the child who shows a low degree of facility in the use of ideas be given training in this ability. This can be done by helping him to think thru all problems which arise and which can be legitimately brought into his daily experiences. The child who is deficient in this ability will be slower to recognize problems, will require more steps in solving them, and will have greater difficulty in arriving at a solution, than will other children. He will need careful and patient help in the remedial program. 3. The ability to carry a wide span of related ideas in memory is essential to the intelligent reading of materials ordinarily found in the first grade. Special training must be provided for the child who is especially deficient in this ability. Valuable activities for the purpose include the carrying of oral messages of increasing length, the reproduc- tion of stories which steadily increase in length and number of inci- dents, '? the reiteration of sentences of increasing length and complexity, the arrangement in sequence of an increasing number of related pic- " 11MeKee, Paul, and Harrison, M. Lucile. The Meaning Vocabulary of Primers and First Readers. Unpublished study. Greeley, Colorado: Colorado State College of Education, 1936. 12 Two books mentioned earlier are helpful in developing this ability, namely, Everyday Doings and Before We Read. 3 B READING READINESS 269 tures, the memorization of poems of increasing length, and the carrying out of a series of oral directions of increasing number. Work span and the ability to attend to a task in the face of distrac- tions are related to memory span, and must be developed as parallel abilities. This can best be done by supplying the child with such inter- esting, purposeful, and satisfying work that he forms the habit of weeding out distractions and of working intently over a period of time. The habit so established may later be applied thru volition. 4. Facility in the use of language is probably one of the most impor- tant abilities related to reading. Deficiency in this ability will require patient and persistent effort on the part of the teacher to increase vo- cabulary, facility in the use of simple English sentences, and accurate enunciation and pronunciation. It will require an increase in the ordi- nary instructional program set up for the development of these abilities, with special emphasis upon the methods which most quickly bring new words into the vocabulary, develop the clear use of sentences as units of thought, and stimulate the clear production of sounds and correct combination of sounds in words.** Inaccurate enunciation and pronunciation will often require definite speech correction work. Textbooks which deal specifically with these problems should be referred to for assistance.’* It may even be neces- sary to call in a specialist for assistance on extreme cases of speech difficulty. 5. Ability to see likenesses and differences in details of graphic form is basic to the establishment of an initial sight vocabulary. Since exer- cises which accurately measure this ability are found in all good readi- ness tests and in many intelligence tests, a need for training in it is not often overlooked. Appropriate remedial and practise materials are also easily available for use with the child. Such materials include puzzles cut on form lines instead of across color planes; form boards; groups of duplicated pictures for matching; words duplicated for match- ing (not recognition) ; capital and small letters in duplicate for match- ing, children’s names which start with identical letters printed for matching the initial letters; typewriters with primer type, used for learning to write the child’s name, telephone number, house number, 18 Useful technics for these purposes are illustrated in Everyday Doings and Before We Read, cited previously. 5 14See: Barrows, Sarah T. ‘‘Teaching English to Foreign Children.’’ The Classroom Teacher, Vol. 2. Chicago: the Classroom Teacher, Inc., 1927. p. 435-502. § Monroe, Marion. Children Who Cannot Read. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1932. p. 117-18, 121, 129-31. § Peppard, Helen M. The Correction of Speech Defects. New York: Macmillan Co., 1925. 180 p. ¥ Stinch- field, Sara M. The Psychology of Speech. Boston: Expression Co., 1928, 331 p. § Stinchfield, Sara M. Speech Disorders. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1933. 341 p. § Stinchfield, Sara M. Speech Pathology. Boston: Expression Co., 1928. 266 p. § Travis, Lee E. ‘“‘Diagnosis in Speech.”’ Educational Diagnosis. Thirty-Fourth Yearbook, National Society for the Study of Education. Bloomington, Ill.: Public School Publishing Co., 1935. Chapter 19, p. 399-434. 270 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS and a few short words; many exercises prepared for the purpose in Before We Read; and similar exercises which may be prepared by the teacher. It should be stressed that those abilities which are basic to reading comprehension are equally as important as those which are basic to word recognition. Teachers are often so pressed by supervisory officers in the matter of mere word recognition, that they overlook the fact that this skill constitutes only a portion of actual reading, and that arriving at meaning is the ultimate goal of the reading act. 6. Reversal tendencies often accompany difficulties in early reading. However, altho we know that large numbers of extreme reading-dis- ability cases show excessive reversals, we do not know certainly that the reversals are causal factors in the reading disability. From the data available, we can only surmise that there may be a causal relation- ship, and that we should seek to eradicate reversal tendencies if they appear noticeably. Since they tend to accompany mental immaturity, these tendencies are often dropped with the process of maturation, but a remedial program for reducing them is recommended. To date, we know only a few means of eradicating such tendencies, namely, emphasizing the ability to remember likenesses and differences in form, establishing a strong feeling of “leftness” and “rightness,” establishing a strong natural dominance, making clear the direction of reading and writing, and giving training in motor memory and eye- motor coordination. *® Correcting Physical Deficiencies All steps to correct deficiencies in physical development must be taken by a competent physician or by the nurse or teacher under his guidance. Nothing should be attempted until the physician has been consulted, except to guard the child from further injury by improper use of his physical equipment. Improving Social and Emotional Adjustment If the problem of social adjustment is not extreme, the teacher and the mother can often aid the child. If, however, the problem is of a very abnormal nature, a psychiatrist should be consulted. In either case the solution must be determined by the underlying causes of the difficulty, which in turn must be sought thru an examination of the child’s history. The mother should be consulted, and after a thoro study of the case, she and the teacher should work cooperatively to 1 For detailed suggestions on conducting these types of remedial training, see: Harrison, M. Lucile, op. cit., p. 110-11. { Gray, William S., and Monroe, Marion, op. cit. : ate ROR OTe READING READINESS 271 remove the causes whenever this is possible. The causes most frequently contributing to lack of social adjustment are overprotection in the home, overdirection in the home, excessive attention from adults, lack of opportunities to meet others outside the home, standards of conduct which are either too high or too low, emotional instability, feelings of inferiority, and unstable home conditions of various types. We are assuming, of course, that circumstances in the school do not contribute to asocial conduct—an assumption which is not always correct. When the underlying causes have been removed, the teacher must seek to rehabilitate the child within the classroom. The causes of emotional instability may be those listed as causal in the case of social maladjustment. In addition, poor health, unstable parents, and unwise guidance or lack of guidance in the home often contribute to instability. Problems of this type should be referred to a psychiatrist if they are severe. If they are not, they should be attacked and solved in much the same manner as problems of social adjustment. The causes must be sought and a program of correction and rehabili- tation must be carried out by teacher and parent cooperatively. Modifying Parental Attitudes A discussion of remedial measures should not be closed without men- tioning those which are often needed in the case of parental attitudes and knowledge. Many of the most severe problems of the readiness program arise from a lack of knowledge on the part of parents as to the nature of the reading program and of reading readiness. Teachers, as specialists, are quite at fault if parents remain uninformed. The writer has found that parents wish to be informed and are usually very enthusiastic in helping to carry out the readiness program in all of its aspects. They are usually quite eager to cooperate in creating right attitudes toward reading during the preparatory period. They are equally anxious, in most cases, that their children be withheld from reading instruction if that is advisable, provided they understand the facts of the situation. A very important part of the preparatory program, then, includes preparing the parent for his part in that program. CONCLUSION The reading-readiness program as outlined above will not be com- pleted when the child arrives at the initial period of reading instruction, except in cases where the problems are very slight. It must be carried on thru the school experience of the child until the type of instruction given and the resulting achievement cease to be affected by the prob- 272 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS lems of readiness. In many instances, difficulties of the preparatory period which have not been entirely erased create reading difficulties which in turn require further remedial treatment. Continuous study and analysis of the child and his development are urged in order that difficulties may be recognized and remedied as early as possible. It is the opinion of the writer, however, that if the theory of readiness were adhered to strictly, if correct reading instruction and instructional materials were given to each individual, and if each were allowed to progress at his own normal rate of growth, most remedial programs would be unnecessary in the later years of the elementary school. NE obtains meaning from printed symbols only so far as O one has already a body of concepts or meanings to asso- ciate with the symbols. These symbols do not give the reader meanings. They merely stimulate him to recall and to enlarge or modify concepts which he already possesses. A teachier’s chief concern, then, should be to provide experiences which will make it possible for reading to become a meaningful process. Teachers of all grades and of all subjects must look ahead in prepared material, to see what concepts need to be developed in order that intelligent reading can take place.—Pennell, Mary E., p. 292 of this yearbook. t t é ’ | E Reapina ReapinEss 273 — A PROGRAM TO DEVELOP READING READINESS IN GRADE I Marion Monror Specialist in Remedial Instruction, Pittsburgh Public Schools, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania justified in the public schools for two reasons. In the first place, the large numbers of children who fail to learn to read make such programs necessary. It has been estimated that from 10 to 15 percent of elementary-school pupils fail to make the progress in reading which would be expected in view of their mental ages.: Re- medial instruction in reading is needed by a fairly large number of children in every school population—not, as was at first supposed, by just a few very rare and special cases. If the large numbers of children needing remedial work are to be reduced materially, emphasis must be placed not only upon correcting the reading disabilities now present, but also upon preventing the development of reading disabilities at their initial stages. In the second place, the relationship between successful school prog- ress and personality adjustment justifies an adequate reading-readiness program. Educators are no longer content to teach subjectmatter and skills as ends in themselves, but rather as the means by which children learn to adjust successfully and happily to their life needs. Every teacher is familiar with the reactions of children to failure. The ag- gressive child who becomes antagonistic toward school, “hates” reading, and “hates” his teacher—and whose behavior, if extreme, may ulti- mately lead him into delinquency—is often the child who gets no satis- faction from school work because of his repeated failure. Withdrawal, daydreaming, apathetic attitudes, and tensions are other types of reaction to school failure. The clown, the bully, and the braggart are usually compensating for their inadequacies in these undesirable ways. Educators who are interested in the mental health of children as well as in their academic progress should be especially aware of the need for preventing the behavior difficulties that result from failure. Sst PROGRAMS for the prevention of reading disabilities are Factors EssENTIAL TO Success IN READING Most schools enrol children in the first grade and expose them to reading with no other requirement than that the age of six years must have been reached. At no other grade level are entrance requirements 1 Monroe, Marion. Children Who Cannot Read. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1932, p. 1-18. 274 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS so casual; yet no other level is so important for later success. A careful analysis should be made of the prerequisites for success in reading. At the present stage of our knowledge, reading readiness appears to depend upon (1) mental age, (2) physiological factors, (3) personality factors, (4) language factors, and (5) special skills, interests, and information, Mental age—It is desirable for each child, before exposure to reading, to have reached a certain stage of mental maturity. Reading is a com- plex process, and certain intellectual abilities are necessary in acquir- ing the process. Not all investigators are agreed on just which is the most desirable mental age for beginning reading. Some authorities place the optimum mental age at six years, others at six years and six months, and still others advocate a mental age of seven years or higher. There is sufficient agreement, however, to conclude that mental ages of less than six years usually handicap children in learning to read. Altho children may learn to read at lower mental ages, usually the process of teaching such immature children is discouraging to both teacher and child, and may result in a dislike of reading on the part of the child. Mental age, however, is not the sole criterion or even a highly pre- dictive criterion of later success in reading. Every teacher has had experience with the bright child who has a high mental age but who finds reading a laborious and unsuccessful task. On the other hand, occasionally a child who has a low mental age acquires reading vocabu- lary easily, reads glibly, and enjoys reading, altho his comprehension of the text is immature and indicates his true mental level. The mental ages of first-grade children, therefore, should not be used as the sole criterion of reading readiness, but should be supplemented by tests and judgments of other factors. Physiological factors—Reading requires certain sensory and motor abilities as well as intelligence. Children read with their eyes, and, naturally, reading suffers if eye defects are present. A visual examina- tion should be given and defects corrected, if possible, before the child begins reading. Similarly, the child who has a hearing defect is handi- capped in learning to read, since he must associate the printed text with the words and phrases heard. ? If he does not hear and distinguish clearly the pronunciation of words, he may readily develop confusions which retard learning. Children whose hearing is deficient should be recognized at an early date. Reading is also a motor process requiring a delicate muscular adjust- ment. The eyes must be trained to follow a line of text, eyes and voice must be coordinated in oral reading, and movements of other parts 2 For a different opinion on this point, see the article by McDade in Chapter III.—2ditorial Committee. OO Ts OR Reapinc ReEapINEss 975 of the body must be inhibited to a large extent during reading. Chil- dren who are clumsy in movement, or who have poor control due to neurological illnesses, chorea, or other diseases, often find it difficult to make the motor adjustments required in reading. Poor motor control may also be a factor in attentional instability, since the inattentive child is often the hyperactive child. A thorogoing reading-readiness program would, therefore, include tests of vision, hearing, and motor control, as well as tests of mental age. Some children, however, can learn to read in spite of rather serious physical handicaps. Visual examinations of good readers and poor readers indicate that, altho a certain proportion of poor readers have visual defects, some good readers have learned to read in spite of simi- lar defects. The child who is persistent and emotionally stable, who is challenged by difficulty to put forth greater effort, who ignores physical discomfort, and who greatly desires to learn to read, may succeed even tho it is difficult for him to focus his eyes properly. On the other hand, the child who is timid, who tends to retreat from difficulty instead of attacking it, who is easily upset emotionally when a task is hard, or who is highly sensitive to physical discomfort, may find a slight visual defect an insurmountable barrier to learning to read. Physical defects should be recognized and corrected in any program of reading readiness, and their importance should not be minimized in the slightest degree. It is necessary, however, to discover also what the physical defect means to the child and how he reacts to it before we can understand how the defect is likely to affect the learning process. Personality factors—Not only should the mental ages and physical defects of first-grade entrants be determined, but also their attitudes, interests, social adjustments, and emotional patterns of behavior. Learn- ing to read is a group experience as the subject is now taught in most first grades. Children who are socially maladjusted, who tend to avoid the activities of the group, or who are so busy watching others that they cannot work effectively in a group, often lag behind in reading. Reading is facilitated or impeded also by emotional conditions. Children who are unhappy, insecure, or worried about personal problems are seldom in a proper frame of mind for learning. During the first few weeks of school, the first-grade teacher should study her pupils carefully for any emotional attitudes, tensions, or types of instability which may interfere with learning. An effort should be made to bring about an adjustment of these undesirable attitudes before beginning to read. Those children who tend to become easily discouraged, or who are shy, timid, and unstable, should be especially watched during the initial 276 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS stages of learning in order that no unfavorable emotional reaction may become attached to reading. As these personality factors are difficult to measure objectively, the examiner must rely to a large extent upon observation, judgments of teachers, and rating scales. Language factors—Reading is one of the language skills and is built to a large extent upon the background of verbal abilities which the child possesses before he starts to read. Those children who have learned to think verbally and who can express their ideas clearly in words already possess a type of thought which undoubtedly facilitates the process of learning to read. Children who are inarticulate and cannot think of words readily, altho they may express ideas well in drawing or with tools, often find reading too abstract to be of interest. Therefore, an analysis of each child’s language abilities is helpful before beginning © reading. Studies of the child’s vocabulary, sentence length, and other language skills should precede reading. The ability to speak correctly without infantile speech or articulatory defects is also a helpful factor in learning to read. Appropriate corrective work should be given to children with speech defects as a part of the program in reading readi- ness. Special skills, interests, and information—Besides the factors men- tioned previously, there are a number of special skills, interests, and types of information which contribute to success in reading. The child’s ability to recognize and differentiate between right and left is a pre- requisite to reading, since reading is a directional activity and many letters and words are alike except for their orientation. Previous ex- periences with reading and writing also give a good indication of interest in learning to read. Even such a simple test as writing or printing the name has considerable prognostic value. For example, in first-grade classes studied by the writer, children entering 1B in September were asked to try to write or print their names. Nearly half of the children were able to write or print at least a few letters in their names. Reading achievement tests were given at the end of the semester in January, and the class median on these tests was determined. Eighty-two percent of the children who had been able to write or print their names at least partially on entering 1B in September scored above the class median in reading in January, while only 25 percent of the children who had been totally unable to write or print their names reached the class median in January. The child’s information and spontaneous interest in reading and writing prior to school entrance are factors which may influence the rate at which he learns to read. RS + ee READING READINESS 277 TESTING AND GROUPING First-GrRADE ENTRANTS On the basis of the above analysis of factors which contribute to reading readiness, the following program for testing and grouping first- grade entrants is suggested: 1. To all first-grade entrants, give an intelligence test. Determine the mental age of each child. 2. Give also a series of aptitude tests to discover the child’s previous interests in reading, and to determine his ability to make visual and auditory discrimina- tions, to execute finely coordinated motor adjustments, to speak correctly without articulatory defects or stammering, and to use language with some facility. A standardized series of reading-readiness or aptitude tests may be used, or a series of informal tests may be devised by the teacher to measure various of these skills. If informal tests are used, the class median may serve as a standard and the children may be divided according to whether they rank above or below the median in each type of test. ; 3. Rate each child, after careful observation, on the adequacy of his social adjustment, his attentional control, his interest and enthusiasm, and his emotional stability. Note any unusual reactions. 4, Observe each child carefully for physical defects. Consult the school doctor or the family doctor concerning any child who shows indications of visual or auditory defect, is clumsy in motor control, is hyperactive, or appears fatigued. If possible, have a physical examination for each child. 5. Divide the children on the basis of these tests and observations into the fol- lowing groups for instruction: a. The ready-to-read group b. The special-case group c. The reading-readiness group. The ready-to-read group—This group consists of children whose mental ages are over six years, whose aptitudes are above average in the majority of the tests, who are relatively free from physical defects, and who are socially and emotionally well adjusted. This group of children may begin reading at once. The special-case group—This group consists of children whose mental ages are over six years but who have some special difficulties. For example, the children who have visual defects, speech defects, foreign language handicaps, confusions in discriminating right and left, poor motor control, or some type of emotional or personality maladjustment, belong in this group. Such children need special attention, and reading methods should be modified to meet their needs. Thus, some of these children may need to begin reading with kinesthetic rather than sight methods; others may need a simplified or more intensive type of pho- netic work; still others may require ingenuity on the teacher’s part to arouse their interest and win their cooperation. In the special-case group may be placed also the few children who have mental ages of less than six years but good aptitudes for reading in every other respect. These few children should have the privilege of learning to read, but 278 ELEMENTARY SciooL PRINCIPALS they usually fit somewhat better into the special-case group where methods are highly individualized, than in the ready-to-read group where their mental immaturity is more conspicuous. The reading-readiness group—This group consists of children who are less than six years old mentally and who are also below average in the various aptitude tests. They may have physical defects or vari- ous types of emotional maladjustment. Such children will profit from postponing reading until they reach a higher stage of mental maturity. Deficiencies in their preparation for reading should be corrected dur- ing the reading-readiness work. Suggestions for special classes in read- ing readiness are given in the following section. GAMES AND EXERCISES FOR INCREASING READING READINESS Developing visual abilities—The children for whom these games were devised have poor memory for objects or forms which they have seen. They fail to distinguish between the correct and reversed position of forms. They fail to give attention to tasks requiring accurate eye control. Later, in reading, they need much repetition to fix a simple reading vocabulary, often make reversals, and frequently lose their place in reading. They may or may not have actual eye defects. If eye defects are present, these should receive attention from an eye specialist. 1. Place several small familiar objects on a table, covered by a cloth or paper. Remove the cover, exposing objects for a few seconds. Replace the cover and ask the children to name as many objects as they can recall. Gradually increase the number of objects exposed. This game requires careful visual attention. 2. Place several objects under the cover on the table. Expose these objects for a few seconds. Have the children close their eyes while one object is removed. Rearrange the remaining objects. Expose them again while the children try to recall which object is gone. 3. Expose a simple pattern for a few seconds. Remove it and have the children draw from memory. 4. Expose a picture containing a number of items. Remove it and have the children tell as many things as they remember seeing. 5. Describe some object and have the children guess what it is. For example, “I am thinking of something little and white with long ears and a short tail and pink eyes,” and so forth. Have the children try to visualize while the object is being described. Describe the clothes and appearance of some child until the children can guess who is being described. 6. Have the children match objects, colors, numbers, words, and so forth. 7. Let the children put together simple jigsaw puzzles. 8. Have the children count or name rows of objects from left to right. Let them count with the finger; then have them count with the eyes alone. 9. Have the children learn to recognize and copy their own names. Developing auditory abilities—The children for whom these games were devised have difficulty in remembering things they have heard. SO part ay APR TER pe PERRET SE aed ata READING READINESS 279 ——— They fail to retain stories read to them. They confuse words which sound something alike. They “forget” when sent on errands. Directions usually must be repeated to them several times. They later have diffi- culty in recalling words in reading because of “forgetting” the word told them by the teacher or confusing it with a word of similar sound. They usually have difficulty in acquiring phonetics as an aid to work- ing out unknown words. They may or may not have actual ear defects. If the child is partially deaf, the advice of an ear specialist should be obtained. These children should be given positions in the front of the room near the teacher. 1. Have the children listen to jingles and nursery rhymes, especially those which emphasize a particular sound, such as Bye-Baby-Bunting, Hickory-Dickory-Dock, and so forth. Choral speaking of rhymes and poems is helpful. 2. Have the children listen for words beginning with the same sound. Let them try to suggest other words beginning with that sound. Give a number of words beginning with the same sound and then give one beginning with a different sound, as man, money, mother, milk, many, sled. Have the children try to indi- cate when they hear the “different” word. Do the same with rhyming words. 3. Make a chart containing pictures of objects whose names begin with the same sound. Have the children point to each picture, naming it and listening for the beginning sound. 4. Give oral directions involving two commissions, then three, and then four or five. 5. Tell a simple story of two or three sentences. Have the children retell it as accurately as possible. 6. Tap on the desk several times. Have the children listen, count mentally, and then tell the number of taps. Vary the procedure by tapping slowly, quickly, and in irregular rhythm. This requires careful attention to auditory stimuli. 7. Singing and musical games are very helpful for children who need auditory training. Developing motor abilities—Children helped by these games are those who are clumsy and lack coordination in their movements. They may be very slow in rate of response, or hyperactive, impulsive, and too quick for accuracy. In reading they may later have difficulty in follow- ing a line and in developing the coordinated, rhythmical eye movements of reading. In some cases physical defects may account for the poor coordination. If so, the advice of a physician should be obtained. 1. Rhythmical work with music is helpful, such as skipping, hopping, and dancing. 2. Handwork, drawing, constructive work, carpentering, and similar activities are also helpful. 3. Have the children trace around a form—circle, square, and so forth—trying to keep on the line. 4. Permit the child to use his preferred hand. If he is ambidextrous, help him to make a choice and develop a preference after determining by experiment the hand most frequently used and the one having the better control. 5. Have the children cut out forms, trying to cut on the line, 280 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 6. Have them fit objects together, such as nested cubes, peg boards, and so forth. 7. Have the children trace a name with pencil or crayon, using carbon paper, Have them lift the paper and see how accurate the tracing is. Let them try again until the carbon name is like the original. Then have them copy the name without tracing. Improving articulation—Speech defects should be corrected, if pos- sible, before the child is exposed to reading. Infantile speech, substitu- tions of sounds, lisping, and stammering may later interfere with read- ing. A larger proportion of speech defects are found among poor readers than among good readers. 1. Discover the speech sounds which are defective. This may be done by making a sound book. Paste a number of pictures on a page illustrating a certain speech sound. Prepare a page for each sound. Choose pictures illustrating the speech sound in initial, medial, and final positions. To illustrate the “k” sound, for example, paste a picture of a cat, a monkey, a duck, and so forth. As the children name the pictures, help them with their mispronunciations. 2. Help each child with the particular sounds he cannot say. Show him the position of the lips and tongue for the sound. Have him listen to the sound in rhymes and jingles. Have him try to say the sound in easy words, that is, words having only the sound to be learned and a vowel, such as key and cow. 3. Have the child say a word as slowly as possible, then as quickly as possible. The slow performance will prepare him for blending sounds later in phonetics. The slow and then fast performance will aid in flexibility and control. 4. Choral speaking often gives confidence to the stammering child. 5. Have the children imitate sounds, such as that of an airplane, a train, an auto, a clock, and a dog. 6. Let the children play games requiring different types of voice: baby with a tiny voice, mother with a medium voice, father with a big, deep voice, and so forth. 7. Have them repeat rhymes and jingles. Increasing language abilities—The children for whom these games were devised often come from foreign-speaking homes and have not had an opportunity to acquire English. Sometimes a child has been exposed to two languages, English and his native tongue, and has failed to develop either language with any degree of skill. In other eases, children of English-speaking homes may fail to develop adequate language because of infantile habits, lack of companionship, shyness, and other unfavorable factors. Preliminary language training will help to develop reading readiness in children who lack adequate ability in this field. 1. Show an interesting picture. Encourage the children to talk about the picture. Help them to increase the length of their sentences in describing the picture. 2. Help the children to classify objects. Have them make a chart of pictures illustrating a general idea, such as fruits, vegetables, furniture, animals, things mother does, things father does, toys, opposites, numbers, colors, and so forth. 3. Read a story to the children. Question them about the story. Have the chil- dren retell the story. 4. Have a report of current events—a “news” period. od eae BP ey RETENCY! i in ut si ae READING READINESS 281 5. Encourage the children to bring toys, pets, and other objects to school and talk about them. Encourage the children to talk about their interests. Take them on excursions and later have them discuss experiences of the class. Have the children plan activities verbally before executing them. 6. Make a game for prepositions. For example, have the children put an object in, on, under, beside, below, above, or behind the boz. 7. Make a game for adverbs. Have the children walk quickly, slowly, sadly, quietly, noisily, happily, and so forth. 8. Make a game for adjectives. Find a number of different balls or other objects. Ask the children to identify the blue, red, big, little, striped, smooth, hard, or soft ball. Have them pretend they are big, little, brave, happy, unhappy, kind, old, or young. Let them describe objects, each other, their clothes, and other items in their environment. 9. Make a game for verbs. Have the children walk, run, hop, work, play, and so on. Question the children: What can a boy do, a girl, a mother, a father, a dog, or a tiger? CoNCLUSION The grouping of children for work in improving reading readiness should be kept flexible at all times. Sometimes children may profitably attend both a reading-readiness class and a reading class when certain types of work are being stressed. The length of time spent in the reading- readiness group depends upon the progress made by each child. Some children may, after a month or so, progress markedly and begin to show interest in learning to read. In other cases, children may profit from the postponement of reading for a full semester or a year. In certain schools where this type of work has been attempted in the first grade, failures have been markedly decreased. Those mentally immature children in the reading-readiness group who delayed reading for a semester, later made good progress in learning to read. Control groups of mentally immature children were matched with the reading- readiness groups in both mental age and reading aptitudes in Septem- ber 1936. Those children who received one semester of reading-readiness training and one semester of reading instruction scored higher on read- ing achievement tests in June than did the equivalent group of children who were not given the reading-readiness training but who received the usual two semesters of instruction in reading. Of course, it will take a number of years to evaluate truly the effectiveness of such a first- grade program in eliminating reading failures, but the results so far appear very promising. 282 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS THE SPEECH ASPECTS OF READING READINESS IRENE Poote Davis Specialist in Speech Education, Akron, Ohio NORMALLY DEVELOPING CHILD reads as he speaks as he hears, Maturity of auditory perception precedes speech, and maturity of speech depends largely upon an individual’s auditory acuity. Perhaps maturity of speech should antecede any introduction to inter- preting from printed symbols, which is reading. Reading involves coordination of auditory, kinesthetic, and visual sensory capacities. Traditionally, in teaching children to read in the public schools, the greatest emphasis has been placed on learning thru visual percepts. Phonics, of course, has been concerned with auditory perception, but only as it relates to visual symbols, that is, printed syllables and words. Since the earliest reading experiences are usually oral, it might be well to give considerable attention to the perception of spoken sounds of language as auditory symbols alone, and to the production of the sounds after the nerve-muscle patterns that make them possible have been established. * THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPEECH Speech is the communication of meaning thru the use of abilities that lie entirely within the human being. These abilities show them- selves in a fairly definite order, both in the history of the human race and in each individual. They are: 1. Physical action—posture, gesture, pantomime, facial lines 2. Vocal sounds—tones (vowels), and inflections (speech melodies) 3. Articulation—vowels and consonants in syllables 4. Words—names, actions, connectives, qualifiers, abstractions 5. Language—grammatical construction and composition. By the time they have reached school age, American children have made some progress in each step. Free expression by means of actions and tones is well established, and most of the vowels are used appro- priately. About one-half of the children entering the first grade have fluent use of consonants, while the other children are in one stage or another of developing this ability. Vocabulary is growing rapidly, as is facility in expressing different shades of meaning thru complex language forms. Measurement of speech maturity—Proficiency in the mechanics of speech at the primary-school age may be determined by measuring a 1 This writer’s point of view should be compared with that expressed in the article on non-oral beginning reading by McDade in Chapter III.—Editorial Committee. " : ¢ +f PE ea EEE Ss READING READINESS 283 child’s ability to articulate consonant sounds. The “speech age” of a child depends on (1) the number of sounds he is able to use consis- tently in words, and (2) the substitutions he makes for those sounds that are not yet established in his pattern of articulation. The order of sound development and the type of substitution that characterize normal speech learning for preschool and primary children have been determined by continued research involving large numbers of normal children in the United States. ? This discussion is concerned only with the phases of normal development. A speech-defective child presents problems that involve biological or psychological abnormalities, and is thereby prevented from developing along usual lines and with normal patterns. He must receive special speech and reading help outside the regular classroom. Consonant sounds develop in the speech of otherwise “normal” chil- dren in a well-ordered sequence. Other factors being usual, all such children have developed the ability to articulate consonant sounds in words at the following ages (the letters represent sounds, not spelling names) : 3.5 years: b, p, m, w, and h 45 years: d, t, n, g, k, ng, and y 5.5 years: f and v, z and s 6.5 years: zh, sh, l, th as in then, and th as in thin 8.0 years: 2, s, 7, and wh. Many children develop these sounds much earlier than the ages indi- . sated, but not all children do so. These ages are the latest that can be considered usual for establishment of the consonant sounds in speech. The sounds of z and s are listed twice in the sequence because they appear consistently at four or five years of age, and then become dis- torted in a lisp when dentition causes a spacing between the teeth that makes normal production of the sibilant qualities of these sounds almost impossible. Most children correct this lisp without adult help after permanent dentition has appeared. An infant’s first words are apt to be repetitions of the most elemental sounds, as in baby, mama, papa, dada, wawa, and so forth. These sounds, and similar words, are the first to develop in all of the European languages from which English has sprung. We can determine whether or not a child is developing speech sounds in the normal order, even tho at a slower rate of speed than his class- mates, by comparing the substitutions he makes for sounds in words 2 Research conducted by the present writer, involving 153 children enrolled at the University Elementary School, University of Michigan, 1931-34; 200 FERA and WPA nursery school children in Michigan and California, 1934-36; and 20,000 primary children in public schools of large and small cities, private schools, villages. and country communities in the western and midwestern parts of the United States, 1935-38. 284 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS with the usual substitutions made by children who have quite normal speech patterns for their age and maturity. For example, it is quite appropriate for a three-year-old to say “mudder” for mother, “fis” for fish, and “fum” for thumb, because three-fourths of all children at this age make these same substitutions. At six years they are babyish. If, however, a child’s speech pattern at six is like the normal three-year- old’s, and if he is adding sounds to his pattern in the order indicated as normal, even at a very slow rate of speed, we should not class him as defective in speech. We should encourage him to proceed faster by adjusting any factors that might be responsible for his retardation, and by providing as many appropriate auditory stimuli as our situation permits. We should consider the child’s speech defective only after consecutive observations or records of his speech indicate that he is making no progress at all, or is progressing along lines that are not characteristic of normal development. Sound patterns of first-grade children—As indicated above, the child entering school produces all the vowel sounds in words according to the diction of adults in his community. He probably cannot produce all the consonant sounds. Many children who are six years old chrono- logically cannot make the sounds of zh, sh, l, z, s, r, th as in thin, th as in then, wh, or v. Altho a child may be difficult to understand, he may be quite a normal speaker for himself at his age. He may merely be in a stage of articulation development in which these sounds are not yet fixed. A first-grade child is likely to lisp, using the th sounds for those of s and z. At the same time, he may substitute the sounds of »v, f, or d for the th sounds, and say “dith” or “vith” for this. He may be ex- pected to say “mouf” and “toof” for mouth and tooth, “birfday” for birthday, and “fick” for thick. He may substitute w for | and say “witteh” for little, or “yewow” for yellow. He is quite likely to lack the sound of r in any word, substituting the sound of w as in “wing” for ring, and “bwush” for brush, and omitting the sound entirely as in “fohk” for fork and “wateh” for water. He may occasionally sub- stitute the sound of b for v in very, oven, and stove, saying “bery,” “oben,” and “stobe.” He often says “wen,” “garadge,” and “notheen” for when, garage, and nothing. If, however, the child should substitute for one sound another that is not appropriate to normal development at his own or any other age, he may be found to have something wrong with the machinery that makes speech possible. If, for example, he should substitute the sound of t for s, or should omit the sound of s altogether, we could safely con- clude that he probably does not hear the sibilant qualities of the s sound $ LS 2 a .- rr PEFR Tn ae |e LS READING READINESS 285 (which are very high in pitch and for some persons are almost inaudi- ble), or was not able to perceive them accurately during the years when he was learning to talk. Such strange pronunciations as “titter,” “itter,” or “ih-er” for sister are characteristic of this type of difficulty. Prolonged substitution of the sounds of d, t, and n for g, k, and ng, as in “dod,” “tate,” and “sawn” for dog, cake, and song, almost in- variably indicate sluggish muscle movement, often due to grossly en- larged tonsils. One must not expect speech to right itself after tonsil- lectomy in such cases for at least a year. Sometimes special help may be given by someone who understands the nerve-muscle function in- volved, and thus the correct sounds may be developed in less than a year. In the typical first-grade classroom, serious deviation from the usual developmental pattern of speech is not found in more than one or two children. Such a deviation, however, may be or may become a real speech disorder. About the same number of children may have estab- lished all sounds and may use them consistently in words of everyday speech. Of the remaining children, approximately half are in one stage or another of baby talk. The other half have learned to produce the sounds but do not do so consistently; they seem to have dropped the careful, precise articulation that is characteristic of speech learning, and to substitute habitually one sound for another. The phonic prin- ciples learned in connection with reading seem to have little carry-over into everyday speech. Evidently the connection between visual and auditory symbols is not well fixed. This is particularly true of three sounds, namely, initial wh as in what, final zh as in garage, and final ng in words of more than one syllable, such as running. The substitution of w, dg, and n, respectively, for these three sounds is characteristic of children at all levels above the age of speech learning, and even of adults in many American communities. RELATION OF SPEECH TO OTHER Factors ? Speech develops as it does because of five contributing factors, namely, intelligence, auditory acuity, practise in using the “speech organs,” kinesthetic perception of position of the tongwe muscles, and dentition. There is also a direct relationship between children’s ability to articulate consonant sounds and some other aspects of maturation, health, growth, experience, and environment, even tho these are not determining factors in speech development. Among the most important relationships from the standpoint of reading readiness are these: ® Based on research studies by the present writer and members of the research staff at the University Elementary School, University of Michigan. 286 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 1. The relation between mental age and ability to articulate con. sonant sounds is marked among children with the usual capacities for speech, if considered in age ranges of several years. Within twelve- month age groups (based on either chronological age or mental age) the relationship is slight. 2. The correlation between the speech ages of first- and second- grade children and their reading ages (as measured by the Gates scales) is small but significant. Other things being equal, a child with mature articulation may be expected to read more swiftly, with greater ease, and with more exact comprehension than his classmates who use “baby talk.” This relationship is even more significant for second-grade chil- dren than for first-graders. Evidently maturity of speech is at least a contributing factor in reading readiness. 3. There is a positive correlation between maturity of articulation and acceptable social behavior (as measured by the Haggerty-Olson- Wickman Behavior Rating Schedule B). This may mean either that the factors which retard a child’s speech efficiency also retard his social adjustment, or that the speech element itself is responsible for a child’s reaction within a social group. 4. Girls reach maturity in articulation about a year earlier than boys. Both develop at about the same rate up to five years of age, but from this point girls show more rapid growth. Other things being equal, first-grade girls will have the same patterns of sound substitution as second-grade boys. 5. There is no appreciable relation between the quality of speech and the amount of speech or rate of speaking among children at pre- school age levels. Corresponding information for primary-school ages is not available, but one observes frequently that a child who has be- come aware that he does not talk plainly, avoids participation in activi- ties which require considerable talking. He makes his responses as inconspicuous as possible, and is likely not to make himself heard. 6. Children who have had nursery-school and kindergarten training usually approach adult standards of articulation earlier than children who enter a classroom for the first time at six years of age or older. 7. With certain notable exceptions, the consonant sounds that develop earliest are the ones the child needs to use most in words of everyday F conversation. This is true of the sounds of ¢, n, d, m, k, w, g, h, y, v, f, sh, wh, th as in thin, and zh (listed in order of their frequency of occurrence in words uttered by children in daily free conversation). The same children seldom use words including the sounds of b, p, and ng, altho these sounds develop relatively early in speech patterns. On the other hand, children often use words containing the sounds of r, — nr ry READING READINESS 287 s, 2, |, and initial th as in then, all of which are very late making their appearance in speech patterns. The rank of the consonant sounds ac- cording to the frequency of their occurrence in words used by young children (beginning with the most frequent) is as follows: t, n, r, d, s, l, m, initial th as in then, k, w, z,g, h, b, y, p, v, ng, f, sh, wh, th as in thin, and zh.* CONTRIBUTIONS OF SPEECH TO THE READING PROGRAM Dramatic values of oral expression—Meaning-getting (impression) and meaning-giving (expression) are so closely associated that all the meaning-giving activities of speech have a direct bearing upon the meaning-getting activities of reading. To be quite in line with the bio- logical, chronological, and psychological ‘development of children, the first reading experiences should perhaps consist of thought-getting from signs and movements, since the earliest language expression has always taken the form of signs and movements. An introduction to reading that would give children opportunities to communicate and interpret by means of gestures, postures, pantomimes, dramatic play, and free dramatization would help to provide a full and varied background for reading comprehension as well as for satisfying oral reading. A study of people in stories brings out such questions as these: How does a particular character feel? How does he look? How does he act? How fast does he move and talk? How does he sound? What kind of a voice does he have? Is it a big or a little voice? What kind of words does he use? How does he affect other people? It is profitable to spend much time in allowing children to show just how the different charac- ters look, act, sound, and talk. Later, when reading conversations from a book, they have a background of reality. It is good oral reading if a child chooses to huff and puff as he reads the threat of the Big Bad Wolf, or if he puts all his strength into the action of throwing when he reads, “I’ll throw you under the bridge.” It is excellent oral interpretation if, when a child reads “oh,” he screams, squeals, snaps, or sighs, according to the meaning which stimulates the expression. In the best oral expression, all communicative functions work together—body, voice, articulation, words, and grammatical com- position. If one of these functions be inhibited, the expression cannot be complete. Controlled inhibitions have an important place in adulthood, but are not expected as a rule in primary-age behavior. *It must be borne in mind that we are considering the fundamental sound represented by each letter symbol, and not the names of the letters as they are used in spelling. For example, the letter s is used to represent the sound of z in his, of sh in sugar, and of zh in vision, as well as its own sound in see. In this discussion it is never ess, but a continued ssss. Therefore the letter s would appear in a written record of a child’s conversation more often than the sound of s occurs in his spoken conversation. 288 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Relation of speech to reading materials—The immediate problem jp developing oral communication at the primary level is the production of consonant sounds in articulate speech. Closely following this step is the enrichment of vocabulary and the understanding of correct gram- matical forms. It might be well to arrange a beginning reading program to include all these things without introducing written symbols at all, It should be possible to prepare children for reading in the second grade by providing a full year’s program in the first grade that would include rich experiences in listening, in discovering similarities and differences among sounds in nature and in words, in appreciating lovely language, both poetry and prose, and in expressing ideas, feelings, and meanings with all the speech capacities that lie within the child. These speech capacities, as stated above, involve bodily action, voice, articulate utterance, words, and grammatical language. Activities that use these capacities include action games, pantomimic play, rhythmic sound play, listening games, descriptive sound stories, games for recog- nition of vowels and consonants, word descriptions, language games, conversations, talks, discussions, interviews, free dramatizations, ex- perience stories, imaginative stories, reproduction of literary stories, | jingles, poems, and choric verse-speaking. In the writer’s judgment, the earliest reading materials should con- tain, when possible, a minimum of late-developing sounds, and cer- tainly a minimum of words in which a single spelling combination may indicate a number of different sounds. In the first stories there should be a great number of the sounds that children need to use most in daily conversation, and very few of those with which children are not per- sonally familiar. Therefore, we should look in primers and beginning basic readers for words that contain an abundance of these sounds: t, d, n, m, k, w, g, h, and perhaps 7, z, s, initial th as in then, and l (The latter sounds develop fairly late but are needed often in early spoken conversation.) b, p, and ng (which appear early but are not often used). We would hope not to find a great many of these sounds: zh, th as in thin, wh, sh, f, v, and y. CoNCLUSION Given a rich background of experiences involving the familiar sounds of which words are made, together with comprehension of a wealth of words perceived thru auditory stimuli and fixed in acceptable patterns of grammatical language, a child has a firm basis for learning to trans- late meanings from printed letter symbols. Under such conditions his reading is likely to be more rapid and more meaningful because he finds it just another way to use things that he already knows. rr __ Q in tion Pp is am- ram all. ‘ade ude 1Cces age, ings ice, that mic 02- nes, ries, on- cer- nay yuld aily per- ing itter nds ~ Sia a Rane 8 2 1 of | rns ins- | his he — _— 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. READING READINESS 289 SELECTED REFERENCES . ApAms, AcNngs L. “Eliminating the Need for Some Types of Remedial Work in Reading.” Childhood Education 12: 163-67; January 1936. . ApaMs, Ouea. “Implications of Language in Beginning Reading.” Childhood Education 12: 158-62; January 1936. . Berrs, Emmett A. “Is Reading Related to Growing Up?” Progressive Educa- tion 11: 450-53; December 1934. . Durrett, Donato D. “Research Problems in Reading in the Elementary School.” Elementary English Review 13: 101-106, 111; March 1936. . Gates, Artuur I. “Viewpoints Underlying the Study of Reading Disabilities.” Elementary English Review 12: 85-90; April 1935. . Gates, ArTuur I., and Bonn, Guy L. “Reading Readiness.” Teachers College Record 37: 679-85; May 1936. . Harpy, Marsorir, chairman. Points of View on the Problem of “Reading Readiness.” Report of Committee on Reading Readiness. Washington, D. C.; Association for Childhood Education (formerly International Kindergarten Union), 1929-30. 24 p. . Harrtson, M. Lucite. Reading Readiness. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1936. 166 p. . Hiwpretu, Gertrupe. Learning the Three R’s. Minneapolis, Minn.: Educa- tional Publishers, 1936. Chapter 5, “Readiness for Reading.” Hituisrp, Greorce H., and Troxeiy, Eveanor. “Informational Background as a Factor in Reading Readiness and Reading Progress.” Elementary School Journal 38: 255-63; December 1937. Ler, J. Murray; Cuark, WILLis W.; and Lee, Dorts May. “Measuring Read- ing Readiness.” Elementary School Journal 34: 656-66; May 1934. Monroe, Marton. “Reading Aptitude Tests for the Prediction of Success and Failure in Beginning Reading.” Education 56: 7-14; September 1935. O’DonNELL, Masev. “A Suggested Program for Reading Readiness Groups.” Primary Reading, Bulletin No. 1. Chicago: Row, Peterson and Co., 1937. PENNELL, Mary E., and Cusack, Atice M. The Teaching of Reading for Better Living. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1935. “The Kindergarten,” p. 147-68. . Petersen, Inez B. “The Reading-Readiness Program of the Ironwood Public Schools.” Elementary School Journal 37: 438-46; February 1937. Smiru, Niza B., compiler. Reading: A Tool for Learning. Washington, D. C.: Association for Childhood Education, 1938. p. 5-18. Srrettz, Rutu. “When Should Reading Experiences Begin?” Progressive Edu- cation 13: 325-32; May 1936. Wuson, Franx T., and Burke, Acnss. “Reading Readiness in a Progressive School.” Teachers College Record 38: 565-80; April 1937. Wirrty, Pau A., and Koper, Davi. “Preventing Reading Disability.” Educa- tional Administration and Supervision 22: 401-18; September 1936. Wricut, Luta E. A First Grade at Work. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1932. 247 p. Wricut, WenpeLt W. Reading Readiness—A Prognostic Study. Bulletin of the School of Education, Vol. 12, No. 3. Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University, 1936. 46 p. CHAPTER III BEGINNING INSTRUCTION IN READING EDITORIAL COMMENT better job in teaching reading to beginners who were ready to read than in providing a balanced and effective reading program in the intermediate and upper grades. Because of their basic impor- tance, improved technics in beginning reading have been developed more systematically and adopted more widely than have those at the higher levels. Nevertheless, many primary teachers still use formal, antiquated methods and materials. Moreover, teachers and principals who are well acquainted with recent developments in primary reading realize that numerous problems in this area have not been settled with finality. They, as well as those who are less well informed, will find this chapter stimulating and suggestive. One interesting issue which needs further study is whether beginners should be taught to read by oral or by wholly non-oral methods. While most authorities seem to agree that the proper use of oral language is extremely helpful in learning to read, successful results by non-oral methods have recently been reported. One article in this chapter out- lines the case for a non-oral approach. Other contributions describe procedures involving the association of oral and printed symbols. In the opening article, Pennell stresses the need for experiences from which children may develop needed concepts, for suitable training in oral language, and for reading materials closely related to children’s experiences and interests. Hobson and Granger next describe specific procedures for making reading function in the lives of first-grade children. McDade contends that oral methods in beginning reading are largely responsible for faulty habits of silent reading in older children and adults, and advocates a method by which all printed symbols are associated directly with the objects, actions, or situations which they represent, or with pictures thereof, without the use of spoken language. The next article, by Wallace, presents effective procedures for de- veloping word recognition. Kiesling then reviews in detail a program in which beginning instruction was carefully adapted to the needs and capacities of each child. Hebel concludes the chapter with a concise review of reading vocabulary studies, showing the value of such studies for teachers as well as for authors of printed materials. For additional information on beginning reading, the reader should consult the references listed on page 337.—Editorial Committee. (Frater SPEAKING, elementary schools have probably done a [ 290 ] Pe2he.. LET IE RATE EY RON LPR HARBGD' 25 4 Ce — +f —_— ~ RRA EES SARA: BR ARR BEGINNING READING INSTRUCTION 291 EARLY READING AS A THOUGHT-GETTING PROCESS Mary E. Penne.’ Lecturer in Education, New York, New York material to that used in the better schools of today. Consider, for example, the following excerpts from materials once widely used in teaching beginners to read: [ IS A LONG, LONG TRAIL from the old type of beginning reading To market, to market, to buy a fat pig, Home again, home again, jiggety jig. I I I am man Picture I am of a a man boy dressed a man as a man I am Iam aman I am a man? How hard we tried to use Mother Goose as a means of arousing thought in reading! The writer remembers hearing the teacher of a group of foreign pupils ask, “Children, what does jiggety jig mean?” What would the readers of this yearbook reply to that question? What thought can be stimulated by such a meaningless succession of words as I, am, a, man, a man, I am, finally followed by the thrilling combination of J am a man? It might be thrilling to be a man, but surely reading would not be a “great adventure” to a six-year-old child if he had to respond to such treatment. Fortunately, a wealth of meaningful material is now available for children at all levels of development. Particularly is this true for beginning reading. Meaning cannot be secured or stimulated thru printed symbols unless the child brings to that material similar expe- riences gained either directly or indirectly. There is, therefore, an earnest attempt on the part of authors to base their material on first- hand experiences which are as nearly universal among children as pos- 1Co-author of The Teaching of Reading for Better Living. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1935; and of The Children’s Own Readers. Boston: Ginn and Co., 1936. 2 Monroe, Lewis B. The Chart-Primer. New York: American Book Co., 1877. p. 10. 292 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS sible. This is the safest way to insure the recognition of important elements of meaning in that which is read. Need for enrichment of experience—If reading is to be a meaningful process rather than an exercise in the calling of words, teachers must be more and more concerned with the provision of experiences from which various concepts or meanings are built up. One of the most com- mon causes of failure in reading is the limited number of experiences with which many children approach reading material. As Paul McKee * has pointed out, one obtains meaning from printed symbols only so far as one has already a body of concepts or meanings to associate with the symbols. These symbols do not give the reader meanings. They merely stimulate him to recall and to enlarge or modify concepts which he already possesses. A teacher’s chief concern, then, should be to provide experiences which will make it possible for reading to become a mean- ingful process. Teachers of all grades and of all subjects must look ahead in prepared material, to see what concepts need to be developed in order that intelligent reading can take place. This is a much more fundamental task than to determine that on a particular page a certain new word will occur. The problem of how experiences needed for the growth of concepts can be provided is exceedingly important in any grade and in all subjects. Ways of providing meaningful experiences—Excursions probably furnish the very best (and the most difficult) means of securing valu- able meanings. The writer has been impressed, in recent travels, with the great use many foreign countries are making of excursions. Every- where bands of children are encountered. Kindergarten children, with each little right hand grasping a large rope, are seen in the parks, at the zoo, at the markets, and at neighborhood industries. Older groups form part of the usual landscape as they march along to visit various his- toric, geographic, or industrial places. Many of these children have knapsacks on their backs, indicating they are to be gone for a day or two. A stranger wonders how the expense of such trips is met. He finds that excursions are deemed of such great importance that cities, indus- tries, or clubs contribute the necessary funds for those children who cannot defray their own expenses. In certain countries this experience-getting is probably limited to the homeland, and not used as a basis for understanding world conditions. Nevertheless, the information gained must be of enormous significance in the children’s development. 3 McKee, Paul. “Vocabulary Development.’’ The Teaching of Reading: A Second Report. Thirty-Sixth Yearbook, Part I, National Society for the Study of Education, Bloomington, IIl.: Public School Publishing Co., 1937. p. 278. E } RII ST NNO il a Ni i) De he 1s. ce ort. ame Fe Le = BEGINNING READING INSTRUCTION 293 The kindergarten and first grade of every school should make wide use of excursions to build up concepts in relation to nature, to the work of community helpers, and to the neighborhood in which the children live. In addition, other kinds of group activities, handwork, the caring for plants and animals, experiments in elementary science, collections of various kinds, and social occasions when parents or other groups of children are entertained, furnish abundant opportunities for developing a rich store of meanings. While firsthand experiences, such as those already described, are most desirable, many experiences that children need cannot be gained di- rectly, but must be acquired thru looking at pictures, hearing accounts of the experiences of others, hearing stories told or read, dramatizing, playing games, and singing. All these means should be purposefully used to give a rich background of experiences out of which language meanings may evolve. Provision for oral language training—Out of direct personal experi- ences and vicarious experiences the need for language naturally arises. Excursions must be planned. During the excursion questions arise and are answered in regard to points observed. The information and appre- ciations thus gained are recalled or shared with others thru oral expres- sion on the return to the classroom. If allowed to do so, children are bubbling over with the desire to tell of their own experiences, their pets, playthings, trips they have taken, and toys they have. Listening to stories told or read by the teacher or by older children enriches their oral vocabulary. Dramatizations of familiar stories and of experiences the group has had help to develop a wealth of language meanings and facility in the use of English. Construction activities and social situa- tions furnish opportunities for the expression of thoughts in natural situations. Enriched experiences, converted into the symbols of oral language, are the basis for the reading process. Given such experiences and appro- priate language training, children are usually ready and eager to read. Reading material based on children’s experiences—After a rich store of meanings has been developed, and these meanings associated with their appropriate oral language symbols, the next step is to give chil- dren written symbols or reading materials based on these experiences. In doing this, the teacher and children together recall an experience, and the sentences are written on the board or on charts. Association with the experience itself and with the oral language symbols repre- senting it causes the written symbols to be full of meaning rather than merely a series of confusing hieroglyphics. These connections—espe- cially between the visual symbols and the corresponding experience— a ; 294 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS are essential to thought-getting. The writer realized this fact most keenly when confronted with Japanese, Chinese, and Indian words. Unless such words were attached to a familiar object they were abso- | lutely meaningless. . In the formulation of this experience-reading material, great care should be taken to observe good literary form. There must be unity of thought, a good beginning sentence, and a good ending sentence. The sentences should be simple and of fairly uniform length; phrases should be unbroken; and the words used should be largely those of the begin- ning textbooks in reading. However, a teacher should not hesitate to use a word or words necessary for the expression of the thought, even tho they are not supposed to become a part of the child’s permanent | vocabulary at that time. Such words need not be emphasized or re- peated as the more useful words should be. While the closeness of association between the experience and the oral and written symbols makes this type of material very valuable in introducing reading as a thought-getting process, there are undoubtedly dangers connected with such material. The children, having dictated ' the sentences that the teacher records, know what these sentences say; hence no new thoughts are secured, and memorizing (that bane of first- grade reading) is made easy. This danger can be partly obviated by the teacher’s frequently writing a sentence and having the children find out what her sentence says. Thus the element of surprise and the joy of discovery can be secured, and the danger of memorizing diminished. Another danger in experience reading is that the vocabulary used | may be so extensive that not enough repetition can be secured to fix the symbols in the children’s minds. This is a serious problem and must be guarded against. However, it is a fact that vividness of association | between the experience and the written symbols helps to fix words as well as does frequency of repetition. Little repetition is necessary on such words as Christmas, dog (if one has been brought to the classroom), | candy, and ice cream, because they are associated with unusually vivid and pleasant experiences in the lives of children. Uhl * has clearly pointed out that the doctrine of power in the selec- tion of words is an important supplement to the doctrine of frequency. Therefore he advocates that words be selected for use in first-grade reading not only because of their frequency as recorded in scientifically- ' determined word lists, but also because of their expressive power. This dual basis of vocabulary selection, he contends, would help to provide reading material that has meaning, movement, plot, and suspense. Siedacraicd 4Uhl, Willis L. ‘“‘The Materials of Reading.” The Teaching of Reading: A Second Report. Thirty-Sixth Yearbook, Part I, National Society for the Study of Education, Bloomington, III.: Public School Publishing Co., 1937. p. 224. t BEGINNING READING INSTRUCTION 295 Contributions of commercially-prepared materials—The ready-made materials found in charts and pre-primers are based on experiences which are as nearly universal among children as possible. As a rule such materials are very skilfully planned, and good literary form is usually present. Moreover, the bright-colored illustrations of the pre- primers make children more eager to read the material. In well- prepared books the pictures make the text more meaningful, but do not make the reading of the stories unnecessary by giving away their main points. Teachers should help the children to interpret the addi- tional meanings that the illustrations supply. This will increase the children’s pleasure and comprehension in the reading. Another characteristic of the better pre-primers is that their vocabu- laries are selected on the basis of frequency of use as recorded in word lists. Care is taken also that too many new words are not introduced on any given page, and that those used are frequently repeated. The research studies ° of beginning reading materials have been of untold value to authors in the preparation of such materials. These studies show the number of words used, their rating in well-known word lists, and the frequency and placement of their repetitions. As bell buoys, fog horns, and lighthouses marking safe channels, such data are invalu- able. However, ships of certain tonnages can safely ply outside the channel markers. No one who has actually taught beginning reading would question that the vocabulary of early reading material needs to be limited and that a certain amount of repetition must be given. However, there is a distinct danger that, because of the studies mentioned above, too few words may be used and meanings may be so limited that reading becomes little more than the recognition of familiar words. In addition to this danger, the following questions are pertinent: Who knows how many repetitions of a word are necessary? Is the same number of repe- titions necessary for all words? Is it not better for children to rediscover a word introduced several pages earlier than to have it “dragged in” merely to provide for repetition within a certain number of pages? The goal of primary reading—to arouse interest in securing meanings from the printed page—must not be obscured by directing too great attention to contributory factors. Interest in getting meanings is as potent a factor in recall as is repetition. Some words may need few repetitions because of the interest present when such words were first presented. Again, since more than one meaning is possible with a single word form, perhaps these different meanings should be emphasized as 5 For a summary of such studies, see the article by Hebel in this chapter.—Editorial Committee. 296 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS well as the variants of a single word form which convey the same meaning. The contents of commercially prepared material are often not as closely related to the immediate interests of children as are materials built upon the children’s own experiences. However, because each type of material has advantages and disadvantages, it is generally wise to use both types. Integration of reading with other class activities—Children’s reading should not be limited to the period set apart for the development of reading habits and skills; it should constitute a vital part of all the work of the school day. Children should be exposed to reading symbols on every hand. Directions for various activities, class movements, games, and songs should be written. The Good News Corner should be made so interesting that children run to it the first thing on entering the classroom. Lists of activities that children may engage in and that are to be chosen by individual children furnish strong motives for learning to read. Classroom duties may be assigned thru writing. Ree- ords of the garden, trips taken, birds seen, and flowers identified may be posted. Rules governing the conduct of children on the street, on the playground, in the library corner, and on special days or during work periods, as well as health and safety rules, can be utilized to make children conscious of a need for reading and therefore anxious to read. Letters may be written to absent classmates, good work exhibited, and pictures with captions posted on the bulletin board. In every phase of work thruout the day vivid meanings should be associated with appropriate written symbols. If reading is made a vital part of all phases of the curriculum, countless opportunities are pre- sented for developing meanings and for the repetition of words as an aid to recall. Provision for training in thinking—Not only must comprehension be secured in primary reading, but children’s ability to think must be developed as well. Meanings must be obtained, evaluated, and applied in new situations. When children and teacher are formulating sentences for reading material, the children can be led to evaluate each sentence suggested and to select the best to be written on the board. Before going on an excursion, certain points that children wish to find out can be listed, and on their return the questions answered can be checked on the list. In dramatizing an experience or a story, materials can be listed and children can be selected to take the parts on the basis of their fitness for the part rather than their popularity. Children can decide whose work is worthy of being displayed. When planning a pro- gram, children can select pictures to use or stories to tell. Discussions ne as ils pe ng he IIs ts, ld ng at ay ne is & = a a SRR rae ee PT eT aw —aeee BEGINNING READING INSTRUCTION 297 will arise in all such situations, and these give excellent opportunities for the development of thinking. Let us not be so concerned with the development of a reading vocabu- lary that we neglect to give children the ability to select, to judge, and to evaluate. Conclusion—In conclusion let us consider reading as more than a skill, a means of adding words to the vocabulary, a source of informa- tion, or a means to an end.® Reading is an end in itself—an adventure among the most glorious life has to offer. Let us keep it as free as pos- sible from dogmas, untested theories, and unnecessary measurements of reaction. 6This point of view is well stated in: Sayers, Frances C. ‘‘Adventure of Reading.’’ Elementary English Review 14: 203-205, 226; October 1937. ge to read is forming connections between visual and oral symbols and certain meanings, whereas reading itself is reviving the meanings which have been attached to the symbols and combining them so as to comprehend the sentence or paragraph. From experience we acquire a stock of meanings corresponding to the various phases of our environment, and thus come to understand our surroundings. Two phases of meaning are significant in reading: namely, attaching mean- ing to words, and comprehending the thought of sentences and paragraphs.—Brooks, Fowler D., The Applied Psychology of Reading, D. Appleton and Co., 1926, p. 56. (Quoted by per- mission of the publishers.) 298 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS INTRODUCING READING THRU FIRST-GRADE ACTIVITIES Mary M. Hosson, First-Grade Teacher and Grace A. Granaer, Principal Daniel Webster School, Indianapolis, Indiana for it is a problem looming large in any first grade. In the Webster School the complexity of the problem is greatly increased by the fact that most of the children are of the underprivileged type. They come to us without kindergarten experience, and from homes where living is meager and drab, where there are few and poorly chosen books and magazines, and where parents read little, either for recreation or information. The nearest branch library is many squares distant from a number of our widely scattered homes. The following paragraphs describe some of the means we have used to make early reading function in the lives of these children. Names and labels—Our children are for the most part still very individualistic when they come to school. “My crayons” and ‘my book” are objects to be protected without thought of cost to life or limb. Many of the children have never before had the experience of possessing a few things of their very own, and it is a bit hard to respect other peo- ple’s property when one has never had any of his own respected. To correct this situation, the teacher prepares a set of gummed labels for each of the following items: cloakroom hooks, chairs, table drawers, sleeping mats, oil clay boxes, crayon boxes, pre-primers, and work- books. The children’s names are written on these labels in manuscript writing with waterproof ink. We have found it wise to use only the first name of each child. In case two given names are alike, the initial of the last name is used also. It is fun for a child to choose his own chair and table, and to find boxes with his name on the labels. It is also fun to affix the labels himself when he is only six years old. It is a source of great satisfaction to Bobby to know that he and Tommy won’t be mixing their jackets any more, and that he won’t find him- self sitting on a chair that doesn’t fit his legs at all. At the time the labels are made, three sets of name cards are made on twelve-by-four-inch strips of oak tag. Except for being larger, these are exactly like the labels. The cards of one set are given to the chil- dren, each child keeping his card in his drawer. A number of blank strips cut from news print are kept on the worktable. It is an easy matter for a child whose woodwork, modeling, or other individual | eee READING in such a way that children feel a vital need er he “Y ks or hs yn rs, TEES RS BEGINNING READING INSTRUCTION 299 activity is unfinished at the end of the work period, to copy his name from his name card onto a blank strip and mark his property so that he won’t find, for example, that his carefully sawed table legs are missing when he needs them the next day. Having marked his own things, he is usually careful not to molest the unfinished work of others. The teacher finds it a good plan to have several blank oak-tag strips conveniently located at the end of the work period so that block con- struction of “Our School” or the “Morris Street Bridge” may be quickly labeled as the builder wishes. Sometimes a very worthwhile bit of block construction is left unfinished, in which case a “Please Save” sign warns that the blocks so far used are not publie property. Large drawings or paintings depicting various phases of the children’s adventures to- gether are often made and labeled as the children dictate. Sometimes these are mounted on the bulletin board with appropriate captions dictated by the children such as “Yum, yum, we made good potato soup for lunch.” With the exception of labels for the lunch shelf, napkin box, soap, and towel, these are the only labels in the room. We feel that too many labels, especially those for which no need is actually felt, lead only to confusion and to indifference to all printed symbols. Directions and messages—Early in the semester an opportunity is given the children to choose “jobs” for which they wish to assume responsibility for a week. A list of these “jobs” is printed on an oak tag and the children’s names for the current week are clipped to this list. The child who chooses a job may bring his own name card to the large “job” card and affix it with a clip. “Jobs” include dusting, arrang- ing flowers, caring for the book table, and other duties necessary to the care of the room. Feeding the fish and watering the fern are not included in the daily “job” list, as each comes only twice a week. The responsibility for remembering the day in each case proved a little too great; so these duties are taken care of in a different way. Monday and Thursday having been decided upon as fish-feeding days, oak- tag strips which fit into a card holder are prepared as follows: Today is Monday. Nip and Tuck are hungry. Who will feed them? Somebody is sure to consult this card holder every morning, and some- one always wants to get his name card and slip it into the bottom space of the holder, thereby assuming the responsibility for Nip’s and Tuck’s welfare for that day. The same plan is used for watering the fern on Tuesday and Friday. Wednesday is a free day and an effort is made 300 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS to have the written message on that day deal with something “extra special.” During the first weeks of school very simple messages are posted each morning, such as, “Lunch today at 10:15” or “Outdoors today at 2:30.” A nearby cardboard clock with hands pointing to these interest- ing times adds materially to the concept of time. Later these messages may become more complex, like the following: Ho, ho, ho, we will have fun today. Miss Scott will come to see us. or Down, down, down, Down we go { To the furnace room today. or We shall make custard tomorrow. Bring an egg this afternoon. An activity such as cooking always calls for several extra reminders. These are not posted before school but are worked out during the plan- ning period and left on the board so that we may check as often as necessary to see whether or not our preparations are complete. Such a plan may read in part as follows: Yum, yum, potato soup Friday. Things to make Things to bring A table doily A potato A napkin A bowl A headband A spoon An apron Who will make a doily for our guest? Who will make a napkin for her? Space is left by each question so that someone may print his name there if he accepts the responsibility indicated. Sometimes messages from one child to the group are dictated and posted during the work period, to be read when the children come to- gether for “talking time.” Such a message may read: Herbert has a surprise today. It is red. It has two wings. i It has two wheels. It has a tail. What can it be? Herbert’s ten-cent-store airplane thus takes on an importance all out of proportion to its size but most satisfactory to its owner, who enjoys being the “man of the hour.” : ra ed at, t- eg u BEGINNING READING INSTRUCTION 301 Letters—One of our greatest sources of pleasure is our correspond- ence. The letters of the children include requests for appointments, invitations, and notes with bits of interesting news. The recipient may be the principal, nurse, special teacher, children of other groups, or parents. The friends at school to whom letters are directed always obligingly answer, and these replies are eagerly read. When the children have decided to write a letter to a friend in the building, the letter is dictated to the teacher with much discussion as to the most interesting way to tell the news. The letter is written in manuscript and then read to the group for approval before sending. Sealing the envelope with an attractive sticker, addressing it, and finally delivering it by a child labeled “Postman,” are solemn rites. Replies are eagerly awaited and are read aloud to the group upon arrival. Later they are thumb-tacked to a chip board and left for a while in the chalk ledge to be enjoyed by individuals and groups. Some of our letters and their replies follow: Daniel Webster School Room 2, Tuesday Dear Mrs. Granger, We have some new 1B’s in our room. We want to bring them to see you. May we come Thursday at 8:50? With love, 1A’s, Room 2 This call on the principal having been a gala event of their own 1B days, the 1A’s painted the possibilities of the trip in such glowing colors that the 1B’s, altho new at the letter-writing and receiving activity, were keenly eager for the reply, and the words “please come” which it contained were very exciting. Daniel Webster School Tuesday Dear Children, Isn’t it good to have some new 1B’s in your room. I am glad you want to bring them to see me. Please come Thursday at 8:50. With love, Mrs. Granger A trip to a nearby greenhouse in the spring resulted in the planting of zinnias in the classroom. After the seedlings were transplanted to individual pots and the pots set in various colored paper drinking cups, each pot was labeled with its owner’s name. Four extras were prepared and labeled with the names of the principal, doctor, nurse, and speech teacher. Each of the so-honored persons received a letter which read: 392 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Daniel Webster School Monday Dear i We have a surprise for you. It is something little and green. Something little and green is in something black. Something black is in something brown. Something brown is in something pink. Can you guess what it is? Please come to see us soon so we can give it to you. With love, 1B’s and 1A’s As a result, four very mystified callers visited the room and were much pleased with their share in the plants. Upon arrival at school one morning the children were greeted by a new doll. A letter pinned to her dress disclosed that her name was Margaret, and that she had belonged to a little girl who had grown into a big girl and who had therefore arranged for her to come and live with them. Of course, they fell in love with her at once and she cer- tainly did not lack attention. After a few days the teacher suggested that perhaps children in other rooms would like to have Margaret visit them for a day. The idea met with approval, and letters similar to the following were writ- ten to five other primary rooms: Daniel Webster School Monday Dear 2B’s, We have a lovely new doll. Her name is Margaret. She is going to live with us this year. We will be glad to let her visit you. Would you like to have her come Friday? Lovingly, Room 2 All of the replies indicated that Margaret would be a most welcome visitor. They were posted on the bulletin board along with the schedule of days and rooms numbers. In each instance someone was responsible for seeing that Margaret and her chair reached their destination safely, and the names of these children were posted on the schedule too. One day Fluffy, a white hen, came to school and obligingly hovered her fourteen eggs in one corner of the room for three weeks. When ten baby chicks hatched, there was intense excitement and children in other rooms wanted to see the new arrivals and their mother. The problem OEP 3 - SOOUTEYSe 303 BEGINNING READING INSTRUCTION of sharing Fluffy and her babies was discussed, and the following letter was written and posted on the bulletin board in the hall: Room 2 Wednesday Dear Children, Our Fluffy has ten baby chicks. We would like to have you see them. We shall feed them tomorrow and Friday at nine o’clock, and at one-thirty. Will you please mark the time you can come? We shall be so happy to have you. Lovingly, Room 2 The children then planned for the reception of the other rooms. Letters to parents include invitations to parent-teacher meetings and special-day greetings. These notes are written on the magna-type type- writer after a copy has been composed by the group. Each child has a turn at the typewriter, where, under the teacher’s guidance, he writes a word or two. The product is mimeographed and each child has a copy to decorate and take home. Charts—Story charts are not made about everything we do. Several activities may take place without anybody’s saying, “Let’s make a story.”” Sometimes only a part of tlie group participates in the story- making. When we are making a chart, many ways of saying things are tried and judged before being chosen. A chart made after the children’s visit to the principal read as follows: Ho, ho, ho. We had fun. We went to see Mrs. Granger. Clickety, clack, we wrote on her typewriter. We talked over the telephone to Mrs. Adams. Ding! Mrs. Granger rang one bell. Mr. Stewart came from the basement. We fed Mrs. Granger’s goldfish. Oh, we had very much fun. Sometimes charts take the form of news for the monthly edition of the school paper. One contribution ran like this: ROOM 2 NEWS Bang go our hammers! Zwz! Zzz! Zzz! go our saws. We are making things out of wood. Mr. Foster sent the wood to us. Mr. Stuart brought the wood to us. Herman has made a cupboard for our paint. Alfred has made a doll bed. Come to visit us some day. We are having much fun. 304 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS When an activity that involves a considerable length of time is car- ried on, such as planting bulbs, cumulative records are kept. The fol- lowing is a part of one such record: October 18: We planted bulbs today. We put them in the dark cupboard. October 21: We peeped at our bulbs today. White roots have begun to grow. October 25: We put our bulbs in the sun today. They have long white roots. Similar quotations are made every few days until the final happy day, December 5: All the bulb bowls have white flowers now. Our room smells like a garden. The charts are written in manuscript on oak tag and hung in the room. We are not concerned that every child know every word, but rather that every child experience joy and satisfaction in finding inter- esting lines in many charts or letters. “Clickety clack” may not be found in an approved word list, but it carries a thought to children who have made a typewriter say just that. Stories and poems—From the very beginning of the year there is a happy time each day when the group settles itself comfortably on the floor to listen to stories or poems. The first contacts are made with very simple books having vivid pictures and very little reading matter. “Ask Mr. Bear” and “Angus” books are read and reread. It is a part of the regular procedure that the picture be shown before the page is turned. Soon individuals begin “reading” with the teacher. Then the book is turned toward the group, and the teacher moves her finger under significant lines as the story is read. Before long, individuals and groups are choosing the books at free-work time and enjoying the parts they know. While no pre-primers have yet been found which furnish as lively stimulation for attempts at reading as do these stories, there is always a very definite carry-over of this activity into the more formal books. Every opportunity is used to give an awareness of books as sources of needed information as well as of pleasure. For example, they are often referred to in solving problems in science. Conclusion—All of our reading activities are based on the thought that “whenever a process of life communicates an eagerness to him who lives it, then the life becomes genuinely significant.”* If early reading becomes a vital, significant factor in everyday living, bringing with it satisfaction and happy experiences, the children develop an eagerness— a driving power—that aids them greatly in mastering the necessary mechanical skills, and reading then has an opportunity to become a delightful source of recreation and of helpful information. 1 James, William. Talks to Teachers. New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1899. p. 234. (Quoted in: Kilpatrick, William H. Source Book in the Philosophy of Education. Revised edition. New York: Macmillan Co., 1934. p. 177.) sooo RRR TT bast) via BEGINNING READING INSTRUCTION 305 BEGINNING READING BY A NON-ORAL METHOD James E. McDape Formerly Assistant Superintendent in Charge of Elementary Schools, Chicago, [llinois thing is seriously at fault in present methods of teaching beginning reading. The need for remedial work becomes evident while chil- dren are in the first grade, and continues thru the elementary school. Inability to read intelligently is perhaps the chief cause of failures in high school. Even the colleges are finding it necessary to provide some instruction in reading if their students are to carry on undergraduate work successfully. This article presents a hypothesis concerning the cause of much reading difficulty, reports briefly some results of an extensive experi- ment with a newer method of teaching beginning reading in a large city, and tells enough about the method to make the classroom pro- cedures comprehensible.* Te: GREAT NEED for remedial work in reading suggests that some- OraL Metuops A Masor Cause oF READING DIFFICULTIES Evidence from adults—The hypothesis concerning reading difficulties may first be set forth from the adult side. Let us ask a considerable number of adult readers, including some of average and high intelli- gence, whether as they read silently they find themselves saying the words to themselves or hearing the words sounded. The writer has done this, and a number of his interested friends have assisted. The number of affirmative replies is astonishing. Now, we shall be safe in saying to anyone clearly conscious of this inner-speech reading habit, “You are a slow reader.” Such a person is likely to admit this failing, and, if intellectually keen, to speak regretfully of the impediment it has been to him in his reading. Some will say, “I often have to read things aloud to myself so that I can understand them.” Without assuming that such replies from adult readers are highly reliable, it will soon become clear to an inquirer that a great majority of readers confess to reading by the mode of inner speech, while a few are positive that their reading is entirely free from it. The latter are apt to be fast readers, and fully aware of the fact, tho not attributing it at all to the absence of inner speech. It would be easy to explain the two classes of readers by the assump- tion that one class is naturally slow, and the other alert and rapid. It is interesting, however, to question the fast readers, and to try to find 1The reader will note that the point of view expressed in this article differs sharply from that of other articles in this chapter.—Editorial Committee. 306 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS how they learned to read. The writer has interviewed at least twenty such persons with some care, and almost uniformly there was revealed some unorthodox feature in the story of their learning to read. It can hardly be a mere coincidence that most of them, for some reason or other, had never been given regular classroom instruction in reading. Some had been ill at the time of their first-grade work, and “picked up” reading at home. Others living in a home where books were plentiful, learned to read before they went to school. In nearly every case there was an unusual circumstance that equipped the child with a different mode of reading. Weakness of the typical school approach—A spoken word is a mean- ingful symbol for the ear to hear, and a printed word is a meaningful symbol for the eye to see. There seems to be no intrinsic reason why getting meaning from a printed word by the eye should not be as easy as getting meaning from a spoken word by the ear. The processes are psychologically similar, as both are forms of communication in which word-symbols carry the meaning. There is, however, this difference in present educational practise: The reading situation in school is not ordinarily one in which reading actually functions to facilitate and heighten children’s living as oral speech has done. During the early years, in situations full of meaning, children readily learn sound- symbols. In school, instead of following the analogy of the acquisition of oral speech, we permit reading to be a parasite on oral speech, rather than a new language to be acquired, like the first, in situations where it can function to enrich living. In teaching a child to read by having him look at a printed word or group of words and then say them, we are not permitting printed lan- guage to function as language, and thus to become immediately satu- rated with meaning. Rather, we are divorcing printed language from life, and establishing a liaison between the printed word and the spoken word, which is not meaning in itself, but a symbol, full of meaning only when functioning. Objections to oral methods—The objections to oral methods in begin- ning reading, and the resultant habitual use of inner speech, are chiefly two. First, the reader with this habit can never read faster than his muscles can shape the words, no matter how fast his eye might travel if unhampered. Experiments now in progress seem to indicate that the maximum inner-speech rate of any individual is only a very little faster than his maximum rate of oral speech. Second, comprehension is seriously impaired because oral speech or inner speech is a muscular reaction to a visual stimulus. This reaction delays the flow of meaning and absorbs attention. The reader has two things to do, namely, to TY | oOo 8 Brecinnine Reapina INstructTION 307 say the words and to understand them. We have long since learned that these are two distinct processes, not one. A pupil told to read aloud a selection in French, was asked when he had finished to tell what he had read. His reply was: “I really don’t know. I was watching my pro- nunciation.” The parallel with the first-grade child is exact. In saying the words he finds enough to do without also getting the meaning. Teachers of beginning reading too commonly set up the oral habit with sedulous care, and in later grades intelligent teachers do remedial work no less sedulously, seeking to uproot the habit. Once formed, however, it is difficult to eradicate. Lip movements can be got rid of, but people who believe that inner speech will wear away with much silent reading are too optimistic. It happens, perhaps, but all too rarely. As a result, the writer has come to believe that “silent reading” is no longer a useful term. It may mean either of two very different processes. It is now used indiscriminately for (1) reading done with the eyes only, without any inner speech whatever; and (2) the much more common process of reading accompanied by inhibited oral language. The former is non-oral reading, while the latter is merely inaudible reading. Both are silent, but one is a runner stripped for the race, while the other is burdened with useless impedimenta. The non-oral reading hypothesis—The hypothesis underlying the non-oral method of introducing reading is that the understanding of printed symbols requires no use whatever of the processes of oral speech; it is not necessary for the reader to say the words either aloud or to himself. Printed language can be understood more rapidly and more clearly if the burden of complex oral utterance is completely elimi- nated. When one is driving a car and the crossing light turns red (a visual symbol), is it not unnecessary, and even dangerous, to be bur- dened with a habit of saying “red” or “danger” before putting one’s foot on the brake? EXPERIMENTING WITH Non-Orat METHODS IN CHICAGO The experiments described here were devised to determine whether children can be taught to read as well or better—as measured by stand- ardized tests—by purely non-oral methods than by current oral or partly oral methods. The first experiment—In the fall of 1935 the writer took one unse- lected class of beginning first-grade children in a Chicago school, and with the help of the capable volunteer principal, supervised the work for an entire school year. At no time during the year were the children required or permitted to speak a word or a sentence in print before them; nor did the teacher speak it for them. As far as possible, the 308 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS children were not to receive the slightest intimation that printed words were to be spoken. The effort was to follow the analogy of learning oral language, and to make print function for the time being as the sole mode of communication. No reading matter was presented which did not actually make a difference to the reader. His comprehension of printed words or groups of words was not tested by asking him to say them, but always by requiring action which at once revealed and heightened the meaning of the symbols. Situations were employed in which the child must comprehend in order to participate, but always at hand were means for self-help, so that the child need never fail. Print was used exclusively in the reading period, just as speech was freely used in oral work. But print was never brought into the oral work. Here were two separate languages. The new one, reading from printed symbols, was to be learned by itself, as the same children had begun to learn speech and oral symbols a few years earlier. The situation was like that in which one who knows English learns French best, not by learning the English equivalent of every French word, but by being plunged directly into the use of the new language in meaningful situa- tions. Thruout the year the class used individual self-help material devised by the writer a number of years ago.” The results of the year’s experiment exceeded expectations. The interest manifested by the children was something we had not seen before in first-grade reading. Their alertness and independence as they dealt with meanings and situations thru the medium of print was really astonishing. In reading achievement, as measured by the tests, the pupils compared more than favorably with classes taught by other methods.* Every pupil reached, and all but three exceeded, the course- of-study requirements. The mean reading score exceeded that expected in view of the mental ages of the children, and surpassed the course- of-study requirements by 0.75 grades. An M.A. grade expectancy was computed for each child. Those who exceeded their expectancies were called “gainers,” and those who fell short of their expectancies were called “losers.” In the non-oral class there were more gainers than losers, and the average gain of the gainers exceeded the average loss of the losers. In each of the classes taught by other methods there were more losers than gainers, and the average loss of the losers was greater than the average gain of the gainers. Expansion of the program—The success of the first year’s work led to a more extended experiment. Classes in non-oral beginning reading 2 McDade, James E. Projects in Silent Reading: First Grade. Chicago: Plymouth Press (1701-9 W. 74th Street). 3 For detailed results, see: McDade, James E. ‘‘A Hypothesis for Non-Oral Reading: Argument, Experiment, and Results.’’ Journal of Educational Research 30: 489-503; March 1937. & e- ee RD Ke SS eh He OO OS mM TRG IERE TE te BEGINNING READING INSTRUCTION 309 were started in eleven schools in September 1936. These pupils were carefully tested by the trained psychologists of the Bureau of Child Study, under the direction of Grace Munson. The data of this larger experiment, covering the non-oral work of nearly 350 children for a year, are not yet ready for publication, but it may be said that in general the results fully corroborated those of the earlier experiment. During the year 1936-37 the number of participating schools was increased from eleven to twenty-one, and Superintendent William H. Johnson, greatly interested in the work, detailed four assistants to help the writer with the supervision. The superintendent also arranged a series of demonstrations in convenient centers during the spring months, thus enabling principals and teachers of the city to study the work and to confer with the writer or his representative concerning problems in the teaching of non-oral reading. In 1937-38 Minnie E. Fallon, who became the assistant superin- tendent in charge of elementary schools upon the retirement of the writer, considerably increased the number of schools participating, and directed the work with the help of six trained supervisors. Before the opening of the schools in September, the assistant superintendent held twelve meetings, geographically spaced, at which the non-oral reading program was explained and discussed before all the principals and teachers of the city. The number of children being taught to read by the purely non-oral method in first and second grades has now run into thousands. Children, teachers, and parents alike are enthusiastic about this more interesting way of learning to read. Teaching deaf children to read—An interesting development is the discovery that this method is suitable for the reading instruction of the deaf. In one school in a part of the city too remote for deaf children to go to a special center, there were two such children who had to be taken into the beginning reading class with normal children. In their work they were almost indistinguishable from the rest of the class, and learned to read readily. In February 1937 Marie Mattocks, principal of the Bell School, a special center for the deaf, started a class in non-oral reading for young deaf children. Some of these pupils were as young as five years. The work of the class as the writer saw it three months later was inspiring in the highest degree. By that time the class had a reading vocabulary far beyond their speech vocabulary ; they were keen and alert; and their faces reflected their joy in reading. They were happy in using a lan- guage in which they were not handicapped. It is plain that to wait until a spoken vocabulary is accumulated by deaf children before teaching them to read is an error of truly tragic proportions, 310 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS ProcepurES USED IN THE Non-OrAL APPROACH Many of the devices for teaching reading without oral expression have been used in some schools for many years. The reading is organ- ized about centers of interest involving child activity, such as the home —with its rooms, furniture, and occupations—the circus, the garden, and the schoolroom. The teacher makes extensive use of miniature objects, pictures, and cards on which are printed words, phrases, and sentences. The blackboard is also used, manuscript writing only being employed. Projects undertaken for other purposes are always employed for reading also. The picture dictionary—In dealing with any center of interest or project, a dictionary is arranged in which the child will find pictures of objects or actions, with the words printed beside them. At the beginning the dictionary may cover only a single topic, but later a wall dictionary, arranged alphabetically by subject, is found useful. Children soon learn, without knowing that the initial letter of the word dog is d, to look for the word among those that begin with that letter. Many words cannot be illustrated directly, but can be shown by contrast, as small book and large book. Other pairs of opposites can be similarly illustrated. Emphasis on word groups—It is important to pass as rapidly as possible from the single word to groups of words, such. as the white ball, the red book, the large table, on the desk, under the table, shut the door, and the like. Speed without undue pressure is emphasized thruout, in order to encourage children to take in groups of words as units, thus increasing eye-span and preventing word-by-word reading. Games and projects without oral communication—The children play many games, or carry out projects, in little groups seated at tables. It is against the rules of the game to speak, and all communication is in print, usually in the form of cards on which the words and phrases appear printed in rubber type or with crayon. This work grows and widens until children can carry out the most complicated projects thru the medium of print. A birthday party, including the invitation of guests by displaying their names, the greeting given to the guests in print, the assignment by the hostess of certain children to play the parts of animals to amuse the guests, the calling on these animals to make certain contributions, as by hopping or barking, the taking of different gifts to the individual guests, and the pouring of the choco- late—every detail being largely improvised by the hostess on the spur of the moment—this the writer recalls as a sample reading project of enthralling interest to the children. The words functioned and were ————————— TEEN RTE IRE: i yi A at eam 8 SNL TE | IPT a RO OFA RELO BEGINNING READING INSTRUCTION 311 made to glow with meaning in a way that cannot fail to color the children’s reading as long as they live, for the seen words and phrases have become of intense and beautiful significance. Scores of such units are employed, each teacher developing her own. Teaching the “little” words—A question often asked is how one deals with the troublesome little words, such as and, or, if, and under. Two- year-old children can understand these terms perfectly in a context and in a meaningful situation, so why not six-year-olds? For example, let us take the words and and or. A number of objects are on the desk. A direction is used, such as “Get an apple and an orange,” and another, “Get an apple or an orange.” The teacher may hold up one of these directions and obey it herself. Then the children learn easily by prac- tise. Every such word is a new problem, and teachers become exceed- ingly ingenious in devising actual situations which turn on a given word. Tense forms are handled similarly. It should be noted that the word is learned in a situation where it functions. Such words have no meaning alone. Has oral expression no place?—Oral speech is emphasized along with non-oral reading, but is taught separately from the reading. The chil- dren learn flexible, expressive speech and distinct enunciation in abund- ant language work of genuine interest. In oral speech periods rhymes and poetry, which are meant to be spoken and not to be read non-orally, are employed. Nor is oral reading neglected, altho we are not as yet certain when it should begin. We do know by experiment that children who read well non-orally can learn to do fluent oral reading in a few days. We feel, however, that there is a danger in introducing the latter too soon. Experimentation will be necessary to determine when the non-oral habit is so firmly established that oral reading will not interfere with its smooth, habitual practise. After several weeks of non-oral reading the children have access to numerous attractive books and are allowed to handle them at will. Soon they begin to find that they can read, and then progress in books is rapid. They read because they enjoy reading, but there is no oral reading in class. SuMMARY OF DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ORAL AND Non-Orat MEtuHops Altho much excellent work of the type here described is being done in some schools, the writer believes that the thesis that oral expression should be absolutely excluded from beginning reading has not been seriously advocated by other workers in the field. The differences be- tween the oral and non-oral methods, as conceived here, lie principally in the following points: 312 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 1. The non-oral method repudiates completely the use of any oral reading whatever in beginning reading. 2. The realization of this principle demands a much greater elabora- tion and systematization of beginning reading work. If children are to learn reading as a separate language, their beginning reading actiy- ities must have sufficient genuineness and range to yield satisfaction to the participants. 3. The non-oral method aims from the first to make the acquisition of visual language parallel the previous acquisition of oral language by the children. The young child learns oral language thru having it used about him in meaningful situations, and thru an urge to participate. The attempt to recapture the happy situation in which symbols are saturated with meaning from the beginning has succeeded in non-oral reading. 4. The proper psychological relations of the principal factors in reading may be symbolized by the letters VMO, in which V represents the visual symbols or printed words, M the meaning, and O the oral symbols or spoken words. In reading we are concerned primarily with VM, and the O may be brought in, if desired, whenever the VM bond is sufficiently well established. An early association of VO is unnatural and harmful to reading habits. Traditional methods, in which the formula is VOM, require the reader to stop on his way to the meaning to produce a second series of symbols (O), which is expected to help him get to the meaning. The process too often stops at oral speech and never reaches meaning. The VM formula is easy for the child to master, and is satisfying to him because it gives him the meaning directly. 5. Incidentally, the treatment of reading and oral speech as sepa- rate languages simplifies the oral work and frees it from the burden of print, thus making it possible to give the children better training in free oral expression. Later they will learn to make the two languages contribute to and enrich each other. 6. The oral method too largely restricts the child’s systematic learning to his regular class work with the teacher. When reading is made totally non-oral, there is no reason why the valuable non-recitation time should not be used in developing reading skill. In all of our work in non-oral reading, individual study carries as much of the load as does class in- struction by the teacher. The use of self-help material designed for the purpose is of such importance that the results reported above probably could not be secured without it. The child needs extensive practise in dealing with meanings thru printed symbols alone in order to make reading easy, rapid, and habitual. + Seperate, ee ee oe ore ee BEGINNING READING INSTRUCTION 313 EFFECTIVE PROCEDURES FOR DEVELOPING WORD RECOGNITION Marie E. WALLACE Principal, School No. 64, Baltimore, Maryland of reading instruction in the primary grades. The methods de- scribed in this article are among those found most useful for this purpose in the public schools of Baltimore. Providing the necessary background—To make words meaningful, there must be a background of experiences and information which will be available whenever words are presented. Strictly speaking, the pro- vision of such a background is not a part of actual reading instruction, but belongs in the program for developing the readiness for reading.’ This preparatory phase is so important, however, that a discussion of procedures for developing word recognition would be incomplete with- out some mention of it. Ample opportunity to obtain a background for word recognition should be provided before children enter the first grade. The following activities may be used for this purpose in the kindergarten: T* TEACHING OF WORD RECOGNITION is one of the major functions 1, Listening to stories and poems read by the teacher, and learning to say favor- ite poems and tell favorite stories 2. Selecting, painting, or drawing appropriate pictures which tell a story, and dictating to the teacher sentences to write under the pictures 3. Making records of nature observations—birds, flowers, seeds, leaves, and so on—and keeping these records on a class bulletin board 4. Making records of interesting happenings—excursions, games, and visits 5. Making posters of safety rules, health rules, school activities, and the like 6. Bringing toys and other objects of interest to the class for display and dis- cussion. As long as entrance into the first grade is dependent only upon chronological age, there will always be a group of children entering this grade who need a continuation of the preparation for reading. In Balti- more, first-grade entrants with mental ages of five years and ten months or less, or with I.Q.’s of 89 or less, are placed tentatively in a “C” curriculum. These beginners are classified as IC pupils, and read- ing instruction is differentiated for them. During the first four weeks of school, definite activities are planned which will encourage reading readiness and provide a background for word recognition. The activi- ties of the kindergarten are continued, and additional activities are used, such as the following: 1. Keeping an active interest in the bulletin board, and helping to change it daily 1See Chapter II of this yearbook. 314 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 2. Making up short rhymes and jingles, which the teacher records and reads to the children 3. Making various kinds of picture books, in which the teacher writes simple sentences dictated by the children 4. Observing and locating labels on objects and pictures in the classroom 5. Matching words and pictures, first because of like colors or shapes, and later without this aid 6. Engaging in activities which will encourage correct left to right eye-move- ments. Developing an initial sight vocabulary—The initial sight vocabulary is developed during the period of pre-book reading. Two avenues of approach to the initial book reading are followed. Chart reading is effectively used to build up the mechanies of reading, while the bulletin board stresses especially the vocabulary of the first pre-primer. Chart reading is especially important during the pre-book period for various reasons. One reason is that chart reading helps to develop the vocabulary of the pre-primer. While the major emphasis is on me- chanics during the chart-reading period, many basic words also are stressed. Each teacher is supplied with a copy of the Gates list for primary grades.” In addition, many teachers use as checklists both the Dolch list * and the Stone list * of words commonly used in early read- ing instruction. More important than chart reading, however, is the systematic use of the bulletin board. Every first-grade teacher has an attractive bulle- tin board, which is used for a period of from four to six weeks for the specific purpose of developing the initial sight vocabulary. At the be- ginning of school, each teacher chooses the pre-primer which will be used with her particular class. She then plans her bulletin-board mate- rials accordingly. In addition to announcements of classroom activities, plans for the daily program, records of trips, and so on, the teacher uses materials which are definitely related to the pre-primer, as follows: 1. During the first few days of school, the bulletin board contains pictures and sentences which are exactly like the first four or five pages of the pre-primer. These sentence strips are used for class reading lessons, and the technic of building and matching such strips (as used in chart reading) is taught. 2. The names of all characters in the pre-primer are taught thru bulletin-board strips. The animals, colors, and toys used are also stressed. 3. After the characters are introduced thru bulletin-board strips, the children are encouraged to bring pictures from home. Under these pictures the teacher writes, at the children’s direction, sentences using the names of the characters in the pre-primer. 2 Gates, Arthur I. A Reading Vocabulary for the Primary Grades. Revised and enlarged edition. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1935. 29 p. 3 Dolch, E. W. “A Basic Sight Vocabulary.’’ Elementary School Journal 36: 456-60; February 1936. 4Stone, Clarence R. Better Primary Reading. St. Louis: Webster Publishing Co., 1936. ‘‘Most Important 150 Words for Beginning Reading,’ p. 50-53. ail ce ARP LOLNT NT BEGINNING READING INSTRUCTION 315 4. As soon as sentence sense is built up, and the mechanics of matching sen- tences with sentences mastered, definite stress on the words of the pre-primer begins. The initial sight vocabulary is thus developed thru systematic teach- ing of the bulletin-board materials. The vocabulary includes those words which are met in the first pre-primer. Building a vocabulary for early book reading—The practise with respect to early book reading varies slightly from classroom to class- room. There is an approved list of readers for use in the schools. From this list individual principals and teachers may choose the books for their classrooms. Some first-grade teachers use a pre-primer and follow it with the primer of the same set; others use two or three pre-primers before starting with a primer. Each teacher, however, chooses basal words from the first pre-primer for special drill and emphasis. If the primer of the same set is used, repetition of the basal words is assured. If a second pre-primer is used, the teacher checks with studies of vocab- ulary repetition such as those by Gross,> Hayward and Ordway,® and Rudisill.’ One of the problems met in choosing reading materials is that of caring for pupils who change classes within the school. Since all pupils are grouped homogeneously, certain changes within a school are neces- sary after the intelligence tests for beginners have been given. Since, in some very large schools, a period of two or three weeks has elapsed before all beginners have been tested, it is the practise to choose a school pre-primer and to have all children in the particular school start with that book. In this way, no time is lost in the development of the basic sight vocabulary when classes are changed. Each school also pro- vides copies of the primer which follows the pre-primer chosen, as well as many additional primers. Development of the vocabulary of the pre-primer and primer is con- tinued thru drill with sight words, seatwork exercises, supplementary materials, and the teaching of phonetic elements. Teachers select for drill those words which are most needed, and give special emphasis to new words as they appear. The meaning of the word is always stressed before drill is attempted. Applying phonics in word recognition—One specific way in which word recognition is developed is thru systematic training in phonies. This instruction includes ear training and sight phonics. Ear training is given after the children have a vocabulary of approximately fifty 5 Gross, Aline E. ‘‘A Preprimer Vocabulary Study.’’ Elementary School Journal 25: 48-56; Sep- tember 1934. ® Hayward, W. George, and Ordway, Nancy M. “Vocabularies of Recently Published Pre- primers.’’ Elementary School Journal 37: 608-17; April 1937. 7 Rudisill, Mabel. ‘‘Selection of Preprimers and Primers—A Vocabulary Analysis, I and II.’’ Ele- mentary School Journal 38: 683-93, 767-75; May and June 1938. 316 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS $$. words. The presentation of new work in phonies is carried out during a separate phonics period, and the work in ear training is conducted mainly thru the use of games in which practise in hearing, repeating, and matching certain sounds is given. Sight phonics, however, may be even more important than ear train- ing in the actual development of word recognition.’ Certain outstand- ing local practises in this field are as follows: 1. Phonics instruction is definitely allocated to each of the six sections (IB, IA, IIB, ITA, IITB, IIIA) of the primary grades. Each child, therefore, gets the same type of training in phonetic elements, regardless of the school which he attends. 2. The elements have been graded in difficulty according to studies and practise in this city, and are taught in the following order: a. Initial consonants—The first seven initial consonants taught in Grade IB are s, m, w, g, c, h, and b. These consonants were chosen because of their common usage in early reading materials.” The remaining initial consonants are taught in Grades IA and IIB. b. Phonograms—The first five phonograms, taught in the IB, are all, and, at, eat, and it. These phonograms were chosen first because each word can and should be a sight word. Additional phonograms are taught thruout the primary grades. In all, forty-six common phonograms are taught. c. Combinations of two consonants—At first the easy combinations such as sh and gr are taught. Twenty-four such combinations in all are taught. d. Vowels—All of the vowels are taught in Grade IIA. In this grade also the rule for lengthening the vowel before the final e is given. Long and short vowels are taught in the third grade. e. Combinations of three consonants—Under this heading such combinations as str and spr are taught. f. Syllabication—Initial and final syllables are taught in Grade ITA. Much practise with syllabication is given in the third grade. g. Prefixes and suffires—Some practise with prefixes and suffixes is given in Grade III. h. Use of glossary and dictionary—Definite lessons are suggested for each of the elements stressed. Tests for measuring progress in phonics are also included in the course of study.’° 3. All initial consonants are taught thru the use of “key words.” These key words are sight words which may be referred to frequently. The key word for s is sun, for m, man, and so on. Children are encouraged not to sound consonants in isolation. When reference is made to a beginning sound, the children are taught to think, “It begins like sun.” In the cases of very slow readers, there are some chil- dren who are unable to transpose mentally a sound from one word to another. When this is true the child is allowed to sound the consonant in isolation. Altho the majority of children are able to get the sounds thru the use of key words, there is a group of slow children with them whom definite work on the sounding of consonants in isolation has helped in the independent pronunciation of words. 4. All specific training in phonics is given during a separate ten-minute period each day. Application of the knowledge gained is made during all reading periods. 8For a different opinion on this point, see the article by Davis in Chapter II.—2ditorial Committee. ® For data on the relative frequency of the consonant sounds in the oral language of young children, see the article by Davis in Chapter II.—Editorial Committee. 10 Course of Study in Reading for Grades 1, 2, and 8. Baltimore Public Schools, 1936. eg 1oes = os — OO b —~dl ~ a ae BEGINNING READING INSTRUCTION 317 5. Words for special emphasis during the phonics period are chosen from the Gates word list, and from words in common usage in the particular classroom. 6. Phonics is always taught as only one means of improving word recognition, and all teachers are cautioned against putting too much stress on it. Improving recognition thru seatwork—Another means of improving word recognition is thru carefully planned seatwork exercises. In a large school system it is not always possible to provide workbooks for all pupils. In the absence of workbooks, and often in preference to them, teachers in Baltimore provide worthwhile seatwork exercises. These exercises are directed toward the mastery of basic words, and the most essential words are repeated most frequently. Examples of graded seatwork exercises which help to improve word recognition are: 1. Matching sentence, phrase, and word strips with pictures 2. Classifying words together that begin alike, end alike, or have the same sound in them 3. Grouping words under the correct key words 4. Completing sentences by (a) choosing the best word to answer, (b) pasting the correct word, and (c) crossing out the incorrect word 5. Arranging words of related meaning together, including (a) opposites (yes, no), (b) synonyms (wee, little), and (c) words in the same classification (dog, cat) 6. Choosing correct prepositional phrases to describe pictures. These exercises may be used for constant repetition of basic words. Increased word recognition will come only after repeated drill with many types of materials. Developing independence in word recognition—Independence in word recognition is one of the ultimate goals of beginning instruction in reading. No single device is sufficient for the child’s use in attacking unfamiliar words. The following devices or types of clues have proved helpful: 1. Meaning in context—The first aid in the recognition of a word should be its meaning. Thru the word’s relation to the remainder of the sentence should come the first clue as to its pronunciation. 2. General appearance—The contextual clue should be checked next against the general appearance of the word. Striking characteristics of the word may be noted. 3. Similar and unlike elements—If the contextual clue and the general appear- ance of the word do not help, the similar and unlike elements of the word should be observed, such as the initial consonant in cat, car, or can, and the phonogram in hand, sand, or band. 4. Detailed analysis—If the word is still unrecognized, a detailed analysis of it is necessary. The initial sound and any other known elements of the word may be identified. Much help in developing independence in word recognition may be given by directed drill on specific words in isolation. In this city the typical teacher of beginning reading chooses words for emphasis and gives special drill at the blackboard, on cards, or in seatwork exercises. This type of drill has been used for a long time and has proved effective. 318 ELEMENTARY ScHOOL PRINCIPALS a In addition to drill with words in isolation, experiments have been carried on using much drill in context. This type of drill was tried be- cause it was felt that the carry-over from blackboard or card drill to books was not always adequate. Teachers therefore use books for many of the exercises, having pupils find the words in the books, read the words in context, and repeat frequently the words found. This type drill has proved very effective. Summary—In the development of word recognition certain principles have been found helpful, as follows: 1. It is most essential that the teachers of the kindergarten and IC classes definitely build a background of experience for word recog- nition. 2. The initial sight vocabulary should consist of those words which are found in the pre-primer to be used. It is not necessary to stress many of the words used in chart reading. 3. Choosing a first pre-primer for all beginning classes in a school is helpful in the development of a vocabulary for early book reading. Subsequent changes from classroom to classroom will not affect the children if the same vocabulary is stressed. 4. Phonics is of definite help in word recognition. Teachers, however, should realize that it is only one means of improving word recognition, and that other clues are equally as efficacious. 5. Word recognition may be increased thru systematically planned seatwork exercises. 6. The development of independence in word recognition is most important. All teachers must help in this development. There is need for much drill with words, both in context and in isolation. a" learn to use the meaning of the material in which the unfamiliar word is found as a means of figuring out that word is of utmost value. It is of greatest value because it focuses attention upon the thought instead of distracting the mind from the content during a process of word-form study, and because, properly used, it is a most successful device. It fosters other good reading habits instead of interfering with them.—Gates, Arthur I., The Improvement of Reading, Mac- millan Co., 1935, p. 269. (Quoted by permission of the pub- lishers. ) en ane 2 BEGINNING READING INSTRUCTION 319 been ADAPTING EARLY INSTRUCTION TO THE d be- INDIVIDUAL CHILD ill to Letuau G. Kies.ine nany Instructor in Elementary Education, State Teachers College, 1 the California, Pennsylvania type , EARNING TO READ is an individual job. Each child has his own pe- iples L culiar interests, his own rate of mental development, a particular combination of physical characteristics, and a certain pattern 11C ' of emotional attitudes. These factors inevitably affect his rate of learn- cog. ing, his methods of learning, and his ability to concentrate, cooperate, | and carry responsibility. It is necessary, therefore, to provide for much hich individualization of instruction in beginning reading. eon The first-grade pupils who followed the individualized program de- scribed here were institution children. Altho the institution was termed hool | 92 orphans’ home, a majority of the children were not truly orphans ling, but had been sent to the institution either because the parents’ home the was not a desirable place in which to rear children, or because the father had died and the mother was unable to support the children, or —_ because the father and mother, altho both living, were not self-support- es ing. As might be expected, these children as a group were somewhat retarded mentally, had many physical handicaps, were emotionally un- veil stable, and revealed little evidence of a desire to read. One-seventh of them had intelligence quotients above 110; about one-half were in anil the lower part of the I. Q. range from 90 to 110; and two-sevenths had intelligence quotients below 90. The reading program for these children was designed to serve a two- fold purpose: (1) to adjust to the needs of the group as a whole, which necessitated many activities to enrich their backgrounds of experience, enlarge their vocabularies, and develop their abilities to use complete sentences; and (2) to adjust to the capacity of each child to learn to read, which required individualized instruction. The program was not individualized to the extent that each child always worked alone. It was individualized to the extent that each child’s progress was recorded each day, and the group with which he worked on the following day was determined by the progress he had made. While this article stresses the individual aspects of the program it necessarily presents as a back- ground certain materials and procedures used with the class as a whole.’ Basis of grouping—At the beginning of the year the pupils were grouped according to their intelligence quotients. This was done not 1One important part of this program—the development of concepts—is not discussed here. Proce- dures for developing concepts as a basis for meaningful reading are presented in the articles by Pennell and Wallace in this chapter.—Editorial Committee. 320 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS because the I. Q. was believed to be the best index of a pupil’s ability to engage in reading activities, but because it was the only reliable information available. No reading-readiness test results were at hand. To simplify administrative problems in handling classes, the pupils were classified in three groups for their first systematic introduction to written symbols. Later they were regrouped as variations in their prog- ress were revealed. Those who had physical handicaps and therefore could not work in groups were given individual jobs adjusted to their handicaps. Also, children who had attitudes not conducive to learning to read because of previous failures were given individual attention to devolop a feeling of success. Reading materials used—The reading materials used thruout the year were similar to those ordinarily recommended for the period pre- liminary to pre-primer reading. The reasons for using such materials were (1) to develop a desire to read, (2) to help the child associate meaning with printed symbols, and (3) to develop an attitude of liking and caring for books. The activities carried on in social studies, health, science, and citizenship provided many opportunities to make written records, and these were later used in teaching the children to read. The following were among the types of activities and materials em- ployed: 1. The news—A definite place for recording news from day to day stimulated the children’s first interest in learning to read. At first the teacher read the items to the children, letting them read the parts that they knew. Later in the year, the news was read independently by the children. 2. The weather—On the blackboard, sentences similar to the following were printed : The wind is blowing not blowing. The sun is shining not shining. The day is warm cold cool. It is raining not raining. The teacher read each sentence. A child drew a line under the part that made the sentence correct and then read it. 3. Riddles—Each day a riddle was made by the teacher, including as many words as possible that the children knew. During the first days of school the teacher read the riddle to the children, holding a marker under each line as she read. After the children had acquired some reading vocabulary, the teacher read the unfamiliar parts and paused for the children to read the parts which they knew. Each child whispered his guess to the teacher, and the correct guess was written on the blackboard. 4. Captions on the bulletin board—Such captions as, “What is the farmer doing?” with pictures of activities on the farm, or “What are baby animals called?” with pictures of the baby animals properly labeled, were used to stimulate a desire to read. 5. Picture dictionaries—As groups of words were presented, such as the colors, the animals, or members of the family, the children made dictionaries with pic- tures properly labeled to use in identifying the words. 6. Experience-reading stories—These were stories dictated by the children and recorded by the teacher about activities carried on in the classroom. They were 4 & i g i ) BEGINNING READING INSTRUCTION 321 ility printed on charts or on the blackboard for the children to learn to read. The lable “teaching procedure used is described in a later section of this article. and 7. Problems arising from a unit of work—As the children studied a unit of “a work, problems often arose and were recorded for further study. upils 8. Rules of conduct for an excursion—When planning an excursion certain yn to rules were suggested by the children and recorded by the teacher. These rules were read by the teacher or by a pupil before taking the trip. rog- 9. Jobs for committees—During an activity, committees were chosen to per- fore form certain jobs. These jobs, together with the names of children chosen to their | perform them, were recorded on a chart for future reference. nin 10. Room duties—A chart with a picture of a fish bowl and the caption, “Feed 8 the fish, (name of child),” and similar charts were used to designate the persons mn to chosen for the various jobs each day. 11. Library corner—The activity of making the reading table, chairs, and library shelves from orange crates, and of arranging attractive books in the library the corner, stimulated a keen desire to read in the library. pre- 12. Labeled objects and pictures—These materials were used to give clues to rials new words. The procedure is described in detail in the section on independent iat word-recognition clues. - . 13. Picture books made by the children—The children cut out pictures at king random from magazines, pasted them in their booklets, and labeled them. alth 14. Picture books organized about a topic—Animal books, family books, toy tien books, vegetable books, and fruit books were made and labeled. ead. Principles for making reading meaningful—If learning to read is to em- be a meaningful process, certain essential principles should be observed, as follows: lated 1. There should be a definite attack on learning to recognize words by the use tems of picture clues, context clues, and the general configuration or striking charac- , the teristics of a word. 2. The first introduction to written symbols should be in units of words, phrases, were sentences, and experience stories rather than names of letters, sounds of letters, sounds of phonograms, or syllables. 3. There must be a definite purpose motivating the child to read, as suggested in the following directions: (a) Read to find the sentence that says, “The ball is red.” (b) Read to find the answer to the question, “Why did baby cry?” (c) Read to get the directions for an activity, such as how to make a doll dress. (d) Read . the to get information, such as the news appearing each day on the bulletin board. (e) Read to get the description in a silent movie. (f) Read to find out what each any committee is to do. Merely reading a page over and over again until every word the | is mastered develops mechanical reading with little or no thought. If a child reads _ she a page only to show that he can read it, he is reading mechanically and not mean- read ingfully. Telling the child to think while he reads is not the right sort of stimula- they | tion. He must have a real purpose in reading which makes comprehension essential was to the feeling of success. q ° ° ° P mer | Learning to recognize written symbols—-While definite learning situ- re i ations to develop word, phrase, and sentence recognition are necessary me j during the whole reading program, they are especially important in the lors, : initial learning-to-read period. Many words are learned incidentally, pie | but incidental learning should not be depended on to carry the full and responsibility for developing word recognition. The following points vere are essential: t 322 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 1. The child must know what the word means. For instance, if the animal vocabulary is being taught, the child should be abie to recognize the animals and use the oral language symbols necessary to identify them. 2. The child must be given an opportunity to look at the word long enough to learn some striking characteristic by which to identify it. 3. When the child is learning a word, some clue should be provided to help him recall the word if forgotten. For example, if the word blue is being learned, give the child a piece of blue paper and a card with the word blue printed on it. 4. Many opportunities should be provided for the child to recognize the word and to clinch it. The following materials and activities illustrate the method used to teach word recognition: SAMPLE VOCABULARY—THE FAMILY mother boy grandmother baby father girl grandfather MATERIALS 1. Pictures of the members of a family with no captions on the bulletin board 2. Pictures of the members of a family with the name posted under each on the bulletin board 3. Pictures of the members of a family, each pasted on individual cardboards 4. A word-building chart 5. Sentences containing the “family” vocabulary, dictated by the children and printed on the blackboard or on charts 6. Written symbols for the family vocabulary in manuscript writing, large enough to be seen by all in the group, on small strips of manila paper 7. Seven pupils. ACTIVITIES Step 1—Test to see if all the children in the group recognize the pictures of the members of the family and can call each by name. If some member of the family is unfamiliar, activities should be carried on to develop the concepts and the oral symbols necessary to make the written word meaningful. The written word should not be introduced until this step is accomplished. Step 2—Show the bulletin board containing pictures of the family without captions. Let the children make sentences to tell who is in each picture. Record the sentences and place them on a chart or on the blackboard. Step 3—Let each child choose one of the pictures and tell who is in it. Give each child a card bearing the word for his picture and tell him in a whisper what the card says. When everyone has a card, tell each child to look at his word and say it to himself mentally. Next, call for the pictures, letting each child put his picture on the blackboard ledge as it is called for. Tell a story using the words father, mother, and so forth, letting each child get his picture from the blackboard ledge when he hears the word. Have the children give the teacher the pictures when called for. Hold up one picture at a time and let the child who has the corresponding word give it to the teacher. Show the word cards and let each child get his word. Then let the children look at the Jabeled pictures on the bulletin board. Ask each child to look at the word on his card and find the word just like it on the bulletin board. Encourage the children to use the pictures over the words as clues. Let the child match his word with the one on the bulletin board and say it. Ask the children to look at the sentences containing the “family” words. Let each child match his word with one like it in the sentences and say it. Point to a word in the sentences, and let the child with that word say it and put it on the ledge as he leaves the class. TREY ithe d-a alan eee tae Se EE OTT ETRE TE BER 0 Ee TPT mal and him rive ord ard the and rge the ily ral uld out ord ive hat ind ard th, the to \sk the les. isk ich ord lige BEGINNING READING INSTRUCTION 323 Step 4—Place the pictures of the family on the ledge. Show one word-card to one child at a time. If he says it correctly, put it at the back of the pack and show the next word to the next child. If a child does not know the word shown him, tell him what it says, give it to him, and let him get the picture from the rack to match it. Tell him to look at his word and say it to himself. Continue this procedure until each child holds a card which he needs to learn. If one child has identified all the cards in his regular turn, let him say the words in the teacher’s pack. Then ask each of the other children to turn his card around so that it can be seen by the teacher. Ask the first child to stand in front of the class and say all the other children’s words. If he misses one, let the child holding that card give him the card. Show the cards in the pack to the child who has given away his card until he finds a word he doesn’t know; then let him hold this card. If a child says all the words held by the teacher and by the other children, write his name on a slip of paper or on the blackboard and let him leave the class to engage in some other activity, such as looking at a picture book at the library table or performing some silent-reading activity. Later, record in the record book the date this child accomplished the job of identifying all the “family” words. Continue the activities suggested under Step 3 with the children who do not know all these words. However, as soon as any child can identify all the cards, excuse him from the class and record his accomplishment. Learning to read experience stories—The method of teaching the children to read simple material based on their own experiences is shown in the following example: SAMPLE CHART—A THANK-YOU LETTER Dear Second Grade, Thank you for the flowers. Sincerely yours, First Grade. MATERIALS 1. The letter in manuscript writing on a large chart 2. Phrases from the letter manuscript on strips of manila paper as follows: Dear Second Grade Thank you for the flowers Sincerely yours First Grade 3. Five children. ACTIVITIES Step 1—Show the children their letter on the chart. Hold the pointer under each line and read it to the children. Do not point to each word. Stimulate the children to want to read the letter to someone, such as the second grade, the principal, the kindergarten, a sister, or a mother. Step 2—Give each child a phrase card and whisper to him what it says. Ask each child to look at his card and say the phrase to himself without whispering it. Read the entire letter and ask each child to stand when his part is read. Place a pointer under the parts on the chart as the letter is read a second time, asking each child to sit when he hears his part. Ask each child to find what his card says in the letter. Let him match his card with the corresponding phrase in the letter and say it. Point to the parts in the letter, beginning with the salutation, and let each child read his part. Step 3—Let a child who thinks he can read the whole letter read it to the teacher i. 2 eer “*39td “0% 8T T g tI 6 0 0 6 6'T 06 0-9 Le RRO Ae °°" "SCE “6T 1% T or or tI 0 s 6 Z'% L6 8-9 oI-9 Serr » —- TH ~~ i—i —_ 4 en se ~ Se — ™ a Ss - 8 OC ee —_— Pb \v BEGINNING READING INSTRUCTION 329 of word repetitions and in the number of words common to all the books. Comparison indicated that an appreciable percent of the words in these primers were presented also in the Gates, Thorndike, and Horn lists. In 1931, Harring (15) determined the extent to which the vocabu- Jaries of certain primers overlap or supplement one another, thus fur- nishing data that would enable a teacher to arrange a sequence of two or more primers. Obviously, if there is only a slight overlapping between the vocabularies of two primers, the second primer may present almost as great difficulty as the first and thus create serious reading difficulties. This is a factor which some teachers fail to consider when choosing additional primers for first-grade children. The teacher must know the child’s vocabulary status and provide new words at a rate which will interest and challenge but not defeat him, as may be the case if the succeeding book contains a high percent of new, untaught words. Since many of the very recent primers were not included in any previous analysis, Hockett and Neeley (20) in 1936 gathered significant data concerning the vocabularies of thirty-three primers published during the period 1923-35. These data included the number of different words in each primer, the average repetition of words in each primer, and the number of words common to the basic books. In the same year Hockett and Neeley (21) made a similar study of twenty-eight first readers. Teachers should have access to these detailed and accurate data, for on every reading level adequate repetition and a minimum vocabulary burden are essential to individual and group progress. The recent studies of pre-primer vocabularies will also be helpful to teachers of beginning reading. A study by Gross (16) in 1934 resulted in a basic vocabulary list of 238 words, composed of the different words which appear in ten primers four times or more. This list should help the teacher in developing the children’s initial reading vocabulary. From it she may choose the major load of words to be used in experi- ence charts, blackboard work, seat work, and any other reading which precedes the introduction of the first pre-primer. Further data from this study are useful in determining the order in which the teacher will introduce various pre-primers. Other factors being equal, she should choose first the pre-primer with the lightest vocabulary load, and follow this with books containing a gradually increasing number of new words. Similar data for fifteen pre-primers published since 1932 have been reported by Hayward and Ordway (22). Another important aspect of vocabulary is that of word meaning. Dolch (10) states that the vocabulary burden of a reader should be determined not only by the number of new words introduced and the 330 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS frequency of their repetition, but also by the number of new meanings to be encountered by the child. His study indicates that many words as used in beginning reading materials have several different meanings, Therefore it is valuable to teachers, and to authors of books for children, to know which meanings of a word are of greatest value for a specific grade level. Dolch, thru his analysis of the word meanings in a series of readers, has shown what some of the problems are in this field. The problem of appropriate grade placement of words has been stud- ied recently by Buckingham and Dolch (23). They have assembled the results of eleven extensive investigations, giving information as to the grading or the frequency of use of 19,000 words. More than 10,000 of these words are placed at certain grade levels in accordance with children’s usage as revealed by one or more studies. The following annotated list includes a number of studies not men- tioned in the foregoing discussion. While this list is not complete, due to space limitations and the inaccessibility of certain studies, it indi- cates rather well the history and scope of research in the field of reading vocabulary. Thanks to this research, we now have scientific appraisals of the vocabulary loads of many books in beginning reading. We have some information in regard to a common vocabulary, the number of different words which books contain, the average number of word repe- titions, and the extent to which the vocabulary of one book is carried over into succeeding books. The wise teacher will use these findings to improve her instruction, and thus set the stage for a successful and satisfying reading experience for her pupils. ANNOTATED List oF VOCABULARY STUDIES ” 1. (1915) Jones, Robinson. “Standard Vocabulary.” Minimum Essen- tials in Elementary-School Subjects—Standards and Current Practices. Fourteenth Yearbook, Part I, National Society for the Study of Educa- tion. Bloomington, I1l.: Public School Publishing Co. p. 37-43. This study undertook to develop a standard vocabulary list for testing purposes, by tabulating the words found in ten commonly used primers. The author presented two such lists, one a sight vocabulary list and the other a phonic vocabulary. 2. (1918) Housh, E. T. “Analysis of the Vocabularies of Ten Second- Year Readers.” Third Report of the Committee on Economy of Time in Education. Seventeenth Yearbook, Part I, National Society for the Study of Education. Bloomington, IIl.: Public School Publishing Co. p. 40-45. 2 This list was prepared with the assistance of Nellie Sheehy, College of St. Mary, Omaha, Nebraska. od _ we te. oe af gee eee na DB wr? 3 OS Oo a n= es. a- $e8, ted in the Yo. aha, BEGINNING READING INSTRUCTION 331 The purpose of this study was to determine the vocabulary of ten second readers in common use, and thus to provide a basis for measuring their quality so far as vocabulary is concerned. The study (a) determined the total vocabulary of the ten readers, and the vocabulary common to all of them; (b) compared the vocabularies of the “method” and the “content” readers; (c) showed, by means of the vocabu- lary, the relation between these two kinds of readers; (d) showed also that the difficult second-grade readers present a list of words quite different from that in the easier books, only 419 words being common to all ten; and (e) revealed that in each reader a large proportion of the words occur only one, two, or three times. This analysis provided a tentative standard by which a reader or series of readers might be judged. It also was of value in selecting supplementary readers for use with a basic text. 3. (1921) Thorndike, Edward L. The Teacher’s Word Book. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University. (Revised edition pub- lished in 1932. 182 p.) This investigator tabulated the words occurring in reading material of various types, chiefly at the adult level. The original Teacher’s Word Book contained an alphabetized list of the 10.000 commonest words, arranged also according to their frequency of occurrence in the reading material examined. The later edition ex- tended the list to 20,000 words. The list has been of great value to the authors of school readers. 4. (1921) Packer, J. L. “The Vocabularies of Ten First Readers.” Report of the Society’s Committee on Silent Reading. Twentieth Year- book, Part II, National Society for the Study of Education. Blooming- ton, Ill.: Public School Publishing Co. p. 127-44. The author’s purpose was to analyze and summarize the vocabularies of ten first readers. Two tables were prepared, one containing a summary of the total num- ber of different words according to their frequency, and the other presenting the words alphabetically within groups of descending frequency. The second table shows the number of times each word appears, and the number of readers in which it appears. The study has been useful in showing the relative importance of the words that need to be known in order to read various portions of the ten readers. Of the 3541 different words found, 2048 appear only four times or less. 5. (1922) Selke, Erich, and Selke, G. A. “A Study of Vocabularies of Beginning Books in Twelve Reading Methods.” Elementary School Journal 22: 745-49; June 1922. This study obtained information on the vocabulary content of the beginning books in twelve different sets of “method” readers. Four tables were prepared. Table 1 shows the number of different words and the number having stated frequencies in each of the twelve beginning readers. Tables 2 and 3 indicate the degree to which the vocabularies of the different books are supplementary. Table 4 gives the total number of different words in any two of the books. A total of 1636 different words were found in the twelve books, but only 38 of these are common to all the books. The vocabulary burden of the primers ranged from 157 to 630 words. These results reveal (a) little uniformity in the number of words introduced by these beginning books, (b) a relatively small number of words common to the books, (c) low fre- quencies of repetition for most words, and (d) the limited value of these books for supplementary reading because of their lack of a common vocabulary. 332 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 6. (1923) Brown, M. Ethel. “A Mastery Vocabulary in Primary Reading.” The Problem of the Elementary School Principal in the Light of the Testing Movement. Second Yearbook. Washington, D. ©.: Department of Elementary School Principals, National Education As. sociation. p. 296-306. The first-, second-, and third-grade readers of a certain series were analyzed to discover the basic words which should be mastered by pupils using them. The re- sulting list contains 680 different words, and these are divided into six groups, one for each semester of the three-year period. 7.(1925) Horn, Ernest. “The Commonest Words in the Spoken Vo- cabulary of Children up to and Including Six Years of Age.” Report of the National Committee on Reading. Twenty-Fourth Yearbook, Part I, National Society for the Study of Education. Bloomington, IIL: Public School Publishing Co. p. 186-92. The words from three investigations of children’s spoken vocabularies were com- bined: (a) a study by Ernest Horn of the vocabularies of eighty children varving in age from one to six years, (b) a study under the direction of Mrs. Ernest Horn of the vocabularies of kindergarten children, and (c) a study by P. C. Packer of the spoken vocabularies of first-grade children in Detroit. These studies revealed a total of about 5000 different words. The final list of 1088 words comprised all words found with a frequency of 15 or more in the three studies, or with a frequency of 25 or more in two of the studies. 8. (1925) Gates, Arthur I., and others. “Problems in Beginning Read- ing Suggested by an Analysis of Twenty-one Courses.” Teachers Col- lege Record 26: 572-91; March 1925. A survey was made of the teaching methods and materials found in twenty-one different reading systems. The part of the study devoted to the vocabulary of primers revealed that (a) the number of different words in these primers varies from 100 to 900 per book, with a median of 250 words; and (b) there was little agreement among the authors of these books as to general principles for the selec- tion of words, or as to the amount of repetition necessary for word mastery. The study has been valuable in suggesting many avenues of experimentation in the field of early reading vocabulary. 9. (1926) Gates, Arthur I. A Reading Vocabulary for the Primary Grades. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University. 23 p. (Revised and enlarged edition published in 1935. 29 p.) This vocabulary list was constructed primarily for use in teaching reading in Grades I, II, and III, especially the first two grades. The first edition contained 1500 words selected from four other important vocabulary studies, namely, the Thorndike list (3), an unpublished study of frequent words in children’s literature by Annie Moore, the Packer list (4), and the Ernest Horn list (7). The words were presented in three groups of 500 words each. Within each group the words were arranged alphabetically under the different parts of speech. Emphasis was placed primarily on the importance of meanings rather than on mere word forms. The list has been valuable to teachers of primary grades in connection with all types of reading material and in the construction of reading tests. The revised list contains 1811 words. In addition to the sources mentioned in the 1925 edition are the following: “all additional words found with considerable fre- coger SP emer rere NRPS “OE RR ary the all ney ol- one of ries ttle lec- "he the the ure ere ere ‘he of the BEGINNING READING INSTRUCTION 333 quency in various studies of primary literature published since 1925, all additional words appearing in at least one-sixth of a list of 105 books of various sorts, includ- ing readers, supplementary readers, books of stories, and various types of informa- tion.” A composite of judgments as to the interest and utility of the words for children was also used. 10.(1927) Dolch, Edward W. Reading and Word Meanings. Boston: Ginn and Co. 129 p. This vocabulary study was made from the standpoint of the meanings of words. The words in the first five books in a set of readers were tabulated. Variations in meaning for the same spelling were noted. In the entire series, 536 words (or spell- ings) were used with more than one meaning. The number of meanings found for a single word varied from two to eight. The total number of different meanings used for the 536 spellings was 1358. This type of study opened up a whole new field for the textbook maker and for the teacher of reading. 11.(1928) Beck, Mae Miller. An Analytical Study of the Vocabulary of 12 Primers. Master’s thesis. Nashville, Tenn.: George Peabody Col- lege for Teachers. 70 p. This study of 12 primers published between 1921 and 1928 revealed a total of 1523 different words, of which 799 appeared in not more than one book while only 35 were common to all 12 books. The range in the number of words appearing but once in the individual primers was from 15 to 195. The number of words common to any two primers ranged from 60 to 273, while the corresponding percent of all words varied from 15 to 76. The number of running words in a primer varied from 2568 to 7987, while the number of different words ranged from 184 to 682. Nine of the 12 primers were found to have more than 71 percent of their words in the children’s spoken vocabulary. When the 8 primers published in 1926 or 1927 were compared with the 4 earlier ones, little difference was found in either the average number of running words or the average number of different words. However, the variation among the more recent books was markedly greater than that among the earlier ones. For example, the greatest difference in the number of different words found in any of the earlier primers was 131, while in the more recent books it was 548. 12.(1928) Horn, Madeline, chairman, and others. A Study of the Vocabulary of Children Before Entering the First Grade. Washington, D. C.: International Kindergarten Union (now the Association for Childhood Education). 36 p. The purpose of this study was to determine the speaking vocabulary of normal children before entering the first grade. The words tabulated were those used by children while attending kindergarten, those used by children when stimulated by pictures, and those used by children in the home. The published list contains 2596 words occurring with a frequency of 7 or more times among the approximately 7000 different words found. It should be useful to textbook makers and to teachers of beginning reading. 13. (1930) Selke, Erich. “A Comparative Study of the Vocabularies of Twelve Beginning Books in Reading.” Journal of Educational Re- search 22: 369-74; December 1930. This investigator compared the vocabularies of the beginning books in twelve sets of readers published between 1925 and 1929. His purpose was twofold: (a) to 334 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS determine the extent to which the choice of vocabulary in these books had been influenced by the word lists of Gates, Thorndike, and the Twenty-Fourth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education; and (b) to discover any trends in vocabulary selection which had occurred since a similar study was made in 1922 (5). The results are presented in four tables, showing the number and frequency of different words in each book, the number and frequency of words common to any two of the books, the percent of words common to any two of the books, and the total number of different words included in any two of the books. The data reveal (a) a trend to introduce fewer words in beginning books than in 1922, (b) an in- crease in the number of word repetitions, (c) an increase in the number of words common to all twelve books, (d) an increase in the percent of words common to any two teaching methods, and (e) a large percent of the words in the readers found also in the Gates, Thorndike, and Twenty-Fourth Yearbook lists. 14. (1930) Wheeler, H. E., and Howell, Emma A. “A First-Grade Vocabulary Study.” Elementary School Journal 31: 52-60; September 1930. The study undertook to determine how closely the Gates list (9) corresponds with the vocabularies of ten primers and ten first readers published in 1922 or later. The 453 most frequently used words found in these books were arranged alphabeti- cally and ranked according to their frequency of occurrence. The first 100 words in this list and the first 100 in the Gates list have 68 words in common. Of the entire list of 453 words, 333 or 74 percent are found also in the Gates list. Of the first 500 words in the Gates list, 26 percent do not appear in the readers examined. 15. (1931) Harring, Sydney. “What Primer Shall I Use Next?” Ele- mentary School Journal 32: 207-13; November 1931. The author wished to determine the extent to which the vocabularies of different primers overlap or supplement one another, and thus to throw light on the question, “What primer shall I use next?” His findings include (a) the percent of words com- mon to any two of fifteen well-known primers, (b) the rank of the fifteen primers according to the percent of words used in common, (c) the number of different words, the total number of running words, the number of times each word was repeated, and the average number of new words per page in each primer, and (d) the number of words in each primer which do not appear in any of the other fourteen primers. Such information provides a basis for using these primers in the most effective sequence for supplementary purposes. An exact knowledge of the vocabulary burdens of various primers helps in selecting and using not only the first primer which a child reads, but subsequent primers as well. Obviously, the second primer which a child reads may be almost as difficult as the first if there is only a slight overlapping between their vocabularies. 16. (1934) Gross, Aline E. “A Preprimer Vocabulary Study.” Ele- mentary School Journal 35: 48-56; September 1934. This was a survey of ten pre-primers bearing copyright dates from 1927 to 1932, to find their actual vocabularies and the frequency of each word used. Among the 8831 running words in these books, 393 different words were found. Only 238 of these words appear four or more times in the ten books. These 238 words are pre- sented in an alphabetical list, together with the frequency of each word in each book, and the rank of each word according to its frequency of use in al! the books combined. The study is valuable in that it indicates exactly which words appear in certain pre-primers, and thus serves as a basis for deciding which words to intro- duce and teach thru experience charts before the actual reading of pre-primers is begun. n Ik ds 22 of 1e al n= ds tO id BEGINNING READING INSTRUCTION 335 17. (1935) Stone, Clarence R. “The Second-Grade Reading Vocabu- lary.” Elementary School Journal 35: 359-67; January 1935. To obtain a vocabulary to serve as the basis for a series of workbooks in phonics, this investigator made a study of the new words appearing in first-, second-, and third-grade readers. The above reference reports the results for the second readers only. In the sixteen second readers examined, a total of approximately 3200 new words were found. Of these, only the 1276 which appear in three or more of the readers are listed. Altho the vocabulary for the first grade has become somewhat standardized thru the use of certain basic word lists, there is still a marked lack of standardization in the vocabulary of second-grade readers. It is apparent also that to be independent in his reading of second-grade books, a child must have either a surprisingly large stock of sight words or considerable skill in recognizing new words of one, two, and three syllables, or both. Results of the study are valu- able in writing supplementary reading material ; in designing workbooks, seat work, and other supplementary exercises; and in judging the vocabulary of second readers which are under consideration for basic or supplementary use. 18. (1936) Stone, Clarence R. Better Primary Reading. St. Louis: Webster Publishing Co., Chapter 3, “A Graded Vocabulary for Primary Reading,” p. 44-138. The author states that in compiling and grading this list of 2000 words he used several previous vocabulary studies of primary reading books, the Gates revised list of 1935, standard lists of words most commonly appearing in children’s spoken vocabularies, and an extensive vocabulary study of twenty-nine primers, twenty- seven first readers, twenty second readers, and eleven third readers. The composite list is arranged in seven reading-difficulty levels, from the pre-book stage thru third-reader material. The first two levels contain what the author considers the 150 most important words for beginning reading. The list for each level is cumula- tive, containing also the words of the preceding levels. The new words for each level are starred. The list should be valuable to both teachers and authors in con- structing reading material at different levels of difficulty. It will also aid teachers in planning instruction in word analysis. (This list is also published in pamphlet form by the Webster Pub- lishing Company.) 19.(1936) Dolch, E. W. “A Basie Sight Vocabulary.” Elementary School Journal 36: 456-60; February 1936. This study gives a basic sight vocabulary comprising all words (except the nouns) common to the International Kindergarten Union list (12), the Gates list, 1935 edition (9), and the Wheeler-Howell list (14). 20. (1936) Hockett, John A., and Neeley, Deta P. “A Comparison of the Vocabularies of Thirty-three Primers.” Elementary School Journal 37: 190-202; November 1936. Data were obtained concerning the vocabulary burden of thirty-three primers published from 1923 to 1935, inclusive. These data include, for each primer, the total number of words, the number of different words, the average number of word repetitions, the number of words used with stated frequencies, the percent of words used five times or less, and the percent of words used ten times or more. The au- thors’ report shows also the number of words common to any two of the books and the vocabulary difficulty of each primer when used after the primer in each of 336 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS two well-known and widely used series on the market. Important findings are as follows: (a) the total number of running words in all thirty-three books is 174,076; (b) the number of running words ranges from 3260 in one primer to 9280 in an- other; (c) the number of different words varies from 175 in one primer to 480 in another; and (d) the average vocabulary of the sixteen books published from 1923 to 1929 is 335.4 words, while that of the seventeen books published from 1930 to 1935 is 273 words. 21. (1936) Hockett, John A., and Neeley, N. Glen. “The Vocabu- laries of Twenty-eight First Readers.” Elementary School Journal 37: 344-52; January 1937. The authors secured data on the content and difficulty of the vocabularies in twenty-eight widely used first readers. Their report shows, for each book, the total number of words found, the number of different words, the average number of word repetitions, the number of words used with specified frequencies, and the percent of words used with certain frequencies. There is also a comparison of the vocabu- lary of each reader with the revised Gates word list, and a comparison of the vocabulary of the average first reader published between 1920 and 1929 with that of the average first reader published between 1930 and 1935. Three important trends are revealed by the latter comparison: (a) a significant reduction in vocabulary load, (b) an increase in the repetition of words, and (c) an increase in the propor- tion of words that appear in the first 500 of the Gates list. 22. (1936) Hayward, W. George, and Ordway, Nancy M. “Vocabu- laries of Recently Published Pre-Primers.” Elementary School Journal 37: 608-17; April 1937. A survey was made of fifteen pre-primers published from 1933 to 1936, inclusive, to determine the vocabulary used and the frequency of each word therein. The total number of running words in these books is 13,667. The number of different words in the combined vocabulary is 350, or 43 fewer than were found in the Gross study of pre-primers covering the period 1927-1932 (16). The number of words ap- pearing four or more times in these books is 311. The investigators list these 311 words and give their frequencies for each book, their ranks according to frequency of use in all the books combined, and the number of books in which each word appears. These data may be used by the teacher as a guide in chart-making and in determining the order in which the several pre-primers can be introduced to chil- dren most effectively. Comparison with the earlier study mentioned above indicates a tendency to narrow the vocabulary in reading materials published at this level. 23. (1936) Buckingham, B. R., and Dolch, E. W. A Combined Word List. Boston: Ginn and Co. 185 p. The purpose of this study was to determine the words whose meanings are familiar to the children in various grades, and thus to set up tentative grade vocabularies. The result is a combined word list based on a piece of extensive re- search by the authors and on ten other important vocabulary studies. This com- bined list gives information as to the grading or the frequency of use of 19,000 words. The authors do not present the list as final. It represents, however, a signifi- cant approach to the problem of vocabulary grading, and will serve as a basis for further investigation in this field. eC wr tl. il it e it is [- e, 1e it p= Ll y rd in l- es re le n- fi- or 10. 11. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19, 20. 21. BEGINNING READING INSTRUCTION 337 SELECTED REFERENCES . Brpersee, Dororuy. Teaching the Primary Grades. New York: D. Appleton- Century Co., 1932. Chapter 3, “How to Teach Reading in the First Year.” . Cooper, Ina M. “A Comparative Study of the Organization for Teaching of Ten Beginning Reading Systems.” Journal of Educational Research 28: 347-57; January 1935. . Corvts, ANNA D. The Word Method of Teaching Phonics. Boston: Ginn and Co., 1929. 328 p. . Dickson, Bette L. “Trends in the Teaching of Phonics.” California Journal of Elementary Education 5: 51-58; August 1936. . Dotcu, Epwarp W. “The Efficiency of Primers in Teaching Word Recogni- tion.” Journal of Educational Research 28: 271-75; December 1934. . Gates, AnvrHuR I. New Methods in Primary Reading. New York: Teachers Col- lege, Columbia University, 1928. 236 p. . Gray, WrturaM §., and Hotmes, ELeanor. Development of Meaning Vocabu- laries in Reading. Publications of the Laboratory Schools, No. 6. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1938. 140 p. . HitpretuH, Gertrupe. “An Individual Study in Word Recognition.” Elemen- tary School Journal 35: 606-19; April 1935. . HivpretH, Gertrupe. Learning the Three R’s. Minneapolis, Minn.: Educa- tional Publishers, 1936. Chapters 3 and 4. Hut, Mary B. “A Study of the Process of Word Discrimination in Individuals Beginning to Read.” Journal of Educational Research 29: 487-500; March 1936. McKee, Paut. Reading and Literature in the Elementary School. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1934. Chapter 6, “The Program in Comprehension for the First Grade.” . O'DonNELL, Maser. “Word Recognition Techniques in a Primary Reading Program.” Primary Reading, Bulletin No. 6. Chicago: Row, Peterson and Co., 1937. . Parrerson, SAMUEL W. Teaching the Child to Read. New York: Doubleday, Doran and Co., 1930. Part II, “Reading in the Beginning Grades,” p. 103-237. PENNELL, Mary E., and Cusack, Atice M. The Teaching of Reading for Better Living. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1935. “The First Grade,” p. 169-266. Pierce, Paut R., and Quinn, Heten J. “A Study of Certain Tyes of Work Materials in First-Grade Reading.” Elementary School Journal 34: 600- 606; April 1934. Stone, CLARENCE R. Better Primary Reading. St. Louis: Webster Publishing Co., 1936. 536 p. Storm, Grace E., and Smirn, Nita B. Reading Activities in the Primary Grades. Boston: Ginn and Co., 1930. 376 p. Tate, Harry L. “The Influence of Phonics on Silent Reading in Grade I.” Elementary School Journal 37: 752-63; June 1937. THomson, JENNIE L. “Some Essential Factors in Learning to Read.” Elemen- tary School Journal 38: 184-92; November 1937. Wuee ter, Lester R. “Experimental Study of the Value of Informal Methods in Teaching Primary Reading.” Journal of Educational Research 31: 335-47; January 1938. Witson, F. T., and orners. “Reading Progress in Kindergarten and Primary Grades.” Elementary School Journal 38: 442-49; February 1938. CHAPTER IV CULTIVATING APPRECIATION AND GOOD TASTE IN READING EDITORIAL COMMENT T ONE TIME, reading to develop an appreciation of literature was A the chief concern of the reading program, especially in the inter- mediate and upper grades. Within the past two decades, however, there has been a tendency to subordinate this type of reading to the work or study type utilizing informational materials. There has like- wise been a tendency to abandon oral reading in favor of silent reading. In the light of present-day needs, none of these extreme positions seems justified. Reading as a leisure activity is no less important to the indi- vidual than is reading to solve personal and social problems. Further- more, the contribution of oral reading to the appreciation of certain forms of literature warrants the inclusion of this type of reading in the school program. In placing greater emphasis on reading for appreciation, care should be taken to avoid the mistakes of the older approach to literature. The critical, analytic study of literary material has contributed little to its enjoyment. Such material should be read in a spirit of freedom and informality. To achieve this, we need to divorce literature from in- struction in basic reading habits and skills. We must also provide a wide variety of materials to suit the interests and reading abilities of individual children. Informational materials of high quality should have a place along with other types of literature. Good taste may be developed by beginning at the child’s present level and gradually help- ing him to make better choices in his reading. The foregoing points are amplified and illustrated by the authors of this chapter. Horn presents a disquieting picture of the reading done by young people and adults, and indicates six major steps by which children’s tastes and habits in leisure reading may be improved. Moscrip discusses ways to stimulate, guide, and check up on the recreational reading of pupils, including several suggestions on oral reading. Scott and Granger describe an eighth-grade program for increasing children’s appreciation of books. Vayette tells about a seventh-grade club which met every two weeks to engage in activities related to leisure reading. The last article, by Abney, outlines the values and possibilities of choral speaking, and gives suggestions for carrying on this activity. Other valuable discussions of the program for leisure reading will be found in the publications listed on page 367.—Editorial Committee. [ 338 ] LE —— Se — —— a —ee oo \e READING FoR APPRECIATION 339 THE IMPROVEMENT OF LEISURE READING Ernest Horn Professor of Elementary Education, State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa FEW YEARS AGO the President’s Research Committee on Social Trends devoted an entire monograph to the problem of leisure in American life.’ To prepare for the enriching use of the leisure period has always been one of the main objectives in education, and in the attainment of this objective, reading is assumed to play an impor- tant part. Both the Twenty-Fourth Yearbook, Part I, ? and the Thirty- Sixth Yearbook, Part I,* of the National Society for the Study of Education, which are devoted to reading, emphasize the tremendous importance of developing those tastes and abilities which will improve the quality and range of leisure reading. EVIDENCE OF SHORTCOMINGS The evidence, however, on the amount and quality of the reading done by those who have left our schools is discouraging. One is driven to the conclusion that either we have been attempting to do something that is impossible for most students, or our curriculum and methods are at fault. In brief, the evidence indicates (1) that most of the young men and women who have gone thru our schools do not read very much; (2) that most of the books and magazines that they do read are of low quality; and (3) that a large proportion of these people, even if they wished, could not read those books that are ordinarily regarded as great literature. ¢ Reading done by out-of-school youth—The discrepancy between the avowed purposes of the schools and the results attained by former students is strikingly illustrated in Starrak’s survey of out-of-school rural youth. *® In this study, conducted as a part of the work of the Iowa State Planning Board, data were collected for 1107 young people in scattered communities—466 girls and 641 boys. The average age of 1 Steiner, Jonze F. Americans at Play. Recent Social Trends Monographs. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1933. 201 p. 2National Society for the Study of Education. Report of the National Committee on Reading. Twenty-Fourth Yearbook. Part I. Bloomington, Ill.: Public School Publishing Co., 1925. 356 p. 3 National Society for the Study of Education. The Teaching of Reading: A Second Report. Thirty-Sixth Yearbook. Part I. Bloomington, Ill.: Public School Publishing Co., 1937. 442 p. ‘For a brief evaluation of voluntary reading in the elementary school, and for a bibliography of investigations at this level, see: McKee, Paul G. Reading and Literature in the Elementary School. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1934. Chapter 13, p. 472-515. ' Gates, Arthur I. Interest and Ability in Reading. New York: Macmillan Co., 1930. p. 1-88. For a statement and bibliography of studies on voluntary reading at higher levels, see the Thirty- Sixth Yearbook, Part 1, of the National Society for the Study of Education. For evidence on inadequacies in reading ability, see: Horn, Ernest. Methods of Instruction in the Social Studies. Report of the Commission on the Social Studies, American Historical Association, Part XV. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1937. Chapter 5, p. 151-205. 5Starrak, J. A. A Survey of Out-of-School Rural Youth in Towa. Unpublished study. 340 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS these people was 19.8 years. The average grade at which they had left school was 10.5. Over half of them had finished high school, and many had attended college. Approximately 29 percent of these young people professed to enjoy reading more than any other activity. This is a relatively high pro- portion when compared with 20 percent for sports and athletics, and 6 percent for music. Yet the number of books which they read was astonishingly low. Forty-three percent had read no books since finish- ing school; 20 percent had read from one to five books; and only 4 percent had read sixteen books or more. The data for magazine reading indicate that only about 5 percent of these former students read mag- azines of substantial literary quality. Reading in colleges—The situation at the college level is little better. One would expect that students in liberal arts colleges should do a great deal of reading, since the major function of these colleges is to give a liberal education. Part of this liberal education would seem to be an acquaintance with, and an appreciation of, the world’s great books. Yet the studies which have been made of the use of college libraries is disillusioning. Johnson,* for example, investigated all of the books withdrawn during one year in five colleges, with a total enrolment of 2438 students. The total number of volumes in the libraries of these five colleges is approximately 400,000 and when useless books received as gifts are omitted, the number presumably worth reading is about 345,000. The withdrawals for both general and reserve reading in these col- lege libraries were tabulated. The total number of books withdrawn for general reading, not counting duplications in the various colleges, was 15,067. Counting duplications, the number was 17,012. Nearly 68 percent of the books were drawn but once, approximately 17 percent were drawn but twice, and approximately 5 percent were withdrawn five or more times. Two hundred and fifty-nine students withdrew no books which were not assigned as reserve reading. The median number of different books withdrawn per student was 6.8, and even when account is taken of books drawn more than once, the median number of withdrawals was but 7.5. The use of books on reserve lists was studied in four of the five colleges, with a total enrolment of 1763 students. In addition to the books used in general reading, 3374 books were withdrawn in connec- tion with reserve or required reading. Counting titles withdrawn in more than one college, the total was 3774. The median number of 6 Johnson, Harry L. A Study of the Use of Five College Libraries. Unpublished master’s thesis. lowa City, Iowa: State University of Iowa, 1937. I ve he C- of sis. READING FOR APPRECIATION 341 books signed out for reserve reading was 20.3, but sixty-nine students withdrew no books at all. Apparently the readings required by the instructors are sometimes not required by the students. One would naturally think that college life would of necessity stimulate a great deal of reading, both in connection with the subjects regularly pursued and in the following out of general interests. However, the amount of reading exhibited in these figures is pathetically inadequate for the attainment of a liberal education. It is possible, of course, that these students read some books not distributed by the college libraries, but other evidence indicates that, aside from textbooks, the number obtained from outside sources was probably not large. On the other hand, there is reason to believe that the figures given exaggerate rather than understate the total amount of reading done. It is impossible, either in the case of reserve or of general reading, to determine whether the books withdrawn were actu- ally read, and certainly one could not tell how well the books were understood or appreciated. Judging from studies made of reading ability at the college level, many of these students could not have understood the books even if they had attempted to do so. Adult reading—There is other evidence to show that most adults read very little and that what is read is, for the most part, of low quality. Many of the books, as well as much of the content of some of the most widely read magazines, approach what one writer has aptly called the “garbage-pail” variety. The Lynds, in their Middletown? and Middletown in Transition, * found both the quality and the amount of reading done in the city which these books describe to be relatively low. The preponderance of pulp magazines, such as True Story, in the reading of many groups, even in college communities, has been pointed out by other investigators. Magazines of first-rate literary quality have distressingly low circulation. Can leisure reading be improved?—Are we to believe that this small amount of reading and the poor quality of much that is read are in- evitable in view of the limitations of human nature and the competition provided by other interests, or are we to conclude that these appalling shortcomings are the result of weaknesses in our educational program? Both factors must undoubtedly be taken into account. It is folly to assume that all human ills can be completely and permanently cured by education, and there is no reason to believe that this one can. The potentialities possessed by the students in our schools are limited rather 7™ Lynd, Robert S., and Lynd, Helen M. Middletown. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1929. 549 p * Lynd, Robert S., and Lynd, Helen M. Middletown in Transition. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1937. 604 p. 342 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS than infinite, and the social situation is by no means favorable to the development of the habit of reading good literature. The competition of rival interests is very substantial. Nevertheless, schools both now and in the past have fallen far short of developing such potentialities as exist. That the poor results generally obtained are not inevitable is shown by the fact that in many schools and at all levels, children not only read a great deal but also read books and magazines of relatively high quality. The results obtained in superior schools show clearly that it is possible to develop a taste for good books, and that the abilities essential to such reading can be developed. Tue REMEDY There are several things which the school can do to develop better tastes and habits in leisure reading. Six major steps in this direction are discussed in the following paragraphs. 1. Separate literature from instruction in reading skills—The first and most strategic step is to separate instruction in literature from instruction which has for its purpose the development of reading ability. Reading as a tool is no more closely related to literature than to many other fields in the curriculum. To be sure, we read literature, but we also read history, geography, and science. Moreover, exercises designed to develop the fundamental abilities in reading are more effective when based on logical and informational materials than when focused on literary selections. To make literature carry this load of practise exer- cises is almost certain to debase its appreciation thru the creation of an atmosphere foreign to its purposes. Schools have probably thought that they could kill two birds with one stone by combining literature and reading. And they did, but not in the sense intended. They really killed both birds. There is a good deal of evidence to indicate that such methodology frustrates appreciation on the one hand, and fails to develop proper reading ability on the other. Perhaps two or three twenty- to thirty-minute periods a week are enough to devote to special lessons for the development of reading ability. Certainly this amount of time should be sufficient after Grade I or II. This estimate assumes, of course, that the development of basic reading abilities is constantly motivated and practised in all of the other curriculum fields, including literature. The remainder of the time now commonly assigned to the combined course in reading and litera- ture can be devoted to literature, but, as already pointed out, in a separate period. —~ ome @€.4 ase READING FOR APPRECIATION 343 The time allotments for other content fields, and especially for social sciences, should be expanded in order to allow more time for reading during the study period. The additional time needed for what are some- times called the content subjects can be obtained by decreasing the time allotments in the Three R’s. There is reason to believe that the total time allotment specifically set aside for the development of the skills in handwriting, spelling, arithmetic, reading, and the mechanical aspects of composition can be reduced to an hour and a half per day with results as good as, if not actually superior to, those now obtained. 2. Stimulate interests in all content subjects—Much more attention in all fields of the curriculum should be given to developing abiding interests and to acquainting students with the best books in these fields. As stimulations to reading in the leisure period, these interests are just as important as interests in belles-lettres. 3. Change the method of teaching literature—The method of teach- ing literature should be changed from one of critical analysis to one of fostering appreciation directly. The atmosphere of the classroom should be what is implied by the term “leisure reading”; that is, litera- ture should be taught in a happy, informal setting. Most of the reading should be extensive rather than intensive; yet, if the level of taste is to rise above that which comes from casual reading, some time must be devoted to learning how to read good literature. 4. Provide reading materials to suit individual abilities—At any grade level the selections to be read should be adapted to the interests and abilities of students at that level. There is a good deal of evidence to show that many literary selections are placed from one to three grades too low; that is, they are introduced from one to three years before the average student has developed the tastes, the background, the experience, and the reading ability required for their appreciation. It must be remembered, however, that in each grade the range of experience, of reading ability, and of interest is very wide. The pupils in any grade usually have a range of reading ability of five or more years. For example, in one ninth-grade class, which was used in con- nection with a reading experiment, the reading abilities of individual pupils were as follows: Reading Ability Number of Pupils Median for college freshmen ......... 1 = With weee......:. 1 = ~ Tit greds.......... me 2 “ a 20 sa 2 i — ° = eee 4 i — fre ey 6 - ae Ul 2 uy Fo Eee inci acs rmachace 7 . a . eee eee 5 344 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Obviously, what could be read by the five students in this class who had only fifth-grade reading ability was very different in amount and quality from what could be read by the one student who read as well as the median college freshnfan. Experiments in the grade placement of literary selections have shown, moreover, that the same book, poem, or story frequently ranks high in the choices of pupils in several grades. For example, most poems that are popular with third-grade children are also among those most popular with sixth-grade children. The obvious conclusion is that most selections that are worth reading at all will appeal to some children in several grades. Much of the failure to develop appreciation grows out of the fact that children are unable to read and to understand the selections which we place in their hands. In most instances their comprehension is so low as to make even a minimum appreciation impossible. Nor is read- ing difficulty merely a matter of vocabulary, as many modern writers seem to believe. Very frequently the setting and the plot are far re- moved from the experience of children. A selection may be relatively easy in vocabulary but exceedingly difficult because the ideas are strange. On the other hand, the vocabulary may be fairly difficult and yet the selection may be easy if the setting and the problems treated are close to the child’s experience. Possibly one of the secrets of the success of the old McGuffey Readers was the fact that the plots, and even the moral questions, were intimately related to the interest, experience, and problems of the great mass of children who read them. 5. Provide selections that children like—The selections included in the course of study in leisure reading should be those which we can reasonably expect students to read in their leisure moments. Those who have conducted research on reading interests have repeatedly pointed out that the difficulty is not that children dislike literature, but rather that they do not like the literature which we provide for them. Poetry is a case in point. It has frequently been said that chil- dren do not like poetry. Yet direct experiments in the field of children’s interests or choices in poetry has disproved this assumption. Bradshaw, °® for example, has recently investigated the interest of first-grade children with reference to sixty poems. Each of the poems was liked by more than half of these first-grade children. Seventeen of the poems were liked by 90 percent or more of the children, forty- six, by 80 percent; and fifty-eight of the sixty poems by 70 percent of the children. Only seven of the poems were actually disliked by ® Bradshaw, Ruth. Children’s Choices in Poetry in the First Grade. Unpublished master’s thesis. Iowa City, Iowa: State University of Iowa, 1936. ee . 2 i ll i ae sa — ma 2a eefe — an io" wa © © 2d. 3 ew > 2 ee TY YOST | READING FOR APPRECIATION 345 even a fourth of the pupils. To be meaningful, therefore, the problem of interest must be related to particular selections. A number of years ago, the teacher of the sixth grade in a demon- stration school made the statement that her children did not like short stories. The director of the school suspected that her problem was rather that the children did not like the stories that they had been given to read. The teacher was asked to read O. Henry’s Ransom of Red Chief to them and report what happened. At the time of the literature period, the director heard an unusual commotion in the sixth- grade room. The children were laughing, and when the director entered the room, he found that they were engaged in reading Ransom of Red Chief. The moral is apparent. The selection of the poems, the books, and the stories to be read at any grade level is no small task. This problem has never been solved with complete satisfaction, but there are a number of excellent find- ing lists. The bulletin, 1000 Books for the Senior High School Library, *° contains excellent advice for building an all-round library for high schools. For the lower levels, there are a number of valuable guide lists, as follows: 1. Sears, Minnie E., compiler. Children’s Catalog. New York: H. W. Wilson Co., 1930. 877 p. 2. Gardner, Emelyn E., and Ramsey, Eloise. A Handbook of Children’s Litera- ture. Chicago: Scott, Foresman and Co., 1927. 354 p. 3. Mahony, Bertha E., and Whitney, Elinor. Realms of Gold in Children’s Books. Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday, Doran and Co., 1929. 796 p. 4. Mahony, Bertha E., and Whitney, Elinor. Five Years of Children’s Books. Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday, Doran and Co., 1936. 599 p. (Supplement to Realms of Gold in Children’s Books). 5. Starbuck, Edwin D., and others. A Guide to Literature for Character Train- ing. New York: Macmillan Co., 1928-30. 2 vols. 6. Terman, Lewis M., and Lima, Margaret. Children’s Reading. Second edition. New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1931. 422 p. 7. Washburne, Carleton, and Vogel, Mabel. Winnetka Graded Book List. Chi- cago: American Library Association, 1926. 286 p. It is important that the books for each grade have a range of inter- est appeal and difficulty which is commensurate with the range of ex- perience and reading ability among the pupils. In the case of reading ability, the range in difficulty should probably not be less than six or seven years in any grade. But even among children of approximately equal reading ability, the range in interest will be very wide. Not all people like the same poems or the same stories or the same books. There must be selections which appeal to all. Attention has already been called to the fact that the course in leisure reading should not 1 Joint Committee of the American Library Association, National Education Association, and National Council of Teachers of English. 1000 Books for the Senior High School Library. Chicago: American Library Association, 1935. 96 p. 346 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS be limited to belles-lettres. It should provide for every type of reading in which people ordinarily engage during their leisure: travel, poetry, history, science, adventure, fiction, and the like. 6. Spend more money for suitable books—All that has been said above necessitates a much larger expenditure for books than is pro- vided at present, and a very different way of expending the funds, Except perhaps for one set of readers to be used as a sort of nucleus, most of the money should be spent for a very few copies of each of many different books. The expenditure for library purposes in schools in the United States is a disgrace. Strayer '' reported that in twenty-six eastern cities rang- ing in population from 50,000 to 425,000, the median expenditure for school libraries in 1922-23 was ten cents per pupil, and that the range of the middle 50 percent of these cities was from nothing to forty- eight cents per pupil. Slater’* found that the per-pupil expenditure for school library books in one state, computed on the basis of aver- age daily attendance, was but thirty-five cents for the year 1921-22. This was less than half of 1 percent of the total school budget. Wal- lace * reported that the corresponding expenditure in the same state for 1931-32, ten years later, was but 0.2 percent of the total disburse- ments for schools, not including fifteen cents per child in the school census which was received from the state for library books. Even with this amount added, however, the total expenditure for library books for all subjects was less than half of 1 percent of the budget, and only a small part of this pittance was set aside for the purchase of books that are really attractive to children. Little argument should be required to convince anyone, first, that such insignificant expen- — ditures per pupil will not buy a sufficient amount of equipment for | reference and free reading; and second, that the amounts are niggardly | as compared with other items in the budget. Schools would still be | badly underequipped if they spent three times as much as is now annu- ally appropriated for library books. One of the most important steps, therefore, in the improvement of leisure reading is to provide the books in which we want the students to be interested. It is difficult enough to develop interests thru the actual reading of the books, but there is no way of developing these interests unless the books are available. 1 Strayer, George D., director. Report of the Survey of Certain Aspects of the Public School System of Springfield, Massachusetts School Year 1923-1924. New York: Institute of Educational Research. Teachers College, Columbia University. 1924. 173 p. 12 Slater, Clarence P. The Distribution of a School Budget Based on Average Daily Attendance in the Schools of Iowa. Unpublished master’s thesis. Iowa City, Iowa: State University of Iowa, 19% | 18 Wallace, Vaughn C. A Financial Appraisal of the Present School District Organization in Iowa. Master’s thesis. Iowa City, Iowa: State University of Iowa. 1933. Sr cre no be 80 she he ext the wil | ass list sto Th | Th col | Th ) but aid r0- rds. us, | of ates ng- for nge rty- ture ver- -22. Val- tate Tse- hool with 0ks and e of ould pen- _ for rdly 1 be nnu- it of lents the hese School ational ince in », 1924. | Towa. READING FOR APPRECIATION 347 LITERATURE—THE STEP-CHILD OF THE READING PROGRAM Ruts Maria Moscrip Supervisor of Sixth Grade, Training School, State Teachers College, St. Cloud, Minnesota ball games, children’s organizations, camps for boys and girls, elaborate playground equipment, and goodness knows what else, we still hear the ery, “What can I do now?” One of the chief purposes of the school is to teach children how to use their leisure time, and the school has done this to a great degree. But in our anxiety to provide motor activity as an outlet, we have not always remembered that reading is an activity too—an activity that for sheer enjoyment and real personal satisfaction cannot be excelled. The work-type skills in reading have received marked attention. Remedial reading has been the center of interest of late years—and rightly, too—but the recreatory reading period is still the little step- sister of the reading program. Getting children in general to read for recreation is still a problem in hundreds of schools. It seems so im- portant to include the “work subjects” in the program, and so easy to let the literature period slip because of other apparently more pressing demands, that the reading budget is rarely balanced. What more could we do for a child than to develop—yes, perhaps create—a love of reading for enjoyment? We want the child to read not merely because the reading supplements the social studies, not because the course of study requires it, not because the teacher says so or wants the child to do it, but because the child can’t help it. He should want to read because reading has been made so attractive that he cannot live without it. A girl who was working her way thru college and carrying four extra hours of work, took the time between one and two o’clock in the morning to read recreatively because her life lacked richness without it. Not that she hadn’t been reading. There were ponderous assignments in history, education, and psychology. There was a long list of books to be read for the English class. But this other reading, stolen from the hours of sleep which the girl needed, was different. This reading fed a want, a hunger that could not be satisfied otherwise. The school was not responsible for this girl’s desire to read, but it could be responsible for such a desire on the part of most children. The literature period could provide not only immediate enjoyment, but a foundation for the child’s future enjoyment of leisure time. Re IN THIS AGE of dancing instruction, music lessons, movies, 348 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Need for a planned program—What does all this mean for the teacher? It means, first of all, that she must definitely provide a place on the daily program for a literature period. Learning in this field cannot be wholly incidental if it is to become a part of the child’s life, Moreover, the teacher must take time to plan to some extent what she wants to accomplish for each child thru the year. The teacher must think: “This child will not pass my way again. What can I give him that he will never forget, and that will follow him into his life beyond my help? Has he had books of delightful fiction? Does he know any myths and legends? Would he enjoy reading about the lives of real people? Is he interested in children of other lands? Do scientific marvels thrill him? Does he need humor in his life? Is poetry a joy to him?” How well shall he know these fields? Should he be familiar with a great many books, or master of a few good ones? Should he be able to retell what he has read, or shall he skim to get the gist and let it go at that? It is essential that the teacher know what she wants the child to absorb. She must, therefore, have some sort of course of study planned. Suitable questions for discussion—In practically every gathering of intelligent people the latest books are discussed. Many a conversational ball has been started rolling with the words, “Have you read .. . ?” How many bridge games have been temporarily forgotten because of someone’s mentioning, for instance, Gone With the Wind? And what are these people discussing? What questions are they asking and answering? Does one ever hear questions like these: “How many | children were there in Scarlett’s family? Where did Melanie live? What did Rhett Butler do for a living?” No, indeed. One hears people asking: “Would you have blamed Rhett for his child’s death? Do you think Rhett went back to Scarlett?” But the first type of question is the kind which so often is asked a child as a means of interesting him in a story. If children are to share their enjoyment of a story by discussing it in class, the teacher must see that the questions are of the discussion type. They must be ques- tions regarding opinion, judgment, and feeling. Take, for example, as simple a story as “The Nuremburg Stove.” Each child will read the story silently. Then ask the children questions like these: Do you think August should have climbed into Hirshvogel even if he did hate to part with it? Why do you suppose the king told August not to kneel to him? A list of such questions on the board to guide the children’s reading will open new channels in the story. Their desire to answer these a a a ee ee ee ee ee a the ace eld ife. hat her ‘ive life 10W | of fic joy ha ble ; 20 rild idy r of nal ” » of hat and any ve? ple you ked are just , as the hate ling 1ese READING FOR APPRECIATION 349 questions will assure greater interest in the story and also greater understanding, because the children will be thinking as well as reading. In addition, the facts of the story will be better mastered because the children have to know the facts in order to form opinions and make judgments. The depth of children’s thinking is surprising. In discussing the story “The Happiest Man,” the answers to the question, “Do you think Solon was right when he said ‘No man can say whether he is happy or not until he has ended his life happily’?” were astonishingly thought- ful. Ten-year-old children speaking earnestly on this question presented opinions that would have put many an older person to shame. A lesson of this type at least once a month not only does much to develop an interest in reading, but also promotes a closer attention to the meaning of the story. The teacher’s reward is sure to come when a child says enthusiastically, “Oh, Miss , would you have decided the way Caddie Woodlawn did—to be poor here in America rather than go to England and be rich?” At least the germ of intelligent discussion has been sowed. Guiding the child’s reading—How many times have you said or heard said, “Oh, if I had only read those books when I was a child.” And why hadn’t you? Perhaps because such books were not available, but more likely because they were not called to your attention. It is essential to guide the reading of children. A teacher and a children’s librarian were discussing children’s books. “There are some books,” said the teacher, “that no child should miss reading.” The librarian broke in quickly: “What are they? Let’s make a list of books that no child who leaves the sixth grade should miss reading.” Accordingly the list was made—a list of fifty books, touching the fields of pure fiction, poetry, biography, history, science, travel, nonsense, myths, legends, and fairy tales. This list of fifty books was printed on a large green chart. The names of the children were also placed on the chart. The teacher went over the list with each child. For every book that the child had read before he came into the sixth grade, he received a gold star on the chart. For every book he read during his sojourn in the sixth grade he would receive a red star. The teacher remarked that if a child read and remembered the contents of those fifty books he would be better read than 50 percent of the people in that town of thirty thousand. Enthusiastically and simul- taneously three children said, “I’m going straight down the list and see that I’ve read every book by the end of this year.” Book reports and related activities—Touching closely this enthusi- asm for outside reading is the contrasting apathy for reporting such 350 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS reading. Many a child has denied himself the fun of reading because of the drudgery of writing or giving long book reports. Such reports are unnecessary. The writer uses the simple type of book report shown below: Remarks 1. Excellent—Good—Fair—Poor 2. Have you read this book before? 3. Would you like to read it again? 4. How long a time did you spend in reading it? 5. Best liked character or part? BN Scuola cs ea Ae GN wae Cae TER AS ween as On the back of this report the child writes just one sentence telling something about the book. The sentence must be meaningful. It cannot be ambiguous, as “I like The Adventures of Tom Sawyer because Tom has many adventures.” It must be specific, like that which one boy wrote, “I shivered with Tom and Huck when they were watching those men in the spooky old graveyard.” That is enough of a report. It is not a burden. In fact, such reporting is rather fun, for each little report is filed according to the name of the book in a small filing cabinet, and it appears to be the source of much enjoyment to file as many as possible in a six weeks’ period. As an aid to reporting books, each reading group in the grade has a special chart upon which the books read by each child are reported in some attractive, graphic way. During one six weeks’ period each group reported books about children of other lands. Two attractive charts were made. On one was the caption, “Looking into Other Lands.” Below the caption was a picture of a child looking out a window at the world spread out beneath her. For each book which a child had read, a copy of a little globe bearing the name of the book was pasted beside his name. When the children were reading Greek myths and legends, one chart bore the caption, “Let’s Find the Golden Fleece.” A large picture of the Argonaut was pasted on the chart. For each book read, a tiny “Argonaut” was pasted beside the child’s name. The children could easily see that enriching their lives with good literature was analagous to Jason’s winning the golden fleece. This was a little far-fetched, perhaps, but effective nevertheless. One must readily admit, too, that it was gratifying to the children to see obvious signs of accomplishment following their names. Ships and globes, or B.A.’s, M.A.’s, and Ph.D.’s—we all like them. Every six weeks the teacher returns the report slips to the children, and they paste these in booklets which they have made. The cover _— Cs en ak OU lCOUr.hlUCC Ce READING FOR APPRECIATION 351 of each booklet has been decorated, the decorations indicating what is contained in the booklet, that is, a record of the child’s reading for the year. The covers are displayed and a vote is taken as to which child,has the best. The winner is led in state to a chair placed at the front of the room. To him is presented a very inexpensive little print to paste in front of his booklet. Strange to say, it is not always the best natural artist who receives the prize. Originality is not confined to those who can draw. It is a psychological fact that doing something with a lesson aids in the retention of the material. So it is with children’s outside reading. For that reason, “about once in so often” (as Mrs. Ruggles of Birds’ Christmas Carol said), the teacher lets the children have an “At Home with Books” day. On this day the slogan is “Let me make you acquainted with. . . .” The children may at this time present their books in any way they choose—by dramatization, by oral review, by book riddles, by pantomime, by movie, by cartoon, by puppet show, by costume, by oral reading, by illustrations, or by music. The children may work in groups or singly, but each child must present in some way one book which he has particularly enjoyed. At this time each child has his book with him, so that it may be immediately secured by another child who desires it. This last point is important. The teacher learned long ago “to take the current when it serves.” Other- wise there is danger of neglect, and then one more child has failed to read a book that might have helped him to enjoy life more. Oral reading—The problem of oral reading for recreation is fre- quently one of stimulation. In order to create interest in oral reading, | especially in the intermediate grades, the type of story to be selected should receive consideration. An obvious plot with a simple yet colorful vocabulary should form the basis of selection. A dash of humor or nonsense is a happy factor. One such story is a selection from “Tom’s Trip to the Moon.” This story has another advantage in that it provides for oral interpretation of many character parts. The teacher should first read the story to the children. Then one child who is a good reader may be assigned the part of the “book.” Other children | may be given the parts of the different characters. The wise teacher will select the poorest readers for the characters who have the fewest | lines. In this way each child may take part without the feeling of inferiority which comes with poor reAding. Each child should study his part carefully before he reads it orally. This type of oral reading lesson has several advantages: (1) it stimulates attention because each child has to be “on his toes” in order 1Bangs, John K. ‘Tom's Trip to the Moon.” Whys and Wherefores. (William D. Lewis and Albert L. Rowland, editors.) New Silent Readers, Book V. Philadelphia: John C. Winston Co., 1930. P. 198-205. nr 352 ELEMENTARY ScHOOL PRINCIPALS to come in on time; (2) it gives many children a chance to read orally; (3) it presents an easy opportunity to correct poor interpretation because the participant is eager to do his part well; and (4) it gives the poorer reader satisfaction because there is not too much for, him to master. The act of appearing before an audience, which is an essential part of oral reading, should be kept as free from embarrassments as is possible. Not only the type of story, but also its difficulty, must be considered. A child who leaves the sixth grade ought to be able to read well a story aloud to the rest of the class. Obviously, however, some children will read more easily than others. For that reason the oral reader should be given a story within his ability to read easily before the group, and he should be placed with children of his own reading ability. A group of thirty children in a single grade will usually represent at least six grade-levels of ability in oral reading. Within her sixth grade of twenty-five pupils the writer has six ability groups, varying in size from two to seven pupils. At regular intervals each group prepares a story to read orally to the other groups. The difficulty of the books used varies from the second- to the sixth-grade level. In that way each group may present its story with pleasure both to its own members and to the audience. It is difficult, however, to find an “easy” book which also has stories interesting to sixth-grade children. Baldwin’s Fifty Famous Stories Retold? is an excellent book for that purpose. Reading aloud to children—In analyzing her impressions of her own elementary-school days, the writer realized that the books which the teachers had read to the children remained as the most poignant memories. Fortunately, those teachers chose books of real merit as well as of fascinating content. So the writer decided ten years ago that every year she would read aloud to the children at least eight books of recognized merit and of entertaining content. There is great personal satisfaction in knowing that it is your hand which has led children thru the labyrinth with Theseus; that it is your voice which has aroused a response to the poetry of great masters; that it is because of you that children can laugh with the Peterkins over their dilemmas, or scheme with Tom about the whitewashing, or thrill with Wendy as she flies out the window with Peter Pan, or suffer with Gretel as she waits shivering with cold and anxiety. Let’s give our children something to remember, something that is worthwhile to carry with them thru life, so that every child who looks to us for beauty and knowledge can find the way open thru one of the finest gateways in the world—the door of literature. 4 2 Baldwin, James. Fifty Famous Stories Retold. New York: American Book Co., 1928. 172 p READING FOR APPRECIATION 393 ly; ACTIVITIES FOR INCREASING CHILDREN’S ion APPRECIATION OF GOOD LITERATURE ve ; - MartHa WHELDEN Scort, Highth-Grade Teacher 5 and art Grace A. Grancer, Principal is Daniel Webster School, Indianapolis, Indiana be ; ; ia , to s A BASIS for stimulating and guiding the leisure reading of a “a group of eighth-grade children, an informal class discussion My of the children’s summer vacation activities was held at the ily beginning of the school year. A variety of activities were enthusiasti- in cally described, and only a few children reported that they had done lly nothing interesting. After this discussion, each child was asked to ee write the names of all the books or magazines which he had read dur- | ing his vacation. To encourage the preparation of accurate lists, the os her emphasized that these lists would not be graded. The infor es teacher emphasized that these lists would not be graded. The informa- Ity tion obtained was to be used only to help the teacher know what * material the children had read, what they enjoyed, and how much to reading they were doing on their own initiative. a Extent of summer reading—As shown in Table 1, it was found that de of the 48 children in the class, 3 had read ten books each but 13 had ok not read any. The median number of books read was two. Several boys stated that they had been so busy swimming that they hadn’t had _ TABLE 1—NumsBer or Books AND MaGaziInges READ BY EIGHTH-GRADE PUPILS he DURING THE SUMMER VACATION int as Books MAGAZINES 0 ee | ah Peer ry tee ; Number Read Number of Pupils Number Read Number of Pupils rht Reading Reading rat 02 ihe. (3) j (4) ed 10 3 10 ch 9 2 9 ise 8 2 8 0 7 7 7 0 rH 6 I 6 2 dy 5 I 5 1 as 4 4 4 1 3 3 3 6 2 6 2 7 18 1 6 1 4 to 0 13 0 25 he — $$$ Read table: Of the 48 pupils in the class, 3 read ten books each, 2 read nine books each, 2 read eight books, 7 read seven books, etc. Similarly read figures for magazines. 354 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS a _ - ~ —_ time to read. A few children who had not read books during the sum- mer were good students in school, but had no desire to read further, Only 48 percent of the class had read any magazines and many of those read were poorly chosen. The girls, in particular, had selected such magazines as True Confessions and True Story. Four pupils said they had read the magazine section of the Sunday newspaper. Almost two-thirds of the children had read the daily newspapers, but had enjoyed the comic sections rather than the news articles. Inspection of the lists of books and magazines read showed clearly that the children needed guidance in cultivating further appreciation and good taste in reading. How were these goals to be achieved? Literature appeared to be the field thru which the best results could be obtained. Character of the group—Of the 48 pupils in this eighth-grade class, 22 were boys and 26 were girls. Their I. Q.’s ranged from 64 to 129, with a median of 95. In chronological age the group varied from twelve years and two months to sixteen years and eight months, with a median of thirteen years and six months. The children’s parents belonged to the laboring class, and altho able to provide most of the necessities of life, they had had very limited education and were inadequately pre- pared to buy books for their children or to help them choose their reading matter wisely. In most cases the only books in the home were school books. Developing interest in reading—Three days after the discussion of the children’s summer reading, the librarian sent us an attractive honor roll on which were recorded the names of all children in the school who had read ten books during the summer. The eighth-grade boy and girl who had read ten books told the rest of the class about them and how much they had enjoyed reading them. This led to an interest- ing discussion of books which various members of the group liked to read. Several children suggested books which the entire class might enjoy and which could be procured at the library. Reading record cards—It was suggested that the pupils keep a ree- ord of everything they read voluntarily outside of school or in their free library period. The library period was fifty minutes in length one day a week. The children welcomed the idea so eagerly that each one was provided with a card, five by twelve inches, on which to keep his own record. The card was divided into four sections, namely, books, magazines, short stories, and poetry. The divisions were made so that a child who could not yet read many books would feel encour- aged when he had read several short stories and would also be stimu- lated to widen his range of reading. The class decided that the name OY READING FOR APPRECIATION 355 of a book and its author should be put on the card only when the entire book had been read. At that time also, a brief oral report to the class or a written review of the book would be given. The idea of having cards was to show each child how his reading could grow in range, in volume, and in keener appreciation of good literature. The children were not reading to see whether they could read more than their classmates, but to increase their reading and improve their own records. Cooperation with the library—The librarian and her assistants at the branch library near the school offered their hearty cooperation by providing lists of interesting books suitable for junior high-school pupils, arranging a special shelf where the children might secure books help- ful in their studies, and providing library cards for those who did not have them. The librarian also gave an excellent talk about new books at the junior high-school assembly, telling just enough of the exciting incidents to arouse the children’s interest. She offered to reserve the fifteen books she had mentioned until evening for these children, and it was gratifying to learn that every book was called for. That night Earl, a boy who had read nothing all summer, read The Golden Horseshoe, and came to school the next morning with it tucked under his coat, eager to tell about it. Because it was an Indian story, it had challenged his interest and marked the beginning of an enthu- siastic desire, on his part, to read more books. Roller Skates, the New- bery Award book, proved to be a great favorite among the girls, as did Bright Island and Row of Stars. Sharing books—The children were given opportunities to share their books with others by means of book talks in class. If a child had en- joyed his book a great deal, he would see if he could make it seem so attractive that no one in the class could afford to miss it. This often involved stopping in the midst of an exciting incident so that the other children would want to read the book and find out what happened. Visual aids—Book jackets, secured from various book publishers, proved a stimulus in increasing the children’s desire to read. On arriv- ing in class one morning, the pupils found book jackets, with intriguing titles and bright cheery colors, all along the top of the blackboard. Immediately questions and exclamations arose, such as, “Oh, I’d like to read that!” “Is Kidnapped in our library?” “Do you think I’d like Smoky?” “I know that must be exciting!” The pictures on the book jackets had helped the children visualize the characters so that they were eager to make their acquaintance and share adventures with them. Two large, attractive posters also provided friendly encourage- ment to read. ps 356 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS —. Slides depicting interesting scenes from David Copperfield—tuyy. nished by the visual education department—not only increased the children’s desire to read the book, but also created a desire to know other characters of Dickens. The children were also eager to learn more about early schools in England. Some large photographs of scenes in Treasure Island proved helpful in arousing the curiosity of several boys who hadn’t manifested much enthusiasm about reading books. Sometimes questions arose concerning the value of movies and whether a child who had seen the movie of a book would read it. The children unanimously agreed that they had enjoyed movies of some of their favorite books, but that this didn’t take the place of reading the books. In discussing the matter, they explained that often the movie version of a book left out some of the most amusing and exciting incidents, substituted happenings that didn’t take place in the book, and made the endings different from those in the original stories. They stated that when they saw the movie before reading the book, they usually became interested in the story and wanted to read the book so they would all know the incidents, as the movies always omitted those that would not film well. Widening reading horizons—During the first month the children were permitted to choose their reading matter freely, for the most important objective was to increase the amount of reading. At the end of that time, however, their reading records were checked to see how wide their range of reading had extended. Loren, for example, had read four books of adventures, including many pirate stories, but nothing else. Naomi had chosen three books about girls in boarding schools. Both had read books which were worthwhile, but they needed to broaden their reading horizons. The class decided that just as a person needs well-balanced food to keep him physically healthy, he should have carefully balanced reading to keep him mentally alert and interested in many activities. Book menus—Menus of the three best Sunday dinners the children had ever eaten were placed on the blackboard, and a lively discussion of foods which they especially liked ensued. Beside the items on these menus, the children tried to arrange books which could be substituted for various parts of the meal. Immediately it was observed that 4 number of the books read would do very well for dessert, but would hardly be nourishing enough to grow on. Soon the children realized that they didn’t know enough different kinds of books to make well- balanced book menus. Accordingly, library booklists, reading lists pub- lished by the National Council of Teachers of English, book advertise- ments, and the local library were investigated thoroly in an effort to — 80 th of arn nes eral KS. and The yme ling vie ‘ing 0k, hey hey ook ted ren 10st the see had ing ols. den eds ave ted ren i0n ese ted t a uld zed ell- ub- ise- , to READING FOR APPRECIATION 357 find suitable and interesting books. The pupils now had a purposeful desire to read many kinds of books. By this time, every child wanted to make a book menu of his own. Pieces of bright-colored construction paper served as menu covers, and many of these were decorated in attractive designs. Alice cut her menu card in the shape of a key, and each book listed was represented by a smaller key. Dick shaped his menu like an old-fashioned fishing schooner because he liked sea stories. For dessert, he had chosen sev- eral of John Masefield’s sea poems. Most members of the class showed originality in developing their menus, and of their own accord they decided to have at least one good book meal during the semester. Menus such as the following were made by the pupils: JOHN’S MENU Lad, a Dog—Terhune Smoky—Will James Men of Iron—Pyle Lance of Kenana—French Tom Sawyer—Mark Twain Sea Fever—John Masefield ROSELLA’S MENU Merrylips—Dix When Patty Went to College—Webster Roller Skates—Sawyer Invincible Lowisa—Meigs Jacqueline of the Carrier Pigeons—Seaman Stars Tonight—Teasdale Each child was eager for approval of his book menu, and was thus guided to books which he could enjoy profitably. When a very poor reader chose a book beyond his reading ability, he was given an op- portunity to substitute something less difficult yet equally desirable. Making book characters—Since the children had heard a number of books reviewed by their classmates and had read many themselves, someone suggested that book characters might be made, doing some- thing characteristic of their parts in the books, and that members of the class could guess who these characters were. The children seized the suggestion with enthusiasm, and the very next morning a clever “Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm” appeared hanging over the bridge. The bridge was made of cardboard and so was Rebecca, but she had adress of bright calico and her face was realistically drawn. A flap at the back of the picture made it stand alone. Everyone in the class recognized Rebecca and could tell the incident represented. Within a week there was a collection of characters ranging from the fiercest of pirates to old Rip Van Winkle. Children thruout the building were interested in the exhibit, and it served as a real stimulus to further appreciation and good taste in reading. 358 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS — Book Week assembly—As Book Week was drawing near, it occurred to the pupils that it would be fun to give a program for assembly, They planned to write their own play and to dramatize book incidents which they had enjoyed. Immediately committees were appointed to write the script, secure costumes, make stage settings, and dramatize the scenes. The purpose of the play was to show other children in the school how much pleasure they could have if they would read good books, The opening of the play showed John and Susan sitting down to a delicious dinner. Just as they started to eat, two starved and ragged children knocked at the door. The latter looked so pitiful that John and Susan felt sorry for them and offered to share their dinner with them. The dinner consisted of delightful, entertaining, and very inter- esting books dramatized by other members of the class. As the poor children began to eat they became happier and better nourished, and as the dessert was finished they were laughing heartily over the esca- pades of Tom Sawyer. The play not only helped other children to appreciate better literature, but stimulated the pupils taking part to read more and better books: Conclusion—It seems reasonable to conelude from this experience that if children are taken as they are and provided with opportunities for growth, they will develop beyond the ordinary expectations of teacher and principal. During the ten weeks in which this activity in cultivating further appreciation and good taste in reading was ecar- ried on, the children more than doubled the amount of their reading, raised immeasurably their taste for worthwhile literature, and devel- oped a far keener appreciation of books read. If given continued op- portunities for growth thru books, these pupils will gradually accumu- late a store of literary treasure from which they can draw with pleasure and profit thruout their lives. se the index at the back of this yearbook as a guide to topics or authors in which you are especially interested.— Editorial Committee. "ed ly, its READING FOR APPRECIATION 359 A SEVENTH-GRADE READING CLUB KenNeEtTH FE. VAYETTE Principal, Reservoir Heights School, Peoria, Illinois seventh grade, a reading club was organized in this school under the leadership of the seventh-grade teacher. This club was in- tended primarily to stimulate the children to read for recreational en- joyment, and secondarily to increase the quality as well as the amount of material read. The plan adopted was very simple, and altho the program for each meeting was worked out a week or two in advance, no comprehensive program for the entire year was made. As the club idea was frankly experimental, it was permitted to develop in its most natural way. The following brief description of the project may be helpful to others who wish to undertake a similar activity. Needless to say, the suggestions offered may and should be changed when neces- sary to suit different grade levels and different local conditions. Ability and background of the group—The twenty-five children in this seventh grade were of approximately average intelligence. The homes from which they came were slightly below average in economic status, and were almost entirely devoid of good reading materials. Not a single child had access to a standard encyclopedia of recognized value for children. Magazines in the home were largely of the popular, non-harmful, five- and ten-cent variety, with a few questionable pub- lications of the pulp type. Altho the school is part of a large city system, it is located on the outskirts and at a considerable distance from both the main public library and the nearest branch library. The teachers have done what they could to build up a school library, but limited means have made this a slow process. Fortunately, the public library has a generous policy of supplying to teachers and to school libraries, books which may be exchanged as frequently as desired. This has been the principal source of the school’s reading material. Starting the club—FEarly in the fall the teacher discussed with the class the desirability of engaging in some special activity that would increase their interest in reading more and better books. This discus- sion was an outgrowth of class consideration of the importance of reading, and of teacher-pupil conferences concerning the results of the reading tests given at the beginning of the year. The children sug- gested that a reading club would contribute to the improvement of their reading as well as to their enjoyment. Consequently, the organ- ization was established, officers elected, a few simple regulations adopted, meeting dates selected, and program committees appointed. T: CREATE A GREATER INTEREST IN READING among pupils of the 360 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS The club met for an hour after the close of school on each alternate Wednesday afternoon.’ Membership was open to every pupil of the seventh grade who was interested and who attended regularly. There were no dues, and the meetings were made so attractive by means of interesting programs and a variety of activities that no pupil could afford to miss them. Specific aims and activities—The purposes of the teacher as she helped to organize and guide the club were (1) to stimulate a desire to read, (2) to acquaint the children with new and interesting books, (3) to create in the children a desire to read books unfamiliar to them, (4) to make good books available to the children, (5) to help them plan their time for reading both in and out of school, and (6) to raise the level of quality of the material read. To accomplish the last of these purposes, a list of acceptable books was compiled from the titles of reading-circle books, from various other recommended lists, and from suggestions offered by the children’s librarian of the public library. The activities reviewed below were among those developed for the club programs. Not all of them were used at every meeting, or even at any one meeting. On the other hand, ideas that were particularly appealing to the children were used again and again, sometimes with variations. Some new ideas were added each time. An element of sus- pense was introduced in regard to the content of the next program; consequently, each meeting was anticipated with considerable interest and even excitement. Roll call—Each child may respond to his name by giving the name and author of a book read recently, one he is reading at the present time, or a favorite book. Or, each child may respond with a thumb-nail sketch of a book or character from a book, while the others try to guess the name of the book or character. Papers may be corrected later, and members having the largest number of right answers may be given acknowledgment. Book briefs—A very short description of a book or story may be given by each member or by a few selected members. Time should be limited to one, two, or three minutes, or to a certain number of sentences. Book reviews—A five- to eight-minute review of a well-liked book may be given by one or two members. Such a review may contain a short explanation of the type of story, something about the author, a description of the most important characters, and a recounting of one or two incidents of the story. Interest in a book, and eagerness to read it, may often be obtained by stopping the review when the climax of an exciting incident is reached, and suggesting that others read the book to discover the outcome. Audience reading—Pupils who are excellent oral readers may read short selec- tions of their own choosing, or of the teacher’s choosing, from worthwhile books, the purpose being to stimulate other children to read the books. Also, selections too difficult for reading by all, but pertinent to a subject under discussion, may be read orally by a good reader. 1 Some teachers and principals would find it impossible or unwise to hold such meetings after school hours. In many schools it might be preferable to use the regular literature period occa- sionally for activities of this kind.—Editorial Committee. i oe et m= an _—S READING FOR APPRECIATION 361 —— Dramatizations—Putting into dramatic form the words and action of an appro- priate story is a worthwhile device for stimulating interest and creating a desire to read. Such dramatizations may be carefully worked out and considerable time spent in perfecting the acting for a public performance, or much less time may be spent and the results presented informally. Even impromptu dramatizations can be used to advantage. With several committees each working on a separate story, the children not working on a given story may try to guess the book from which it is taken. Original writing—Poems, essays, short stories, and other types of composition may be written by members of the club, and suitable selections from these may be read before the group. A scrapbook of original poetry or other original material might be assembled to represent the year’s creative work. Reading charts—Individual charts or one common chart may be made, with the names of books read after each member’s name. A spirit of competition might be encouraged by giving special recognition to those reading the largest number of books within a given period of time. Such a chart might be made in graph form, or a symbol, such as a star, placed on the chart for each book read. Posters—Parts of some meetings may be devoted to the making of book posters in order to encourage reading in general or the reading of some particular book. Booklists limited to special interests, such as aviation books, dog stories, mystery stories, and so forth, may be made in poster form. Posters are most useful in the school library and for display during National Book Week. Often public libraries or other public places are glad to display attractive work of this kind, and the children thus feel that their efforts are given recognition. The materials needed are scissors, paste, construction paper, and illustrations from various printed sources or original drawings. The children will furnish the ingenuity and originality. Illustrations—Twenty minutes or a half hour at one or more meetings might be devoted to illustrating well-liked poems or stories. Either original drawings, or pictures obtained from magazines and other sources. may be mounted on writing paper with the selection written carefully on the same sheet. Great interest may be obtained in striving for neat, well-balanced, and attractive pages. These make showy displays, and may be fastened together in individual bookiets or in a club booklet for the school library. Booklets on special subjects, such as, “Children’s Costumes in Foreign Countries,” “A History of Land Transportation,” or “A Book of Sports,” could be made and presented to the school library. Such booklets might be valuable for reference work, and could be made so that additional pages could be added at any time. Games—There are many games which may be played at any meeting of a read- ing club, and a certain value may be found in allowing the children to make up their own games. Guessing contests are always popular and all may take part in them. A book title may be given and the author must be named, or an author is named and a book by him must be given. A character is described; his name must then be given and perhaps the book in which he appears, as well as the author. Hidden titles may be worked into a little running story; all the titles must be recognized and picked out. Jigsaw puzzles may be made from book covers, and club time spent in exchanging them and putting them together. These are only a few stiggestions for games. Assemblies—A book assembly program for National Book Week or any other time may be planned by the reading club. Admission may be charged for the purpose of raising money to buy new books or to subscribe to magazines. Some of the foregoing suggestions might be used for the program. In addition, a series of tableaux, or framed living pictures illustrating different books, might be intro- — duced. The “family album” idea might be used, wherein one character explains to another or to the audience his favorite books and tells something about each. As he does so, he turns the pages and a new living picture appears in the book or picture frame each time. 362 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Conclusion—The effectiveness of this type of club program is shown in part by the progress in reading ability of the seventh-grade class in which it was tried. At the beginning of the school year, the median reading grade of the group was 7.4. After eight months of school, the median was 9.0, indicating a gain of sixteen school months during the year. These scores were obtained by means of the reading section of the New Stanford Achievement Test? for- Grades IV-IX, including tests of sentence and paragraph comprehension as well as of word recog- nition. Not all of the gain ean be attributed to the reading club, because regular instruction in reading was being stressed thruout the school. The writer is convinced, however, that the club was an important factor in the unusual progress made by this seventh-grade class. In addition, members of the club obviously improved with respect to both the quantity and quality of their recreational reading. 2 Published by the World Book Co., Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York. y yraey who guide children’s reading experiences must realize that proof of developing interests and tastes does not lie in any external evidence that the reading has been done. Growth in appreciation cannot be numerically recorded. The evidence of developing interests and tastes is inherent in the satisfac- tions arising within the individual when he finds in books that which recalls, refines, reveals, or reaffirms ideas or feelings that seem to him to be valuable.—Betzner, Jean, and Lyman, R. L., in The Teaching of Reading: A Second Report, Thirty-Sixth Yearbook, Part I, National Society for the Study of Education, 1937, Chapter 6, p. 205. (Quoted by permission of the Society.) Se i } b t SD PRET PRT eT i a aud READING FOR APPRECIATION THE ART OF CHORAL SPEAKING LovisE ABNEY Head of Speech Department and Director of Speech Improvement, Teachers College of Kansas City, Kansas City, Missouri ORE AND MORE FREQUENTLY, in connection with the study and enjoyment of literature, speech, music, reading, and extracur- ricular activities of camp and community, the term “choral speaking” is heard. Sometimes it is called verse speaking or choric speech, but regardless of terminology, the nature of the activity re- mains the same. Choral speaking is the interpretation of poetry or poetic prose by several or many voices speaking as one. It is bringing words to life—giving written symbols a new vitality thru adequate oral expression. Harry Overstreet, in his A Guide to Civilized Leisure, has this to say about the art of choral speaking: The enjoyment of poetry is rare among us. Perhaps it is because most of us do not know how to read poetry together. It can be done, however, and in ways that add greatly to the beauty and the power of what is read. Most of us, so far as poetry is concerned, are exclusively eye-minded. This is unfortunate, for poetry, being essentially for the ear, loses much of its power and fascination when it is not read aloud. The minstrel poet has disappeared, and in his place has come the silent and unimpressive printed page. There are ways, however, of making poetry come alive. One of the most inter- esting and effective of these is the so-called “verse choir.” .. . A great poem is a record of a great experience. When it is expressively read aloud by a group of people who have given it the very best of their intelligent under- standing, the effect is singularly beautiful. I have heard poems rendered in this way and have been gripped by their loveliness and power as I have not been by mere eye-reading. It is obvious why this should be so. The more senses we lend to an experience, the more vivid and rich it becomes. . . . It is so with poetry. When we lend it eye, ear, and voice, we make it yield a fullness of reality that is rare and un- forgettable.’ As an organized vocal activity, choral speaking may be traced back to the early Greek drama of 500 8. c. The Psalms of the Old Testa- ment must likewise have known a form of choral response, of which our presentday responsive reading in the church ritual is too often only a lifeless remnant. Today, the Passion Play of Oberammergau per- petuates the choral response of ancient days by using both a speaking chorus and a singing chorus. Choral speaking is widely used in Europe and in the British Isles, where it is sponsored by John Masefield, poet laureate of England. In America, we are just beginning to recognize its tremendous possibilities in the teaching of literature, oral reading, and speech. 1 Overstreet, Harry A. A Guide to Civilized Leisure. New York: W. W. Norton and Co., 1934. p. 49-51. 364 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS EDUCATIONAL VALUES In discussing the educational values of choral speaking, let us see how it is contributing to the enjoyment and appreciation of literature, to improved oral reading, to personality and character growth, and to better speech. Greater appreciation and enjoyment of poetry—For a long time, teachers of literature have been seeking motivation for the study of poetry. Such motivation has been found in this newly revived but ancient art of choral speaking. To quote one upper-grade teacher: Our course of study in both reading and language calls for much reading of poetry. For years I have tried sincerely but unsuccessfully to interest all of the children in poetry. My present class, inferior in many respects to several previous ones, has actually become enthusiastic. They have collected and arranged more than one hundred different poems for choral choir work. This is entirely voluntary work and is done at odd times, my one requirement being that it be done in ink. This means additional penmanship. Because verse-speaking has called attention to better pronunciation and inter- pretation, real effort along these lines has marked the individual presentations. One Italian boy, a school problem of years’ standing, says he has “come to like the swing of all poems,” while I had never thought him capable of any appre- ciation. The choir has contributed infinitely to vocabulary building thru our discussions ,; of poems and the reasons for selecting them; to better speech, thru our attention to vowel sounds, consonants, accent, and resonance; to music, from the points of view of rhythm, diction, and tone; to reading—whether in literature, history, or geography; and to discipline, since membership in the choir is an acknowledged privilege. Other classroom teachers are echoing, and adding to, these remarks. Furthermore, from the boys and girls themselves are coming expres- sions such as these: “It helps us find the rhythm in poetry.” “We learn to appreciate poetry more when we speak it together.” “It improves our language, our reading, and our spelling.” “It teaches the beauty of poetry—thoughts and words.” “It gives me an inside feeling of happiness.” Improved oral reading—The good oral reader has clear enunciation and accurate pronunciation; he interprets intelligently by bringing out the thought relationships with adequate emphasis; he has a sympathetic regard for his audience, reading loudly enough to be easily heard and distinctly enough to be easily understood; he brings out the rhythm of poetry; he adjusts his voice to changes of character or mood in what he reads; he has confidence in himself. These criteria are im- portant factors in choral speaking, in which interpreting the author’s thought and expressing it effectively in beautiful speech, with appro- priate rhythm and emphasis, are basic points of procedure. Thought mastery has done much to improve the too short eye-span and in- effective pausing which characterizes much of our oral reading. Sens- bi 4 ela FE e READING FOR APPRECIATION 365 ing the rhythm has corrected sing-song or jerky grouping of words. The meager vocabulary and lack of interest which have too often lowered the child’s comprehension score are enriched and stimulated by the vital interpretation of literature thru chorie speech. Personality and character development—Not every child who has “an inside feeling of happiness” has been able to let that inner expe- rience out. Sometimes timidity, self-consciousness, and other forms of social maladjustment prevent this expression. Choral speaking gives an opportunity for group participation to the retiring child who would never dare to speak alone, thus affording him self-expression without self-consciousness. Character and citizenship values are evident in the following com- ments of children regarding choral speaking: “Everybody can have an equal chance in choral speaking.” “We’ve had fun sharing thoughts, and getting the other fellow’s point of view.” “It develops leadership as well as cooperation.” “It has made me recognize good work in others.” “Tt gives happiness to us and others who like it.” Better speech—The essentials of tone production and pronunciation must be taught if choral speaking is to be effective. Careless word endings, muffled vowels, indistinct consonants, incorrect accent, the omission of requisite sounds, monotonous inflection, insufficient or ex- cessive volume—all of these speech faults must yield to the ‘vocal discipline of verse speaking. And, with intelligent guidance from the teacher, they yield graciously and gracefully because the child’s inter- est is aroused. He will do for the verse-speaking choir what he never would willingly do merely for the sake of having better speech. A feeling of need has been created. A Few TECHNICAL SUGGESTIONS ? Things to do—While it is obviously impossible to discuss adequately in an article of this length the technics of arranging material, voicing the class, and directing the choir, these pointers should prove helpful: 1. Choose the right poems—poems adapted to the literary appreciation of the group, emotionally as well as mentally. . 2. Voice your choir according to pitch (soprano, second soprano, alto) or timbre (“light,” “dark”). 3. Know your poem. Whether you are reading it from the printed page or from memory, be familiar with the content of the poem. 4. Know the rhythm and sound patterns of the poem. 2 Further information on technics and materials for choral speaking may be found in the following books, published by the Expression Company, 16 Harcourt Street, Boston: DeWitt, M. E., and others, Practical Methods in Choral Speaking ($2.00). {| Swann, Mona, An Approach to Choral Speech ($1.10). { Gullan, Marjorie, Choral Speaking ($1.50). | Abney, Louise, and Rowe, Grace, Choral Speaking Arrangements for the Lower Grades ($1.00). | Abney, Louise, Choral Speaking Arrangements for the Upper Grades ($1.00). 366 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 5. Read the poem aloud to the class with sincerity and inspiration. You must have sincerity, enthusiasm, vitality, and intelligence in your own presentation if you hope to inspire others. 6. Afford a correct example in your speech. A correct example is often more valuable than a corrective method. Check your vowels, consonants, and diph- thongs. If you are in doubt, speech books will guide you. 7. Clarify the meaning of the poem thru explanation of unknown words, phrases, dialect, or other unfamiliar references. A hyperintellectual analysis is not desirable, but thought mastery is essential to interpretation. 8. Read the poem a second time, or invite a student to read it. 9. Arrange the poem for choral speaking thru group participation. 10. Let the group try various suggested arrangements with attention to thought mastery, correct rhythm, pure tone, and good diction. 11. Select the solo parts, if any, by tryout and class judgment. 12. Keep the voices light. Volume can be increased when necessary, but the tones must never be forced. 13. Memorization becomes spontaneous thru actual participation in verse speaking. Things to avoid—lt is quite as important, also, to observe the fol- lowing precautions: 1. Avoid cheap, elocutionary material. 2. Avoid material beyond the pupils’ powers of appreciation and enjoyment. 3. Do not exploit your directing ability. Great directing consists in bringing out the latent possibilities of the choir and guiding those abilities toward a satisfying end. Remain as inconspicuous as possible. Often it is possible to turn the choir over to a student leader without disturbing either the security or the artistry of the choir. 4. Avoid sing-song patterns and broken thoughts which result in jerky grouping or phrasing. 5. Avoid emphasizing tone volume at the expense of good quality. 6. Avoid choosing “star” pupils for all solo parts. Such pupils need the training least, and leadership is frequently developed by giving the average child ample opportunity to grow. 7. Avoid using the choir simply as a “show” device. If it becomes merely ex- hibitionary in its aim, it has no place in a democratic educational program. 8. Avoid mechanical direction which results in mechanical interpretation, clipped vowels, and over-long pauses. CoNCLUSION Choral speaking has been used effectively in the Kansas City public schools by class groups from kindergarten thru college. Its classroom value in the appreciation and enjoyment of poetry, and its construc- tive contribution to better speech and better reading, far surpass its auditorium value. On the other hand, the bringing together of many groups of boys and girls in a great cooperative experience has brought much inspiration to both participants and audience, especially at the Christmas and Easter seasons. “I hear America singing” is coming true in the music of speech as well as in that of song. ~I 17. 18. 19. 20. READING FOR APPRECIATION 367 SELECTED REFERENCES See also the references listed at the end of Chapters VII and VIII. . Betzner, JEAN, and Lyman, R. L. “The Development of Reading Interests and Tastes.” The Teaching of Reading: A Second Report. Thirty-Sixth Yearbook, Part I, National Society for the Study of Education. Bloom- ington, Ill.: Public School Publishing Co., 1937. p. 185-205. . BroeNiNG, ANGELA M. Developing Appreciation Through Teaching Litera- ture. Studies in Education, No. 13. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, 1929. 118 p. . CALIFoRNTA CurricuLuM Commission. Teachers’ Guide to Child Development in the Intermediate Grades. Sacramento: California State Department of Education, 1936. Chapter 17, “Recreatory Reading.” . Daveuiescu, Auice. First Experiences with Literature. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1932. 162 p. . Darsy, O. N. “An Experiment in Teaching Oral Reading.” Journal of the National Education Association 24: 11-12; January 1935. . Durry, Gertrupe B., and Durrett, Donato D. “Third Grade Difficulties in Oral Reading.” Education 56: 37-40; September 1935. . FrrepMan, Koppte C., and Nemzex, Ciaupe L. “A Survey of Reading Interest Studies.” Education 57: 51-56; September 1936. . Hocxetr, Joun A. “Reading Interests of Z-Section Pupils.” Elementary School Journal 36: 26-34; September 1935. _ Huser, Mmtam B. The Influence of Intelligence upon Children’s Reading Interests. Contributions to Education, No. 312. New York: Teachers Col- lege, Columbia University, 1928. 39 p. . Jepson, Row.anp W. Ezercises in Interpretation. New York: Longmans, Green and Co., 1937. 192 p. . Jounson, B. Lamar. “Children’s Reading Interests as Related to Sex and Grade in School.” School Review 40: 257-72; April 1932. . Jorvan, Artuur M. Children’s Interests in Reading. Rev. ed. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1926. 103 p. . Lazar, May. Reading Interests, Activities, and Opportunities of Bright, Aver- age, and Dull Children. Contributions to Education, No. 707. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1937. 127 p. . MacLatcuy, Joserutne H., and Beavers, Etuen B. “Reading for Enjoyment in the Sixth Grade.” Educational Research Bulletin (Ohio State Uni- versity) 14: 38-44; February 13, 1935. . McKer, Pavuv. Reading and Literature in the Elementary School. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1934. Chapters 13 and 14. . NaTionaAL Councit or TEACHERS OF ENGLISH, COMMITTEE ON RECREATIONAL READING FOR ELEMENTARY ScuHoois. Reading for Fun. Chicago: the Council (211 W. 68th St.), 1937. 104 p. PENNELL, Mary E., and Cusack, Atice M. The Teaching of Reading for Better Living. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1935. Chapter 5, “How Can We Help Children Develop Tastes for Leisure Through Reading?” Seecers, Joun C. “A Study of Children’s Reading.” Elementary English Re- view 13: 251-54; November 1936. TROXELL, ELeanor. Language and Literature in the Kindergarten and Primary Grades. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1927. 264 p. Weekes, Biancue FE. Literature and the Child. New York: Silver, Burdett and Co., 1935. 456 p. CHAPTER V STUDY READING IN THE CONTENT FIELDS EDITORIAL COMMENT in the intermediate grades. The first is that reading needs no special teaching—that adequate growth in habits and skills will result from participation in a wide range of reading activities in which guidance is only incidental. The second is that reading needs no teach- ing in a specialized reading period—that reading skills can best be developed by using them systematically as the need arises in the vari- ous fields of the curriculum. The third viewpoint asserts that because reading habits are far from mature in the middle grades, a broad pro- gram of training should be followed, including specialized reading periods as well as systematic use of reading skills in other subjects. The four articles in this chapter represent a working out, in an ex- perimental elementary school, of the second viewpoint, namely, that work-type reading in the intermediate grades should be taught only as a tool in solving the problems of other subjects. Gordon tells how the third-grade children used study skills in a science lesson. Benzler de- scribes the teaching of reading in connection with a social studies problem in the fourth grade. Curtis contributes a similar discussion of procedures in a fifth-grade geography unit. MacDonald reviews the reading methods and materials used to solve a hygiene problem in the sixth grade. Whether this is the best plan for giving children practise in the study skills may be a question, but at least it is very effective, as judged by the test scores and the interest of the children with whom it has been used. Standardized reading tests (Gates, Sangren-Woody, and revised Stanford) each year show median reading grade-equivalents which are two or three years above the actual grade levels of these children. The sixth grade recently had a median reading ability above the eighth- grade median for the state in which the school is located, as measured by the Jowa Every-Pupil Tests of Basic Skills. The plan is also a time- saver, since the time ordinarily given to special practise in reading may be added to the usual study time for subjectmatter units. Recreational reading, however, has a separate time allotment. A variety of references on work-type reading are suggested on page 386.—Editorial Committee. Te ARE three current viewpoints in regard to teaching reading [ 368 } ba ll ae I \ew Strupy READING IN CONTENT FIELDS 369 WORK-TYPE READING IN THIRD-GRADE SCIENCE DororHy GorDon Third-Grade Teacher, University Elementary School, State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa NE OF THE THIRD-GRADE SCIENCE UNITS in this school is the study of snakes and their value to man. At the beginning of this unit, the children raise problems about the kinds of snakes, their value, their habits, their offspring, and foolish beliefs or misconceptions which people have in regard to snakes. Following are the specific questions which one third-grade class asked with reference to the young of snakes: . How are snakes born? . How many babies does a mother snake have? Does the mother take care of the babies? . What do the baby snakes eat? . Can they crawl soon after birth? . When are they born? Poorkwne Preparing suitable reading material—As there is very little material available on this subject for third-graders to read, the following information was prepared by the teacher and mimeographed: BABY SNAKES Snakelings Have you ever seen a mother gartersnake with her babies? How many little snakes did she have? The mother gartersnake may have from ten to seventy-five or more babies in one family or brood. She does not lay eggs. She carries the little snakes inside her body. After they are born, the babies must get their own food, which may be earthworms or insects. The mother gartersnake stays with her young during the fall to protect them. Baby rattlesnakes also are born alive. They are dangerous from the moment they are born, because they have poison fangs. A rattlesnake may have from six to ten babies in one brood. Not all snakes are born alive as the rattlesnake and gartersnake. Some come from eggs laid by the mother snake. About one-half of the many kinds of snakes found in Iowa are hatched from eggs. The milk snake, blue racer, fox snake, and green snake are some of the kinds which lay eggs. Not all snakes lay the same number of eggs. Milk snakes lay from six to ten eggs. The blue racer lays from twelve to twenty-four eggs. Snakes usually have one brood or family a year. The mother snake lays her eggs in a bunch or cluster. She usually hides them in loose earth. decaying wood, straw piles, or under stones or bark. In color, the eggs are a dirty white. The largest eggs are about two inches long. However, after they are laid they often get larger. Some eggs stretch as much as one-third in size before they hatch. Altho the shell is tough it is also elastic so that it can stretch. After the mother snake lays her eggs she leaves them and does not return to care for them. From four to eight weeks after the eggs are laid, the baby snakes hatch. This usually happens in summer or early fall. The little snakes or snakelings, as they 370 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS ———=» are called, crawl as soon as they are born. They are able to get their own food and take care of themselves. It is obvious that the data for such material must be gathered from authentic sources, and that the finished article must be passed upon by someone with a background in science before it is mimeographed for use by children. In order that they might be used many times, and to add to their attractiveness, the mimeographed sheets were put into decorated paper covers. The group of children with superior reading ability did not study these sheets, but were given special advanced references and a children’s encyclopedia to use in getting information and illustrations pertaining to the questions. The other two groups, of middle and inferior reading ability, worked with the teacher in obtaining data from the mimeographed material. Outlining the material read—The writer has found that material of this kind is much better understood, and that more information is remembered and contributed during the discussion period, if the article is outlined by the children with the assistance of the teacher. In this particular case, everyone read the first paragraph, told what it was about, and suggested what he thought would be a good topic for the first point in the outline. Then each child again read the first paragraph and chose at least one important fact which it told about baby garter- snakes. These steps were repeated until all facts in each paragraph had been given. In this way there was constant review and rereading— just what this group needed—but always with a purpose. The resulting outline follows: I. Baby gartersnakes A. Ten to seventy-five or more babies B. Born alive C. Get their own food 1. Earthworms 2. Insects D. Mother protects them during the fall. II. Baby rattlesnakes A. Born alive B. Dangerous from birth C. Six to ten babies in a brood. III. Some snakes lay eggs A. One-half of the kinds of Iowa snakes B. Kinds of snakes 1. Milk snake 2. Blue racer 3. Fox snake 4. Green snake. IV. Number of eggs laid A. Milk snakes—six to ten eggs B. Blue racer—twelve to twenty-four eggs. we Stupy READING IN CoNTENT FIELDS 371 V. The eggs A. One brood a year B. Mother hides the eggs 1. In loose earth 2. In decaying wood 3. In straw piles 4. Under stones or bark C. Color—dirty white D. Size—largest are two inches long E. Often get larger 1. May stretch one-third 2. Shell is elastic. VI. Care of the eggs A. Mother leaves them B. She does not return. VII. Snakelings from eggs A. Hatch four to eight weeks after the eggs are laid B. Hatch in summer or early fall C. Snakelings can crawl at once D. Get their own food E. Take care of themselves. Conclusion—In learning this science lesson, the following reading skills and abilities were developed or reviewed: general comprehension, organization of material read (as in choosing the main and subordinate topics for the outline), knowledge of vocabulary (brood, snakeling, elastic), and ability to remember and report facts to the rest of the class. This method in our third grade has proved most effective as a means of developing and reviewing these skills in work-type reading. It has the important advantage of increasing interest, because each child sees a real purpose in the reading which he does. T is a common occurrence to find children unable to solve | problems because they are unable to understand the printed form in which they are presented . . . Children should be ex- pected to get the facts in the selection clearly, organize these in their own minds, and reproduce them in some form.—Harris, Julia M., and others, Supervision and Teaching of Reading, Johnson Publishing Co., 1927, p. 324. (Quoted by permission of the publishers.) 372 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS MAKING READING FUNCTIONAL IN THE SOCIAL STUDIES EvELYN BENZLER Fourth-Grade Teacher, University Elementary School, Iowa City, lowa NE OF THE UNITS taught in the fourth grade of the University Elementary School is entitled, “Where Do We Get Our Foods?” The subordinate problem, “Where do we get our supply of corn?” is often among the first ones studied. Since most of the reference material to be used is new to the children, and since some of the skills needed are either entirely new or new in this particular situation, a great deal of time is spent in teaching and using the reading skills needed to solve this problem. Questions raised by children—The children as a group make a list of the questions they feel they need to answer in studying this problem. Following are some of the more important questions asked by one group: A. Where do we get our supply of corn and why is corn an important crop in the United States? . What conditions are needed to grow corn? . What parts of our country have these conditions? . Which states raise the most corn? . How much corn do we raise? . How important is our corn crop? . How much of our corn crop is fed to animals? . What other uses are there for corn? . How are different parts of the corn plant used? . How does the United States compare with other countries in corn pro- duction? SCaAnNOQurwn-— These questions are written on the board and the children refer to them as they study, trying to find material which answers the questions, and learning to recognize the answer to a question when it is found. Use of topic headings—Much of the material used in connection with this problem contains topic or paragraph headings. One reading lesson may be spent on teaching the children to read a section and then summarize the important points under each topic heading. One such heading may be “Harvesting Corn.” The children can learn to turn these into questions, such as “How is corn harvested?” and then answer the questions according to what they have read in that section. After doing this with several paragraphs the children may read references independently, using the same method of study. Along with this “study-test” method, they can also use about five minutes at the end of a study period to summarize to themselves the various points they have found in answer to the questions under the main problem. = Strupy ReapING IN CoNTENT FIELDS 373 The children also learn to use topic headings to help them decide what part to read when they are looking for the answer to a particular question. One of the textbooks used has three main headings: (1) Where Corn Is Grown; (2) Planting, Harvesting, and Husking; and (3) How Corn Is Used. The children decide under which of these headings to look to find the answer to each of the nine questions listed above. Vocabulary growth—The study of any new topic always means the enlargement of vocabulary. In many texts new words are written in italics. Children soon learn to watch for these, and try to get their meanings from explanations and from the context. Frequently words or phrases pertinent to a new topic are listed on the board, and their meaning and use are discussed. Whenever new words or phrases first appear, they are explained and the children are encouraged to use them in their discussions. Some new words and phrases used in the unit on corn are: growing season, annual rainfall, cultivate, harvest, fodder, crop belt, and annual production. Organization of facts—One type of outlining lesson which is taught in connection with this unit is that on the uses of corn. After study, the children thru discussion reach the conclusion that the uses of corn may be listed under three headings: (1) uses on the farm, (2) uses as food for people, and (3) other uses. They also bring out the idea that many different parts of the corn plant are used. A semi-filled outline is put on the board, using the above three headings as I, II, and III, and the parts of the plant as A, B, and C. Then, when the children have read references on the uses of corn, they put down these various uses as Arabic-numbered subtopics. Thus, they learn both the outline form and the uses of corn in an organized way. Doing this demands more accurate reading. Use of maps and graphs—There are many media thru which the children need to find information, and which are quite new to them as they begin this unit. These include the various kinds of maps, such as rainfall, growing-season, crop, and natural-region maps; graphs; tables; other reference materials in the back of geography books; and yearbooks, such as the World Almanac. Children should not be expected to read material of this kind without being taught how to read it, any more than they should be expected to spell words or solve problems in long division without adequate teaching. Like most reading skills, the use of such materials can be taught more effectively when the children are really trying to find information they need. In reading a map, the children should form the habit of always reading the title and the key before trying to 374 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS oS interpret the map itself. The following are some questions which help the children to get correct ideas from a rainfall map:! 1. How much rainfall does Wisconsin get in a year? 2. How much rainfall does the section marked with dots get? 3. Altho both eastern Nebraska and central Illinois are marked as getting from twenty to forty inches of rainfall, would you expect the rainfall in these two areas to be the same? Explain. 4. Find a sentence on page 55 which explains why the twenty-inch-rainfall line is given special marking. 5. About how much rainfall would you expect to find just west of the twenty- inch-rainfall line? Just east of it? 6. Looking at both the rainfall and the growing-season maps, what reasons can you find for raising so little corn in Montana? In northern Minnesota? Similar questions can be used for other types of maps. Maps may also be used to test the understanding or to clarify the meaning of a paragraph. A child may fill in a blackboard or outline map to show the meaning of a paragraph explaining where corn is raised. After a map has been read the children may summarize important ideas gained from it. Similar reading lessons may be developed to help children read graphs. These questions were asked during the study of a graph showing corn production by states: . What does each bar represent? . What does each section of a bar represent? . What state raised the most corn? . What state raised about twice as much corn as Indiana? . For what year does this graph show production? . Would a graph for another year be likely to be the same? our Whe Finding summary sentences—After discussing any topic, the children may hunt for good sentences which summarize such points as the importance of corn, amount of moisture needed, type of land _ best suited to corn, and length of growing season needed. This exercise is particularly valuable when many different books are used. The selee- tion of the books can take care of individual differences in reading abilities, and the fact that different children do not have the same book makes each child more careful in his reading. In addition, the need to find material independently gives meaning and motive to learning how to use the index, table of contents, title page, and refer- ence pages of a book. Summary—tThis article has reviewed briefly a series of procedures for making the study skills function in solving a social-studies problem at the fourth-grade level. These procedures involve the formulation of 1 Based on: Atwood, W. W. The United States Among the Nations. Boston: Ginn and Co., 1930. p. 54, rh Tr ~~ hm Strupy READING IN CONTENT FIELDS 375 questions by the children, the use of topic headings, the explanation I and discussion of new words, the organization of facts by means of outlines, the use of maps and graphs, and the location of summary sentences. Not only does the need for such skills in mastering important - subjectmatter motivate the learning of them, but practising them in vo significant situations makes them more meaningful and more likely to be used in the future. In addition, the skills themselves help the 1 children to do better work in the social studies, y- an at a Ww a om MM‘ teachers now realize that it is very difficult to give the pupil anything like an adequate understanding of any - given problem or topic in any of the content subjects through oh the use of only one book, commonly known as the textbook. They know that at best the textbook is merely a bare outline with very little detailed and interesting information included. They are also aware of the idea that good training in attacking a problem or topic through reading includes the fundamental concept that the careful student always gathers material from various competent sources. Consequently, these teachers em- ploy what is commonly known as the problem method or the en unit plan. As will be understood later, this procedure enables he the child to read widely in a given field, introduces him to many st new experiences in human activities, and provides opportunity ‘ for the development of comprehension by means of extended ae reading—McKee, Paul, Reading and Literature in the Ele- ng mentary School, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1934, p. 287-88. (Quoted a by permission of the publishers.) he to r- "eS m of 376 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS TS READING AS IT FUNCTIONS IN FIFTH-GRADE GEOGRAPHY Dwicut Curtis Fifth-Grade Teacher, University Elementary School, Iowa City, Iowa formed, where the coal fields of the United States are located, and that coal production is one of our greatest industries. The problem before the class then was, “How is coal mined?” The class- room shelves contained geographies, general reference books on the United States or on the specific topic of coal, and encyclopedias for the reading which was to follow. Preparation of bulletin board—As a first step, the bulletin board was prepared for the solution of the problem. On it were placed pictures showing the different steps in the mining of coal by the strip, tunnel, and shaft methods. Illustrations were mounted which showed the ar- rangement of the underground tunnel system, both in horizontal strata and in the folded strata of the anthracite region of Pennsylvania. At- tached to some of these pictures and illustrations were questions to stimulate more careful reading and observation. Each question was focused on some important phase of the coal-mining process. In addi- tion, there were short articles, without pictures, which also had ques- tions attached to them. These questions asked for specific information which brought out the main point of the article. By this training in determining the important point or points in articles and pictures, the children became more careful readers and observers. Introduction of new terms—A list of eight words or phrases had been selected and was presented to emphasize the fact that new words should be added to the vocabulary with each new topic studied. The eight terms were tipple, fire-boss, shaker screen, fire damp, props, room-and-pillar, hoist, and creep. To this list the children were ex- pected to add other words which they themselves discovered and learned how to use during the study. The purpose of this device was to make the children more word-conscious—to begin teaching them early the value and necessity of vocabulary building. The eight terms presented were not explained, but pronunciation difficulties were elim- inated. Use of index and table of contents—At different times during the year, as the need arose, drills had been given in using the index, table of contents, and map list to locate information in a book. Before the reading for this problem started, several key words were listed, such as industry, mining, production, shaft, and gases. These words were | FIFTH-GRADE SOCIAL SCIENCE CLASS had discovered how coal was Stupy READING IN CoNnTENT FIELDS 377 written on the blackboard to help the children in locating pertinent material thru the index or table of contents. In this way children were prepared to use their references without waste of time and without the difficulty arising from inability to locate readily the material needed in solving their problem. Outlining—After reading for a short time, each child was asked to select the major points which he thought should guide the discussion later. The following points were listed and served to help the children in organizing their thinking and study: I. The entrance to the mine II. Getting the coal III. Transportation in the mine IV. Preparing the coal for market. This list of major points became the main outline, and as the children studied, the minor points were added. Thus each child received drill in outlining which was both purposeful and meaningful. Individual help was given to various children while they worked, and this helped the teacher to determine the nature and extent of difficulties not only in outlining, but also in the use of the index and the table of contents. Points which seemed to give the most difficulty were called to the attention of the entire class from time to time during the study. Resolving conflicts in information—Occasionally other difficulties arose which demanded the attention of the entire class for a few moments. For example, one book discussed a mine shaft which was divided into four sections—that is, separate sections for the air, water, coal, and workers. Another book described a shaft as only for the work- ers and the coal, and said nothing about how the air and water were taken out. Here was a conflict in information that needed to be settled at the time. Two children assumed responsibility and reported to the class that not all mine shafts are made alike. A different conflict had appeared during the reading on the previous problem, “Where is the coal located in the United States?” One refer- ence had given Kentucky third rank among the coal-producing states; another had given Illinois third rank. This situation offered an oppor- tunity to point out that the date of publication of a reference makes some difference in the facts reported. This same situation later occurred in relation to the rank of states in the production of oil, and this time the apparent inconsistency presented no difficulty. The children were very much pleased at being able to make the necessary adjustment. During the discussion of coal production, a child made the statement that only the tunnel method of mining was used in eastern Pennsy]- vania. There were objections to this statement, and it was necessary 378 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS for someone to locate the exact information on which it was presumably based. The child who made the statement was asked to verify it by consulting the reference from which he had obtained the idea. Three children who objected were also asked to verify their opinions. This was a forceful example to the children of the fact that one must read carefully in order to get the exact data before giving information to others. It was also a practical situation in which careful reading was necessary. Reading to understand a movie—After this discussion, whieh fol- lowed the study reading, the children were to see a motion picture of the mining industry. They had been told that a knowledge of the indus- try would be necessary before they could understand the film. During the discussion, the teacher had noted those who seemed to know least about the industry. These children were assigned further reading, with which they were helped by the teacher, so that they might more fully understand the different phases of the industry as shown in the film. Reviewing the unit—Two forms of review were provided to check the understandings gained from the reading and discussion periods. In the first type of review, slides were shown and each child had an oppor- tunity to interpret one of the pictures, each of which showed some phase of the coal industry. When it was discovered that a child knew little about a particular phase of the industry, he was asked to use extra time to reread the material on that phase. In the second type of review, summary statements were selected from the references and a copy given to each child, who was then asked to give the information necessary for an understanding of the brief summary statements. Those who could not supply this information were asked to locate it in the references. Testing results—As a test, a list of ‘“why’s” was given, such as, “Why is so much coal left in a mine?” This type of test gives children an opportunity actually to apply the understandings which they have gained from the readings, discussions, pictures, and reviews. It is more than a mere quiz. Conclusion—These are only a-few of the types of reading skills developed when solving a problem in the content subjects. In addition to the activities mentioned, it will be necessary from time to time to spend a few minutes in drill on this or that type of reading difficulty. Yet no drill can be completely separated from the content itself and still be purposeful; no doubt the most opportune time to give practice in any reading skill is on an occasion when that skill is needed in solving a real problem. It is in such situations that work-type reading can be said to be truly functional. bly ree his ad to vas as, “en ive re ills on to nd ice ng Srupy READING IN CONTENT FIELDS 379 READING TO SOLVE A HYGIENE PROBLEM IN GRADE VI IsABELLE MacDoNna.Lp Sizth-Grade Teacher, University Elementary School, Iowa City, Iowa N THE UNIVERSITY ELEMENTARY SCHOOL the sixth-grade hygiene unit is entitled, ““Man’s Search for Health.” It is the story of the progress made thruout the ages in improving health conditions. In the outline of the unit there are ten major problems, and each class raises its own subproblems under these major ones. The first three major problems deal with the statistical and historical aspects of the subject; the fourth brings the content up to the present. This fourth problem is, “How successful has modern medicine been in help- ing to control the spread of disease?” It, in turn, is divided into two subproblems: (1) Can anything be done to lower the death rates of heart disease and cancer? (2) How can highly communicable diseases be brought under control? Tubeveculosis is one of the communicable diseases studied, and the following discussion describes for a particular sixth-grade class, the teaching of the section of unit dealing with this (lisease. Reading skills needed—In working out a solution to this problem, every step of the unit from the approach to the final summarizing of data required the use of various reading skills. The following outline indicates what these skills were, and where they were needed in the different parts of the unit: A. Approach to the unit 1. Examining reference material 2. Reading for a background (newspapers, periodicals) 3. Reading and interpreting a graph 4. Locating data one wants. B. Raising the problem 1. Organizing thoughts into questions 2. Stating the questions 3. Reorganizing the questions. C. Gathering pertinent data 1. Locating material in references 2. Building new vocabulary (meanings, pronunciation) 3. Finding answers to questions 4. Reading and‘ following directions 5. Organizing data around a topic 6. Evaluating data 7. Deciding whether or not a problem is answered 8. Taking notes 9. Choosing important points 10. Interpreting newspaper and magazine articles 11. Noting where data of a given type are to be found. 380 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS D. The socialized recitation 1. Remembering data 2. Organizing data in new relationships 3. Citing exact references 4. Listening to others and getting their points of view 5. Evaluating data supplied by others. FE. Summarizing the findings 1. Choosing important items and giving reasons for choice 2. Preparing material for preservation 3. Evaluating data 4. Boiling material down to main facts. Approach to the unit—The degree to which children have a part in raising their own problems and determining what is important to find out about a topic, will in large measure determine their interest in the topic. P. :tures, bulletin-board exhibits, readings, previous class dis- cussions, a similar problem in a local situation—-any of these may be used to stimulate the child to raise a problem. The children in this sixth-grade class did participate in setting up their problem. Their approach was the making of a graph showing the mortality rates for tuberculosis. After a number of questions on the part of the teacher, each child transferred the appropriate data from the World Almanac to a graph. Raising the problem—When the children began to locate and connect the points on the graph that represented the mortality rates, they noted at once the remarkable downward trend. They saw that within a twenty-five-year period the death-rate for tuberculosis had decreased 75 percent. They wanted to know how such a decrease could have been brought about. Here, then, was the problem: “How has tuberculosis been brought under better control?” Then the children raised the sub- questions listed below. These are not identical with those given in the outline of the unit, but they cover the basic understandings that should grow out of this problem. Each class will raise its own questions in its own way. CHILDREN’S QUESTIONS 1. How has the sale of tuberculosis seals helped? a. When were the seals first sold? b. Who started the sale of these seals? c. Where did it start? d. On the average, how much money has been brought in each year? e. How is the money used? : 2. Does the Red Cross help in the prevention of tuberculosis? 3. What is the cause of tuberculosis? 4. What has been the history of tuberculosis? a. Who discovered the cause of this disease? (1) How did he happen to discover this? (2) When did he discover it? b. Who first discovered how to cure tuberculosis? ——— ——_——— Srupy READING IN CoNTENT FIELDS 381 (1) How did he happen to discover this? (2) When did he discover it? . What are the symptoms of this disease? . How can a doctor tell whether or not a patient has tuberculosis? . What are the most recent treatments for tuberculosis? . Do doctors use operations in their treatment? . How valuable is being out-of-doors as a treatment measure? . Are there any medicines that will cure this disease? . Do the “shots” help prevent tuberculosis? . What is the treatment given in sanatoria? . How long does it take to cure this disease? “ISD Gr moana TS Gathering pertinent data—During the supervised study period, the class gathered and evaluated data with which to answer these questions. This particular step in problem-solving may take several periods or even a week of study. As suggested by the word “supervised,” the teacher participates actively in directing the study. Because these topics have a vocabulary peculiarly their own, for which there is no substitute, it is economical to learn early the mean- ings and pronunciations of new words. As they read, therefore, the children were asked to list words with which they were not acquainted. Then, from time to time, the class had vocabulary exercises similar to the one given below. The exercise was usually oral, and the meanings were discussed as the class matched the words with their definitions. VOCABULARY EXERCISE Words Definitions bacilli ......1. capable of contracting a disease sputum ...2. very small rod-shaped organisms infection ......8. 8 Salivary discharge susceptible ..4. the result of having a disease-producing substance enter the body. Altho in the solution of such a problem many and varied references are used, it has been found profitable to hold all pupils responsible for a few basic references. For this purpose, the class was divided into two groups on the basis of reading ability. Each group was given a text- book and an objective study sheet. Here are excerpts from these sheets. The first sheet is for the poorer group and is definitely easier than the other. Provision was made for checking the work of each group on these sheets. OBJECTIVE STUDY SHEET—GROUP I Read Andress-Evans, Health and Good Citizenship, p. 220-27. After you have finished reading, write the answers to the questions below. You may use your text. Part A Fill in the blanks that will make the statements correct and complete. 1. The treatment for tuberculosis was discovered by................. 2000-0005 2. The first sanatorium for tuberculosis was built at.......................... Etc. 382 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Part B Write in complete sentences the answers to these questions. 1. Where does the germ that causes tuberculosis grow? Part C Below are questions that will show how well you are able to organize the mate- rial that you have read about tuberculosis. Can you pick out the main idea of the paragraph? Read each question. Read the three answers given below it. Put a check (V) before the best answer. 1. What is the purpose of the third paragraph on pages 223-24? a. To tell that the Indians hunted and lived in wigwams b. To prove that sunlight and fresh air are a protection against, tuberculosis c. To tell about the dusty trades. Ele. P OBJECTIVE STUDY SHEET—GROUP II Read Ritchie, Primer of Sanitation, p. 538-70. After you have finished reading, write the answers to the questions below. You may use vour text. Part A How well can you find specific answers? Find the word or phrase that answers each question. Write it on the blank provided. 1. What Grecian physician wrote about tuberculosis? 2. What is the name of the germ that causes this disease? Etc. Part B How well can you organize material that you read? Are you able to pick out main ideas? Read each question. Then read the four answers given below the question. Put. a check (Vv) before the best answer. 1. What is the main idea of the second paragraph on pages 53-54? a. Consumption causes more deaths than any other form of tuberculosis. b. Serofula is tuberculosis of the lymphatic glands. c. The tuberculosis germ may travel thru the blood stream. d. The tuberculosis germ may attack many parts of the body. Etc. ° Part C Are you able to pick out sub-points? 1. Find the heading “different forms of tuberculosis,” on page 53. What are the ‘our subtopics under this heading? Part D Are you able to get information from graphs? Write the answers on the blanks provided. 1. On the graphs on page 62, what represents the chances of being cured? taken? ee ne a ee oe b. Which graph represents tuberculosis in the advanced stage? Ete. —» e- of ut ou T's ut he he vhs —— Strupy READING IN CONTENT FIELDS 383 ra After finishing the study sheets and before beginning the socialized recitation, it is usually advisable to have the children check thru the questions under the main problem to see whether all have been answered in their readings. In this case, the class felt that it needed more material on questions 1, 4, 6, and 7. Consequently, assignments for additional study were made as shown below. Again the class was divided into groups to get data on these remaining questions. Each group was assigned a specific question and suitable references. The problem was so difficult and the material so limited that there was not as much freedom in the choice of references as there had been in studying some other problems. However, some choice was possible among the refer- ences assigned to each group. In making such assignments, care should be taken that the poorer group is not made to feel inferior. ASSIGNMENTS FOR ADDITIONAL STUDY Group I (This was for the slower readers.) 1. Number your papers to correspond to question 4 in our outline. 2. If you already know the answer to any of these questions, write it opposite the appropriate number or letter. 3. Now read Health Heroes: Robert Koch Health Heroes: Edward Trudeau. 4. Fill in all the answers to question 4. Group IT (This group had the highest reading ability and greatest. initiative.) 1. Read question 7 in our outline. 2. List all the treatments you find mentioned in your references. For each kind of treatment, write the two or three most important points to be brought out: Eneyelopedias: Book of Knowledge World Book Additional books: Barnes, A Manual of Preventive Medicine Effler, Three Minute Medicine Magazines and pamphlets: Hyqera, June 1935, “Rest Is Nature’s Method of Fighting,” p. 574. Hygeia, December 1936, “The Christmas Seal Makes Its Annual Appear- ance,” p. 1144. Bulletin of the National Tuberculosis Association The Control of Tuberculosis in Iowa Ete. Group IIT (The average readers were in this group.) 1. On the bulletin board there is an article entitled, “Public Puts Its Stamp of Approval on Annual Drive for Funds to Fight T.B.” Read the article. Then go to your seat and answer as many questions as you can under number 1 in our outline. If you can’t answer all, or are not sure of an answer, go back to the bulletin board and reread the article. 2. How can a doctor tell whether or not a patient has tuberculosis? List all the ways that you find mentioned in these pamphlets. 3. For each pamphlet that you read, write the title and publisher. What the Government Is Doing for Tuberculous Persons The Tuberculin Test Tuberculosis—F rom Five to Twenty Ele. or 384 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS The socialized recitation—The socialized recitation is the time when all data gathered from the readings are brought together. Sometimes this is done by answering each of the questions that have been raised, More often, classes prefer to set up a few main topics and organize the discussion around them. In this case, the teacher opened the social- ized recitation period by saying: “Much of the literature points out that the examining and diagnosing of cases of tuberculosis in schools and communities has been slow. What possible reasons could you sug- gest for this?” The reasons were listed on the board as the children gave them. The subsequent contributions made during the recitation were then organized around these reasons. During the discussion the children cited the sources of their information, giving the book or pamphlet by title. When contradictory opinions were presented, each child was asked to read the statement upon which he based his contention. The class listened and decided whether or not the statements had been interpreted correctly. Summarizing the findings—The study of a problem is always con- cluded with a summary, which is the means of clinching important points. There are many kinds of summaries. In this particular problem, the children selected and discussed summary sentences. To get the class ready, the teacher put two sentences on the board, each of them a quo- tation from a reference, and asked the class to select the one that was the better summary statement. The class was expected to defend its choice. Then the children were asked to skim and find sentences in their references that met the criteria they had just set up for an impor- tant summary statement. As each child was expected to justify his choices, this did not become an exercise in which just any sentence was copied. Each child selected three or four sentences, copied them, and noted the title and page of the reference. A committee then selected the best sentences to be mimeographed. During the next class period, suf- ficient time was allowed for reading these summary statements. Then ‘ach child was asked to choose the one he wanted to discuss. After he had explained what the statement meant, the class made additions and corrections. Thus the basic understandings were clinched, and erroneous opinions cleared up. Several of these statements are given here: 1. “Tuberculosis is communicable, preventable, and curable.” Ritchie, Primer of Sanitation, p. 70. 2. “There are no pills, tonics, or other medicines known that will cure tuber- culosis.” Metropolitan Life Insurance Company, Tuberculosis, p. 8. 3. “. .. make bows of respect to Koch—the man who really proved that microbes are our most deadly enemies, who brought microbe-hunting near to being a science.” de Kruif, Microbe Hunters, p. 144. — Stupy READING IN CONTENT FIELDs 385 hen Conclusion—As pointed out before, there are many types of reading mes exercises that can be used as effectively as those reported here. Each sed, teacher must decide for herself what study-reading lessons will best help nize her children to solve their problems. The foregoing description merely jal. shows how reading did function in the solution of one problem which out the children had been led to feel was vital. When used in such ways, ools reading is no longer a mere exercise, but a tool for solving life’s sug- problems. rave vere dren t by sked ‘lass LTHOUGH much has been written about the importance of eted A reading in the various curricular fields, the degree to which reading limits learning does not in practice seem to be fully con- recognized. Under present conditions, and perhaps under ideal tant conditions, pupils must obtain from books a large part of their lem, knowledge and much of their stimulation to thinking. Reading lass is therefore an essential tool in the study of most parts of the juo- curriculum. Closely related to reading is the ability to locate was books and articles that deal with problems met in and out of 1 its school; to select, understand, and appraise pertinent problems; sin to organize the data, often secured from a variety of references, por- so that the information will aid in the solution of their prob- r his lems; and to provide for the retention, the improvement, and was the use of what has been learned. Shortcomings in any of these and types of abilities are quickly reflected in the quality of the 1 the pupils’ work in all subjects studied from books. There is prob- auf- ably no single source of frustration in study that is so serious Then as that found in deficiencies in reading ability.—Snedaker, ~* Mabel, and Horn, Ernest, in The Teaching of Reading: A oil Second Report, Thirty-Sixth Yearbook, Part I, National So- oni ciety for the Study of Education, 1937, Chapter 5, p. 134. (Quoted by permission of the Society.) rimet uber- that ar to 386 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS _ or 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. SELECTED REFERENCES . CaLiIrorNIA CurricuLuM Commission. Teachers’ Guide to Child Development in the Intermediate Grades. Sacramento: California State Department of Education, 1936. Chapter 16, “Reading in the Content Fields.” . Frnx, Epcar M. “Relation of Ability in Reading to Success in Other Sub- jects.” Elementary School Journal 36: 260-67; December 1935. Hoviovus, Carov. Flying the Printways. Boston: D. C. Heath and Co., 1938. 525 p. . Hovious, Caro. Following Printed Trails. Boston: D. C. Heath and Co., 1936. 371 p. . Knicut, Pearte E., and Traxter, A. E. Read and Comprehend. Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1937. 233 p. LEAVELL, ULLIN W., and Ho.uster, G. E. “Social Studies Vocabulary Difficul- ties in the Upper Grades.” Peabody Journal of Education 12: 287-93: May 1935. Lee, Dorts M. The Importance of Reading for Achieving in Grades Four, Five, and Six. Contributions to Education, No. 556. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1933. 64 p. . McBroom, Maups. Aids for Elementary Teachers: II, A Course of Study in the Use of the Index, Grades 1-6. Extension Bulletin No. 288. Iowa City, Iowa: State University of Iowa, 1932. 32 p. . McCauuister, JAMES M. “Determining the Types of Reading in Studying Content Subjects.” School Review 40: 115-23; February 1932. McKee, Pauv. Reading and Literature in the Elementary Grades. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1934. Chapters 4, 8-12. Manual for Administration and Interpretation of Iowa Every-Pupil Tests of Basic Skills (Grades VI, VII, and VIII). Iowa City, Iowa: State Uni- versity of Iowa, 1937. “Map Reading,” p. 26-35. Monroe, Watter 8., and Enceruart, Max D. “The Effectiveness of Syste- matic Instruction in Reading Verbal Problems in Arithmetic.” Ele- mentary School Journal 33: 377-81; January 1933. NaTIONAL Society For THE Stupy or Epucation. Report of the National Com- mittee on Reading. Twenty-Fourth Yearbook, Part I. Bloomington, IIL: Public School Publishing Co., 1925. Chapter 5, “The Relation of Reading to Content Subjects and Other School Activities.” Parker, BertHoa M. “Reading in an Intermediate-Grade Science Program.” Elementary School Journal 38: 38-43; September 1937. PatTerson, SAMUEL W. Teaching the Child to Read. New York: Doubleday, Doran and Co., 1930. p. 312-30, 461-88. Smiru, Niza B. One Hundred Ways of Teaching Silent Reading. Yonkers-on- Hudson, N. Y.: World Book Co., 1926. 149 p. SNnepaker, Maser, and Horn, Ernest. “Reading in the Various Fields of the Curriculum.” The Teaching of Reading: A Second Report. Thirty-Sixth Yearbook, Part I, National Society for the Study of Education. Bloom- ington, Ill.: Public School Publishing Co., 1937. p. 133-82. SrittMAN, Bessie W. Training Children to Study. Boston: D. C. Heath and Co., 1928. 247 p. Stone, CLARENCE R. Better Advanced Reading. St. Louis: Webster Publish- ing Co., 1937. Chapter 7, “Work-Type and Practice Reading (Silent).” YoaKaM, Geratp A. Reading and Study. New York: Macmillan Co., 1928. 502 p. ~~ free -- =| 4 o> eee ent ent mn: ul- 3; ur, ars ty, CHAPTER VI DIAGNOSTIC AND REMEDIAL PRACTISES EDITORIAL COMMENT S EMPHASIZED IN CHAPTER I, there would be little need for remedial A instruction in reading if the regular teaching program were per- fectly adjusted to the abilities and needs of each child from the time he enters school. In most schools, however, the lack of such ad- justment is sufficient to produce reading difficulties in excess of what would be expected in view of the limited capacities of some children. These difficulties range in seriousness from very minor disabilities to problems so complex and acute as to require the help of the most com- petent specialists for their solution. Fortunately, the latter type of diffi- culty is rarely encountered in typical classrooms. Most cases of reading failure or retardation can be corrected, or greatly improved, thru suit- able remedial programs conducted by well-prepared teachers and principals. In overcoming deficiencies in reading, it is essential to deal with basic causes rather than with symptoms alone. While the first step is to dis- cover existing difficulties by means of adequate tests and careful obser- vation, the remedial program itself must often go beyond the mere drilling of children on the phases of reading in which they are weak. The causes of weakness may be found in the child himself, in his school or out-of-school environment, or in both. In any case, every available means should be used to bring about a satisfactory adjustment between the child and his total environment, giving due regard to his physical, social, and emotional needs as well as to his specific needs in reading. The first two articles in this chapter are concerned mainly with the diagnosis of reading difficulties. Fitzgerald describes methods for dis- covering minor difficulties and their causes, while Gerstmyer presents technics used in appraising more serious deficiencies in the primary grades. The next two contributions discuss the correction of reading disabilities. Deans outlines the procedures and results of a remedial program for poor readers of normal or higher intelligence. Witty de- scribes the development of corrective programs by teachers in a series of demonstration centers. In the fifth article, Marx and Hinkley tell about a remedial reading project in which the public schools of a county cooperated with a private child-welfare agency. Readers especially interested in the remedial aspects of reading will find it profitable to consult also the references listed on page 422.— Editorial Committee. [ 387 ] 388 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS DISCOVERING MINOR READING DIFFICULTIES AND THEIR CAUSES JAMES A. FITZGERALD Associate Professor of Education, Loyola University, Chicago, Illinois OST POOR READERS are handicapped by minor difficulties which have resulted from one or more causes or conditions such as defective vision, inferior instruction, inadequate vocabulary training, poor motivation, too difficult materials, unfavorable working conditions, unfortunate experiences, physical handicaps, low mental ability, and so on. Recent investigations * show that from 8 to 15 percent of school pupils are retarded readers. In the Walsh Elementary School in Chicago in the autumn of 1936, 125 children in a total population of 376 in Grades IV to VIII, inclusive, were found to be retarded from two months to nearly five years in reading.’ Thirty-six of these children were retarded two years or more, 22 were retarded from one and one-half to two years, 30 were retarded from one to one and one-half years, 28 were retarded from one-half to one year, and 9 were retarded from two months to a half year. THE DIAGNOSTIC AND REMEDIAL PROGRAM IN THE WALSH SCHOOL Attention focused on minor difficulties—Despite the great incidence of retardation in this school, nearly all of the retarded children were handicapped principally by what may be reasonably called minor difli- culties in reading. As these difficulties were observed and their causes determined, practicable remedial procedures were applied with vigorous drive and experienced judgment. The appraisal of minor difficulties and deficiencies by classroom teachers continued thruout the seven and one-half months of the pro- gram. New deficiencies often appeared as old ones were eliminated. This teacher appraisal included four main avenues of approach: (1) The mental ability of the child was determined by an intelligence test; (2) the reading level of the child and his individual reading defects were shown by reading examinations; (3) the dominant interests of the child were revealed by interest questionnaires and inventories of his activities and experiences; and (4) the physical, mental, and emotional ' Monroe, Marion. Children Who Cannot Read. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1932 { Betts. Emmett A. The Prevention and Correction of Reading Difficulties. Evanston, Ill.: Row, Peterson and Co., 1936. § Durrell, Donald. Reading Disability in the Intermediate Grades. Un- published doctor's thesis. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Universitv, 1930. 2 Fitzgerald. James A. “Psychology in the Reading Clinic."’ Elementary English Review 14: 133-37, 152; April 1937. SP Ci u vhich sh as ulary rking ental upils n the os IV early | two ears, irded toa [OOL lence were diffi- auses orous room pro- This The test; fects »f the f his ional s, 1932. : Row, 3s. Un- Review DIAGNOSTIC AND REMEDIAL PRACTISES 389 causes of retardation were discovered to the extent of the teacher’s best understanding and judgment. Results of the program—aAll of the retarded children were tested in the latter part of September with one form of the Gates Silent Reading Tests* for Grades III to VIII, and eighty-one of these were tested again in the middle of May with an alternate form of the same tests after they had been given the remedial reading instruction. The average 1.Q. of these children was 88.5; their average retardation at the begin- ning of the remedial program was nearly eighteen months. During the seven and one-half months of intensive remedial teaching, based upon directed observation and appraisal of their reading difficulties, these children made an average gain on the Gates tests of fifteen months, or about twice the progress expected of a normal child. The greatest recorded gain was thirty-two months, made by a VIA-VIIB child with an intelligence quotient of 84. A VIIA-VIIIB pupil and a VA-VIB child with intelligence quotients of 93 and 95, respectively, each made a thirty months’ gain. Only nine of the eighty-one pupils made less than the normal gain of seven and one-half months. Every pupil made some improvement in reading. MEASUREMENT OF ABILITY AND ACHIEVEMENT IN READING General principles—In the ordinary classroom the teacher must appraise the reading abilities of approximately forty children, and discover their reading defects and reading interests. To accomplish these tasks is not easy, even with a corps of psychologists to help. Yet the classroom teacher can do much of value if she is well directed and well trained. In the Walsh Elementary School project the principles which ' each teacher found successful were as follows: 1. Begin by appraising and testing the whole class. 2. Divide the class into smaller groups in accord with the results of testing and appraisal. 3. Continuously observe, test, and appraise these groups until each individual’s | problems stand out clearly. Thru the application of these principles time is conserved, the most pronounced remedial cases show up quickly, and special effort can be } made to help the children who need it. No child who has defects is neglected ; yet remedial procedures are not forced upon those who do not need them. Testing mental ability—A valid and reliable test of mental ability should be used to determine the mental ages and intelligence quotients i Published by the Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, ew York. | as is 390 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS of the children.* The intelligence examination must be given carefully, The directions must be followed to the letter, and the time limit to the second. The scoring must be done meticulously in order that the mentg] age and alertness of the’ child may be appraised as accurately ag possible. Since lack of mental ability is often a cause of reading retardg- | tion, a knowledge of each child’s mental age and I.Q. should help the teacher to understand reading defects which may be uncovered by fur. ther examination and appraisal. Appraising reading abilities—In appraising reading abilities and defects, a classroom teacher will be greatly aided by the administrs- tion of at least two well-chosen tests at the proper reading level. At least one good silent reading test * and an oral test such as the Gray Oral Reading Paragraphs® should be given. The silent reading tests may be administered to the group as a whole. When this has been done, the reading level and retardation of each child should be computed, and the various kinds of individual defects noted. In the ordinary class of forty there may be a dozen or more children who are retarded more or less seriously. These children must be made the subjects of a carefully planned diagnostic and remedial program. A question which should be continuously before the teacher is, “Why are these children retarded so seriously?” For each retarded child the teacher should study care- fully the various test items to discover more clearly the nature and seriousness of his difficulties and, if possible, to understand more defi- nitely the causes of his retardation. Every page of every part of the child’s test paper may have a clue to a particular difficulty. The oral reading tests should be given, of course, to each child indi- vidually. One may be able to understand more perfectly the causes of reading difficulties if one can observe a child as he reads orally. The directions for the Gray Oral Reading Paragraphs are adequate. If these directions are followed carefully, and notations made of the various types of defects, such as mispronunciations, poor enunciation, reversals, omissions, substitutions, words refused, and so on, the causes of low reading ability will be more clearly understood. * Among the group tests which may be used for this purpose are the Kuhlmann-Anderson In- telligence Tests, published by the Educational Test Bureau, Minneapolis; the Otis Self-Adminis- tering Tests of Mental Ability, published by the World Book Co., Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York; and the Henmon-Nelson Tests of Mental Ability, published by Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 5Such as the Jowa Every-Pupil Tests of Basic Skills (Tests A and B), published by the Bureau of Educational Research and Service, State University of Iowa, Iowa City; the Gates Silent Reading Tests (Grades III-VIII), published by the Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City; the Sangren-Woody Reading Test, published by the World Book Co., Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York; and the New Stanford Reading Test, also published by the World Book Co. ® Published by the Public School Publishing Co., Bloomington, Illinois. ——___ ‘efully, to the mental ely as tarda. Ip the Y fur- S and nistra- el. At Gray r tests done, d, and ass of ore or efully ild be arded care- 2 and defi- f the indi- es of The e. If f the tion, LUses on In- Iminis- , New n Co., yy the Gates achers ed by t, also DIAGNOSTIC AND REMEDIAL PRACTISES 391 Discovery oF INpIvipuAL INTERESTS, ACTIVITIES, AND EXPERIENCES Examinations may, thus far, have shown which children are most seriously retarded and are therefore in greatest need of remedial assist- ance. However, the appraisal has just begun. The important thing is to discover a way to help each child effectively. Not only does each child have his own peculiar difficulties and individual defects, but he also has interests in life, in school, and particularly in reading, which are different from those of other children. Many books are uninteresting to him; perhaps most books are. A few might interest him, but he is not acquainted with them. The teacher must find them for him or guide him to them. Many children do not read because reading is difficult for them, but they have strong interests and dominant likes and dislikes. Their interests, likes, and dislikes must be discovered and under- stood by the teacher, so that her remedial program may be truly helpful is intensely interested in airplanes. She should know also that he cares but little about insects, vegetables, or grains. She should know not only what his individual interests are, but also what reading materials will satisfy those interests, and how she may arouse the child’s interest in other worthwhile subjects. A knowledge of rich and varied materials is therefore important. A lack of such knowledge by the teacher is likely to be fatal to the success of any remedial program.’ A good questionnaire relating to interests, activities, and experi- ences is of value in discovering the reading needs of the child. The Witty Pupil Report on Interests and Activities* and the Fitzgerald Inventory: Interests, Likes, Activities, and Experiences® have been found helpful for this purpose. In order that the remedial program may be most successful, the appraisal should not be limited to the discovery of the child’s weaknesses. It should seek out also his points of strength and power. Often the application of an interest inventory will reveal 7For data on children’s interests in various types of reading material, see: Dunn, Fannie W. Interest Factors in Primary Reading Material. Contributions to Education, No. 113. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1921. 70 p. § Garnett, Wilma F. “A Study of Children’s Choices in Prose.’”? Elementary English Review 1: 133-37; June 1924. { Johnson, B. Lamar. ‘‘Chil- dren’s Reading Interests as Related to Sex and Grade in School.” School Review 40: 257-72; April 1932. { Jordan, Arthur M. Children’s Interests in Reading. Contributions to Education, No. 107. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1921. 143 p. § Mackintosh, Helen K. A Critical Study of Children’s Choices in Poetry. Studies in Education, Vol. 7, No. 4. Iowa City: University of Iowa, 1932. 128 p. In addition, the following bibliographies of children’s literature will be helpful: Beust, Nora, compiler. Graded List of Books for Children. Chicago: American Library Association, 1936. { Huber, M. B.; Bruner, H. B.; and Curry, C. M. Children’s Interests in Poetry. Chicago: Rand, McNally and Co., 1927. { Wilkinson, M. S.; Weedon, Vivian; and Washburne, Carleton. The Right Book for the Right Child. New York: John Day Co., 1933. {See also the lists recom- mended by Horn in Chapter IV. 8 Witty, Paul. Pupil Report on Interests and Activities. Psycho-Educational Clinic. Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University. (Mimeo.) ® Fitzgerald, James A. Inventory: Interests, Likes, Activities, and Experiences. Chicago: Loyola University. (Mimeo.) oe 392 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS | more about a child’s likes and dislikes, interests and lack of interests, | than could be learned in a whole year of casual observation and teach- ing. In some cases the best attack on weaknesses may be made thru the strong points of the child. In any case strong, driving interests are important avenues of attack in overcoming difficulties and failures in reading. Interest questions—In the elementary school, such questions as the following may be extremely helpful in discovering dominant interests upon which to build the remedial program for a particular child: What games do you like best? . What toys do you want most? What movies do you enjoy most? . Who is your favorite movie hero? . What are your favorite radio programs? What work do you like best? . How would you like to spend next Saturday? . If you could have only one pet, which one would you choose? . For what do you wish most? . What are your favorite books? . Check the kind of reading which you enjoy most: — KH SOOHDNOURWNHe a. Poems d. Newspapers | b. Stories e. Funnies c. Magazine articles f. Sports | 12. Check how you like to read best: a. Orally b. Silently 13. What kind of reading do you dislike most? 14. About what do you like to read best? Check: a. Animals k. People of other lands b. Soldiers 1. Stories of other lands c. War m. Birds d. Knights n. Farmers e. Inventions o. Indians f. Automobiles p. Machinery g. School q. Airplanes h. Love stories r. Home i. Pioneers s. Others j. Adventure 15. What school subject do you like best? Check: a. History e. Mathematics b. Science f. Physical education c. Literature and reading g. Music d. English h. Others 16. What subject do you dislike most? Questions on activities and experiences—An inventory of the activ- ities and experiences of a child may give the teacher a cue to the causes and treatment of defects. Such a cue may be a small one, but oftena | are in the sts eS DIAGNOSTIC AND REMEDIAL PRACTISES 393 trifle is the turning point in remedial work. No clue should be lightly cast aside. The following questions are among those which may profit- ably be asked in an activity and experience survey: 1. How much time do you spend on your school work at home? 2. How much time do you spend helping your parents? 3. What work do you do? 4. When do you work? a. Before school d. Saturdays b. After school e. Sundays c. Evenings f. Other times 5. What do you study outside of school? 6. How do you spend your leisure time? 7. What toys do you have? (This question for lower grades only) 8. What games do you play? 9. Do you have enough time to play? 10. How often do you go to the movies? 11. To what radio programs do you listen? 12. What magazines have you at home? 13. What books have you read lately? 14. What parts of newspapers do you read first? 15. Check places where you have been: a. Farm h. Circus b. Zoo i. Park c. Museum j. Art gallery d. Library k, Church e. Opera 1. Concerts f. Picnics m. Beaches g. Fairs n. Others 16. Where have you lived? 17. Where have you traveled? 18. Where did you spend your last summer vacation? 19. Where do you spend most of your leisure time? 20. Check the ones you have ridden on: a. Train h. Airplane b. Bus i. Street car c. Auto j. Truck d. Boat k. Elevated train e. Wagon l. Buggy f. Horse m. Pony g. Bicycle n. Roller coaster A check-up on home conditions—A few questions about what the child does at home will add to the knowledge gained in the inventories of interests, activities, and experiences. Answers to the following should assist in a correct appraisal of child difficulties: 1. How much time do you spend each day studying at home? 2. What time have you allotted for studying? 3. Have you a separate place set aside for study? 4. Does anyone help you with your homework? 5. How many books do you have at home? 394 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 6. How much time do you spend reading for fun? 7. Name one of your favorite books. 8. List books which you would like to have for your own. Questions such as those suggested above may be mimeographed with spaces left for the answers, and the whole questionnaire may be given to a small group at one time. In conducting such an inventory, it is always important to inform the children that they will not be graded upon their answers, and that they need not answer any specific ques- tion unless they feel that they can answer it accurately. It is far better to know a few things which are true about a child than to have answers to many questions, some of which may be questionable or untrue. Individual interviews—In case a child has not answered many of the questions, an interview may be arranged with him in order that the causes of his difficulties may be discovered. In fact, individual inter- views with the greatly retarded child should be held from time to time as a matter of policy, in order to discover causes of defects, to appreciate changing attitudes, interests, and activities, and to uncover new deficiencies and difficulties. New interests as well as developing problems should be noted and recorded in each child’s individual folder. Progress in eliminating deficiencies should be carefully indicated. Ap- praisal should be continuous thruout the remedial period. IMPORTANCE OF THE TEACHER’S OBSERVATION AND JUDGMENT While the foregoing procedures and devices are helpful, the most valuable means of discovering minor difficulties in the classroom is teacher observation. Intelligence tests, reading examinations, and inter- est inventories are at best merely tools by which teacher observation is clarified and teacher judgment improved. Always the teacher must be appraising pupil performance, observing defects, noting new interests, and noticing change and transfer of interests, even as she puts the remedial program into operation. The teacher must develop her obser- vational powers or her appraisal will be superficial. The teacher should, for example, observe the class as it reads silently. She should watch for lack of attention, note visual and other defects, and record what she finds. She must notice each child’s reactions, such as obvious lack of interest in the story, labored effort in reading, poor attitudes towards reading, lack of concentration, slow reading, and so on. The teacher must see that the child is provided with a satisfying and not an annoying experience. She should note little peculiarities which may develop into reading difficulties. She must find out if the child likes the type of story which he is reading better than other types. She may DIAGNOSTIC AND REMEDIAL PRACTISES 395 ask him, “Would you care to read more stories like this one?” His answer may indicate a preference for some other kind of story. If, in the recreational reading, the teacher can direct the child to mate- rials which are easy and interesting to him, she will have gone a long way toward overcoming his minor difficulties. The teacher must always keep in mind such questions as these: What are the defects of this child? What is his ability level? What are his interests? What is his attitude? Is he trying as he should? Is he improving? Is this material interesting to him? Is it too hard? Is he capable of understanding this story or this material at his present level of ability? Is he challenged by this method and by these materials? As time goes on, the teacher should ask herself, “Has this child improved as he should have improved? If not, why not?” If he has not improved as expected, she should survey again his individual record folder, scrutinizing the results of his intelligence tests, reading exami- nations, and interest inventories, as well as any other notes which she has made. She should interview him again and observe him more care- fully. In time she may find the crucial cause or combination of causes which bars his progress or makes his advancement slow. Her first ap- praisal may be inadequate; it will often be necessary to make a second estimate of the cause of his reading difficulties. The second estimate should be better than the first, not only because it is partially directed by the mistakes of the first, but because the teacher has gained more knowledge of the child and his environment. Thruout this work a scientific attitude, keen observation, and careful appraisal of each child’s problems and progress are essential. In addition, a record of the methods applied, of the materials used, and of the results attained will contribute to the discovery and correction of other minor difficulties among the members of the group. SUMMARY 1. To save time, the discovery of minor difficulties should begin with the whole class, gradually narrow down to smaller groups, and finally reach the individuals who have peculiar difficulties. 2. In finding the causes of minor difficulties which hinder growth in reading, the classroom teacher should appraise the intelligence of members of her class by means of a good mental test, discover their reading levels and specific disabilities thru silent and oral reading examinations, observe further their deficiencies in study and reading as shown in the classroom, and inventory the interests, activities, and experiences of the children who are retarded. 396 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 3. Appraisal, in the final analysis, is a matter of efficient and enthu- siastic teacher observation and judgment, supplemented by intelligence test scores, reading scores, and interest-inventory results. The record of each child who is retarded in reading must be carefully scrutinized, his reading performance observed, his progress and relative status noted, and his changes in interest, attitude, and attention understood. The discovery of minor difficulties is important so that remedial meas- ures may be applied to the defects of each child on the level of his ability and in accord with his dominant interests, and in order that more serious difficulties may be prevented. HE prognosis, or prediction, of a case of reading disability is becoming increasingly more hopeful. In the early litera- ture on the subject, about 4 per cent of the school population were diagnosed as “word blind.” Of recent date the term “word blindness” is rarely used. The tradition of diagnosis in which a general symptom is designated by a name is being eclipsed by the development of scientific analysis techniques. Educators and psychologists are fast passing through the stage of analyz- ing symptoms and are now concerning themselves with the study of causes. As a result, retarded readers are being taught to read.—Betts, Emmett A., The Prevention and Correction of Reading Difficulties, Row, Peterson and Co., 1936, p. 8. (Quoted by permission of the publishers.) DIAGNOSTIC AND REMEDIAL PRACTISES 397 DIAGNOSING SERIOUS READING DIFFICULTIES IN THE PRIMARY GRADES Eva E. GerRstTMYER Director, Primary Grades and Kindergartens, Baltimore, Maryland Y DUCATION Within the past few generations has gone far in attempt- ing to understand the individual differences of children and in striving to meet their separate needs. Like many other school systems, the Baltimore public schools have various types of curriculums to meet the specific needs of their children. There are curriculums for the physically and mentally handicapped, and for children of superior ability. The artistic, the musically inclined, and those interested in manual arts are cared for as well as present knowledge permits. A great effort is made also to overcome specific weaknesses of the normal child who may be doing good work in most subjects, but who is unable to do satisfactory work in one. Since unsatisfactory progress in reading is the outstanding weakness of many children, a definite program has been planned to overcome this difficulty. Approach to early reading difficulttes—Believing that the early cor- rection of difficulties helps to prevent more serious problems later on, we have adopted certain procedures to help reduce retardation and to bring about normal progress in primary reading. Whenever a primary- grade child is found to be lagging behind in reading, his teacher plans to give him as much individual attention as she can. If, in spite of her efforts, he still fails to achieve, he is placed in a remedial class. This class is conducted by a first-grade teacher during the last hour of the school day. In this city all the teachers of IB children are free the last hour of the day, since these children attend school for only four hours. In some schools, kindergarten teachers who have had training in the teaching of reading receive special permission to do this remedial work. Success in helping children to overcome their reading difficulties seems to depend upon three factors, as follows: 1. Placement of the children in groups small enough to insure their receiving individual help. The number is not to exceed fifteen. 2. Homogeneous groupings according to the needs of the children, rather than according to grades. A child in the third grade may need the same kind of help in a specific reading difficulty as a first-grader requires. The two children are there- fore placed in the same group. 3. Daily help with individual difficulties. Selection and treatment of remedial cases in general—The require- ment for placement in remedial classes differs slightly in the lower and upper primary grades. Any children in Grades IA, IIC, and IIB, regard- less of 1.Q., are eligible if, in the judgment of the teacher, they are not 398 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS progressing at a normal rate in reading. In Grades IIA, IIIB, and IIIA, children must have I.Q.’s above 85 to be recommended when they are not at grade level in reading. In the latter grades any child whose I.Q. is below 85 should be considered for placement in “special education.” It is significant that whenever a principal is forced to make a more restricted selection, because of a large number of children and a small number of teachers available for the work, she gives preference to the most needy cases in the lower grades. The reason is obvious. A young child corrected early in his school career, before his difficulties have grown in size and number, needs far less remedial work than does an older child whose difficulties have persisted over several years. Such a policy makes the program preventive as well as remedial in nature. The type of help given to these children in their thirty-minute les- sons is determined from a study of the errors made on standardized tests, on course-of-study tests, and in their classroom performances. These errors are listed by the regular classroom teacher on a form headed “Retarded Readers.” These lists state briefly the needs of the individuals recommended for help. Since it has been found that a num- ber of these children lack an adequate phonetic basis, a part of the pro- gram every day is devoted to laying a phonetic foundation along with much repetition of vocabulary. Children are kept in a remedial group only as long as they show a definite need for it. As they improve to the point where they can do the work with pupils of their own class, they are withdrawn from the remedial group, and other children needing this help take their places. Diagnosis of more serious difficulttes—A few individuals, even after continuing in a remedial group for a semester, still are found to be definitely below the reading level of their grade. They are then referred to the director of the primary division. If the director, after careful study of a case, feels that the child needs a special diagnosis, the child is sent to a clinician. This clinician, who is employed part-time by the city school system and is also on the staff of the Johns Hopkins Univer- sity, examines the child individually and makes a diagnosis. His pro- cedure is described in the following paragraphs. Each child is given a Stanford-Binet intelligence test! to supplement the Kuhlmann-Anderson group test? and to ascertain his I.Q. If he is below 85 I.Q., enrolment in an opportunity class is recommended. Part of the Betts Ready to Read Tests® is administered next to obtain a record of the child’s visual perceptions. If he is found to have 1 The Stanford Revision of the Binet-Simon Scale. Printed test material published by Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston; other necessary material obtainable from C. H. Stoelting Co., Chicago. 2 The Kuhlmann-Anderson Intelligence Tests, published by the Educational Test Bureau, Min- neapolis. 3 Supplied by the Keystone View Co., Meadville, Pennsylvania. DIAGNOSTIC AND REMEDIAL PRACTISES 399 an eye defect, he is referred to the Wilmer Institute of the Johns Hop- kins Hospital. Treatment is free, but whenever glasses are required, the family is asked to buy them. Should the audiometer indicate an ear defect, the child is sent to an ear specialist for further examination and correction. As yet there is no specific test given as a check on the emotional characteristics of the child, altho the examiner includes his general impressions of the emotions when writing a record of the case. There is, however, special treatment of the child of marked instability. He is referred to the visiting teacher, who makes arrangements with one of the hospital clinies for psychiatric study. This teacher follows up the case by contacting both the principal and the parents, and by con- ferring with them whenever their help is needed. When the mental and physical examinations have been completed and the clinician feels that the individual is ready for further testing, he gives the Gates Diagnostic Tests in Reading,‘ including fourteen sub- tests. He then writes a detailed analysis of the case, setting forth the information revealed by the various tests and making suggestions and recommendations. Copies of this report are sent to the primary director, to the principal, and, if necessary, to the proper clinie for follow-up work. The director discusses the case with the primary supervisor of the child’s school, in order to prepare her for her next visit to the child’s class. The principal confers with the classroom teacher and they, together with the supervisor, plan the child’s program according to the information and recommendations set forth in the analysis sheets. A typical problem case—The following report is a typical case his- tory of a child who was tested twice with a lapse of over a year between tests. The first set of tests was given in February 1936 for purposes of diagnosis and recommendation, while the retest was given in May 1937 as a check on the child’s growth. As can readily be seen by com- paring the two summaries in Table 1, the results were most gratifying. Not only did the child improve perceptibly in reading, but he likewise overcame his personality problem. REPORT OF CASE NO. 168 Birthdate: 8-28-26 Chronological age: 9-6 Mental age: 8-2 Intelligence quotient: 86 School: No. 96, Grade IITB Father: Louis Address: 1428 N. Pine St. 4 Published, with certain exceptions, by the Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. 400 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Jerry was referred for reading diagnosis as doing IA reading in Grade IIIB. A Pintner-Cunningham test® in September 1933 gave him an I.Q. of 106. Achieve- ment tests agree on Grade IA as his reading level. He was examined at his school, beginning on February 28. A Stanford-Binet intelligence test was administered first and he scored a mental age of 8-2 on this, giving him an intelligence quotient of 86. He passed the clinical first-grade reading test, based at age six and scattered thru age ten. This places him within the group generally considered as regular-grade material but dull. Next Jerry was given the Betts visual tests. His vision showed need of further check, as his visual acuity was only 80 percent binocular, 70 percent left, and 80 percent right. He also failed to fuse at near-point. The tests of oculomotor and perception habits resulted in much tension and strain. His level of word recognition was poor (below first grade), but his letter recognition was satisfactory except for the letter q which he persistently called p. Some errors were: night for not, goat for good, my for arm, pig for big. His left eye was dominant in every test. His left hand was also preferred and is the hand he uses to write and throw. His hearing was checked by the 3A Audiometer, and a hearing loss of 40 percent was found in each ear. This may not be a reliable result, as there has been no other indication of hearing difficulty, but it merits further investigation. The Gates tests were begun at this sitting, but Jerry showed so much strain, particularly with the test of visual perception technics, that the testing was post- poned. He complained of headache and failed to return for the afternoon session. Neither was he present the next week when the examiner returned to the school. The testing was completed on March 13, but again Jerry was extremely upset, cried, and tried to beg off. The latter part of the test of visual perception technics was omitted for this reason, but responses to the remaining tests were secured. He did very well toward the end (associative learning, and memory span, q.v.). Accordinging to the results of the Gates tests, his weakest points appear to be poor oral reading, particularly mispronunciation and substitutions; wrong begin- nings of words; small eye-span; poor visual-perception technics (altho he has some fundamentals of word analysis, he is sadly lacking in self-confidence) ; letter reversals (there is no evidence of a marked tendency to reverse words) ; and giving letters for sounds. Both principal and teacher agree that Jerry is very poorly adjusted. His former teacher stated that he doesn’t play with other children, that his hands tremble when he reads, and that he frequently complains of headaches. He makes such statements as, “I had an awful week-end; I certainly did suffer.”’ His mother seems to be of similar make-up and apparently encourages these neurotic traits. He becomes very nervous and cries when she comes to the school. Recommendations—Jerry should be given a thoro physical examination. The eyes should be checked at the Wilmer Institute and he is being referred there. He is also being referred to the visiting teacher for further study of the personality difficulties. It would probably be unwise to attempt further remedial work pend- ing reports from these sources, but his grade teacher might be advised to put especial emphasis upon those aspects of reading listed above as offering most difficulty. He might adjust better in a slower-moving group, since his I.Q. is none too high and complications are so numerous. Progress shown by retest—The gain shown by Jerry on the retest (in May 1937) should gratify all those interested in his progress. His reading, altho it still involves strain, trembling hands, and more overt expenditure of energy than seems justified by the difficulty of the material, is much smoother and easier than when he was first tested (in February 1936). His gains may not seem great at first glance, but it must be remembered that the I.Q. of 86, plus the temperamental difficulties, 5 The Pintner-Cunningham Primary Mental Test, published by the World Book Co., Yonkers- on-Hudson, New York. OSS" ie | ee ee SS a) 6 6 CCCOCU™SS ee Oe vw w= ww EO RRR DIAGNOSTIC AND REMEDIAL PRACTISES 401 prognosticated extremely slow progress. He has gained a full year in oral reading and word pronunciation. In phonetic abilities he is nearly up to grade placement. One important error he makes consistently is the sounding of 7 as a long vowel in all situations. This, however, should not be hard to correct. His blending ability has improved more than 100 percent. His spelling has gained one full grade, and his memory span is much better than it was. His visual-perception results were irregular, but it must be considered that he was not wearing his glasses when tested. His principal says that he almost always does wear them. Hence it is probable that his test results would have been still higher if he had worn them when tested. At any rate, the evidence clearly shows that the present remedial instruction which he is receiving is doing him a great deal of good and should be continued. Best of all, he is no longer a personality problem. Success of the diagnostic and remedial program—The present plan of procedure for diagnosing and correcting serious reading difficulties has TABLE 1—Grape Scores or ONE Tuirp-Grape Puri, oN CERTAIN ParTS OF THE Gates DiacNostic Tests IN ReapInGc BerorE AND AFTER REMEDIAL TREATMENT Teen on Tee First Test Seconp TEST Gam? (Fepruary 1936) | (May 1937) (1) (2) (3) (4) Gray Oral Reading Paragraphs............. 1.8 2.7 0.9 eer rer rere 1.8 2.9 Pe Graded Word Pronunciation............... 1.9 2.9 1.0 Isolated Words—Reversals................ 1.9 Pee 0.8 Visual Perception Technics: 1. Phonogram Combinations............ 2.3 3. 0.8 2. Initial Vowel Syllables................ 2.95 3. 0.15 Auditory Perception Technics: 1. Blend Letter Sounds................. 1.3 2.2 0.9 2. Give Letters for Sound: Total......... 2.1 2.6 0.5 3. Give Words—Beginning Sounds....... 3.7% 3.0 —0.7 4. Give Words—Ending Sounds.......... 3.8 3.2 —0.6 Auditory Discrimination: 1. Repeat Nonsense Words.............. 3.0 4.1> :, Be BIEN THOU gg ook a o's 6s Sais cess 2.8 1.3 —1.5 Visual Perception: 1. Same—Different Figures.............. 8.5> 3.7 —4.8 2. Same—Different Numbers ............ 2.6 3.9 1.3 3. Selection of Figures.................. 4.8 7.0 2.2 Spelling and Writing: Bc Weeee OF TPG WOTED. 2.5 nsec ceeesss 2.4 3.4 1.0 Memory Span: NS ia. 3 aks hsca la db 6 Siok wim asorgde ae os Ps 5.3 6.0 0.7 ER ik ani bec eames e eee AS 4.4 7.0° 2.6 & Nonsense Syllables... ..........0.005. 4.5 5.5 1.0 eT SON a.ss bie co ease bam naess | 5.3 | 6.0 0.7 Read table: This pupil made a grade score of 1.8 on the Gray Oral Reading Paragraphs in February 1936, and a grade score of 2.7 on the same test in May 1937, thus showing a gain of 0.9 grades. Simi- larly read figures for the other types of test listed in column 1. *Figures in column 4 which are preceded by a minus (—) sign indicate a loss instead of a gain in grade score. bHighest possible score on the test. The pupil's ability may have exceeded this level, but could not be measured beyond it because of limitations of the test. 402 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS & proved very satisfactory in the two years it has been in practise. Except where a child’s I.Q. is so low that he needs special education, there are few cases that it has not helped. It has been found that the so-called extreme non-readers are usually suffering either from a physical defee; or from poor teaching technics, and not, as previously believed, from innate deficiencies. At present a committee is making a thoro investiga. tion of teaching methods used with non-readers. This committee jg planning, as a result of the study, to give to teachers detailed methods sat and prepared material for the treatment of children who are handj- er capped by outstanding reading weaknesses. of enc sul tea EMEDIAL instruction, as the phrase implies, is designed to I R improve abilities in which diagnosis has revealed defi- a li ciencies. Such teaching is intended to correct demonstrated nor weakness or to remove inappropriate habits. It emphasizes diff administering to individual needs since a type of instruction the seriously needed by one pupil may be disadvantageous to an- B pha other. Certain skills, such as those involved in a detailed visual val or phonetic analysis of words, may be incompletely developed con in one pupil, properly mastered by another, and so strongly (2) emphasized by a third as to interfere with fluency in reading. 5 in | The first pupil may need further training in ability to distin- B knc guish word-forms, whereas the second may need none, and the to ¢ third may need a type of experience which will counteract the effects of overemphasis on some one skill.—Gates, Arthur L., ~ The Improvement of Reading, Macmillan Co., 1935, p. 25. 3, (Quoted by permission of the publishers.) 4. ;, 0. ' app 17 = Ing ; semi wish © his ¢ —_., xcept e are alled lefect from stiga- ee is thods andi- DIAGNOSTIC AND REMEDIAL PRACTISES 403 CORRECTING THE READING DISABILITIES OF NINE SELECTED PUPILS Epwina Deans Primary Teacher, Central School, Evanston, Illinois EACHERS OF PRIMARY READING recognize the fact that a number of their children experience considerable difficulty in learning to read. They also know that many of the children who fail to make satisfactory progress in reading are of normal or even superior intelli- gence. The study reported here was undertaken to determine the nature of the reading difficulties which capable second-grade children experi- ence, and the extent to which such difficulties may be overcome by a suitable program of reading instruction.’ This article emphasizes the | teaching methods used and the results obtained. SELECTION OF PUPILS In order to study the problem stated above, it was necessary to isolate a limited number of children in Grade II who were normal or above normal in general intelligence and yet were experiencing considerable dificulty with reading. During the first six weeks of school in the fall, the second-grade teacher observed her pupils informally during all phases of their school work, and noted those factors which might be i valuable in selecting pupils of the desired type. Some of the factors s considered were (1) the child’s general interest in school activities, (2) his interest in different types of reading, (3) his interest and ability in language activities exclusive of reading, and (4) his general fund of | knowledge and information. In addition, the following tests were given | to all pupils: 1. Pintner-Cunningham Primary Mental Test? 2. Gates Primary Reading Test* (Types 2 and 3) 3. Metropolitan Reading Tests? (Primary) 4. Gray Standardized Oral Reading Check Tests * (for Grades I and IT) 5. Selected oral reading units. On the last mentioned test the child read orally a selection of approximately 250 words from a story which he had not read before. 1This study was carried out during the school year 1935 and 1936 while the writer was teach- ing a second grade in Greensboro, North Carolina. Interest in the subject was initiated in a seminar in elementary education conducted by Dr. John W. Carr at Duke University. The author wishes to express sincere appreciation for his valuable assistance in working out the study and for his criticism of this article. *Published by the World Book Company, Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York. *Published by the Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, New York. ‘Published by the Public School Publishing Co., Bloomington, Illinois. 404 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS While the child read the story from the book the examiner followed silently on a typewritten copy of the same story, marking all elrors, substitutions, omissions, repetitions, insertions, and even the comments made by the child. The examiner recorded all observations which ghe thought would aid in the understanding of the pupil’s reading difficulties and his attitude toward the subject. The final selection of nine pupils for intensive study was made at the end of the first six weeks’ period, and was determined by a carefy] | analysis of the test scores together with the information obtained from the observation of pupils. It was then necessary to plan a teaching pro. | gram which would be particularly adapted to the needs of these nine children.® Tue TEACHING PROGRAM The close kinship of the child’s ability to use language and his ability to learn to read is generally recognized. Language may be conceived as a medium for the expression of experiences. Reading may be viewed as a process by which the child reconstructs these experiences. In a measure he relives these experiences as he gleans meaning from the printed page. The typical child on entering school has no reading ability but he does possess much language ability. Somewhere along the road to reading | maturity his ability to read overtakes his ability to use language in other ways, and reading becomes the medium for obtaining many new experiences which he could never realize thru a lifetime of real experi- ences. Stories dictated by the children—Much of the individual work with these nine selected pupils followed directly from the recognition of language ability as fundamental to reading ability. Individual instruc- er or tion consisted largely in the reconstruction of language units into read- | ing material. The child made up a story which he dictated to the teacher. She printed the story sentence by sentence, while the child watched and read and reread the story as it progressed. When the child was able to read the story as a complete unit, it was broken up into parts. First, sentences were selected from the story for reading. Next, difficult phrases were isolated and read. Finally, words which would very likely be needed in later stories were presented to the child with other words that were very similar in form. This method of presentation necessitated careful word analysis on the part of the child for accurate recognition. 3 The Gray Standardized Oral Reading Check Tests were given at intervals of approximately one month thruout the teaching period, while the selected oral reading units were given at inter- vals of approximately one week during this period. The results from both types of tests were analvzed and studied in an effort to understand why the errors were made and how they could be eliminated. i lowed errors, iments ch she culties at the areful 1 from & pro- € nine ability ved as ved as easure | page, e does ading age in y new xperi- < with ion of struc- read- ‘0 the child it was ry for words ted to vethod of the ximately at inter- sts were py could story. DIAGNOSTIC AND REMEDIAL PRACTISES 405 The dictated story is full of meaning for the child since it is a product of his own creation and is built out of his own experiences. Then, too, there is definite value to the child in watching the actual building up of his thoughts into a reading unit. This word-by-word, phrase-by-phrase, and sentence-by-sentence development of a story helps the child to sense the different elements of reading and their rela- tionship to the unit in its entirety. Naturally, it was necessary for the teacher to keep the word content of the child’s story somewhat within his reading vocabulary. Often substitute words were suggested and sentences were shortened when this could be done without materially changing the child’s rendition of the In addition to the individual instruction, these nine selected pupils received much group instruction. While an effort was made to select prepared reading materials that would be of interest to the group and well adapted to their reading abilities, much of the early group reading material resulted from the reconstruction of group experiences. An experience which had been shared by the group was dictated to the teacher by the children. The story of this experience was printed on large sheets of unprinted newspaper or tag board and was used as a reading unit. Analysis and recognition of words—All word analysis thruout the teaching period was keyed to meaningful reading material. The pur- pose was to have word analysis take place as a part of the actual process of reading. The children were guided in working out words for themselves by “beginning the word”—that is, by recognizing the initial sound or blend and using this aid together with that of looking ahead and guessing from the context. This device proved very helpful by increasing considerably their successful use of context. Helping the child to relate unknown words to known ones also proved a valuable aid in reading. For example, if a child already knew the words sick and pick and met the new word lick, the known words, together with the initial sound and the context, helped him in the suc- cessful reading of the new word. If a child read the word tall as “fall” he might be asked, “If this word were fall, it would have to begin with what letter?” (It would have to begin with the letter f.) In these and similar instances the children where using phonies, altho phonics was not taught as a separate subject but only as a definite need for it arose in the reading units. By continual repetition in various situations, the different blends and sounds became generalizations for the child. 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When the poor reader attempts to read silently material that is too difficult for him, vocalization, the use of markers, pointing, and many other so-called “crutches” are in evidence. It might be said that this child reads with his whole self, whereas in the mature reader these physical evidences of reading are much less obvious. However, a child who exhibits very poor reading habits with difficult material may show evidence of relatively mature habits when he is presented with easy reading material. This seems to be true in oral as well as in silent reading. It was a marked observation of the teacher in this study that the children displayed much more mature habits in reading the instructional materials, than in reading the more difficult passages in the oral reading tests mentioned above. Thus, it is clear that the selection of materials adapted to the child’s interest and level of maturity in reading is essential to successful read- ing at that level. Just as important is careful guidance of the child thru higher and higher levels of maturity until he has reached the highest level which he is capable of attaining. RESULTS OF THE PROGRAM Gains in test scores—The success of the remedial teaching may be estimated in part by the gains of these nine pupils in reading ability during the four and one-half months of instruction, as measured by standardized reading tests. As shown in Table 1, the gain in reading grade on the Gates Type 2 test, which includes phrase and sentence reading, ranged from .20 to 1.50. On the Type 3 test, which includes following directions and large-unit reading, the gain in reading grade ranged from .90 to 1.75. On the Metropolitan Reading Tests, which represent a variety of reading abilities, the gains ranged from 1.00 to 1.50. From the average gains reported for individual pupils in Table 1, it will be seen that each of these pupils gained more than two months in reading ability for each month of teaching. In other words, the gain in every case was more than twice as great as would normally have been expected for the learning period of four and a half months. In a few instances the average gain was almost three times as great as would normally have been expected. Further evidence of the progress of these nine pupils is found in the results of the Gray oral reading tests. Table 2, which presents the results obtained from four of these tests on as many different dates, shows the number of minutes and seconds required for the oral reading 408 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS ———_____ TABLE 2—Procress or NINE SeconD-GRADE PUPILS ON THE GRAY STANDARDIZED OraL Reapinc Cueck Tests ror Grapes | anp II Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Test 4 (NOVEMBER 1) (DeceMBER 15) (Fesrvuary 25) (Marcu 25) PuPILs Time | Number} Time | Number| Time | Number| Time | Number Required] of Errors | Required] of Errors | Required] of Errors | Required] of Errors (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) A 5:15 22 3:30 13 4:20 9 2:30 11 B 5:45 34 3:50 21 3:10 7 2:05 10 C 8:00 30 3:50 15 3:25 9 2:05 9 D 9:00 54 3:55 19 2:10 12 1:45 9 E 9:30 44 5:15 28 5:30 20 3:00 7 F 7:20 39 6:00 19 4:45 25 3:00 1] G 6:15 30 4:40 23 3:50 22 3:30 14 H 9:30 49 5:50 27 4:00 1] 3:30 7 I 6:00 24 3:40 21 4:20 12 1:50 6 Read table: Pupil A read the Gray Test No. 1 in 5 minutes and 15 seconds, making 22 errors, He read Test No. 2 in 3 minutes and 30 seconds, making 13 errors; Test No. 3 in 4 minutes and 20 seconds, making 9 errors; and Test No. 4 in 2 minutes and 30 seconds, making 11 errors. Similarly read figures for each of the other pupils. of each selection and also the total number of errors made during the reading. Each of the tests contains a total of 150 words. The errors made on Test 1 ranged from 22 to 54; on Test 2, from 13 to 28; on Test 3, from 7 to 25; and on Test 4, from 6 to 14. The time required for the reading of each successive test decreased proportionately with the number of errors. At the time of the last test, none of the nine pupils had yet reached the median for Grade II in oral reading as measured by these tests,* but a study of the scores shows a decided improvement in reading efficiency during the instructional period. Correction of specific errors—However, the whole story of a pupil’s reading cannot be told in terms of rate and accuracy scores alone. An analysis of the errors made and an attempt to discover why they are made yield valuable information for the teacher of reading. From this viewpoint, the progress of Pupil D is of special interest. It took this pupil a total of 9 minutes to read selection No. 1, and she made a total of 54 errors. An analysis of her test paper revealed the following: 1. She constantly confused little words, such as of and for, is and it, had and out. 2. She was not consistent in making these errors. 3. She had little regard for, or understanding of, punctuation. ® Gray places the standard mid-year scores for rate and accuracy in Grade II at 112 seconds and 6 errors, respectively, for a given selection. (Pr errors, and 20 milarly x the TTOrS 3; on uired with nine ig as cided upil’s lone. they From took ade a ving: d out. seconds DIAGNOSTIC AND REMEDIAL PRACTISES 409 4, She frequently omitted final s’s and other letters at the ends of words, such as min them, and y in they. 5. Substitutions which she made at times showed some knowledge of reading for understanding; at other times they appeared foreign to the content. 6. She was very poor in word recognition. Nineteen words in the selection had to be supplied for her. 7, Some substitutions gave evidence of using characteristic letters as clues to words. For example, the word pretty was called “Patty” or “Peggy.” This pupil showed marked improvement on Test 2, which was given six weeks later. The time required for reading this selection was 3:55, and the number of errors was 19. On the first test she had failed to attempt 19 words. On the second test there were only 5 words which she did not attempt. On Test 3 this pupil’s time for reading was decreased to 2:10 and her errors totaled 12 for the selection. Analysis of this test perform- ance showed the substitution of two words in several instances as follows: 1. No other was read as “not more.” 2. Now open was read as “new door.” 3. Can hear was read as “came near.” 4. In those was read as “it goes.” Her errors of this type were probably due to increase in speed and to her attempt to grasp larger units of reading material. On Test 4, given on March 25, this pupil read the selection in 1:45 and made a total of 9 errors. These errors included one instance of non-recognition, five substitutions (none of which impaired the mean- ing of the selection), two omissions (the words omitted were be and the), and one repetition which was obviously an attempt at better un- derstanding. Inconsistency of errors—The inconsistency of errors made by in- dividual pupils on the oral reading tests was quite noticeable. For ex- ample, one pupil failed to recognize eight words on the Gray oral read- ing test No. 5. Three days later she reread the same material, and altho she again failed to recognize eight words, only three of the non- recognitions in the first reading were duplicated in the second reading. Five words which were successfully recognized in the first reading were not recognized in the second reading. A study of the substitutions made on the oral reading tests showed a similar inconsistency. The substitution of a word seemed to be influ- enced very largely by the meaning which the child was trying to put into the given unit of material, as well as by the similarity of the physical features of the word being substituted to those of the word being read. For instance, the same child read the word there on differ- 410 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS ent occasions as “here,” “then,” “where,” “the,” “they,” “it.” She read the word pretty as “beautiful,” and the word glad as “happy.” An explanation for the inconsistency of errors in the reading of these children may be found thru a consideration of reading as a series of thought units. The recognition of the words making up these thought units seems to depend to a great extent upon the relation of the words to the unit as a whole. A given word is not always the same to the child who is confronted with the problem of interpreting it in different read- ing units or in various reading situations. IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING PROCEDURE Three practical conclusions may be drawn from this study. In the first place, it seems advisable to provide pupils who have unusual diffi- culty in reading with as much individual reading instruction as pos- sible. Group instruction is not adequate for these children. The oral reading test technic is highly recommended for discovering the indi- vidual reading difficulties of pupils. Careful and thoughtful analysis of the results of oral reading tests given at frequent intervals, together with an intelligent effort to understand the child and his reading prob- lems, will furnish invaluable information for the teacher who desires to help her pupils improve in reading ability. In the second place, all word study should be carried on as needed in connection with larger reading units. Here also, language concepts have an important part to play. If a child confuses the words where and there, the teacher should be sure that the child can distinguish them from the standpoint of meaning and language use. If their meanings are understood, the child is then ready to learn the part of the word where which makes it say “where” (wh), and the part of the word there which makes it say “there” (th). In the third place, meaningful units of material should furnish the basis for the teaching of reading. These reading units should at least in part be built up out of the child’s language experiences. Where pos- sible, the child should really live the experience about which he is to read, and should then relive the experience by telling it in language form. In this way he can bring to his reading a background of meaning which makes the reading itself vital and interesting. 1 the diffi- pos- oral indi- is of ther rob- sires d in nave and hem ings vord vord the east pos- s to lage ning DIAGNOSTIC AND REMEDIAL PRACTISES 411 A PRACTICAL APPROACH TO REMEDIAL READING Paut A. Wirty Professor of Education, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois HE RESULTS OF RESEARCH at every school level confirm the gen- eral observation that our schools have not developed effective reading skills and habits in a majority of young people.’ Clearly, our major problem is to reorganize the entire school curriculum so that all children will have functionally meaningful experiences which will produce effective skills and enduring interests in reading. In addition, practical programs in remedial reading should be undertaken to allevi- ate the conspicuous reading limitations of an unjustifiably large num- ber of American school children. A defensible program of remedial instruction must aim to bring about any necessary changes in the child’s adjustment to his in-and- out-of-school environment. To provide successful adjustment and bet- ter orientation, it is essential to study the child’s present way of adapt- ing himself to life. One must explore his activities, his problems, and his dominating interests. Thru these avenues one may achieve some understanding of his needs in making more successful social adapta- tions. It is necessary also to ascertain the child’s general level of men- tal maturity, his physical status, his emotional drives and thwartings, his home conditions, and indeed every factor which may be contribut- ing to his academic or personal maladjustment. The problem of the “non-reader” is still open to debate. Non-readers do not differ sharply from other poor readers, altho it is frequently assumed that the former possess constitutional irregularities which necessitate a particular kind of treatment. Thoro examinations of non- readers have shown that no single pattern or lack (such as impaired visual imagery) characterizes these children.? They, like all poor read- ers, need individual attention directed to their many and varied needs.® Gates believes that, altho very analytic technics (such as those of Mon- roe or Fernald) may help in rare instances, it is preferable to use with non-readers a more natural method, “working from a recognition of whole words to recognition of parts.” This method was used success- 1Such studies have been reported by Durrell, Marion Monroe, W. 8. Gray, Gates, Betts, and Center, all of whom stress the high frequency of preventable or remediable retardation in read- ing among both elementary- and secondary-school children. See also the article by Horn in Chapter IV.—Editorial Committee. See: Fernald, Grace M., and Keller, Helen. ‘The Effect of Kinaesthetic Factors in the De- velopment of Word Recognition in the Case of Non-readers.’’ Journal of Educational Research rates thd December 1921. (Recommends systematic, kinaesthetic drills followed by word-building 8 Monroe, Marion. Children Who Cannot Read. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1932. 205 p. (Recommends emphasis upon phonetic drills leading to word perception.) 412 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS fully in a CWA project in New York City by approximately 500 teach- ers working with non-readers or very poor readers. The details of this program and the steps followed in teaching are set forth in The Im- provement of Reading.* This account contains many suggestions espe- cially helpful to the teacher who is planning remedial work for non- readers or other extreme cases of reading retardation. The outstanding success of this program demonstrated beyond per- adventure that inexperienced teachers—competently directed—can gain insight into the needs of poor readers and can use ingenuity and skill in remedial endeavor. Moreover, the experiment showed clearly that almost all poor readers can learn to read, provided that appro- ‘priate, easy reading materials are used in a properly motivated and guided sequence. Another approach which has proved successful upon both the ele- mentary- and the secondary-school levels is illustrated by the work of several hundred teachers who have developed remedial programs under the guidance of the writer. These teachers were enrolled in classes with the writer at Northwestern University. Several teaching centers were provided in Chicago and its vicinity wherein teachers might observe diagnostic and remedial procedures. Purpose and scope of the Chicago project—The purpose of these centers was primarily to demonstrate methods, and to provide and to develop reading materials which teachers might examine critically and adapt to their needs in regular classrooms.’ The remedial groups were formed in various ways. In one school, for example, the children were selected only after the entire school population had been tested men- tally and educationally. The test results, however, served merely as a rough sifting device, and were supplemented by observation and evalu- ation of every child’s actual performance in silent and oral reading. In addition, the books and other materials previously read by each child were ascertained. There was no attempt to predict what any child should accomplish in view of the discrepancy between his mental age and his reading age. An attempt was made merely to change the child by placing him in a situation conducive to pleasant and success- ful reading from books chosen in accord with his ability and interest. Of the 1023 pupils enrolled in this school, approximately 110 in Grades III to VIII were designated as having problems in reading.® 4 Gates, Arthur I. The Improvement of Reading. Revised edition. New York: Macmillan Co., 1935. 668 p. Chapter 14, ‘‘Remedial Instruction for ‘Non-Readers’—Cases of Extreme Disability,” p. 436-66. A somewhat similar program for secondary-school children is described in: Center, Stella S., and Persons, G. L. Teaching High-School Students to Read. New York: D. Appleton- Century Co., 1937. 167 p. 5 Day-by-day records of the work in the centers were made available to all teachers. 6 Data on the extent of reading retardation in another school participating in the experiment are presented in the article by Fitzgerald in this chapter. — ch- his pe- on- er- can and rly TrO- and ele- c of der vith rere I've 1ese 1 to and vere vere len- iS a alu- ing. ach any ntal the ess- “est. ) in ng. | Co., lity,” enter, eton- iment DIAGNOSTIC AND REMEDIAL PRACTISES 413 For these 110, eight small classes were organized. Each class met daily for forty minutes in an attractive room equipped with several hun- dred books, including 100 new books particularly suitable to these children’s interests and needs, 40 sets of the Children’s Book Shelf,” 80 items from the Unit Study Readers,’ and copies of My Weekly Reader,® Story Parade,’® Building America,"' and numerous other periodicals. The Witty-Kopel Diagnostic Child Study Record ** consisting of eight forms, was employed for recording the following types of data about each child: (1) the results of standardized tests; (2) measures of vision, hearing, and “dominance tendency”; (3) analyses from an interest in- ventory and reports on a booklist; (4) results of diagnosis of informal oral and silent reading (not measured by tests); (5) the child’s school history and the teacher’s observations of his behavior; (6) an evalua- tion of the child’s general adjustment and of several related phases of reading; (7) a report of his physical status; and (8) information con- cerning the home background. A competent staff of psychologists as- sisted teachers in this phase of the work, which was incidental to the larger aspects of the enterprise. Procedures used with primary children—To obviate reading diffi- culty at its onset, the children in Grades I, II, and III also were studied. A chart disclosing individual growth and reading readiness was devel- oped, and suitable experience and instruction were provided for these children, including some who already had “failed” in reading. The emphasis thruout was upon understanding each child and upon pro- viding rich and varied experiences as necessary complements of, or prerequisites to, meaningful reading. The lives of many of these cbil- dren appeared barren; therefore, firsthand examination of their envi- ronment was provided thru excursions, trips, and group games to en- rich their experience and to lead them to express in oral discussions and in dictated compositions their vital group experiences. Later, these compositions were read, and individual and group vocabularies were ™The Children’s Book Shelf. Boston: Ginn and Co. A series of graded and individually titled readers for the elementary grades. 8 Unit Study Readers. Columbus, Ohio: American Education Press. Of the eighty booklets in this series, fifteen are designed for each of the first four grades, and ten each for Grades V and VI. Each volume deals with a separate topic. ®My Weekly Reader. Columbus, Ohio: American Education Press. Published weekly thruout the school year in five editions for Grades I-VI. Story Parade. New York: Story Parade Editorial Office (70 Fifth Avenue). A monthly maga- zine for children of approximately nine to eleven vears of age. "Society for Curriculum Study. Building America. New York: the Society (425 West 123rd Street). Published eight times a year. “This set of record forms, together with the accompanying manual. may be obtained from the Northwestern University Psycho-Educational Clinic, Evanston, Illinois. Detailed instruc- tional procedures and booklists may also be secured. The manner in which the record forms have been used is well described also in: Fitzgerald, James A. ‘‘Psychology in the Reading Clinic.” Elementary English Review 14: 133-37, 152; April 1937. 414 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS assembled. Most of the children were introduced thereafter to a sim- ple story which related to and extended their individual interests, New experiences in reading also were planned for children in groups. The success of this work was so apparent that primary instruction in general was appreciably influenced in these schools. The most conspiec- uous changes in the regular classes were associated with extending and integrating children’s experiences and with providing greater freedom for their growth. Procedures used with intermediate and advanced groups—The fol- lowing paragraphs indicate some typical features of the plan used with the intermediate and advanced groups. To insure that the work would be characterized by order and appropriate specificity, a tentative, flexible plan for reading was developed each week. Much time and effort were spent in attempting to understand the children. An individ- ual interview (requiring thirty to forty minutes) was held with each child in order to effect a friendly, sympathetic teacher-pupil relation- ship, and to yield suggestions regarding the types of books and periodi- cals most closely related to his individual needs. During this interview an interest and activity questionnaire ** was used to help the teacher understand the child’s problems and attitudes. The basic plan also in- cluded provision for abundant oral and written expression, for voluntary participation in many wholesome activities, and for “free” reading from a rich offering of books and magazines containing structurally simple stories in keeping with the children’s diversified interests. Directions for a two-day segment of a typical program were as follows: 1. On the basis of the interviews and the class discussion of interests and of books, the teacher should prepare individual assignments for silent reading from the Children’s Book Shelf (or similar materials). The particular book to be used should be chosen according to the child’s reading ability as shown by the objective test data and other appraisals, and the individual assignment should result from the teacher’s estimate of its relevance to the child’s interests. Care should be used to select individual stories from several books in the series; these episodes should be short enough to be completed in time for the children to write frank comments. The teacher should select easy reading material. She will be aided in her selection by interest analyses of the stories in the Children’s Book Shelf which now accom- pany the books. This series of books appears to have several advantages for this phase of remedial reading. The grade for which each book is designed is indicated only by the number of crescents on the title page, and is therefore unknown to the child. The stories are short enough to be finished generally in twenty or twenty-five minutes, and they are all new and fresh. 2. The children should be given the assignment during a very informal discus- sion of materials and the manner of their selection. They should be told that after they have finished the prescribed reading, they should jot down the answers to the questions, Did you like the story? Would you like to read more stories similar to this one? Before papers are collected, a few oral responses may well be solicited. 18 This questionnaire, or interest inventory, constitutes Form III of the Diagnostic Child Study Record, and may be obtained apart from the other forms. — Lo 2s ua ~~ em sim- ests. ups. nm in spic- and dom fol- with ould tive, and vid- pach jlon- odi- view cher ) in- tary rom nple ions ooks, - the ould test . the id to d be ents. stion -om- this ated » the -five 3cus- after » the nilar ited. Study DIAGNOSTIC AND REMEDIAL PRACTISES 415 3, The teacher should remind the children that they will not be graded or scored upon additional comments which they make about the story, and that the teacher wants these papers in order that she may become better informed concerning selec- tions which interest the children. 4. It is not necessary that every child read a different story. Perhaps only five different stories will be read by the class at one time. But the material read by every child should be related to his particular interests and consonant with his ability. Thus, several children may be reading from three different parts of the book desig- nated by five crescents; others from different sections in book four, and still others from sections in additional books. 5. The books read in class are not to be taken home. The teacher should not introduce any home reading until the child’s antipathy or indifference toward reading, if present, has been dispelled. Similar outlines for introducing many other activities were devel- oped in conferences with teachers. Plans were made also for trips in which various groups participated. One activity, suggested by a pic- ture, “The Seeing Eye,” led to a visit to a near-by school for the deaf, and subsequently to related individual and group expression. Outcomes of the project—The results of the procedures outlined above cannot be estimated in the usual way. All participating children gained in reading skill, according to the results of standardized read- ing tests. In one class the average gain in silent reading, in oral read- ing, and in vocabulary was approximately three-fourths of the retarda- tion (a gain of one and one-half years). This was achieved in one semes- ter. However, while every group made gains on standardized tests, the larger improvements were reflected in the following ways: 1. An increase in the amount of leisure or supplementary reading was shown by the fact that the average number of books read in twelve weeks was 18 for one group, 14 for another, and 24 for another. 2. Increased quality was evident in a better selection of books by the pupils. In twelve weeks, the quality of the children’s choices was raised by one full year.* 3. Extended and intensified reading interests were exhibited in children’s records, which showed that patterns of reading were being enriched and integrated. 4. Desirable change was displayed in more suitable and more varied forms of play and recreation. Thus, wide reading provides its own antidote in the form of increased and varied activities. 5. All “non-readers” achieved some reading ability. A study of their gains re- vealed that the problem of teaching the non-reader is not that of finding and remedying one particular defect, but rather that of ascertaining the combination of difficulties peculiar to each individual and providing a well-motivated individual program for eliminating or reducing those difficulties. The aim of this remedial project was primarily to develop proce- dures and materials which could be used profitably with poor readers in typical classes. Consequently, those approaches which have been tried and found valuable will be transferred to the regular classes, where they will become an integral phase of the larger task of helping all children to develop and learn most effectively. “Quality level was estimated according to the typical change exhibited from year to year in children’s choices from the booklist. 416 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS A COOPERATIVE PROJECT IN REMEDIAL READING VirciniA Wise Marx, Psychologist and Auice E. Hin ktey, Visiting Teacher Westchester County Children’s Association, White Plains, New York by the Westchester County Children’s Association in coopera- Ts ARTICLE tells how a remedial reading project was developed tion with the public schools of the county. Attention here js focused upon the administrative and supervisory phases of the project, | rather than upon specific remedial methods. It is believed that a dis- | cussion of these broader aspects will be especially interesting and help- ful to schools where facilities for a remedial program in reading are | either inadequate or entirely lacking. Origin of the project—The Westchester County Children’s Associa- tion is a private organization that assists the public departments which are working with children—such as the child welfare and recreational | departments, the children’s court, and the schools—by means of dem- | onstrations, special services, scholarships, and other supplementary | aid. For a number of years the Association has conducted demonstra- tions designed to promote visiting-teacher or individual-counseling service in the schools. For two years beginning in 1934—the year in which the remedial reading project was initiated—the visiting teacher on the Association’s staff accepted for care, at the request of various school principals thruout the county, a number of children who were active behavior and personality problems in school. It was the hope of the Association and of many principals that the salvage effected in even a few of these cases would help to arouse community interest in this type of service, and to bring about the addition of a visiting teacher or counselor to the school staff. The present program of remedial reading grew directly from the need of providing remedial instruction for-two children who had been referred to the Association as serious behavior problems. One was a boy of thirteen, said to be incorrigible, and the other a girl of nine, who, from a feeling of inadequacy because of her inability to read anything beyond a primer, “played dumb” in class to avoid being called on and was thought to have but limited ability. It was not until the child came | to know the psychologist very well that this barrier was broken down, and she was found to have superior intelligence. Help for these children was first asked, not by the schools, but by two social agencies in the county, namely, the Children’s Court and the County Department of Family and Child Welfare. When it was found a on ee ped era- € is ject, dis- elp- are cia- hich onal em- tra- ling r in cher ous vere 2 of | in t in ing the een sa ho, ing und me wn, t he ind DIAGNOSTIC AND REMEDIAL PRACTISES 417 that other agencies working with maladjusted children, including a child guidance clinic, had felt the need for such remedial service, it was thought that a project might be provided which would (1) assist in- dividual children who are sometimes discouraged, sometimes rebellious, but badly in need of help; and (2) help to equip schools with special facilities for meeting these problems. The remedial reading project was then organized in cooperation with the public schools to demonstrate further the value of specialized treat- ment for children with reading handicaps, and to help work out a prac- tical plan for providing such treatment in a number of schools. Early procedures—In the beginning, in order to get work under way at once for the children referred, most of the special services needed— such as those of a psychologist, visiting teacher, and remedial tutor— were supplied directly by the Association. The study of each child was undertaken after consultation with the principal and classroom teacher, and the remedial instruction was carried on within the school from three to five periods a week. In securing tutors in reading, an attempt was made to find teachers who had had special training for remedial work. Since this was not al- ways possible, a training plan was continuously carried on. In this con- nection a bibliography covering methods of teaching reading and tech- nics of remedial instruction was provided, and definite reading assign- ments were made to the tutors. A loan collection of books and articles on the treatment of reading disabilities was assembled, and later books and supplementary materials for use by the children were added. The tutors also observed remedial lessons given by the psychologist. Group conferences were held for all those working on the project. The pro- gram for these meetings was alternately that of a conference on in- dividual cases, including a comparison of technics and materials used, and a review and discussion of recent publications on reading difficulties. The actual remedial instruction was supervised by the psychologist. In this way, until a year ago, the major part of the work has taken place in a considerable number of schools, in each of which a small number of children, individually referred, have been studied and have received remedial instruction. At the present time a few children in isolated schools are still accepted for study and remedial work on this same basis. Modification of the plan—During the past year, however, emphasis has been placed on giving a more complete service to a smaller number of schools. Under this plan, at the request of a principal, the services of a psychologist and visiting teacher are supplied to his school for 418 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS a period sufficient to permit a study of all children in the school who are having special difficulty with reading. Most of these children are in the second, third, and fourth grades. For each child for whom study is requested a referral sheet jg filled out by the school, giving data about change of schools, past and present school attendance, achievement in reading and other subjects as indicated by term marks and achievement test scores, level of intelligence, reading difficulties and remedial work given at home or at school, the child’s general behavior and adjustment to other children, home conditions with particular reference to the parents’ attitude toward the child’s difficulty, and the results of any eye and ear exami- nations given at the school. Information about methods which have been employed in teaching the child to read is obtained thru confer- ences with the principal and teachers. By this new plan, instead of having a tutor furnished by the Association, the principal schedules one or more of the regular teachers to give remedial instruction to the children studied. Diagnostic study of the child—The children accepted for study are those whose reading ages are below their mental ages. To determine mental ages, intelligence tests are administered to the children who have not already been tested. If the school has given only group intelli- gence tests, individual Stanford-Binet examinations‘ are given to those children whose I.Q.’s on the group test are below 100. This is thought advisable because the group tests are not as reliable as the individual tests, and are dependent upon reading. If the school has not already given reading achievement tests, these are then given. Children with I.Q.’s below 80 or whose reading levels are approximately equivalent to their mental ages are not further studied. The diagnostic study of the remaining children, whose reading ages are one year or more below their mental ages, utilizes the following tests and related technics: 1. Intelligence test (mentioned above) 2. Reading tests to determine the child’s general level in silent and in oral read- ing (mentioned above) 3. Spelling tests 4. If not previously given by the school, a test in arithmetic fundamentals (since these are much less dependent on reading than are narrative problems) 5. Diagnostic Reading Examination? by Marion Monroe 6. Selected tests from the Gates Diagnostic Tests in Reading * 1 Stanford Revision of the Binet-Simon Scale, published by Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston; nec- essary materials supplied by C. H. Stoelting Co., Chicago. 2 Published by C. H. Stoelting Co., Chicago. 3 Published, with one or two exceptions, by the Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Co- lumbia University, New York City. Ba lay who are t is and ects l of e Or ren, ude mi- ave fer- | of one the are line vho ]li- ose ght ual dy ith J ges ing nce 1ec- DIAGNOSTIC AND REMEDIAL PRACTISES 419 7, A visual examination by a worker who has been trained in orthoptics by an experienced oculist. This consists of preliminary tests for visual acuity, fusion, and muscle balance. In case some visual difficulty is noted by the examiner, the parents are notified and the suggestion is made that the child’s eyes be examined by an oculist engaged in private practise, or that the child be taken to a nearby clinic in which the oculist is experienced and interested in corrective work. g, A hearing examination by the school nurse, who uses an audiometer. 9. A parent interview in all cases except those in which the diagnostic examina- tion reveals that the difficulty is due to gaps in learning caused by frequent change of schools, absences from school, or teaching methods not suited to the child’s particular needs. This interview is conducted by the visiting teacher. 10. A case conference including the principal, classroom teacher, remedial teacher, psychologist, and visiting teacher. The plan for remedial instruction and recom- mendations for social treatment are made at this time. 11. A report to the parent. This is usually given verbally by the principal or a member of the project staff. Since it is as important to prevent the development of reading diffi- culties as to correct those at hand, reading-readiness tests are given to the kindergarten class at the end of each school year to determine which children are ready to read and which ones need preliminary training to develop reading readiness. Providing remedial instruction—The provision for remedial teachers has been arranged by the schools in various ways, and without employ- ing additional personnel except in one instance. In one school system, in which the first three grades were in session a half day only, teachers of these grades were able to conduct several remedial periods daily. One kindergarten teacher was able to devote the full afternoon session to this work, while another gave it two periods in spite of her library duties. The principal in one school undertook the work with one boy because he wished to obtain a firsthand acquaintance with remedial methods. In a number of schools the child’s own classroom teacher gave him remedial instruction during the class period or after school. In the one instance in which additional teaching service was employed, a sub- stitute teacher was assigned to work with one boy who had a very severe difficulty, and also to take one of the remedial groups. The remedial instruction is given individually to children who are non-readers or who are severely handicapped. As a rule, groups of from three to five children are formed. It is usually possible for the children who at first require individual help to join one of these groups later. During the period of remedial instruction the psychologist makes weekly visits to the school to observe this work and to plan subsequent procedure with the teacher. Check-up reading tests are given to the children approximately every three months. Preparing supplementary reading material—A feature of the project which helps in working with some children is a group of simplified stories prepared by workers on the project for use as supplementary 420 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS a reading material. Many of these stories—in some cases original, jp others adapted—were prepared with the reading levels and special interests of individual children in mind. In general, the vocabulary wags simplified to correspond with the levels of the Gates word list.* Ay effort was made to relate the subjectmatter and treatment to the inter. ests of children from nine to twelve years of age, while using a vocabu- lary corresponding to that of primer and first-grade material. Altho many illustrations were included, the characteristic appearance of g primer was avoided because of the sensitiveness of many of these chil- dren about being seen with books which are known to be for younger children. Social treatment of the case—Concurrently with the remedial instruc. tion in reading, indicated social treatment is carried on by the Asso- | ciation’s visiting teacher or, in many cases, by the social agency pre- | viously interested in the child. This may involve further consultation with parents because of a need for a clearer understanding of the emo- tional causes of easy discouragement, inattention, difficulty in adjusting at to other children, and other factors which may seem especially to handi- | cap the child in his attack on reading. It may also include arranging | for the child’s participation in a recreational or organized group, either in or out of school, in which he has interest and possibly a special aptitude, and which may bring him an experience of successful achieve- ment to offset his feeling of failure about reading. Conclusion—The program as here outlined involves the use of | resources not always available to the average school. However, the continued development of social and educational programs designed to help maladjusted children seems inevitable, and the Association believes that the present project gives further evidence of the desir- ability both of undertaking work with many such children at a point which makes it truly preventive, and of locating the necessary facil- | ities for such work within the school system. The school is obviously a center from which many problems may be adjusted with the least discomfiture to the child. ee ooo Recognizing that most schools must have help beyond actual demon- | stration in enlisting community understanding and financial support of such “frills” as psychologists and visiting teachers, the Association each year sponsors a number of interpretive meetings for this purpose. One such meeting is the annual “School Day,” to which school administra- tors, teachers, and representatives of parent-teacher associations and other interested organizations, as well as schoolboard members and lay 4Gates, Arthur I. A Reading Vocabulary for the Primary Grades. Revised and enlarged edi- tion. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1935. 29 p. PORES: ee ce cee, Te: ame ie cen EE en oe noe DIAGNOSTIC AND REMEDIAL PRACTISES 421 a, al, in | individuals, are invited. The meeting is held in one of the schools in pecial | the county, and an interpretation of a current educational problem is Y was | presented. At last year’s meeting a round-table discussion on reading .* An | problems was held, in which representatives of twelve schools partici- inter. — pated. Other informal meetings, at which the work of the remedial caby. | reading project was discussed, have been arranged in the various com- Altho | munities by friends and lay committees of the Association. of 2 It was a source of much pleasure to learn that one school which » chil. § cooperated in the project last year has since added a psychologist to its unger | staff to continue this remedial work as a regular part of the school program. struc- FF Asso- r pre- ‘ation emo- isting ; ' andi- guess more deficiency in reading can be traced to dis- nging couragement through failure, and the consequent attitude sither of antagonism toward reading, than to any other cause. Many neal children hate the reading lesson simply because it compels taal them to exhibit before their companions their ignorance or lack of skill. A child caught in this situation is very frequently ~~ scolded or held up to ridicule. If this condition is once allowed ¥ P. to arise, a child may go on from year to year with scarcely any improvement because he never looks at a book unless he has to and then with a distinct aversion. When he is supposed to be reading, his attention wanders, so that very little reading is really done, and consequently no improvement of skill re- point sults—Dolch, Edward W., The Psychology and Teaching of facil- | Reading, Ginn and Co., 1931, p. 241. (Quoted by permission ously § of the publishers.) least igned ation lesir- mon- § wrt of each One F stra- and 1 lay d edi- © 422 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 16. 17. 18. 19. 21. . Baxer, Harry J., and Letanp, Bernice. In Behalf of Non-Readers. Blooming. . Berrs, Emmett A., and Donne.LLy, HEe.en E. “Systematic Instruction for Re. tarded Readers.” Journal of Exceptional Children 3: 66-74, 89, 118-25: . Berrs, Emmett A. “Teacher Analysis of Reading Disabilities.” Zlementary . Bruecxner, Leo J., and Metsy, E. O. Diagnostic and Remedial Reading . Gates, Arruur I. “Diagnosis and Treatment of Extreme Cases of Reading . Nationa Socrery ror THE Stupy or Epucation. Report of the National Com- SELECTED REFERENCES ton, Ill.: Public School Publishing Co., 1934. 39 p. Berts, Emmett A. The Prevention and Correction of Reading Difficulties, New York: Row, Peterson and Co., 1936. 402 p. February and April 1937. English Review 11: 99-102; April 1934. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1931. 598 p. . Dotcu, Epwarp W. “The First Step in Remedial Reading.” Elementary School © Journal 37: 268-72; December 1936. . Dotcu, Epwarp W. The Psychology and Teaching of Reading. Boston: Gin 7 and Co., 1931. Chapter 11, “Special Deficiency in Reading.” Disability.” The Teaching of Reading: A Second Report. Thirty-Sixth Yearbook, Part I, National Society for the Study of Education. Bloom. ington, Ill.: Public School Publishing Co., 1937. p. 391-416. millan Co., 1935. 668 p. Hivpretu, Gertrupe. Learning the Three R’s. Minneapolis, Minn.: Educational Publishers, 1936. Chapters 12, 13, 18, and 21. McCatuister, JamMes M. Remedial and Corrective Instruction in Reading New York: D. Appleton-Century Co., 1936. 300 p. Monrog, Marion. Children Who Cannot Read. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1932. 205 p. Monrog, Marion. “Diagnosis and Treatment of Reading Disabilities.” Edu. | cational Diagnosis. Thirty-Fourth Yearbook, National Society for the | Study of Education. Bloomington, IIl.: Public School Publishing Co, 7 1935. p. 201-28. Monroe, Marion, and Backus, Bertiz. Remedial Reading. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1937. 171 p. . Gates, Artuur I. The Improvement of Reading. Rev. ed. New York: Mae. | =F mittee on Reading. Twenty-Fourth Yearbook, Part I. Bloomington, Ill: Work.” Public School Publishing Co., 1925. Chapter 10, “Diagnosis and Remedial Retarded Pupils.” Elementary School Journal 37: 536-40; March 1937. Rostnson, Heten M. “Study of Disabilities in Reading.” Llementary School Posret, Harotp H. “The Effect of Adapting Reading Materials to Rw Sr ee oe ) a ee | ~~ rTr_s wy — = Provipinc CLassroom MarertAis 435 Le USING INDIVIDUAL READING MATERIALS INSTEAD OF SETS OF CLASS READERS Marie R. Conroy Assistant Principal, Public School No. 30, Richmond, New York, New York its origin in a statement by Thorndike that pupils in the middle grades of our elementary schools read far too little to develop adequate reading ability, due either to the fact that enough suitable materials are not available or that those available are not used so as to develop maximum reading power.' In February 1936, therefore, one sixth-grade class was selected to use individual reading materials, while the other sixth-grade classes in the school, which was a large one of the traditional type, were to continue to use sets of readers. Altho the experimental class had many pupils with high scores on the Monroe Standardized Silent Reading Tests,? the class median on these tests was below the grade standard at the time the project was begun. Preparing for the experiment—In getting ready for the experiment, the first consideration was the selection of a teacher who was willing to undertake the work, and who at the same time had the necessary qualities for such an undertaking. A teacher was finally chosen who was well acquainted with the experimental group of children, and who, in addition to being a fine teacher, was an excellent organizer, possessed much poise, and held a progressive point of view in teaching. The second consideration was the selection and ordering of appro- priate reading texts. In the New York City system this must be done as early as November for use in February. Altho the allotment of money for the purchase of books was generous, there was considerable limita- tion as to just what books could be ordered. Books for the city schools must be selected from a textbook catalog which is revised completely only every four years, with supplements of additional material yearly. Textbook money cannot be spent for books listed in the library cata- logs; therefore, a wide field of desirable reading material was prac- tically closed to us in carrying on this experiment. From the textbook catalog just mentioned, sixty-nine books were selected that were interesting in content and suitable to the sixth-grade level of reading maturity. A number of books of third- and fourth- grade difficulty were also included. Many informational books were among those selected. In addition to all of these, considerable other reading material was already available in the classroom. Tis: EXPERIMENT in the use of individual reading materials had 1 Thorndike, Edward L. Improving the Ability to Read. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1935. p. 4-6. ? Published by the Public School Publishing Co., Bloomington, Iilinois. 436 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Character of the experimental group—The class to use these ma- terials consisted of thirty-six pupils of widely varying abilities. In September 1935, the children had been given the Monroe Standardized Silent Reading Tests—Test I, Form 1. This test revealed that some of the children could read as well as second-year high-school students, while at the other end of the scale were three children with only third- grade reading ability. The class median in comprehension was 10.1, while the median for all the sixth grades in the school was 11.1. There was also a wide range in intelligence quotients, the lowest being 80 and the highest 127. The median I. Q. was about 106. Practically all the children came from American homes. Only two were in homes where a foreign language was spoken. The classroom and its equipment—The classroom in which these chil- | dren worked was of the traditional type, with fixed furniture, but it was bright and cheerful. The teacher had made an effort to modernize it somewhat by the addition of bulletin boards and bookcases made in the school’s woodworking shop. In one of these bookcases were placed TOK the books which had been loaned by the pupils. In another case were | kept those furnished by the school. In the front of the room was a gate- leg table brought from home by the teacher. Around this table were four chairs, and here the children sat to do their reference work. Refer- ence books for the most part were kept on the teacher’s desk. Maga- zines and other reading material had to be kept in the clothing closet. The children decorated their room with bright-colored panels de- picting European scenes which they had painted themselves. One pupil drew a map of Europe four by five feet and painted it in vivid colors. This map was used as a literary map during the time of the experiment. | It stimulated much interest in reading about the different European countries. Adjacent to the classroom was a teacher’s room, in which the several pupil committees worked in checking the books read. Organizing classroom procedure—The effective use of individual reading material requires skill and careful planning on the part of the teacher and supervisor. There must be a well-organized classroom pro- cedure with a definite method of checking results and of following up deficient pupils. Without such a plan many abuses are likely to develop | which will lead to bad habits of study and yield poor reading results. [ On the other hand, pupils dislike to make book reports. Such reports | tend. to become just another assigned task and to kill a genuine interest in reading. For this reason lengthy reports on books were tabooed. In place of such reports, each pupil was asked to hand in four specific items about each book read: 1. A short report about a character in the book which appealed to him 2. A brief description of an event that appealed to him enn PROVIDING CLASSROOM MATERIALS 437 na- 3. A list of words and constructions which he found difficult a 4, A reaction to the book thru some medium of expression other than writing, In such as a drawing of a character or situation. e The new books arrived in January, and the children were agreeably ats, surprised to find so many different and attractive books in their pos- rd- session at one time. During that week the class was told about the 0.1, plan for the new term, namely, that these new books would be used ere | instead of the usual sets of readers. Needless to say, the children were and delighted with the prospect; nevertheless, the necessity for whole- hearted cooperation to make the experiment a success was stressed by two | the teacher. d During the next two weeks the children talked over their plans fre- hil- quently. At the same time the teacher was becoming familiar with the was books which were new to her, especially with their vocabulary difficul- e it ties. Vocabulary is a very important consideration in recommending >in | books to children who have difficulty in reading. ced Grouping the pupils for work—At the beginning of the new term in vere | February, members of the class were grouped into three divisions. It ate. | was decided that three was probably the maximum number of groups vere | for efficient results. The grouping was done as follows: The teacher fer- selected three chairmen, one for each group. These pupils were chosen vga for their ability to handle a group and to do the clerical work involved yset. | in the plan. Each chairman selected two pupils who, with himself, de- § would form the committee for the group. Then each remaining member upil > of the class indicated the group to which he desired to belong. Thus, lors. © the grouping was in no sense based on either ability or achievement, ent. & but grew out of a natural school situation. The teacher, the chairmen, Jean and the other members of the class all had a choice in the matter. the The duties of the group chairmen were as follows: 1. To check the books taken out and returned by pupils dual 2. To record the reading done by each pupil on record sheets for the purpose the 3. To check on the various items that must be brought in for each book read 4. To list difficult words and constructions found by members of the group pro- 5. To keep pupils’ folders up to date y up 6. To keep the literary map up to date. el ; : . , ee The other committee members assisted the chairmen with this work. | a The informal reading period—No rigid time schedule was followed a in carrying on the experiment. In fact, very little of the actual reading . was done in the classroom. However, from 11:00 to 11:40 o’clock each 1. In | ae ; ciffe day there was a very informal reading period. At this time pupils often took out new books, altho this could be done before school if the pupil wished. The teacher advised pupils in their selection of books, espe- cially in the case of the three poorest readers. In their case the teacher 438 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS saw to it that books with a simple vocabulary were chosen. During this period the children also (1) read independently, (2) wrote their reports, (3) asked for help from the teacher or the committee, (4) listed diffi- culties in the book being read, (5) drew their impression of the story being read, (6) handed in reports to their chairman, (7) consulted ref- erence material, (8) added material of permanent value to the scrap- books, and (9) gave oral reports on reading of vital interest to the entire class. In the latter case, the teacher knew ahead of time what reports would be given. The use of the oral report is shown in the following situation: While studying Europe, the children became interested in the folk literature of the various countries. Whenever a child found a tale indigenous to a certain section of Europe and considered of vital import to the class, he made an oral report on it. By the Easter vacation, the chair- men were able to report that some folk literature from every country in Europe had been read by some member or members of the class. Keeping records of reading done—In a reading program of this kind, it is important that records be kept of the amount of reading done | by each pupil, together with the difficulties encountered and the prog- ress made. The records must be simple and of such a nature that the pupils can assist the teacher in keeping them. Otherwise the task be- comes a burden to the teacher and she is likely to lose interest in the work. The records kept in this experiment are not considered perfect; they were designed for use during a period of six months, with the in- | tention of modifying them at the end of that time if necessary or desir- | able. The types of records employed were as follows: 1. Each chairman kept the names of his group members in a record book which was ruled for checking the reports due from each pupil. 2. Each child had a folder in which to place his reports. This folder was filed in the teacher’s cabinet when not in use. 3. Each child had cards similar to the form shown below. A card was filled in by checks when all items for a book read had been completed. Class 6B Name—Ethel Jones Room 302 Title and Author of Book Character| Event Words Drawing W ater Babies by Charles Kingsley V vV Vv v 4. Each child kept a scrapbook. In this book was placed work from his folder © which he believed to have permanent value, as well as pictures, magazine articles, and newspaper clippings that had a bearing on his work. 5. The teacher kept a record book showing the results of informal tests, with F notations about each pupil’s progress in reading, this rts iffi- ’ Ory ref- ‘ap- the hat hile ture 10us the air- try ind, lone rog- the be- the ect; in- asir- § hich ed in filled 2 ying / — older icles, with & PRovIDING CLASSROOM MATERIALS 439 When a pupil finished reading a book, he wrote a report on an inter- esting character found in the book. He also described some event which appealed to him. As these reports were finished he gave them to his chairman, who checked them off on the card for that book. The third report was a list of the difficult words or constructions found in the book. Beside each word the pupil wrote the dictionary meaning. Later, many of these words were discussed by the teacher in class. In addition, difficult words were listed in a small notebook which each pupil kept for his own personal use. When the drawing was handed in, the final check was placed on the card, and the latter was then displayed on the bulletin board. During the reading period—while the class was engaged in the activities men- tioned previously—the chairmen and the committee members occa- sionally worked in the adjoining teacher’s room bringing their records up to date and filing reports in the pupils’ folders. Duties of the teacher—During the informal reading period, the teacher (1) helped in the selection of books; (2) was consulted by pupils who needed help and who could not be assisted by members of their committees; (3) assisted with reference material; (4) con- sulted with pupils who were not keeping up with their reading, or who were falling behind in their reports; and (5) gave instruction on diffi- cult words or idioms. Almost all the checking by the teacher on the individual pupil’s work was done outside of school hours. This job, which was done by examining the class charts and the pupils’ folders, consisted of the following procedures: 1. Noting the kinds of books selected by the pupil to see that he was not reading one type to the exclusion of other types of material 2. Noting the quality of the reports and the interpretation placed upon the books read 3. Listing difficult words 4. Noting the amount read to see whether it was sufficient in view of the pupil’s reading ability 5. Noting any contributions of research material made by the child. To stimulate interest in reading still further, the social science pro- gram was integrated with this reading program. For example, the chil- dren searched for stories and poems about the country being studied. Often these stories or poems were found among the sixty-nine new books, but more frequently the pupils did considerable research work among the library books, textbooks, magazines, and other outside material in order to locate them. The pupils then wrote the names of these stories on slips of paper and handed them to the committee. When the type of story was approved by the teacher, the committee members 440 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS — made tiny booklets of colored paper about one inch square, wrote the titles and authors’ names on the outside, and pasted the booklets in the appropriate places on the literary map. When bringing in material obtained through research, the pupils al- ways stated its source. The names of poems and stories considered to be of class interest were listed on the blackboard in a space provided for such material. Research reports were frequently placed on the \ibrary table for the use of any pupils who wished to read them. Number of books read—On April 9, the day school closed for the Easter vacation, the largest number of the new books read by any pupil was six, and the smallest number was three. The median was between four and five books. This did not include class readers or library books; neither did it include research work on various prob- lems. It must be remembered also that no effort was made to hurry the children. The idea was that they should read the books carefully and thoughtfully. This caution was particularly stressed with those books of an informational character. By the end of the semester of twenty weeks on June 26, the median number of books read was nine. The best readers had read twelve or more, while the poorest readers had read six books. All the children read more material than they could possibly have read in the average sixth-grade reader. The best readers also usually read one library book a week, while the slower pupils took at least two weeks, and in some instances even longer, to read one book. The formal reading period—In addition to the reading program de- scribed above, three periods a week of forty minutes each were devoted to a more formal type of reading. For this work a study reader of | sixth-grade level was used. The children worked in three groups, but [ in this case the grouping was based on reading ability. Altho the same reader was used by all the children, a different story was selected for [ each group. While two of the groups worked independently on their stories, the teacher worked with the third group to develop skill in comprehending a unit of thought from a fairly long paragraph. Each group was given a short test at the end of each selection. These tests were usually corrected by the teacher, and served as another check on the pupils’ progress in reading. Conclusion—During the third week in June the class was retested © by means of the Monroe Standardized Silent Reading Tests—Test II, Form 3. The following week the Nelson Silent Reading Test,’ Form A, was given also. Altho several of the children were still below the grade standard at the end of the semester, it was evident from the test 8 Published by Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. the 3 in 1 to PROVIDING CLASSROOM MATERIALS 441 results that all except two of the children had made considerable im- provement in reading. The two whose scores were lower on the second Monroe test than on the first were excellent readers and had scored above the grade median on the first test. The results of the tests, how- ever, were not considered the only evidence of the value of the read- ing plan. Its success was judged also by (1) the increase in the amount of reading done, (2) the enthusiasm manifested toward books in gen- eral, (3) the eagerness with which the children read new books, (4) the orderly procedure of work in a very informal setting, (5) the habits of study and concentration acquired by pupils while working on individual problems, and (6) the practical application of the read- ing to other school problems. In view of these outcomes, the writer believes that a plan of wide individual reading on a relatively informal basis, if skilfully directed, is definitely superior to a program which is limited to the formal reading of material in sets of class readers. [ Is important that the books for each grade have a range of interest appeal and difficulty which is commensurate with the range of experience and reading ability among the pupils. In the case of reading ability, the range in difficulty should probably not be less than six or seven years in any grade. But even among children of approximately equal reading ability, the range in interest will be very wide. Not all people like the same poems or the same stories or the same books. There must be selections which appeal to all.—Horn, Ernest, p. 345 of this yearbook. — 442 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS DEVELOPING NEW READING MATERIALS IN THE SCHOOL Niza Banton SMITH Professor of Education, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana for a more functional type of reading instruction than we have had in the past—a type of instruction which flows out of or into children’s interests, activities, and enterprises. As a necessary accom- paniment to this new trend, we find that an abundance of reading material is being prepared by teachers and children as needs arise and urges express themselves. With the teacher’s guidance, children record on charts or in their notebooks plans for their undertakings, questions to which they wish to find answers, and lists of books to which they wish to refer; they compose accounts of experiences, ac- counts of experiments in science, stories, plays, and songs; they print labels for construction work, exhibits, and posters; they write items of class, school, or world interest for a class or school newspaper, recipes for cooking, directions for doing things, and so on. All of these materials growing out of child experiences provide for reading practise which is especially effective because the reading is filled with meaningful con- cepts and because it really functions in children’s living. In addition, materials are being written more and more frequently by teachers, themselves, for the use of their particular groups. Some- times materials from more difficult sources are reshaped to meet the reading level of children who are ready to use them. Sometimes it is necessary to assemble original source material concerning some topic such as life in a jungle, prehistoric animals, or the history of devices for measuring time. Often teachers prepare accounts of local develop- ments—social, industrial, geologic, economic, and cultural. Sometimes teachers rewrite in dramatic form information needed by groups in developing some center of interest. All such materials provide for valu- able reading practise for children because they serve children’s imme- diate interests and needs, and because they are easy enough to bring satisfaction in reading and thus encourage further reading. Since there is such a strong movement toward the preparation of child-made and teacher-made reading materials, it may be helpful to discuss here some of the technics which have been used in preparing such materials, and to give a few concrete descriptions and examples of materials which have been prepared by teachers and children under practical classroom conditions. Hence, this article will be divided into two main sections: (1) technics for preparing reading materials, and (2) examples of reading materials prepared. Ts NEWER educational psychologies and philosophies are calling OL ing ave nto ing rise ren 1gs, to ac- "int : of pes als 1 is on- ing les ler nto nd ProvipING CLASSROOM MATERIALS 443 TECHNICS FOR PREPARING READING MATERIALS Technics To Insure Enjoyment of Reading Decorative features—One of the first considerations in preparing “school-made” reading materials for children is that of making them attractive. If we would lay a foundation for permanent interest in read- ing we must do everything possible to make children’s reading experi- ences pleasurable to them. School-made reading materials are ever so much more pleasing and interesting if decorated with brightly col- ored pictures which have been collected from magazines by children and teachers, or, better still, which have been painted or crayoned by the children themselves. For example, a chart based on the experience of going to a farm and getting a pumpkin was decorated by placing the picture of a large yellow pumpkin in the middle of the space at the top of the chart. A cluster of bright leaves was drawn on each side of the pumpkin, and individual autumn leaves trailed across the bottom of the chart in an artistic manner. Another chart, containing statements in regard to dif- ferent articles which the children had brought to school, was illustrated by pasting an appropriate picture made by the children opposite the name of each article. The first statement read, “Janet brought some flowers,” and to the right of the word “flowers” a bunch of flowers was drawn with colored crayons by the children. Each of the other state- ments was decorated in similar fashion. In making booklets, the composition should be placed at the bottom of the page in each case, and a large space should be left above the composition for a painted, crayoned, or cut-out picture. In preparing materials for individual booklets, teachers sometimes illustrate the pages with outlined drawings and the children fill in the colors. The covers of booklets should be especially attractive. Making and decorating these book covers provides an excellent art project. In some cases each child decorates his book cover with an appropriate picture or design which he has painted or drawn; sometimes he pastes on the cover many irregular scraps of brightly colored papers which he has clipped from envelope linings or from colored pictures in magazines, and then covers the whole with a coat of shellac; or he may crayon a design or picture on a piece of muslin, linen, or pongee, lay it face downward on a piece of paper, place a damp cloth over it, and press it with a hot iron, thus making a “tapestry” book cover. There are a great variety of ways in which children can make attractive book cov- ers, and several of these should be used during any one school year. Typographical features—Another characteristic which can contrib- ute greatly to the attractiveness of school-made reading material is its 444 ELEMENTARY ScHoot PRINCIPALS —. typographical form. Whether the printing is done with a rubber-stamp outfit, with crayon, with broad-edge pen, or on a typewriter, the letters should be bold, black, and clear. If the materials are reproduced by mimeographing or hectographing, black ink should be used instead of the purple ink which one so frequently sees on such materials. Spacing also needs careful consideration. In making a chart, for ex- ample, the printing should be placed as nearly as possible in the middle of the chart, leaving a pleasing margin on each side and sufficient space at the top and bottom to permit an artistic arrangement of the deco- rations. For first-grade charts, it seems best to leave a space of about one inch between words, and a space of two inches between sentences. Booklets likewise should have a pleasing margin on each side and at the bottom of the composition, with a suitable space at the top for illustrative purposes. Literary quality—A third way of making school-made reading ma- terials enjoyable to children is to provide for a certain degree of lit- erary quality. Reading compositions composed by children under the teacher’s guidance often consist of a stilted, monotonous set of declar- ative sentences which have been molded by the teacher to meet the requirements of a particular reading lesson, but with no thought what- soever given to literary values. There is no reason at all why school-made compositions should be dull and uninteresting. If left to themselves, children will express them- selves in unique and interesting ways. The teacher who listens for these original bits will be sure to hear them. An incorporation of such expres- sions into the body of a story composed for reading will greatly im- prove its literary quality. In addition to utilizing the original expres- sions of children, monotony may be avoided by weaving in an occa- sional exclamatory sentence or question. Such sentences will come naturally during the composition of the material if the teacher is on the lookout for them. Modern writers of children’s literature recognize the necessity of making a strong sense appeal to young children. Hence their stories are made vivid with sound, color, movement, and rhythm. This sense- appeal technic should be more widely employed in the preparation of experience reading materials in the classroom. Following are some examples of children’s oral cempositions which make use of sense appeal: 1. Sound Honk! Honk! came the automobile. Clippity-clap! Clippity-clap! came the horse. 2. Color Jean had a big, yellow orange. She had some brown chocolate cake. ‘amp ‘tters d by stead r ex- iddle pace leco- bout nces. id at » for ma- r lit- * the clar- ; the hat- d be 1em- hese yres- res- icca- ome s on y of ries nse- n of hich Bat a iS Ta aa Ra aa lt lil ProvipInc CLASSROOM MATERIALS 445 3. Movement The chickens ran. The cows ran. The dog ran. They all ran. 4. Rhythm The airplane flew over the house. It flew over the trees. It flew over the meadow. Technics To Insure Ease of Reading Choice and distribution of vocabulary—Vocabulary is, of course, a prime consideration in preparing materials which children can read with ease. A teacher attempting to prepare reading materials for the first time will be amazed at the large number of new words which creep in, regardless of the care she takes to make the composition simple. Usually the vocabulary difficulty is not a serious one in making simple first-grade charts. The children’s stock of known words is so limited, that the teacher can often tell at once whether or not a sen- tence suggested contains a new word. It is when the teacher, herself, writes several pages for child reading that the vocabulary problem be- comes acute. The burden and distribution of new words must be con- trolled in terms of the level of development of the children, or else the material will fail to serve its purpose because of being too difficult for them to read. Important tho the vocabulary aspect is, it is not advisable for one to start writing materials with a vocabulary list in front of him. Such a practise is bound to have a restrictive influence on his writing and to result in stilted and dull reading material. There are other reasons, too, why strict adherence to a vocabulary list is undesirable. The sci- entifically determined vocabulary lists are static in that they do not provide for new words which are continually coming into wide usage. The word radio, for instance, does not occur in any of the high-fre- quency columns of available word lists; yet no one would deny that the child of today hears and sees this word very often. Furthermore, a rigid adherence to such lists often shuts out words that are interesting to children because of vivid associations. Since vividness and interest are strong cues to recognition, such words should not be excluded. Cer- tain words have a strong appeal to young children because of the sound, movement, color, or rhythm which they suggest. These words are needed in writing really literary material for primary children; yet they do not occur in high-frequency lists. Vocabulary lists are, however, useful tools when used in the right way. It is suggested that teachers who wish to prepare reading mate- | ee 446 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS rials for their pupils first write their stories using words of special interest and appeal to children, words which are necessary in writing material of literary quality, and new words which are coming into wide usage; then they should check the material against scientifically deter- mined vocabulary lists and provide a core of high-frequency words, altho not to such an extent as to exclude words needed in achieving the other considerations just mentioned. A check should also be made against the vocabulary list for the basic reader which is being used, and against similar lists for the basic readers used in preceding grades. To insure ease of reading even for the slower pupils, the present writer believes it advisable to confine the number of new words intro- duced per page to three in the first grade; to four in the second grade; to five in the third grade; and to seven or eight in the fourth, fifth, and sixth grades. Of course, this does not mean that every page will contain as many new words as have just been indicated. After introducing sev- eral new words it is desirable to have a few pages of easy reading in which these new words are repeated. Perceptual clues—According to the old concept of teaching reading, one should proceed from the simple to the complex. This meant that the teacher was to ask the children to read two-letter words first. After these were mastered, she would proceed to three-letter words, then to four-letter words, and so on. This theory has been entirely exploded as the result of recent experimentation. Research in the field of reading perception has disclosed evidence to the effect that a long word, such as automobile, is often more easily recognized by a child than a short one, such as in. There are probably two reasons for this: (1) Children often recognize a word by its configuration; the general contour of a long word, such as airplane, is more strikingly characteristic than that of a short word, such as in, which closely resembles the contour of many other words, such as is. (2) Such words as airplane are rich in meaningful concepts for children, while such words as in are abstract, and for that reason, less vivid. Another perception difficulty for young children is offered by words which look so much alike as to be mistaken for the same word. Such words as them and then, or these and those, which differ only in one letter, are particularly troublesome. Stories for the first grade should be liberally sprinkled with the longer words having distinctly characteristic forms, vivid interest clues, and concrete, meaningful backgrounds. The pronouns, prepositions, and adverbs which resemble each other closely in contour should be dis- tributed so that they do not occur too frequently or too close together. Phrasing—In the writer’s judgment, one of the most serious errors which a first-grade teacher can make in preparing reading materials — © cial Ing ride ter- rds, ‘ing ade sed, Jes. ent To- de; and ain ev- y in ing, hat [ter 1 to ded ing uch ort ren fa hat of . in act, rds uch one the 1€8, und lis- ier. ors als PRovIDING CLASSROOM MATERIALS 447 is to divide sentences at places other than between phrases. If we are to build good eye-movement habits, we must take care in the first grade to group words into meaningful phrases, that is, to put together those words which belong together. This goal cannot be accomplished when the teacher breaks a sentence in such a way as this: We went to the farm in the bus. To help the children in seeing groups of words as meaningful wholes, the best division of this sentence would seem to be as fellows: We went to the farm in the bus. Another point in regard to phrasing in materials prepared for young children has to do with the use of phrases in their regular order rather than in their inverted order. For example, a teacher might write, “Up the tree ran the big squirrel.” It seems reasonable to believe that this sentence would be more easily read by young children if the phrase “up the tree” appeared in regular order, thus: “The big squirrel ran up the tree.”’ Repetition—Repetition is necessary to fix words occurring in chil- dren’s reading vocabulary. If the teacher has this principle in mind, she can readily guide children’s compositions so that the same words recur several times in a story, and so that many of them will recur in succeeding stories. Compositions arising from the recounting of experi- ences or the making of plans are naturally repetitious in character because they simply enumerate things that the children saw, did, or made, or things that they are going to see, do, or make. Every effort should be made to utilize these naturally repetitious situations in giving children the necessary practise on new words. Technics of Composing a Class Story Affording experience and encouraging discussion—The first essential in the preparation of experience reading materials composed by the children is that the children must have had some vivid, interesting experience, real or vicarious (preferably real), which fills their minds with ideas and stirs them to active discussion concerning it. In other words, the subject must be something that is vital to them, and some- thing which they wish to talk about. Once this prerequisite has been fulfilled, the teacher should give the children an opportunity to engage in free discussion concerning their experience, letting them talk it over spontaneously and happily just as we adults talk over an exciting automobile trip we have had, a gripping play we have seen, or a new idea we have worked out in solving one of our problems. 448 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Providing motive—The second essential of preparing a story for reading is that the children have some motive for recording their ex- pressions. It may be interesting to talk over experiences, but why should they be written down and read? There are several ways in which the writing and reading of such stories may be made purposeful to the children. Perhaps they will wish to record an experience so that the principal, or other visitors coming to the room, may know what they have been doing. Perhaps they will wish to record an experience to be read as part of a program which they are preparing on the same general topic. Perhaps they will wish to record plans and rules and directions as guides for themselves in future work. Perhaps they will wish to prepare a series of stories to include in a booklet. The children may suggest still other motives, such as making a chart on a certain topic and then having mimeographed copies of it to take home to their mothers. These are but a few of the ways in which reading compositions may be made purposeful to chil- dren. The alert teacher will constantly sense other possibilities as she works with her group. Composing the story—After the children have expressed themselves freely and pleasurably on the topic of mutual interest and have de- cided to write it down for some purpose, the teacher will ask a series of organizing questions to guide the children in making a composition which will have unity and interest, which will be simple enough to read, and which will include the necessary vocabulary. This does not mean that the teacher will lead the children to give back to her some prede- termined story which she has already formulated. Nothing of the sort! Every question she asks should stimulate a variety of answers, and, in the writer’s judgment, the children should have the privilege of selecting the sentence which they think is best in each case. Thus, teacher and children may work together in suggesting, weighing, con- sidering, evaluating, and revising the various elements until a credit- able but childlike composition is prepared. Writing or printing the story—In the case of stories composed by the children, the teacher usually prints or writes the entire story if it is a short one, or the successive units of the story if it is a long one, on the blackboard. If the story is composed by a first-grade class, the teacher then prints it on a chart and uses it for reading practise. She may later type the story on a Great Primer typewriter, and give each child a copy for a reading booklet which he will build up as new stories grow out of classroom activities. If the story is composed by children in a grade beyond the first, the children may copy it in their booklets or the teacher may mimeograph or hectograph a sufficient number of copies so that each child may have one. a eee ae ok on Se es y for r @X- why such Wish ming will thich wish es in es to such phed f the chil- 3 she alves > de- eries ition read, nean ‘ede- sort! and, e of ‘hus, con- edit- 1 by ry if one, , the She each ories dren 452 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS ————$——___ which will present themselves to the teacher who is looking for them, Such situations furnish splendid first contacts with symbols and are rich in beginning reading possibilities. Charts—There are also many situations which can be capitalized in making reading material for charts. These charts should be made in various forms, such as narrative charts, question charts, plan charts, diary charts, direction charts, poem charts, and many others. An occa- sional chart proves useful in the second and third grades as well as in the first, particularly as a central place in which to record questions, plans, class-made rules, or recipes. One third-grade class became interested in Holland. They suggested questions about this country to which they wished to find the answers. The teacher recorded the following questions on a chart, which was then used as the basis of the children’s study of Holland: QUESTIONS ON HOLLAND Where is Holland? How big is Holland? What does Holland look like? What do the people do to make a living? What do the children play? Why do they have so many boats and ships? What kind of homes do they have? What do they eat? A first-grade class was planning to construct a circus. The teacher recorded the plans as they were suggested. These plans were read daily from the chart, and were checked off as the children carried them out. Another first grade became much interested in the furnace cleaner when he visited the school in the fall, and this incident likewise was used as the subject of a reading chart. . Oe ns Some teachers encourage their pupils’ creative efforts in making | poetry by printing on a chart a particularly good poem which some child has composed, and hanging the chart up in the classroom for all the children to read and enjoy. Newspapers—Thruout the elementary grades the preparation of a EO ICT OR weekly or monthly newspaper results in reading experiences which are | real and interesting to children. In the first grade, the teacher may | print the items suggested by the children on unprinted newspaper | sheets or on large sheets of wrapping paper. In the more advanced grades the newspaper may become quite pretentious. It usually con- | sists of four or more mimeographed pages, and has various depart- | ments such as “News,” “Sports,” “Fun Column,” “Lost and Found,” | “Advertisements,” and others. Such a newspaper provides excellent school-made reading material. F a ae them, d are alized made arts, occa- as in tions, ested wers, Was cher laily out. aner was king ome r all of a are may aper iced c0n- art- " d,” lent PROVIDING CLASSROOM MATERIALS 453 Materials Prepared by the Teacher Alone Booklets—Frequently children need information about a topie which is not written in a form simple enough for them to read. One third- grade teacher had a class of children who were interested in the Pueblo Indians. They were a slow group and could not read any material which the school had available on that topic. So the teacher prepared material for individual looseleaf booklets which the children might build up as their interests developed. This teacher knew from previous experience that when children be- came interested in the Pueblo Indians they would ask such questions as these: “What do these people eat?” “What kind of houses do they have?” “What do they wear?” “What do they do to earn a living?” “What do they do for fun?” “What games do the children play?” In order to provide for a really functional reading situation, she wrote a story designed to answer each of the questions which she thought her pupils might ask. Keenly aware of the necessity of having the facts absolutely accurate, she did considerable research in which she checked reference against reference until she had sifted out a body of facts which were substantiated in several different sources. She then wrote these facts up in a vocabulary suitable to the level of her children. Each story was mimeographed on separate sheets of paper in suffi- cient numbers so that each child might have one. The teacher used half-sheets of plain 9” by 12” typewriting paper for this purpose. She placed the several stacks of stories in her schoolroom closet, and when the children would ask a question such as “What kind of houses do they have?” she would bring out the stack of sheets containing the story she had written on “Homes of the Pueblo Indians.” The children would read the story to find the answer to their question. Each child would then bind the story in his Pueblo Indian Book, and would color the outline picture which the art teacher had drawn above the story. Sometimes children develop an interest in some phase of local life on which nothing at all has ever been written. For example, one fourth- grade group became interested in the history of their town, a small city of 5000 inhabitants. Wishing to capitalize on this interest as a reading experience, the teacher wrote a booklet on the history of the town and presented each child with a mimeographed copy of it. She obtained the information for this book thru interviews with old settlers and thru research done at the county court house, at the public library, and at a very old college in the town, which had in its files many records of early days. Charts—When only a limited amount of information is to be given, a chart written by the teacher often serves the purpose of conveying 454 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS this information thru reading. For example, the children in one first grade wanted to know how oranges and grapefruit grow. The teacher wrote the following chart in response to this question, and assisted the children in reading it: Te ae | ee! ORANGES AND GRAPEFRUIT Oranges grow in a warm country. They grow on trees. Grapefruit also grow on trees in a warm country. Men pick the oranges and grapefruit. They wrap them. Then they pack them in boxes. Boats, trains, and trucks bring the fruit to us. We buy the fruit at grocery stores. It is good for us. POTS ETE ER MRI OR MERE TUNG TOY A second-grade class was studying trains. It seemed advisable for F them to know something about the history of trains; so the teacher | prepared the following chart for them to read: : THE DeWITT CLINTON DeWitt Clinton was a man who lived in our country a long time ago. DeWitt Clinton made the first successful railway engine in our country. This engine was called the “DeWitt Clinton.” The DeWitt Clinton pulled the first train in New York. The DeWitt Clinton had a captain. The captain did the same things as a con- ductor does on our trains. When the train was ready to go, the captain blew a horn. The horn was a signal to the engineer to start. The captain sat upon a queer little seat. The seat was high up on the back of the tender. The DeWitt Clinton pulled three small coaches. It burned wood. Our engines today burn coal and oil. Should you like to see the DeWitt Clinton? If you go to New York, stop at the Grand Central Station. You will see the old | train in this station. Cee aT ne Sees ERY Practise exercises—In spite of the increasing enrichment of the moé- | ern reading program, most children need carefully organized and def- : nitely guided practise in establishing reading abilities and skills. The” teacher of today has a wide field of productivity in preparing practise i materials to meet the needs of particular groups and individuals in her | classroom. Sometimes these exercises may be printed or written on the black- ; board. It is advisable in most cases, however, to mimeograph or hecto- | graph enough individual copies so that each child who needs practise | may have one. Many children in the primary grades need practise in word discrim- ination. A widely approved method of giving such practise is to provide \o Yaidlia, alae Sain Eta ay 2 first acher sisted le for acher A cOn- signal ack of ne old mod- defi- The tise 1 her ack- ecto- ctise rim- vide ProvipING CLASSROOM MATERIALS 455 the child with exercises in which similar elements appear in a contex- tual setting, and in which the child is forced to scrutinize these ele- ments carefully in order to choose the right word for a sentence, fill in a blank space, or perform some similar task. One teacher prepared a series of exercises covering important word elements, and printed each one on a chart. The exercise below is one which she prepared for the purpose of developing in her pupils a sensi- tiveness to the sound of the phonogram ite: Mary and Tom are studying their lessons. They are using paper and pencils. They like to (bite, write). (Note: Familiar word is bite; new word is write.) In conducting practise with this exercise, the children were asked to read the chart and to find the right word to put in the blank space. Then followed considerable discussion concerning the likenesses and differences in bite and write, while visual and auditory sensitiveness to word elements was sharpened. Practise exercises designed to develop different skills are needed badly in most classrooms. While prepared workpads are helpful in meeting these needs, many children need more practise on certain skills than a workpad for general use can provide. For this reason it is desir- able for the teacher to prepare a quantity of practise exercises designed to develop particular skills in which her group (or individuals within her group) are weak. A few examples are given below to illustrate the type of exercises which some teachers are preparing. 1. Exercise To Develop the Ability To Select the Main Idea in a Paragraph To the pupil: Read each of these paragraphs, then write a title above it. Salim was a little Arab boy. His people were going on a long trip. When the caravan was about ready to start, Salim happened to look over the yellow sand. In the early morning light he saw four camels coming toward them. There was a man on each camel’s back. The women began to take down the tents, and to pack the bowls, plates, and pots. The women also pulled up the tent poles and tied the bundles on the backs of the camels. Arab men do not do such work. At last the long caravan started on its way. Salim could see his father riding at the head of the line of camels. At the end of the line came the pack camels. The tents, poles, and bundles were tied on their backs. 2. Exercise To Develop the Ability To Evaluate Material To the pupil: Below are some sentences about Indians. Some are about Indians of long ago and some are about Indians of today. Write the sentences about 456 ee ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Indians of long ago in one column, and the sentences about Indians of today jn another column. Many of them wear the same kind of clothes as we do. They made sugar out of sap from the maple trees. Some of them are school teachers, and some are doctors. The Indian women cooked meat over a camp-fire. Some of them live on reservations. Some of them keep sheep, cows, and They made their houses out of bark. Many of them have the same kind of houses as we do. The Indian women made clothes out of animal skins. Their children go to schools much like yours. The Indian men killed wild animals for food. They hunted with bows and arrows. goats. Some Indians of Long Ago Indians of Today 3. Exercise To Develop the Ability To Determine Cause and Effect Relationships To the pupil: Draw a line under the phrase that tells the reason why something was done in each of the sentences below: Abdul’s father was going to the oasis town because (1) he wanted to go to a picture show. (2) he wanted to buy some clothes. (3) he was in need of dates. He was taking Abdul to his wealthy uncle so that Abdul might (1) see the oasis town. (2) learn to raise dates. (3) go for a trip. Abdul’s mother thought it was better for him to live with his uncle because (1) he was a big boy. (2) she had too many children at home. (3) he might grow wealthy. There are, of course, many reading abilities to be developed other than those mentioned above, and a great variety of ways in which practise can be given in each of these abilities. It is thought, however, that perhaps these few samples will be suggestive of the wealth of pos- sibilities for school-made reading materials in the field of practise exercises. 5° STOWE Ns RET J I ™m mie wmelellOm,lCMHl,.lC Ul], CL Genet \y in ark, d of out 1uch nals ips ing PRovIDING CLASSROOM MATERIALS 457 CREATING EASY READING MATERIALS IN A CITY SCHOOL SYSTEM Bernice Munpy, Curriculum Worker and Evetyn R. Girarpin, Supervisor of Primary Grades and Kindergartens Public Schools, Baltimore, Maryland rial published every year which appeals to the natural interests of children in the lower grades. Stories about airplanes, boats, Indians, Eskimos, community workers, and many other interesting subjects are being produced in increasingly attractive form. Too fre- quently, however, these published materials are of such difficulty that despite their interest to the child, they are inappropriate for cursory reading. On the other hand, material that is well adapted to a limited degree of reading ability is rarely found on subjects which form the center of children’s interests. For the very slow reader, much material using a common vocabulary is desirable, but such systematically planned material is difficult to obtain. Since this is the case, it has seemed expedient in the public schools of Baltimore to encourage the production of reading materials to meet the needs of individual classes of primary children. In the intermediate grades and occupational ' classes, also, the exist- ing reading materials have been found inadequate for the needs of slow children. It has become necessary, therefore, to provide additional material for practise in specific skills when needed by a class or by certain individuals. It is equally important to create relatively simple material of a highly interesting nature. Furthermore, since much of the available material is literary, appropriate factual material must frequently be prepared. This article describes the methods used in developing materials for these older children as well as for those in the primary grades. \ EVERY PRIMARY TEACHER KNows, there is an abundance of mate- Propucing MATERIALS FOR THE PRIMARY GRADES In the primary department, two entirely different methods have been pursued in creating suitable supplementary reading materials. The method has been adapted to the type of material desired and to the use to which it will be put. Rewriting references in the social studies—The primary teachers have found it particularly difficult to obtain a sufficient amount of easy reading material on any given subject to make reference periods 1The term “occupational” here refers to a terming] education program for the ‘“‘teen-age” non- academic child who is not mentally handicapped, a 458 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS —$—___ truly worthwhile. Realizing this need, the kindergarten-primary super. visors and a group of classroom teachers set about devising suitable material. Since the social studies unit in progress is the core of the curriculum in primary classrooms, the supervisors and teachers gath- ered together many references on the social studies topics which are listed in the several courses of study. These references were carefully read and then rewritten, using a vocabulary that could be read without too much difficulty by the children of the grade in which the unit appeared. For example, in the unit on Colonial life in Maryland, listed in the course of study for the third grade, material on the following topics f was prepared for children: } The Founding of Maryland The Landing The First Settlement Homes in Maryland Lighting Their Homes b Homes of the Pilgrims ' Food in Colonial Maryland : Serving Meals Trade with the Indians Industries and Trade Occupations of the Pilgrims Costumes of the Women of Maryland Costumes of the Men of Maryland Costumes of the Pilgrims of Massachusetts. SU a A ad Similar articles were prepared for each unit in each grade, care being exercised to adapt the factual material to the reading level for which 7 it was recommended in the course of study. This material was dupli- cated at the central office and was made available to the classroom | teachers. Many teachers have mounted each story on heavy paper and have clipped them all together in book form, thus making a per- manent book that can be used from year to year. Classroom teachers have found this material invaluable in integrating reading with their social studies programs.” Devising materials for beginning reading—A different procedure was used in the development of primer and pre-primer material for be- ginning reading. First-grade teachers all over the city had deplored the lack of simple reading material with a controlled vocabulary for slow readers. Hence, four schools located in different sections of the city and enrolling children of low ability were selected as experimental centers. All of the first-grade teachers in these schools, together with a primary supervisor, met for the purpose of organizing suitable read- ing materials for the slow first-grade child. A particular primer was 2 The use of teacher-prepared material in third-grade science is described by Gordon in Chap- ter V.—Editorial Committee. Pt cena SANTEE able the ath- are ully lout unit the Ves ProvipING CLASSROOM MATERIALS 459 selected as a basal text for this work. Each story unit in the primer was considered separately. First, the new words in each unit were noted in preparation for assembling the new material. Four, six, or eight stories were then made for each primer story, using the identical vocabulary in a different context each time. In addition to repeating familiar words, care was taken to repeat new words presented in the primer story a sufficient number of times to fix them in the child’s reading vocabulary. No new words which were not used in the primer story were utilized in this supplementary material. These stories were typed in large primer type, duplicated, and made into books. It has not been necessary for every child in the experiment to read all of the supplementary stories. In some cases, the child’s reading abil- ity has advanced so that some of the stories could be eliminated. After the primer has been read with the aid of this supplementary material, the children proceed to a first reader of the same series accompanied by similar material. The first-grade classes in the four schools have been using this material experimentally for three semesters, and it appears that the opportunity of reading much easy material contain- ing a familiar vocabulary increases markedly the reading abilities of slow children in this grade. Test results will, however, be the objective evidence of its worth. In addition to the materials made by primary supervisors and com- mittees of primary teachers, many teachers independently make sup- plementary reading materials to meet the needs of their classes. When, during a reference period, the majority of the class is engaged in read- ing appropriate material, the teacher frequently gives pictures concern- ing the subject under discussion to the slow readers. These pictures are accompanied by simple descriptive material which the teacher has prepared. Reading material based on seatwork—The children, too, have a part in organizing supplementary reading materials in the primary grades. Frequently, teachers do not make the maximum use of duplicated seat- work which is used in a directed reading lesson. After various exercises on a single topic have been performed by the children, these assign- ments may be combined into new reading material. Following are some examples of seatwork exercises* and a story based upon them: Seatwork No. 1 Choose the best word to complete each sentence. Long ago when people wanted to write messages, they made sand signs rings songs Messages were once carried by bunnies ruins riches runners ————————— * Baltimore Department of Education. Reading Course of Study for Grades I, II, and III. Baltimore, Md.: the Department, 1936. p. 319-20. 460 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Mail was carried in America by riders racers rains birds The first cars on rails were drawn by houses heat horses Messages are sent across the ocean by means of cables calls gables cars Seatwork No. 2 Put a line under the phrase that best describes the roads in the days of the Pony Express. clean and paved rough and muddy paved and muddy Put a line under the phrase that best describes the Overland Mail. slow and dangerous swift and safe slow and safe Put a box around the phrase that best describes the first steam engine. small and weak large and strong large and dangerous Put a line through the phrase that best tells the use of the cable. sends messages on land sends messages across water sends messages in the air Put a ring around the phrase that best describes the air mail. swift and new safe and slow slow and old New Material Made from Seatwork 1 and 2 THE STORY OF COMMUNICATION Long ago when people wanted to write messages, they made signs. This was called picture writing. After this, messages were carried by swift runners who carried mail from the king to the people. In America, mail was carried by riders. These riders were called the Pony Express. The roads were rough and muddy, making the trip hard and slow. Then came the Overland Mail. Overland Mail routes were made by means of having the mail carried on boats and on horses and mules. These trips were slow and dangerous. The roads were muddy and many dangers awaited the mail. After a time, rails were laid but the first cars were drawn by horses. Later a steam engine was made but the first ones were small and weak. Now messages can be sent across the ocean by means of cables laid under the water. Letters can be carried, too, by air mail. This kind of communication is swift and new. Many brave pilots carry the mail every day. Evaluating the new materials—As indicated above, the primary supervisors, selected committees, individual teachers, and children are all employed in the task of producing desirable supplementary reading materials. Regardless of the sources of these materials, however, the following criteria are used for their evaluation: 1. The vocabulary should be familiar and limited to as few new words as possible. 2. The content should be interesting and within the child’s experience. 2 RIES TY 7 PETES T Sey weer he ‘~~ ©O @ —s — oS be “w ay ts Sid PROVIDING CLASSROOM MATERIALS 461 3. The type or printing should be easily legible to the child. 4. The sentence structure should correspond to that of the basal text. Variety in sentence structure should be in evidence. 5. There should be as much repetition of the vocabulary as possible within the story.* In addition to these principles, it is essential that all factual mate- rials be as accurate as possible; that is, they must be based on authori- tative sources. DEVELOPING MATERIALS FOR THE INTERMEDIATE GRADES To meet a similar deficiency of reading materials in the intermediate grades, a committee composed of teachers, vice-principals, principals, and supervisors was selected. The stories submitted by this committee were original ones written to provide the necessary training for pupils in such abilities as these: 1. Reading a variety of types of selections 2. Making an independent and meaningful attack on informational matter 3. Following written directions 4, Finding answers to specific fact questions 5. Finding the main thought of the paragraph 6. Finding the main thought of the selection 7. Determining the main topic and its subheadings. The committee set up certain directions or standards by which all contributions were judged, as follows: . Make each paragraph a thought unit. . Use a clear-cut opening sentence. . Make each sentence keep to the topic. . Write a summarizing closing sentence. Have each sentence clear-cut. In the main, use simple sentences. Use a varied combination of words and phrases. . Use not more than one unknown word in each two hundred words read. . Have most paragraphs contain less than one hundred and fifty words. . Use only words within the limits of the given vocabulary. Nature of the materials—Three blocks of reading material—called Set I, Set II, and Set I11]—were prepared to provide practise in the various skills in Grades IV, V, and VI. However, no grade classifica- tion label was placed on these books. In this way, for example, a fifth-grade child whose achievement was equal to that of the average fourth-grade child could use Set I without experiencing any dissatisfac- tion because of a lower grade designation. The reading material was carefully prepared with regard to content, vocabulary, and sentence structure. Since the material had to be inter- esting, it was related as closely as possible to the child’s experiences. WONMAP wwe ‘Baltimore Department of Education, op cit., p. 321. 5 Preface to tentative draft of Reading Practice Material for Use in Intermediate Grades and Occupational Classes, Baltimore Public Schools. 462 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Many of the stories dealt with topics with which the children were somewhat acquainted and about which they desired to know more, In order not to limit the child’s reading to factual material on the social sciences, other types of stories were included, such as humorous selections, informative selections, directions to be carried out in dif- ferent ways, various types of problems, directions for many types of activities, reports of the news-item type, and friendly and business letters. A very limited vocabulary was used, and new words were introduced only gradually. A graded word list to be used as a guide was compiled by the committee on the basis of several standard lists available. Checking exercises of various types were also provided, such as (1) word completion, (2) idea completion, (3) multiple choice, and (4) matching. In the multiple-choice exercises the committee members were asked to keep the form consistent; that is, the responses were to be either all words, all phrases, all clauses, or all sentences. System- atic exercises likewise were included to provide for mastery of reading skills, to increase the child’s vocabulary, to acquaint the child with the common constructions and idioms, and to develop speed of com- prehension commensurate with his ability. Trying out the materials—As the articles were written, they were used experimentally in classroom situations. First, however, the stories were submitted to a reviewing committee, which, after improving and approving them, passed them on to the chairman of the central com- mittee. Mimeographed editions were finally distributed to all of the intermediate grades and occupational classes thruout the school system, and were used whenever teachers felt they would be helpful. Principals and teachers were requested to send in any suggestions for improve- ment of the material, these suggestions to be incorporated in the final revision. When this program was introduced in the various classrooms, atten- tion was called to the fact that the new material was intended to supplement textbook material, not to replace it. Teachers using this material have found it helpful with the average and above-average pupils in developing new skills; with slow children in maintaining skills already acquired; and with accelerated children for enrichment purposes. PREPARING MATERIALS FOR OCCUPATIONAL CLASSES There is also a dearth of suitable textbook material for the occupa- tional classes studying about the community, altho much is to be found in this field at the adult reading level. To be classified as ‘“occupa- tional,” a child is required to have only fifth-grade reading ability 2 NTRS AA IT ProvipING CLASSROOM MATERIALS 463 but must be from thirteen to fifteen years of age. This situation has necessitated the writing of material that will appeal to children whose interests are more mature than their reading abilities. Such material is designed for use as a textbook, supplementing the teacher’s devel- opment of the subject with her class. To produce this material, experimental centers were set up in occu- pational classes in various parts of the city. The teachers of these classes cooperated with the curriculum workers of the intermediate grades. Such activities as the following were required in order that authoritative material might be compiled: 1. Making requests for available literature and illustrative material from local concerns. (These concerns were found to be most cooperative, and in many in- stances they actually had the necessary information prepared.) 2. Talking to representatives of governmental and industrial departments to get valid information. 3. Doing research work at the library, and rewriting information available to adults in the language of the child. 4, Taking trips to various places of interest for the purpose of getting firsthand information and observing processes of manufacture to be included in the stories. The following criteria were set up for evaluating these reading materials: 1. The content of the stories must appeal to children whose interests are widely varied. 2. The vocabulary must be within the comprehension of children of fifth-grade reading ability. 3. A new vocabulary must be gradually built on the solid foundation of words already known. 4. There must be frequent repetition of the desired vocabulary in new context. 5. Sentences should be short and clear-cut. 6. Paragraphs should be clear and concise. 7. The reading selection must be brief enough to hold the child’s interest thruout the story so that he may have the satisfaction of finishing his assignment. 8. Checks must provide an opportunity for the child to show the extent of his understanding of the subject. CoNncLUSION The supplementary reading materials described in this article will undoubtedly undergo many changes from time to time as weaknesses in them are observed. Valuable suggestions for their improvement will be incorporated as rapidly as possible. However, teachers who have used them wisely seem to agree that even in their present state these materials are invaluable in supplementing both the reading program and the program in the content subjects. 464 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS PROVIDING READING MATERIAL TO DEVELOP SOCIAL ATTITUDES Auice HANTHORN Principal, Observation School, Cleveland, Ohio material—that which provides general information and that which meets a specific need. There is a wealth of published material giving general information, but very little which provides specific knowledge concerning local conditions. Reading lessons must therefore be written by the school faculty if they are to help solve the problems peculiar to the individual school. The reading program outlined in this article is the outgrowth of an imperative social need. This need is one which exists in many com- munities, and is probably due in part to the trend of the times, includ- ing lawless destruction of property and other violations of moral standards. In attacking the problem very little printed material could be provided; so it was necessary for the faculty of the school to collect information and compose reading units adapted to the various reading levels of the children. While not all the difficulties involved have been overcome, so much improvement is evident that the writer is encour- aged to believe that the activity here described is gradually meeting the need. The following pages outline the situation and some of the steps taken to improve it during the two semesters of the calendar year 1937. Situation of the school—The Observation School is an elementary school of about 600 children. Of these, about 40 percent are colored; 40 percent are Italian; 10 percent are of mixed foreign nationalities including Greek, Chinese, Polish, and others; and 10 percent are American children from fairly good homes. The building is favorably located in that it is only about three blocks from the Museum of Art with its lovely grounds, two blocks from the Western Reserve Univer- sity, three blocks from Severance Symphony Hall, and less than one block from the Historical Museum. There is a small city park in front of the building, and on the street near the building are three open-front flower booths with gorgeous displays of flowers all the year round. There are, however, a number of unfavorable features, including (1) a dangerous approach due to the intersection of a boulevard and three radiating streets, with double streetcar tracks in front of the building, (2) nearby apartment houses in which live adults who are critical of children, (3) the surrounding congested district from which 80 percent M= suBJEcTS of the curriculum demand two types of reading ee a a Eery Be ET PTT SET fo se ty iy g1 sh th jo re of st to m pl th ch al se ProvipING CLASSROOM MATERIALS 465 of the children come, and (4) Lakeside Hospital, which is located near the school building. The social problem—Adults in the nearby apartment houses com- plained that children ran across the lawns, broke down the shrubbery, used offensive language when reprimanded, climbed on the terraces, played on the fire escapes, snowballed the janitor, and were generally troublesome. The hospital staffs protested that the children were noisy when passing the hospital. Owners of the flowers booths demanded that the children pass the booths without rubbing the advertising written in broad chalk on the display boards, molesting the flowers, scattering discarded flowers, and giving saucy answers to the cus- tomers. The owner of a nearby ice plant asserted that it would take $200 to replace windows which had been broken in his building. While not all of this damage was charged to the Observation School children, the implication was that a large share of the fault was theirs. The filling-station attendant caught and thoroly trounced a large colored boy for cutting thru his lot and climbing fences. When admonished in regard to these various offenses, the children generally seemed in- different. Investigating the causes of difficulty—Upon investigation it was found that the Observation School children were, on the whole, uncon- scious of the social life of the community. They saw no connection be- tween the ice plant or the windows which they had broken and their own welfare. They were oblivious to the fact that they tramped out grass, broke off shrubbery, and destroyed fences when they took the short cuts to and from school. The gang spirit ruled their replies when they were admonished by irate custodians or property owners. The dis- play boards of the flower stands offered a diversion which they en- joyed with no thought of the extra labor caused by forcing signs to be rewritten. There was little evidence of intentional destruction. The chief cause of difficulty seemed to be that many of the children came from poverty- stricken homes, where there were few possessions to inspire respect or to give practise in proper care. Moreover, while the immediate com- munity had no example of adult lawlessness, reports of labor disturb- ances were discussed freely in the homes. Acts involving destruction of public property and disregard of community rights were familiar to the older children. Attacking the problem—After many attempts to impress upon the children the importance of respect for property and courtesy to adults, an informational program was inaugurated. This was carried out in several ways. Since this article deals with reading, that part of the 466 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS program will be emphasized altho it is necessary to outline briefly the entire activity, which consisted of the following elements: 1. Excursions to see and appreciate beauty 2. Free discussions following trips, with summaries to be used as reading lessons 3. Class projects of community service, such as gardens actually growing in the rooms 4. A committee appointed by the classes to consult with property owners 5. Assemblies of children to hear reports of committees and to pledge support of good-citizen programs 6. Many opportunities given for free expression of ideals thru composition, draw- ing, painting, public talks, and free dramatizations 7. An extensive reading program to give children information as to the services rendered by the various community centers 8. Checks made on the outcome in terms of skills, reading achievement, informa- tion, and attitudes toward community interests. Reading units—Appropriate reading material was found in the text- books of the fifth and sixth grades. In the primary grades the units had to be written by the children and teachers. It is impossible to present many of these units here because of lack of space, but a pri- mary series written in the spring is given below to illustrate the begin- ning of the study. As spring opened up, many excursions were taken by all classes. The grounds of the Art Museum offered new attractions each day. Overnight added beauties appeared. Each primary class visited the grounds every few days. Children took food to the fish, watched the birds making nests, noted flowers, discussed trips, made drawings, and composed reading lessons. On each trip the care of flowers and grass was discussed. Following are some of the materials composed in the first grade: SPRING IS HERE We went to the Art Museum. The crocuses were in bloom. Some are white. Some are blue. Some are yellow. We saw two robins. We walked on the walk and on the paths. We did not pick the flowers. FORSYTHIA IS IN BLOOM Today we saw forsythia. It is bright yellow. It looks like gold. Mary called it a gold tree. We fed the gold fish. We did not step on the new grass. We stayed on the walks and the paths. —~ veg RTS naar Providinc CLAassroom MarTertaLs 467 OUR GARDEN We have a garden. It is in the sand table. We put black dirt in the sand table. ms We planted our seeds. the We covered the seeds with the dirt. Then we watered the garden. We made a path in our garden. ort We want our garden to grow. aw- FLOWERS IN BLOOM ices Our garden is growing. We can see little green leaves. ma- We water the garden every day. The sand table is in the sunshine. ; Water and sun make flowers grow. xt- We like pretty flowers. . We like flowers in our garden. nits F to [ FLOWERS IN BLOOM ori- Many flowers are in bloom at the Art Museum. sn Some are pink. Some are white. There are some blue flowers too. aes. The birds were singing. lay. § We saw a robin’s nest. the © A red-headed woodpecker was tapping on a tree. the We were careful not to frighten the birds. We walked on the paths. and rass fp GOING HOME the & We are careful as we go home. We keep on the walk. We do not step on the new grass. We look at the pretty flowers. We like the flower stands. We do not touch the flowers. We do not rub out the signs. The flower man likes us. In the making of reading lessons, sentences were contributed by the children after or during the discussion periods. Each lesson was illus- trated with freehand drawing or painting. Reading charts were hung about the room and reread many times. The vocabulary of each lesson was kept at the reading level of the children. Much repetition was provided. Except for names of the flowers, practically all the words were in the vocabulary of the basal series of readers used in the Cleveland schools. Reading checks—Simple checks on comprehension in rcading were given. Here are typical items from these homemade tests: 468 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Write the proper word on each line. 1. Forsythia is a flower. 2. Crocuses are : . or 3. We are careful to walk on the 4. sing in the trees. walks robins white yellow blue children Draw a line under the proper word. 1. Our garden is in the yard. in the street. in the sand table. 2. Our garden needs black dirt. brown sand. red flowers. 3. The sand table is in the dark. in the corner. in the sunshine. Observation scrapbook—A school paper called the Observation Scrap- book is published several times a year. One special number was devoted to gardening. Verses and articles about gardening were contributed by many children and were read by all the children. The paper contained many free-hand drawings of flowers, of birds, and of children gardening. These the younger children loved to color. Tie Scrapbook sells for two cents a copy. In each room sufficient copies wege purchased by the children to provide reading material for that class. Even the youngest children read parts of the paper, and followed the words as the teacher read the more difficult articles to them. Below are some of the articles included. The free-hand drawings added interest and helped to clarify the meaning, but as it is impossible to show these they will have to be imagined. MY GARDEN In my little garden Lovely things you'll see, Fragrant petals falling From the apple tree. Purple pansy faces Smiling every one, Red and yellow tulips Nodding in the sun. Butterflies flit softly Thru the iris row. Bumble bees are busy Buzzing to and fro. NET TEE eR RRR RRIRNETSNS? | coon F t ' br sh spr fro Sel nt for nd gs ble PRovIDING CLASSROOM MATERIALS 469 Graceful dogwood branches Sway against the sky. Forsythia and lilacs Delight the passer-by. Robins gaily singing, Flickers tapping trees, Swallows glide and circle In the gentle breeze. —Poetry Group FLOWER SHOPS ADD BEAUTY There are many flower shops in our neighborhood. They are beautiful with roses, carnations, gardenias, sweet peas, and lilies-of-the-valley. Such colors brighten up Carnegie Avenue. We like to have these shops here very much. Let us show our appreciation by being courteous to their owners. —Dorothy Nero KEEP CLEVELAND CLEAN During May 1-8 all Cleveland put every effort into cleaning up our city. Ob- servation School cooperated in this campaign. Records were kept of the children’s work during this week. : Everyone is anxious to have Cleveland look its best at all times—especially this summer when we will have out-of-town visitors to the Great Lakes Exposition. We have made a good start. Keep Cleveland clean. —Charles Foster HOME GARDENS SAVE MONEY Gardens are not only beautiful but also helpful. A few cents worth of seed and good care will save several dollars when vegetables are ready to use. —Anthony Nelline ASHPILE BECOMES BEAUTY SPOT On the street where I live a neighbor has a beautiful garden where once was an ugly ashpile. If you are discouraged because your space seems so small or the soil unfertile I suggest you visit this garden. He will welcome you if you come to see and learn, not to destroy. Peggy, a little fox terrier, is the watchman. She will bark and call her master to let him know you are there. Mary DelGreco PUPILS PLANT GARDENS After studying how plants grow from seeds, cuttings, tubers, bulbs, and grafts, the science pupils are eager to try some gardening. They have dug a place five by twelve feet for the home gardens. Radishes are peeping through the ground. Soon beets, carrots, lettuce, Spinach, marigolds, calliopsis, zinnias, and French mari- golds will show their heads. Children who have no space for a garden have brought a begonia or ivy plant. They take care of their flowers on the porch or in the house. —Alleyne Barkley Work in September—Each of the upper-grade classes was held re- sponsible for the activity of one or more committees. Representatives from one of these committees called regularly on a particular com- munity center which had registered a complaint about Observation School children, They discussed the problems with the person in charge 470 ELEMENTARY ScHOOL PRINCIPALS ne and brought back reports to the school. Group assemblies were they held to hear and act upon these reports. Each committee made a poster which filled a display board three feet wide by six feet high. These were placed in the lower hall, thry which all the children pass several times a day. The upper part of the poster illustrated the activity and the lower part contained admonitions | written at the first-grade level. The flower-booth poster was painted with show-card colors to show the arrangement of orange, yellow, blue, and lavender fall flowers. Below were printed the following admonitions: WALK CAREFULLY PAST THE FLOWER STANDS. DO NOT TOUCH THE SIGNS. BE A FLOWER POLICEMAN. iat a fl PE, CRT The first-grade classes read these instructions many times. For many | weeks, attention was called to the posters just as the children started home from school each day. Good-citizen movie—One primary class adopted two imaginary chil- dren. Their names were Billy and Betty Jean. An entire story was written and typed so that each child owned a booklet which he himself illustrated. The children also made a large illustration for a class movie, each page depicting some incident in the story. At an assembly program the story was read aloud and the movie was turned so that the large pictures kept pace with the incidents. Several sections of this story are [ reproduced here: Good Citizens in Room 106 Here is Billy. Here is Betty Jean. Going to School Billy and Betty Jean go to Observation School. They go every day. They are on time. They are good citizens. Getting Ready for School Mother helps Billy and Betty Jean. She helps them make a chart. The chart tells them what to do. Here is the chart. The Chart 1. Wash face. 2. Wash hands. 3. Brush teeth. 4. Comb hair. 5. Eat a good breakfast. — : co! SEO Tee PROVIDING CLASSROOM MATERIALS 471 Neat Citizens hen Billy does these things every day. Betty Jean does these things every day. ree They are neat citizens. hru : the B Caring for Pets ions & Billy and Betty Jean have many pets. ted & See Billy feed his cat. See Betty Jean play with her dog. lue, § They are kind to their pets. ns: & Apartment Houses Billy and Betty Jean walk past apartment houses. They walk quietly. They keep on the walks. any They do not step on the grass. rted They do not step on the flowers. ; They do not play in front of the apartment houses. They are good citizens. shil- § was The Ice House iself F Billy and Betty Jean walk past the ice house. vie. f There are many windows in the ice house. ; They help the ice house man. ram § They keep on the walks. arge § They go past quietly. rane They do not throw stones. Lakeside Hospital Billy and Betty Jean walk past the hospital. They read the sign— HOSPITAL ZONE—BE QUIET They are very quiet. They do not talk. They are good citizens. The Flower Stands Billy and Betty Jean walk past the flower stands. : They see red flowers. q They see pretty blue flowers. ‘s They see many yellow flowers. They do not touch the flowers. They are good citizens. Other reading activities—Textbooks in science and geography gave the fifth and sixth grades information on the value of ice. These facts were discussed freely in class. Very little material, however, could be 472 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS es found at the reading levels of children in the first, second, and third grades; consequently, the teachers had to compose the units for these grades. When the large poster of the ice plant was made, the following sen- tences were printed at the bottom for the benefit of the first-grade children: PROTECT THE ICE PLANT. WALK PAST QUICKLY. BE COURTEOUS WHEN SPOKEN TO. Since ice has so much social and commercial value, the teachers of the third and fourth grades worked up the history of its manufacture, conservation, and use. This account was typed, made into booklets, and read aloud in the various class assemblies. Space does not permit the reproduction of this material here. The same general type of reading activity was developed with refer- ence to the Western Reserve University grounds and Lakeside Hospital. The entire school was thrilled over a letter written to the committee by the president of the university, in which he expressed appreciation of the friendly, neighborly spirit existing between the university and our school. This letter was typed so that all the older children could enjoy it. Outcomes of the activity—The project reviewed above has had two important outcomes: (1) improvement in reading, and (2) improve- ment in social attitudes. With reference to the improvement in reading the following statements were made by the assistant research director of the city school system: The reading ability at Observation School has been measured each year by standardized tests since 1933. The results show that the reading programs have been planned to meet the ability levels of the pupils. The results of the last standardized test given to all B pupils show the IIB classes to be at the author’s norm, while the IIIB, IVB, VB, and VIB classes are above the author’s norm and also above the norm for the Cleveland city schools. Since Observation School children rank mentally in the lowest third of the city schools, it seems that the reading program is definitely related to the individual needs of the pupils. This progress in reading has been only partly due to the specialized a | | | social work mentioned in this article, for Cleveland has an excellent | course of study in reading. The regular work prescribed in the course of study was carried on during the periods assigned to reading. The specialized reading was given during a part of the language periods, during assemblies, and during the time allotted to social studies. Vocabulary charts were made, meanings of words were discussed, and new expressions were used in compositions. As the understanding of the children increased, their reading also improved. PROVIDING CLASSROOM MATERIALS 473 rd The children’s improvement in social attitudes is more difficult to se determine; in fact, no test is available for measuring this progress. It is evident, however, that a friendly, cooperative feeling now exists n- between the school and the community. Very few complaints have been de | made during the last few months. When a criticism comes, it is taken as a challenge to the school and is cheerfully worked upon by the children thru their committees. This procedure will be followed as long as the need exists. of re, ts, nit er al. tee & ion or years children’s interests were entirely disregarded in the ind | porkdrewed of reading content. Recently, however, many in- uld vestigations have been conducted for the purpose of obtaining information in regard to children’s interests in reading. The WO results of these investigations are frequently used as the basis ve- for determining the content of instructional materials in read- ing ing. There is a fallacy in this practice in that the nature of the stor investigation itself confines the child to a narrow scope of read- ing materials. It is possible to find out the child’s preference by for certain selections placed before him, but there are thou- ave & sands of other selections in the great mass of available mate- IB rials upon which we have no data and can never hope to obtain are & any.—Smith, Nila B., American Reading Instruction, Silver, pols. Burdett and Co., 1934, p. 270. (Quoted by permission of the bi publishers. ) ized & lent arse The ods, lies. and x of > 474 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS THE USE OF ADVERTISING LITERATURE AS MATERIAL FOR STUDY READING ExisA ANN NEAL Training Supervisor, Grade IV, State Teachers College, Platteville, Wisconsin ANY TEACHERS in the field report that they are handicapped by a lack of sufficient reading material to organize reading units of the activity type. For this reason the writer began experi- menting to see how much could be accomplished with advertising literature in a study of milk and milk products in Grade IV.! This article describes the unit and mentions a large number of specific reading materials which were used in carrying it thru. Sources of material*—A wealth of illustrated, informative litera- ture describing the production, handling, distribution, and uses of milk is available without cost to teachers and schools. Upon request this literature is distributed by dairies and milk products plants. Corre- spondence with the colleges of agriculture and the state departments of agriculture and markets in the seven states which lead in milk production, showed these institutions to be genuinely interested and willing to cooperate. When helpful materials were not distributed by one of these agencies, suggestions regarding possible sources of in- formation were readily given. There are many organizations that make a business of assembling and distributing material to stimulate in- creased sales and consumption of milk and its products. Much of this is free to schools, but occasionally a small charge is made to cover mail- ing costs. The National Dairy Council, with main offices in Chicago, furnishes health education material free of charge to teachers living in a city which has a local Council unit; otherwise a slight charge per copy is made, which becomes almost prohibitive when one wishes to supply a group of children with this reading material. Therefore, in using the Council’s uncopyrighted publications, of which we had sample copies, we either typed and hectographed the stories or pre- sented them thru oral reports by teachers or children. Outline of the study unit—A skeletal outline of our objectives and general plan follows: 1In some school systems the use of advertising material in the classroom is prohibited. The advisability of using such material probably depends upon the specific nature of the material ant the skill with which it is presented, as well as upon the character and attitude of the local community.—EZditorial Committee. 2 Whenever a publication is mentioned in the text, it is followed by a number in parentheses These numbers will enable the reader to locate any given publication and its publisher in the complete, classified list at the end of this article. PrRovipING CLASSROOM MATERIALS I. Understandings to be developed A. Milk is considered as a food 1. Milk is an excellent source of calcium and a good source of phosphorus 2. Milk is a valuable source of vitamins A and G, and may be fairly good for B. Irradiated milk contains vitamin D 3. Milk provides excellent protein, and thru its sugar, fat, and protein, it gives considerable energy B. Milk is necessary in the life of young mammals C. More than one-half of the nation’s milk supply is used in the form of milk products D. Milk is a valuable source of income to farmers E. Many nations use other animals than the cow for their milk supply II. Organization of subjectmatter A. Forms of milk used in our rats’ diets Fresh milk, powdered skim milk, irradiated evaporated milk, and milk products B. Source of our raw milk supply 1. Study of cow (food habits, breeds) 2. Visit to dairy farm . Milk as a food Food elements: minerals (for teeth), sugar, fat, protein, and vitamins . Care of milk in our homes ). How science has helped to make milk better for us Cooling, pasteurization, bottling, refrigeration, homogenization, grad- ing, testing, manufacturing of machines, and irradiation . Milk products Butter, cheese, evaporated milk, ice cream, powdered milk, and condensed milk x. Byproducts of milk Casein H. Other animals that give milk Goat, sheep, camel, reindeer, mare, water buffalo, yak, and llama. Our reading unit, “What are the benefits of milk and milk products in our diet?” was initiated by reading The White Rat of Hawkins Hall (1), a story telling how the members of the Hawkins family developed a more scientific viewpoint toward their own diet after the children had taken two pet rats to school and had conducted an experiment showing the gains made with evaporated milk and green vegetables. The plot is an enjoyable one, with many interesting episodes concerning the family’s interests and activities. A fine introduction is made to the vocabulary needed in a study of milk and its products, and the begin- nings of a scientific attitude are developed by the explanation of why rats are so valuable in scientific studies of nutrition. This story pro- vided many possible leads, and we chose to begin our activities with a feeding experiment with white rats to show the benefits of milk in the diet. Experimenting with rats—We bought the rats from a biological supply house—five litter mates of the same sex, thirty days old, and weighing from 36 to 40 grams. We had cylindrical cages made of one- 476 ELEMENTARY ScHooL PRINCIPALS fourth-inch wire footing, with a floor of the same material soldered one inch from the base so that the cages would be easy to clean. For covers we used pie tins filled with cement for weighting, and the entire cage was then set into a tin pan lined with paper towels. Each cage was equipped with a water bottle and glass tube so that the rats might have as much water as they chose to sip. All the rats were fed whole-grain cereal consisting of approximately 75 percent yellow corn meal, 24 percent ground wheat, and 1 percent salt. The children made ear slits for identification. The first rat had whole fresh milk; the second rat had irradiated evaporated milk; the third had powdered skim milk; the fourth had the average American diet, including vegetables, meat, cheese, butter, desserts, and occasionally milk to drink; while the fifth rat had coffee. Each week the children weighed the rats on gram scales and recorded their progress on the weight graphs. The rats having some form of milk made steady gains, in- creasing their weight threefold during the first six weeks, while the rat having coffee barely held its own weight during the same period. The four milk-fed rats showed normal behavior, slept thruout the day, and had fine fur, with eyes in good condition, but rat number 5 was fidgety, excitable, and excessively active, with pale ears and tail, and partially closed eyes. He appeared definitely malnourished. At this time the children thought the diet should be changed to fresh whole milk, supplemented by two drops of cod liver oil daily, to speed the gain in weight.* After the diet had been changed, the weight graph for rat number 5 showed a sudden spurt in the upward curve, and at the conclusion of the experiment six weeks later, all rats weighed approximately the same. The children took the rats to two local dentists for teeth examinations, and they reported that the rats having milk for the entire period had strong, well-developed teeth, while rat number 5 had smaller and softer teeth. In addition, one of our local physicians offered to test the blood of these animals for its hemoglobin content. Altho the results were interesting, these tests, as well as the dentists’ examinations, were not extensive or complete enough to use as a basis of conclusions. When we had finished our experiment, the rats were given to the biology department of the college. As indicated in the outline given above, we discussed briefly the forms of milk used in our rats’ diets which had been treated in an abridged manner in The White Rat of Hawkins Hall (1). 8In conducting this experiment for the last three years, we have found that the rats with fresh whole milk have shown a slightly greater gain than those given the irradiated evaporated milk. One would expect the reverse, but with such a small difference and so many factors involved, including the possibility that the children did not shake the bottle of fresh milk thoroly, we cannot definitely say that either diet was the better. 324 PRrovipING CLASSROOM MATERIALS 477 Reading about our raw milk supply—Next we chose to study the source of our milk supply. The breeders’ associations* representing Ayrshire, Guernsey, Holstein, Jersey, and Brown Swiss cattle were most generous in their response to our request for colored prints of the representative breeds of cattle, and for descriptive literature concern- ing the original homes, milk production or butter fat records, and in- teresting characteristics of each breed. In order that each child might have the valuable reading material found in Milk: The Wheels of a Great Industry Turn To Serve You (2), telling about a cow’s stomach, rumination, rations, and milk production, we typed and hectographed parts of this material for the group. After visiting the college dairy barn, the children wrote their im- pressions of the clean floors, the lighting, the individual water foun- tains, the milking machine in action, the feeling of the pulsating suction when they put their thumbs in the teat cups, the way a cow knows her stanchion, the bull’s blinders, and other features of the place. In the milk house they observed how the milking machine is taken apart to be sterilized with a disinfectant, how the cooler is assembled, how the milk drips on the cooler, and how the cans of milk are kept in a cold storage tank until they are trucked to the dairy. As an aid to the teacher in preparing for such a trip, Clean and Sanitary Milk Production (3) is valuable, and its pictorial presenta- tion of how the temperature of milk determines the rate of bacterial growth is worthwhile for the child. In this same pamphlet the “Big Six” in clean milk production— healthy cow, clean flank and udder, sterile cotton-pad strainer, prompt cooling, small-top pail, and sterilized utensils—are effectively pre- sented with illustrations. For groups unable to have firsthand experi- ences with disks showing the sediment found in milk produced under more unfavorable conditions, the photographs of disks in Essentials of Clean Milk Production (4) would be worth having. A report entitled Well Water, An Excellent Medium for Cooling Milk and Cream (5) is also interesting, and it shows the children how the author’s study led him to conclude that well water varies only four degrees during winter and summer, and that the depth of the well has no relation to the temperature of the water. Another leaflet, Efficiency Comes to the Barnyard (6), which contains five stories about the necessity of clean- liness in the barn and why milk is safe for babies, appealed to some children in our group. At the farm the children learned that the dairymen plan to cool the *The names and addresses of these breeders’ associations are as follows: Ayrshire Breeders’ Association, Brandon, Vermont; Guernsey Breeders’ Association, Fort Atkinson, Wisconsin; Holstein-Friesian Association of America, Madison, Wisconsin; American Jersey Cattle Club, 324-B West 23rd St., New York, New York. 478 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS — milk to 60 degrees or less immediately after its production to retard the growth of bacteria. This led to a study of how to read temperatures, The children made a large chart thermometer showing temperatures they had read, which included temperatures of the room, the refrig- erator, our bodies, the radiator, and the water as it came from the faucet. They appointed someone to go to the farm at milking time to get the temperatures of the barn, the milk as it came from the cows, the water in the cooler, and the water in the storage tank. They boiled water and made some candy to see how high the thermometer regis- tered. All these experiences helped them better to understand the tem- perature readings which appeared in their later reading about evapo- rated and condensed milk, pasteurization, sterilization, cheese making, and bacterial growth. Studying milk as a food—As the children began to inquire about what milk was made of, we began our study of milk as a food, dealing in turn with minerals, fats, protein, sugar, and vitamins. For easy reading, Milk Every Meal (7) makes a fine introduction to the food elements found in milk. Milk; An All Round Food (8) gives general information and has an interesting idea for a poster showing foods with the equivalent energy value of a cup of milk. The National Dairy Council (2) carries this same idea further by showing foods which furnish amounts of calcium, phosphorus, and iron equivalent to those found in one quart of milk. Milk; An All Round Food (8) also intro- duces the care of milk in the home, and this topic is discussed in greater detail in The Care of Milk in Our Homes (9). A fine addi- tional booklet, Milk, the Ideal Food (10), was more challenging to children at the upper level of reading ability. An amusing review of the subject is The Fairies in Milk (11), which tells about Minnie Minerals, Polly Protein, Sally Sugar, Fanny Fat, and Viola Vitamins. Still another slant is presented in Cadet Tom at West Point (12), a story in “funny-paper” style telling what champions in training think they owe to milk. Altho not a recent publication, Milk, the Best Food (13) contains some convincing photographs of pigs, chickens, and rats illustrating how the proteins of milk influence growth, and how rations deficient in vitamins produce diseases in guinea pigs, rats, and dogs. As a general reference for the teacher, Milk for the Family (14) is splendid in its treatment of nutritive values, bacteria, home care, and milk products. In the elementary grades much emphasis has been placed on brush- ing the teeth, but little has been done in stressing the importance of nutrition in proper tooth development and maintenance. It seemed advisable, therefore, to spend some time upon the necessity of minerals in the well-balanced diet, and especially on the inclusion of milk to sup] whic leafl cien this, the toot vita proy Die for : reac writ post give sho} abil Plai gest prov tere of s wor the cat Scre in t (23 at are pro by ica) goo by pro the hel the lab el ee i ee! ee ProvipING CLASSROOM MATERIALS 479 __ supply these. A good photograph of two rats, showing the difference which milk in their diets had made in their bones, is found in the leaflet, Do I Need Milk? (15) Good Teeth (16) is easy reading, is suffi- ciently illustrated, and covers the subject well. As a supplement to this, the National Dairy Council chart, “Tooth Development,” shows the contribution which the X-ray has made to a study of proper tooth development at different ages. To understand better the part of vitamin D in governing the balance of calcium and phosphorus for proper calcification, the teacher will appreciate having the digest, Diet for Sound Teeth and Good Teeth (17). As much of the material on the general subject of vitamins is written for adults, the topic was discussed orally with the children. Then they read the charts to find foods rich in the respective vitamins. After writing group stories about vitamins A, B, C, D, and G, they made posters showing foods having high vitamin content. Vitamin C was given much consideration along with the others because of the definite shortage of C in milk, especially when pasteurized, and its ready avail- ability in citrus fruits, apples, and tomatoes. A folio, Suggested Lesson Plans on the Vitamins A, B, C, D, E, G (18), contains sensible sug- gestions as to teaching methods, desired outcomes, and student procedures. Vitamins—1935 (19) and Vitamin Primer (20) are in- teresting and concise, making good sources of verification for children of superior reading ability. The vitamin and mineral chart published by the Heinz Company is worth having for the children to consult. Should the teacher care for the technical explanation of irradiation of milk, Light and Its Appli- cation to the Irradiation of Milk (21) is fine, and Brief Excerpts from Scientific Literature (22) gives a good glimpse of the clinical research in this field. The pictures in The Story of Irradiated Evaporated Milk (23), and the chart explaining the need for supplying more vitamin D at certain seasons in A Foundation of Strength for the Future (24), are effective for the children. Much is being written comparing the prophylactic value of irradiated cow’s milk with that of milk produced by cows fed irradiated yeast. A reprint from the Journal of the Amer- ican Medical Association, “Antirachitic Cow’s Milk” (25), gives a good summary of a comparative study of the question for the teacher. Questions repeatedly arose concerning bacteria—questions provoked by our visit to the farm, by the study of temperatures, and by the process of pasteurization. Consequently we included a discussion of the common harmful and unfavorable bacterial growth, and of the helpful kinds. To observe the conditions favorable for souring milk, the children prepared samples of raw and pasteurized milk in jars, labeled these specimens, and put one of each kind in a refrigerator 480 ELEMENTARY ScHOOL PRINCIPALS —$—$—$ maintaining a temperature of 42 degrees; on a radiator which stays at approximately 122 degrees; and in the schoolroom, with the thermostat set at 68 degrees. To check the results of such an experiment, the bul- letin Clean and Sanitary Milk Production (3) may be used. It gives a diagram showing the time necessary to sour milk of high and low bacterial content at different temperatures, and also a table telling the growth of bacteria in milk kept at 50 and 68 degrees, respectively, Visiting the dairy—On our visit to the dairy we observed how the milk is received, weighed, and sampled; how the cans are washed; how the milk and cream are pasteurized; how the milk is cooled with water and brine solution; how it is bottled and capped; and how the filled bottles are washed. The dairy manager made two sediment tests for us, one of milk as it leaves the pasteurizer, and one as it is received from the farm. Needless to say, the children gasped at the disk which showed dirt from one pint of milk from the farm. Cottage cheese was in the process of being made. Since the churning had been done earlier in the morning, we saw how butter is put into tubs, cut for print packages, and stored in a refrigerated room. We counted nine thermometers used in pasteurizing, churning, and other processes. The skim milk was converted into casein, pulped, dried, and shipped to Chicago. Upon our return to school, we listed the important processes and products to include in stories about the trip. The Sheffield By-Products Company of Hobart, New Jersey, was generous in sending us literature telling about the manufacture and uses of casein, together with sample bottles of flakes, buttermilk, powdered whey, casein paint, and milk sugar. Finding out about milk products—The next topic we considered was milk products. A concise report for the teacher of the ABC’s of the milk business may be found in Milk for Millions (26). This publication tells the quantities of milk used in the various milk products, explains why prices differ for the same milk, and gives the relative places of the various milk products in the dairy industry as a whole. Herdsmen of Health (27) also contributes much to this subject by telling what dairying has done for agriculture and the American home. The children made butter with and without starters in order to com- pare results of the two methods. Concise directions for making butter are found in Story of Butter (28); or, if one wishes more detailed in- struction, the process is completely treated in Methods and Problems of Farm Butter Making (29). Good discussions of scientific facts which emphasize the food importance of butter are presented in Butter, a Superior Food (30). The Story of Annatto (31) makes a good oral report, giving an interesting story of the improvements in butter color- ing, and of the difference in the coloring of butter and cheese. a | sim rj; em SS OD SO FT ov UC =) Le —— PROVIDING CLASSROOM MATERIALS 481 —_—_— For a straightforward discussion of the making of cheese, and for simple recipes, The Story of Cheese (32) is very good, but as one would expect, the recipes require a specified starter. We used the recipe in Cottage Cheese—How to Make It (33) because this recipe is easily followed by the children. Cottage Cheese (34) discusses the subject more thoroly for the teacher. We also visited an American cheese factory, followed the processes used there, and came back to school with some rennet, coloring, and a desire to make some cheese for ourselves. Story of Rennet (35) proved interesting at this time. It is not difficult to make cheese, and either The Story of Cheese (32) or Making American Cheese on the Farm (36) explains it thoroly and makes practical suggestions. However, as we were eager to taste ours, we ate it before it had the enhanced flavor which the recipes said it would have. The Story of Marty Swiss (37), a small book of photographs taken of men at work in a Swiss cheese factory and containing a minimum amount of reading, is good for the group. For the history of cheese making, legends of the origin of differ- ent cheeses, and photographs of processes, The Romance of Cheese (38) is a treasure; and The House of Kraft (39) contains large, unexcelled photographs taken in the modern factories of this company, where Swiss, Philadelphia Cream, Camembert, and American Cheddar cheeses are manufactured. It is a practise in Europe to give local names to cheese, and altho there are more than 400 names applied to cheese, there are probably about 18 distinct varieties. Some of this confusion can be cleared up if the teacher has Varieties of Cheese (40), which treats the subject thoroly, or Cheese (41) a more simply written booklet that has other interesting data, including a diagram of how cheese-eating peoples rank. Our own state of Wisconsin produces approximately 58 percent of the nation’s American Cheddar cheese and 70 percent of the nation’s Swiss cheese. A recent state bulletin (42) devoted a section to the sub- ject of dairying, which the children found interesting. The Story of Evaporated Milk (48) is an excellent book for illustra- tions and explanations of the process of evaporating milk. It tells the history of Appert’s discovery, Pasteur’s contribution, Meyenberg’s first efforts in concentrating milk for canning, and how the circumstances of war influenced the development of evaporated milk. The photo- graphs are splendid, showing vacuum pans, homogenizer, fat globules, and the curds of mother’s, evaporated, and ordinary milk. Condensed milk is still sold in limited quantities, and Vital Facts About a Vital Food (44) as well as Milk for the Family (14) contains material for a report on this topic. 482 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS No longer a delicate luxury, ice cream is treated as a food in the book Ice Cream (45). The children were delighted with the stories oj Nero’s frozen fruit beverage, and of how Charles I of England paid hush money to his French cook to keep the recipe for ice cream a secret, © The illustrated book is replete with interesting details of the many. © facture of ice cream in a modern plant, the magnitude of the industry, and the food value of the product. We were fortunate in being able to have the children visit a milk products plant to see the spray process of drying milk after they had read about dry milk in Vital Facts About a Vital Food (44) and Milk for the Family (14). They were shown how the milk is pasteurized, cooled, and forced thru a small aperture to come out in a spray on a current of hot air; how the moisture escapes on the roof; and how the excess sugar in the evaporating water makes the roof sticky. Milk for the Family gives proportions for mixing the milk powder with water to obtain the equivalent fresh skim milk in solids and in measure. The © class made cocoa with skim milk powder to see how they might use it in | their homes. Learning how science has helped us—The topic, “How science has helped make milk better for us,” was most interesting because the children’s conclusions were based upon reading from many sources con- cerning the contributions made by tuberculin and other tests, well- balanced rations for the cow, milking machines, coolers, thermometers, sediment tests, bacterial counts, pasteurization, homogenization, re- frigeration, machines for bottling, and irradiation. Regarding certified milk, The Facts About Certified Milk (46) helped the teacher explain the production details. In addition to reading about pasteurization in Milk: The Wheels of a Great Industry Turn To Serve You (2), the children found many incidental references to safeguarding milk by efficient pasteurization. The Life of Louis Pasteur (47) is easy, worth- while reading, and it helped to develop an appreciation of the scientific method of attacking a problem. The teacher should have a copy of The Present Status of the Pasteurization of Milk (48), which discusses in detail the amount of security which pasteurization affords against infection from pathogenic organisms coming from diseased animals, infected water supplies, or human carriers of disease. Material on other milk-giving animals—We found many references to animals other than the cow which give people milk, but we centered our reading on Milking Time in Many Lands (49), which is very easy reading for children at the lower levels of reading ability, and which has separate leaflets for the milk-giving animals of Persia, Lapland, Italy, India, Tibet, Peru, and Arabia. (This material is copyrighted.) Animals That Give People Milk (50), which pleases the child of aver- “ater ProvipinG CLASSROOM MATERIALS 483 he | age reading ability, considers the goat, camel, llama, reindeer, yak, of zebra, and water buffalo. ‘id Conclusion—The entire unit described above might be summarized et. as vitalized reading with accurate informational material at many dif- u- ferent levels of reading ability—reading which developed an interest in Y; good nutrition and its effect on our growing bodies, and an appreciation of the part that science plays in modern life. While some teachers or Ik principals may object to the use of advertising literature in a project ad of this sort, the writer believes that its use is justified if the material Tk is wisely selected and if care is taken to avoid propaganda for par- d, ticular commercial concerns. Moreover, such literature meets a real a need in fields where information is not available in any other form. he or TITLES AND SOURCES OF READING MATERIALS ON MILK AND er MILK PRODUCTS he & Benefits of Milk and Milk Products in 1. The White Rat of Hawkins Hall. Chicago, Il.: Evaporated Milk Association. Source of Our Milk Supply as 2. Milk: The Wheels of a Great Industry Turn To Serve You. Chicago, IIL: he National Dairy Council. 3. Clean and Sanitary Milk Production. Bulletin No. 1. Lansing, Mich.: Lansing n- Health Department. ]- 4. Essentials of Clean Milk Production. Bulletin No. 98. East Lansing, Mich.: Extension Division, Michigan State College. , 5. Well Water, An Excellent Medium for Cooling Milk and Cream. Quarterly e- Bulletin, February 1935. East Lansing, Mich.: Michigan State College. a(| 6. Efficiency Comes to the Barnyard. Plymouth, Wis.: National Cheese Institute. mM Milk as a Food in 7. Milk Every Meal. Madison, Wis.: Extension Service, College of Agriculture. 1e 8. Milk: An All Round Food. New York: Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. Ny 9. The Care of Milk in Our Homes. Madison, Wis.: Extension Service, College of Agriculture, University of Wisconsin. é ; 10. Milk, the Ideal Food. East Lansing, Mich.: Extension Division, Michigan lc & State College. yf 11. The Fairies in Milk. Madison, Wis.: Extension Service, College of Agriculture. 12. Cadet Tom at West Point. Albany, N. Y.: Bureau of Milk Publicity. 8 13. Milk, the Best Food. Bulletin 342. Madison, Wis.: Agricultural Experimental st Station, University of Wisconsin. 5 f 14. Milk for the Family. Farmer’s Bulletin No. 1705. Washington, D. C.: U. S. 32. The Story of Cheese. Little Falls, N. Y.: Chr. Hansen’s Laboratories, Inc. : 7. 33. Cottage Cheese—How To Make It. Madison, Wis.: Extension Service, College of Agriculture, University of Wisconsin. 8. 34. Cottage Cheese. Bulletin No. 97. East Lansing, Mich.: Extension Division, Michigan State College. 35. Story of Rennet. Little Falls, N. Y.: Chr. Hansen’s Laboratories, Inc. 9. 36. Making American Cheese on the Farm. Farmer’s Bulletin No. 1191. Washing- ton, D. C.: U. 8S. Department of Agriculture. (Obtainable from Super- — 10 intendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.) | : 37. The Story of Marty Swiss. Monroe, Wis.: Carl Marty and Co. P 38. The Romance of Cheese. Chicago, Ill.: Educational Department, Kraft-Phenix | 11. Cheese Corporation. F 39. The House of Kraft. Chicago, Ill.: Educational Department, Kraft-Phenix | Cheese Corporation. e 12. 40. Varieties of Cheese. Bulletin 608. Washington, D. C.: U. S. Department of — Agriculture. (Obtainable from Superintendent of Documents, Government | 13. Printing Office, Washington, D. C.) 41. Cheese. Chicago, Ill.: National Dairy Council. 14. 42. Bulletin No. 180. Madison, Wis.: Department of Agriculture and Markets, University of Wisconsin, January 1937. Bb 43. The Story of Evaporated Milk. Chicago, Ill.: Evaporated Milk Association. ‘ 44. Vital Facts About a Vital Food. Washington, D. C.: Dairy Industry Com- mittee. (Distributed by National Cheese Institute, Plymouth, Wisconsin.) 45. Ice Cream. Chicago, Ill.: National Dairy Council. 16 Contributions of Science 46. The Facts About Certified Milk. New York: American Association of Medical 17. Milk Commissions. 47. The Life of Louis Pasteur. New York: Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. 48. The Present Status of the Pasteurization of Milk. Bulletin No. 342. Washing- 18. ton, D. C.: U. 8. Department of Agriculture. (Obtainable from Super- | intendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.) ' 19. Other Milk-Giving Animals ' 49. Milking Time In Many Lands. New York: Dairymen’s League Cooperative | 20. Association. 50. Animals That Give People Milk. Chicago, Ill.: National Dairy Council. " d ni hl Vy 1} 10. 11. 16. 17. 18. 19. PROVIDING CLASSROOM MATERIALS 485 SELECTED REFERENCES See also the references listed at the end of Chapter VIII. . Beust, Nora, compiler. Graded List of Books for Children. Chicago: American Library Association, 1936. 161 p. _ GarpNer, EMELYN E., and Ramsey, Exvotse. A Handbook of Children’s Litera- ture. Chicago: Scott, Foresman and Co., 1927. 354 p. _ Huser, Mirtam; Bruner, H. B.; and Curry, C. M. Children’s Interests in Poetry. Chicago: Rand McNally and Co., 1927. 233 p. . Jensen, Frank A. “Current Practices in Selecting Textbooks for the Elemen- tary Schools.” The Textbook in American Education. Thirtieth Yearbook, Part II, National Society for the Study of Education. Bloomington, IIl.: Public School Publishing Co., 1931. p. 127-42. . JouNSON, Epwna, and Scort, C. E., compilers. Anthology of Children’s Litera- ture. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1935. 914 p. . Manony, Bertua E., and Wuitney, Exvinor. Five Years of Children’s Books. Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday, Doran and Co., 1936. 599 p. . Manony, Bertua E., and Wuirney, Evtnor. Realms of Gold in Children’s Books. Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday, Doran and Co., 1929. 796 p. . Martin, Heten, compiler. Children’s Preferences in Book Illustrations. Bul- letin, Vol. 34, No. 10. Cleveland, Ohio: Western Reserve University, 1931. 58 p. . Rawuinson, Exveanor. Introduction to Literature for Children. New York: W. W. Norton and Co., 1931. 493 p. Sears, Minnie E., compiler. Children’s Catalog. New York: H. W. Wilson Co., 1930. 877 p. SuurrLtewortTu, Frank K. A Critical Study of Two Lists of Best Books for Children. Genetic Psychology Monographs, Vol. 11, No. 4. Worcester, Mass.: Clark University, 1932. p. 247-320. . Starsuck, Epwin D., and orners. A Guide to Literature for Character Train- ing. New York: Macmillan Co., 1928-1930. 2 vols. . STONE, CLARENCE R. Better Advanced Reading. St. Louis: Webster Publishing Co., 1937. “Reading Materials,” p. 71-90. . TeRMAN, Lewis M., and Lima, Maraaret. Children’s Reading. Rev. ed. New York: D. Appleton-Century Co., 1931. 422 p. . Unt, Was L. “The Materials of Reading.” The Teaching of Reading: A Second Report. Thirty-Sixth Yearbook, Part I, National Society for the Study of Education. Bloomington, Ill.: Public School Publishing Co., 1937. p. 207-53. WASHBURNE, CARLETON, and VocEL, Maret. Winnetka Graded Book List. Chicago: American Library Association, 1926. 286 p. WatTerMAN, IvAN R., and Metso, Irvina R. “A Plan of Procedure for the Evaluation of Textbooks in Reading.’ Elementary School Journal 35: 662-74; May 1935. Weekes, Buancue E. Literature and the Child. New York: Silver, Burdett and Co., 1935. 456 p. Wuipp.e, Gerrrupe. “Procedures Used in Selecting Schoolbooks.” Elementary School Journal 36: 665-73, 760-75; May and June 1936. 37: 47-57; Sep- tember 1936. . Witkrnson, Mary S., chairman. The Right Book for the Right Child. Com- mittee on Library Work With Children, American Library Association. New York: John Day Co., 1933. 357 p. CHAPTER VIII USING SCHOOL AND PUBLIC LIBRARIES EDITORIAL COMMENT the subject of elementary-school libraries. Its contents, even after five years, are worth careful study in connection with the present volume on reading. This brief chapter presents additional viewpoints and experiences in the use of libraries to enrich the reading program of the school. There is some difference of opinion as to whether each classroom should have its own adequate library or whether most of the available books should be placed in a central school library. The central library plan, if well administered, appears to have two advantages: (1) it is more economical than the classroom library plan because it avoids the duplication of books which are needed in more than one classroom: and (2) it gives children experience in choosing, locating, and using reading materials in a real library situation. On the other hand, class- room libraries have the advantage of making books available to the pupils of each class at any hour and on every school day. Where financial resources permit, a combination of the classroom and school library plans may be the most satisfactory arrangement. In addition, the cooperation of public libraries can be invaluable, even in schools which are well supplied with books of their own. Com- petent public librarians often have a wider knowledge of children’s books than do teachers or principals. By consulting with teachers, organizing reading clubs for children, and educating parents concerning books and library facilities, such librarians can do much to facilitate and supplement the work of the school. The four contributors to this chapter discuss various types of library facilities. O’Reilly begins with a comprehensive review of school library organization and operation in a city school system. In the second article, Nelson describes the development and use of the library in a village school. Mundy and Girardin tell how classroom, school, home, and publie libraries contribute to the reading program in the schools of their community. Shea’s article outlines the assistance given to schools by the public library in the nation’s second largest city. Library problems and possibilities in relation to the reading program of the school are treated at greater length in the publications listed on page 518.—Editorial Committee. T 1933 THE YEARBOOK of this Department was devoted entirely to [ 486 ] 4 4 V4 | NET OTR ROLF EE LET aT ma lib pu] ple tur cen an fur of ele tio. 0 Tr ; 8 Usina LIBRARIES 487 PROVIDING LIBRARY FACILITIES IN THE SCHOOL E. P. O’Reiniy Principal, William Land School, Sacramento, California IBRARIES have been established in many elementary schools because of a realization that the newer aims of education are impossible to accomplish unless many books, periodicals, and other library materials are available to children in the classroom. The elementary library aims to assist in fulfilling these newer objectives by helping pupils (1) to develop wholesome attitudes and habits of reading for pleasure and for information, (2) to acquire a desire for good litera- ture, and (3) to gain skill in the use of books and libraries. The School Code of California’ provides that no less than forty cents and no more than one dollar per pupil in average daily attend- ance shall be apportioned from the county school fund to the library fund of each city school district. Sacramento has taken full advantage of these legal provisions by establishing complete libraries in all the elementary schools of the city. The equipment, supervision, organiza- tion, and use of these libraries are described in the following pages. LIBRARY RooM FURNITURE AND EQUIPMENT Wherever possible, a room larger than the regular classroom has been chosen for the library. In most schools a well-lighted, centrally located room on the ground floor, away from the noise of the play- ground, serves as the library. In each room is a simple set-up of stand- ard furniture and equipment. Every school has been supplied with a catalog case, containing four drawers for small schools and from six to ten drawers for larger schools; a rubber stamp bearing the name of the library; several port- able book troughs for holding and displaying collections of books; and a teacher’s desk and chair. The larger schools have been supplied also with a display rack for magazines, and a dictionary-encyclopedia stand built with a sloping top which can be used as a bookrest. It has been possible to supply adequate bulletin board space in prac- tically every library. In cases where ordinary classrooms have been converted into libraries, the blackboards have been covered with celo- tex or masonite board and used for bulletin boards. In almost every school a sink and running water have been installed in the library room. Tables and chairs provide the seating arrangement in the libraries. Both are of various heights in order to assure proper seating for pupils 1 California Department of Education. School Code, 1935. Sacramento: California State Printing Office, 1935. p. 362. 488 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS a, of different sizes. Rectangular tables are provided for pupils in Grades III, IV, V, and VI. Where room and enrolment permit, round tables are provided for primary children. The tables and chairs are of the | following dimensions:? Tables (rectangular): 3 feet wide and 5 feet long; 24, 26, and 28 inches high Tables (circular): 4 to 5 feet in diameter; 22 inches high Chairs: 12, 14, 16, and 18 inches from the floor to the seat; tipped with rubber or steel glider with rubber cushion. The rectangular tables can seat eight pupils comfortably. The round tables can seat ten to twelve primary pupils. Enough tables and chairs are provided in each library to care for the largest number of pupils who will be in the room at any one time during the day. One of the first essentials in the equipment of any library is adequate and proper shelving for the books. Shelving of standard dimensions has been installed in all of the elementary libraries in this city. As a rule the shelves are eight inches deep, with three feet between partitions and ten inches between shelves. Each section is five shelves high. The Be lower shelf is the width of the mop board from the floor, with the | mop board installed so as to prevent the collection of dust under the | shelves. One section of shelving is built with twelve inches between shelves so as to give room for encyclopedias and other large reference books. All shelves are entirely plain, with no overhanging trim or finis) to interfere with the handling of books. LIBRARY PERSONNEL As in any other phase of school work, the most important single item to be considered in establishing a school library is that of per- sonnel. Upon the shoulders of the person chosen to be the librarian depends the success or failure of the library. There are several types of personnel that may be put in charge of the library, namely, a pro- & 3 fessional librarian, a regular classroom teacher, the principal, a clerk, | pupils, or a teacher-librarian. 3 3 F Those responsible for school libraries in Sacramento have been con- | y vineed that it is impossible to render good library service thru the principal, clerk, or pupils. These persons lack the close connection with teaching and the background in library training necessary to do the job. It is likewise hard to find a regular classroom teacher with enough knowledge of books and library methods to render efficient service. Moreover, it becomes a heavy burden for a person to teach full time and spend recesses, noons, and hours before and after school 2 These dimensions are recommended in: California Department of Education. The Library in © the Elementary School. Bulletin, No. 18. Sacramento: the Department, September 15, 1935. Chap- ters 1 and 7. Usinc LIBRARIES 489 managing the library. To avoid this difficulty, some schools have a plan whereby each teacher takes her own homeroom class to the library. The weakness of this plan is that no one person is especially respon- sible for the library, and it is seldom that all members of the teaching staff have the training and interest necessary to give good library service. If a professional librarian has had recent classroom experience and works cooperatively with teachers, she may give first-class library service. The danger of this arrangement is that the librarian is apt to become estranged from the problems of the classroom. This type of service also is difficult to install without added cost for teaching per- sonnel. After observing the service rendered by various types of personnel, the Sacramento schools have come to the conclusion that the best library service is obtained thru the use of teacher-librarians. By teacher-librarians are meant teachers who teach part of the day and have charge of the library during the remainder of the day. In addi- tion to their regular teacher training, these teachers have had some library training. They are familiar with library problems from the classroom angle. They know the courses of study and are familiar with classroom methods as well as with library practises. The effectiveness of this system depends largely upon the qualifications and training of the teacher-librarian and the administrative set-up of the school in which she works. A person in this position should be, first of all, an excellent teacher; second, she should have sound training for school library work. It is taken for granted that she should also have a per- sonality that will permit happy cooperation with other members of the faculty. SELECTION OF Books Many principals feel that they should have the privilege of choosing their own books. They feel that they know what is wanted and needed in their schools better than any committee of persons outside those schools. This view is undoubtedly sound in the case of a few individual principals or teachers who have an unusual knowledge of children’s books. However, not many principals or teachers are sufficiently fa- miliar with children’s books to make satisfactory choices without a greater investment of time than is ordinarily warranted. When the principal’s autonomy in this matter is exercised, it frequently results in a nondescript collection of books, lack of balance among subjects, inferior editions, and antiquated titles when excellent materials are available. 490 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS —.. In this city, very satisfactory results have been obtained by using the cooperative thinking of principals, teachers, supervisors, and libra- rians in choosing books. A central book-reviewing committee, which includes the professional librarian of the school system and a repre- sentative group of teacher-librarians, reviews all books suggested and compiles a list of recommended titles. Supervisors in the special fields cooperate by reviewing books relating to their fields. When the book- list is being prepared, principals, supervisors, and teachers suggest titles which they particularly desire. The central reviewing committee has compiled a recommended list of more than 3000 titles.’ This list is kept up to date by adding new titles each year. The various schools make selections from this list for their libraries on an enrolment basis. The smaller schools have at present approximately 900 titles each, while the largest schools have about 1800 titles each in their libraries, The advantage of this type of book list over the standard lists available is that the books selected are better adapted to local conditions and local courses of study. The question is sometimes asked as to whether the library books should be owned by the individual schools, or owned by the city and circulated from a central storeroom.’ Sacramento has found the plan of having the books owned by the individual schools most satisfac- tory.® It is felt that for most effective use, books must be available to the children at all times, and this is possible only when the books stay in the school. Also the difficulty of setting up machinery for circulating books from school to school would more than offset any advantages of such a plan. Some school systems do not approve of maintaining a central library room in the school, but prefer to have the books distributed to class- room units or collections. The choice between these two plans must be made according to the objectives sought in establishing the library. In Sacramento the aim is to give the elementary children a true library experience, and it is believed that this can be done only in a real library atmosphere. It is also more economical to have the books in a central library where many children can use the same books during the day. If adequate classroom libraries are maintained, there is of necessity much duplication of material. ~ 8 Sacramento City Schools. Graded Book List for Elementary School Libraries. Sacramento: the Schools, January 1936. #Von Hatten, Emma A. ‘The Elementary Library as an Effective Factor in Progressive Edu- cation.” California Journal of Elementary Education 2: 154-62; February 1934. 5 “Effective Organization for the Functioning of the Elementary School Library.’’ California Journal of Elementary Education 3: 232-41; May 1935. 6 The method of handling sets of supplementary readers is not discussed in detail in this article. In the larger schools, sets of supplementary readers are owned by individual schools and are circulated to classrooms thru the library. Sets of supplementary readers are also maintained in the city’s central storeroom and are circulated to the smaller schools from the central office. t meas ha kit tiv an tre fol dr th Usina Lisraries 491 CENTRAL ORGANIZATION The elementary-school libraries of the city are administered thru a centralized type of organization. Under this system the libraries are under the general direction of an assistant superintendent. A central professional library serves as a depository for professional literature and sample texts. It circulates books, magazines, and other library materials to teachers and to schools. It also serves as the working labo- ratory for curriculum committees. Sacramento has found the central cataloging of books for elementary schools to be a better plan than having each school do the work inde- pendently. A simplified Dewey Decimal System of classification is used. The titles of all books in the elementary-school libraries are re- corded in a union catalog, which is kept in the professional library. Author, title, and sometimes subject cards are made out in the central office and sent to the schools for their catalogs. If each school were to do this work independently, many teacher-librarians who have not had the necessary training would have difficulty in cataloging. Furthermore, many teacher-librarians do not have sufficient spare time for such work and can better devote their energies to working with children. In some schools there is a lack of the necessary clerical assistance to do this work. Central cataloging is economical in that when a clerk is typing the cards she can make several duplicates in a short time. In a decentralized plan, the whole process would have to be worked out and repeated in each school. Central cataloging also results in the uni- form classification of books. How CHILDREN USE THE LIBRARY Each class in the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth grades spends one- half hour every day in the library. The time allotted for the different kinds of activities is approximately as follows: Literary appreciation ............... .....one day per week Instruction in library technic..................one day per week Free reading and reading on assignments. . . .. three days per week Literary appreciation—By literary appreciation are meant such ac- tivities as story telling, reading to the class, group discussions of poems and stories, book reviews, and talks on children’s authors and illus- trators. In story telling and reading to the class no hard and fast rule is followed as to the choice of stories. The ages and interests of the chil- dren determine the stories selected. Poetry as well as prose is read to the class. Humor and nonsense are also given a place, and the teacher 492 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS enjoys the selections with the class. No attempt is made at elocutioy or at moralizing. In group discussions of poems and stories the children have an op. portunity to tell others about what they have read. Freedom of expres. sion is encouraged, especially in telling why they like or do not like certain books, stories, or poems. Written book reviews are used sparingly because they can easily become tiresome to children and can take away much of the joy of reading. Oral reviews are given a place during this period, and most children enjoy telling about books that interest them. Both oral and written book reviews are kept enjoyable. Children seldom notice the names of authors or illustrators. There- fore, the teacher-librarians try to create an interest in them as real people. The birthday of an author or an illustrator is sometimes ob- served by having a picture and brief notes of interest about him placed on the bulletin board. A collection of books written or illustrated by him may be placed on a display table or shelf near the bulletin board, The aim is to get children to become so familiar with the author that they will associate his name with his books, and will eventually learn to ask for books by authors. ETERS: SRR Instruction in library usage *7—The following topics are studied in & lessons on library usage. The teacher is expected to adjust the work | to the ages and abilities of the pupils:§ A. Classification—simplified Dewey Decimal System . Books are in classes . Books have numbers as houses have numbers . They must return to their right home after visits to pupils . Books are arranged alphabetically within classes . Small numbers begin on the left and large numbers on the right of each shelf. B. The parts of a book . Title page . Table of contents . Index . Important terms, such as author, illustrator, title, publisher, place pub- lished, and date. C. The card catalog . Cards arranged in alphabetical order . How to arrange words in alphabetical order . Use of guide cards . Use of author, subject, and title cards. mm wn or wh mwON 7 Based on suggestions in: California School Library Association, Northern Section, Elementary School Committee. Elementary School Library Handbook. Sacramento: the Association, May 1934. Unpublished. 8 Sacramento City Schools. Manual for School Libraries, No. 37. Sacramento: the Schools, June 1931. an tes ph th te: us de an pr sti su ja or ha in fr Usinc LisRARIES 493 D. The dictionary 1. Guide words 2. Alphabetical arrangement of words 3. Pronouncing words 4. Definition of words 5. Diacritical marks. E. The encyclopedia 1. Alphabetical arrangement 2. Purpose of encyclopedia 3. How to locate material 4. Use of subtopics 5. How to use cross references 6. How to use related topics 7. Use of charts, diagrams, and illustrations. F. Yearbooks, almanacs, magazines, and other materials. Free reading and reading on assignments—By free reading is meant an activity in which the children, with guidance and help from the teacher-librarian, select their own materials for reading. One important phase of this activity is the opportunity of children to browse during the library period. This period also offers an opportunity for the teacher-librarian to find what the real interests of pupils are, and to use this information in helping pupils who seem to have little or no desire to read. Free reading has a place of its own in the child’s schedule, and plays an increasingly larger part in his program as his ability to enjoy and profit by this activity is developed. Interest in this type of reading is stimulated during the literary appreciation period. Various devices, such as having books opened at interesting illustrations, placing book jackets or other illustrations of stories on the bulletin boards, reading or telling parts of stories, allowing children to report on books they have read, and keeping individual reading cards, are helpful in arous- ing a desire to read. The school subjects of science, reading, and social studies bear a very close relationship to the library, and the homeroom teacher feels free to assign topics in these and other subjects for her class to study during certain library periods. Rarely does a whole class have the same topic to study; individuals or small groups work on different topics. The assignment may be to look up the life of some musician for a report in the music class, or to obtain certain information about a country in Europe for the social studies class, or to find pictures of reptiles for the science class. The courses of study in Sacramento have been so developed that the extensive use of the library is required to put them into effect. For instance, the course of study in reading places on the homeroom teacher the responsibility for teaching the mechanics of reading and for the development of reading comprehension. It is the responsibility of the 494 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS teacher-librarian to give children practise in rapid, varied, and free © reading activities.® She also gives training in the use of reference mate. rials. It is the joint responsibility of the homeroom teacher and the teacher-librarian to develop in every child permanent and desirable habits of reading. ' The social studies course has been developed on the unit basis. If 7 calls for experiences centering around definite topics, rather than the to mastery of a few pages from a geography or history book. Therefore, le the course is not based on any single text, as is evident in the following fu section of the bibliography for Unit 3 of the fourth-grade social studies 4 th course for 1937. 1 ; ot CALIFORNIA—EARLY EXPLORERS =e se Bailey, Boys and Girls of Discovery Days s th Drake, p.- 161-74 ge Corwin, The Pioneers’ Pathway Viseaino, p. 36-40 Coy, Our Home State—California Cabrillo, p. 9 Portola, p. 10-11 Viscaino, p. 10 Floercky, Visual Geography of California Fox, In Old California : Cabrillo, p. 512 and 153-55 : Portola, p. 21-30 Heard, Stories of American Explorers and Settlers Drake, p. 73-87 Hoffman, California Beginnings Cabrillo, p. 3-7 Portola, p. 18-22 Viseaino, p. 8-12 Hunt, California, A Little History of a Big State Early Explorers, p. 20-30 McSpadden, California, p. 11-19 Nida, Following Columbus Drake, p. 107-21 All of the books referred to in the bibliography at the end of each unit may be found in the school library. The homeroom teacher may assign topics requiring the use of these books for individual or group study during certain library periods. During social studies periods the | books and appropriate pictures, magazines, maps, and other materials may be sent from the library to the homeroom for the use of the class. Only in this way can children be given an opportunity to consult the books, periodicals, and other references containing the data essential for recreating the experiences involved in the units. i a nla See Ep ~ ® Sacramento City Schools. Manual for School Libraries, No. 37. June 1931. Sacramento: the Schools, ree the ble It the ng les h Usine LiprArIEs 495 CONCLUSION There are no objective tests to measure the effect which the library service described above has on the lives of children. However, it is the overwhelming opinion of leaders in elementary education that ade- quate library service is indispensable in the attainment of modern edu- cational objectives. The skill and judgment with which a child learns to use the library probably determine to a large degree the cultural level he will attain in adult life. The library is an influence that can function thruout life both in and out of school. It is not claimed that the services provided in Sacramento are superior to those available in other school systems. The author believes, however, that a comparable service must be available for all communities if children are to achieve the highest goals of the reading program and of modern education in general. iy MANY schools it is impractical to schedule groups of pupils for regular periods in the library. Books can then be brought to the classroom, laboratories, homerooms, and study halls. In schools with inadequate library facilities, it is important that teachers and administrators utilize every opportunity to obtain reading materials from other sources, such as the public library, the county library, the home, or the state traveling library. It is obvious that the methods used in making books a part of the environment of pupils will vary materially from school to school Johnson, B. Lamar, in The Teaching of Reading: A Second Report, Thirty-Sixth Yearbook, Part I, National Society for the Study of Education, 1937, Chapter 8, p. 274. (Quoted by permission of the Society.) 496 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS THE LIBRARY IN A VILLAGE SCHOOL Frances Petuick NELSON Librarian, Cleveland School, Niles Center, Illinois October 1931. The enrolment has never been large; the average for the year 1936-37 was 150 pupils. The cultural and social background of these pupils is excellent. A large percent of the parents are professional people, many of whom are college graduates. Natu- rally, good homes are the rule in the school district. Good home libra- ries are frequent, and many children have their own little libraries. There is no tax-supported library in the village. A public library is maintained by a group of public spirited club women with the help of some municipal funds, but it is not near enough to the Cleveland School for all the children to make use of it. Moreover, this library is small, and a nearby school makes use of most of its juvenile books. For these reasons a real need was felt for an adequate library in the Cleveland School. Fortunately, the parents were “library conscious” and were anxious that their children have the advantages of a good school library. During the first three years after the school was opened, various books and reference materials were purchased with the idea of some day having such a library. It was not until the year 1934-35, however, that the Cleveland School library was actually organized. Organization of the library—In that year, thru the generous spirit of the schoolboard and the cooperation of the parent-teacher associa- tion, a substantial sum of money was allowed for the purchase of li- brary books. The several members of the faculty carefully chose books which they believed would satisfy the needs of their respective groups of children. These books were selected from accredited booklists for children. Consultations with librarians of the public library in a nearby city proved helpful in making the selections. A program for the use of the library was thus in mind at the outset. Since 1934-35 library books, supplementary readers, reference books, and professional books have been added to the library. At present (Oc- tober 1937) the library contains 1968 books, as well as a number of suitable current magazines. The books are properly marked and stamped, and a card catalog containing author, title, and subject cards is maintained. The Dewey Decimal System has been used in classify- ing the informational reading material. In addition to this, an ‘“Acces- sion Book” is kept up to date. Each of the primary rooms, including the kindergarten, has its own library corner and reading table. Each primary teacher is responsible T°: CLEVELAND SCHOOL of Niles Center, Illinois, was opened in gt TT 1] Gra mea: Yon! “= Se Cee UsinGc LIBRARIES 497 for books in her own room. The books suitable for pupils in Grades IV thru VIII are under the direct supervision of the school librarian. Pupils’ interest in the library—When the library was first organized, interest in library books and in the general set-up of the library was naturally keen. The children were delighted at the arrival of each new shipment of books, and were very impatient for the books to be made ready for circulation. To preserve this splendid spirit toward the li- brary, the teacher has made the place as attractive as possible. New books with their intriguing and gayly colored jackets are displayed and presented to the children as rare literary treats. Other book dis- plays are held frequently, and library projects are held each year. Booklists—Booklists are provided for the various units in reading to enrich the materials in the textbooks. These reading lists provide for wide individual differences in the reading ability of the children.! Following are some excerpts from a booklist prepared to accompany a reading unit on “Children of Other Lands” for the intermediate grades: AFRICA 1. Alice in Jungleland—Bradley 2. Three Boy Scouts in Africa—Douglas CHINA . Young Fu—Lewis . Ho Ming—Lewis . Little Pear—Lattimore . Little Pear and His Friends—Lattimore . China (Travel Stories)—Holmes . Rabbitt Lantern—Rowe oof Wh ESKIMO LAND . Eskimo Twins—Perkins . Eskimo Islands and Penguin Lands—Snell . Eskimo Stories—Smith . My Life with the Eskimos—Stefansson mone FRANCE . Little Jeanne of France—Brandeis . lattle Tonino—Hill . Jean and Fanchon—Olcott . French Twins—Perkins . When I was a Girl in France—Beuret afr WN GERMANY 1. Carl and Gretel—Olecott 2. Martin the Goose Boy (Black Forest region)—Barringer 1In November 1936, the range of reading ability was 3.0 years in Grade IV, 4.9 years in Grade V, 3.6 years in Grade VI, 7.3 years in Grade VII, and 4.8 years in Grade VIII, as measured by the New Stanford Reading Test, Form V, published by the World Book Co., Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York. 498 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS HOLLAND th 1. Hans and Hilda of Holland—Smith th 2. Ned and Nan in Holland—Olmstead 3. Hans Brinker—Dodge fr 4. Klaas and Janseit—Olcott be 5. Dutch Twins—Perkins TI 6. When I was a Girl in Holland—DeGroot 7. Windmills and Wooden Shoes—Grant ‘ ri IRELAND [oe 1. Irish Twins—Perkins lit 2. Shaun O’Day of Ireland—Brandeis ITALY gr 1. Beppo and Lucia—Olcott be 2. Little Tony of Italy—Brandeis : mn 3. Handsome Donkey (Sicily)—Davis 3 al 4. Beppo, the Donkey—Wells : ti JAPAN fic 1. Japanese Twins—Perkins . al 2. Little Black Eyes—Kent re 3. With Taro and Hana in Japan—Sugimoto 3 be 4. Japan (Travel Stories)—Holmes MEXICO Z ql 1. Mexican Twins—Perkins c he 2. Mexico (Travels in Many Lands)—Franck : th 3. Made in Mexico—Smith ; of RUSSIA 4 th 1. Katrinka—Haskell 4 re 2. Little Princess Nina—Charskaya f 3. Flying Horse—Kovalsky : SWITZERLAND ” 1. Anton and Trini—Oleott 2. Malou—Criss 3. Heidi—Spyri 4. Swiss Twins—Perkins 5. Overall Boys in Switzerland—Grover 6. When I was a Gul in Switzerland—Patterson Number of books read by pupils—During the first year of the li- brary’s existence no written book reports were required. Each child merely kept an individual list of all books read, stating title, author, and whether or not he liked the book. The librarian felt that nothing | yj should be done this first year which might interfere with the pure joy 0 to be obtained from free reading. She believed that the making of © e book reports might better be postponed until the habit of library read- ing had become well established. Experience seems to indicate that 0 Usina Lipraries 499 this was a wise decision. In one group of eighteen upper-grade pupils, the number of books read by individual children during the year ranged from ten to seventy-five. Thirteen pupils had read more than twenty books each, while two pupils—both girls—had read seventy-five each. The average number of books read was thirty-five. Since that year, book report forms have been prepared by the libra- rian, and the pupils fill these out when they complete a book. A report is placed in the book by each pupil when he returns his book to the library. In May 1937 a survey was made among the pupils of the five upper grades to determine the number of books read and the most popular books in the school library during the past year. The thirty-four pupils in the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades had read 252 different books, and they had read these books a total of more than 700 times. At that time the library contained 228 books of fiction, and 152 books of non- fiction or informational material which were suitable for the reading abilities and needs of these children. The average number of books read and reported on satisfactorily was twenty-four. The highest num- ber read was forty-five, and the lowest number read was eleven. Twenty books were required to be read by each pupil. When a pupil’s quota was reached he was permitted to go on with his reading and his book reports according to his own desires. To all pupils who completed the required number a “library certificate” was granted. Twenty-eight of the thirty-four pupils received these certificates. It is interesting that the twelve most popular books were all purchased during the cur- rent school year. New books with fascinating content and attractive format always arouse the interest and enthusiasm of young readers. The first six books on the list, all of which are about animals, are named below: Number of pupils Title Author reading 1. Five Dollar Dog ee ..R.F. Barbour ..... 16 2. Franz, Dog of the Police........... M.S. Meek....... 16 | ES ee ee ... ape Gs Carter...... 12 4. Tim Thompson in the Jungle........Buck Fraser ...... 11 5. Valiant, Dog of the Timberline..... J. O’Brien ........ 10 6. Scarface, Mountain Grizzly ... 1a GO. SOME: 2. 10 A group of twenty-nine pupils in the fourth and fifth grades read 170 of the 173 different books available to them. The average number of books read and reported on satisfactorily was twenty-two. The high- est number was thirty-eight while the lowest number was eight. Book reports—Book report forms were compiled by the librarian in order to take away the drudgery of long written reports. The informa- 500 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS tion sought is brief, yet so specific that the pupil must read the entire book in order to make a satisfactory report. Different forms are used for the various grades from the fourth thru the eighth, with a gradual increase in difficulty. As a pupil makes a satisfactory report he receives a star opposite his name on the “Book Report Chart” on the bulletin board. Blue stars are awarded for the first five books read; red stars for the second five read; and the much coveted gold stars for all books read over ten. This chart has always been a high spot of interest in the room. The reports are filed in a filing cabinet which is kept on the library table. Samples of these reports are presented in Figures I thru IV. Magazines—Another valuable asset of the library is a collection of bound volumes of the National Geographic Magazine dating back to 1925. Six issues are bound together in each volume; thus, two volumes are added annually to the library. To facilitate the use of these maga- zines by the pupils, the material has been cataloged according to cer- tain large topics, such as architecture, aviation, geography, history, nature study, and literature. Material under these headings has been arranged quite simply in alphabetical order to assist the pupil in find- ing quickly the desired information. The library also provides other magazines for the recreational and informational reading of the pupils. Among these are Child Life, Boys’ Life, American Girl, Popular Science, American Boy, The Digest, Air Trails, Industrial Arts and Vocational Education, Nature Magazine, and Hobbies. To preserve these magazines the school has provided regulation mag- azine folders. The current copies are kept on the library table, while the cumulative copies are bound together and kept in the magazine stand, to which the pupils have easy access. To evaluate the use and worth of each magazine on the reading table, a report sheet is fastened to each magazine folder for the pupils to fill out whenever they use that magazine. A section of one of these report sheets is shown in Fig- ure V. Iibrary projects—Each year a library project has been set up to stimulate the pupils’ interest and to challenge their ability. One year each pupil in the fifth and sixth grades made his own “bookcase,” con- sisting of a cigar box which stood on end. The box lid was cut off and made into two shelves. These bookcases were then decorated in the art classes. For each book read, the pupil received an empty match box which he covered with blue or red construction paper. The librarian then typed the title and author’s name for each of these “little books” and they were placed on the shelf. Each book had the initial of the author’s name marked on it with an electric stylus exactly as do the 5 cial Br ot ea nee Tit ew BOOK REPORT Fourth Grade Title of Book__ Young Hawk and His Pony Name of Author_Harriet Salt What is the book about?__It_ is about a brave little Indian boy who grows up strong _and brave and does many good and brave deeds. Name one person in the book and tell something about him _ Young Hawk was a brave _little Indien boy who lived in an Indian village with his mother and father, _ Why I like the book_I_like the book because it tells so much about Indians, and it is such a thrilling story, Name__Ann McKeever _.__.-. Grade__aur Dage Seet. 28 FIGURE I—Copy or Book Report 1n Grape IV BOOK REPORT Title of book: The Irish Twins Sth & 6th Grade Author’s name:__Lucy Fitch Perkins Setting: Life in Ireland What is the book about?__This book is about a little girl and boy who lived in Ireland and how they grew up. Present sufficient evidence to show you are acquainted with the book: There were two Main characters in the story of the Irish Twins and their names were Larry —and Eileen, Why I liked the book:__I liked this book because almost everything the twins did —wWas funny, _ Name ___Gloria Westerberg Grade Five _______ Date _Sept. 24 FIGURE II—Copry or Boox Report 1n GRADE V [ 501 | BOOK REPORT FICTION Seventh and Eighth Grades Title of Book_Roller Skates Author’s Name__Ruth Sawyer ———— Setting_New York City - Many years ago i Name and describe the main character_Lucinda is the daughter of a rich man. Inti) Reader’s criticism_The story was darling, and told in such a clever way. Girls — would like this book very much, Name— Marilyn McKeever Grade __ Eight ._ Date oct. 12 FIGURE III]—Copy or Report on Fiction 1n Grape VIII BOOK REPORT NON-FICTION Sixth, Seventh and Eighth Grades Title of Book_The Young Tentmaker Author’s Name_Youel B. Mirza What is the book about?_The book is a biography of Omar Khayyam. It tells of _ = ___his boyhood, and of many queer Persian customs, Describe the most interesting part of the book To me the most interesting part of : __the book was the holy pilgrimage to Kerbela, The custom was to dig up an -—s_ ___ ancestor's bones, What information did you gain? I got a clear pheteee. of the life of fees Seat a ___But what was more interesting to me was that I learned much about the natives _ ; ee Se Reader’s criticism_It_was & very interesting story, and told in a fashion that will __Make you want to read it to the end, ieee Sa b __This is a book for either boys or girls, = = ——— Name— Marilyn McKeever Grade__Eight __ Date Sept. — “ae ee a a “er ee ft lo FIGURE IV—Copy or Report on Non-Fiction IN Grape VIII [ 502 | [Tl bk > — Usina LIBRARIES 503 Date of the Excellent; Tharchy narck howe narek’ Kool Pnarck FIGURE V—Sueer Usep By Pupis 1n Recorpinc THER Use or A MAGAZINE IN THE LIBRARY real books on the library shelves. These children still have their book- cases, which are among their most cherished possessions. In October 1937 a project was started for the seventh- and eighth- grade pupils in the form of a “Book Quest.” The Book Quest was comprised of eighty questions, all based on books in the school library. These books were placed in special cases for the duration of the proj- ect. The answer to each question was to be found in one of these books, and the name of the book and its author were to be given for each answer found. During Book Week a book was awarded as a prize to the boy and also to the girl who answered correctly the greatest number of questions. Following are a few of the questions and the key to their answers: QUESTIONS 1. In what book was the future of a great nation threatened by an exchange of identity? 2. What two children were lost in a now famous cave in Missouri? 3. What famous horse won honor for his bravery in France during the World War? 4. What book tells of thrilling days in pioneer Wisconsin? 5. Who, by discovering a footprint in the sand, found a valuable servant and riend? 504 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS KEY TO ANSWERS . The Prince and the Pawper—Mark Twain . The Adventures of Tom Sawyer—Mark Twain . Shaggy—Russell Carter or Ben the Battle Horse—Walter A. Dyer 4. Caddie Woodlawn—Carol Brink 5. Robinson Crusoe—Daniel Defoe on- Conclusion—Each spring all library books which need to be rebound are sent to a bindery company to have this work done. Thus, the books are kept in good condition at all times. The children have developed 4 great pride in their school library and feel genuine regret when a book shows signs of ill treatment. In May 1937 an inventory was taken. At that time there were sup- posed to be 1827 books in the library, and only fourteen of them had been lost. This is indeed a record of which to be proud. The books in the school library are used to their maximum capacity. The children not only show a fine regard for books and a genuine inter- | est in reading, but are undoubtedly developing a habit that will make © them “life readers”—a worthwhile aim for all school librarians and teachers. ii THE effort to establish taste, force is a failure. Taste is born of freedom and joy. We must associate pleasure with the things that we desire to like. We must follow the gleam. We must allow for subtle differences in likes and dislikes. Each must begin with what he understands and feel his way toward the better values. Wise school librarians understand this. They surround children with tempting things to read. They have few requirements and not too much advice, but they can laugh with children over the personalities and the adventures which come from the pages of books. This spirit of the librarian, this companionship with the select company of letters, this ability to lead the child to feel at home in the magic world of print is a rare gift that is worth searching for—Morgan, Joy Elmer, in Elementary School Libraries, Twelfth Yearbook, Depart- ment of Elementary School Principals, 1933, p. 144-45. Usine LisRARIES 505 THE USE OF LIBRARIES BY CHILDREN Bernice Munpy, Curriculum Worker and Evetyn R. Grrarpin, Supervisor of Primary Grades and Kindergartens Public Schools, Baltimore, Maryland NE OF THE ULTIMATE GOALS of a good reading program is to establish reading as a permanent habit in children. There is probably no better place to do this than in a library. How- ever, children need definite teaching and purposeful guidance before they can make intelligent use of library facilities. When well taught and wisely guided, they learn to use the library card file so that they can work independently and efficiently; they learn to share their vicarious book experiences with others by recommending to their classmates enjoyable literature which they have found; they develop desirable habits in the use of the library; and they learn self-control and consideration for others so as to allow their companions to get the most out of the library reading period. In addition to offering opportunities for wide reading in the field of literature, a good library encourages children to use books other than basal texts as a means of enriching the content subjects. Moreover, under competent supervision the child learns to make intelligent choices from the wealth of material available. Guidance in selecting appropriate material is no less important than provision of a wide variety of material. The well-managed library meets individual as well as group needs. It satisfies the superior child who is always hungering for new material to read in his spare moments. It enables the child of low ability to find material on his own social and reading levels. The average child finds in the library ample opportunity to read for enjoyment and infor- mation. Several kinds of libraries may contribute to these goals of the read- ing program. This article discusses briefly the use of classroom, school, public, and home libraries by children in the elementary schools of Baltimore. THE LiprRARY IN PRIMARY CLASSROOMS The library corner is an integral part of every primary classroom. Perhaps its greatest contribution is in teaching the children how to get information independently. In some classrooms, a particular part of the library shelf is devoted to reading materials concerning the social studies unit in progress, so that children may know where to go to in- crease their store of information on a subject which especially interests 506 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS —$—$$$—______ them. The library corner also offers great possibilities for developing the reading habit as a wise use of leisure time. In the well-organized classroom, the children are at liberty to select a book to read when they have completed their assignments. The teachers constantly en- ; courage the habits and attitudes which are requisite to the best use of the library. Children learn to replace books properly, to handle them carefully, and to be considerate of the rights of others during the library period. In short, the library in primary classrooms serves to lay the foundation for the effective use of books and libraries in the child’s later years. Importance of physical surroundings—Most primary teachers are aware of the effect of the physical aspect of the library upon children’s desire to read. They know that it is essential to select an appropriate location for this part of the classroom. The library corner should be well lighted, and, if possible, should be so placed that children at the library table will be as far as possible from disturbing elements. It is not advisable to have the corner in close proximity to the place where the teacher works with groups of children, since this may prove a dis- tracting influence. Many teachers have gone to no little trouble to make this section of the room particularly attractive. Sometimes the bookshelf, library table, and chairs have been painted a soft green or blue. Gay chintz covers have been placed on chair backs, and a similar chintz runner sometimes decorates library tables. Designs have been stenciled on the backs of chairs to make them attractive. Flowers ar- ranged in low bowls often appear on the library table. A variety of means are thus used to make this corner interesting and appealing. How books are acquired—Books are acquired for the classroom li- brary from a variety of sources. Principals are permitted to order books by requisition from the approved library list. Many schools with par- ent-teacher organizations also find that such groups are willing to expend funds for this purpose when they are acquainted with the ac- cruing values. In some sections of the city, children bring books from their personal libraries to be placed in the classroom for a period of time. In such an event, care must be exercised to make sure that such books are acceptable and suitable to the children’s reading level. Indi- viduals’ tastes in books may often be improved by substituting good literature for the mediocre material originally chosen. The library in developing reading readiness—The classroom library performs definite functions in each stage of the reading process in the primary grades. In developing reading readiness, the planned library period is of inestimable value. During the story hour the teacher reads suitable stories and poems to the children. They, in turn, select favorite De eee ee 7 4 sto vel tai tin sto col mé tra At pi bo th bo int mi an fre els to wl W te: ar a ite m Usina LisraRies 507 stories and poems which they wish the teacher to read. In this way, very young children develop a feeling that interesting material is con- tained in books which they will some day read for themselves. Some- times the children are instructed to select pictures which illustrate the story they have just heard. Thus, comprehension is furthered and some connection is emphasized between the printed word and illustrative material. With this background, the child will more readily use illus- trations to help him interpret the stories in his pre-primers and primers. At this stage of development children also are encouraged to look at picture books and to discuss their impressions informally. They handle books and become acquainted with the mechanics of turning pages in the proper order while they experience the joy of being surrounded by books. Sometimes the teacher classifies the books according to the interests of her class, such as books about boats, trains, animals, and many other subjects. Each child is directed to sit at the table which contains books on the subject in which he is most interested. Thus, an appreciation of the fact that we get specific bodies of information from different books is fostered in the young child. Early book reading—In the early stages of book reading also, the classroom library plays an important role. Here the teacher is careful to foster an interest in books and a desire to read them. Books on topies which appeal to children’s interests are displayed from time to time. When a new book is added to the collection, it is first presented by the teacher so that curiosity will be aroused concerning it. The children are encouraged, in periods provided for discussion, to tell others about a book which appealed to them, or to show a picture from their favor- ite book. The following desirable library skills are constantly in the mind of the teacher as objectives for the class: 1. Careful handling of books 2. Proper position of the reader . Proper position of the book . Correct method of replacing books on the shelf . Consideration for others. ww 4 5 When the children have acquired sufficient skill in reading, they are frequently allowed to take bouks home and enjoy them. At this point the teacher must be skilful in guiding the child’s selection, so that he will choose a book suitable to his reading ability. The library for older primary children—In the period of rapid prog- ress and growth in reading, the classroom library must undergo some changes to meet the advanced needs of the children. In directed library periods it is often advisable to group the books to correspond to the varying reading abilities of the class. Following the period of silent reading, time is allowed for informal discussion of the books read. A 508 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS simple method of classifying or cataloging books, such as the following has been found worthwhile: Name of book Page of story Kind of story (check one) Animal Fairy Bird Travel True Nature As the children progress in their use of the library, a card bearing such questions as the following may be filled out for each book read: What is the name of the story? Who wrote it? What kind of story is it? What part did you enjoy most? Would you suggest that other children read the book? Why?* Such library reports serve a twofold purpose. They not only act as a check on library reading, but are also suggestive to the child who is undecided as to what book to select. Teachers have also found it worth- while to keep charts of children’s library readings. In some cases, it is possible to arrange a chart so that there is a space in which to record the books which each child has read and reported upon. Then, too, each child may keep his own record. He may be given a tagboard fae- simile of a library shelf upon which he may record the titles of authors of books which he has read and satisfactorily reported upon. It ean readily be seen that there are limitless possibilities for the wise use of the classroom library commensurate with children’s reading abilities. THE ScHoou LIBRARY Organization and equipment—There are many different means of organizing school libraries. A few schools have librarians whose sole duty is to guide children in the use of the library. However, in this city most elementary schools have a classroom teacher in charge of the library who includes this responsibility in her regular professional duties. She is responsible for the appearance of the library and for the supervision of the shelves at the end of the school day. In non-depart- mentalized schools, each teacher takes her own class to the library and supervises the activities in progress. Each class has one library period a week. Proper equipment for the library is secured in a variety of ways. Suitable tables and chairs of the proper height and durability are sup- plied by requisition. Many libraries have one or two sets of small tables and chairs for the primary children. Accessories such as attrac- 1 Baltimore Department of Education. Reading Course of Study for Grades I, II, and III. Baltimore, Md.: the Department, 1936. p. 328. tiv! tio! fur the ng Usine LIBRARIES 509 tive draperies and pictures are frequently the gift of parent organiza- tions. Books are frequently donated by the children or provided by funds from parent-teacher organizatious. Others are requisitioned thru the city department of education. How the library functions—The school library functions in the school as a whole by providing an opportunity for further instruction in the intelligent use of library facilities. Children learn to distinguish between fiction and non-fiction, to classify books, to place books on the shelves, to use card catalog and reference materials, and to find information from many sources. The school library affords greater op- portunity to learn technics which the classroom library, because of its limited size, cannot adequately develop. Here, also, children of varying abilities can find material suited to their levels of develop- ment. The gifted child need not be thwarted by having to read the same book used by the remainder of his group. Here he may select a book which is challenging to his intellect and stimulating to his inter- ests. Similarly, the child of low ability finds reading materials which intrigue him. In Baltimore the school library is proving a boon especially to those schools which have a high percent of mentally proficient children in their enrolments. Such children are permitted to leave the classroom in groups and go unattended to the library to investigate reference materials on subjects under discussion. They are preoccupied with their assignments and carry back to their classrooms valuable material with which to supplement the discussion. Such use of the library is unde- niably mature and intelligent. In schools where there are sufficient books, children are permitted to withdraw them from the library for home use and thus cultivate a wise use of leisure time. Use of bulletin boards and exhibits—The teacher in charge of the school library usually assumes the obligation of making the bulletin . board therein worthwhile and attractive. In one school especially inter- esting displays were provided with the result that the children avidly observed them and received suggestions for reading. At one time a picture of the globe was placed in the center. Connected with this map by means of strings placed in the proper locations, were pictures of an Eskimo boy, a Chinese girl, a Japanese girl, a Mexican boy, a Dutch boy, and an Indian girl. Leading out from these children of many lands were other strings which pointed to book jackets advertising books about them. The following books were suggested: DOME occccusaen Children of the Northlights—I. and E. D’Aulaire 2 Liang and Lo—Kurt Weise Japanese ........ Japanese Fairy Tales—Williston Mexican ......... A Mounted Boy of Mexico—Melicent Maicos 510 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS er The Little Dutch Tulip Girl—Brandeis Bs to cbenen The Land of Little Rain—Muriel Fellows This exhibit occasioned great interest among the children and elicited many requests for these materials. Another interesting bulletin board display consisted of a large picture of a pirate’s chest, out of which tumbled colorful book jackets advertising desirable books for the children to read. A third school arranged a hobby exhibit to which the children contributed their stamps, coins, butterflies, and other treas- ures. These objects were arranged in close proximity to the bulletin board, on which could be found lists of books containing material on the particular interests of the children. Books on selected subjects, such as the circus, wild animals, the farm, the community, or a particular holiday, may be placed together and exhibited to arouse interest. in reading them. The library can thus be made an integrating factor in the school—a place where children of all levels can be sure of finding interesting books to read in attractive surroundings. COOPERATION OF THE PUBLIC LIBRARY SYSTEM This city is most fortunate in having a splendid new central public library building, which, with its twenty-seven branches, adequately cares for the literary needs of the community. Much stress is placed on the importance of appealing to children; so there is a “Director of Work with Children,” who is charged with this particular responsi- bility. These are the types of service rendered by the public library system to the children of the city: 1. Books are loaned to the various classrooms at the request. of teachers. Such requests must state the grade, the number and type of children, and the kind of books desired. The books are delivered and collected free of charge. It is expected that the children will be allowed to take the books home. 2. At the request of the teacher, lists of books that the library offers on certain subjects are prepared. 3. The library utilizes the school’s courses of study and prepares lists of books for supplementary reading. 4. At the end of the school year, lists of books suggested for summer reading are distributed to the school children. 5. Visits are arranged by the teacher with the branch librarian in order to acquaint the children with the general set-up, the catalog system, and other features of the library. 6. The library’s director of work with children collaborates with the school cur- riculum workers to provide for closer articulation between the two systems. 7. Once a month the library publishes a folder for teachers, suggesting new books in the field of education. This folder is prefaced by an article of practical help to teachers and librarians. a aaa mata qu tu bo in; lit an fu be an ms rel : the wo Usinc LIBRARIES 511 Home LIBRARIES FOR CHILDREN Often home libraries are so limited that they cannot be called upon to supply necessary information. The children who can supply ade- quate material from their own sources, however, are given the oppor- tunity to do so. They are allowed to report on information found in books at home; to show pictures in such books and explain their mean- ings; to share the books with classmates; to recommend for future library reading books that they have found interesting and helpful; and to read favorite selections during opening exercises. Guiding the parents in the wise selection of children’s books is one function of the classroom teacher. Parents often ask for advice when beginning libraries for their children. The following sources of guid- ance have proved helpful: 1. School librarians are glad to suggest individual lists of desirable reading material suitable for boys and girls of varied social and reading levels. 2. The school courses of study offer a wide choice of fiction and non-fiction related to the content subjects. 3. Teachers are acquainted with appropriate reading material of interest to the children in a particular grade or grades. 4. The public library lists that are distributed to teachers and pupils suggest worthwhile additions. CONCLUSION As indicated in the foregoing pages, classroom libraries, school libra- ries, public libraries, and home libraries may all make definite contri- butions to the development of the desire and the ability of children to locate and read worthwhile material. Realizing the extreme impor- tance of such educational accessories, the public schools of this com- munity encourage the intelligent use of the library in a variety of ways, and consciously attempt to inculcate in the children an appre- ciation of the library as an indispensable part of our society. 512 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS ees HOW THE PUBLIC LIBRARY CAN COOPERATE WITH THR SCHOOL AcatHa L. SHEA Director of Children’s Work, Chicago Public Library, Chicago, Illinois N THIS DAY OF EMPHASIS on integrated curriculums, expanding hori- zons, and life situations in the schoolroom, when a number of sources have displaced the single textbook and reading along many lines has superseded concentration upon only one, the library, whether public or school, is being called upon to analyze its resources and mus- ter its forces to meet adequately the new demands growing out of these educational changes. Confronted with the new situation, school facul- ties and library staffs alike need to scrutinize library facilities for young people and seek a definite answer to the question, “What can the library do to promote and develop reading interests in children of elementary- and high-school age?” Concerning school libraries and the services they render, school faculties are often well informed.’ Regarding the facilities and possi- bilities of the young people’s department in the public library, there is not always such complete understanding. If, however, both institu- tions are to function to the greatest advantage of the young people with whom they are concerned, mutual understanding of needs on the one hand, and cooperative means of accomplishment on the other, are required. How, then, can the public library assist the school in the development of young readers, and in the expansion of their reading interests? Objectives—In an attempt to answer this question, let us first ex- amine the objectives of public library work with young people, and then inquire as to the ways and means of accomplishing them. The general objectives of such work in the Chicago Publie Library may be summarized briefly as follows: 1. To familiarize children with the public library facilities available to them. and to arouse in them a desire to make use of such facilities in childhood and to con- tinue their use as adults 2. To create and develop in the young reader a broad interest in reading, and a sense of values which will enable him to discriminate in his choice of printed material 3. To promote parent education—that is, to familiarize parents with public library facilities for children from the preschool age to adulthood, to interest them in the development of home libraries, and to develop in them an interest in the reading of their children, including its sources and quality. 1For discussions of school library service, see the other articles in this chapter.—Editorial Committee. Al opm As duct tion proc and spec! Se very is th hold meet a re] estin or p! to h the rian be I wint to e} T wart ingl use is tl of t R inte cific grat O whi Gro may ally pup usu adv den ee ae Usine Lrprariges 513 Ct cpnnieesadligimeeencesilinagel Ticats All of these objectives are concerned directly with the reading devel- opment of the child. As a means of attaining the first objective, classes are usually con- ducted both in and outside the library. In these classes the classifica- tion of books, the use of catalogs and reference facilities, registration procedure, and other important matters are explained to the children, and they are invited to attend story hours, club meetings, and other special activities. School-representative clubs—Another method which has been found very successful in keeping school and public library in close contact is the organization in many places of school-representative clubs, which hold meetings after school hours for designated grade groups. To these meetings each classroom of the particular grade level is invited to send a representative whose business it will be to inform the club of inter- esting reading discussions in his room, or of any special book program or project which his school may be sponsoring. He in turn carries back to his companions at school, reports on books read and discussed by the club, information on new books introduced by the children’s libra- rian, and other news regarding library activities in which they might be interested. In connection with these clubs, library display cases and window space are usually made available to any school which wishes to exhibit classroom projects or any type of children’s work. This type of cooperation, in the writer’s experience, has always been warmly welcomed by teachers and principals, and has’ been exceed- ingly successful in developing in the pupil an intelligent interest in the use of the library. Not the least important product of such cooperation is the sympathetic understanding of each other’s problems on the part of the library and the school. Reading clubs—In its effort to promote and develop the reading interests of children, the Chicago library uses various methods of spe- cific reading guidance in addition to the general guidance offered in graded booklists, catalogs, and classification charts. One of the most effective of these, perhaps, is the reading club in which children of various ages meet to discuss books and authors. Groups are organized to read along any line in which the members may be interested. A year’s club program for a number of groups usu- ally includes a variety of subjects. Hobbies, handicraft, puppet-making, puppet-show producing, stamps, drama, travel, biography, and poetry usually appear on one or more programs each year. In the fiction field, adventure and vocational and romantic stories are usually in greatest demand, with historical and regional material following somewhat be- 514 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS a hind. When a club has decided upon the subject of the semester’s work (library clubs are usually organized on the semester basis to permit children to withdraw or join as their school needs demand), the chil- dren’s librarian proceeds with a committee of the group to develop a program. Taking into consideration the reading ability, grade place- ment, and reading background of the members, she makes a prelimi- nary selection of titles which she feels will serve to stimulate their interest. Sequences are later worked out with books of more mature conception and theme following the simpler introductory titles. Card records are kept on which are indicated the books read. The children’s appraisals of, and reactions to, each book, as well as any interests which they have developed in related fields, are carefully noted. As the group is small, usually consisting of not more than twenty children, a very informal situation is set up, and expressions of opinion on books and authors are generally freely made. This enables the diree- tor to discover any child who is obviously getting beyond his depth either in general comprehension of the material read or in ability to handle vocabulary, sentence structure, or some other specific aspect of the material. When such a child is discovered, a conference is held with him, and material within his reading ability is substituted for that which has been giving him trouble. This is done, of course, with no indication to the child that the new material is on a lower grade level; such material is simply suggested as something which he may find more enjoyable. His progress is then checked with reference to his own reading level, rather than from that of the school grade in which he may be enrolled. : Often the elementary-school children entering these clubs become interested in continuing the reading semester after semester, and some of them remain with us well into high school. The latter, however, is not particularly encouraged because it is felt that the numerous clubs available in the high school are adequate to care for the reading and other special interests of the students. Star Gazers’ Club—One of the most interesting examples of a library project which carried its young members well into the high-school period was a Star Gazers’ Club, which grew out of a series of story hours on myths connected with the stars. Simple astronomy and science books were used as a beginning with a group of some twelve or fifteen children. Star maps were studied and the young readers were taken out on evening excursions to survey the heavens and to make charts and maps of their own. Monthly trips to the lectures at the Adler Planetarium were a regu- —_— lar f occa jour! pilec and inte! thirt torit ope N the cial ii anc the bet mu pre exe pai ( ca to in: hi: sp di work Tmit chil- Ip a ace- imi- heir Lure The any illy nty 2ct 1d Usinc Lisrariges 515 lar feature of the work, and few indeed were the absentees on these occasions. Notebooks were kept on the reading done, and a monthly journal called the “Sky Log” or “News Reel of the Heavens” was com- piled, in which were noted items of interest gleaned from newspaper and magazine reading by the contributors. Radio skits were given and interesting debates were held. One of the latter, on the question of the thirteen-month year, was exceptionally good. Visits to local observa- tories were made possible, and a genuine interest in the subject devel- oped both from the theoretical and practical angles. Not only has the reading of this group increased along the line of the original interest, but it has expanded also into allied fields, espe- cially geology and paleontology. Remedial reading activities—Another opportunity for library assist- ance in the reading program of the school lies in closer cooperation in the planning of remedial reading projects. Consultation and conference between the children’s librarian and the teacher on this subject may do much to eliminate misunderstanding and to make really effective the program upon which the school has embarked. Several very successful examples of such cooperation have come to the writer’s attention in the past two or three years. One of the most effective of these efforts was developed around a card system whereby each deficient reader was rated by the school as to his reading level, and a system of symbols was worked out to inform the children’s librarian of his reading status when he presented his card at the library. The library, in turn, classified books with re- spect to content and difficulty, and thru similar markings was able to direct the child at once to material within his range. By the means outlined above, both the public library and the school are able to note the child’s progress, to check any difficulties which may appear along the way, and to make adjustments as necessary. Without such mutual exchange of information, the children’s librarian would have to discover the child’s actual reading ability by a circui- tous route of trial and error, inquiries, and discussions which consume precious time, while the school would have to duplicate the work of the library in classifying and analyzing a large stock of books, many of which may be unfamiliar to the individual teacher. Without close cooperation each institution would waste much time which should be spent in promoting the real objective of both, namely, the develop- ment of the reading ability and interests of each individual child. Arousing the interest of parents—The third objective—that of arousing parents’ interest in the development of reading interests in 516 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS an ——$___ children—is no less important than the others. Upon its attainment depends the very valuable teamwork which both the school and the library need to carry on with the home. All too rare are the parents who are as interested in their child’s reading materials as in his clothes, toys, or sports. In startling contrast to his great interest in the begin- ner’s acquisition of reading technics, is the average parent’s general indifference to the use made of these coveted technics during the forma- tive years of childhood. Disappearing, if not completely gone, are the bed-time story hour, the family reading hour, and the home library, It should be the aim of every young people’s librarian to help break down this apathy on the part of the home and to build in its place a permanent, intelligent interest in reading values for children. Every locality has its share of wide-awake, alert parents who are aware of this unfortunate situation, and nearly every parent-teacher group has its “reading chairman” who is working to remedy it. An interesting undertaking along this line was carried on in our city last year. This was a project sponsored jointly by the Illinois Congress of Parents and Teachers and the Chicago Publie Library. A ten-lesson course entitled “Guidance of Children’s Reading” was prepared by the library’s supervisor of children’s work, and was taught in the main library building to a group of about twenty-five district reading chair- men. At the conclusion of the course these chairmen were delegated by their association to organize local groups within their districts, and these new groups then met at the local libraries and were taught by local children’s librarians. Eighteen such groups were organized in various parts of the city, with memberships of from twenty to thirty- five persons. At the end of the two-month teaching period there were about five hundred mothers who had read selected children’s books, had participated in discussions of values in reading, and had carried away some convictions as to the necessity for selecting and guiding children’s home reading, as well as a greater knowledge of how the public library can be of use both to them and to their children. So successful was the experiment considered by the mothers them- selves, that a demand for a similar course concerning the adolescent reader was made, and this year almost twice as large a group as last year’s undertook this work. By the time the neighborhood classes fin- ished in the spring, another six or seven hundred mothers were added to those of the previous year—each one, it is hoped, returning to hei home organization to make a genuine contribution by stimulating its members and directing their attention to the importance of children’s TH ATS SY —_ read to il intel ever assi! pare rest N ate mue suce dem of tl a de obje who hoo evel shot a Z = Usina LIBRARIES 517 reading. To some of us who have spent much time and energy trying to inform and inspire large groups of persons who were only casually interested in this subject, the small, vitally interested study group, every member of which has obligated herself to read and prepare class assignments, appears as the long-sought solution to the problem of parent education in this field, and indirectly, perhaps, as a means of restoring the home library. Need for cooperative effort—In conclusion, it may be well to reiter- ate the statement that both the school and the public library have much to gain from realizing that they are interdependent and that the successful development of an all-round reading program for the child demands full utilization of the resources of both. Complete utilization of those resources is possible only when each institution is working with a definite knowledge of the way in which it may best serve the common objective of both. The young person who is a discriminating reader, who appreciates the values of printed material, and who enters adult- hood with the realization that books are indeed windows opening upon ever broadening horizons is a product toward which both institutions should strive, and of which both may be justly proud. apd modern public library is concerned with assisting every other educational agency. It is not an isolated public in- stitution, performing certain functions peculiar to itself, but it is the working partner of every civic, social, and educational undertaking in the city, through the medium of books. It is peculiarly allied-to schools; both institutions have the same democratic objective, the building of an intelligent and thinking community in which individuals can live as full and as useful lives as possible—Countryman, Gratia A., in Elementary School Libraries, Twelfth Yearbook, Department of Elemen- tary School Principals, 1933, p. 258. 518 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS —_ 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. SELECTED REFERENCES See also the references listed at the end of Chapter VII. . Barker, Vitpa. “Informal Testing of the Use of Books and Libraries.” Elemen. tary English Review 10: 143-45, 159-60, 174-76, 182, 205-208; J une-Septem- ber-October 1933. . Boney, Cec, DeWrrr. A Study of Library Reading in the Primary Grades, Contributions to Education, No. 578. New York: Teachers College, Colum. bia University, 1933. 70 p. . Broenine, ANceta M. “Factors Influencing Pupils’ Reading of Library Books” Elementary English Review 11: 155-58, 161; June, 1934. . Broenina, Anceta M., and orHers. How To Use the Library. New York: | Noble and Noble, 1936. 72 p. . Cotpurn, Evance.ine. A Library for the Intermediate Grades. Chicago: Uni- versity of Chicago Press, 1930. 150 p. . Ditton, Joseruinp. “Bringing Children and Books Together.” Childhood Rdu. cation 14: 62-66; October 1937. . Farco, Lucite F. The Library in the School. Chicago: American Library Asgo- ciation, 1930. 453 p. . Farco, Lucwz F. The Program for Elementary School Library Service. Chicago: American Library Association, 1930. 218 p. Board Journal 95: 49-51; December 1937. Harpy, Marvorie. “Right Attitude Toward Books and Taste in Reading in the Primary School.” Elementary School Journal 27: 745-50; June 1927. . Fiscuer, B. J. “Library Administration in a Small School.” American School | Jounson, B. Lamar. “The School Library.” The Teaching of Reading: A © Second Report. Thirty-Sixth Yearbook, Part I, National Society for the Study of Education. Bloomington, Ill.: Public School Publishing Co., 1937. p. 255-74. Kine, Wiruram A. The Elementary School Library. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1929. 224 p. Larurop, Epirn A. A Study of Rural School Library Practices and Services. Chicago: American Library Association, 1934. 105 p. LinpemMan, Norma C. “The Kindergarten and the Library.” Elementary School Journal 30: 586-93; April 1930. Mort, CaroLtyn, and Baispen, L. B. Children’s Book on How to Use Books and Libraries. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1937. 207 p. NaTIONAL Epucation ASSOCIATION, DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRIN- cipaLs. Elementary School Libraries. Twelfth Yearbook. Washington, D. C.: the Department, 1933. 464 p. Power, Errie L. Library Service for Children. Chicago: American Library Association, 1930. 320 p. Went, James E. “Effectiveness of the Public-School-Housed Library Branch.’ | Library Quarterly 7: 537-45; October 1937. Wuson, Louis R., and Wieut, Epwarp A. County Library Service in the South. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1935. 259 p. H. W. Wilson Co., 1931. 209 p. Smad . Witson, Marrua. School Library Management. Fifth edition, rey. New York: | dis¢ side so t The sinc N diff ene con! to t look ing oral the Wh reat higl and whi witl Roc wer zati or | dese salr ing gra lan zati 80- CHAPTER IX ORGANIZING SCHOOLS AND CLASSES FOR BETTER READING INSTRUCTION EDITORIAL COMMENT HE NEED OF PROVIDING for individual differences in reading abili- Te and interests is emphasized thruout this yearbook. Teaching methods and materials for meeting these differences have been discussed in the preceding chapters. It remains for this chapter to con- sider the administrative problem of organizing children and teachers so that appropriate methods and materials may be used most effectively. The chapter gives some attention also to individualized instruction, since the latter is often necessary under any plan of organization. No administrative scheme alone will solve the problem of individual differences. No matter how children are grouped, there will be differ- ences requiring individual teaching within each group. Moreover, the contributions which pupils of different abilities and interests can make to the intellectual and social development of a class should not be over- looked. Nevertheless, reading instruction may be facilitated by narrow- ing somewhat the range of reading needs found in the typical school grade. The first five articles in this chapter describe plans for grouping the children of two or more grades according to their reading abilities. White outlines a scheme by which pupils are organized in two series of reading levels—one series for the primary grades and the other for the higher grades. Wiecking tells how, after several weeks of observation and testing, each child in her school goes for reading to the grade in which he can obtain the most help. O’Bannon reviews an experiment with a similar plan involving Grades III to VI, inclusive. Martin and Rochefort describe a study in which sixth- and seventh-grade pupils were taught in three homogeneous groups. Forsythe explains the organi- zation of reading classes in his school. The next three articles are concerned either with individual guidance or with the grouping of children within a single classroom. Wahlert describes an arrangement whereby primary children continue with the same teacher for two years. Dean reports a scheme for individual read- ing in the intermediate grades. Youngman tells of dividing a seventh- grade class into five reading groups. The last article, by Watts, presents a plan for combining reading and language instruction in the first six grades. The reader will find other helpful material on school and class organi- zation in the references listed on page 576.—Editorial Committee. [519] 520 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS A READING PROGRAM ORGANIZED BY READING LEVELS Marcaret L. WHITE Supervisor of Elementary English, Cleveland Public Schools, Cleveland, Ohio teacher’s objectives should be threefold: (1) teaching the child how to read, (2) teaching him to like to read, and (3) guiding hin in what to read. Each of these objectives is related to the others, and F« THE VERY DAY on which the teaching of reading is begun, the © any one of them is relatively worthless without the other two. Little © has been accomplished if the child has been taught merely how to read. He must find satisfaction and joy in reading if he is to be interested | in reading at other than assigned periods. He must be made familiar | with books of high literary value and taught to enjoy them so that he can later select worthwhile books for himself. To accomplish most effectively the objectives set up, it is necessary © to take cognizance of, and make provisions for, the individual differ- ences among children. Differences other than those shown by intelli- gence quotients must be taken into account. Differences in physical as well as social development and adaptability have a direct relationship to the ease with which a child learns to read. From the time of babyhood, individuals differ physically. Babies differ in the time at which they cut teeth and at which they learn to walk and talk. Some people have blue eyes; some have brown eyes. Some are tall; some are short. Some are fat; some are thin. There is a wide difference, too, in emotional re- actions and social abilities. Mental ability differs in the amount and type possessed. The physical differences are usually obvious and are accepted by parents and teachers alike. Perhaps the majority of people also accept the differences in emotional reactions and social abilities. Rarely, how- ever, does a parent accept the fact that his child differs from other children in mental ability (unless his own child is the brighter), or even that one of his own children is not so able mentally as others of the family. Since the combination of the physical, emotional, social, and mental development of the child has a direct bearing on his ability to learn to read, one of the first problems that confront the teacher and principal is that of educating the parent to the point of seeing that it may take a longer time for his child to learn to read than it does for some neighbor’s child, or, in fact, for another one of his own children. Not only must the parent see that it may take this one child longer to learn, COEY ve by pt v- ORGANIZATION OF READING CLASSES 521 but also that the child may need to learn by entirely different methods from those used with other children. * GROUPING CHILDREN BY READING LEVELS It is now generally agreed that the number of years a child has spent in school is not, in itself, an indicator of that child’s ability. One child who has been in school three years may read successfully in a third reader, while another child who has been in school three years may be able to read only in a primer. These children may be equally industrious and may have had the same quality of teaching. Obviously, then, group- ing by grades or by number of years of school attendance presents numerous problems for both the child and the teacher, not only in the matter of materials to be used, but also in the methods employed. Some type of organization other than the usual plan of annual or semi-annual grade promotion is needed. For a number of years, the reading instruction in the Cleveland public schools has been organized by levels rather than by grade assignments. The work for the primary classes and for the upper elementary classes is handled as two separate units to avoid the social maladjustment which might occur if an upper-grade child of low ability were permitted to read only with very young children. Within each of these divisions, however, the child reads on the level where he can achieve, regardless of his age or grade. To make this possible, the reading instruction for all children in the upper elementary unit, for example, is held at one hour during the day, and at that hour each child goes to the room to which other children of his reading ability are assigned for reading. * In this room there is a further division into groups—perhaps three—and the child is assigned to the group which most nearly meets his needs. The reading levels just mentioned refer to units of progress and not to grade levels. The entire course of study is ungraded and is organized in such a way that any pupil or group of pupils may pass from one level to the next as soon as the required work has been completed. The length of time that a pupil spends on any given level depends entirely upon his needs and ability. He may complete several levels within any year, or he may need to spend more than a year at any given level. Each level has specific standards to be used as a basis for advancement to the next level. ? The child knows definitely what he is required to do in order to complete one level and begin the next. Under this organization no 1 Methods of interpreting the reading program to parents are discussed by Niegosch and by Choate in Chapter X.—Editorial Committee. 2 For possible disadvantages of such an arrangement, see the article by O’Bannon in this chapter.—Editorial Committee. * For specific standards, see: Cleveland Reading Course of Study—Upper Elementary Level. 522 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS child need fail; neither need he work with children of superior ability where the competition would be unfair. Of course, this organization t must be used intelligently in order to challenge the best efforts of the ' bright child, and at the same time to make the child of limited ability i happy and comfortable in his slower progress. The amount and difficulty ,' of material to be read are differentiated for the very dull, low normal, — ‘ normal, bright, and superior children. : | Since the reading levels for the elementary grades are divided into two series—one for the primary and one for the upper grades—the mechanical phases of reading should be fairly well established before | | a pupil leaves the primary division in reading. This allows time in the © upper elementary division for gaining greater fluency and enrichment | thru reading. a SELECTING SUITABLE READING MATERIAL ? f i After individual differences have been taken care of by organizing the reading program so that each child may progress at his own rate, the next consideration is to provide materials which are suitable and interesting. Perhaps the failure to do this has been one of the weakest points in the reading programs of many schools. For some reason, there has been a tendency to measure success in teaching largely by the num- ber of different books that a child can read, and by the speed with which he progresses from a pre-primer to a primer, or from a primer to a first reader. ' Time should be taken for the child to enjoy, understand, and acquire | the vocabulary of a given book before he is hurried on to another. This — does not mean that he should be drilled in this material until it loses all interest and meaning for him. Much of the material in primary books can be a nucleus for lessons in English, social studies, and science, and if the material is presented in a variety of situations, such as charts, blackboard lessons, or checks, it need not be monotonous or ineffective. In addition, plans should be made for a child to read on one level for a longer period of time than is usually the case. That is, a child should read many pre-primers before proceeding to a primer, and even then he j should continue to read pre-primers as supplementary reading. Simi- larly, a child should read many primers before he advances to a first reader, and should then continue with primers for supplementary read- ing. There is no surer safeguard against deficiencies in reading than having a plan which provides ample simple reading material for children. If children are given books that are too difficult, naturally their speed of reading is lessened and there is poor phrasing, word reading, and an at- PETS See ee ty On he ty il, ORGANIZATION OF READING CLASSES 523 tendant lack of comprehension and interest. It is therefore a sound policy in beginning reading to give the child ample opportunity and experience in reading material that is relatively easy for him, until he has gained confidence in his ability to read. This procedure develops interest and, at the same time, helps the child to build a sight vocabulary more ef- fectively than does abstract drill. On the upper elementary levels the plan should be continued of giv- ing the child an opportunity to read material which he can comprehend easily and enjoy thoroly. The emphasis is shifted from oral reading to silent reading. Specifically concentrated at these upper levels are the problems in regard to special types of reading, such as reading to an- swer questions, to form opinions, to make outlines, to portray charac- ters, to dramatize incidents, and to appreciate beauty of style and expression. APPROPRIATE TEACHING PROCEDURES Study sheets—Perhaps the two procedures which have been used most effectively on the upper-grade levels in Cleveland are those involving the study sheet and dramatization. The study sheet has been developed to help the child in the preparation of his reading assignment before he comes to the class discussion, and it also affords an opportunity for self- expression and for a certain amount of oral reading. Questions are given the child on the material to be read. He prepares his study sheet by ruling his paper in four columns. In the first column he writes the num- ber of the question; in the second, the page on which he found the an- swer; in the third, the number of the paragraph; and in the fourth, the word giving the key to his answer. Each child in the group brings his study sheet with him to a discussion period covering the material read. Sometimes a child tells the answer he has found; sometimes he reads the answer; at other times he discusses at great length his own opin- ions and reactions to the material read. These study sheets can take care of individual differences in ability perhaps as effectively as any method which has been tried. First of all, the type of question given varies with the ability of the child. The ques- tions differ both in type and scope. The brighter child should be given questions which are more or less thought-provoking, or which depend upon his own judgment and deductive abilities. The slower child must have questions which are more or less factual in nature, or at least questions which are answered specifically in the material read. In like manner, the bright child can answer questions covering a wider scope, possibly an entire chapter or book, while the child of lesser ability 524 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS should have questions based upon specific paragraphs and pages or, at most, upon specific chapters. The three sets of questions and the sample study sheet following are all based on the same material. The questions in Number I are of the type used with the slow child; in Number II, the type used with the average child; and in Number III, the type used with the brighter child. It will be noted that the questions vary in the type of mental process required. For the low group, the exact answer can be found in the book; for the average group, facts given in the book must be inter- preted; for the high group, the facts must be interpreted and the inter- pretation, in this case, requires greater judgment and further evaluation on the part of the child. The questions vary, too, in the type of response which can be expected. From the low group, fewer answers and simpler key words are to be expected; from the average group, more answers and more significant key words; and from the high group, still more mature answers. SAMPLE STUDY SHEET‘ Number I PERE edie ratialy ao lle Gawd uuemots Reatealee Kee Era Toby Tyler—Chapter I, “Toby’s Introduction to the Cireus” 1. Find a description of Toby. 2. Show that Toby was fond of food. 3. What was Mr. Lord’s offer? Question Page | Paragraph Key words 1 2 2 brown eyes 1 5 last red hair, freckled face 2 3 1 wanted two for each 2 4 last I’m an awful eater 2 5 2 cryin’ for something to eat 2 5 4 I'd eat till I was sick 2 6 1 sell me some things 2 r 1 so much time eating 2 7 3 bliss to own good things 2 7 5 I’d grow fat 2 9 last could eat and listen 3 10 3 help run a candy counter 3 10 last leave town with me Number II (Questions) 1. What do you learn about Toby in this chapter? 2. Mr. Lord was a clever man. Verify. 4 Cleveland Reading Course of Study—Upper Hlementary Level. H II ORGANIZATION OF READING CLASSES 525 Number III (Questions) 1. How did Mr. Lord gain Toby’s confidence? 2. What instances of humor are there in this chapter? Some other methods for using study sheets are indicated below: I. Use of questions to stimulate sustained interest thruout a book: Some books may be handled by presenting a series of eight or ten questions that have been carefully planned to stress the most important incidents of the story, and to enable the child to trace the development of certain phases of the plot thru the entire book. The questions should be of recurring interest thruout the story, or should constitute problems which will not be completely answered until the end of the story. These may be prepared in leaflet form with one question to each page. The pages should then be ruled in the form of a study sheet. II. A child’s notes for class discussion (taken from the notebook of a child in the brighter group) : Otto of the Silver Hand By Howard Pyle Chapters 6, 7, 8 The chapter headings are interesting, fascinating descriptions. Howard Pyle makes me feel as if I were witnessing the scenes which he describes. Stevenson is a master at description, but I think Pyle is better. Do you think that Otto was grieved at leaving the monastery? He showed no emotion or regret. Baron Conrad was ungrateful. Baby Otto was a simple, quiet, pathetic child. Do you think that Otto was strong enough to face the change that took place in his life?® Was his father wise to take him away? Ursula was like a mother to Otto. Don’t you think Ursula was feolish to tell Otto about how bad his father had been? Otto was very disillusioned when he learned his father had been a robber. Ursula was wicked to wish for the days of robbery and luxury. Otto’s father summoned away. A sad mistake to leave the castle so poorly guarded. Baron Henry’s revenge. Ruthless attack—killing—fire—Otto a prisoner. Otto had little communication with anyone except Pauline, Henry’s daughter. I felt sorry for Otto when Pauline gayly informed him of the possibility of Henry killing Conrad. III. Questions for teaching the children to gather additional information about a country or a historical period: Young Fu of the Upper Yangtze Chapters 1 and 2 1. What customs mentioned show the extreme poverty of the Chinese? 2. Find references in these chapters that bring out the Chinese attitude a. toward the scholar b. toward the foreigner c. toward life in general. 3. Verify this statement: Superstition plays a large part in the religious belief of the Chinese of the lower class. 4. “Twice his enemy had lost face in his presence.” Explain. 5. Which method in trading offers a sharp contrast to the American method? 5 This question was selected to begin the group discussion. 526 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS IV. Suggested study sheet showing word difficulties (for the low group): isa ogres (tA te ee Uae ao a eee Farmer Boy—Chapter XII, “The Tin Peddler” 1. How did the family show they were glad to see the tin peddler? 2. What was to be traded? 3. Who was the better trader? 4. Prove that the peddler’s visit was a pleasure to everyone. Word Difficulty Section Page Paragraph Words and phrases 86 8 sol id ly sol dered (P) (M)® 87 3 un ex pect edly (P) 85 1 gave his o pinion (M) Questions Question Page Paragraph Key words 1 84 3 ran — popped ] 84 6 were waiting | 84 7 come right in 2 86 7 tin 86 9 all the rags 3 87 3 She had bested 4 87 7 pans — horn 88 3 remember Dramatization—Dramatization is another effective means of stimu- lating interest and helping in the interpretation of material read. As in the case of other methods, there should be a differentiation between — the types of dramatization used with the bright child and with the slower child. In fact, the purposes of the dramatization may be entirely different for the two types of children. Of course, dramatization is always a means of testing the comprehension of material that is read. Moreover, it provides vicarious experiences; develops free natural ex- pression and the use of good English; aids in obtaining clear enunciation and pronunciation; develops initiative, imagination, and self-expres- sion; and helps the child organize his thoughts and acts in logical sequence. 6 P = Pronunciation; M = Meaning. ec. ~m ——_ in en . ORGANIZATION OF READING CLASSES 527 The teacher should keep clearly in mind the objectives she hopes to accomplish thru dramatization. Its true value comes thru the realiza- tion of these objectives, and not in the quality of the finished production. Other procedures—Use of the study sheet and dramatization are only two of the many methods which may be used effectively in the teaching of reading on the upper-grade levels. The following outline suggests other effective procedures: A. Procedures to increase appreciation and enjoyment, 1. Illustration 2. Selection of descriptive, humorous, or unusual passages 3. Characterization 4. Comparing and contrasting characters 5. Discussing the problems of presenting a dramatization, a puppet show, or a shadow play. B. Procedures to develop sequence and organization 1. Outlining a paragraph, chapter, or story 2. Studying plot construction 3. Preparing book reviews. C. Procedures to develop judgment 1. Selecting appropriate titles 2. Finding the sequence of events 3. Tracing the development of characters. D. Procedures to stimulate imagination 1. Enjoying the fanciful a. Selecting fanciful characters b. Selecting fanciful incidents c. Appreciating imaginary, unreal, whimsical, practical, or subtle passages of fairy lore, folk tale, or poetry 2. Imagining settings for simple dramatics. E. Procedures to provide for the needs of the group 1. Enriching children’s background 2. Working out word difficulties 3. Correcting poor mechanical habits 4. Developing poise and self-confidence. In addition to the methods and types of lessons mentioned above, there should be periods of reading “just for fun.” In our eagerness to expose the child to all phases of reading and to a variety of literature, we should not fail to give him an opportunity to follow some particular interest or hobby of his own. In conclusion, it seems that the one requirement for any type of organ- ization or for any method or device used in the teaching of reading is that it be one which furthers the three objectives stated in the begin- ning—teaching a child how to read, developing a genuine interest in reading, and guiding him in what to read. 528 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS A FLEXIBLE READING PROGRAM ANNA WIECKING Principal of the Elementary School, State Teachers College, Mankato, Minnesota HIS ARTICLE reports some experimentation with a flexible program of reading instruction, as carried on in the elementary grades of the training school in a teachers college. The purpose of the work was to make a feasible and constructive attack on certain problems of pupil maladjustment created, at least in part, by our traditional rigid grading and promotion procedures. The experiment was begun in 1936- 37 and its success warranted its continuance and extension during the past year. While there is nothing very new about the idea underlying the procedure employed, its practical application is not common in the area served by this college, and a description of its use may therefore be suggestive to others who are interested in reducing pupil failure. Factors involved in the problem—As is the custom in most schools, we admit to our kindergarten in September those children who are or who will be five years old on or before the first of the following January. Our first grade is composed both of these children who have had kinder- garten training, and of other six-year-olds who come without kinder- garten experience. We have the traditional six grades above the kinder- garten, and we have yearly promotions. Altho children are admitted to Grade I on the basis of chronological age, they are promoted to the next grade on an achievement basis. Inability to pass from grade to grade each year is regarded as failure by most parents, and carries with it a certain stigma. Our school population is a good cross-section of city, suburban, and rural children. In spite of the very earnest efforts of highly selected, well-trained, and experienced teachers, our reading results have reflected the same general weaknesses as are reported by experts the country over. Read- ing disabilities have constituted a major problem, and for many chil- dren they have retarded the whole learning program. Failure to learn how to read effectively in the early grades has sometimes been over- come later, but in too many cases the long, futile struggle of the im- mature child has left unfortunate habits and attitudes which may never be entirely overcome. The problem has become especially acute in re- cent years because the newer arrangements of learning materials, partic- ularly in science and social studies, stress the importance of gaining understandings rather than isolated facts. This situation offers a real challenge to both teachers and children, and the ability to read effec- tively takes on greater importance than ever before. ORGANIZATION OF READING CLASSES Our own experience bears out the conclusions of many experts now writing on the subject of reading disability. Many children are too im- mature to learn to read at the age at which we admit them to school. Reading-readiness factors must be diagnosed and each child must make the approach to the reading situation that his abilities and experiences make possible, regardless of how this may affect traditional adminis- trative customs. By failure to understand and to prescribe adequately for the differing levels of readiness, we create reading problems. The individualization of reading instruction must proceed not only in the early grades but in each successive grade. Reading skill develops only as an individual uses it to serve purposes valuable to him. This development continues thruout life; hence no group of school grades can be charged with the duty of teaching a child isolated reading skills which will remain trained once and for all. The child will develop and refine his learning tools as he develops and refines his thinking. The plan outlined—In attempting to work out a practical plan, we decided that it must be systematic in every grade and that it must make for greater flexibility without creating confusion or antagonism. In grades above the first the plan developed is essentially as follows: During the first six weeks of the school year no changes are made in the grade placement of children, but a careful analysis is made of the total personal and scholastic status of any child who appears to have a reading problem, or who has made a generally poor adjustment to school life. Factors studied include general health, sensory conditions, intelligence, social and emotional responses, language facility, home background, and home reading opportunities. By good tests we dis- cover, as far as possible, the level of the child in each specific skill involved in reading. After trying to see the whole situation to the best of our ability, we list for each case the specific conditions that seem to be preventing his success, and ask ourselves this question: Where, if not in his home- room, can this child best receive the training necessary to improve his learning situation? Next we place the child in the grade and group where he can get the best help on his particular problem. Sometimes he is placed one grade below, and sometimes two grades below his own. Occasionally an accelerated reader is placed in the grade above his own. These children who move to another grade for their work in read- ing are referred to as “visiting readers.” It should be pointed out that the reading-skills period is scheduled at the same time of day in each grade, thus making the visiting-reader plan work more smoothly. Children know that no change is permanent. They often ask to be tested, and are shifted to the next higher grade 530 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS as in reading as fast as sufficient improvement is shown. Each child re. turns to his own original grade for all his other work, as we believe that experiences in the content subjects and in the social life of that grade are of paramount importance to him. The real proof of his jm. provement in reading will appear in his work in all the other subjects, Several types of adjustment were made during the first year of the experiment. Two or three children wished to stay in the lower grade for all their work, and we agreed with their judgment. Several older children came back to the primary grades for the phonetic analysis which they needed. Some children had to be reoriented to the purpose of reading. One or two had to be weened away from a wrong use of phonics. Each child knew his goal and was aware of his progress jn overcoming his difficulty. In grades below the second our procedure is somewhat different from that in the intermediate grades. At the end of the kindergarten year each child is given reading-readiness tests of several kinds, and a deci- sion is made as to whether or not he is mature enough to enter the first grade. If we think he is not, he stays in the kindergarten a second year _ and is given a differentiated program along the line of his special needs. Thus he is not subjected to the inevitable disappointment and frustra- tion of working in the first grade when he is too undeveloped to sue- ceed there. Frequently these immature children are very intelligent. In the first grade, more than six weeks is taken for getting started and for the analysis of individual cases. Every opportunity is givena | child to make a successful start in beginning reading. Many factors involved in reading readiness are tested, and by the end of the proba- tionary period the evidence is usually clear. One large group meets the test requirements and is already well started in learning to read. At the other end of the scale are the most immature children, who are not yet mentally, physically, or socially mature enough for first-grade work. They need experience in the kindergarten and are sent there as regular kindergarten children. Still a third group is made up of first-grade children who may or may not measure six years or more in mental age, but who are making little or no response to the reading situation. They are obviously going to need a slower approach. Beginning last year, we have frankly said to the parents of such children, in view of the results of many tests: “Your child cannot learn to read well enough this year to go to second grade next year and really succeed there. If we push him as hard as we can he will barely, if at all, meet the minimum requirements for promo- tion at the end of the year; he will probably begin his second-grade year under a cloud; he is likely to become a problem reader; and he OTE RET eet at TF RS Sarre re, ORGANIZATION OF READING CLASSES 531 may remain one. If we do not push him beyond his power now, and if we recognize that he needs a longer prebook approach, this child may take longer to complete the primary grades, but he will probably be more successful in the long run and will probably become a happy, adjusted learner during his elementary-school life.” It is on the basis of this theory that we are working with these partic- ular children. We designate this group as Junior First Grade, and both kindergarten and first-grade teachers work with it. The children attend a specialized kindergarten group in the morning, and have specialized pre-reading experiences in the afternoon. Each one is working along the lines of his own needs. In each case the parent is called in, and matters are explained to her in great detail. Usually the parent is very cooperative when she understands the situation clearly ; therefore, ample time and pains are taken for this conference. Importance of psychological factors—No child becomes a visiting reader unless he fully understands the plan and is ready to cooperate with it. A visiting reader is treated with respect because he is learning to accept and attack his problems. Interviews with the child, in which he is allowed to see for himself where he stands, are conducted with great care. The cooperation of the parents is enlisted by the child him- self, and by the teacher and principal in a conference during which charts and progress sheets are freely consulted. The cooperation of the children who remain in the room is also very important and is obtained in friendly fashion. Each teacher tries to set up the best program pos- sible for each child, and is vitally interested in helping him. Every child expects to improve, and every one does. If such a plan is to be successful, all teachers must regard all visiting readers with a sympathetic interest. The plan must be worked out as a family problem. Teachers must be happy to work with any children who come to them from other rooms. Frequent faculty conferences should be held“In-which these children are discussed. Evdluation of the program—Altho we have not worked long enough to have results which are adequate for statistical analysis, we have reached a few definite conclusions on the basis of other evidence. We have every reason to believe that for many schools the plan is perfectly feasible if the administrative and instructional staffs work well to- gether; if they can “carry” the children and their parents with them in friendly fashion; and if the teachers are well prepared in modern methods of reading diagnosis and instruction. If there is no kinder- garten the plan will suffer some limitations. In this event, however, entrance requirements can be changed to avoid admitting the very young or immature children to school until the succeeding year. 532 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS We feel amply justified in offering the following as outcomes of the plan in our school so far: 1. We succeeded far better than we had anticipated in enlisting the cooperation of our children, and especially of their parents. 2. The idea of flexibility in a school program is no longer startling or disturbing to our children or to their parents. 3. Our visiting readers actually made great improvement as judged by tests of their reading skill, by their evident motivation in other read- ing activities, and by their frequent advances to higher levels of achieve- ment. 4. The teachers gained in teaching effectiveness (a) by the narrow- ing of the wide range of abilities within each grade; (b) by their ability in most cases to reduce the number of teaching groups within a grade from three to two; and (c) by being relieved of the strain resulting from undue effort to get immature children ready for promotion. Both teachers and children profited by the increased amount of attention given to specific reading problems. The first-grade teacher’s dispropor- tionate load under the old scheme was much relieved. 5. All the teachers cooperated in such a way that professional stimu- lation was afforded to the staff as a whole. This was accomplished largely thru the many conferences in which ideas were exchanged, plans were made, and results were noted. _— SCHOOL must provide some situations in which mingling of various levels of ability and maturity may occur. The homeroom and some extracurricular activities can easily pro- vide these. But we are not justified in assuming that adequate and complete guidance of the development of children in the major activity of the school can be given in large groups with wide ranges of ability—Turney, Austin H., in The Grouping of Pupils, Thirty-Fifth Yearbook, Part I, National Society for the Study of Education, 1936, Chapter 6, p. 111. (Quoted by permission of the Society.) eR | | | to c¢ thing infol depe same ment resul year Fc unde veml neou was we h child most In to de tion coulc Grac Test. accu the sche the 1 A work use 1 cove: befo1 ficat: 1 Mi: 2 Pul a i es ad OO oe SM coal ORGANIZATION OF READING CLASSES 533 AN EXPERIMENT WITH HOMOGENEOUS GROUPING IN READING Mary B. O’BANNON Principal, Jefferson School, Berkeley, California reading instruction have been so numerous that no single plan is likely to arouse universal interest. Moreover, it is very difficult to complete an educational experiment with the assurance that any- thing of great value for schools in general has been proved. Every well- informed principal realizes that the results of such an experiment are dependent upon so many variable factors that they would not be the same a second time, even in his own school. However, a recent experi- ment in reading at the Jefferson School in Berkeley yielded certain results that may be interesting and perhaps helpful to readers of this yearbook. For a number of years the reading instruction in our city has been under the general supervision of an expert in this field.t When, in No- vember 1936, she suggested that Jefferson School should try homoge- neous grouping in reading for one term, we were glad to acquiesce. It was not an entirely new experiment for us, for during the previous year we had had before-school coaching classes several times each week. The children had voluntarily attended the classes where they could work most successfully, and many had profited definitely from this work. In preparation for the 1937 experiment we had a series of conferences to decide which grades should be included; on what tests the classifica- tion should be based; when the classes should be held; and how we could best explain the matter to the parents. We decided to include Grades III thru VI in the plan, and to use the Gates Silent Reading Tests* (Grades 3 to 8 Series) because they would probably be most accurate for purposes of grouping and would also be of definite help to the teachers in their future work. It was necessary for all classes to schedule reading for the same hour each day, and the second period in the morning was chosen for this work. A trial grouping—It was late in November when we planned our work, and the new term was to begin the last of January. We decided to use the intervening weeks for a trial grouping, so that we might dis- cover mistakes in our plans and difficulties that could be cleared away before we started the next term’s work. To make this preliminary classi- fication we used an adaptation of some very old tests. We could not ex- I’ RECENT YEARS the measures proposed for the improvement of 1Miss Ruby Minor, Director of Kindergartens and Elementary Education. ? Published by the Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. 534 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS wa a press the results in terms of school grades, but could group the childrey on the basis of their scores. There were two tests—one for the third, — fourth, and fifth grades, and one for the sixth grade. For proper group. 8 ing it was necessary to give the upper test to those who scored well op the lower one, and to give the simpler test to those with lower scores oy the upper one. a ns On the basis of the scores on these preliminary tests, and with some Lov allowance made for age, grade, and temperament, we assigned the Hilg children to their several reading classes for the remainder of the first | a term. We wrote a letter to the parents explaining what was being done Lov and why. We anticipated objections to demotions but received none. | pe During the whole experiment the only complaints from parents or Hig children were made because of acceleration resulting in social malad- — justments. a Within a short time the teachers of the lower groups reported that they were encountering difficulty because of the variations in ability or speed within their groups. Children at the same reading level could sixte not go forward together because the younger children from lower grades were able to make more rapid progress than the older ones who needed remedial work. On the other hand, the teachers of higher groups re- : ported that the younger children in their groups, altho able to read and | comprehend well, had not the background to enjoy their work as fully nite as those who were more mature. The natural conclusion was that more _ exceptions should be made in the next classification—that is, more chil. | ©" dren should be placed nearer their attained grade levels than the scores | be on the reading test would warrant. It was interesting to find, however, est that the children in the lower groups were wholly unconscious of any sees maladjustment. They were eager to continue work where they could as ° make obvious progress. - sar Regrouping the pupils—On January 26 the four sections of the Gates Silent Reading Tests were given to all grades from the third thru the ie sixth, and the pupils were reassigned to different reading groups ae- inte cording to their scores on these tests. Relatively speaking, the results | tery of these tests varied little from those of the simpler tests given in No- ; sim vember. For comparative purposes the median of each child’s scores on ™0" the four parts of the test was used. The number of pupils scoring at each | C reading grade level is shown in Table 1. eacl Altho ten reading levels are represented in this table, only nine | tak reading groups were organized, the pupils at the two highest levels L being combined in one group. The nine groups are referred to hereafter 2. by the letters A to J, inclusive, Group A having the lowest reading F Ps ability and Group I the highest. ORGANIZATION OF READING CLASSES 535 TABLE 1—NumsBers or Pupits Maxine Various Grape Scores ON THE GATES Sment Reapine Tests * at BEGINNING oF TERM ScHOOL Grave Scores tn Reapine > GRADE Pe ll 2.0-2.9/3.0-3.9/4.0-4.9}5.0-5.9|6.0-6.9|7.0-7.9/8.0-8.9/9.0-9.9/10.0-10.9/11.0-11.9 ~o |@}]@o!]oalo}]@o}]@| elo |] a | ap Low III. . 9 16 2 eT Ie IE See Serer, FAR Le OR RRS High III.. 2 16 13 2 1 3 >) | SERN miles gh | Saas = Low IV... 1 13 10 5 5 FPN, PALE, SSA OR Vee aid Pert High IV 5 9 6 7 4 4 Be Bsek nn 1 Low V 3 5 5 3 6 7 2 a ee High V 6 9 1] 7 3 4 2 6 3 Low VI... 1 BR cs 3 6 9 te acer ie High VI..|......|...... 1 5 | 11 | 10 | 3 | 12 4 5 Total number...| 12 60 51 34 37 32 29 26 16 9 Read table: Of the pupils in the low-third grade, nine made grade scores in reading of 2.0 to 2.9; sixteen made grade scores of 3.0 to 3.9; and two made grade scores of 4.0 to 4.9. Similarly read figures for other groups. @ Grades 3 to 8 Series. b The grade score of each child represents the median of his scores on the four parts of the test. At the beginning of the new term, February 1, we launched our defi- nite program with the nine reading groups. Each teacher was given the records for her group, including not only the scores on recent tests but earlier records also. Plans were carefully made in order that there might be no loss of time or purposeless activities. The teachers of the two low- est groups found it necessary to devote much time to the mechanics of reading, especially for those older children who might almost be classed as “non-readers.”’ Some of the upper classes found it possible to carry on a much less formal and more interesting program because these same stragglers were no longer in them. Some classes spent hours at regular intervals at the public library. Of course, there were many other interesting activities, ranging from informal dramatization to the in- terpretation and appreciation of literature. The units of work were similar to those found in any child-centered school. The term’s work moved forward without any serious interruption. Children’s opinions of the plan—Shortly before the close of the term each teacher presented the following questionnaire to her children, taking every precaution to obtain honest opinions: 1. Do you like to work in reading groups as you have this year? 2. If you do like it, tell me why you do. 3. If you would prefer to stay with your regular class, tell me why you think that would be better. 536 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS ee The replies to the first question are summarized by reading groups in Table 2. Not all of the children filled out this questionnaire. A few were ab. sent at the time it was given, and many in the lower groups were un- able to read or answer the questions. However, of the pupils answering in all groups combined, 204 said “yes,” 29 said “no,” and 3 were un- certain as to whether they liked the new plan. Of the children who had been promoted, 57 said they preferred grouping according to ability because they liked the work of the group or felt that they learned more: 27 gave various reasons for preferring this plan; and of the 7 not liking the plan, 3 preferred to be with their own class, while the other 4 gaye such reasons as their inability to get the room ball at recess. Of the 67 demoted children, 53 preferred the grouping, 34 of these because they “liked the work” or “learned more.” Of the 14 who ob- jected to this plan of classification, 9 preferred their own grade teachers, while the other 5 objected to books or work. TABLE 2—Responses or Pupits To THE QuEsTION: Do You Like To Work iy Reapinc Groups As You Have Tuts Year? ScHoou READING Groups @ GRADE — 4 OF PuPILs A B Cc D E F G H | I (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) | (10) III 1 yes| 17 yes | 14 yes | ll yes | ll yes | 2yes|....... hs sbsalllae ee lun-| 2no 1 no 1 no 1 no cer- tain a ee 2 yes | 6 yes | 12 yes | 12 yes | 6 yes | 12 yes | 10 yes | 5 yes 1 un- 3 no 1 no cer- tain | ON) Ne: Beer 5 yes | 7yes| 7yes| 4yes|llyes| 6yes| 5Syes 1 no 1 no 7 no 1 no |) eR eee Suan lyes | 4yes| 4yes|10 yes | 1 yes | 18 yes 1 no 7 no 2 no 1 un- cer- tain 1 yes | 19 yes | 25 yes | 31 yes | 34 yes | 16 yes | 33 yes | 17 yes | 28 yes lun-| 2no 2 no 2 no 2no | 17 no 1 no 3 no cer-| 1 un- 1 un- tain cer- cer- Total. . tain tain Read table: Of the pupils from Grade III who were in reading group A, one answered “yes” and one was ‘‘uncertain.”’ Similarly read data for pupils in other reading groups and in other schoo! grades. 4 The reading groups are designated alphabetically from lowest to highest, Group A being the lowest and Group I the highest in reading ability. ~~ peepee: — rr aap me _——_ oo oor mem SS SSE TN, x ne ey $ ORGANIZATION OF READING CLASSES 537 TABLE 3—Numpsers or Puri.s Maxine Lower, THE SAMe, or HicHER Scores IN Jung THAN IN JANUARY ON THE GaTEsS SILENT Reapina Tests * READING GROUPS READING SCORE ae a kasd IN JUNE A B Cc D E F G H I Aut Groups a (1) 2/}e3|/@)1e6!]@O]@ |] @®!]@ | a9 (11) Lower than in January.|....]....} 2 | 11 8 71 8 7 5 51 Same as in January....| 2 3 3 1 2 2 6 1 1 21 Higher than in Jan- uary, by: Less than 5 months..} 10 | 13 3 8 4 4 6 1 6 55 5-S months....... ... 3 8 8 7 71% 6 2 7 58 10-14 months.......| 1 5 3 2 6 3 5 6 31 15-19 months....... ey ee 1 3 2 1 6 4 18 20-24 months....... ARATE) Veter ee 3 2 5 2 16 ae No iisicccha tote cend B teccah “S 1 5 ee NR good oc Find Dba eX Ee ae ek Oe Bills. «cate sau ee 2 ee NO isc hac Aha GNG ce ely 0s eA ca eee a 1 40-44 months....... Se) Sere: Rare eee) 1 Read table: Of the pupils in Group A, none made lower scores in June than in January; 2 made the same scores; 10 made gains of less than 5 months; 3 made gains of 5 to 9 months; and 1 made a gain of 10 to 14 months. Similarly read figures for other reading groups. “ Grades 3 to 8 Series. Eight children who worked in their own grade rooms preferred to have all children stay at home and not “run around.” One child longed for a certain teacher in reading. Gains in test scores—Early in June we gave the Gates test again, using, of course, a different form from the one used in January. The scores were compared with those of January, and the results were as shown in Table 3. This table does not include all of the pupils who had been tested in January (shown in Table 1) because a number of them had left during the term and were not present to take the final test. These results were not very encouraging. The median gain was just five months. We had hoped for more. However, a closer analysis proved most interesting. The poorer readers had made the greater gains.-: This was doubtless due largely to the fact that teacher, child, and parent were all working on reading with a more definite purpose than before. The children whose June scores were the same as in January, or lower, seemed to have been confused by not being with their own grade teachers. The majority of these were accelerated. Believing it would be helpful, we analyzed the gain made by each group on each of the four parts of the Gates test. The results are given in Table 4. It would be very unfair to criticize any of the teachers on the basis of these results. Some groups were composed of children of relatively 538 ELEMENTARY ScHOOL PRINCIPALS TABLE 4—Mepian Garn 1n Montus or Eacu Reapina Group on Eacu Parr op THE Gates Sitent Reapine Tests * Test A: Test B: Test C: Test D: APPRECIATION Asitity To Asiity To ABILITY READING OF PREDICT UNDERSTAND To Groups GENERAL OvuTcoME PRECISE Nore SIGNIFICANCE or Events DIRECTIONS Derai.s (1) (2) (3) (4) 6 | A 2 1 5 6 B 3 2 3 5 ' C 5 8 7 8 ew Wk. ko alge eile Bee acme 10 3 E 10 5 20 7 EE epee eee! Mer een: 5 7 G oe. 0) ee ee ates 17 12 H RR eA PE oe OE ees ee Pa ee I 15 5 16 12 Read table: Reading Group A made a median gain of 2 months on Test A; of 1 month on Test B; of 5 months on Test C; and of 6 months on Test D. Similarly read figures for the other reading groups. « Grades 3 to 8 Series. low I. Q. and poor reading ability, so their progress could not be ex- pected to be normal in any type of work. Other groups were definitely weak in certain aspects of reading, and these aspects were stressed in preference to those in which the children were stronger. However, from these results the teachers were able to evaluate their own work, and to plan for the correction of weaknesses in their teaching procedures. Appraisal of the plan—Two questions naturally come to mind when one considers this term’s work: First, was the plan of grouping worth- while to our school? Second, would we advise others to try it? To the first question the writer would answer “yes,” without qualifica- tions. The plan helped our weaker readers, and it definitely helped our teachers. It did reduce somewhat the wide range of reading ability in each grade. Equally good results might have been obtained from the conscientious and wise use of any other good reading scheme, but the writer knows of none that would have insured greater gain. As to the second question, we would not recommend this plan as a general school policy, for it can be carried out only at certain costs: (1) the teacher who best knows the child may not have the opportunity of teaching him in the vital subject of reading; (2) the plan seriously interferes with the correlation of work in the upper grades; and (3) the necessity for a set and limited time for reading instruction greatly in- terferes with the elastic program of the modern school. However, we believe that any school could profit in many ways, as we did, from a term of homogeneous grouping in reading carried on with the coopera- tion of the teaching staff. —— re a Se — -> .»s = F&F we we on 2 TT — EE ORGANIZATION OF READING CLASSES 539 ADAPTING READING INSTRUCTION TO DIFFERENT ABILITY LEVELS Cora M. Martin Associate Professor of Elementary Education, University of Texas, Austin, Texas and Gotpa Muuiuins RocHErort Sirth-Grade Teacher, Demonstration School, Stephen F. Austin State Teachers College, Nacogdoches, Texas of varying ages and abilities in the Stephen F. Austin State Teach- ers College Demonstration School was faced with the problem of planning a program of reading which would meet the individual needs of her pupils. As a first step, measurements of the reading abilities of the forty-two children were made by means of the Gates Silent Reading Tests,' and an index to the learning capacity of each child was ob- tained from the Otis Self-Administering Tests of Mental Ability.* The scores obtained from the reading tests were used as a basis for grouping the pupils for instruction in reading. The resulting groups were flexible, however, so that a pupil might pass from one group to another as need developed. Group I was originally made up of all pupils who scored above seventh-grade reading ability; Group II, of pupils who scored from sixth- to seventh-grade reading ability; and Group III, of pupils who scored below sixth-grade reading ability. The scores obtained from the Otis intelligence test showed that all but one of the children originally placed in Group I had I.Q.’s of 110 or higher; that all but three children in Group IT had 1.Q.’s above 90 but below 110; and that all but three children in Group III had I.Q.’s be- low 90. As a guide to teaching objectives for the different groups, a list was made of the reading objectives given by leading authorities in the field, and grade placement of each objective was made on the basis of the suggestions given in the Report of the National Committee on Reading.® In accordance with these objectives, the following programs of read- ing instruction were developed to meet the needs of each group. T: TEACHER Of a reading class of sixth- and seventh-grade pupils 1Grades III to VIII Series, Form 1. Published by the Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, New York. “Intermediate Examination, Form A. Published by the World Book Co., Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York. *Twenty-Fourth Yearbook, Part I, of the National Society for the Study of Education. Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Co., 1925. 540 ELEMENTARY ScHOOL PRINCIPALS PROGRAM FOR Group I The pupils in Group I, whose grade-scores in reading were above 7.0, were permitted to work more or less independently. The group met twice a week for instruction and guidance. Since literature was a part of the English course of study, no provision was made for this phase of reading. Most of the group meetings, however, were held in the chil- dren’s division of the college library because of the large amount of reference work in the program. Objectives—The specific objectives of this program were those ree- ommended by McKee‘ for the upper grades of the elementary school, as follows: 1. The ability to locate material quickly and accurately, which includes: a. The ability to use a table of contents b. The ability to use an index c. The ability to use a dictionary d. The ability to locate information in a file quickly and easily when classified alphabetically e. The ability to use reference material f. The ability to use maps, graphs, and tables g. The ability to skim. 2. The ability to select and evaluate material needed. 3. The ability to organize what is read, which includes: a. The knowledge of the use of an outline b. The ability to select main topics c. The ability to arrange main topics in outline form d. The ability to use an outline. A typical unit of work—The unit of work outlined below illustrates the procedures used in teaching Group I. This particular unit deals with the use of the index. 1. Material: Copies of a book containing factual material and a good index (Dodge-Lackey, The Advanced Geography *) 2. Procedure: The pupils were asked to find the location of the corn belt in the United States. The children who did not know how to use an index began to turn the pages of the book in an effort to find the required information. As the need for guidance was felt, the value of the index in locating information was seen. Exercises such as the following were then given: a. After each of the following words the children were asked to write the number of the page in the index on which they found something about the word: wheat petroleum cotton coal irrigation commerce b. To test the validity of the information found in the index, the chil- dren checked each reference by turning to the actual page in the “McKee, Paul G. Reading and Literature in the Elementary School. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1934. p. 329-78. 5 Dodge, R. E., and Lackey, E. E. Advanced Geography. 2d ed. Chicago: Rand McNally Co. Ke i tase A seve incl of i met situ in 4 the clas rate 0 gro as f uo, Whe + | ey | te | ee | Ce % € A prov test they clus stat 6G graph ee ORGANIZATION OF READING CLASSES 541 book on which the index indicated it would be found, and reading the paragraph or topic heading. To show the value of the subtopic arrangement found in the index, c. the children were asked to place after each of the following items the number of the pages on which the index indicated that material on the subject might be found: “nemies of cotton Dry-farming Foreign commerce Production of cotton in Texas The arrangement of subtopics under the main topics was noted also. d. In locating material one must be able to recognize the proper word to use as a main topic. To develop this ability, the children were given a series of questions and directed to underline the words which they would use in locating the information asked for in the questions. They were told to use their books to check their choices. ProGRAM FOR Group II As stated above, Group II consisted of those pupils of the sixth and seventh grades whose grade-scores in reading ranged from 6.0 to 6.9, inclusive. The activities for this group were planned with the objectives of independence and efficiency in reading as ultimate goals. The pupils met for a period of forty minutes three times a week. Specific learning situations were systematically provided thru which they might develop in all phases of silent reading. The instruction consisted of lessons in the form of work sheets. At the introduction of each type of activity, class instruction was given, after which each pupil worked at his own rate. The lesson sheets were checked as they were completed. Objectives—The chief aims of the instructional program for this group were taken from those set up by Gray in an experimental study,° as follows: 1. To provide purposeful reading activities 2. To extend and enrich the experiences of the children 3. To stimulate habits of good thinking and clear interpretation while reading 4. To develop study habits that are common to various school activities 5. To arouse strong motives for, and permanent interest in, independent thinking 6. To provide for the development of the attitudes and the habits that are essential in various types of reading. A typical lesson—The lesson outlined below illustrates the general procedure followed in the program for Group IT. According to the Gates test, the pupils of this group were able to draw general conclusions, but they were not able to locate definite material on which to base con- clusions. Hence, this lesson was chiefly concerned with reading to verify statements. SGray, William S. Improving Instruction in Reading. Supplementary Educational Mono- graphs, No. 40. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1933. p. 45. 542 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 1. Materials: a. Selection, “Wild Life on the Amazon,” Bolenius Sixth Reader, ~. 205-19 b. Test sheet. 2. Method of procedure: a. Introduction (1) Reference to the study of the Amazon River in geography (2) Vocabulary preparation (3) Distribution of directions and test sheets. b. The lesson proper (1) Reading silently and finding proofs for statements (with teacher giving needed help to individuals) (2) Checking the papers and reading the proofs orally (3) Discussion. CONTENTS OF TEST SHEET Directions: Number a sheet of paper from 1 thru 10. Read the selection, “Wild Life on the Amazon,” Bolenius Sixth Reader." Prove or disprove the following statements by writing after the number on your paper, which corresponds to the number of the statement on this sheet, the paragraph number and the line number of the sentences which will prove or dis- prove the statement. Statements: 1. I kept an accurate diary of our daily experiences. 2. There was no necessity for Wilfred or me to carry arms. 3. The armadillo had the appearance of a rat in armor. 4. If no disturbance was made the creature would continue its ordinary way of living. 5. Among the animals in the jungle, violence seemed to rule. 6. Along the shore we found the curious tree dwellers. 7. Wilfred was successful in the use of his camera. 8. We found that there was no difference between the animals in the jungle and the same animals in captivity. 9. To the porcupine we looked as curious as he looked to us. 10. Wilfred and I went on the explorations to satisfy our curiosity. PROGRAM FOR GrovuP III The reading grade-scores of the children in Group III ranged from 3.0 to 5.3, and the intelligence quotients indicated that, with the ex- ception of three children, they could not be expected to progress at a normal rate. An analysis of the reading scores revealed the following outstanding deficiencies: (1) inability to interpret simple passages, (2) habit of working at a low level of attention, and (3) lack of interest. General procedures—This group met for a period of forty minutes three times a week. The materials selected for use were of a factual nature and of third- and fourth-grade levels, increasing in difficulty as the children’s achievement increased. At the end of each two weeks a test was given, consisting of directions to follow, a story to be read, 7 Bolenius, Emma M. Fourth-Sicth Readers. Sixth Reader. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1929. se its ing do Me Uni Joh ORGANIZATION OF READING CLASSES 543 and comprehension questions to answer. Progress charts of comprehen- sion and speed were kept, showing the progress of individual pupils and of the class as a whole. Exercises were planned to facilitate recognition of new words. Com- bination dictionary and phonetic drills aided in finding letter combina- tions in words, in distinguishing initial and final sounds, and in ar- ranging words alphabetically. Practise was given in attacking unknown words by analysis, relation to context, or substitution. Other exercises included reading for details, interpreting the central thought, finding the total meaning, and following directions. To secure interest in and careful preparation of each assignment, the six steps suggested by Zirbes and repeated by Sultzer * were followed: 1. Arouse interest by utilizing some point of contact on the basis of which the selection was chosen. 2. Stimulate the recall of related experiences. 3. Introduce unusual proper names and expressions by using them informally in brief preliminary discussions. 4. Set up a motive for reading. 5. Provide cues or suggestions by which the selection can be located. 6. Lead to appreciation of illustrations. A typical exercise—The following brief outline of a lesson in voeabu- lary illustrates the methods and materials used: 1. Materials: a. The selection, “Why the Butterfly’s Wings Are Painted” ® b. A dictionary. 2. Major objective: To develop the ability to find the meaning of a word from its use in the sentence. 3. Introductory remarks by teacher: When you are reading and come to a word which you do not know, how do you try to find what it is and what it means? Did you ever try to tell the mean- ing of a word from its use in the sentence? Today we shall try to learn how to do this. 4. Procedure: a. The children were told to read the story and to put a check by each of the following words when they came to it: exquisite affection filmy garland b. To develop the meanings of words, such questions as the following were asked : (1) In what sentence was the word exquisite found? From reading the sentence, what do you think the word means? 8Sultzer, Mary F. What Gains Will Children Make in Reading When Specific Remedial Measures Are Applied Over a Limited Period? Master’s thesis. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University, 1929. * Lewis, William D., and Rowland, Albert L. The Silent Readers. Grade V. 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(3) In what sentence did you find the word affection? In reading this sentence, what word could you substitute for affection? (4) In what sentence did you find the word garland? What were the maidens told to weave? c. To check the meanings of the words, directions and questions like the following were used: (1) In your dictionary find the word exquisite. What does it mean? (2) Which of these meanings could you use in the sentence? d. The children were asked to write the sentences, substituting the words that had been chosen from the definitions found in the dictionary. Some of these lessons were based upon selections taken from third readers, some from fourth readers, some from McKee’s Reading and Literature in the Elementary Grades,'® and some from original informa- tional material composed by the teacher. THE MEASUREMENT OF ACCOMPLISHMENT In April, after the six-month period of intensive work, the Gates Silent Reading Tests, Form 2, were used to measure the relative achieve- ments of the individuals and the groups, thereby shedding light on the effectiveness of the instructional programs. Some of the results are given in Table 1. A comparison of the general reading scores made by all groups in October and in April showed that: 1. In reading age, in October, 7 pupils were standard, 15 were above, and 20 were below standard; in April, 8 pupils were standard, 22 were above, and 12 were below standard. 2. In reading grade, in October, 5 pupils were standard, 18 were above, and 19 were below standard; in April, 3 pupils were standard, 20 were above, and 19 were below standard. 3. The 12 pupils who were below standard in reading age in April had made gains of from 0.1 to 5.1; the 19 pupils who were below standard in reading grade in April had made gains of from 0.3 to 3.3. 4. Thirty-six of the 42 pupils made significant gains, indicating that the pro- grams of instruction were effective means of improving reading abilities. 5. Two pupils with intelligence quotients high enough to give expectation of increased reading ability showed a decrease in scores. This may suggest that group instruction is not always effective. 6. Three pupils in the remedial group (Group III) failed to increase their read- ing scores as expected. This indicates that either a complete diagnosis of their disabilities was not made or that the remedial instruction was not adequate. The objective results obtained from this experiment, together with the noteworthy improvement in attitudes and the intensification of in- terest observed in the pupils, lead to the conclusion that specifically- planned exercises based upon the reading abilities of pupils are con- ducive to improvement in reading. ” McKee, Paul G., op. cit. 546 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS ORGANIZING INSTRUCTION WITH THE HELP OF A READING SPECIALIST EpMuND M. ForsytTHeE Principal, Abraham Lincoln School, Port Chester, New York N THE FALL OF 1936 the staff of the Abraham Lincoln School under.) took a systematic program to improve the children’s reading, \P reading improvement center was established in the school under thy direction of Dr. Anna Cordts, well-known specialist in reading an( phonies. This project has awakened a new interest in reading amon) both teachers and pupils, and has led to the plan of pupil grouping no) used in Grades IA thru VIIB. Plan of organization—The first step in establishing the program wa) to determine as accurately as possible each child’s ability in vocabulary recognition and reading comprehension. For this purpose the Pressey Diagnostic Reading Test! was given in Grades III to VII, inclusive The results of this test, when checked against the teacher’s estimatf in each case, served as a basis for grouping the children according te their reading needs and abilities. It was found that the children in Grades IIIB thru VA fell roughly into six groups representing different levels of reading ability. Each of these groups was then assigned to if teacher whose aptitudes and interests seemed especially well suited t working with children at that particular reading level. The reading groups met twice a day for a half hour each time, anil all were taught at the same time. By this method of grouping, each! 1 ia, alia ad iad child went to the particular room where the skills and reading expe-/ riences he needed were being emphasized. The teacher adapted herf teaching to the children’s level of reading ability and to their individual) reading needs. Whereas under the old plan these children had received) only a half hour of reading instruction each day, they now enjoyed af full hour of intensive instruction. Moreover, under the old plan each) teacher had spent a half hour each with three different groups in her grade, thereby giving an hour and a half to reading in her room each day. Now, by devoting only one hour to reading in her room unde the new plan, each teacher saved a half hour daily altho each child received twice as much instruction as he had received before. Group 1—This class was composed of the best children in reading from” Grades IIIB to IVB, inclusive. These children were given a rich, varied fl and challenging program of reading activities. They read materials from} as ie oT eee 1 Vocabulary and Paragraph Meaning, Grades 3 to 9, Form A. Published by the Public School | Publishing Co., Bloomington, Illinois. le pl T th re al of be inder. ng. 4 er the y and mon Z now Was ie ulary €88ey sive © imate en in erent 608k ed tol , and each »xpe- | her idual ived B ed a each | her each nder hild® frome ried, rom school & ng to i ORGANIZATION OF READING CLASSES 547 as many different sources as the school could provide, covering as wide a field of interests as possible. The teaching technics for this bright group were all adapted to the highest levels of attainment. The procedures dif- fered as widely from those employed in teaching the low-average and low-ability groups as quadratic equations in algebra differ from simple arithmetic. Group 2—This group was composed of children of average ability from Grades IIIB to IVB. All had responded fairly well to modern meth- ods of learning to read, but had not gained sufficient mastery over the mechanics of reading either to enjoy it or to gain much experience from reading. Their first job was to develop a richer speaking vocabulary, improve their language ability, and enrich their experiences as a back- ground for interpreting symbols on the printed page. They needed to learn to act, think, and talk more clearly, more freely, and more intelli- gently before they could make any substantial gain in their reading ability. They were further retarded in their reading by their inability to attack new words. Finally, they needed to learn how to use their read- ing skill in discovering new fields of interest and information, and in further broadening their experiences. Group 3—This group contained twenty-three children from Grades IIIB to IVB who had not yet learned to read. These children were so badly in need of phonics to help them get on their feet in reading that their class was known as the “phonic group” in the school. Conse- quently, phonics was stressed both as a prophylactic and as a remedial measure. In addition, two children in Grade IIB had such persistent re- versal tendencies and difficulty in establishing left-to-right eye move- ments, and gave so little hope of learning to read by analytic methods, that they also were included in the phonic reading group. When this group was organized, four of the children from Grade IIIB could not recognize a single word on the printed page or on the blackboard, and twelve of them did not have even pre-primer reading ability. At the end of the year these children had so thoroly mastered the mechanics of reading that they could read with pleasure and understanding in pre- primers, primers, and books of first- and even second-reader difficulty. The satisfaction—the intense joy—with which these children embraced their reading, and the confidence with which they attacked each new reading experience, were an inspiration to everyone who visited the room. Group 4—This group consisted of children of above-average reading ability in Grades IVA to VA. These children had gained a fair mastery of the mechanics of reading, but did not know how to use their text- books effectively. Their chief neéd was to learn to get thought from the 548 ELEMENTARY ScHOOL PRINCIPALS — printed page; to pick out the main points of information pertinent to their work in social studies and natural science; to evaluate or appraise items of information; to distinguish between main points and supporting detail; and to organize these data and provide for effective remem- brance. Their reading program, then, centered around silent reading ex- periences for the purpose of learning how to study. Groups 5 and 6—Both of these groups consisted of children in Grades IVA to VA, one being a low-average and the other an average group. The latter began with a reading program similar to that of Group 4, since the children’s needs were quite like those of Group 4. However, the children in the average group had more speech difficulties to overcome: hence their program put greater emphasis on speech drills and on con- versational or language experiences. The low-average pupils, on the other hand, required greater emphasis on phonics at the beginning of the year. The phonic exercises grew out of, and led directly into, the children’s reading experiences. These exercises served as a test not only of the pupil’s ability to identify a new word or expression, but of his ability to understand its meaning as well. Supervision—Dr. Cordts worked out with each teacher the particular program of instruction for her group. She also worked once a week with the teacher in the classroom. At this time she demonstrated procedures with the children, and upon the teacher’s invitation she critically ob- served the teacher’s work and made suggestions for further improve- ment. At the close of the school day, Dr. Cordts met all the teachers as a group, discussed their problems, efforts, and successes, and exchanged ideas with them. She also demonstrated with children, and worked out with them and their teachers the next steps to be accomplished. This after-school period with the teachers was, in effect, an in-service teacher- training course, but without college or university credit. Because we were not limited by university requirements for accredited courses, we were perfectly free to meet the instructional needs of our school. This was a real advantage in carrying out the new reading program. Place of the library—An essential part of the new plan is the school library, which was organized in the spring of 1937 under the leadership of the seventh-grade teacher, Miss Mary A. Kelly. To provide a place for the library, an unused teacher’s room was furnished with shelves along two sides. The necessary chairs, tables, and other equipment were donated by the parent-teacher association. Each teacher sent to the school library all books from her classroom library which were not being used by the class at the time. These books were classified accord- ing ca ho du gel no bo pu chi an ser ha for rea eX] hig ce Sor qui use pa toc the sul ing liv ba cec oth ces uw ORGANIZATION OF READING CLASSES 549 ing to the Dewey Decimal System. Book pockets, date-due slips, and ecards were placed in each book. The seventh-grade children have charge of the library room for half- hour periods from 10 a.m. to 4 p.m. daily. The library is in constant use during these hours by children from the third to the seventh grade for general reading and reference work. From 3 o’clock on Thursday after- noon to 9 o’clock on Monday morning, the children are free to take books from the library for home reading. On the average, thirty-five pupils have visited the library daily, and fifty books have been bor- rowed for home reading each week-end. Thus, thru the library each child is given opportunity for wider reading and for acquiring richer and more varied experiences. Tentative conclusions—While we have perhaps done little more than scratch the surface during the first two years of our experiment, we have reached several tentative conclusions which will serve as a basis for our program during the coming year. These are as follows: 1. One important way to reduce the number of remedial cases in reading is to do better first teaching. Many of the reading difficulties experienced by children in the intermediate and upper grades and in high school could have been prevented by more suitable teaching pro- cedures. 2. Not all children respond to analytical methods of learning to read. Some learn more easily by a synthetic approach, and still others re- quire highly specialized procedures. Whatever ways and means are used, it is essential that the teaching be (a) suited to the youngster’s particular nature and needs, (b) highly individualized, and (c) thoro. Much of what is done in the name of teaching is altogether too casual, too slipshod, and too general. Too much of our teaching stops short of the pupils’ having learned what they set out to learn. 3. Reading is not, as we have often been told, the most important subject which the school has to teach. It is not a subject at all. Read- ing is thinking, feeling, understanding, and experiencing. It is vicarious living thru the symbols on the printed page. It grows out of and goes back into all the pupil’s activities during the entire school day. 4. Attitudes often play a more important part than methods of pro- cedure in learning to read. 5. Awareness of one’s successful performance in reading, as in all other skills, is perhaps the greatest incentive to further effort and suc- cess. Well-deserved praise is essential to further achievement. 6. “Hearing the reading lesson” is not teaching children to read. 550 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 7. Many teachers who actually do little more than “hear the read. ing lesson” sincerely believe that they are teaching children to read, and that they are doing the best they can. 8. It is too much to expect that any teacher will become expert at once in teaching all types of reading skills and abilities, or in teaching children of all levels and capacities—those of English speaking and foreign parentage; the interested, the indifferent, and the disinterested: and those of unstable as well as those of stable personalities. “This one thing I do,” is the most useful motto to follow. 9. Teaching technics are too often adapted to the so-called “average” pupils. As a result, the teaching is over the heads of those who are below average, while it offers little or no challenge to the bright pupils. 10. When every teacher really learns how to teach children to read, we can expect substantial improvement in the reading in our schools— but not before. Summary—Our chief aim in this newer program is to help every teacher in the school to become a successful teacher of reading. While we are interested in providing whatever remedial measures are neces- sary, our principal hope lies in better first teaching all thru the grades. The most important job of an administrator is to improve the in- struction in his school. This we are trying to do without any added expense to the school, without additional equipment, and without any change in the teaching personnel or any addition to the teaching staff. It is being done thru a practical set-up for in-service teacher training directed by a reading specialist within the school itself, and thru a more flexible and effective plan of class organization. This plan has two dis- tinct advantages: (1) it provides longer periods and more intensive instruction in reading, thus enabling the teacher to become skilled in the various technics and experiences in reading one at a time; and (2) it permits each teacher to specialize—that is, to concentrate for an entire semester on one particular type of reading instruction at one general level of pupil ability. For example, because of her intensive experience with speech sounds, the teacher of the phonic group is able today to hear speech sounds irrespective of the letters which represent them. Altho she had been teaching children for the last three or four years, it was not until re- cently that she discovered the amazing fact that over half the children in her room were substituting the sound of d for the voiced th in the words mother, father, and brother. She is now able for the first time to correct the children’s substitution of ‘“mudder” for mother and of ‘axed’ for asked, as well as their use of the voiceless for the voiced sound of th di co Wl we al: th inj eq ORGANIZATION OF READING CLASSES 551 in such a word as with. One day a pupil in her class demonstrated the | difference between the final consonant sound in comin’ and that in coming. His explanation would have been a revelation to many teachers who still erroneously caution their pupils not to leave off the g in such words as coming, going, and doing. In conclusion, the writer would advise every principal who has not already done so, to organize reading groups in his school in such a way e | that each teacher will be able to concentrate on one type of reading ' skill or experience until she has mastered the art of teaching it. Read- ing is too complicated an experience for all but the expert to handle y § equally well in all its varied phases. F y eT : :. — regardless of method, it is comparatively easy to get . | good and even spectacular results with the more capable -&- children. To obtain permanently desirable results from teach- d § ing slower children is a more difficult problem. More time for . i practice and a different approach characterize successful work 7 with slower learners. When evidence from pupil study indicates oF relatively less learning ability to be the most important factor ie in the child’s problem, the remedy comes not through making x the child exert himself more to achieve the equally good record . of the faster learner, but through the adjustment of the school * requirements to the speed of the learner, permitting him neces- ) Fi sary time for learning.—Hildreth, Gertrude, Learning the ‘i Three R’s, Educational Publishers, Inc., 1936, p. 360. (Quoted Me by permission of the publishers. ) s, ds n e- In ds ct or 552 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS i PROVIDING A BETTER CONTINUITY OF EXPERIENCE Fop PRIMARY CHILDREN JENNIE WAHLERT Principal, Jackson School, St. Louis, Missouri N ALL SIDES we hear complaints about the excessive amount of retardation in the primary grades, especially in the first grade: about the length of time required by some children to learn to read; and about the immaturity of many children on entering the first grade. Such complaints, altho often justified, must lead to constructive action if the situation is to be improved. We need first to inquire why such conditions exist, and then consider carefully what can be done about them. To many people, retardation and repetition in the primary grades mean that children are not getting on as they should in learning to read. That is, a given child is not able to read primers by the end of his first half year in school, first readers by the end of a full year, or second readers by the end of the second year. Consequently, there is a’ “going over” process which continues until a prescribed standard is reached. In determining progress or the lack of it, reading has been the measuring stick, and nothing else has really counted. Is this a wise procedure? Should reading be the chief business of the primary child, or should it occupy only a small part of his school day? If the former principle is followed, frustration and failure will be the lot of many pupils. If the latter principle is accepted, there is opportunity for the continuous growth of each child from his own present level of develop- ment, and hence there is no retardation in terms of his achievement in reading. Our choice between these two principles will determine the objectives toward which we strive, the things we do with children, and the standards we use in measuring their progress. The problem illustrated—Since each school, each classroom, and eacli child is unique, no single curriculum can be successfully superimposed— no set of prescriptions given out to be used uniformly for all. There are, however, certain elements common to all situations, and certain general principles that may be universally applied with such modifica- tions as are necessary to meet the peculiar needs of a particular school, classroom, or child. With these points in mind, let us consider a specific group of pupils entering the first grade—a group of Italian and Polish children having an underprivileged economic background and living in a crowded section of a large city. The parents of these pupils are interested in their children’s welfare, and practically all of them co- ti ORGANIZATION OF READING CLASSES 553 operate with the school. When given the Binet intelligence test,’ most of the children score ‘dull normal” or lower, but we know that this is not a fair measure because a language other than English is spoken in nearly every home. However, because of their parents’ lack of eco- nomic resources, the children have had few opportunities to enrich their experiences—to build concepts of many things which they will encounter in reading. They have few materials at home with which to create; their play materials are entirely too meager. These children—-forty-five in number—have been in the kindergar- ten for one year. There they have been learning to live by playing and working together, and by using materials and equipment which call forth imagination, ingenuity, language expression, and cooperation. At approximately the age of six years, they are in various stages of readi- ness for the usual type of first-grade work. Plan of organization—However, we have been so favorably im- pressed by the kind of living that has been going on in the kinder- garten, that we wish the children to continue it in the primary grades. We have seen desirable changes in their ability to get along together, in their feeling of security with people, and in their use of materials. They have been learning much thru rich and varied experiences, grad- ually enlarging their understanding of the world about them, and developing as they should physically. All this has come about, we think, because the children have been given time to develop, and because they have had competent, understanding guidance from the beginning. There- fore, we plan to give them adequate time and continuous guidance dur- ing the next phase of their school careers. ‘In carrying out this principle, the ideal procedure might be to have the kindergarten teacher continue with these same children thruout their stay in the primary grades. In our school, however, this is not feasible; so we compromise and have a primary teacher who has been working closely with the kindergarten teacher carry on with these chil- dren during the next two years. Place of reading in the program—Tradition has it that in the first grade children begin formal reading and devote a large share of their time to it. We believe, on the contrary, that reading should be only a minor part of the school life of young children. Therefore, at no time during the first two primary years does the teacher teach reading as such. Instead, she concentrates on living with the children and on devel- oping their readiness for reading. Only when a child shows interest in getting meaning from printed symbols is he given reading as a tool ' Stanford Revision of the Binet-Simon Scale, published by Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 554 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS with which to work. When this occurs, he is in a position to obtaiy e the satisfaction from reading which is essential to success in mastering the process. At any given time, of course, the children will represent varioys stages of maturity and various levels of reading ability. Consequently, there must be available reading materials which vary sufficiently jy content and difficulty to challenge and satisfy the interests of all, At no time does the teacher or pupil feel the pressure of a certain number of words to be learned or pages to be read in a given time. Thus, the children can develop normally because the teacher has time to liye with them, and to study them as individuals. In the long run they ae. complish more under this plan than under the old system. For example, of a group which recently completed such a two-year period under the same teacher, all were keenly interested, wanted to read, and were able to read understandingly. Seven of these pupils could read third-grade material; twenty could read second-grade material fluently; twenty could read second-grade material fairly well; and five could read first- grade material. Opportunities to develop reading readiness—But let us return to the pupils who are just entering this two-year period. What opportunities will they need if they are to bring intelligent understanding to the printed page? A language handicap such as theirs cannot be overcome in one year; neither can all the concepts necessary for intelligent inter- pretation of printed material be developed in that time. The teacher must, however, give these children the richest and most varied expe- riences possible. They must have experiences for building concepts and | experiences that demand language—language that comes from freedom | in being with other children and in working or playing at something very interesting. They need a playhouse corner, with toys, tables, or shelves containing creative materials, story books, puzzles, games, and many beautiful pictures full of meaning. There should be interesting specimens of science—living things for the children to examine in an environment which changes to meet their own changing interests and needs—things which arouse their curiosity, challenge them to investi- gate, and stimulate them to talk. All of these needs we are trying to | meet to the best of our ability. In addition, many stories and poems are read to the children, and they are given many opportunities to tell of their own experiences and in- terests. Many bits of creative language are written down by the teacher, while the children observe that their own statements are represented by those queer marks which the teacher is making. All of the beginning reé grt art wh to str on TI au un ins dr: thi un th m ta Tl Wi of né ak ORGANIZATION OF READING CLASSES 555 FRE soci technic reading deals with the interests and experiences of the child or the group. Thus, reading is always a joyful, meaningful activity. Many excursions are taken to neighborhood shops when purchases are needed for parties or for the making of candy, jello, or cookies, or when something is needed to complete an activity. Trips are taken also to watch the wrecking of a building, the making of a street, the con- struction of a house, or the erection of a new flagpole. The children go on the bus to the zoo, to the art gallery, and to the large city park. They enjoy the experience of rolling down hills, or trudging thru autumn leaves, or observing the signs of spring, or eating a picnic lunch under some big trees. They develop and clarify ideas also thru sing- ing songs, playing games, dancing or listening to music, dramatizing, drawing, painting, and modelling. Accompanying all of these activities there is much spontaneous talking. At no time, however, is an activity undertaken primarily in order that the children may read about it later. Reading may result, but the chief purpose is the enlarging and enriching of the children’s experience. Assistance from the library—The cooperation of the children’s li- brarians at a branch library nearby does much to further the reading interests begun at school. Every two weeks the children leave the school to spend an hour in this charming atmosphere, where books of all kinds await them. Both here and at school, care is exercised to offer a balanced program of book reading, including not only material about the running and playing of Tom, Dick, or Harry, but also the delightfully written and well-illustrated stories—both old and new—that are every child’s birthright. At the library, the librarians as well as the teacher are ready to help each child meet his reading needs. The value of this service is apparent in the fact that of the children who have recently completed the two-year primary period, thirty have library cards and are in- creasingly regular patrons of the library. Advantages of the two-year plan—We have no scientific data to prove the advantages of this lengthened period under one teacher. We have many evidences, however, that growth in all its phases—physical, men- tal, manipulative, social, and emotional—is continuous for each child. There is no sense of failure, no comparison of one child’s achievements with those of other children, and no feeling of pressure due to the fear of non-promotion or of low grades on report cards. Altho this is ordi- narily a period of great stress for the child, under the new plan he is able to develop and maintain a feeling of security by belonging to a group and contributing to its welfare over a longer period of time. 556 ELEMENTARY ScHOOL PRINCIPALS sc Under this arrangement many interesting things happen to a child o; to the group as a whole which would not occur under a more restricted type of living. For example, there is the opportunity to observe a com- plete cycle of the seasons—to note the planting, growing, and maturing of plants in the garden. Such experiences are possible only when children are allowed to pursue an interest or activity for an indefinite period of time. In our school, the children’s interest in a project determines the amount of time devoted to it. There is no schedule whereby an activity must be completed in a given number of days or weeks. In short, the most important factor in providing a rich, abundant life for children, as we see it, is time—time for each child to grow ae- cording to his own needs and at his own rate. This requires the under- standing guidance of an alert teacher, and an administrative set-up which permits her to feel secure and unhurried. The need for these things presents a challenge to every conscientious school administrator, HE POINT of view of the writer is that most reading diffi- culties could be prevented by increasing the entrance age for the first grade, by revising the first-grade program of in- struction, by providing a greater quantity of primary-reading material with varied content, by grouping children in terms of general readiness for a given reading program, by beginning instruction with the learner’s interest, and by the correction of physical defects. The emphasis in the reading program should be on prevention rather than on correction Betts, Emmett A., The Prevention and Correction of Reading Difficulties, Row, Peterson and Co., 1936, p. 9. (Quoted by permission of the publishers. ) cep ins' as | are gen tha val this wic If ¢ wil. oth ma, 4 of : mo: The 105 wit sho ter tict F aliz abi wal stal be | diff mos and T rea qo on x ORGANIZATION OF READING CLASSES A PLAN FOR INDIVIDUAL READING IN THE INTERMEDIATE GRADES Ray B. DEAN Principal, David Lubin School, Sacramento, California URING THE PAST FIFTEEN YEARS great progress has been made in the teaching of primary reading. In contrast to our use of effective methods in the primary grades, we have been very tardy in ac- cepting in the intermediate grades equally effective technics of reading instruction. The purpose of this article is to set forth, as concretely as possible in brief form, the manner in which the Sacramento schools are meeting the problems of reading in the intermediate grades. The general plan and specific procedures used are based on the conviction that individual instruction is necessary if the teacher is to meet the varying needs of her pupils in reading. Fortunately, instruction in this field lends itself readily to a high degree of individualization. Need for individual instruction—Any good reading test will disclose wide individual differences in reading ability within any school grade. If a test is administered to a fifth-grade class, for example, some pupils will be found who cannot read effectively above the third-grade level; others will have sixth- or seventh-grade reading ability; while the majority of the class will be distributed between these two extremes. The evidence presented in Table 1, which contains the reading scores of a fifth-grade class in Sacramento, is typical of that to be found in most classrooms. In this particular class there were thirty-six children. Their intelligence quotients ranged from 88 to 120, with a median of 105. Their grade levels in reading ranged from low third to low seventh, with some children at every intervening level. Such a distribution shows clearly the necessity of introducing classroom methods and ma- terials which will enable teachers to help each child overcome his par- ticular difficulties. Procedures used to individualize reading—The first step in individu- alizing the teaching of reading is to determine each pupil’s reading ability in terms of a school grade level. Probably the most satisfactory way to do this in most schools is thru the use of one of the better standardized reading tests. If no such tests are available, the class can be graded roughly by having pupils read to the teacher from books of different known grade levels until the level is found that represents the most difficult reading each child can do with satisfactory comprehension and speed. The second step is to have each pupil read many books suited to his reading ability. One of the best arrangements for carrying out this step 558 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS TABLE 1—Disrrisution or Scores ror A Firru-Grape CLAss ON THE GrREENE-Noar Setr-Dr1aGNostic ReapinGc Test “* Raw READING NUMBER OF ScorEs GRADE LEVEL PupPIiLs (1) (2) (3) 171-192 VII 4 162-170 High VI 2 150-161 Low VI 6 136-149 High V 8 121-135 Low V 5 106-120 High IV 4 88-105 Low IV 5 64-87 High III 1 38-63 Low III 1 pe ee ee ee ry a 36 Read table: Of the 36 fifth-grade pupils, 4 made raw scores of 171 to 192, representing the seventh-grade level in reading; 2 made scores of 162 to 170, representing the high sixth-grade | level; ete. @ Published by D. C. Heath and Co., Boston. is to establish a school library. Such a library not only serves the pur- pose of giving pupils library instruction, but it also supplies the class- room teacher with a wide variety of books to be taken to her room for the individual reading program. By careful planning, the Sacra- mento schools have been able to build up an excellent library in each elementary school, the number of books varying according to the size of the school from about 1200 to 7000. This plan has supplied a suf- ficient number and variety of books to enable each teacher to individ- ualize her reading work in an effective manner.' It is not absolutely essential, however, to have a well-organized school library in order to individualize the teaching of reading. The principal's office, a storeroom, or any central place where teachers may go to select books which fit the abilities of the pupils in their classes will serve the purpose. Some school systems have solved the problem by arranging to borrow books from the city or county library. Neither is it necessary, in the writer’s judgment, to have specially selected library books in order to carry out the plan. The sets of readers now provided in most | schools for supplementary reading will, if properly distributed and used, supply fairly satisfactory material for individual reading. The difficulty with the ordinary reading textbook, from the standpoint of individual instruction, is that the material often lacks sustained interest and is not ‘For further discussion of school library facilities in Sacramento, see the article by O'Reilly in Chapter VIII.—Editorial Committee. Ce] | th hi pe ha a] sh all dir an > the reac stra ORGANIZATION OF READING CLASSES 559 always well suited to silent reading. In any event, it is necessary to have interesting books, both fiction and non-fiction, which represent a wide enough range of reading difficulty to meet the needs of the pupils to be served. A wide variety of ungraded books should gradually replace the large sets of supplementary readers which make up the reading materials of the traditional classroom. For effective use, the available books need to be graded according to their reading difficulty so that the teacher will be able to select suitable books readily. One of the easiest ways to accomplish this is thru the use of a good graded booklist. There are a number of such booklists available. The Sacramento graded booklist ? comprises over 1600 titles ranging from the kindergarten to the eighth-grade level, and has the advantage of being a composite of several of the best available lists. After providing a supply of books, the next step is to let each pupil choose any book he wishes to read, so long as it is approximately at the grade level of his reading ability. He should not be permitted to go much above or below his level in selecting the book because in reading, as in physical exercise, the best results are obtained when the exercise is neither too difficult nor too easy. Once the pupil has made his selec- tion, he should ordinarily read the book each day until he has com- pleted it. The point here is that a child should not, as a rule, spend his time merely skimming first one book and then another, but should learn to read purposefully. Occasionally, of course, a pupil will select a book that has no interest for him, and the teacher may find it advisable to let him make another selection.* Value of simple check-ups—Formerly a large part of the reading period was used by the teacher in questioning the children on what they had read, rather than in the actual teaching of reading. The truth is that a pupil engaged in reading an interesting book, day after day, is learning to read whether he is tested or not. It has been found that, on the aver- age, when a pupil has completed about fifteen books on his own grade level he will have raised his reading level to the next higher grade.‘ As soon as several pupils have read as many as fifteen books they should be retested, and any pupil whose score warrants it should be allowed to select his reading from the next higher level. Under the in- dividual plan of teaching reading, the words pass and fail cease to have any significance at the end of the semester so far as reading is concerned. A pupil passes from one reading level to the next whenever he achieves *Sacramento City Schools. Graded Book List for Elementary School Libraries. Sacramento: the Schools, January 1936. ’For various procedures and viewpoints in regard to the provision and use of adequate reading materials, see Chapters VII and VIIl.—Editorial Committee. *Washburne, Carleton W. ‘How to Fit Reading to Each Individual Child.’’ Individual In- struction 1: 2-7; December 1928. 560 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS is the ability to read on the next higher level. Not infrequently a child will raise his reading level by as much as two full grades within one school year. In order to guide children satisfactorily in their individual reading, some simple check-up is desirable. For most children it is sufficient to ask a few simple, oral questions of a general nature on the book just completed. In other instances, a simple, written check test is more desirable because of its convenience in administration. In Sacramento, thru the cooperative efforts of teachers, such tests have been developed for more than 300 different supplementary reading books. These are simple multiple-choice and completion tests which a pupil can pass with an 80 to 100 percent score if he has read the books with reasonable comprehension, but which he will fail on completely if he has not read the books. In all testing of silent reading it is important not to test children too minutely, or they are likely to slow down their reading unduly in order to try to remember everything in preparation for the test. The test given below, in which the correct answers are to be checked or underlined, is typical of the Sacramento book tests: BOOK TEST—GRADE IV Docas, the Indian Boy—Snedden * 1. The first part of the story tells about (a) an Indian village, (b) the mission, (c) a ranch, (d) a church. 2. Docas’ new skirt was made of (a) cloth, (b) deer skin, (c) grass, (d) bear skin. 3. The Indian got red earth to (a) build houses, (b) make dishes, (c) cover their bodies, (d) make a storehouse. 4. At the mission (a) each family cooked its own food, (b) all the food was cooked by the Fathers, (c) the men cooked the food, (d) all the food was cooked by a few women. 5. (a) Horses, (b) sheep, (c) men, (d) mules, tramped on the grain to thresh it. 6. When the trading ship came to Monterey. the Indians from the mission sold (a) baskets and bowls, (b) ox carts, (c) tiles and brick, (d) hides and tallow. 7. (a) Water, (b) soap, (c) grease, (d) oil, was put on the wheels Of the ox carts to keep them from squeaking. 8. Gathering up all the cattle in the spring was called (a) a ball, (b) a barbecue, (c) a rodeo, (d) a fandango. A typical class in individual reading—Perhaps the technics involved in teaching reading on an individual basis can be presented most clearly by reference to a specific classroom. The following paragraphs describe a typical fifth-grade reading class. 5 Snedden, Genevra S. Docas, the Indian Boy of Santa Clara. Boston: D. C. Heath and Co., 1899. cv ~~ aa a er. SS OO el Cae | eed ORGANIZATION OF READING CLASSES 561 ————— On a table at one end of the room are copies of the following books: Author Title Grade level NOTRE Si) « S3ktsa es og 3 SE rrr err rr. VI a eer PE CT ROOMS.) se Seite Si dioirase, 56 hake whe Beads VII iar a cdda nis niarcy Boys and Girls of Pioneer Days.............. V ee en en: WOU £ TOE MEMOS. 6.6 cccipcisiscb cdisoe bus dab-ca V ee rere How the Old World Found the New........... VI ON Ce re Yankee Ships and Yankee Sailors............ V Bernstein........... ee I FOB bo oka esa cnontvinaanves IV ae Sy PES HI 6 ok ve edesdiceksteundas VI Ce Seas rare The Little Mexican Donkey Boy.............. IV Carpenner....:.<25<.... Our Little Friends of Eskimo Land........... IV tO ee ee Animal Picture Tales from Russia........... IV Chamberlain........ dhe dull tS ee err ere nee V Clark.............. Clambing Twins and Other Stories... ........%5 IV GI a0 Glas 9 edie PCs n'a kb tnnathenitaitnn ake cna eaede V i a eee era Peter and Nancy in Europe................. VI COMERS 555 boa: Peter and Nancy in South America........... VI sone sican es The Museum Comes to Life..............0445: V De La Ramee....... BE A IM 65 oi0 bonne de avec nussneee V RIE a sinc cen < 3.o I © NW Oo a oni dv wane eeaceaes V IN a aac or3 hares ies Ee COO. bb i hewierie e III eee Sree A little Journey Through Alaska............ V Seer A Little Journey Through California.......... V ee ea Wonderful Adventures of Nils................ VI ene ee Lincoln, the Man of the People............... Vv Merchant........... Boys’ Stories from Dickens...............+4. Vv Sa FONe MI TION DOUIIN 555 505.5105, 6 800 dpanmsesare een VI eee Taming the AAI . ooo cic ccc cscs ¥ Eh kdascoames There Was Magic in Those Days............. V rg a ice as et ara Taming the Wiid Grasecs ... occ ccccciscucess Ill SUNS hisp Sot aae co PO NE PO iis aiden dccucnmeess V i eerie COE FONE TOMY ONT 2533 6 a aie we eee III er (ee IV er Orr eee eee ree V ya cere ge er Peer errr n >: V Peteraham. ...3..... TRG SOC TOO OF COON i555 i6 sb eRS V a eee The Story Book of Gold... ........0.cccecsses V MN pcp ein torsasonce cs Star Myths from Many Lands............... V PEIN c. 6 ccareic kaon Daan Wine OF 100 isc ka hos is a oes III RO oa saa gis wig is The King of the Golden River................ Lf PEE sc dswiceacan Rob Roy: The Frontier Twins................ VI PUNO as aaicncia ya we FEN OF GRE I 5 ns oa Seah het ead amet IV | en Dy UPTON ok. 56 are sad es CRC ASE V Untermeyer......... FORA NE TO o.oo id oc ss iese. dace pes xcwiacdlie ware dp VII rer arer- DI iis ik than kas + cenenenxcoae ones IV eee ee. Oy ee eee eee ey ee V When it is time for reading, pupil monitors get the books from the table and distribute them. Each pupil’s book is marked with a paper bookmark bearing his name. The children are anxious to get their books and are soon absorbed in their reading because it is easy and interesting. Occasionally a pupil comes to a word that he doesn’t know and raises his hand. The teacher moves quietly to the pupil’s desk and helps him 562 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS with the word. If the teacher is busy with other work, the pupil simply copies the word in his vocabulary book, along with the page on which it appeared, and goes on reading until the teacher can visit him. He may have several words accumulated by the time she is ready to help him. During a part of the reading period the teacher calls the children to her desk, one at a time, to read orally to her. She gives each child in- struction in oral reading according to his needs while the other mem- bers of the class continue with their silent reading. If a pupil needs special remedial help, she may give it to him at this time. If several children need the same type of remedial help, she may call them all to her desk and work with them as a group. As each pupil is called to the desk he brings his vocabulary book with him, and after his oral reading the teacher drills him on the words with which he has had difficulty since his last oral reading lesson. In this way each child gets vocabulary drill on the specific words he has found difficult. Now, suppose that a pupil finishes his book and wants to be tested in order that he may choose another book and continue his reading. The teacher, however, is busy helping someone else with oral reading. She therefore hands the first pupil a multiple-choice test, which he takes to his seat and brings back when it is completed. As the teacher has no time to correct the test now, she puts it in the “finished test”’ folder and allows the pupil to select another book from those of his ability level. If he passes the test he receives credit for having read the book. If a pupil asks to be tested but there is no prepared test for his book, the teacher gives him a book report blank, which he fills in and returns to her. About six pupils of the class of thirty-six complete their books during the period and are either tested orally or are given written tests as described. The last five minutes of the reading period are used for audience reading. For example, a child has a short, interesting story on which he has been practising for the past two weeks. He has finally reached the degree of proficiency required by the teacher in order to make a class presentation, and has been assigned the five-minute period on this particular day. He reads the selection excellently and holds the interest of the entire class. The teacher believes that one such presentation by a child each month is worth more in developing good oral reading than were twenty of the old “stumbling” type of oral reading lessons in which the reader learned little or nothing, while the class, bored to distraction, developed improper eye movements in attempting to follow silently so as to “keep the place.” th sl W ORGANIZATION OF READING CLASSES 563 At the end of the reading period the monitors return the books to the table, where they serve as a powerful incentive thruout the day, since pupils are permitted to get their books from the reading table whenever they have completed their work in other subjects. Conclusion—Some principals may feel that the advantages of this method of organizing instruction in reading are not worth the effort necessary to overcome prejudices among teachers in favor of older methods. While the individual plan does not lessen the work of the teacher, it does take away much of the drudgery because pupils are more interested and progress is more apparent. If the principal will help one or two progressive teachers to establish the individual plan, its ad- vantages will soon become known and other teachers will be likely to adopt it because it is not difficult to conduct, once it is understood, and it helps to change the reading period from humdrum routine to a vital, interesting experience. VEN WHEN the teacher is well-informed concerning the highly specialized needs of all the members of her large group, there remains the difficult task of adapting instruction to them day after day. Because of this difficulty, many teachers tend to teach the class as a whole rather than teach the pupils individually. The result of this policy is that those to whom the general class method is poorly adapted encounter many difficulties. If these are not detected and adjustments made to them with reasonable promptness, even minor difficulties may accumulate into serious deficiencies and disabilities. New or- ganizations of materials and new methods of instruction must be provided to give the teacher greater knowledge of each pupil’s progress and to make possible more effective adminis- tration to his particular needs.—Gates, Arthur I., and Bond, Guy L., in Journal of the National Education Association, De- cember 1936, p. 290. 564 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS MEETING INDIVIDUAL READING NEEDS IN GRADE yIJ KATHERINE S. YOUNGMAN Teacher of Junior High-School English, Lucretia Mott School, Indianapolis, Indiana of the child’s school life, the administration of a school should be such as to aid in the discovery and elimination of these difficulties in normal children before the junior high-school grades are reached. Altho grade bounds, limits, and standards are still matters of con- troversy, every child should be privileged to read at his own level of ability regardless of his grade. Each teacher, following this philosophy, should take the child where she finds him and emphasize his progress as an individual, rather than his success or failure as a member of the age or grade group in which he happens to be placed. This requires individualized instruction, a diagnostic testing program, and an effee- tive remedial program. Altho this principle is accepted and recommended by most admin- istrators, upper-grade teachers still find the “poor reader” among the groups of children entering the junior high school. In an effort to meet this problem in these grades, a plan which has proved quite successful has been instituted in the Lucretia Mott School in Indianapolis. Sir MOST READING DIFFICULTIES appear during the first three years GENERAL NATURE OF THE PLAN At the very beginning a “remedial cycle” was developed, consisting of these five sectors: (1) testing, (2) diagnosing, (3) grouping, (4) in- structing, and (5) retesting. The results of the retesting are interpreted in the light of the previous steps, since only in this way can the activity become a progressive process. Upon their entrance into the seventh grade the children are given the Terman Group Test of Mental Ability’ unless their I.Q.’s have been previously obtained thru other reliable sources. To analyze the reading efficiency of the class, a standardized diagnostic reading test which emphasizes as many phases of reading as possible is used. This purpose seems best served by the Sangren-Woody Reading Test, which divides the reading process into these seven phases: (1) word meaning, (2) rate, (3) fact material, (4) total meaning, (5) central thought, (6) following directions, and (7) organization. Form A of this test is given early in the semester. 1 Published by the World Book Co., Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York. gr ar pa pu cu in as ORGANIZATION OF READING CLASSES 565 On the basis of the reading test scores, the class is divided into five groups for instruction, as follows: 1. Rapid-accurate (superior in both rate and comprehension) 2. Median-balanced (average in both rate and accuracy) 3. Rapid-inaccurate (weak in comprehension) 4. Slow-accurate (weak in rate) 5. Slow-inaccurate (weak in both rate and comprehension). APPLICATION OF THE PLAN The remainder of this article deals with the application of the above plan to a class of thirty-seven pupils who entered Grade VIIB in Janu- ary 1937. This class will be referred to as Group III whenever com- parisons are made with classes in higher grades. In accordance with the results of the reading tests, these thirty-seven pupils were grouped as follows: 12 rapid-accurate readers 10 median-balanced readers 5 rapid-inaccurate readers 6 slow-accurate readers 4 slow-inaccurate readers Time allotments—One of the difficulties encountered in teaching diversified groups is that of time allotment. For these reading groups, a daily class period of fifty-five minutes was established, and was so divided that all groups came together for at least one activity. This activity might be spelling for all, audience reading for some, or a gen- eral discussion of some phase of the unit being studied. During the remainder of the period, the rapid-accurate readers worked inde- pendently. Each of the four remaining groups had its own time of approximately ten minutes for practise exercises, questions, and dis- cussion. All groups took part in all tests. On Friday the entire fifty-five minutes were devoted to a summariz- ing of the work of the week. During this activity, which was sociai in aspect, opportunity was presented to members of each group to con- tribute to the program. Oral composition, memory work, explanation of some project, oral reading, dramatization, and the reading of original written work were included in these summary periods. Adapting instruction to group needs—To meet their own specific needs, the twelve “rapid-accurate” readers were assigned much and varied material for reading. This material consisted of designated literature and the supplementary books from the lists for library read- ing. In addition, a list called “Individual Reading Activities” was placed in the hands of each pupil in this group. The suggestions in this 566 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS list became the basis of both oral and written English. Reports, drama- tization, conversation, discussion, and explanation were the outcomes of this stimulation. Thus, the pupils who were already good readers sup- plemented this accomplishment by engaging in the various activities necessary to cultivate poise, confidence, and other desirable attributes of personality. A part of the required work for this group consisted of vocabulary lessons, and many individual projects in word study, acrostics, and word-puzzles for the school newspaper developed from this work. The ten “median-balanced” readers were given much motivation in order to arouse their interest in reading more books and in accomplish- ing at least one of the activities mentioned in “Individual Reading Activities” in connection with each literature unit. Practise exercises to increase rate and comprehension were given each week. The five “rapid-inaccurate” readers were trained in reading for detail by being held responsible for specifie questions assigned in con- nection with each reading lesson. Paragraph tests were given each week. Many pictures, stereopticon slides, and exhibits of various kinds were used in the hope of increasing the children’s powers of visualiza- tion. Outlining was done to emphasize the organization and sequence of ideas. The six “slow-accurate” readers were given short exercises each day to increase their rate of reading. This work was correlated with the teaching of the comma and semicolon as a means toward better phras- ing. Efforts to increase eye span included the use of flash-cards bearing a single word, followed by flash-strips containing phrases and clauses. Since this material had to be based on the particular section being studied in order to make the exercise functional, such practise was given but once a week during the ten-minute period allotted to the group. While scores on the Monroe Standardized Silent Reading Tests, Revised * indicated a third-grade ability for the four “slow-inaccurate” readers, the scores of these pupils on the various parts of the Sangren- Woody test showed abilities ranging from the second-grade level in one phase of reading to the seventh-grade level in another phase. Since each pupil presented an individual case requiring a particular treat- ment, the work done with members of this group may be indicated most satisfactorily by means of short case studies. In the following paragraphs these slow-inaccurate readers are referred to as Pupils W, X, Y, and Z. "Published by the Public School Pyblishing Co., Bloomington, Ilipojs, Ww al ti hi W pl ORGANIZATION OF READING CLASSES 567 Case StupiEs or Four Stow-INAccuRATE READERS Pupil W—This child, a fifteen-year-old boy with an intelligence quotient of 75, lacked concentration to the extent that independent study was almost impossible for him. He frequently found the presence of other children so distracting that he would ask to take his testing exercises after school. When he worked with the teacher or an earnest pupil, he worked well and frequently contributed something worthwhile to the lesson. His timidity was more or less overcome by encouraging other pupils to work with him, by appointing him as a member of committees, and by endeavoring in every way possible to break down his self-conscious- ness. He had little ability to recognize, from the printed page, the words which he understood and used in speech. This lack of familiarity was also evident in his spelling. To remedy this, drill in phonetic combina- tions, study of words similar in form, and opportunity for him to test his recognition of words were provided as frequently as possible. He was often given papers to return to other pupils so that he might obtain practise in reading their names. Before the end of the semester this child had developed a certain benevolence toward some of the more scholastically capable boys, who begged to peddle bills for him in return for complimentary tickets to a motion picture theater at which he worked doing odd jobs. He handled these transactions very fairly, showing no favoritism but demanding serious effort in return. Altho Pupil W improved little in his ability to read, he made some gain in the ability to live as a member of a social group. Pupil X—This pupil was a girl well past fourteen years of age who had entered junior high school from an “opportunity room.” Her in- telligence quotient was 76. She was such a social misfit that the least provocation brought forth a deluge of tears, the stopping of which re- quired real tact. She was often silent and reticent, taking no part in class discussion, but memorizing her spelling words with great pride. It was soon evident that her interests lay in smaller children, pets, and things about the home. With those interests in mind, the teacher selected stories involving babies, home duties, animals, and the joy of service, from books of third-grade level. In these stories the girl en- countered no troublesome vocabulary, enjoyed her reading, and would have been satisfied to continue with the same type of material until 568 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS ern the end of the semester. But as her interest heightened she was assigned stories of fourth-grade level. When she had prepared a story especially well, she was invited to read it to the children of Grade I, whose teacher understood the situation and was anxious to provide a suitable audience for her. In this manner she was led to feel the satisfaction of accomplishment. By the end of the semester she had reached the fifth-grade level jp reading, had overcome some of her shyness, and had conquered her tears. She performed many helpful duties about the classroom, one of which was that of accounting for the reading books before the clags left the room. This she did with sleuth-like tenacity. She never found a chum among her classmates, altho she continued to enjoy the companionship of smaller children. However, the library habit was established even tho the books chosen were extremely childish. Pupil Y—This child was the youngest of the slow-inaccurate readers —a thirteen-year-old boy with a large, well-developed body and an 1.Q. of 87. He was liked by the other boys and girls of his class, and managed to hide his deficiency by acting the clown whenever he was unable to respond to a question asked him. This conduct appeared comical to his classmates, and brought him some of the attention which he desired. His interests centered around adventures, sports, and animals. Read- ing assignments and practise exercises were chosen from the literature books which dealt with these subjects. When discussing his readings, he answered inquiries in very simple language, avoided the voluntary use of new words, and could form no conclusion from assembled facts unless such facts were brought to his attention one by one. These observations formed a basis for the remedial work appropriate to his case. He was given much word drill in connection with each assignment. He was given as much aid in accent and diacritical marking as he seemed capable of assimilating. Places mentioned or described in the stories which he read were located for him on maps. Routes, plans, or travels of characters were platted and time schedules were made in order to bring about a consciousness of the logical sequence of events and thoughts. His clownish behavior was a defense mechanism which became less frequently evident as his feeling of security increased.* 3 Pupil Y had attained a seventh-grade ability in reading by the time he left the eighth grade. During his year in that grade he served quite efficiently as a traffic guard. ' ' ' ORGANIZATION OF READING CLASSES 569 Pupil Z—The fourth pupil in this group was a boy fourteen years and eight months of age, with an intelligence quotient of 70. He had been in an opportunity room since the third grade. His promotion to junior high school was a gesture of encouragement rather than a recog- nition of his ability to do seventh-grade work. In fact, his accomplish- ment in all subjects was so low that only primary work could be assigned to him. In disposition he was cheerful, helpful, and dependable. In execution he was most unstable. His interests were equally fickle. He was given a primer to read, and exhibited great satisfaction at having completed forty pages during the first class period. Close observation of his reading, part of which was oral, revealed the fact that there was a total confusion of the letters b, d, and p in his mind. He was also confused on n and m. In a little story about a dog called “Tad,” he substituted the following names: Tab, Ted, Tap, Tabby, and Taddy. His misuses of m and n were corrected by going back over the reading as long as the context was such that he could understand it. As a step toward remedying his difficulty, flash-cards bearing words containing the letters which caused his trouble were used with him for a few minutes each day. This was frequently done before school or at any time when other children were not in the room. He was also given tracing exercises involving the troublesome letters, in the hope of devel- oping in him a muscular discrimination of forms. He finally completed the reading of the primer and the first- and second-grade readers, and was reading in the third book by the end of the semester. His written work had improved very little. Only once during the semester did he have a perfect spelling paper. Fo.tLow-up TESTING AND SUMMARY OF RESULTS The semester of eighteen weeks was divided into three cycles of six weeks each, and at the end of each cycle report cards were sent to the homes. An informal testing program was carried on during this time, and the results were used to lend objectivity to the grades placed on the report cards. Every three weeks a paragraph test was given to all pupils of Group III—the group whose work has been described above. After each test, greater emphasis was placed upon the correction of errors made by the pupils. Every six weeks an informal test of reading rate and comprehension was given. During the last two weeks of the semester, the following standardized tests were given to this group: the 570 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS —$—___ Monroe Standardized Silent Reading Tests, Revised, Form 2; the Gates Silent Reading Tests ;* and the Sangren-Woody Reading Test, Form B,. In summarizing the application of the remedial cycle to the pupils of Group III, the following facts are especially significant: 1. Group III entered junior high school at an average chronological age exceeding, by six months, that of either Group I or Group II when the latter groups were at the same grade level. 2. The median intelligence quotient for Group III was 109.8, five points higher than that of either Group I or Group II. 3. The number of perfect scores made on paragraph tests in Group III increased from nineteen in January to thirty-three in May. 4. The median scores in comprehension on the informal reading tests in Group IIT increased from 9.8 in January to 12.0 in May; the median scores in rate of reading increased from 179.0 to 205.5 during the same period. 5. The final test scores on standardized tests administered to Group III in June showed a median reading grade level of from 8 to 9. 6. The actual grade level of Group III in June was 7.5. * Published by the Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. eee the division of a class of thirty-five children into two or three groups aids greatly in adapting instruction to individual needs, the results of tests usually reveal the need for smaller divisions. The merit of instruction for small groups lies in the opportunity provided for making the lessons more nearly fit the level, rate of progress, and interests of the indi- vidual pupils. Such instruction has the added merit of giving the child a feeling of greater individual responsibility. Espe- cially in oral reading and in the research type of assignment, the child in the small group carries a much larger share of the load and profits accordingly—Durrell, Donald D., in The Teaching of Reading: A Second Report, Thirty-Sixth Year- book, Part I, National Society for the Study of Education, 1937, Chapter 11, p. 345. (Quoted by permission of the Society.) FOS SURE RT ED PEPIN 5 ; , ORGANIZATION OF READING CLASSES 571 COMBINING INSTRUCTION IN READING AND LANGUAGE WInirrepD WATTS Principal, Webster School, Okmulgee, Oklahoma URING THE PAST TWO YEARS the Okmulgee schools have tried a plan to combine the teaching of reading and language in the first six grades. This plan is believed to be desirable for several reasons: (1) Reading and language are closely related; one cannot be taught without the other. (2) Language, both written and oral, must be based upon content; reading furnishes the needed material. (3) To talk or write well, one must have an interesting subject about which he is well informed; reading lessons stimulate interest and furnish information. (4) Time is saved and continuity of thought encouraged when language study utilizes materials made familiar in reading, rather than new and unrelated materials. The general plan has been satisfactory for all classes, including beginners whose first reading lessons are based on experiences. With such reading lessons prepared by teacher and pupils, oral language lessons naturally precede the writing of the stories, the actual writing being done by the teacher. Longer periods—Three twenty-five minute periods—one for reading, one for language, and one for spelling and writing—have been com- bined under the new plan to make one long period of seventy-five minutes devoted to reading and language. Spelling and writing are now treated as drill subjects in a separate period. They are taught also in connection with all written language, and an effort is made to see that these subjects carry over into the written work in all classes. Unit plan in reading—Reading is taught by the unit plan, which is believed to have the following advantages: (1) pupils feel a keener interest in reading when one topic is followed for several weeks; (2) pupils are given an opportunity to look ahead and plan their work; (3) they are given practise in locating and selecting material on a given subject; (4) independence and a sense of responsibility are developed by this freer choice in reading; and (5) teachers find the unit plan help- ful in meeting the needs of individuals who differ widely in ability. Each grade covers from five to eight units of work in reading and language during the year. These units cover a wide range of interests. Typical subjects are “At the Farm” for the first grade, “Fairies and Elves” for the second, “Bear Stories” for the third, “Children of Other Lands” for the fourth, “Our Animal Friends” for the fifth, and “Stories of Adventure” for the sixth grade. Materials used—The materials used include one set of textbooks, in 1 Gates, Arthur I., and others. Work-Play Books. New York: Macmillan Co., 1930-32. 7 books 572 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS —— which the material is organized around units, with accompanying work. books for each grade; one set of supplementary readers for Grades IY, V, and VI, and a large number of supplementary sets for Grades I, II. and III; and, most important of all when reading is organized by units, a large number of single copies of readers, story books, and magazines in each grade. Care is taken to see that each class has sufficient materia] on at least three grade levels in reading. This in large measure takes care of individual differences. Aside from the basic text, slow pupils are given only books which are one year, or if need be, two years below the reading level of their grade. The best readers are given freedom to read as widely as possible on any level which interests them. The work- books, which are used largely as preparatory books, provide another means of caring for individual differences. The better readers complete preparatory exercises quickly and begin reading. Slower pupils are given a longer period of preparation, with more help from teachers, before reading the accompanying text. All pupils in a given grade use the same workbooks. Language based on reading units—As indicated above, language is based on the work in reading. Oral English, for which adults as well as children have more use than for any other phase of English, is given two-thirds of the time allotted to language study. Such oral language activities as conversation, reports, explanations, giving directions and descriptions, telling stories, making announcements, extending invita- tions, making introductions, and using the telephone are given special practise, since they are the ones engaged in most frequently by both children and adults. Definite lessons in conversation are given a prominent part in oral language work. Conversation lessons—To carry on a successful conversation there must be subjects of interest about which those conversing have definite information. Such subjects and such information are well provided in the reading lessons. Each unit of work is introduced by a class discus- sion in which the work of the unit is planned. The class decides what project will be carried out as a summary for the unit. This project may be an assembly program, a play, a dramatization, or the collection of pictures or other materials to be added to those already available for reading classes. Individuals are encouraged to volunteer for some special piece of work, such as a drawing, a painting, a soap carving, a bit of construction, a collection of pictures, a story, a poem, or a play. Books containing stories and poems bearing upon the work of the unit are listed and discussed. The teacher suggests a list to which the children add. Thruout the work on the unit pupils are encouraged to add stories and poems to the original list as these are discovered in their sti th ju ea or ge na bi sn su in di ORGANIZATION OF READING CLASSES 573 —_—_ study. Brief book reports and “teasers” are given by pupils to encourage their classmates to share their enjoyment of favorite books and stories. One of the first conversation lessons in each grade is one in which children are asked to suggest rules which will make conversation lessons successful. The following rules come rather generally from all classes, if sufficient time for free discussion is given: 1. Make what you have to say interesting. . Speak so all the group can hear and understand you. Don’t do all the talking yourself. Try to include every member of the group in the conversation. Do not interrupt or contradict. Make criticisms or corrections courteously. Be a good listener. Try to make everyone in the group comfortable and happy. 90 NSS St > 99 bo At the close of each conversation lesson a few minutes are spent in judging the conversation. A checklist is worked out by the class, and each lesson is checked against it. Following is a typical checklist sug- gested by children: . Did each speaker make himself understood? Was everyone courteous? Did everyone contribute to the discussion? . Were there any errors in English? . Was the conversation interesting? te Children at first were a little self-conscious and shy about carrying on a conversation. Even the most talkative groups found difficulty in getting a conversation started. The habit of waiting for the teacher to call on someone was strong. The hand-raising habit, too, was difficult to break. But after some practise the conversations began to move more smoothly and easily. Children came to feel a responsibility for the success of the conversation lesson. Even the most timid pupils, when interested in a subject, became eager to contribute something to the discussion. Oral reports—Oral reports are centered on the materials of the read- ing units. These reports grow out of the desire of pupils to share with their classmates the interesting stories and facts which they alone have read. Notes are taken or outlines are made on what is read. From these notes and outlines pupils make their reports. Frequently those listen- ing to the reports take notes on what is being told. Making practical use of such notes and outlines makes them of interest; they are no longer looked upon as mechanical or purposeless tasks. Written composition—Not only the oral language, but the written work also is based upon the work in reading. Written composition grows quite naturally out of the reading lessons. After oral reports and 574 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS group discussions of materials read, pupils are seldom at a loss foy something to write about when the need for written composition arises. Examples of needed written composition are: letters to commercia| companies asking for materials, invitations to other classes and to parents, original stories, poems, riddles, and short plays. All written compositions are made short. First- and second-grade compositions are limited to three or four sentences; third- and fourth-grade compositions, to one paragraph. Before attempting to write, the children spend much time in prepara- tion. Paragraphs from the reading lessons are studied, as well as topic sentences, good ending sentences, smooth transition sentences, punctua- tion, and capitalization. Even in the first grade, sentence sense js developed by careful attention to sentences in reading. The reasons for periods, question marks, commas, and capital letters are made clear by constant reference to them in reading lessons. Word study—What little work is done in studying parts of speech in the fifth and sixth grades is frequently done in connection with the reading. Subjects, predicates, nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are watched in reading lessons. Pupils are encouraged to add new words found in the reading to their spoken and written vocabularies. Word meaning is stressed. Before each lesson in the text is introduced, exercises are given to familiarize children with the new words which will oceur in the reading material of the new lesson. Drill—Drill work grows out of the need for correct oral and written expression. Each day a short period is devoted to practise in correcting the errors which have been noted in oral and written work. Time is spent in saying the correct form rather than in filling blanks in work- books, writing sentences, or making rules. Only by repeating the correct forms until they come naturally in the child’s speech, will such forms become habitual and be used automatically. Children understand that this drill work is helping them to overcome the difficulties which arise in their oral and written work. They watch for errors and help to plan the drills. Evaluation of the plan—All classes except the fourth and fifth grades have been given standardized tests? at the close of each school year. The fourth and fifth grades have been tested at the beginning of the year. The city medians for all classes tested in reading and language since the combination plan went into operation have been from six months to a year and a half above the standard norms. While the ~ 2 Gates Silent Reading Tests (Primary Series, Tests 1, 2, and 3), published by the Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City; and New Stanford Achievement Test (Primary and Advanced Examinations), published by the World Book Co., Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York. ORGANIZATION OF READING CLASSES 575 gains in these more easily measured skills and understandings appear satisfactory, the less easily measured improvements are equally gratify- ing. The ability to work independently, to cooperate with other mem- bers of a group, to take part easily and naturally in a conversation, to enjoy good reading, to be genuinely interested in better speech, and to take responsibility for carrying out a definite piece of work—all these are abilities in which improvements have been noted and reported by teachers. Generally speaking, the teachers who have used this plan be- lieve that it has helped them to do a better piece of work, since it has enabled them to work along the lines most interesting to both teacher and class. ~~ IMMEDIATE problem in developing oral communication at the primary level is the production of consonant sounds in articulate speech. Closely following this step is the enrich- ment of vocabulary and the understanding of correct gram- matical forms. It might be well to arrange a beginning reading program to include all these things without introducing written symbols at all. It should be possible to prepare children for reading in the second grade by providing a full year’s program in the first grade that would include rich experiences in listen- ing, in discovering similarities and differences among sounds in nature and in words, in appreciating lovely language, both poetry and prose, and in expressing ideas, feelings, and mean- ings with all the speech capacities that lie within the child.— Davis, Irene Poole, p. 288 of this yearbook. 576 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 10. ll. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. ‘ SELECTED REFERENCES See also the references listed at the end of Chapter X. . ArcHER, Cuirrorp P., and Brert, Marcarer M. Improvement of Reading Through Individual Instruction. Ann Arbor, Mich.: Edwards Bros., 1924 . Bonar, Hucu S§. “Systematic versus Incidental Training in Reading.” Ble. mentary English Review 10: 90-94, 112; April 1933. . CaLirorNiA Curriculum Commission. Teachers’ Guide to Child Development. Sacramento: California State Department of Education, 1930. Chapter 4. “Planning the Informal Daily Schedule.” . CaLIFoRNIA CurricuLuM Commission. Teachers’ Guide to Child Development in the Intermediate Grades. Sacramento: California State Department of Education, 1936. Chapter 2, “The Organization of the Intermediate Grades.” . Caswei, Hoiuis L. Program Making in Small Elementary Schools. Rey. ed. Nashville, Tenn.: George Peabody College for Teachers, 1932. 77 p. . CuTRIGHT, PrupeNcE, and ANpERSON, W. A. Experimental Study of Pupil Failures in the First Grade. Minneapolis, Minn.: Curriculum Depart- ment, Board of Education, 1934. 40 p. (Excerpts in Elementary School Journal 34: 570-74; April 1934.) . Durrett, Donato D. “Individual Differences and Their Implications with Respect to Instruction in Reading.” The Teaching of Reading: A Second Report. Thirty-Sixth Yearbook, Part I, National Society for the Study of Education. Bloomington, IIl.: Public School Publishing Co., 1937. p. 325-56. . Durrett, Donato D. “Providing for Individual Differences in Reading.” Education 56: 30-36; September 1935. . Horrauy, A. H. “Selected vs. Unselected Groups in Reading.” The Principal and Supervision. Tenth Yearbook. Washington. D. C.: Department of Elementary School Principals, National Education Association, 1931. p. 444-47. LiveriGHt, Auice K. “The Adjustment Teacher in a City School System.” Personality Adjustment of the Elementary-School Child. Fifteenth Year- book. Washington, D. C.: Department of Elementary School Principals, National Education Association, 1936. p. 527-33. Monroe, WatrTer S., and STREITZ, RutuH. Directing Learning in the Eleme nlary School. Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday, Doran and Co., 1932. Chapter 14, “The Planning of Teaching.” Moore, Annie E. The Primary School. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1925. NATIONAL Society FOR THE Stupy or Epucation. Report of the National Com- mittee on Reading. Twenty-Fourth Yearbook, Part I. Bloomington, IIl.: Public School Publishing Co., 1925. Chapter 8, “Provision for Individual Differences.” Orto, Henry J. “Implications for Administration and Teaching Growing Out of Pupil Failures in First Grade.” Elementary School Journal 33: 25-32; September 1932. Suietps, JaMes M. “Teaching Reading Through Ability Grouping.” Journal of Educational Method 7: 7-10; September-October 1927. Stevens, Marion P. The Activities Curriculum in the Primary Grades. Bos- ton: D. C. Heath and Co., 1931. 440 p. Strong, CLARENCE R. Silent and Oral Reading. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1926. Chapter 10, “Individual Differences, and Special Individual and Group Instruction.” U. S. DeparTMeNT or THE INTERIOR, OrFrice or Epucation. The Activity Pro- gram and the Teaching of Reading. Bulletin, 1931, No. 2. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1931. 95 p. Witicockson, Mary. “Kindergarten-Primary Unification.” Elementary School Journal 27: 447-50; February 1927. will | has ¢ prom phas only Th visor exhik suger bility encot in at origil there anotl Be are t sever ing, t ment deals and » Mille struc Th ing p tion how meeti Th altho syste well : Is giv CHAPTER X OTHER ADMINISTRATIVE AND SUPERVISORY PROCEDURES EDITORIAL COMMENT HAPTER I OF THIS YEARBOOK listed a number of ways in which C school administrators and supervisors can foster good reading in- struction. Each subsequent chapter has offered suggestions which will be helpful in carrying out one or more of these steps. Chapter IX has dealt specifically with the organization of schools and classes to promote better teaching. This final chapter discusses several important phases of administration and supervision which have been mentioned only briefly, if at all, by the authors of earlier chapters. The best supervision today involves the close cooperation of super- visory officers and teachers. The principal or supervisor must, of course, exhibit a marked degree of leadership. He or she must make definite suggestions for the improvement of instruction and assume responsi- bility for appraisal of the program. The teachers, however, should be encouraged to show initiative and should be given considerable latitude in attacking their problems. Excellent ideas for improvement often originate within the teaching staff. The wise principal or supervisor will therefore make a point of helping teachers to help themselves and one another. The present chapter reflects this cooperative viewpoint. Betts opens the discussion by reviewing facts and principles which are basic to the improvement of reading instruction. Hahn describes several effective supervisory technics, including demonstration teach- ing, teacher conferences, exhibits of teachers’ work, and the encourage- ment of research by teachers. The next article, by Miller and Cohee, deals with the various kinds of demonstrations conducted for teachers and principals in a large city system. In the fourth article, Cohee, Miller, and Wallace discuss a program of appraisal involving the con- struction and use of local reading tests. The last two contributions are concerned with interpreting the read- ing program to parents. Niegosch analyzes the need for such interpreta- tion and gives a comprehensive review of useful technics. Choate tells how one school informed the parents about its reading program at a meeting of the home and school association. The selection and use of commercial standardized tests in reading, altho mentioned in many individual articles, have not been treated systematically in this book. Further information on these problems, as well as on other administrative and supervisory aspects of the program, is given in the references listed on page 628.—Editorial Committee. [ 577 J 578 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS SOME BASIC CONSIDERATIONS IN RECONSTRUCTING THE READING PROGRAM Emmetr A. Betts Research Professor and Director of Reading Clinic, The Pennsylvania State Col. lege, State College, Pennsylvania OT MANY GENERATIONS HAVE PASSED since an individual with cross-eyes was subjected to “much cruelty because supersti- tious people believed it to be the result of inhabitation by ap evil spirit, and mercilessly beat the poor patient with the intention of driving the evil spirit out of him. In other times it was attributed to inhabitation by an angel or benign spirit, and cross-eyed people were worshipped, since they obviously had the supernatural power of seeing in two directions at once.” ! Less than two hundred years ago women were tried by juries of intelligent people for “turning into a black eat and jumping thru a keyhole.” These and many other beliefs or ewr- osities of the human mind existed in the so-called dark ages. Yet today there still exist in the minds of many parents and teachers such uncritical beliefs as, “Children who cannot read are slow of thought,” and “There is something sinister about left-handedness.” In addition, there are some educators who believe that basal reading materials, phonies, and systematic instruction are pedagogical relies, while others seem to worship at the shrine of regimented instruction, poverty- stricken curriculums, and low standards of teacher preparation. Such situations might cause the critical observer outside the teaching pro- fession to wonder whether education has yet passed out of the dark ages. If the reading program of the school is to contribute as it should to pupil development, we must avoid traditional superstitions on the one hand, and refuse to accept unproved new theories on the other. DEFINITION OF TERMS Among the first items needing definition in a discussion of the read- ing program are these: What is reading? What is involved in the read- ing process? What constitutes retardation in reading? To short-cut the answer to the first question, reading may be defined as a thinking or experiencing process. This statement implies that reading is largely a central mental process rather than a wiggling of the eye-balls or a cutting and pasting procedure, and that reading is to be viewed more as a process than as a subject to be studied. Altho emphasis in the teaching of reading should be placed largély upon reading in a content area rather than upon just “learning to read,” this does not preclude 1 Hardv, Le Grand H. “The Problems of the Cross-Eyed Child.” Sight-Saving Review 7: 96-97; June 1937. the con T has Ree exp mes rete and ing con suff quil reat reat atir on thre if the fort mal nor tan com mer sim T nen of t in I tarc ach hav 80tl side fied ach abo Fur indi reat the ont ide ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION 579 the obvious desirability of causing all learners to be realistic in their concepts of the reading process. The second question, regarding the elements in the reading process, has not been adequately explored by investigators of specialized areas. Reading requires the establishment of purposes; the association of new experiences with the individual’s background; the anticipation of meaning; the use of judgment; the appreciation, organization, and retention of ideas; the drawing of inferences; and similar mental and emotional reactions, depending upon the purpose of the read- ing and the type of material under consideration. If reading is conceived to be a thinking process, then the beginning pupil must have sufficient mental maturity or ripeness to do the type of thinking re- quired for the interpretation of the reading materials, and the type of reading program used for beginners will determine the level of mental readiness required. The statement has been made, without substanti- ating data, that programs and methods can probably be developed, on the basis of present knowledge, which will make any age from three to eight years appear optimum for beginning reading instruction. In addition to the pedagogical and psychological phases of reading, the physiology of this process merits consideration. A visually uncom- fortable child probably does not enjoy reading any more than a blind man would enjoy reading Braille if he had boils on his fingers. For normal cases, discontinuous movements of the eyes at reading dis- tance require ocular coordination and reciprocative action of the ac- commodative and convergence functions. This fact confirms the state- ment that reading is a complex of skills and abilities rather than simple, unitary behavior. The third question, dealing with the nature of retardation, is perti- nent for a critical appraisal of research findings and for the translation of these findings into classroom practise. Some studies of retardation in reading have been made on the highly fallible assumption that re- tarded readers can be identified solely by means of a test of reading achievement. Those children who fell at or below the 20th percentile have been designated as retarded readers, while those who fell at the 80th percentile or above have been designated as superior readers. Con- sidered in terms of the group as a whole, this procedure might be justi- fied, but when retardation is defined in terms of each individual’s achievement in reading and his mental capacity for achievement, the above procedure yields data which are only about 20 percent correct. Furthermore, experience in a reading clinic? has indicated that an individual with a reading age equal to his mental age can improve his reading achievement by removing specific background deficiencies. 2? At the Oswego State Normal School, Oswego, New York. 580 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Facts AND OPINIONS ABOUT READING IN THE SCHOOLS ° Recent researches in the field of reading have uncovered data which would make it exceedingly difficult for professional educators to justify typical school policies before a group of enlightened parents. Some of these data which should blast us out of our professional lethargy are summarized and discussed briefly in the following paragraphs. 1. Eight to 40 percent of the first-grade population fail to be pro- moted, Appalling as it may be, last year in one community in New York state 34 percent of the first-grade children were not promoted. In view of this situation, it appears that all the orations, professional books, and investigations on adjusting the school to the child have not been very fruitful. In many places one still finds five-year-olds, many of whom are not ready for the work imposed upon them, fidgeting at long rows of flat-top desks illuminated with one- to four-foot candles of light, and living in an emotionally tense situation for four or five hours per day in poorly ventilated rooms. Most of this is done in the name of reading, which requires a high level of eye coordination, sus- tained attention to the details of symbols, interpretation of the signifi- cance of the writing, and a fairly high degree of social adjustment. It is true that some children survive this ordeal, but it is up to those edu- cators who encourage the situation to show that its cost—both physical and emotional—is not beyond all reason. Altho the business manager of a school system may complain of the unnecessary financial cost of operating a school for repeaters, it is far more important to appraise this cancer of American education in terms of warped personalities, residues of “poor” attitudes, and failure to develop a desirable emo- tional well-being. Until more scientific evidence is available, it would appear reasonable to substitute an enriched program of music, art, practical arts, science, dramatization, and similar activities for much of the present instruction in reading at the five- and possibly the six-year-old levels. That the present situation can be corrected both in the largest cities and in the smallest schools has been demonstrated; procrastination indicates a failure to accept professional responsibility. No one but the educator has the responsibility, opportunity, or power to improve matters. If those now in charge of schools are not professionally pre- pared to save childhood from exploitation, then others must assume that leadership. The year 1938 finds education in need of rugged pio- neers who have the courage to admit reality, who are willing to prepare themselves for leadership, and who are willing to modify traditional practises and develop a significant increment of betterment. * Betts, Emmett A. “Bridging the Gap."” New York State Education 24: 698-701, 734-40; June 1937. ing leg tur all a |i an sine apt tea spo ma: has as ' Sec rep! scle abil 80, | requ lum phy futu the supe clait be t diffi read desi: by 3 reve rese: in a whic & CO’ less kind shov ut ve "e- ne \0- re ral une ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION 581 _—_—_—————_ 9. Eight to 25 percent of the school population are retarded in read- ing. In the past, some of us have been guilty of buck-passing; the col- lege teachers have heaped curses upon the high-school teachers, who in turn have blamed the elementary-school teachers, who have referred all accusers to the parents. In the end the Creator has acknowledged a large share of the responsibility by continuing to make the world an interesting place thru populating it with individuals. However, since the world places a premium on variations in individual interests, aptitudes, and general capacities for achievement, it appears that each teacher at each grade or developmental level must assume the re- sponsibility for differentiating instruction within the classroom so that maximum development can occur. 3. Sixty to 80 percent of the retarded readers are boys. This finding has several implications. In the first place, there is a need for able men as well as women on the instructional staffs of elementary schools. Second, stories of doll houses or other feminine interests might well be replaced to a greater extent by stories of boats, trains, airplanes, scientific experiments, magic, and kindred items. Third, the language ability of boys may not develop at the same rate as thet of girls; if so, more painstaking attention to the developmental needs of boys is required. Fourth, when attempts are made to enrich the school curricu- lum, emphasis should be placed on music, arts and crafts, science, physical education, and other activities which have immediate and future values in the vocational and recreational life of the boy. 4. Altho it has been convenient to dub retarded readers as dullards the data indicate that 60 to 80 percent of these pupils have normal or superior intelligence. In other words, no one intelligence level has claim to all retarded readers, and so-called remedial teachers should be the ablest in the school system if a thoro understanding of reading difficulties is to characterize the work. Obviously, many retarded readers have the capacity to achieve, but have not done so because desirable learning conditions have not been developed. 5. Only about 10 percent of the reading difficulties are characterized by reversals or confusion of word forms. Heretofore, the matter of reversals has laid almost sole claim to the attention of teachers and research workers concerned with reading disabilities. This has resulted in a misconception of the whole problem of retardation and in a gap which is now being bridged by redefining the problem and establishing a course of action in terms of the known facts. 6. Children with certain types of kindergarten experiences exhibit less tendency to make reversals or to confuse word forms than do non- kindergarten pupils. Furthermore, it has been found that those who show the least reversal tendency achieve highest in the typical first- 582 ELEMENTARY ScHoot PRINCIPALS i grade reading program. These and many other objective data gyb. stantiate the contention that a kindergarten should be an integra] part of every elementary school. 7. Investigators have found that approximately 50 percent of the adult population do not enjoy reading. Such a statement should cause both elementary- and secondary-school teachers to pause a bit and to evaluate both their procedures and their curriculum content. 8. Ina random sampling of 150 teachers graduated prior to 1936, the writer found that only 16 percent of those teaching beginning pupils had been exposed to a systematic course in primary reading. Altho not everyone requires systematic observation and study before entering a given field in order to make a contribution therein, such preparation obviously is needed by most of us and if we do not have it, a very strenuous program of in-service training should be inaugu- rated. In many cases small groups of teachers meet regularly under their own “steam” to study their problems and to poo! experiences, Altho in this practise there is danger of passing on “folklore” which should be forgotten, it is one step in the right direction. 9. Recent studies have shown that 80 to 90 percent of study activities at the high-school level involve reading. These and other similar data provide ample evidence that all teachers should share the responsibility of improving the reading and study habits of the students in their care. Since few teachers at the upper-grade levels are professionally prepared to define and explore reading problems, it appears that this field would be a most fruitful one for cooperative study. Basic PRINCIPLES FOR THE PREVENTION OF READING DIFFICULTIES 1. Systematic learning is essential to normal development. A dense, black fog has enveloped the issue of systematic learning. The term has been ill-defined, and its true meaning has been obscured in a mass of conflicting statements. As a result, there is confusion in the minds of some regarding the relation of systematic instruction to formal and informal instruction. An unsystematic, incidental, opportunistic, or haphazard approach to the learner’s problems is made by the “formal” teacher who proceeds on the philosophy of the “goose-step” reading of the pre-primer, primer, and subsequent books in a series, and who insists on a pupil-recite-to-teacher situation. On the other hand, it is the so-called “informal” teacher—interested in the physical, mental, and emotional development of the individual learner and in the de- velopment of situations for the sharing of vicarious and real experi- ences—who believes in providing systematic learning opportunities differentiated in terms of pupil needs. “ if th class of tl prest strut or cl and U1 form trate ning voca pre-] prep: purp (d) acqu of sig in th chall inclu word ment 2. possi and 1 admo for tl matte schoo presel readit readit vocab ships, forms (b) a cess ¥ (¢) a tribut equal, the n: al” ing yho ; is tal, de- ori- ties ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION 583 —— —_— ’ “Begin with the learner” appears to be a truism often violated, but ¢ this one basic principle of education were put into practise in the classroom at all levels of instruction, there would be less exploitation of the learner, and the grade classification of children would lose its present disproportionate significance. Prescriptive and regimented in- struction takes place when systematic teaching is offered on a mass or class basis rather than in terms of individual levels of achievement and of individual rates of learning. Unfruitful deviations from systematic instruction take a variety of forms in daily learning activities. Among these methods which frus- trate the learner are the following: (a) use of supplementary begin- ning reading materials which overlap the basal materials very little in vocabulary or content; (b) failure to prepare the pupil for the basic pre-primer thru legitimate reading-readiness activities; (c) failure to prepare the group for the reading of a given unit by establishing purposes which govern the rate, depth, and accuracy of comprehension ; (d) attempts to develop word analysis technics before the pupil has acquired facility in reading materials containing an adequate stock of sight words; and (e) failure to provide equal learning opportunities in the classroom by guiding pupils into the reading of materials which challenge their abilities and interests. The products of these violations include such common difficulties as word-calling, random errors in word perception, memorization rather than interpretation, lip move- ment and vocalization, tension, wandering attention, and poor attitudes. 2. Early identification of the prospective reading disability case is possible. In the light of the incidence of failures at the first-grade level and the frequency of retardation in reading at all grade levels, the admonition to “begin where the learner is” takes on added significance for those interested in the prevention of reading difficulties. Altho the matter of developing a readiness for reading is as important in a high- school history or science class as it is in the primary school, it does present a somewhat different problem for those concerned with pre- reading experiences and initial reading instruction. A study of the reading readiness of beginners involves (a) an inventory of their vocabulary, background of experience, ability to perceive relation- ships, memory span, ability to make discriminations between word forms, and other specific orientations contributing to mental maturity; (b) an appraisal of the attitudes, desires, drives, and feelings of suc- cess Which contribute to the emotional well-being of the learner; and (c) an evaluation of the vision, hearing, and other items which con- tribute to the physical well-being of the learner. Other things being equal, the weight given to any one of these factors will:depend upon the nature of the beginning reading program, which varies with the 584 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS ies professional preparation and perspective of the teacher, the adequacy of available reading materials, and the administrative policies of the school. In terms of all these items, policies and procedures for the identification of prospective retarded readers can be made. When tentative groupings are made and instruction is differentiate within the classroom, the teacher is in a position to make continuoys informal appraisals of pupil learnings which are far more essentia| to pupil success than is the occasional use of standardized tests, Py example, during the period of preparation for book reading, the yp of experience charts and even commercial charts provides excellen; opportunities for the teacher to detect mental readiness for reading Most reading-readiness batteries make use of word-discriminatigy tests, but since it is the teacher’s obligation to help the pupils develop the ability to discriminate between word forms, she can readily make both a qualitative and a quantitative judgment of each pupil’s growth in this respect. A teacher of children rather than of sheer subjectmatty guides the learners into challenging activities in terms of their rates oj development and their needs.* 3. Children vary in level of general achievement in reading. For example, a fourth-grade teacher may expect to have children pro- moted to her grade who vary from first-grade to seventh- or eighth. grade ability in reading. Like variations can be found in other “grades,” and the teacher who would attempt to provide equal learning oppor- tunities must challenge each learner by beginning where he is. 4. Children with the same general achievement in reading may by expected to vary in their control over specific reading abilities, such as the location of information and the speed, power, and accuracy 0 comprehension. 5. Children vary in their ability t to read material in content areas, such as arithmetic and science. 6. Demotions or non-promotions do not solve the educational ani social problems presented by children whose achievement levels plac: them below the average of the class. To ask a pupil who has first-grad reading ability to repeat seventh-grade work may offer no solution to his problem. Such a procedure would be similar to asking a child to repeat algebra because he did not understand the division of whol numbers. Recently a pupil was brought to a reading clinic because he hat failed to achieve fourth-grade work. A somewhat thoro check showet him to have high-normal intelligence, normal vision and hearing, right-eye and right-hand preferences, no record of serious illness, nor- mal interests and enthusiasm, and a deep desire to read with greater 4 Betts, Emmett A. “Appraisal of Learning.” New York State Education 24: 618-20, 664-7) May 1937. 7 vo et 3 fF t4 DM = ee b th to tr CO st. m eas, and lace rade n to 1 to hole had wed ‘ing, nor- ater 4-70 ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION 585 —_———_ facility. By using a well-graded series of interesting readers, it was found that he could read only primers with any degree of ease and satisfaction. In this case the boy was not a “word-caller” but a “word- yeller,” for he blasted the ears of the examiner with his reading at- tempts. When words were presented to him in isolation, he made random errors, correctly identifying 95 percent of the first-grade words, 60 percent of the second-grade words, and 30 percent of the third- grade words. In the case of this boy the following items stood out: a. Repeating fourth-grade work would not solve his problem because he needed materials at about the primer level of difficulty. Until he learns to read with sat- isfaction, there is little hope for his achievement in arithmetic, social studies, and other fields where reading ability is essential. b. Since he was mentally alert and aggressive, his retardation could not be ex- plained by a lack of capacity. c. He should be permitted to remain with his own group in order to maintain an adequate social adjustment. d. Practice had made perfect that which he had practised, namely, word-by- word reading in a strained, high-pitched voice and with a low degree of compre- hension (aimless word-calling). It would not be expecting too much to bring this boy up to the average reading ability of his class, if the teacher were to provide him with challenging materials on his own level of achievement, and if his power of comprehension were developed thru purposeful reading. 7. Double promotions too seldom solve problems presented by pupils whose achievement places them at the upper end of the class distribu- tion. Fortunately, the attempt to improve the teacher’s pedagogy by eliminating such pupils from her class is rapidly becoming history. CONCLUSION The days are rapidly passing when one can witness a situation in which forty children are told to take from their desks their basal primers, and without preliminary preparation to open the book to page 43 and take turns reading orally. Likewise, fewer children are being kept “busy” by the teacher’s caustic remark, “If you’ve read your lesson only once, read it again!” Many strange things have been done in the name of education. Fortunately, trends in reading instruction are in the direction of better prepared teachers, more nearly adequate instructional materials, and a better understanding of the needs, interests, and capacities of the learner. In education there is now less evidence of a tendency merely to “turn the crank,” and many signs point to the desire of adminis- trators, teachers, and parents to understand the child as an integrated personality to be dealt with in terms of his own capacities for achieve- ment rather than in terms of adult standards. As a result, reading is coming to be viewed as experiencing—a process which involves under- standing and which therefore requires a sufficient degree of physical, mental, and emotional maturity on the part of the learner. 586 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Ee. USEFUL TECHNICS IN THE SUPERVISION OF READING Juutia LerHetp HAHN Division Supervising Principal, Public Schools, Washington, D. C. successfully in some schools without much supervisory guidance, there is little doubt that skilful and understanding guidance js needed in most situations to keep the different phases of reading in- struction stimulated and developing with due regard to the total pro- gram. Conditions vary in any school or group of schools, and teachers differ widely in both experience and ability. An improved reading program requires planning for particular children with particular needs. Adequate supervision means helping individual teachers to help particular children to help themselves to better reading. \": THE TEACHING OF READING can and probably does proceed es DEMONSTRATION TEACHING There are certain major avenues of help to teachers which can be used in various ways to meet varied and changing needs. One of the most helpful of these is demonstration teaching, which may be de- scribed as laboratory learning guided by a skilful teacher and studied and evaluated by an interested group of teacher observers. This kind of demonstration teaching is not an artificial, “staged” performance. The teacher is not primarily the thing to be evaluated. She and the visitors are studying children’s learnings. She is effective, of course, only so far as she influences the learning situation for the better, but the focus of attention is upon the children and the progress she is help- ing them to make. Moreover, the visitors are watching for growth and not for perfection. When both visitors and teacher take this point of view, there is less strain on everyone, a more natural classroom situation, and a more professional evaluation of the work. Planning and conducting demonstrations—In arranging demonstra- tions in the light of this viewpoint, we have found it desirable not to limit them entirely to the regular demonstration school or to use only teachers of superior skill. Teachers with various abilities and vari- ous experience backgrounds in many different schools are invited to teach for visitors from time to time. In this and other ways we have been able, over a period of years, to build up an attitude toward demonstration teaching which makes regularly scheduled visiting less of a burden than a long-awaited and staged demonstration would be. Teachers are asked to do demonstration work only a day or two before the appointed time. Teacher and supervisor plan the demonstra- mol tear the onl oth alsc me! pan of t teat wor A peri Visi den the visi atte ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION 587 —_———— tion together. The teacher explains the stage of development of the work in her classroom, and suggests possibilities which she feels could be handled with profit before the visiting group. The supervisor also suggests particular principles and procedures which she would like to see exemplified. The teacher then works out detailed plans in the light of the total learning situation in her room. We find it helpful also for visitors to be given a brief mimeographed statement giving pertinent facts about the children, the general setting, and a brief outline of work for the period covered by the visit. Sometimes only one room is visited during the demonstration session, and sometimes the visitors go from room to room and see several teachers at work. At the close of each visit a discussion is held, with the teacher of the class participating. These discussions are as free and as impersonal as it is possible to make them. The teacher of the class profits from the discussion as much as the visitors do. The supervisor tries not to dominate the discussion, but to guide it and bring out points which might otherwise be neglected. She takes the same point of view re- garding her place in the discussion as the good teacher takes toward her responsibility in a group discussion in her classroom. She is there as an experienced and valuable member of the group with a double responsibility—she must help other members of the group to assume as much leadership as possible, and she must step into the picture as a friendly guide when she can be of service. While afternoon visits are not as satisfactory in some respects as morning visits, our limited resources for handling the classes of visiting teachers when they are away make the afternoon period, on the whole, the most desirable time for visiting. Kindergarten teachers who have only morning sessions are available in some schools to handle these other classes in the afternoons. Substitutes are sometimes available also, and principals often teach the classes when no other arrange- ment can be made. Whenever possible, however, the principal accom- panies the teacher on the visit. It is our belief that an understanding of the problems involved is necessary on the part of both principal and teacher, since the principal is the person who follows the teacher’s work most closely when she returns to her own school. A typical demenstration—The following description of a visiting period in a first-grade room, and of the discussion which followed the visit, is presented to illustrate the point of view expressed above. This demonstration was attended by one first-grade teacher from each of the eighteen schools in the division of which the writer is the super- vising principal, and by as many of the building principals as could attend. 588 ELEMENTARY ScHooL PRINCIPALS OBSERVATION PERIOD—ONE-HALF HOUR The class being observed was a small, retarded group which had been organ- ized three weeks before to relieve congestion in the other two first grades of the school. The lesson involved the reading of stories made up by the children in connection with their interest in the home. The children entered the classroom quietly and hung up their wraps. Eight of them went to a group of chairs in the front of the room with the teacher, while the others went to their own seats to do independent work. One group of the latter drew plans for their house, and another group did some practise work using the words big and little. On a pinning board the teacher had placed a series of charts on which she had printed stories dictated previously by the children. Following is a stenographie report of her procedure with the eight children at the front of the room in cop. nection with these charts: Teacher: Do you think we could read the stories that we made up? What js this one about? (pointing to a chart). Children: The house. Teacher: Let’s see what the others are about. (The teacher then pointed to one title at a time, and the children told what each was about—Mother, Daddy, Jack, Baby, and Mary Jane.) Teacher: Who remembers what we said we would do today? Children: We would make books with our stories. Teacher: Then let’s read our stories first so we will make our books properly, Come, let’s read about the house. (The children read silently, sentence by sentence, while the teacher guided them with a yardstick held under the sentences. The teacher then turned to the charts on the pinning board.) Teacher: Now raise your hands when I come to the story about Mary Jane. (Several children raised their hands at the appropriate point.) Teacher: Let’s read about Mary Jane. (Again the teacher guided by holding the yardstick under the sentences while the children read silently.) Teacher: Bob, will you tell us about Mary Jane? (Bob began to read. He hesitated as he came to “She.”) Teacher: What word did we say we’d use beside “Mary Jane”? It sounds queer to keep saying her name over and over. Children: “She.” (The teacher wrote “She” on the board and called attention to the way it began.) Bob (continuing to read): She is a little girl. She has a doll (and so on). Teacher (turning to the “Daddy” story): Do you know what we said about Daddy? Don’t take too much time to study or we won’t have time to make our books. (The children studied, sentence by sentence.) Teacher: Shirley may read the “Daddy” story. (Shirley read the page about Daddy.) Teacher (turning to the “Baby” story): Let’s read this one about Baby. I like this one best of all. Children: So do I. (The children read the story silently. Then Bill read the page orally. The other pages were developed in similar fashion. The teacher then held up large tag- board books which the children were to complete. She set them on the chalk rail with the title printed on the outside cover. On the inside, the left page was for a picture and the right page had slits and rows of paper clips for fastening in the sentence strips. The titles were “Baby,” “Daddy,” “Mother,” “Jack,” “The House,” and “Mary Jane.’’) Teacher: Whose book is this? al- the Lin of hile tter the had hie on- t is hat led the ile er ut ur ke g- lk In he ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION 589 ——— Children: Baby’s book. (The teacher held up one book at a time and the children read the other titles.) Teacher: What does a book usually have in it? Children: Pictures. Teacher: What else? Children: A story. Teacher: I have a surprise (holding up tagboard cards about 2 by 8 inches on which sentences had been printed). These cards will make the stories for your books. What will you have to do in order to get the sentences in the right books? Children: We will have to know what they say—what they are about. Teacher: Yes. Take a card. (The teacher held the cards so that the children could see only the blank side. Each child took one, turned it over, and studied it. The teacher helped individual children study their cards.) Teacher: Are you ready? Bill, what is yours about? Bill: I think it’s about Daddy. Teacher (turning to the “Daddy” chart): Look up here and see if there’s any- thing like it in this story. (Bill compared his card with the sentences on the “Daddy” chart.) Teacher: Match it up and see if it is the same. Now read what it says. Bill (reading): Here is Daddy. (Bill then put his sentence in the “Daddy” book, got another sentence card from the teacher, and went on studying.) In this way each child received several cards and put them in the appropriate books. The teacher helped the children to help themselves when they had diffi- culty, by referring to the pictures and stories already familiar. Later each child read one of the “books.” Corrections were made in a few. cases when cards were in the wrong book. Each child then chose a “book” and took it to his table to make the illustration for it. At the close of the demonstration, the visitors were reminded to notice bulletin boards, children’s plans, and other materials before leaving the classroom. DISCUSSION PERIOD—TWENTY MINUTES The subsequent discussion, which was led by the supervising principal, brought out the following points: 1. Danger of confusing slow children with a too rapid accumulation of ideas and words—need for controlling the vocabulary of reading material about chil- dren’s activities. 2. Need for much meaningful, interesting repetition of words and ideas for these slow children. (Visitors recalled the use of vocabulary in other interesting ways, as in bulletins, the daily news, and other informal materials.) 3. Ways of beginning library reading with slow children, and types of material suitable for the first “library periods.” 4. Kinds of independent work which children of this type can do while the teacher is occupied with another class. (Several young teachers said that they felt they had perhaps been giving their pupils too much work involving reading.) 5. Adaptations of the teaching plan which would be desirable with a larger group of children, and in a room where there was more space. Group CONFERENCES Another avenue of help to teachers of reading is the group confer- ence, which may or may not be accompanied by demonstration work. Such conferences serve as a clearing-house for problems relating to a particular topic, and for the exchange of ideas and sometimes of re- lated materials. 590 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Conferences with kindergarten teachers—For example, the kinder- garten teachers in the schools supervised by the writer recently ex- pressed a desire for help in obtaining a better understanding of the problems of reading readiness and of the teaching of reading in the primary grades. Every month, therefore, the supervising principal met with any kindergarten teachers who wished to attend, to discuss with them their particular problems. We started with an exchange of ideas and of plans already in practise for building reading readiness in the kindergarten. After considerable discussion we decided that, altho some excellent work was being done in our kindergartens to develop reading readiness, we needed, perhaps, to point our program more definitely toward children’s needs and to keep more adequate and enlightening records to pass on to the first-grade teachers. We agreed that there were certain dangers to avoid in the development of a reading-readiness program. We felt that the vital and varied ex- periences and the guidance in oral expression of ideas which these children needed were far more important than any set of seatwork tasks which we could devise to meet particular needs. On the other hand, we believed that better ways could be devised for overcoming specific diffi- culties, and that altho the kindergarten should not assume responsi- bility for teaching reading as a formal subject, it could and should give more specific and helpful aid to children in preparing them for reading. As a result of these conferences, the kindergarten teachers experi- mented in many directions. They tried various plans for handling the library period in kindergarten. They used many kinds of records. They did more group work with the older children. An exchange of ideas and plans resulted in the rejection of some and the approval of others. Some visits to kindergartens and to beginning first-grade classes were scheduled, and particular plans were carried out. Later our interests led us into discussions of principles and methods in reading in the grades above. We considered the uses of bulletin boards, children’s daily plans, interesting news bulletins, and other devices thruout the grades. We tried always to look for beginnings and to note later developments in the same phase of work. The year’s study re- sulted in better kindergarten teaching and much greater interest in, and understanding of, primary work. Several excellent kindergarten teachers became so interested in the primary grades that they ex- pressed a desire to take their classes on into the grades above for a year or more and then to return to kindergarten teaching. Several have done so with success. Conferences for intermediate-grade teachers—Group conferences are also frequently held for intermediate-grade teachers. Sometimes ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION 591 these conferenees are requested by the group, and sometimes they are initiated by the supervising principal, who, as she goes from school to school, sees needs which should be met. For example, a talk was given last year by the supervising principal to all intermediate- grade teachers on recent professional literature in the intermediate- grade field. Interest was stimulated by previews of certain helpful books and suggestive articles from recent magazines. Teachers were urged to “stretch their thinking”—not to be satisfied with devices and methods only, but to try to keep abreast of general literature in the field and to plan definitely to use the results of pertinent research to better their own work. This talk resulted in an arrangement with the nearby library whereby all of its professional magazines were reserved for the use of teachers on one afternoon each month. Of course, every school takes some professional magazines and practically every teacher takes at least one, but the many demands upon the modern teacher make it necessary for her to budget her income, and it is almost impossible for any one teacher or any one school to subscribe to all the useful litera- ture in the field. The supervisor, in this case, used the same plan of stimulating the teachers’ reading as teachers use to stimulate reading among the children; that is, she tried to interest them in literature that would help them in their work, and to arrange a way for them to keep on finding satisfaction and growth thru systematic professional reading. EXHIBITS OF TEACHERS’ WoRK Sometimes helpful exhibits of work are arranged either at the sug- gestion of the teachers or of the supervising principal. One year the group of teachers who were studying classroom arrangements which would facilitate work had an exhibit which proved to be very helpful. This exhibit included a “Help yourself” table or rack on wheels which had been devised by a clever kindergarten teacher. Similar movable racks on wheels found a place in many primary classrooms also, and were moved about the room as needed by different groups of children. Many different arrangements for displaying classroom library books were exhibited also. These included racks which could be fastened upon the walls in crowded classrooms, and double-faced stands which could be placed in the center of groups of tables. Book easels of different kinds were also shown. The latter are particularly valuable for dis- playing large picture books that cannot be handled easily by small children. 592 ELEMENTARY ScuHootr PRINCIPALS The problem of meeting the needs of first-grade children who are not yet ready for reading but who are in the same room with several materials and ideas for these non-reading groups. The supervising prin- cipal asked each first-grade teacher to prepare enough copies of the one most challenging piece of independent work she had done with such children, and these were exchanged among the teachers present. Ideas for worthy enterprises not directly connected with reading, but contributing to general growth, were also discussed. Criteria for evalu- ating self-directed activities for these immature children were evolved to help teachers devise their own plans, and to help them appraise “commercial” materials, which are rapidly increasing in number and which vary greatly in worth. In connection with the preparation of materials for slow beginners in reading, our discussions have emphasized, as indicated earlier, that great care must be taken to avoid “feeding” these children ideas and words faster than they are able to make use of them. We have endeay- ored, moreover, to see both sides of the picture in regard to the use of children’s experiences as a basis for reading, namely, that while some reading can wisely grow out of children’s experiences, reading about children’s own activities can be quite unrelated to any real need for reading on their part. Attention has been called also to the fact that the development of a unit of work does not relieve the teacher of the responsibility of teaching reading effectively ; on the contrary, enriched classroom experiences merely offer opportunities which the good teacher will use with all the skill she can command. INDIVIDUAL AND Group StTupIES BY TEACHERS Another supervisory means of improving the reading program has been to encourage and help teachers to make individual and group studies of classroom problems. In the schools with which the writer works, such studies are undertaken at the option of the teachers, and in most cases the teachers select their own topics for study. In some in- stances they select topics from a list suggested by the supervising principal. Reading, of course, is only one of the fields in which such studies may be made, but many of those undertaken do grow out of reading problems. Individual teachers or groups usually ask for advice upon the development of their particular problems, but then they work along rather independently thru the year and finally submit a written report of the progress of their studies, including their findings and conclusions. Often the findings are presented to other teachers thru mimeographed pe he CO in mi ch of lit ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION 593 ——— summaries, oral reports, and exhibits at the end of the year. Over a period of six years approximately one-half of these classroom studies have related to reading, and many phases of work in this field have been covered. Some of the most helpful studies have dealt with the follow- ing topics: 1. Materials and procedures used in handling library reading in both the pri- mary and the intermediate grades 2. New developments in oral reading, including experiments in choral speaking 3. Preparation of easy supplementary materials for the library reading of slow children 4. Individual cases in remedial reading 5. Ways of making the bulletin board function more effectively in the teaching of reading . Plans and procedures for non-readers . Planning leisure reading for sixth grades . Children’s interests as a basis for preparing reading material . Phonics or no phonics?—a summary of research in the field 10. Reading interests of atypical children 11. Reading references grouped according to areas of the curriculum 12. Children’s spontaneous reactions to scheduled library periods in the school library (reported by special librarian) 13. Ways of getting the card index used more effectively by a sixth-grade class 14. Try-outs of materials to be used in readers. ie si mr) OTHER Metuops To Improve INSTRUCTION In addition to the methods already mentioned, individual visits to teachers in the classroom furnish many opportunities for improvement of the reading program. Principals of individual schools visit classrooms consistently and submit to the supervising principal reports of their visits. The supervising principal keeps similar records of her own visits to teachers, and uses them as a basis for teacher guidance when- ever possible. Still another source of guidance is a special teacher who gives full time to remedial reading in the division, and who helps both individual children and teachers with their reading problems. All of us try to work together to help the teachers, who in turn are striving to help the children to help themselves to read better and enjoy reading more as a part of vital and meaningful classroom living. 594 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS ASSISTING TEACHERS AND PRINCIPALS THRU DEMON. STRATION LESSONS IN READING Rutu B. Mrtter, Supervisor of Intermediate Grades and M. CatHertne Cones, Supervisor of Primary Grades Public Schools, Baltimore, Maryland teaching materials are considered an important phase of the in-service training of elementary-school principals and teachers in the public schools of Baltimore. Several types of demonstrations are provided, each serving a definite purpose for a particular group or individual. The observers range from beginning teachers to principals of elementary schools, and lessons are given that meet the needs of each group. The lessons are carefully planned by the supervisor in charge and by the demonstration teacher, and are conducted with classes of children of different abilities. In this way it is possible for the observers to see normal reading activities in regular classrooms and to gain practical help from their observations and from the dis- cussions that follow. General types of demonstration—One type of demonstration for teachers is the so-called weekly after-school demonstration. The les- sons in reading are given in each of the elementary grades from the kindergarten thru the sixth. As the lesson progresses, the observers take notes and are guided by questions provided on an observation sheet. The supervisor in charge of the lesson conducts the subsequent discussion and encourages the participation of the observers. The ob- servers include beginning teachers, teachers new in a particular grade, and others who wish to keep in touch with the latest accepted methods and materials of reading instruction. Another type of demonstration is that given in an individual school for the benefit of the faculty of that school. These lessons are con- ducted by a teacher in the school and the observers include only the other teachers i» the same school. The demonstrations are given after school hours, aid their purpose is to show definite procedures in the teaching of reading that are suited to the needs of that particular school. The supervisor or principal, or both, help to plan the lesson with the teacher. The discussion is conducted either by the principal, the supervisor, or the teacher. A third type of demonstration is given only for the principals of elementary schools. These include many different kinds of reading lessons in both the primary and intermediate grades. A discussion after each lesson is conducted by the supervisor in charge. Pertinent points [esting nae OF TEACHING PROCEDURES and of the use of _~ ra FF ee ee ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION 595 concerning the procedures used are brought out in the discussion, and the principals are encouraged to participate. A more detailed analysis of teaching procedures, pupil needs, and materials is made than in the series of lessons provided for classroom teachers. Mimeographed sheets describing the lesson briefly and giving the points emphasized in the discussion are distributed to the principals. These are found to be profitable in the subsequent faculty meetings in which the principals pass on to their teachers the results of their observations. These demonstrations are held during the morning session, and occur once every week with the primary and intermediate grades alternating. Still another type of demonstration is that given by the super- visor or principal for an individual teacher. Inexperienced teachers, new teachers in a grade, or those who need special help in a particular phase of reading instruction are thus given an opportunity to observe a lesson with appropriate practise material planned and presented by the supervisor. In a conference preceding the lesson, the teacher is instructed to look for specific points as the lesson proceeds. The supervisor and teacher later discuss these points in their analysis of the lesson. This kind of demonstration has been found profitable in clarifying the reading aims and procedures for certain individual teachers who have had difficulty in planning the work of the grade. An individual teacher can often profit also by observing another teacher of the same grade in a different school. For this reason certain individual observations are planned. The observing teacher is asked to take careful notes on previously discussed points and to give the supervisor or principal a copy of her write-up of the lesson observed. The teacher who gives the demonstration is prepared with definite suggestions as to types of lessons, procedures, and points to be em- phasized for the benefit of the observer. Types of lessons demonstrated—The accepted instructional pro- cedures to be used in each primary grade are shown thruout the school term. One type of lesson deals with beginning chart reading in a IC or IB class. These lessons usually show consecutive stages in the development of a reading chart. The class is divided into two or three groups, making it possible to show two or three stages of progress in one demonstration. Lessons showing the actual composing of an experience chart are presented, as well as the work on such a chart after it has been printed on tagboard. In such lessons the aim is to give the steps in initiating the children into the mechanics of reading, such as looking at the print, reading from left to right, reading from the top down, and so on. Such lessons also aim to show the value of chart reading in introducing the children to reading as a thought-getting process. 596 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Lessons are given also in the initial stages of book reading in the pre-primer. These lessons include the first day with books, directed silent study, development of phrases and words, and the reading of supplementary material of the same vocabulary as the pre-primer. The aim of these demonstrations is to show the development of abili- ties appropriate to the first stage of book reading, for example, comprehending what is read, developing habits of word recognition both silent and oral, and learning to handle and care for books prop- erly. Later work in Grade IB includes lessons in initiating a new story, oral practise lessons, phrase and word development, phonetic analysis of words, and reading the known vocabulary in a different setting. In addition, there is a continuation of lessons in directed silent study and in reading charts and bulletin board material. In the IA classes where the children have become adapted to read- ing as a thought-getting process, the lessons demonstrated attempt to show advancement and growth thru continued practise in the habits, attitudes, and skills initiated in Grade IB. The work is similar to that demonstrated in the IB but employs more difficult reading mate- rial. Lessons involving reference reading and the use of supple- mentary materials furnish opportunities to use the skills developed in the work-type lessons, and show the development of independence in effective interpretation of the reading material. Opportunities to read materials other than the regular text are demonstrated, such as direc- tions, posters, simple science and social studies material, library books, stories, and poems. As emphasis is placed also on fluency in oral reading at this stage of children’s development, lessons are given that show oral practise on a story for audience reading. Reading lessons in the second and third grades are presented to show the development of certain silent reading abilities, such as com- prehending the meaning of sentences and paragraphs, noting details, following directions, predicting the outcomes, getting the general significance, and organizing related ideas. Lessons in oral reading, including such types as increasing rate and span of recognition, developing fluency in oral reading, improving expression in read- ing, and activities in audience reading, are also included. In all primary grades, lessons in phonies are demonstrated as a part of reading instruction. The beginning lessons in ear training in the first grade are shown, as well as later work in learning and. apply- ing initial consonants and phonograms. In the second grade, lessons are given in which double consonant beginnings, endings, new phono- grams, and the vowels are presented and applied. The presentation and use of prefixes, suffixes, compound consonants, easy phonetic — ——_ ST es ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION 597 —_—— rules, and exercises in syllabication are demonstrated in the third grade. Whenever possible in the reading demonstrations, phonetic analysis is emphasized to show its value in training for independence in word recognition. As most of the demonstrations in primary reading show several groups working one at a time with the teacher, there are opportunities to present and evaluate many types of appropriate and worthwhile practise material. This material is carefully planned by the super- visor and teacher in order to show the most profitable use of the reading time in promoting growth thru practise. Samples of the prac- tise material are available to the observers and are evaluated in a discussion following the lesson. In the intermediate grades, demonstrations in both the work and the recreatory types of silent and oral reading are given. Ways to provide training in the following abilities with above-average, average, and below-average groups of children in the fourth, fifth, and sixth grades are shown: 1. Ability in recognizing new words a. Determining meanings from contextual clues b. Verifying meanings of significant words with the dictionary . Ability to locate information thru a. Use of title page and table of contents b. Use of index c. Use of abridged dictionary d. Use of selected bibliographies e. Use of reference books f. Use of cross references within a single book g. Use of skimming to locate key words determined in advance 3. Ability to associate ideas read with previous experience 4, Ability to get the main point of a paragraph 5. Ability to get the main points and supporting details in work-type reading 6. Ability to answer specific fact questions 7 8 9 bo . Ability to answer thought questions with evidence from reading . Ability to follow clearly worded directions . Ability to read school papers and bulletin board notices to find places to go and things to do 10. Ability to use spare moments profitably and pleasurably in reading 11. Ability to read a piece of literature to get the dominant impression of it 12. Ability to use the newly acquired library skills in independent reading 13. Ability to note, while reading, the author and title of the book being read 14. Ability to convey thru oral reading the author’s meaning. The wise use of supplementary reading materials and the differenti- ation of such materials for different ability groups are demonstrated in all the elementary grades. Sources of material are given, and samples of any mimeographed reading matter composed or arranged by the teacher are available to the observers. The provision for individual tastes and interests, the organization and distribution of material, and the planning for presentation of material to the class 598 ELEMENTARY ScHOOL PRINCIPALS are emphasized. The definite development of such reference habits as locating information, evaluating the information in relation to the reader’s purpose, organizing the material, and remembering the ideas to be given to others is shown. Activities in recreatory reading also are demonstrated in each elementary grade. Lessons showing the children’s first experiences with picture books are given in the kindergarten. The actual selection and reading of library books is demonstrated in the first grade. In the second and third grades, typical demonstration lessons in recreatory reading include such activities as making book reports, conducting a reading club, classifying stories, reviewing books, and reading poetry or other classical literature. Lessons in the use of library indexes, cards, and catalogs are presented in the third and intermediate grades. The recreatory type of reading is continued in various ways at increasingly higher levels in the intermediate grades. Preparing for the demonstrations—To prepare for a series of read- ing demonstrations, the supervisor in charge confers with the other supervisors in her department and with the assistant superintendent and director of the department in order to decide on the types of lessons to be included. The types of lessons selected are those that seem to be most needed by the teachers in the city as a whole. After this question has been settled, the supervisor investigates all avail- able materials relative to the underlying principles and acceptable procedures for the lessons to be presented. The principles and objec- tives of education in general are considered, and the particular principles, objectives, and procedures to be demonstrated by each lesson are decided upon. In planning for any one lesson a conference with the demonstration teacher is held. The progress and the particular needs of the children to be taught are determined. With these considerations in mind, the teacher and supervisor together select the specific procedures to be stressed by the demonstration for the benefit of the observers. Then the lesson is planned in detail. The stories to be used with each group are selected, and teaching exercises are planned to provide practise in the skills to be developed during the demonstration period. The specific steps to be used with each group are worked out. After carefully planning the lesson with the teacher, the supervisor constructs a guide sheet to assist observers in evaluating the lesson. This sheet, which includes an outline of procedures in general, questions to guide observation and discussion, and suggested readings on the topic, is distributed to the teachers before the lesson begins. A sample sheet follows: icons ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION 599 READING—VIA Group I—Training in determining subheadings Group II—Training in word and phrase study Procedure General assignment—An exercise composed of sentences to be matched with previously taught words was explained and illustrated. Group I—General significance of the story was discussed. Teacher-guided practise in matching main topics and subheadings was given. Independent practise in matching main topics and subheadings was given. Group II—General significance of the story was discussed. Practise was given in pronouncing teacher’s list of words and phrases, and in developing meanings from context and glossary. Words and phrases studied were matched with meanings. Sentences were completed with the words and phrases studied. Original sentences using the new words and phrases were written. Group I—Matching of main topics and subheadings was spot-checked. Group II—Several original sentences showing the use of the new words were read. General assignment—Matching of sentences and words was spot-checked. Questions To Guide Observation and Discussion . What was the purpose of the work with each group? . What work with each group preceded today’s lesson? . What might be the next step with each group? . What was the purpose of the general assignment? . Why were the children encouraged to discuss the type of story that they had read? . How were the children going to use the outline which they had constructed? . How were the children encouraged to use the knowledge of phonies as a key to pronunciation? 8. How was the training in word and phrase study made thoro? 9. What principles should guide the teacher in planning her work to give train- ing in organization? 10. What principles should guide the teacher in planning her work to give train- ing in word and phrase study? or, CON eS “Io Sufficiently in advance of each lesson, suggested readings on the topic to be taught are provided for the observers in order that they may prepare to observe the demonstration in the most purposeful way. Evaluating the demonstration lessons—After the lesson has been taught, the observers discuss it with the guide sheet before them. The things that took place in the lesson are enumerated, and worthwhile examples of teacher’s comments, questions, and actions are cited as they actually occurred. After the sequence of events has been com- mented on, the devices, technics, and procedures used are discussed and evaluated with reference to the purpose of the lesson. The value of each thing that took place and the question of whether it might better have been done differently are carefully considered. The teachers are encouraged to ask questions, make comments, and offer suggestions for 600 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS i improvement in the procedures used. To each criticism, comment, and suggestion offered by the observers the supervisor adds her comments and recommendations. At the end of the discussion the points made therein are summarized, and mimeographed copies of this summary are distributed later. In the demonstrations for principals, a teacher- supervisor conference following the lesson is held in the presence of the principals. Then a discussion of the supervisor’s technics is held, Results of the demonstration program—As a result of the demon- strations described above, there has been a clarification of the aims, procedures, and use of materials in reading instruction among the teachers and principals of the city. The discussions following the lessons have helped the observers to understand the practical application of the procedures presented, as well as the principles underlying such technics. Suitable types of material and their uses have been made known, and the proper selection of materials has been encouraged. The demonstration lessons have also been an important factor in the effective installation of the new courses of study in reading in the schools of this city. Changes made in the aims, procedures, and ma- terials of reading instruction have been actually demonstrated and discussed. Recommendations for the grouping of children, the differ- entiation of material, the appraisal of children’s progress, and the correction of reading disabilities have been illustrated and clarified. Appropriate page references to the courses of study have been given as each type of instruction was being demonstrated. As a result, there has been an easy and confident adjustment to the new courses of study in reading, and they have been accepted as a definite source of help and guidance in the everyday work of the schools. There are many evi- dences of this thruout the city as the teachers strive to improve their instruction in reading. Principals, too, as a result of their joint dis- cussion and observation of supervisory methods, are improving the supervision of reading in their own schools. The children, in turn, are passing from grade to grade better equipped than ever before with reading skills and habits, as well as with desirable attitudes toward reading as a tool for work and pleasure. The actual improvement in the teaching of reading is easily checked by means of the tests given to pupils thruout the city. These tests are based solely on the material and the procedures suggested in the courses of study. The test results provide ample evidence of an increased understanding on the part of teachers and principals of the accepted aims and pro- cedures of reading instruction. As the reading demonstrations continue and the new courses of study become more familiar to the teachers, pupil achievement may be expected to show even greater improvement. ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION 601 —_—_— DEVELOPING LOCAL READING TESTS FOR CITYWIDE USE M. CaTHerINE Couesg, Supervisor of Primary Grades Rutu B. Miuier, Supervisor of Intermediate Grades and Marie E. WAt.aAce, Principal, School No. 64 Baltimore, Maryland had a semiannual testing program in which commercial standard- ized tests in reading and other subjects have been used. However, in March 1936 it was decided to build local tests in reading for use in this program. One reason for this decision was the fact that new courses of study in reading had recently been installed, and some measure of how well the objectives set up for reading in the city were being achieved was thought advisable. In addition, it was felt that the standardized group tests which had been given in the past did not measure adequately certain specific abilities in reading which they purported to measure. Consequently, plans were made for developing new reading tests to be tried out in Grades I thru VI in September 1936. Initiating the program of test construction—Two somewhat different plans of procedure were selected for initiating the program, one for the primary grades and the other for the intermediate grades. In the primary grades, a representative committee of principals, vice- principals, supervisors, and teachers of Grades I, II, and III was chosen. There were approximately thirty members of the original com- mittee. The first consideration of this committee was that of the objectives of reading instruction in Baltimore. In order to test fairly the instruc- tion given, it was essential that a thoro interpretation of reading objectives be made. After a careful analysis of these aims the following types of tests for Grades IA, ITA, and IITA were decided upon: FF: THE PAST FIFTEEN YEARS the public schools of this city have Grade IA Grades IIA and IITA 1. Matching 1. Sentence and paragraph comprehension 2. Mechanics 2. Noting details 3. Word recognition 3. Following directions 4. Comprehension 4. Organization of ideas and central thought 5. Following directions 5. Drawing conclusions 6. Related meanings. 6. Phonetic ability. The committee then agreed that sufficient materials should be pro- vided for three forms of each test. Therefore, during April 1936 a great variety of original materials were prepared by members of the com- 602 ELEMENTARY ScHOooL PRINCIPALS mittee and were used with many children. It was hoped that in this way the difficulty of the materials could be roughly established and that some tentative standards of attainment could be set up. For a period of approximately three weeks, teachers were busy in many parts of the city, devising and trying out materials to test the abilities chosen. In May it was felt that enough materials were available to make three tentative forms—A, B, and C—for experimental purposes. Another committee similarly planned tests for the intermediate grades. This group decided that a separate test for each grade should be composed. Each test was to be primarily a power test, including sufficient material from the preceding grade to test the slower child, and enough from the next higher grade so that the child of superior ability could also be tested. After a careful study of the reading objectives for these grades, it was agreed that the most important abilities might be measured by dividing the test for each grade into seven subtests, as follows: . Following directions . Word meaning . Noting details . Organization Evaluation . Location of material . Recreatory reading. “IoD Or de CO ND Nature of test materials for the intermediate grades—There was a special need for lifelike materials to measure the child’s ability to follow directions. To meet this need a survey of the types of life situations in which children need to follow directions was made. As a result of this survey it was decided to label this subtest ‘Personal Information.” The children were asked to read it silently and to write their responses as directed. Following are sample items from this subtest for each of the intermediate grades: PERSONAL INFORMATION Grade IV See how well you can fill in this page. Do it yourself. First read each direction, then do exactly as it tells you. Ree ik a eee eee G Grade........ School No. (Last name) (First name) If vou went to this school last year, write Y#S on the dotted line. If you did not go to this school, write on the dotted line the number or name of rr rs, Oe CU Ss Lrg ah pb aans Salem 4 eae os If you went to kindergarten, place an O in the first box. If you did not go to kindergarten, place an X in the last box to the right. Se? oe ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION 603 Grade V In order to make a telephone call on a dial telephone, one of the necessary things to do is to select the first two letters of the exchange which are written in heavy and large print. For example, if a person wishes to dial a call to John Carr, 412 Raspe Street................... BElair 8022 it is necessary to select the two letters BE from the exchange and the numbers 8022 in order to call John Carr. Read the list below. Draw two lines under the two letters of the exchange that you would dial if you wished to call Ruth Jones. Then draw one line under the numbers which you would have to dial in order to call Roland Jones. Jones, Marian....4 E. North Avenue...... UNiversity 0137 Jones, Roland....25 N. Charles Street. .... VErnon 1162 Jones, Ruth..... 116 W. Lexington Street. .PLaza 9186 Jones, Rose......225 Eastern Avenue...... WOlfe 7700 Jones, Samuel....150 S. Charles Street. ....CHesapeake 6031 Rose Jones’s name will not be printed in the telephone book of this city next month, because she is moving to another state. Put a line through her name, address, exchange,.and telephone number to show that her name will not be printed in the next telephone book of this city. Grade VI NORTH Mary's house Twenty-fifth Street $ F @ west 5 & Est Cn | 8 Fi “ Jane's house Z : Twenty-fourth Street SOUTH Jane invited her friend, Mary, to come to her house one afternoon. Because Mary had not been there before, it was necessary for Jane to give her directions. Put a check in the box to the right of the street that is nearest to the street on which Jane lives. Twenty-fourth Street Charles Street oO St. Paul Street O Twenty-fifth Street O 604 ELEMENTARY ScHOOL PRINCIPALS ———___—____ Write on the line the word which tells the direction Mary will have to walk on Twenty-fifth Street to get to St. Paul Street. ..................... Write an X mark on the line to the left of each sentence which tells what Mary should do when she gets to St. Paul Street in order to get to Jane’s house. ee She should turn to the left. ......She should turn south. gee She should turn east. ......She should turn west. ate She should cross the street. Write on the line the direction which tells.on which side of St. Paul Street Jane's towne i located. .... oo .cccecccccssccccs Place in the box below the number of the group of words which tells between what streets Jane’s house is located. O 1. Between St. Paul and 3. Between Twenty-fourth and Charles Streets Charles Streets 2. Between Twenty-fifth and 4. Between Twenty-fifth and Charles Streets Twenty-fourth Streets For each of these grades an original story about a topic of interest to the children was composed. The fourth-grade story consisted of approximately 400 words about “Highways”; the fifth-grade story con- tained approximately 500 words on “Communication”; and the sixth- grade story comprised approximately 600 words about ‘Weather.” All the tests for each grade, with the exception of the “following directions” test, were based on the story for that grade. Each test was objective and was constructed so that it could be machine scored. Preliminary tryout of the tests—After the original primary tests were composed, they were given a tryout using 1500 children in selected groups. These groups represented different ability levels and various sections of the city. They included children in the suburban sections, in the mid-city sections, in the poor and less privileged sections, and in sections predominantly foreign. As each child com- pleted one of the subtests, the amount of time he had spent on it was carefully recorded on his test paper. The average time for each sub- test was computed from these records, and was used later in deter- mining the standard time for that test. Before the tests for the intermediate grades were given to the children, they were given to a large committee of teachers, vice- principals, and principals for purposes of evaluation. The members of this committee were to decide whether the tests were sufficiently representative of the materials of instruction used in the schools; whether they were well constructed from the point of view of English; and whether they were objective from the point of view of scoring. To check on the clearness and completeness of the manual of direc- tions accompanying each test, the committee took the tests in the same way that the children were to take them. As a result of the et i a ee, ie ee. | ee. eee ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION 605 suggestions made by the committee, some revisions were made in the tests before they were administered to the children. The children to whom these intermediate-grade tests were given were carefully selected on several bases. Using both intelligence and achievement as criteria for selection, 500 below-average and 500 above-average children representing all social levels and types of school in the city were chosen from each grade for tryout purposes. Each test was tried out not only in the grade for which it was intended, but also in the grade below and in the grade above. On the basis of the time taken by the various types of children to complete each test, appropriate time limits were statistically computed and decided upon. Grade norms for the tests were not established, however, until the next semester when the tests were given to all pupils in Grades IVA, VA, and VIA. Rearranging and improving the test material—When all of the test- ing material had been tried out in the classes, the next step was to reorganize it into three similar forms. With the aid of the Bureau of Statistics, Measurements, and Research of the school system, the rela- tive difficulty of each item in the tests was determined according to the percent of children answering it correctly. Tables and graphs were arranged to show the degree to which each item would discriminate among children at different levels of reading ability. The items were then grouped into three forms of approximately equal difficulty, and those in each form were arranged in order of difficulty within each subtest. Manuals of directions were carefully prepared and the keys for scoring were made. Form A of the tests was printed first, and was given to pupils in September 1936. The number of children tested was as follows: og a a DS! rere re re 9,343 Grades IVA, VA, and VIA 9,205 Total number of pupils ’ <7 18,548 Thru the bureau of statistics and research the range of scores, the number of children testing “at grade,” the medians, and the quartiles were found. Teachers of the grades tested were questioned concerning the values of the tests given. Helpful comments and criticisms were used by the committee in improving the tests still further. For instance, Test 2 for the first grade had included the mechanics of chart reading. Teachers felt, however, that this was not really a test of reading ability and it was therefore discarded. Likewise, in the test on following direc- tions it was found that certain items were too difficult or too easy, and changes were made accordingly. 606 KLEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS After the original Form A had been given to all A-class pupils in Grades I thru VI, it was decided to give Form B of the tests to the same pupils the following semester. Form C was given the following fall. As in the case of Form A, the results of the second and third forms were used as a basis for further revision and improvement of the tests, Such revision involved changes in the order of certain items, as well as the exclusion of items which had proved valueless. Lessons learned from the test-building experience—In developing local reading tests for citywide use, many problems inevitably arise. The following observations and suggestions based on experience in Baltimore may help school workers elsewhere to meet some of these problems: 1. A representative group of principals, vice-principals, supervisors, and teachers should make the tests under the general guidance of expert test technicians. This procedure will provide many points of view and give critical evaluation of all materials. 2. A most serious problem in this city was that of pictures for the first-grade tests. Unless commercial artists are employed, the question of the type of pictures will be a weighty one. 3. The duplicating process to be used must be decided upon. Mimeographed tests did not prove satisfaetory here because of their cumbersomeness; hence, printed test booklets were used. The first tests were printed in the local print- ing school; Forms B and C were printed by commercial firms. The proper size of type and the size and format of the test pages for each grade are most impor- tant questions. 4. All materials should be tried in various types of classrooms and with all kinds of children. It is most essential that the tests be well graded, and that the more difficult items not be included near the beginning of the test. 5. A very precise and exact manual of directions should accompany the tests. Individual differences in persons giving the tests would make the results worth- less for citywide comparisons if such a manual were not provided. 6. It is necessary that every item be objective; that is, there should be only one answer which could possibly be correct. 7. In the use of paragraphs for checking on the various phases of comprehen- sion, it is necessary that all of the questions be based on the paragraphs read, so that they cannot be answered on the basis of the child’s experience or previous reading. Evaluation of the test construction program—Inasmuch as the re- quest for the development of tests to measure attainment of the reading objectives in the new courses of study came from the teachers and the tests were designed to meet this expressed need, the first criterion for evaluating the program should perhaps be the degree of satisfaction which it afforded to the teaching staff. On the whole, the teachers were well pleased with the program because it supplied them with a means for appraising the efficieney of their work in terms of child growth in the specific abilities that they were teaching. Moreover, on the basis of the children’s performances on each test, individual and ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION 607 class needs could be diagnosed and remedial measures could be decided upon. In some instances the teacher felt that it was desirable to change her procedure in teaching children to read. As a result of the teacher’s personal decision to gain more information about how to develop the abilities specified in the course of study, she attended after-school demonstration lessons and requested additional supervision in reading. In this way what started out to be a testing program really developed into a type of in-service training for teachers. As the teachers gained in their ability to teach reading, the children likewise gained in their ability to read. The growth made by the chil- dren was evident from a comparison of their scores on the February 1937 tests with their original scores on the September 1936 tests. Further studies have shown that not only do the grade scores of pupils on the course-of-study tests compare very favorably with their grade scores on reliable commercial tests in reading, but that there has been a consistent improvement of Baltimore pupils in the reading abilities measured since the first use of the locally constructed tests. It is be- lieved that the largest factors in this improvement have been the teacher’s increased understanding of fundamental methods in reading and her appreciation of the reading tests given at the beginning of each semester as an objective inventory of the abilities and needs of her pupils. N EFFECTIVE supervisory testing program must be continuous A and systematic, and the findings should be cumulatively and graphically portrayed. When these conditions are met, the skills, abilities, attitudes, knowledges, understandings, or other characteristics measured by the tests become the objectives of the school. These objectives tend to determine the curriculum emphasis, the teaching procedures, and the methods of study. Thus, a testing program may, to a large degree, determine the curriculum of the school. . . . Since systematic testing tends to focus instructional effort upon the characteristics measured by the tests, it is highly important that these include all the desired outcomes of instruction —Cook, Walter W., in Apprais- ing the Elementary-School Program, Sixteenth Yearbook, De- partment of Elementary School Principals, 1937, p. 470. 608 ELEMENTARY ScHOOL PRINCIPALS INTERPRETING THE READING PROGRAM TO PARENTS HELENA PetrovitcH NIeGcoscH Principal, Saticoy Street School, Los Angeles, California lay citizens the reading program of the modern school. The sweep- ing changes that have come over education are of such recent occurrence that most adults, remembering only their own school days, have little or no conception of the significance of the new development. Parents tend to judge the new procedures merely by the statements of their children, and frequently it is only when trouble arises that the children say anything at all. The problem of explaining the new edu- cation to the parents is, therefore, of extreme importance, and of this larger task the privilege of interpreting the modern reading program is a significant part. Tiss IS A DEFINITE NEED for interpreting to parents and to other Tue NEED FoR INTERPRETATION Many a parent fails to notice that there is a distinct reason and purpose in the changes that have come about in the modern elementary school, and that the present state of affairs is the result of definite planning rather than of drifting on the part of educators. It is not an uncommon occurrence for principals and teachers to meet with a parent who undertakes to advise them how to teach and conduct a school. The advice offered is usually of the old-fashioned variety, and indi- cates that the parent thinks the school operates as it does because of the limited knowledge of those in charge. The idea that educators have only recently, and with difficulty, cast off the shackles of tradition would not occur to such parents. It is the business of the school, there- fore, to take the initiative in explaining and justifying its stand with respect to the changes suggested above, rather than to wait until infor- mation is sought. Only a few parents will come to the school to find out why certain things are done. The school must take the matter to the parents and definitely invite their attention to the newer procedures. Some of the reasons why the more important phases of the new read- ing program should be introduced and explained to the parents are discussed briefly below. 1. The lay public clings to traditional concepts of reading instruc- tion. For a long time, one of the main purposes of the elementary school was to teach children to pronounce words from the printed page, that is, to read. Reading indeed became the first of the traditional three R’s, and the learning of this subject became the first worry of the school ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION 609 child. The school was judged by its ability to give its pupils a mastery of its three fundamental subjects, and it lost no time in starting its task of teaching them. Parents expected “Junior” to acquire a reading book on the first day of school, and kindergartens were regarded as a waste of time because they “taught nothing.” From a grim, determined beginning on the opening day of school, reading continued to be a subject of great seriousness to pupils, teachers, and parents alike. Writing, spelling, and arithmetic were likewise regarded as parts of the main offering, but reading was para- mount in its claims upon the thoughts, aspirations, fears, and hates of all the persons concerned. The home, if it laid any claim to respecta- bility, assumed a part of the burden. Every night Junior must get his book and study his lesson, reading aloud to mother or big sister, and being helped to remember by drilling on the more difficult words. Usu- ally a little phonies was attempted, and if the child had not been taught his letters before going to school, the alphabet was surreptitiously “pounded in,” even after the school had discarded this method as an initial step. The weary process went on thru the years. If Junior had any diffi- culty, he must study harder and longer. The teacher in school and the mother at home increased their efforts to keep him “up to his grade” by more and more of the same thing. He might even have to repeat a grade in order to “strengthen his reading,” but there would be little or no individual diagnosis of his problem, and repetition would be the principal if not the only remedy. That Junior hated school and detested all his lesson books, par- ticularly his reader, can be readily understood. He seldom opened a book of his own volition, and when he did, it was likely to be one be- longing to a younger brother and therefore easier to read. But he was ashamed of being caught reading a third reader when he was in the fourth grade, and the cover of the book advertised its own level. This is the picture held in the minds of many adults as they recollect their own childhood and survey with doubt and apprehension the con- trasts of the new reading program. For weeks, months, or even years, Junior may bring home no reading book. For a long time, apparently, he does not have one even in school. “No,” he will say in answer to inquiries, ‘“we do not have reading books,” and the doubt in the mind of the parent grows. Don’t the schools teach anything? When will the child bring a book home so that mother can “see that he gets his lessons’? What is this nonsense she hears about no reading in the first grade? Later, when she marvels at how Junior “learned to read over- night,” as it were, she sees no relation between the building of the 610 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS experiential background and the apparent suddenness of his learning ( to read. That he can read sentences and words, moreover, before he | “knows his letters” is another source of wonder (and doubt), and that | he soon wants to join the library and to bring home library books rather than readers is another amazing condition. Still later, the same mother fails to note anything unusual in the fact that Junior can easily and readily consult the family dictionary and encyclopedia, read the newspaper, seek information in many books, skim, sift, and find mate- rials for his many enterprises in a manner to which her own performance at a similar age would compare with great disadvantage. Such a parent wants to know about the new education and would welcome being enlightened as to the new reading program. 2. An increased knowledge of child nature reveals the inadequacy of older procedures in beginning reading. Learning is normally a pleasur- able activity. When it becomes the reverse, something is wrong. The biological organism reacts and modifies its reactions continually as it is influenced by internal and external conditions. This attribute of all life is the basis of learning, and it is pleasurable to the organism. Situa- tions that cause distress or annoyance are inimical to constructive learning because they inhibit activity. When school learning becomes tiresome, it is antagonistic to the natural growth processes and thus reveals its own inadequacy. The distastefulness of the old processes of learning to read, the effort required, and the ease with which the child’s attention wandered, all point to the inadequacy of the methods used. Now, knowing that the child readily grasps the meaning of symbols whenever they have significance for him, the teacher builds up the meaning first, and then the symbols are learned as a matter of course, whether the concept is expressed in a word, a phrase, or a sentence. Repeatedly meeting the same symbols, the child soon attaches mean- ing to symbols as such, and thus learns to read. The more closely the symbols are attached to the experience, the more readily do they be- come habit patterns, or “learned.” Thus, the normal experiences of the child’s life are the basis of reading. Daily experiences in the home, at school, and at play, with games, toys, trips, and other familiar activi- ties constitute the matter for which symbols readily acquire meaning. No prepared textbook can possibly be so attuned to the child’s indi- vidual life as to be an adequate expression of his activities. No book can furnish the best reading material in the earliest stages of learning. Charts, booklets, bulletins, and the like, prepared by the teacher in response to the natural expression of the pupils, furnish the best mate- rials. A rich background of this kind of experience leads to ease of reading later on, when the process can be reversed and the experience » EE ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION 611 can be sought thru the symbols. Parents are interested to know such facts as these, and the school is, in most cases, the only medium thru which they will ever be informed. 3. A consideration of the newer purposes of education reveals the fallacy of teaching reading as an end in itself. Another point which parents may not realize is that the new school has social aims and purposes different from those of the past. The new education aims to develop the whole child, to help him to realize his fullest potentialities as an individual and also as a member of society. The acquisition of “school learning” is regarded as valuable only so far as it contributes to these ends. Thus, merely to be able to read, to pronounce words, or to go thru a reader in a perfunctory manner, as was the objective only a short time ago, is now totally inadequate as an aim of reading in- struction. As mentioned before, the child cannot grow unless he is happily and purposefully engaged in activities that he regards as mean- ingful to him. To read a book that he does not want to read is a waste of time and a means of destroying good attitudes. The modern child must be allowed to read for a purpose, to find out something that he wants to know for his own use or for use in a group, and either for busi- ness or pleasure. His purposes usually require the consulting of more than one book, and his reading for pleasure requires abundant oppor- tunity for selection. Thus, it is essential that he be provided with suffi- cient material, and the inadequacy of the old type of reader is apparent. Parents may feel, and often say, that it is “better to read one book well than many books poorly.” Within reason this contention is correct, especially if paraphrased to read, “The needed parts of books should be read well rather than unwanted parts poorly.” But the expression is usually directed against teachers who are using several books in place of the old reader. That it is not always necessary to read all of a book, and that it is better to read only the parts needed rather than to drag thru pages of dull, uninteresting material, may need to be pointed out explicitly. The individual and social needs of pupils are more earnestly studied in the modern school than at any time in the past, and this usually requires a large variety of materials in each class. That the children are not all reading from the same book may puzzle some parents until they realize the children’s purpose in reading. The differences in ability and background of the pupils, as well as the variety of their current interests and enterprises, require this diversity. The units of work undertaken by the children involve cooperative methods, and the pupils will be searching for material in different books, reading it, and pre- paring to retell it to the group or rewriting it for the group report. Why 612 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS all children should be expected to read the same story in the same book at the same time would puzzle many children in the upper grades today, Parents may never have thought of this viewpoint. In the lower grades, of course, where definite skills are being sought, it is economical of time for the teacher to work with groups using the same material—a situation analogous, but by no means identical, to the grouping familiar to the parents. The modern classroom presents a picture of pupil activity and indi- vidual growth of which the reading program is an integral part. From the first grade on, reading is a subject that really has no excuse for a separate existence. It is always a tool, or a key with which one unlocks doors. Children are engaged in happy enterprises in which reading plays a useful part. Technics and rules are taught as the need for them is met. Drill is necessary in most classes for some of the pupils, but it is used to cure definite defects that have become obvious, and not merely to please the teacher or to keep the pupils busy. The diversified program of the modern classroom presents many opportunities for reading of many types thruout the day. Reading is not learned exclu- sively in the “reading period.” Written directions, bulletins, captions on pictures and slides, rules for new games, and the like, are examples of reading experiences that occur daily. Thus, reading becomes recog- nized as a functioning skill of value to the reader, and not merely an unpleasant duty. Such facts as these are a revelation to most parents, who welcome the sehool’s explanation of its procedures. Meruops oF INTERPRETATION Some of the reasons why the modern school has an obligation to ex- plain its procedures to parents and other citizens have been suggested in the foregoing paragraphs. The question now arises, Who should make such explanations and how can the task be most efficiently per- formed? The persons who should feel the responsibility for interpreting the reading program to the public are, first of all, the school principal, and then, as occasion permits, the teachers, supervisors, and any others engaged in the instructional work of the schools. The position of the principal, who is the intermediary between the school and the com- munity, gives him the leading place in any program of interpretation. The principal is the superintendent’s deputy for putting into practise the educational offering of the system, and for seeing that the work of the schools is understood. The methods of reaching the parents and the community will vary with the school, the program, the children, the personality of the prin- cipal, the community spirit, and many other factors that might become ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION 613 ——— significant in any particular case. Some of the more practical and effi- cient methods of interpreting the reading program are discussed in the following pages. Visits to the school—This method obviously will not be used by many of the parents whose visits would be the most desirable. Many parents, however, will respond willingly to invitations, or will come to school of their own volition, to visit and observe the classes at work. Thus, they will become acquainted with the newer ways, not only in reading but in the complete educational program. Problems are much less likely to arise in families where the parents know their schools, than where the parent judges all schools from the point of view of his own childhood memories. Arranging for “Open House” with special inducements, such as refreshments or programs definitely planned by various classes at stated hours, will help to bring the parents to the school. In this connection, however, it should be observed that the school situation should be unique only from the viewpoint of the parent. To the teachers and pupils the day should be a regular school day, with the usual lessons and activities. Several times during the year the school should plan to hold “Open House” in the evening so that parents who are occupied during the day may have the opportunity of seeing the work of the school. On such occasions it will be difficult, if not impossible, to give demonstration lessons of the various types of reading, as many pupils will not be present, but wherever possible some of the usual activities of the class- room should be shown in operation. In addition to special events designed to induce the parents to visit the schools, the regular work of the class should be interpreted when- ever a patron calls at the school—preferably by the principal, altho the teachers should be ready to add personal information that will make the program clearer so far as any particular child is concerned. Talks and demonstrations at parent-teacher and other meetings— Principals should make the most of the opportunities provided by the meetings of various parental groups to make the patrons of the school acquainted with the new reading program. A series of brief talks on various phases of reading may be given by the principal each month at the regular parent-teacher meeting. If such meetings are held during school hours, teachers capable of presenting the subject should be ex- cused from their classes to make brief talks about the reading pro- cedures of their respective classes. Demonstrations may be given to illustrate the talks, and the parents should be encouraged to visit the classrooms before and after the meeting. 614 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS On such occasions the reading supervisors—if there are any—might be invited to speak to the group with regard to reading methods and problems. The main caution for a supervisor to observe in addressing a meeting of this kind is to keep in mind that parents are not teachers, and to avoid leaving the impression that the only reason for Johnnie’s failure to learn to read well is that his teacher does not know how to teach him. Parent conferences—A principal with initiative may be able to or- ganize a parents’ class for the study of modern education, including all the vital school subjects and activities. Reading could then be given comprehensive treatment. The speakers could be the principal, teachers, supervisors, the superintendent, and others, such as college professors and advanced students in schools of education, who might become interested in the project. Probably the greater part of the work would have to be planned and carried out by the principal, who best knows the community and the most effective methods of reaching the patrons of the school. The initiation of such a project should take into con- sideration the types of persons at whom it is aimed. At least one prin- ciple should be used in approaching the parents that is desirable in approaching any student, namely, that of beginning on the student’s level, wherever that may be. If the parents are well-read, the most authentic materials that can be assembled should be presented, with such study guides as mimeographed outlines, bibliographies, and sum- maries prepared by the principal. In the larger schools, committees of teachers may volunteer for the duties described in this paragraph. It is hardly necessary to add that individual conferences with the parents should be welcomed by the principal at any time. Bulletins—The reading program can be interpreted to the parents also by means of mimeographed bulletins sent out from the office of the principal or the supervisor. The principal should assume the re- sponsibility for this kind of contact even if the supervisory staff is ‘alled upon for the materials to be used in the bulletins. The principa! knows his own community and can adapt the materials to the interests and abilities of the patrons better than a more distant authority is able to do. The introductory bulletin, which should be taken home by one member of each family, should state that a series of explanatory bulletins is being planned for all interested parents. The parents should be asked to sign, tear off, and return a slip at the bottom of the paper indicating his or her wish to receive the subsequent bulletins. This method has the advantage of contacting many parents who would never come to the school and who would thus remain unreached by other methods. The teachers should be invited to contribute the ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION 615 __ material for a bulletin if they wish, especially when the difficulties of their own class levels are under discussion, but this should never be insisted upon or presented as if it were a duty. Many teachers. will regard the invitation as a compliment to their creative abilities, and will respond with eagerness. Others may be less expert in describing their procedures altho very proficient in practising them in the class- room. Summaries of current books and articles on reading—This method of reaching the community may appeal only to the well-educated or highly interested parents, as the informality of the principal’s bulletin described above may not be appropriate here. On the other hand, any story may be retold on any level, and a skilful principal may adapt an idea from current literature in any form he desires and thus reach any type of parent. Material of this nature, which merely retells the thoughts of others, may be prepared by interested teachers as well as by the principal. The summaries could be used as a follow-up after a course of lessons or a series of bulletins such as those described earlier. The principal should look over, and be responsible for, all summaries used, as he knows the community and its needs to a greater extent than his associates. Current articles, if not too lengthy, can be read and discussed at parent-teacher meetings. Explanations by teachers—Much of the reading program will be interpreted to parents only in connection with the needs and problems of their own children. The details of such explanations will usually be presented by the teacher, as she knows the situation best. Parents who never come to the school at any other time frequently pay a visit if their own children are in difficulty, and they often come in a belligerent mood. Teachers as well as principals should know how to meet such parents and explain to them in a simple, yet scientific way what the difficulties are. Sometimes a parent will suggest that he or she is willing to help the child with his reading if the latter may bring his book home. This pro- cedure is frequently undesirable. The methods used at home are usually a contradiction of those used at school; little or no progress may be made; bad habits may be engendered; and the distaste set up may spread to the school activities connected with reading. With an intelli- gent, or fairly intelligent parent, the teacher will not only state that the methods used in school are different from those employed in earlier years, but will give some explanation and description of how the new methods work, so that the parent will not feel that the teacher does not know her business. The teacher will suggest that the parent can do a great deal in providing interesting experiences that will enrich 616 IXLEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS the child’s background and enlarge his vocabulary. The child should also be encouraged to express himself, at home and at school, in ora] and written language about his experiences. If the parent insists on giving the child some drill out of a book, a book different from the one used in the class reading period should be suggested or provided, and it would be safer to give one that is slightly too easy. Sometimes teachers are unable to make adequate explanations of the reading program to the parents who come to the school, either thru lack of time or other obstacles. The principal should then be on hand to make the explanations, and this involves knowing the case well enough to be able to analyze the difficulties and make remedial sug- gestions with exactness and clarity. Frequently this is impossible, as the parent may walk in without notice, or the child may be relatively new to the school. A hasty survey of the child’s cumulative record card may give only a general view of the case, and the presence of the teacher would thus become a necessity. Under these conditions, a three- way conference including parent, teacher, and principal would prob- ably be the best procedure. This possibly could be arranged only in a brief recess period, or by appointment after school if the parent would agree to call again. If the recess period were the only possibility, the individual details should be presented by the teacher, and the expla- nation can then be continued by the principal after the teacher has returned to her class. After the difficulties are adjusted, a visit to the classroom under the guidance of the principal, who will interpret the activities observed there, will usually prove very effective. Principals and teachers should be ready for the splendid opportunity that confronts them whenever a parent comes to the school, no matter what attitude the parent’s approach reflects. The possibilities inherent in these situations should be discussed at faculty meetings so that the teachers will be prepared to meet them when they arise. Inexperienced teachers should be assured that they can always send for the principal, who will talk to the parent for them, if necessary, when any question regarding school procedures arises. This not only protects and helps the young teacher, but also prevents misstatements regarding the sclioo! as a whole from being put into circulation. Sometimes the teacher must take the initiative and contact the home with an explanation of how the reading program of the school affects a particular pupil. This is frequently the ease in the first grade, where parents begin to learn of the individual characteristics of their children. Every teacher knows that different children are ready to read at dif- ferent times, according to their mentality, their experiential back- ground, and other factors of maturation that together constitute reading Id ‘al on ne nd ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION 617 readiness. As mentioned earlier, some parents are mystified when “Junior” fails to read soon after starting to school, and the need for an interpretation of the reading activities of the school then becomes urgent. A few parents, of course, understand the situation already, but the majority would profit by definite explanations by the school. Any or all of the methods previously described should be attempted in such cases, or, to start the matter, a letter may be sent by the teacher or principal explaining the situation briefly. A form letter used for this purpose in some Los Angeles schools, as presented by Oletha Stearns, chairman of the reading committee of District IV, reads as follows:' Dear Mrs. Some people are disturbed when the children of six or six and a half years do not begin formal reading and are assigned to pre-reading groups. This letter is intended to allay fears about the progress of children in such assignments. As in walking and talking. children vary in the ages at which they read. Some children have reading readiness as soon as they enter first grade. Others, equally bright, retain their baby reactions much longer, and the word symbols do not interest them until the newness of the school situation wears off. It is as disastrous to force a child to read before he has an interest in words and stories, as it is to force him to walk before the limbs are strong enough to support the body. Often the child who walks later can outrun his brother or sister who learned earlier; so it is with readers. When the reading ability does come, the child often recovers his apparent loss of time in starting. While responding only to words so far, has the ability to learn to read but will not be introduced to reading methods until a reading readiness is shown. Until that time, I am “exposing” .... to other interests to awaken this desire, without emphasizing reading itself. In case you would like to talk with me about ; . I should be glad to see you. Cordially yours, Letters of this type, planned to suit the comprehension of their recipients, should be prepared by principals and first-grade teachers as a method of reaching the parents of pupils whose reading readiness is late in appearing. Pictures, stories, and other school work taken home by the children —Sometimes the parents learn about the reading program by means of papers containing school work done by their children and taken home at the end of the day or week. To an intelligent parent, these papers may be quite revealing. The parent who knows, for example, that the class has a canary and that his child has been taking care of the eage this week, is interested in a paper brought home containing : drawing of a bird in a cage and the printed words, ‘We have a canary. 1 Stearns, Oletha, chairman. Report of Committee in Reading in District No. IV, Los Angeles City Schools. 1936. (Reproduced here by permission.) 618 ELEMENTARY ScHOOL PRINCIPALS I can clean the cage,” underneath. Then, if the child says, “I can read. Listen,” and reads the sentences, the parent begins to see light with regard to the method of beginning reading. Sometimes all drawings and written material of this kind are kept at school and made into a booklet which is not taken home until the end of the semester. While it is desirable to conduct such an enterprise as making a booklet which contains certain activity responses for an entire semester, and while children enjoy the experience, it is a good plan to have some work done on separate papers that may be taken home to the parents as soon as they are finished. With first-grade children, such papers should include the earliest reading materials and should give a good indication of what the first reading book is like. In all grades, the children should be allowed to take home at least a part of their written work so that the parents may learn of the variety of experiences included in the regular school activities. Many of the papers will, of course, reveal the amount and quality of reading done by the child. Some papers will definitely relate to reading exercises, Test papers, with various types of objective items, may be taken home if made by the teacher and not intended for later use. In the upper grades, some of the book reports should be sent home for the perusal of the parents, even if they must be returned for the child’s school file. This method of interesting the parent in the pupil's reading program may lead to inquiries which will give the teacher an opportunity to explain the program in greater detail. Such methods on the part of the school will help to counteract the negative statements often made by some children, such as, “No, we don’t do that. No, we never have that,” by substituting information as to what they actually do have. Report cards—The modern report card aims to tell the parent essen- tial facts about his child’s progress. When the new type of school came into being, the old list of subjects, followed by the traditional numerical marks, was soon found to be inadequate and the modern report card was evolved. In general, the change in the card has been, on the subject side, from less to greater specificity; that is, in place of general sub- jects, such as reading, there are subheads that give clues to the aims of the work. For instance, if under “Reading” the parent finds such captions as “Reading comprehension,” “Amount read,” “Diversity of reading accomplished,” “Rate of silent reading,” and “Rate of oral reading,” he is given an indication of the skills aimed at, and thus is helped in his understanding of the school’s procedures. The change in the report card on the marking side has been, in gen- eral, from greater to less specificity. For instance, the modern parent de de al fe be in ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION 619 does not know whether his son earned 93 while another boy earned 94 in “Reading,” whatever that term may be construed to include. He does, however, know what the reading program attempts to accomplish, and whether his son is progressing toward the goal satisfactorily, all factors considered. Even so, probably not enough attention has yet been given to the function of the report card as an explainer and an interpreter of the school program. The informal, blank type of report card, on which the teacher writes statements regarding the progress of the child, is valuable to the extent that the teacher makes it so. The possibilities for explaining the edu- cational program and the reactions of the individual pupils are enor- mous, but the great amount of time consumed in making a thoro analysis tends to reduce the likelihood that such an analysis will be made. Many teachers miss the opportunities offered by the blank report card entirely, and the matter is worthy of careful discussion at faculty meetings. Teachers should be encouraged to make their reports as com- plete as possible, especially in weak or doubtful cases, so that the attention of the parents will be drawn to the essential features of the program and, if a visit is made to the school, a more ready understand- ing of the situation will result. Newspaper and magazine articles, and radio talks—Frequently a principal or teacher is able to contribute articles explaining educational procedures to the newspapers. Local papers are often glad to receive lengthy accounts of programs given at the meetings of parent-teacher associations and other groups. The talk given by the principal might be summarized, or an entirely different article might be written. This opportunity of reaching the public should not be overlooked in inter- preting the reading program because, as suggested at the outset, read- ing always has been, and always will be, a subject of vital importance in the elementary school, and the public will always want to know “how they are teaching reading now.” To have an article accepted by a magazine of wider scope is not beyond the reach of teachers and principals who have a taste for writing, and certainly no more worthy subject for a facile pen could be found. The benefits may be widely scattered; altho no one who knows the writer may read the article after it is published, others may profit, and the true educator regards the world as his field. Radio talks are usually confined to speeches by college professors, superintendents, and others in the public eye, but occasionally an edu- ‘ational group sponsors a series of programs and the principals are called upon for talks to the public on educational themes of a practical nature. Once more, the interpretation of the reading program is a 620 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS worthy topic, and one that lends itself to interesting, if not brillian: i treatment. Opportunities of this kind should be definitely sought by Reports and yearbooks from administrative offices—The most. jp. portant contacts with the public at large are, of course, usually made thru the office of the superintendent of schools, and with this duty th! elementary-school principal has little to do unless called upon to giy. information about his own school or to write a report on a specifi y principals and teachers. 7 g topic. The pamphlets, booklets, reports, and yearbooks published by e administrative offices are usually excellent material for the interpreta.” tion of the educational program. Photographs, pictures, and diagram not otherwise available are frequently used to illustrate these books, | and often it is possible to find in them just the right illustration fo making some point clear to a parent or group of parents. Actual photo. graphs of children engaged in the reading activities of various schook offer suggestions of value to parents who are seeking to understand tly “how” and the “why” of reading instruction. A recent yearbook of the Los Angeles public schools, Your Children and Their Schools, is a outstanding example of this type of publicity. 7 Such books find their way into the offices of influential persons, and an attitude of understanding is thus fostered thruout the community Indirectly this aids in the interpretation of any specific part of th program, and so the conspicuous place occupied by reading is doubly enhanced. Principals and teachers will find such material a valuable source of information and inspiration in the preparation and carrying out of their own programs of publicity and interpretation. DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED IN THE PROGRAM OF INTERPRETATION Few, if any, worthwhile projects are initiated without some unfore- seen difficulty. Some obstacles can be forecast and thus prevented or ameliorated, but others appear after the program is in operation and the remedies must be sought as the work continues. While it is folly to “eross bridges” before one meets them, prevention is always better than cure. Hence, in concluding this article, a brief consideration ol some of the possible obstacles to the interpretation of the reading program may be helpful. Failure of the principal to understand the reading program in all its details—Ineomplete knowledge is perhaps the most serious difficulty in attempting to interpret any program. If the principal is new to that position, it is quite likely that he has not had sufficient contact with the reading instruction in all grades during his previous experience as a teacher to enable him to discuss with authority all phases of the sub- $$ rillian, ght by st im. Made ity the LO give pecific ed by preta- frams © books, m for & »hoto- shook 1d the of the F iS an » and nity. f the yubly FF lable rving & fore- F d or F and y to tter n of ding l its 7 ulty hat vith > as ub- ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION 621 ject. This situation should be remedied as soon as possible; in fact, remedial measures should be undertaken before the position of prin- cipal is assumed, by visiting unfamiliar grades and classes, taking appropriate courses In summer school, visiting demonstration schools, and reading widely on the subject. These activities should be continued after entering active service as a principal, and even after the entire field is assumed to be understood. New methods are constantly arising, and the outstanding principal will be constantly on the alert for new steps forward. Failure to keep in step with current progress results in a lack of the type of aggressiveness that is desirable in a leader. If the principal does not take the lead, others will. Parents and community leaders will issue their statements about the school’s program, and the unstable, uncer- tain principal will not know which way to turn. Knowledge, constantly rechecked and replenished, is the antidote to this difficulty. Lack of interest in the community—This attitude may occur in either principal or teachers. In the former case the situation is deplor- able and should be corrected at once, if only by a transfer to another school. If the teachers lack interest in the community, they will resent having to do anything toward interpreting their instructional programs to the parents, and will also be unwilling to provide the principal with the information that would enable him to interpret their work for them. This situation is serious, but it should be faced. Usually it is impossible, as well as unwise, to have the teachers transferred until the principal has had time to attempt to correct their attitudes and to use his skill as a leader. The principal should analyze the teachers’ attitudes in order to discover the causes of their apathy. Perhaps they have been associated with an apathetic principal who showed no ability as a leader; or, conversely, they may have been victimized by a “driver.” Either situation, long continued, would result in a disinclination to respond to the suggestion that they cooperate in a plan to interpret the reading program. In either case, the lead should be taken by the principal, who, by showing that he is not afraid of hard work, will evoke interest and support in all but the most recalcitrant members of the faculty. For a time, instead of telling the teachers what to do, the principal should do it himself, and he should start those phases of the interpretive pro- gram that logically are connected with the principal’s office. As most of the contact function of the school is handled by the principal, the greater part of the work of interpreting the program is his responsi- bility anyway. Gradually the teachers can be invited to take part, especially in certain phases as previously described. 622 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Unfavorable community attitudes—Community attitudes may be go diverse, so changing, and so inconsistent as to baffle all attempts to analyze them. They may be belligerent, apathetic, or superdilious, So far as an antagonistic community attitude renders difficult the inter. pretation of the work of the school, the best procedure is to ignore jt. The wise principal will, under such circumstances, devote his attention for a long time strictly to his school, and will attempt to build up ay institution so well organized and so fascinating to its boys and girls that the latter will be its chief apostles. If happiness is inculeated within the schoolhouse walls, from the principal down, it will finally permeate the homes. Then, cautiously, as the community unbends, the principal will be ready with those parts of his program of interpretation that fit the openings as they occur. Failures and discouragements will be overlooked, and persistent, patient effort will be maintained. The principal will always be on the alert to discover any causative factors or possible remedies that may reveal themselves. It may be difficult to persuade parents to come to parent-teacher meetings: factions may have developed within the groups; and other problems may occur that require time and thought for their solution. But the courageous principal will face all difficulties in the confidence that before long his well-laid plans will bring results and the interpretation of the school program will be successful. EACHING Or instruction is quite obviously the primary function of education. Superintendents and_ principals clearly recognize that administration and supervision are also major activities. There is less recognition of the import- ance of the interpretation function in spite of the fact that the ' progress of education waits upon the understanding of parents and the support of the public. Too frequently in the past, edu- cators have minimized the necessity for sound interpretation and have been rudely awakened by public apathy or even revolt. The time is long past for recognizing that systematic effort to promote understanding requires as much insight, preparation, and planning as do the other major activities of the educational program—The Improvement of Education, Fifteenth Yearbook, Department of Superintendence, 1937, p. 168. ive be gs; ms the nat ion ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION 623 INTERPRETING THE PROGRAM THRU THE HOME AND SCHOOL ASSOCIATION Ernest A. CHOATE Principal, Kenderton School, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania today, and to aid them in orienting the work and progress of their own children in this field, a meeting of the Home and School Association of the Kenderton School was devoted to reading. The idea was first discussed with the officers of the association and they were found to be enthusiastic about having a meeting of this type. The next step was a thoro discussion at a meeting of the teachers of the school as to how they could best exhibit the methods and materials being used. It was decided that four main avenues of demonstration should be used, as follows: T: GIVE THE PARENTS a clearer conception of reading as it is taught 1. A brief talk on the reading program by the principal 2. Excerpts from lessons in all grades of the school from I to VI 3. An exhibition of reading materials 4. Charts and bulletin boards, a mimeographed program, and a suggestive list of children’s books for home reading. The meeting took place during the fourth month of the school year. The mimeographed program, which was placed in the hands of all who attended, was as follows: KENDERTON SCHOOL HOME AND SCHOOL ASSOCIATION THE DEVELOPMENT OF READING Introductory Remarks “The Aims and Mechanics of Reading”...................... Dr. E. A. Choate 1—Grade IA—Preparation for Reading.........................05. Miss Hansen 2—Grade IB—Experience Content Reading oi RL” SE RE ean a - Miss Roggenburger 3—Grade IIA—Book One—Oral Reading.:.....................05: Mrs. Jones 4—Grade I[B—Reading from Book Two........................... Miss Coll 5—Grade IIIB—Dramatization of Reading........................ Miss Elliott 6—Grade IVA—Audience Reading......................0cceeceeee Miss Ambler “Blunder” 9” “Good Mr. Owl, will you please show me the way to the Wishing-Gate? “Eh! What’s that?” cried the owl, starting out of his nap. “Have you brought me a frog?” “No,” said Blunder, “I did not know that you would like one. Can you tell me the way to the Wishing-Gate?” “Wishing-Gate! Wishing-Gate!” hooted the owl, very angry. “Winks and naps! How dare you disturb me for such a thing as that? Do you take me for a milestone? Follow your nose, sir, follow your nose!”—and, ruffling up his feathers, the owl was asleep again in a moment. 624 IXLEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 7—Grade VA—Study Type Reading................... aa ee Miss Cassell “Saved From a Rattlesnake” One hot summer day a little Mexican boy lay on the ledge of a small mesa or tableland, watching his herd of goats, which were feeding on the dry grasses of the flat ground some thirty feet below him. Suddenly the boy’s roving gaze lighted on an object which made him start, and his eyes grew big with fear. Just below him, his huge body coiled ready for q spring, was a black diamond rattlesnake. The boy’s first impulse was to run. Then he realized that his distance above the snake meant safety, and he stared curiously at the huge monster below him. 8—Grade VIB—Reading for Appreciation............... ...ee.e..Mrs. Alberts Principal’s preliminary talk—The principal very briefly spoke on a few aspects of the reading problem. He told how at present the aim is not to keep the class working as a unit, but to individualize the instrue- tion as much as possible so that each child may develop at his own rate. The difficulties of beginning reading were stressed. The importance of the physical and emotional phases of the problem were emphasized, and the responsibility of the home in these fields was mentioned. The principal also pointed out how the child’s whole development in reading is based upon the interests and activities of himself and his group, and stated that the program of this meeting aimed to give brief pictures of this development. The program was likened to seeing several disjointed sections of film in a motion picture, with large gaps in between. The principal then undertook the part of narrator to fill in these gaps. The immensity of the gaps could be readily understood when it was pointed out that a story covering six years was being told in an hour. Excerpts from reading lessons—In presenting illustrative lessons, the teachers and children used a curtained stage. The curtain was drawn between the appearances of the youngsters from the different grades. Following are brief descriptions of the lessons given. Grade 1A—Preparation for Reading 1. Eight children stood in a semicircle facing the audience. The first five children held pictures of persons with the appropriate word printed underneath each— father, mother, brother, sister, and baby. Each child read his word orally. The sixth child read orally from a book which she had made containing the same mate- rial, that is, pictures of the same characters with the words underneath them. The two remaining children then read the same words from charts without the illus- trations being shown. 2. Eight other children, arranged in the same manner, then took possession of the stage. The first two told in two sentences each about their classroom activity, “The Store.” The next two children then read orally from charts a few short sen- tences about the store, and the following two read the same sentence from the booklets which they had made as a record of the activity. The last two children then read pages one and two of their pre-primer, their first real book. all the the 1e mn Ss. ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION o> bo | oy Grade IB—Experience Content Reading The principal explained that this reading lesson, which dealt with the children’s toy store, was an outgrowth of the activity program, the concrete evidence of which the parents were invited to see in the classroom. In work of this kind the children make up the stories, while the teacher attempts to guide them by ques- tioning and finally chooses sentences which include as many as possible of the words in the required reading list. The stories are printed first on the board, then on charts, and finally individual copies are made to be pasted in the booklet pre- pared by each child. In the demonstration program, four children read a page each from their booklets. Grade I1A—Oral Reading from Book One Three children read a page each from a first reader used in the school. Grade IIB—Reading from Book Two Three children read a short story from a second reader used in the school. The increased vocabulary, longer sentences, and greater fluency of the children’s read- ing were evident. Grade IIIB—Dramatization of Reading In this demonstration the children dramatized an act of “Hansel and Gretel.” One child acted as director. She explained to the audience how the class had first prepared to read the story by going over words that might prove difficult; how the children had then read the story silently; and how, because of its particular appeal to them, its enjoyment had been prolonged by oral reading. Act III was then read to the audience. Parts taken in the dramatie reading by three children were those of Hansel, Gretel, and the old witch. Grade IV A—Audience Reading ' In presenting this lesson, one child acted as chairman, three as readers, and six as the audience. The chairman explained how the lesson had been developed in class. The aim was to improve the phrasing in oral reading so that the readers would pause at the right places for the proper intervals of time. It was explained that in class the lesson was handled somewhat differently, as any child might be the reader and all the others the critical audience. On this program, however, the three children designated as readers each read a paragraph, and the members of the audience gave constructive criticisms. Grade VA—Study-Type Reading * Seven children made up the class and one child acted as chairman. All were given a mimeographed paragraph with a multiple-response exercise immediately following. This material was also on the programs given to the parents. The chair- man explained the likeness of this exercise to those in achievement tests which measure how well one reads. The reading of the paragraph was timed and the answers were checked. The parents were invited to join in if they wished. Grade VIB—Reading for Appreciation A child acted as chairman of a class of six. The chairman explained that they were giving a demonstration in reading from one of the books they had enjoyed. 1 The term ‘audience reading’’ is generally used to denote reading to an audience whose purpose in listening is to enjoy the reading rather than to criticize it. The type of lesson described here, however, is useful as a practise exercise._-Editorial Committee. * Another important type of reading activity, not included here, is that in which children read to get their lessons in other school subjects. For descriptions of such work, see Chapter V.—Editorial Committee. @qvut) HOV NI ATAVTIIVAY STIVIHMALVIY ONIGVEY AO SAdAT AHL ONILVOIGN]T GUVOG NILATIOG dO INGNGONVEUY—] WYO sYOOG duUIDS syoog 4I89H yiom A104sIy pus Aydeisoe3 0} pare] -81 S[BIIE}BUl [BuoneuLIOjuy 3x0} AIOISIP{ 3x0} AydBisoar) Arsiql| oyqnd woul Pivo §,JaMO1 -10q [BNplAlpuy SSBlO Ul SYOOd sdUaIEJaY soulzeseul JUGIING IIYIO * souIzeseul 0} suonduos -QNS S8BIQ) * syooqg A104g sure0d jo suol}0a][0D AIBIGI] WOOISSB[D Burjpelnoito oB1eT “GI ‘Tr ‘or ao = ButpBes [Ooyos pus aui0y 10} AIBIQI jooys jo a8) * syoog ausisAy ‘yom A1O4STY pus Aqdeiso0e3 0} paz8| -d1 s[BlI0} Bul [BuolBUIOjUy 83x90} 10430 “4x03 Al1O4stPyT 3x0} Aydeis0er Arviqty oyqnd uo P1Bd S$ 1aMOLIOG Tenptarpuy syooqg aoUalajayY SoulzZ -B2BUl JUILING AIvIq\ oyqnd woy pemoilog syoog sus0d JO suoTqaT[OD 193} BUI ZuIpBel |®}uepriouy AIBIQI SSBIO oo nt Zutpeel auloy pus syoog aDUdIaJal 105 ArIBiql, [ooYyIs 03 ssa00y * $3X9} 12YI1O “6 3x0} Aydvisoar) *g Aydvisoo3 pus A10jsIy uo syoog [Buon BsuLIOjUy syoog A103¢ 8811038 JO SUOT}IATIOD “¢ Arviqty oyqnd wo1y peMoLlOg syoog “F surs0d JO suOT}IaTIOD “¢E 19}}8UI ZuIpBes [syuepiouy °Z AIBIQY S8BIQ *T on | | 3x9} MeuUqy “ST Spsvo aIPPIY “IT Spivo aseiyd ‘spivo aouaqUag ArBIql] [ooys 0} ssov0Yy 6 yom pavoqgyovig ‘8 syooq jeuoneusojuy *Z Sa1101s8 jo suotjoaTjoD “9 AIBIQI] oyqnd wo pamoliog syoog “¢ sura0d JO U0N92][0D “F prvog uNaing “¢ 19}}8Ul ZuIpBel [sjuepriouy °% AIBIQT SBI *T ‘Ol saded -SMOU SSBIQ * Sp1Bd 90Ua}Uas ‘sp1Bo asBigg *L 19}}8UI ZuIpBes pavoqyouid “9 AIviqty oyqnd wo pemoiiog syoog *¢ saurAys jo syoog Sa1104s JO suoT}9a7/00 perBiysny] pisvog uneyng AIBIQT SSBIO * m= N OD | a0Ualladxe jo Sp10901 SSB) * spivo 9oue}ues ‘spivo estiyg syBYO 19}}8UI ZuIpwer prvogyovigq syoog A1Bviqiy pemoliog souAyt pezei3sn]]] syooqg A1048 ‘su01}99][00 payezysnyi] syoog a1noIg 9148} Yoo ano sjeqeR] ‘sauAys peyelsnily “F yoo A1048 peesisnyy “E Syood aINVIg ‘Z 91983 YOOd “T aaqvuy) HLXxIg aavury HL4lg aavay HLIMoOg Gdavur) auiny, Gdavur) dNoodg aavur) 1suly NGLUVOUTAINIY ‘IVIUALVIN ONIGVaY 40 SAdAT [ 626 | ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION 627 ——_ First, the story was told up to the point of the present reading. Each child then read a paragraph. For this demonstration the better readers in the class had been chosen. The ease, fluency, expressiveness, and beauty of their efforts were very impressive. The audience of parents was enthusiastic in its response to this pro- gram. The meeting was thrown open to questioning, and an interesting and instructive fifteen-minute period followed. Evhibition of reading materials—On a long table in the hall were placed the books used in the school. These were arranged in sequence, with a certain space allotted to the books of each grade. Included in this exhibit were the experience-content reading booklets made by the children in the first grade, the books of the basic reading system used thruout the school, and various library books and supplementary read- ing books for each grade. In the classrooms were evidences of the projects which had been the source of inspiration for the booklets made in the lower grades. Charts were on the classroom walls, and books were on the library tables. Parents visited the rooms and talked with the teachers. One bulletin board bore the title, “Types of Reading Material.” It contained seven columns, one for the kindergarten and one for each of the six grades. The items listed in each column are shown in Figure I. Another bulletin board was devoted exclusively to the work in Grade I, ineluding pictures, charts, booklets, and books used in that grade. Conclusion—As stated above, the parents seemed to enjoy the entire program thoroly. Moreover, the questions asked and the comments made during the period provided for that purpose showed an insight and interest in the reading instruction of the school that were stimu- lating and encouraging to the faculty. It is hoped that this increased interest in reading will result in the organization and partial support of a school library by the immediate community, as well as in the co- operation of parents and teachers in making the classroom instruction in reading still more effective. 628 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 10. ll. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. SELECTED REFERENCES See also the references listed at the end of Chapter IX. . ANperSON, CuarLes J. The Development of a Supervisory Program in Read- ing. New York: Laurel Book Co., 1928. 48 p. . Buros, Oscar K. Educational, Psychological, and Personality Tests of 1933, 1934, and 1935. Studies in Education, No. 9. New Brunswick, N. J.: Rut- gers University, 1936. 83 p. . Gates, ArtHurR I. “The Measurement and Evaluation of Achievement in Reading.” The Teaching of Reading: A Second Report. Thirty-Sixth Yearbook, Part I, National Society for the Study of Education. Blooming- ton, Ill.: Public School Publishing Co., 1937. p. 359-90. . Gates, ArtHurR I. Reading for Public School Administrators. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1931. 126 p. . Gist, ArtHur S., and Kine, Wiu1am A. The Teaching and Supervision of Reading. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1927. 337 p. . Gray, Wituiam S. Summary of Investigations Related to Reading. Supple- mentary Educational Monographs No. 28. Chicago: University of Chi- cago Press, 1925. 275 p.; and annual reports in the Elementary School Journal, 1926-31, and in the Journal of Educational Research, 1933-38. . Gray, WituraM §., and Wurppte, Gertrupe. Improving Instruction in Reading. Supplementary Educational Monographs No. 40. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1933. 226 p. . Greene, Harry A., and JorGeNsen, ALBERT M. The Use and Interpretation of Elementary School Tests. New York: Longmans, Green and Co., 1935. Chapter 13, “Diagnosis, Analysis, and Remedy in Reading.” . Hann, Juuia L. A Critical Evaluation of a Supervisory Program in Kinder- garten-Primary Grades. Contributions to Education, No. 495. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1931. 148 p. Harris, Jutta M.; Donovan, H. L.; and ALEXANbER, THOMAs. Supervision and Teaching of Reading. Richmond, Va.: Johnson Publishing Co., 1927. 474 p. HiuwpretH, Gertrupe H. A Bibliography of Mental Tests and Rating Scales. New York: Psychological Corporation (522 Fifth Ave.), 1933. 242 p. LincoLn, Earu A., and WorkKMan, L. L. Testing and the Uses of Test Results. New York: Macmillan Co., 1935. 317 p. Mort, Paut R., and Gates, ArtHur I. The Acceptable Uses of Achievement Tests. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1932. Chapter 5, “Reading.” NaTIoNAL EpucatTion AssociaTION, ResearcH Division. “Better Reading In- struction.” Research Bulletin 13: 273-325; November 1935. “The Ad- ministration and Supervision of the Reading Program,” p. 320-22. Puiuirs, Marina, and Cor, Erne: C. “How the Reading Program of a Rural School System Was Improved.” Northern Illinois State Teachers College Bulletin. Vol. 5, No. 1. DeKalb, Ill.: Northern Illinois State Teachers College, 1935-36. p. 1-22. SANGREN, Paut V. Improvement of Reading Through the Use of Tests. Kala- mazoo, Mich.: Western State Teachers College, 1932. 207 p. SmirH, Niza B. American Reading Instruction. New York: Silver, Burdett and Co., 1934. 287 p. Tyuter, Ratpu W. Constructing Achievement Tests. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University Press, 1934. 102 p. Woopy, Cuiirrorp, and SAncren, Paut V. Administration of the Testing Pro- gram. Yonkers-on-Hudson, N. Y.: World Book Co., 1933. 397 p. . YoaKaM, Geratp A. “The Reorganization and Improvement of Instruction in Reading Through Adequate Supervision.” The Teaching of Reading: A Second Report. Thirty-Sixth Yearbook, Part I, National Society for the Study of Education. Bloomington, IIl.: Public School Publishing Co., 1937. p. 419-38. I. 3, t- in yo . fo RECORDS AND INFORMATION The information in this section is of two types: (1) the names of officers of professional organizations in which elementary-school prin- cipals participate, and (2) the names and addresses of paid-up mem- bers of the national Department of Elementary School Principals. The list of organizations is divided into three parts: (a) local prin- cipals organizations, (b) sectional principals associations, and (c) state principals associations. While these lists are not complete, they include every organization from which up-to-date information about its officers was received in time for publication. The Department hopes that all organizations of elementary-school principals or supervisors will supply such information regularly for inclusion in future year- books. Membership in the national Department has continued to grow during the year 1937-38. The number of members as this yearbook went to press was 5677, including 169 life members. This number ex- ceeds the membership of a year ago by 522, or a little more than 10 per- cent. This increase, while not as large as that experienced during the preceding year, undoubtedly indicates that elementary-school princi- pals and supervisors are increasingly aware of the importance of pooling their resources with a view to improving not only their own economic and professional status, but also the quality of education for children. The Department looks forward to the opportunity of serving every- one in the field of elementary education. This aim can be realized only thru continued increases in membership. As we grow in numbers and financial resources, we shall be able to reach more and more people with a steadily improving quality of work. [ 629 | LOCAL PRINCIPALS ORGANIZATIONS In the following roster the symbol (1) is used to indicate the person reported as president and (2) is used to indicate the secretary. ABERDEEN, S. DAK.—ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS’ CLuB. (1) Maud C. Ras- mussen, 920 S. Jay St. (2) Bernice Laughlin, 207 Sixth Ave., S. W AKRON, OHIO—WoMEN PRINCIPALS’ CLus. (1) Lillian Madden, 394 Sg wood Ave. (2) Margaret L. Rook, 250 Crescent Dr. ALAMEDA, CALIF.—Chairman, Arthur Heche, 1521 Union St. (2) —_———-. ALBANY, N. Y.—WoOMEN PRINCIPALS’ AND Supervisors’ CLus. (1) Rose I. Hughes, 118 N. Lake Ave. (2) Mary A. Murray, 214 Partridge St. ANDERSON, IND.—PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. (1) Gentry Delph, Madison Rd. 2) Mary E. Spice, 2303 Brown St. ANNISTON, ALA.—PRINCIPALS’ AND TEACHERS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Mrs. Mary S. Meigs, 1209 Glenwood ‘Ter. (2) Ida Belle Price, 428 E. Sixth St. ATLANTA, GA.—ELEMENTARY gy PALS’ CLUB. ial mey Taylor, 458 N. Highland Ave., ade — Silvey, 624 C Prt Ra, - AUBURN, N. Y.—-ELEMENTARY PRINCI- PALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Agnes O. Meyer, Seymour Street School. (2) Anna Ostrander, 101 N. Marvine Ave. BAKERSFIELD, CALIF. — PRINCIPALS’ CLuB. (1) John L. Compton, 2525 21st St. (2) Walter R. Shoesmith, 420 Quiney St. BALTIMORE, MD.—PRINCIPALS’ ASsSoctIA- 1704 Lake- TION. (1) Wendell FE. Dunn, side Ave. (2) Mary F. Sultzer, 415 E. Lafayette Ave. BATTLE CREEK, MICH.—PRINCIPALS'’ ASSOCIATION. (1) —— -—----—-——-- 2) Mrs. Doris Klaussen, Ann J. Kel- logg School. BEAUMONT, ELEMENTARY PRIN- CIPALS’ AND SUPERVISORS’ CLUB. (1) Loula Green, 1351 Washington Blvd. (2) Mrs. Stella Smart, 11th Street Rd. BERKELEY, CALIF. CIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. Columbus School. (2) Jackson, Hillside School. BIRMINGHAM, ALA. SCHOOLS PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. (1) George D. Cox, 1408 N. 20th St. (2) C. P. Underwood, 7830 Third Ave., S. BLOOMFIELD, N. J.—PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. (1) Merrill A. Bigelow, 159 Williamson Ave. (2) Lloyd V. Krueger, 135 Lind- berg Blvd. TEXAS- ELEMENTARY PRIN- (1) Sue J. Irwin, Mrs. Eugenie — ELEMENTARY BOSTON, MASS.—PRINCIPALS’ AssoctIA- TION. (1) Robert Masterson, Boys Rox- bury Memorial High School, Roxbury. (2) Esther L. MeNellis, 177 Harvard t., Dorchester. BRIDGEPORT, CONN. — ELEMENTARY ScHOOL PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. (1) Mary Foley, Staples School. (2) Elizabeth Roche, Garfield School. CANTON, OHIO—PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. (1) Charles J. Hill. 603 Bellflower Ave., §. Ww. 2) Paul E. Smith, 1330 14th St. N. CASPER, WYO.—ELEMENTARY PRINCI- PALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Mrs. Mozelle Woodle, Harding School. (2) Mrs. Nona U. Dunlap, Willard School. CEDAR RAPIDS, IOWA — ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. (1) Mrs. Elizabeth Dennis, Lincoln School. (2) Adeline Montillon, Cleveland School. CHATTANOOGA, TENN. — ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS’ CLuB. (1) J. L. Hindman, East Chattanooga. 2) Mary Smith, 701 Liberty, Chattanooga. CHICAGO, ILL.—ELLA FLAGG Young CLUB. (1) Mercedes H. Howe, 5005 Adams St., Chicago. 2) Anna E. Wise, 111 8S. Center St., Joliet. CHICAGO, ILL.—PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. (1) 11941 S. Parnell William H. Spurgin, 670 Wright Ave. (2) Harry W. Wood, wood Ave. CICERO, ILL.—ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS’ CLuB. (1) Clyde V. Winkler, 1804 §. 50th Court. (2) Jennie B. Law, 6615 W. 31st St., Berwyn. CINCINNATI, OHIO—ELEMENTARY PRIN CIPALS’ CLUB. (1) Sylvia Ewan, High lands School, Eastern Ave. (2) 0. €. Martin, Oakley School. CLEVELAND, OHIO—ELEMENTARY PrIN- CIPALS’ CLUB. (1) Agnes Ziska, Charles Dickens School. (2) Laura H. Hen schen, Landon School. CLEVELAND HEIGHTS, OHIO—PrINc!- PALS’ AND SUPERVISORS’ ASSOCIATION (1) Ruth Van Camp, 1749 Lee Rd. (2) Clara Scranton, 1749 Lee Rd. CLIFTON, N. J.—PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIA TION. (1) Charles Sheehan, School No 1. (2) Margretta Dobbins, School No 6. SCHOOLMASTERS’ CLUB. 200 Lafayette CLIFTON, N. J. (1) Conrad O. Schweitzer. Ave., Hawthorne. (2) Charles W. Rob inson, 265 W. Second St., Clifton. COLORADO SPRINGS, COLO——Pusuic SCHOOL PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Ross M. Grindle, 1138 Palmer Blvd. Cascade (2) Ethel M. Ave. COLUMBUS, OHIO—-ELEMENTARY PRINCI PALS’ ROUND TABLE. (1) W. H. Vance, Kighth Avenue School. (2) Dorothy King, Chicago Avenue School. COUNCIL BLUFFS, IOWA—ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. (1) Jessie M. Al- Brown, 216 worth, 25 Oakland Court. (2) Mary L. Peterson, 723 Washington Ave. DALLAS, TEXAS—PRINCIPALS’ CUR. (1) J. T. Whittlesey, Lisbon School, Maryland and MeVey Sts. (2) W. O. Pipes, William Lipscomb School, Worth and Lowell Sts. DANVILLE, VA.—PRINCIPALS’ COUNCIL Powell, 169 Holbrook Ave Jamerson, R. F. D. 6. (1) Mary (2) Margaret | 630 | LocaL PRINCIPALS ORGANIZATIONS 631 OHIO — ADMINISTRATIVE oY IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. (1) Eva De Vanney, E. J. Brown School. (2) Maude Rupel, Jefferson School. DAYTON, OHIO—PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIA- TION. H. L. Boda, 3101 Kenmore Ave. (2) Katherine Lawler, 1911 Trin- ity Ave. DAYTON, OHIO—PRINCIPALS’ AND SUPER- vIsORS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Besse L. Fouts, 115 N. Williams St. (2) Corinne Brabec, 106 E. Hudson Ave. DENVER, COLO.—PRINCIPALS’ AND Dt- RECTORS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Eugene H. Herrington, 1301 Forest. (2) Elizabeth Scripture, 900 La Fayette. DUBUQUE, IOWA—ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. (1) Augusta M. Frey, 1226 Rhomberg Ave. (2) Helen Litz, 2265 Roosevelt. ELIZABETH, N. J.—PRINCIPALS’ ASSO- CIATION. (1) Isabel Killough, 610 Salem Ave. (2) Anna M. Witteman, 39 N. Reid St. EL PASO, TEXAS—ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Mrs. J. A. Clifton, 2734 Federal St. (2) Cath- erine Gorbutt, 625 W. Yandell Blvd. ERIE, PA.—ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS’ AND SuPERVISORS’ CLuB. (1) R. R. Stuart, 2125 Lakeside Dr. (2) Lavina Creys, 316 Peach St. EVANSTON, ILL.—PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. (1) Helen Sanford, 1940 Sherman Ave. (2) Lura E. Cloyd, 2108 Sherman Ave. EVERETT, MASS.—PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIA- (1) William P. Canty, 96 Swan (2) Mabel M. Gardner, 46 Forest EVERETT, WASH.—PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. (1) Beatrice Robinson, Monte Cristo Hotel. (2) L. H. Bohanon, Route 4. FALL RIVER, MASS.—ELEMENTARY PRIN- CIPALS’ CLuB. (1) Margaret E. Shea, 60 Freedom St. (2) Annie G. Sullivan, 349 Whipple St. FLINT, MICH.—ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS’ CLus. (1) Mrs. Lillian Pickett, 111 W. Baker St. (2) Mrs. Leah Fish, 707 E. Kearsley St. FORT WORTH, TEXAS—PRINCIPALS’ AND VICE-PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Edward Munden, 4744 Norma St. (2) Mary Jackson Wall, 801 Davis St. FRESNO, CALIF.—ELEMENTARY PRIN- CIPALS’ COUNCIL. (1) Rose Homan, 1633 College Ave. 2) Stephen L. Walker, 130 N. Angus St. GARY, IND.—PvuBLIc SCHOOL PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Floyd Asher, Lew Wallace School. (2) Albert A. Edwards, East Pulaski School. GRAND RAPIDS, MICH.—PRINCIPALS’ EXCHANGE CLUB. (1) Bertha Green- baum, 318 Paris Ave., S. E. (2) Mrs. Lou I. Sigler, 1413 Bates St., S. E. HARTFORD, CONN.—-PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. (1) Louis W. Batchelder, 87 Cumber- land St., Hartford. (2) Mary A. Readett, 668 Windsor Ave., Windsor. HAVERHILL, MASS.—PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. (1) Walter Wrigley, Tilton School. (2) Arthur C. Richardson, Greenleaf School. HOLYOKE, MASS.—WoMEN PRINCIPALS or HoLyoKe. (1) Mary C. McTigue, 95 Linden St. (2) Anne Halfpenny, 298 Klm St. HOUSTON, TEXAS—PRINCIPALS’ AND SUPERVISORS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) W. S. Brandenberger, Sam Houston Senior High School. (2) Edwin D. Martin, Alexander Hamilton Junior High School. HUTCHINSON, KANSAS-—ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. (1) Wilmie Moore, 313 E. First St. (2) May Hart- ford, 108 E. 14th St. INDIANAPOLIS, IND.—CounNcIL oF Ap- MINISTRATIVE WOMEN IN’ EDUCATION. (1) Belle Ramey, 718 E. 34th St. (2) Maud Price, 3025 N. Meridian. JACKSON, MICH.—PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. (1) Margaret Munson, 216 First St. (2) Frances Cartright, 216 First St. JERSEY CITY, N. J.—MALE PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Jay Henshaw, Ad- ministration Bldg. (2) Emmett J. Campbell, Public School No. 5. JERSEY CITY, N. J.—WoOMEN PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Helen M. McMahon, 10 Dunean Ave. (2) Anita Desmond, 47 Broadman Pkwy. JOPLIN, M0O.—ScCHOOLMASTERS’ CLUB. (1) Clinton Wood, 416 N. Pearl. (2) J. E. MeNally, Emerson School. KALAMAZOO, MICH.—ELEMENTARY PRIN- CIPALS’ CLuB. (1) Alvena Good, 815 W. Kalamazoo Ave. (2) Esca B. Rogers, 121 Arbor St. KANSAS CITY, KANSAS—ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. (1) Mrs. Clara Lamb, Stanley School, 36th and Metro- politan. (2) Lola McNaughton, 2736 N. lith St. KANSAS CITY, MO.—ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) P. G. Buckles, Woodland School. (2) Inez Wolfe, E. F. Swinney School. KANSAS CITY, MO.—PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. (1) Mrs. Mary L. Watrous, 2640 Euclid Ave. (2) Daisy Mae Trice, 3826 E. 16th St. KNOXVILLE, TENN.—PROFESSIONAL Cuus. (1) R. O. Biggs, 2809 McCalla Ave. (2) Mrs. Edna Richards, 123 Morningside Dr. LAFAYETTE, IND.—PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. (1) R. B. Linnville, Washington School. (2) H. Sweeney, Centennial School. LANSING, MICH.—ELEMENTARY PRIN- CIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Nina Struble, 708 W. Michigan Ave. (2) Adeline Welte, 1208 Bement St. LAWRENCE, MASS.—ELEMENTARY PRIN- CIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Lilian B. Haverty, 297 S. Broadway. (2) Helen F. Gainey, 1 Kingston St. LAWRENCE, MASS.—GRAMMAR MASTERS’ Cius. (1) Edward A. Lawlor, 24 Win- throp Ave. (2) John J. Hogan, 22 Bus- well St. LITTLE ROCK, Rounp TABLE. (1) 800 Rector Ave. 1405 S. Taylor. LONG BEACH, CALIF. — ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS’ CLuB. (1) C. F. Quick, Burbank School, Fourth and Junipero. (2) Julia Morgan, Naples School. LOS ANGELES, CALIF.—CouncIiL oF Dt- RECTORS AND Supervisors. (1) A. L. Blanchard, 8713 Third Ave., Inglewood. (2) Alta A. Polley, 2317 Portland St., Los Angeles. ARK .—PRINCIPALS’ Ernestine Schader, (2) E. Q. Brothers, 632 LOS ANGELES, SLEMENTARY PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. (1) Mrs. Gertrude Best Hammond, 7316 Crenshaw Blvd. 2) Mrs. Georgie K. Huntoon, 900 §S. Ser- rano St. LOS ANGELES, CALIF.—Junior HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Roscoe Leroy Frasher, 152 N. Vermont Ave. (2) Frederick W. Shoemaker, Berendo St. at W. 12th St. LOWELL, CLus. (1) William W. Bennett, Morey Junior High School. (2) John E. Barr, Washington Training School. MALDEN, MASS.—WoMEN PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. (1) Minnie G. Thompson, Maplewood School. (2) Jen- nie E. Shute, Belmont and Converse Schools. MEMPHIS, TENN.—PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIA- TION. (1) Laurie Cash, 1678 Forrest. (2) Nannie Koger, 864 N. Avalon. MERIDIAN, MISS.- (1) Mrs. L. Carter, School. (2) Annie Bourdeaux, Springs School. MILWAUKER, WIS.—ELEMENTARY PRIN- CIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Arnold A. Vieth, 2442 N. 20th St. (2) Margaret Leard, 2964 N. Bartlett Ave. MILWAUKEE, WIS.—PuBLIic SCHOOL AD- MINISTRATORS’ AND SUPERVISORS’ ASSO- CIATION. (1) Philip A. Kolb, Oklahoma Avenue School. 2) Laura Brill, Silver Spring School. MOUNT VERNON, N. Y.—ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS’ CLuB. (1) Grace L. Davis, ELEMENTARY —PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. Oakland Heights Poplar Lincoln School. (2) Mary T. King, James M. Grimes School. MUSKEGON, MICH.—PRINCIPALS’ AND Supervisors’ CouncirL. (1) Elizabeth De Yoe, 54 Catherine Ave. (2) Ethel M. Bowden, 2 Hamilton Apts. NEWARK, N. J.—PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIA- Trion. (1) Harold Steward, Fifteenth Avenue School. (2) Harold H. Phillips, Sussex Avenue School. NEWARK, N. J.—VICE-PRINCIPALS’ AS- sociation. (1) Lillian Heller, South Seventeenth Street School. (2) Allene Magowan, Ann Street School. NEW BEDFORD, MASS.—PRIMARY PRIN- crPALS’ Ctus. (1) Helen F. Moore, 227 Pope St. 2) Joanna Sweeney, 146 Cot- tage St. -PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. Harry S. Simmons, Street Grammar School. ~~ RGH, N. Y- ——. (2) L | Hive NEW HAVEN, CONN. (1) Albert Harder, (2) Mrs. Lillian D. man Ave. NEW YORK, N. Y.—PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIA- TION. (1) Margaret A. Lindquist, Pub- lie School No. 19, Manhattan, 344 FE. 14th St. (2) Margaret Cribbin, Public School No. 19, Manhattan, 344 E. 14th St. NORFOLK, VA.—PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIA- TION. (1) Lillian M. Johnson, 404 Chest- nut St. (2) S. R. Butler, John Marshall School. School. Sher- Columbus Huber, 385 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS OAKLAND, CALIF.—ELEMBNTARY Spy. TION, PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. (1) FRB Zimmerman, Stonehurst School. (2) Sarah L. Young, Parker School. OAKLAND, CALIF.—PRINCIPALS’ (1) Will W. 2) Jessie F. Ave. OGDEN, UTAH—PRINCIPALS’ Assoc. TION. (1) F. T. Wiggins, Washingtoy School. Edith Light, Lorin Farr Schoo}. OKLAHOMA CITY, OKLA.—Councit op ADMINISTRATORS. (1) Mrs. Jewel ( *hap- man, 2300 N. W. 15th. (2) Mrs. Grace Bennett, 400 N. Walnut. OMAHA, NEBR.—ELEMENTARY Scuoo! PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. (1) Maude Comp ton, 630 Park Ave. (2) Bertha Peter. sen, 144 S. 38th St. Cup, Green, 909 McKinley Aye Calder, 3956 Burckhalter ORLANDO, FLA.—ORLANDO-WINTER-PaRK ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS’ CLuB. (1) Mrs. Ruth Compton, 516 N. Summerliy St. (2) ——. OSHKOSH, WIS.—PRINCIPALS’ CONFER ENCE. (1) Charles I. Yule, 110 Grand Ave. (2) W. N. Skowlund, 17 Saratoga Ave. PASADENA, CALIF.—ELEMENTARY Priv. CIPALS’ CLUB. (1) Harley W. Lyon, 95 N. Sierra Bonita Ave. (2) Lee Roy Hall, 569 Michigan Blvd. PATERSON, N. J.—PRINCIPALS’ Assocta- TION. (1) William D. Van Auken, 102 Bamford Ave., Hawthorne. (2) Eleanor Mombert, 313 15th Ave., Paterson. PEORIA, ILL.—ELeEMENTARY MEN PRIN CIPALS’ CLuB. (1) C. H. Placher, 103 Illinois. (2) Forrest Cockrell, 1503 N Glen Oak. PERTH AMBOY, J.—PRINCIPALS’ CLUB (1) Royal R. aT ag Fords. (2) Inge borg Oksen, 67 Catalpa Ave., Perth Amboy. PHILADELPHIA, PA.—PRINCIPALS’ CLUB (1) Dr. Reinhold W. Goll, Elverson School, 13th and Susquehanna Ave. (2) Jean M. Tweed, Taylor School, Randolph and Erie Ave. PITTSBURGH, PA. — PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. (1) H. P. Roberts, Prospect Junior High School, Prospect and Southern St. (2) Grace A. Courtney, McCandless School, McCandless and Butler St. PORTLAND, MAINE TEACHERS’ Asso CIATION. (1) Helen €. Sullivan, 77 Spruce St. (2) Paul H. MelIntire, 248 Congress St. PORTLAND, PRINCIPALS’ Freel, 2421 S. E. Orange Ave. Craske, 7825 S. W. PROVIDENCE, R. I ELEMENTARY PRIN- CIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Francesca DeS Cosgrove, 258 Doyle Ave. (2) Margaret M. Blessing, 12 Blackstone Blvd. PUEBLO, COLO.—-MEN ELEMENTARY PRIN- CIPALS’ CLUB. (1) John Dunlop, Minne- qua School. (2) C. T. Johnson, Hinsdale and Irving Place Schools. PUEBLO, COLO.—PRINCIPALS’ AND SUPER visors’ Division. (1) Alice Kops, Cen- tennial High School Bldg. (2) M. N Porter, Park Hill Junior High School. OREGON — ELEMENTARY ASSOCIATION. (1) A. O. (2) F. H Tenth Ave. Ske. . B. (2) CLUB. Ve, alter OCIA- igton ‘hool, L OF ‘hap- Trace HOOL omp- eter- ARK (1) erlin FER- rand toga RIN- 1, 95 Tall, C1A- 102 nor RIN- 103 iN, RACINE, WIS.—-PRINCIPALS’ CouNCIL. (1) “F. C. Meyer, Winslow School. (2) D. W. d Miller, 1113 Park Ave. REVERE, MASS.—PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. (1) Eleanor Devine, 51 Chamberlain Ave. (2) Florence Spooner, 903 Winthrop Ave. RICHMOND, VA.—LEAGUE OF RICHMOND d PRINCIPALS. (1) W. H. Deierhoi, 1605 Laburnum Ave. (2) L. E. Bush, 3911 Brook Rd. RICHMOND, VA.—PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. (1) Clyde Busby, 2701 W. Grace St. (2) H. R. Eckles, 3324 Park Ave. ROCHESTER, N. Y.—Councin or ELE MENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS. (1) Mrs. Edna Jones, 198 Bronson Ave. (2) Julia Arnott, 409 La Grange Ave. SACRAMENTO, CALIF.— City Prinet- PALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) George ©. Jen- sen, 1521 12th Ave. (2) Adin D. Hender- son, 1841 Markham Way. SAGINAW, MICH.-——- PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. (1) Mrs. Francis Potter, 1950 Gratiot. (2) Marie Walther, 2225 Janes. SAINT LOUIS, MO.—CLUB oF WOMEN PRINCIPALS. (1) Anna Bick Lowell School, 1409 Linton St. 2) Susan 8. Ryan, Pestalozzi School, 1428 8S. Seventh St. SAINT LOUIS, MO.—-ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Robert Strickler, 7008 Pernod, St. Louis. (2) Thomas F. Gentry, 421 Edgewood Dr., Clayton. SAINT LOUIS, MO.—ScHooLMASrTeERsS'’ Cius, (1) F. J. Jeffrey, 5323 Pershing, St. Louis. (2) Thomas F. Gentry, 421 Edgewood Dr., Clayton. SAINT PAUL, MINN.—PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. (1) Winifred Dimond, Farnsworth School, Areade and Hyacinth. (2) Anna B. Green, Department of Education, City Hall. SAN DIEGO, CALIF.—PRINCIPALS’ AND Surervisors’ CLus. (1) Dr. Earl P. An- dreen, 3639 First Ave. (2) Helen Syl- vester, 3729 Indiana St. SAN FRANCISCO, CALIF.—PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Ralph Lehman, 11 San tjenito Way. (2) Carrie Daly, 556 Larkin St. SEATTLE, WASH.—PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIA- TION. (1) Grace C, Henderson, 3938 Cor- liss Ave. (2) Walter J. Reseburg, 3211 38rd Ave. S. SIOUX CITY, TOWA — ADMINISTRATION CLus. (1) H. FE. Van Pelt, 1004 8S. Cor- nelia. (2) Florence Boles, 105 Stellart Apts SOMERVILLE, MASS. CLUB. (1) Lawrence A. Sprague, 17 Perkins St., West Newton. (2) Daniel J. Cotter, 71 Cherry St., Somerville. SCHOOLMEN’S SECTIONAL PRINCIPALS ASSOCIATIONS 633 SOUTH BEND, IND. — ELeEMENTAkyY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS’ CLuB. (1) L. D. Waid, 513 W. Marion. (2) Mrs. Margaret Alexander, 306 E. Ewing. SPRINGFIELD, MO.—PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. (1) Mrs. Ethel T. Laizure, 824 E. Elm. (2) Gertrude Wood, 350 Hovey. STOCKTON, CALIF.—PRINCIPALS’ ASSO- CIATION. (1) Robert H. Allen, Jefferson School, Cor. Sierra Nevada and Lindsay Sts. (2) Mrs. Iva B. Capps, 1520 S. Sut- ter St. SYRACUSE, N. Y.—MEN PRINCIPALS’ AS- SOCIATION. (1) Charles V. Hartson, Val- ley High School. (2) Henry C. Gouldin, Washington Irving School. SYRACUSE, N. Y.—ScHOOLMASTERS’ CLUB. (1) Charles W. Bradlee, 805 Comstock Ave. (2) Prof. Maurice Troyer, 141 Cam- bridge St. SYRACUSE, N. AND SUPERVISORS’ Mrs. Winifred E. Salina St. (2) Marion Lafayette Ave. TERRE HAUTE, IND.-—PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. (1) Blanche EK. Fuqua, Director of In- struction. (2) ——. TOLEDO, OHIO—PRINCIPALS’ AND SUPER- VIsoRS’ CLuB. (1) Bess Campbell, 3375 Glenwood. (2) Mary Dwyer, 155 Isling- ton. TOPEKA, KANSAS — PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. (1) H. J. Freeborn, 27038 W. 21st. (2) Lena Davis, 1812 Huntoon St. UTICA, N. Y.—PRINCIPALS’ AND SUPER- visors’ CLuB. (1) Mabel A. Maynard, Sunset and Hugh R. Jones Schools, 2521 Sunset Ave. (2) A. Lucilla MeCalmont, 13 Elizabeth St. WICHITA, KANSAS—ELEMENTARY PRIN- CIPALS’ CLup. (1) Charles H. Gleason, 228 S. Erie. (2) Maud Hunts, 1135 Pearce. WICHITA FALLS, TEXAS—PRINCIPALS’ AND Supervisors’ Cius. (1) Esther Berry. 1409 Taylor St. (2) T. B. Parnell, 1610 Beverly Dr. WILMINGTON, DEL.—PRINCIPALS’ ASsso- CIATION. (1) Mary C. Dennison, 1106 Jefferson St. (2) Mrs. Elva M. Dugan, 1309 W. Eighth St. WORCESTER, MASS.—PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. (1) Mary E. Regan, Winslow Street School. (2) Ethel M. Rankin, Malvern Road School. YONKERS, N. Y.—PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCTA- TION. (1) Mrs. Julia Gregory, 106 High- land Ave. (2) Rocco Rescigno, 23 Cum- berland Dr. YORK, PA.—PRINcIPALS’ CLUB. (1) Jesse D. Brown, 668 W. Princess St. (2) Naomi (. Bentz, 34 N. West St. Y.—WoOMEN PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Brownell, 1445 SS. Orr, 230 W. SECTIONAL PRINCIPALS ASSOCIATIONS These include organizations in counties, districts, zones and similar divisions of the states. In the following roster the symbol (1) is used to indicate the person reported as president and (2) is used to indicate the secretary. ALABAMA—JEFFERSON COUNTY ELEMEN- TARY ScHoont PRINCIPALS’ CLuB. (1) D. D. Stephens, Birmingham. (2) Ralph Sharitt, Route 7, Birmingham. ARIZONA—Maricorpa COUNTY ELEMEN- TARY ScHoor PRINCIPALS’ AND SUPERIN- TENDENTS’ ASSOCTATION. (1) Edwin L. Riggs, 138 East D Ave., Glendale. (2) Loren Vaughn, 2222 N. 21st St., Phoenix. 634 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS lk LORIDA—ELEMENTARY LOUISIANA—Cappo PARISH CALIFORNIA—ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRIN- CIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. CENTRAL SECTION. (1) White, Woodlake. (2) 221 Park Ave., Visalia. FRESNO COUNTY ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Mrs. Beula Leonard, Route 2, Box 649, San- ger. (2) Mrs. Opal Chapman, 1827 Va- gedes Ave., Fresno. MARIN COUNTY ELEMENTARY PRINCI- PALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Neil Cummins, Larkspur. (2) Clarence Herkner, San Rafael. MONTEREY COUNTY PRINCIPALS’ ASSO- CIATION. (1) Mrs. Emma Dennis, 209 Maple St., Salinas. (2) Mrs. Laura Tar- vor, 37 Church St., Salinas. NortH Coast Secrion. (1) John W. Hardwick, Fortuna. (2) Clyde A. Pate- naude, Box 5, Korbel. NORTHERN Section. (1) Lyrel Bullard, Maxwell. (2) Joe Michell, Williams. San MATEO CouNTY ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) J. L. Car- ter, Halfmoon Bay. (2) Clara L. Bolei, 235 Hopkins Ave., Redwood City. SANTA CLARA COUNTY SCHOOLMASTERS’ CuusB. (1) Glenn Wm. Goddard, 540 Hanover St., Palo Alto. (2) J. R. Over- turf, 543 Channing Ave., Palo Alto. SONOMA COUNTY ELEMENTARY PRIN- CIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) G. D. Winter, Geyersville. (2) Edith Peterson, % County Supt. of Schools, Santa Rosa. SOUTHERN Section. (1) Mrs. Howard- ine G. Hoffman, 392 Riverside Dr., Chino. (2) Anne L. Shephard, 928 Eighth PI., Los Angeles. STANISLAUS PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. Turlock. (2) Mrs. Turlock. TULARE COUNTY SCHOOLS PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Theo R. Nickel, Earli- mart. (2) S. Lorene Upson, 320 W. Oak St.. Visalia. Francis J. Thelma Dawes, CounTY ELEMENTARY (1) Clara Wassum, Clyffice N. Galvin, SCHOOL PRINCI- PALS’ ASSOCIATION. DuvAL COUNTY DEPARTMENT OF ELE- MENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS. (1) Mar- garet Fairlie, 1035 E. Bay St., Jackson- ville. (2) Mrs. Annie Neighbors, 3576 Pine St., Jacksonville. St. PETERSBURG DISTRICT PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Mrs. Marie McAnallan, 235 21st Ave., S. E., St. Petersburg. (2) Julia Dieffenwierth, 5651 36th St., N., St. Petersburg. TAMPA District ELEMENTARY PRIN- CIPALS’ Counctin. (1) Mabel Nelson, Roosevelt School, Tampa. (2) Lillian Gwinn, B. C. Graham School, Tampa. GEORGIA—C HATHAM COUNTY PRINCIPALS’ AND SuPERVISORS’ CLUB. (1) Mrs. Laurie V. Clark, De Soto Hotel, Savannah. (2) Margaret Murphy, 11 E. Perry St., Sa- vannah. IOWA—ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. NorTH CENTRAL District. (1) Emma Rehm, Monroe School, Mason City. (2) Hazel Coon, Central School, Mason City. NORTHEAST DISTRICT. (1) Murva Kelly, Fulton and Jackson Schools, Dubuque. (2) Jenna Strahan, Tyler School, Cedar Rapids. PRINCIPALS’ Cuvs. (1) Alice Short, 118 E. 73rd St., Shreveport. (2) Mrs. Mary Ethel King, 1725 Line Ave., Shreveport. MAINE—ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPaty’ ASSOCIATION. ( KENNEBEC VALLEY SCHOOLMEN’S C1yp, (1) Mr. Coombs, Waterville Junior High School, Waterville. (2) George Bucknam _— Junior High School, Water ville. WASHINGTON COUNTY SCHOOLMEy’s Cuius. (1) Harry Gilson, Eastport. (2) Earle D. Merrill, Machias. MARYLAND—ALLEGANY CouNTY ELEmgy. TARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION (1) Loretto MceGeady, 502 Holland st. Cumberland. (2) John Manley, Frost: burg. MASSACHUSETTS — NortTHeERN Worces. TER COUNTY ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Mary A. Dunn, School Street School, Fitchburg. (2) Louise Wingate, Edgerly School, Fitchburg. MISSISSIPPI—Jackson District Epvca- TION ASSOCIATION. (1) A. T. Whitten, George School, Jackson. (2) Frances Decell, Bailey Junior High School, Jack. son. MISSOURI—ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCI PALS’ ASSOCIATION. CENTRAL MISSOURI ELEMENTARY PRiv- PALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Dr. Frank H., Gorman, Principal, Elementary Division, University of Missouri, Columbia. (2) Wayne T. Snyder, Fairview School, Jef- ferson City. St. FRANCOIS COUNTY TEACHERS’ ASSOCIATION. James A. Sanders, Leadwood. Humphrey, Esther. St. JoserpH DIstRIcT ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS’ CLuB. (1) A. M. Rennison, 2103 Mulberry St., St. Joseph. (2) Ma mie Miles, 724 Robidoux St., St. Joseph SOUTHEAST MISSOURI DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS. Chairman, James A. Sanders, Leadwood. (2) Nellie E. Kreuger, Cape Girardeau. NEW JERSEY — ELeMeEnNTaryY PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. BURLINGTON COUNTY CONSOLIDATED SCHOOL PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Ingeborg M. Horton, 426 Lippincott Ave., Riverton. (2) Melissa Ingling, Chats- worth. NORTH HuDSON SCHOOLMASTERS’ CLUB (1) Francis McQuade, Jefferson School, North Bergen. (2) James Achinapura, Emerson High School, Union City. NEW MEXICO — ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. CENTRAL NEW MEXICO PRINCIPALS’ CLusB. (1) Kenneth L. Wentworth, 1917 EK. Lead, Albuquerque. (2) Ona FE Schupp, 223 N. High St., Albuquerque. DonA ANA COUNTY PRINCIPALS’ ASSO ELEMENTARY Chairman, (2) Nelle SCHOOL SCHOOL CIATION. (1) Mrs. Mildred Smith, Dona Ana. (2) Mrs. Clem Russell, Mesilla Park. GRANT COUNTY PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIA TION. (1) Mrs. Allie Black, Ft. Bayard. (2) Dorothy Watson, Hanover. SOUTHWESTERN NEW MEXICO PRINCI PALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Harold Jeffers, Alamogordo. (2) A. EF. Perkins, Alamo gordo. NEW YORK—-ELEMENTARY CIPALS’ ASSOCIATION, CAPITOL DISTRICT ELEMENTARY PRIN CIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. Chairman, Walter A. LeBaron, Franklin School, Schenec tady. (2) Mary A. Walsh, 1287 Third Ave., Watervliet. SCHOOL PRIN ——__ “IPALS’ } CL, ‘knam, Vater. /MEN's t. (2) .EMEN- ATION, id St., Frost. IRCES- IPALS' School Louise rg. DUCA- itten, "ANCes Jack- RINCI- Priv- ‘man, Nelle ‘TARY lison, Ma- seph. 'T OF man, vellie HOOL ‘LUB. hool, ura, 1O0L ALS’ silla CIA- ard. NCI- ers, mo- tIN- ——— Hupson VALLEY SCHOOLMASTERS’ AS- gocraTION. (1) A. H. Campbell, High School, Highland. (2) Clayton Seeber, 4 Lewis Ave., Poughkeepsie. Nassau CounTY ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Florence Allen, Grove Street School, Freeport. (2) Nina Plantz, East Street School, Hicksville. : ROCKLAND COUNTY ELEMENTARY PRIN- CIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Ralph E. Day, Hillburn. (2) Mrs. Lila Kearsing, Spring Valley. NORTH CAROLINA—ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. NortH CENTRAL District. (1) C. G. Garrett, Southside School, Durham. (2) Mrs. Herman Senter, Boylan Heights School, Raleigh. NORTHEASTERN District. (1) Eva Keeter, Third Street School, Greenville. (2) T. A. Gray, Winstead School, Wilson. NORTHWESTERN District. (1) Frances Wortham, North School, Winston-Salem. (2) Mary MacLeod, Fisher Street School, Burlington. SOUTHEASTERN District. (1) Kate A. McIntyre, Central School, Laurinburg. (2) T. B. Brock, Long Hill School, R. F. D., Fayetteville. SoutH PrepMontT District. (1) Glenn R. Stine. Jefferson School, Shelby. (2) Selma C. Webb, South Shelby School, Shelby. WESTERN District. (1) John E. Rufty, Brevard School, Brevard. (2) Mrs. M. L. Nesbitt, Gladys School, Candler. OREGON—Nortuwest District ELEMEN- TARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) William E. Oliver, 714 N. E. Jarrett St., Portland. (2) William B. Schnebly, Supt. of Columbia County Schools, St. Helens. PENNSYLVANIA — ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. LANCASTER COUNTY ELEMENTARY PRIN- CIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) B. F. Funk, Florin. (2) Luella Mellinger, Conestoga. PRINCIPALS’ ROUND TABLE OF ALLE- GHENY County. (1) J. E. Clark, 531 Roup St., Tarentum. (2) M. A. Steiner, 59 Danvers Ave., Pittsburgh. TI0GA CouNTY SCHOOLMEN’S CLI (1) Rock L. Butler, Wellsboro. ( Harry Fish, Wellsboro. TENNESSEE—ELeEMENTARY SCHOOL PRIN- CIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. DAVIDSON COUNTY PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. (1) Mrs. H. L. Bateman, 1423 FE. Fast- land Ave., Nashville. (2) ———. 1B. 2) WASHINGT ON—ELEMENTARY Srate PRINCIPALS ASSOCIATIONS 635 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS DEPARTMENT OF THE EAST TENNESSEBR EDUCATION ASSOCIATION. Chairman, Marshall Clark, Box 30, Signal Mountain, Chattanooga. Vice-Chairman, Gerald L. Bell, 1190 Edgewood Ave., Knoxville. TEXAS—NorTHEAST DIVISION, ELEMEN- TARY PRINCIPALS’ AND SUPERVISORS’ CLuB. (1) Obie A. Baker, Route 1, Gil- mer, (2) Mrs. Brutsché, Elementary School, Gladewater. VIRGINIA—ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS, DIS- Trict M. (1) Bertha W. Starritt, 1320 Chapman Ave., 8S. W., Roanoke. (2) Lil- lian Smith, Pulaski. SCHOOL PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. PuGET SOUND SCHOOLMASTERS’ CLUB. (1) Sam Glass, 6543 19th Ave., N. E., Seattle. (2) Frank Farrar, 7752 38rd Ave., N. W., Seattle. SPOKANE WOMEN PRINCIPALS’ CLUB, District 81. (1) Helen O'Neil, W. 2012 Third Ave., Spokane. (2) Ida Most, 607 Cleveland, Spokane. TacoMA Dt1stricr ADMINISTRATIVE Group. (1) Elsie English, Walker Apts., Tacoma. (2) L. P. Roseh, Gray Junior High School, Tacoma. WHATCOM CouUNTY PRINCIPALS’ LEAGUE, (1) Osear Nelson, Route 2, Box 215, Bellingham. (2) Irene Marz, 1313 High St., Bellingham. WEST VIRGINIA—ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. CABELL COUNTY ELEMENTARY PRINCI- PALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) W. V. Christian, 2714 Highlawn Ave., Huntington. (2) Guy M. Chapman, 1829 12th Ave., Hunt- ington, KANAWHA COUNTY ELEMENTARY PRIN- CIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Maude E. Har- mon, 1319 Sixth St., Charleston. (2) H. E. Warner, R. F. D. 1, Roosevelt Ave., Charleston. MARION COUNTY PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIA- TION. (1) F. Walter Cox, Fennimore Si., Fairmont. (2) ——. MARSHALL COUNTY ELEMENTARY PRIN- CIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) John Kady, 42 Seventh St., MeMechen. (2) Alice San- ford, 1111 Fifth St., Moundsville. MONONGALIA COUNTY SCHOOLMASTERS' Cius. (1) Rex M. Smith, 188 Spruce St.., Morgantown. (2) Mrs. Lila Bowers, 263 Prairie Ave., Morgantown. Woop County ELEMENTARY PRINCI- PALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) W. E. Lawson, 2903 N. Avery St., Parkersburg. (2) Austin H. George, Elizabeth Pike, Par- kersburg. STATE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS ASSOCIATIONS In the following roster the symbol (1) is used to indicate the person reported as president and (2) is used to indicate the secretary. ALABAMA—DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY ScHooL Princrpauts. (1) H. T. Grace, Superintendent and Elementary Princi- pal, Enterprise. (2) Mrs. Emma Flowers, Ozark. CALIFORNIA—ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRIN- CIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Mrs. Gertrude G. Howard, 312 W. Hillcrest Blvd., Ingle- wood. (2) J. David Laird, Washington School, Bakersfield. CONNECTICUT — ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) O. Ward Satterlee, Glenville School, Glenville. (2) Marcia Zabriskie, Woodland Ave., Bloomfield. FLORIDA—DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS. (1) Mrs. Ethel Wolverton, Jackson Elementary School, Tampa. (2) Mary Bainum, Childs’ Park School, St. Petersburg. 636 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS GEORGIA — ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS’ CLuB. (1) Margaret Solomon, 1068 W. Peachtree St., Atlanta. (2) Eva Gardner, 96 40th St., Columbus. ID A H O — DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS. (1) Clinton Barber, Me- ridian. (2) James Chance, Payette. INDIAN A— ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS’ CLuB. (1) Murray A. Dalman, 3137 Broadway, Indianapolis. (2) Alice Gurt- ner, Nora School, Indianapolis. 10 W A— DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS. (1) Marjorie Wal- ters, 325 16th St., N. E., Cedar Rapids. (2) Georgia Quigley, 928 30th St., Des Moines. KANSAS—ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS’ ASSO- CIATION. (1) E. P. Robertson, Newton. 2) Edwin Freisen, Buhler. LOUISIANA —- ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS’ SecTiIon. (1) O. K. Bailey, Sterlington. (2) Myrtle Rodgers, Georgia Tucker School, Monroe. MARYLAND—ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRIN- CIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. Chairman, F. Dawes Garrett, Lansdowne. (2) Mary F. Sultzer, School No. 51, Baltimore. MASSACHUSETTS—-ELEMENTARY PRINCI- PALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Sara E. Chase, Washington School, Springfield. 2) Mary C. Carney, Eastern Avenue School, Springfield. MICHIGAN—DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS. (1) Elizabeth Welch, Fairview School, Flint. (2) G. O. Lock- wood, Ann Visger School, River Rouge. MINNESOTA — ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS’ Section. (1) Alfreda Voigt, Hay School, Minneapolis. (2) Esther Newell, Agassiz School, Minneapolis. MISSISSIPPI—DEPARTMENT OF ELEMEN- TARY PRINCIPALS AND SUPERVISORS. (1) H. G. Street, Power School, Jackson. (2) Sallie B. Newman, Supervisor, City Schools, Jackson. MISSOURI—ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS’ As- SOCIATION. (1) Myles Thomas, Border Star School, 6321 Wornall Rd., Kansas City. (2) Frances Holliday, 409 W. Fifth St., Maryville. NEBRASKA ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Mrs. Martha Hutton, Hartley School, Lincoln. (2) Mabelle Allen, Lake View School, Lincoln. NEW JERSEY—ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION, (1) Floyd A. Potter, Direc- tor of Elementary Edueation, Atlantic City. (2) Dr. Albert L. Hartman, 104 Haddon Pl., Upper Montclair. NEW MEXICO—ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS’ Section. (1) Dorothy Watson, Hanover. (2) M. P. Whitney, Fierro. NEW YORK—PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Charles W. Joyce, Seneca School, Irondequoit, Rochester. (2) Ella Smal- lenburg, 370 MeKinley Pkwy., Buffalo. NORTH CAROLINA——-ELEMENTARY Priy CIPALS’ ASSOCIATION, (1) J. E. Millop John Small School, Washington, (9) Kate A. McIntyre, Central School. La, 4A \- rinburg. . OHIO — DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENT Any SCHOOL PRINCIPALS. (1) W. Paul Alley Garfield Heights Elementary Schoo/' 4840 Turney Rd., Garfield Heights, ley, land. (2) Matilda Stuart, 197 Highlang Ave., Columbus. OKLAHOMA—ELEMENTARY SCHOOL Pay. CIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) A. O. H. Set. zepfandt, Barnard School, Tulsa. (9; Isabel Watson, Washington School, Bar tlesville. OREGON—ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS’ Aggo. CIATION. (1) W. H. Arstill, Forest Groye (2) Guy Lee, MeMinnville. PENNSYLVANIA—ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS’ SECTION. (1) Charlotte ¢ Truby, Humboldt School, Pittsburgh, (2) D. J. Mahoney, Conyngham Schoo), Wilkes-Barre. RHODE ISLAND — ELEMENTARY ScuHoo, PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Hermann G. Patt, John Clarke School, Newport. (2) Elizabeth Baldwin, Garden Street School, Pawtucket. SOUTH CAROLINA — DEPARTMENT of PRINCIPALS. (1) D. A. Snow, Tacapau. (2) Guy L. Varn, Schneider School, Columbia. SOUTH CAROLINA — PRINCIPALS’ CLUup (PALMETTO STATE). (1) William Henry Grayson, Jr., Simonton Public School, Charleston. (2) J. Andrew Simmons, Washington High School, Columbus. SCHOOL TEX AS—ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS’ AND SUPERVISORS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Frank D. Austin, Franklin School, Port Arthur. (2) Corinne Nash, 1912 Washington Ave., Waco. UTAH ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS’ ASSO0- CIATION. (1) Lester J. Nielson, 724 Windsor S., Salt Lake City (2) —— VIRGINIA—ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS’ De PARTMENT. (1) J. E. Bauerman, Box 51, Fairfax. (2) Mrs. L. P. Woodward, 318 S. Lee St., Alexandria. WASHINGTON — ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS’ DIVISION OF THE DEPART MENT OF ADMINISTRATION AND SUPER VISION. (1) Don Patterson, 704 N. Pearl St.. Ellensburg. (2) W. O. E. Radcliffe, Lincoln and Franklin Schools, Belling ham. WEST VIRGINIA—ELEMENTARY PRINCI- PALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) E. B. McCue, Thorpe Public School, Thorpe. (2) W. E. Lawson, 2903 N. Avery St., Parkers- burg. WISCONSIN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Lucile Clock, 1626 Madison St... Madison. (2) Fred 8 Schnell, 2722 Highland Ter., Sheboygan ee Proy. Miller, nh. ( 2) 1, Lau. NTAky Allen, School, ' Cleve. ghland Priy. H. Set. a. (2) 1, Bar. ASso.- Grove, 1C HOOL rtte ¢. burgh. school, CHOOL rmann wport, Street iT OF “apau. chool, CLus Henry chool, mons, us. AND rank rthur. ngton A SSo- 724 ’ De- x 51, , 318 LO0L PART- }PER- LIST OF MEMBERS THE DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS For THE YEAR 1937-38, CorreEcTED to JUNE 1, 1938 + Indicates the Life Members of the Department One asterisk (*) indicates the City, County and District Enrolment Chairmen of the Department Two asterisks (**) indicate the State Enrolment Chairmen of the Department § Indieates those members who are deceased ° ALABAMA Ansley, Foster, Barrett School, 7620 Divi- sion Ave., Birmingham Brown, Eura, 912 Walnut St., Gadsden Bryant, Mrs. Fred B., 2025 Leighton Ave., Anniston Conner, W. A., High School and Elementary School, McKenzie Couch, Maleolm G., Parrish Cox, George D., 1408 N. 20th St., Birming- ham Creel, John Paul, Box 300, Sylacauga Dean, Mrs. Mary S., Bangor Dooley, Cora, Bridges Hotel, Gadsden Flock, Mrs. Elizabeth C., 7 N. Bayou St., Mobile Grace, H. T., Enterprise Green, Mary Ward, Jemison School, 805 12th Ave., Tuscaloosa Hale, Gresham, Cherokee School, Cherokee Hall, William R., R. F. D. 5, Box 63-B, Birmingham Hamil, E. Cranston, 22 Macy PIl., Mobile Harris, Margaret Elizabeth, Box 241, Luverne Hill, R. Voyt, Martin School, 1325 12th St.. N., Birmingham Hobson, Mrs. FE. C. Tuscaloosa oo “Y Jessie, 109 S. Grove St., Hunts- ville Hutchens, Mrs. N. B., 167 Williams St., Mobile **Johnston, Robert C., 2030 Ave., S., Birmingham Jones, Lenore, 1606 Monterey PL, Mobile Kelly, F. L., The Graymont School, 300 Eighth Ave., W., Birmingham Landers, Dr. E. J.. Head of Education Dept., State Teachers College, Jackson- ville Lee, Farley, Teachers Training Library, Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn MeLatechy, Gertrude E., Elyton School, 100 Tuscaloosa Ave., Birmingham MacMillan, Emma, 120 Cramer Ave., Montgomery Matzenger, Lena, 1058 Selma St., Mobile Meigs, Mrs. Mary S., 1209 Glenwood Ter., Anniston Morris, W. A., Box 6, Blountsville Murphree, Mrs. Myra B., Prattville Norton, H. B., Robinson School, 8400 First Ave., S., Birmingham Obenchain, Dr. I. R., 1700 Sixth Ave., N., Birmingham Elementary Magnolia Ozier, W. C., 1645 Eighth Ave. W., Birmingham Pogue, James V., Gibson School, 956 50th St., N., Birmingham Price, N. H., 300 N. Sixth St., S. W., Birmingham Reynolds, Mrs. Nellie D., Box 74, North- port Richards, Henry G., 733 N. Wood Ave., Florence Richardson, Creel, Eclectic Rives, Janie L., 5 High St., Montgomery Sapp, Ella F., 1511 Fourth Ave., Bessemer Sasser, Mrs. Roxie J., Elem. Supvr., Shel- by County, Board of Education, Colum- biana Sayre, Elizabeth, 225 Sayre St., Mont- gomery *Sheffield, Mrs. Frances, 10 N. Ann St., Mobile Snoddy, W. T., Acipeo School, 1716 31st Ave., N., Birmingham Tidwell, Dr. R. E., Prof. of Education, Univ. of Alabama, University Turner, Lillian, Box 309, Florence Underwood, C. Price, 7830 Third Ave., S., Birmingham Upton, Mrs. C. M., Box 737, Wylam Vaughan, Joseph T., 5521 First Ave., S., Birmingham Wiener, Florence E., 252 S. Ann St., Mobile : Wilder, L. Virgil, 720 McMillan Ave., Birmingham *Williams, J. D., 5708 Sixth Ave., S., Birmingham Woodall, Mrs. J. B., 308 S. Greene St., Huntsville ARIZONA Brown, Clarence S., Box 137, Ajo Carlisle, O. L., Grammar Schoal, Somerton Dexter, Mata E., 113 N. Pleasant St., Prescott Dutton, Wilbur H., Ira D. Payne Training School, Arizona State Teachers College, Tempe Fisher, Marjorie E., 208 Union St., Pres- cott Keen, Julia C., 1905 FE. Fourth St., Tucson King, J. W., 358 N. 15th St., Phoenix Landry, P., Box 3613, Phoenix Loper, John D., Box 2191, Phoenix Machan, W. T., Supt., Creighton School Dist. No. 14, 2802 FE. MeDowell, Phoenix [ 637 | 638 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Meyers, George L., Klagetoh Area Schools, Klagetoh Mitchell, A. J., Supt., Box 1751, Nogales Porter, M. D., Supt., Holbrook High School, Holbrook Riggs, Edward L., Dysart School No. 89, Peoria Shepherd, Rulon T., Supt. of Schools, Box 391, Mesa Smith, H. W., Box 777, Glendale **Soule, H.'M., 3999 Cleveland Rd., Phoenix Stinchfield, Bess, Kenilworth School, Phoenix Sullivan, W. R., Elementary School, Palo Verde = John Q., Supt. of Schools, Flag- sta Townsend, Salome, 520 E. Fourth St., Tucson Wade, Irene, Chesterfield Apts., Prescott Weitzel, Thomas R., 7 W. Phoenix Ave., Flagstaff ARKANSAS Abbott, T. C., 2014 Schiller, Little Rock Beard, C. E., Trusty School, Ft. Smith *Conte, Mrs. Lelia M., 290 Woodlawn Ave., Hot Springs Cordell, Thyra, Rogers School, Ft. Smith Evans, Bessie, 1005 McGowan St., Little Rock Fearing, Mrs. Ben, 203 N. Agee St., Camden Futrall, Alma, Dept. of Education, Lee County, Marianna Haraway, Fannie, Jefferson School, Helena Hayes, Maude, Centennial School, 16th and Wolfe, Little Rock **Jones, Ralph B., Peabody School, Ft. Smith — Annie, 714 N. Walnut St., Little Rock Leslie, Mrs. R. Elbert, 618 Altena Ave., De Queen Lewis, Mary J., Howard School, Ft. Smith Maynard, G. E., Gabe Meyer School, Pine Bluff *Means, Hendree Winston, Peabody School, Little Rock Moore, Fred, 1216 E. Bighth Ave., Pine Bluff Moore, Rosa E., Box 164, Morrilton Root, G. S., Supt. of Schools, P. O. Drawer 404, Fayetteville Turner, Winnie Virgil, 1012 W. Ash St., Blytheville Washington, Ruby, Duval School, N. 14th St., Ft. Smith Webb, Victor L., 1514 W. 20th, Little Rock *Williams, Mollie, Belle Point School, Ft. Smith Woods, Ethel, 1205 Madison St., Jonesboro CALIFORNIA Abbott, Pansy Jewett, County Supt. of Schools, Sequoia Bldg., Redwood City Abbott, Robert B., 1043 Glendora Ave., Oakland Adams, Mrs. Ida James, Olive View Sana- torium, Olive View Adams, Ida M., Red Hill School, San Anselmo Alexander, Mrs. Mertie, 4227 S. Hoover St., Los Angeles Allen, Robert H., Jefferson School, 1400 E. Lindsay St., Stockton Anderson, Adda, 2511 E. First St., Long Beach Anderson, Emma Christine, 7830 S. Har- vard Blvd., Los Angeles Andreen, Dr. San Diego Andrews, Mary A., 810 S. Ross St., Santa farl P., Brooklyn School, Ana Angelo, Ruth V., 925 Gayley, West Logs Angeles iis Ashley, Margaret, Route 1, Box 340, Lodi Aultman, Mrs. Lela W., 6161 Barrows Dr Los Angeles Badour, Mrs. Eleanor Bigelow, Verdugo Rd., Glendale Bailie, Mrs. Lorraine, 2624 N. Common- wealth Ave., Los Angeles Baker, Ethel I., 1517 40th St., Sacramento Baltzer, Mrs. Clarinda T., 6 Batchelor Ter., Petaluma Bancroft, Roscoe, Palo Verde Unified Schools, Riverside County, Blythe Banta, Mrs. Edythe R., 1860 Trestle Glen Rd., Oakland Banta, R. M., 405 Begier Ave., San Leandro *Bardarson, Otto W., Box 1701, Carmel Barnard, Nora Margaret, Malabar School, 3200 Malabar St., Los Angeles Barnes, Mrs. Agnes Caldwell, 2415 Hol- lister Ter., Glendale Barnes, Mrs. Jessie Baldwin, 407 E. State St., Long Beach Bartlett, Beulah D., 3345 S. San Gabriel Blvd., San Gabriel Bateman, L. W., 3575 Andrews, San Diego Bates, Elizabeth, 365 S. Highland Ave. Los Angeles Baucher, M. D., 1836 W. Washington, San Diego Beach, Mrs. Rachel Ann, 131 S. Ave. 63, Los Angeles Beal, Mrs. Vio Ross, 2510 Cedar Ave., Long Beach Bedford, Rowena, San Timoteo Rd., Box 61, Redlands Behymer, Frances, 6336-C Stafford Ave., Huntington Park Benner, W. A., 1670 Grand Ave., Piedmont Benning, Mrs. Beth Houston, 720 N. Sierra Bonita Ave., Los Angeles Benson, Albert N., 996 Dutton Ave., Oak- land Berard, Elvina L., Commodore Sloat School, Ocean Ave. and Sloat Blvd., San Francisco Berry, Bertha Irene, 1261 Mariposa St., Glendale Bert, Reese E., 1202 13th St., Modesto Biffer, Mary C., 1253 W. Fifth St., Los Angeles Billups, Mrs. Lillian H. B., 471 Landfair St., West Los Angeles Birch, J. E., Willows Union Grammar School, Willows Bishop, Frank E., Dist. Supt. of Schools, Corona Blakemore, Edith E., 355 EB. Alvarado St., Pomona Blanchard, Alice, 235 E. Alvarado St., Pomona Bliss, George C., 3432 Guido St., Oakland Board, Mrs. Lorraine M., 1067 Elm Ave., Glendale Boehncke, Frieda C., 1320 N. Wilton PL, Hollywood Bonsall, Mrs. Marcia V., 1219 Wisconsin, Pomona Boone, G. N., 1654 Francisea St., Pasa- dena Borden, Mary Gray, 1219 Eye St., Modesto Borneman, Katherine H., 8069 Castro Val- ley Blvd., Hayward *+Bowen, Wayne F., Box 228, Compton Bowman, Robert C., 1657 Beulah Pl, Oakland 1751 N. hool, anta Los Lodi Dr,, tN. mon- ento 1elor ‘ified Glen San el 1001, Hol- tate brie] i ego \ve., San 63, ive., Box ve, ont prra dak- loat vd., St., List or MEMBERS 639 _ Bowman, Samuel Howard, 6917 Converse Ave., Los Angeles Bowring, H. F., 183 High St., Modesto Boyer, Mrs. Edith M., 2438 Altura St., Montrose : Bradley, Anne M., 412 68rd St., Oakland Bragg, Mrs. M. Fanny, Delhi School, 1148 S. Parton, Santa Ana Breen, Ellen R., 1067 Lincoln Ave., San Diego c Brems, Edna M., Embassy Hotel, San Diego a Brinn, Mrs. Vera L., 1476 E. California Ave., Glendale Brown, Bessie Olive, 1525 13th St., Bakersfield Brubaker, David E., 2320 Greerfield Ave., West Los Angeles Buckalew, Harry L., 408 N. Fulton St., Fresno Bullard, Lyrel D., Box 180, Maxwell Burns, Jane B., Route 2, Box 317, Peta- luma Burr, Marjorie F., 308 Myrtle St., Red- lands Burton, Mrs. Katherine D., Box 517, Tujunga Bushnell, Rose Janette, 545 Wheeling Way, Los Angeles Buttner, Mrs. Ella, Homestead School, Mill Valley Butzine, Fred C., 724 Devon Court, Mis- sion Beach, San Diego Calder, Jessie, Burekhalter School, 3956 Burekhalter Ave., Oakland Callahan, Mrs. Stella M., 212 N. Alta Vista, Monrovia Campbell, Florilla, 825 N. Baker St., Stockton Carmichael, Bessie M., 348 Louisburg St., San Francisco Carroll, Hazel I., 4947 Melrose Hill, Los Angeles Carter, Grace, 1634 Eighth Ave., San Francisco Carver, Mary H., 3825 Sixth Ave., San Diego Chamberlain, Clarence W., 955 N. First St., Banning Chandler, Mrs. Myrtle B., 1234% W. Fifth St., Los Angeles Chase, Ethel E., 912 S. Chevy Chase Dr., Glendale Christensen, Serena P., 661144 N. Berendo St., Los Angeles Clark, Emmett, Supt. of Schools, Pomona Clark, James Walter, 142 N. Ardmore Ave., Los Angeles Clark, Mamie S., 142 N. Ardmore Ave., Los Angeles Clayton, Mrs. Rose C., 1821 Pepper St., Alhambra Clemens, K. F., Box 766, Wasco Clifford, Charles A., 2143 W. 74th St., Los Angeles Cobb, De Roy F., 2900 N. Rose Ave., Alta- dena Cokeley, John Wesley, Jr., 505 E. Live Oak St., San Gabriel ‘Coleman, Mrs. Ida Fulton, 10334 Ten- nessee Ave., Los Angeles Colerick, Mrs. Mabel S., 296 S. Foothill Blvd., Altadena Colestock, Grace B., Sixty-sixth Street School, 309 E. 67th St., Los Angeles Collis, Alma A., 3446 Richmond Blvd., Oakland Compton, John L., Bakersfield Connors, Anne B., 152 N. Alexandria Ave., Los Angeles Conwell, Delsy Dyche, 847 S. Genesee St., Los Angeles Emerson’ School, Cook, Isabel M., Box 215, San Anselmo Cookman, Mrs. Grace Olive, 618 W. 49th St., Los Angeles Cornwell, L. May, 1385 N. Kenwood St., Glendale 7Correll, Vineent I., 1838 McKenzie St., Long Beach Cotter, M. Elsie, 395 Breed Ave., San Leandro Couchman, Harry H., 717 W. 80th St., Los Angeles Cowan, Rose E., 200 N. Rampart Bivd., Los Angeles Cox, Arthur W., 775 Molino Ave., Long Beach Craig, Mrs. Mary D. S., 8680 Colonial Ave., Venice Crane, Clarence B., 8000 Bireh St., Oak- land Crane, R. L., Jr., 344 Santa Barbara Ave., Daly City Crapser, Jessamine, 1828 S. Mansfield Ave., Los Angeles Crawford, Mrs. Bertha T., 3027% S. Hoover St., Los Angeles *Crawford, Dr. Lawrence T., College Ele- mentary School, State College, Chico Creedon, Mrs. Elma M., 732 York St., Vallejo Crookshank, Sara A., 1027 W. 46th St., Los Angeles Crose, Leah, 1411 Monterey Rd., South Pasadena Cross, Irvin N., 1520 Van Buren Ave., San Diego Crowley, Mrs. M. Viola, 20937 Sherman Way, Canoga Park Croy, Hazel, 23 California St., Trona Culver, Harriet E., 402 W. 51st St., Los Angeles Cummings, F. L., 3706 Ninth St., Chico Curley, Laura, 1121 Trestle Glen Rd., Oakland Curran, Eleanore, 143 Claremont Ave., Long Beach Curtis, Lawrence C., 565 Chapman Court, Santa Clara Cuthbertson, Ernest J., 219 Mt. View, Taft Danielson, Eva, 2306 Edgewater Ter., Los Angeles Dannemann, Matie, 487 E. Maple Ave., Orange Daustin, Helen A. S., 255 Terracina, Red- lands Davin, Mrs. Bernice, 3237 Goldsmith St., San Diego Davis, Barney J., Union School, Lakeport Davis, Burton Elsworth, 1848 Veteran Ave., Terminal Island Davis, Mrs. M. E., Box 595, Exeter Davis, Perey R., Supt. of Schools, 1333 Sixth St., Santa Monica Davis, Mrs. Vivian Klene, 233 Roswell Ave., Long Beach Day, Mrs. Mylitta Morris, 608 De La Vista Ave., Santa Barbara Dean, Anastasia E., Pinole Dean, Ray B., David Lubin School, 36th and K Sts., Sacramento Delmet, Don Thomas, 811 H St., Norwalk Desmond, Lucile H., Madera County Board of Education, Lineoln School, Madera Des Roches, Pauline, 1323 Woolsey St., San Francisco Doak, Helen Perry, 1931 S. South Pasadena Dodson, Helen C., 1820 S. Cochran Ave., Los Angeles Dormeyer, Therese C., 512 W. Cressey St., Compton Douglass, Sherman H., 6308 Middleton St., Huntington Park Fremont, 3800 Pasadena Canfield Drake, Mrs. Ethelda A., Ave., Los Angeles Dreier, Mrs. Grace M., Ave., Los Angeles Dudley, Marjorie, Franklin Fourth St., Santa Ana Dykes, Leonard R., 817 Bedford St., Los 1622 S. School, W. Angeles Edwards, Ernest F., 631 KE. Mill, Santa Maria Edwards, Eva D., 370 W. Center = St., Covina Egger, Walter A., 846 N. Van Ness St., Santa Ana Wilers, Johanne, 415 Harwood PI, Santa Ana Elledge, Mrs. Gladys Rodda, Man- ning Ave., Los Angeles Elwood, Roby T., 201 S. 1662 Chapel St., Alhambra Enfield, Mrs. Celesta Gertrude, 3115 W. Adams, Los Angeles Entield, O. D., 426 S. Union Dr., Los Angeles Engvall, Philip W., 215 Hamlet St., Lemoore Engvall, Willard R., Box 998, Corcoran Ensign, Olive Leona, 3736 Arlington Ave., Los Angeles Errickson, Lucille C., Norfolk Street School, 1555 Norfolk St., Los Angeles Eskey, Mrs. Nettie Dagley, 11532 Hartsook Ave., North Hollywood Estes, Charlotte, 811 35th Ave. San Francisco Evenson, Edna M., 611 S. Serrano, Los Angeles Farnum, Martha F., 1520 Glorietta Blvd., Coronado Feazell, Ruby Caroline, 1633 N. Formosa Ave., Los Angeles Fesler, Ralph S., Keppel Union Elementary School, Littlerock +Field, Mrs. M. Elizabeth, 939 S. West- moreland, Los Angeles Fikes, Edith E., 120 Sumner St., Santa Cruz Finney, Grace E., 1919 W. 21st St., Los Angeles Crystal Sehool, Suisun Finney, J. J., L., 854 Harbor View PL, 7Floyd, Mary San Diego +Flynn, Mary C., Route 2, Box 679, El Monte Foster, Bertha Ellen, Lincoln Elementary School, Corona Iraser, Jessie M., 716 Columbia . hgle- ehver orado Ave., ver t St, h St. A ve,, ‘hool, phver yer 29th 100ls, nver rer ‘nver Ave., song- ning Ave., hool, men- ngle- rado rest, Col- eblo Ft. iver iver ace Roe, Mrs. Myrtle, 116 Phelps St., Sterling Shute, William C., 2651 Vine St., Denver Slavens, Leon E., 1815 Grape, Denver smith, Luna I., 1513 Ninth Ave., Greeley Smith, Mrs. Margaret Mendenhall, Ebert School, Denver Strack, Caroline, 216 E. Routt, Pueblo Stryker. Mary M., 1622 18th St., Boulder Swanzey, Linah, Bessemer School, Pueblo Sweet, Mayme, ‘Twenty-fourth Street School, Denver Swinehart, Blanche L., 808 W. Grant, Pueblo Ullemeyer, Richard, 2050 Leyden, Denver Watts, Lillie F., 2246 Eudora St., Denver Weymouth, Edith, 1032 Clarkson St., Denver Wheatley, Denver George, 730 Columbine St., White, Mrs. Julia M., 1557 St. Paul St., Denver Willey, Gilbert S., University Park School, Denver Williams, Mrs. Addie M., 1629 Walnut St., Boulder CONNECTICUT Adams, Dorothy R., Elementary School, Westport Allen, Elizabeth, 516 Columbus Ave., New Haven Anderson, May F., 396 Maim St., Norwalk *Baker, Frances E., Soufh Grammar School, East Hartford Baldwin, Lillian T., 580 Noble Ave., Bridge- ort sieeaee, Percival S., High School Building, Kast Hartford Baumgardt, Maude, Hamden \ Beard, Dr. Charles A., New Milford Bennett, Ada Gray, 186 Courtland Hill, Bridgeport Bestick, Grace V., 227 Wells St., Bridge- port Blackham, Florence E., 3038 KE. Main St., Bridgeport Blackmer, Victor A., bury Bowes, Lillian E., 550 Hamilton Ave., Waterbury Brennan, Katharine A., 182 Lloyd St., New Haven *Bridgett, Alice E., 654 N. Wallingford Brown, Helen F., 4 Hillside Pl., Winsted Carrington, Ralph W., Bunker Hill School, Waterbury Carroll, Elizabeth, Helen Street School, Hamden Collins, Helen T., 41 Fifth St., New Haven Collins, May H., 46 Alger PL, New London *Condon, Anna A., John J. Ryle School, Stamford Congdon, Mary EFE., 219 Woodlawn Ter., Waterbury Coulter, Isabel M., Uneasville School, Un- casville Darrow, Mrs. Harriet L., Box 503, West- port Davis, Mae A., 12 George St.. West Haven Dean, Stuart, Broad Street School, Plain- ville Desmond, D. Giles, Box 94, Tariffville Wintergreen Ave., 64 North St., Dan- Colony Rd., Donovan, Anna C., 32 Girard Ave., Hart- ford *Dorsey, Margaret M., 95 Harmony St., Bridgeport Dunn, Cleon A., North Miamus School, Riverside List or MEMBERS 645 Dyer, Dr. W. P., 35 Sylvan Rd., New Britain *Fagan, Anna E., bury Fanning, Mary A., Washington Rd., Wood- bury Finnigan, Alice R., 516 Orange St., New Haven Fish, Stanwood S., 49 Cumberland St., Hartford Fitz Simmons, Margaret R., Spireworth School, 160 Carlish St., New Haven Fraser, George L. B., Byram School, Green- wich Freeman, Edward S., 34 Powell PI, Stam- ford Freeman, James W., 186 Hawthorn St., Hartford French, Harold R., John J. Jennings School, Burlington Ave., Bristol Gessner, Elizabeth E., 124 Mansfield St., New Haven Gregory, Ellen M., Center School, New Canaan Hart, Harry T., 187 Post Rd., Darien Hasbrook, Clinton F., 172 Wethersfield Ave., Hartford Hayes, Josephine A., Haven Holroyd, Ida G., 33 Dora Circle, Bridge- port Huber, Mrs. Lillian D., 385 Sherman Ave., New Haven Hull, Grace B., 27 Pythian Ave., Torring- ton Johnson, Abel E., Smalley School, New Britain Johnson, William G., 315 Pearl St., Hart- ford Jourdan, Caroline C., 102 W. Main St.., Branford Judd, Edwin B., 422 Farmington Ave., Hartford Keefe, Margaret L., Supt., Hamden High School, Hamden Kelley, Maude S., New Haven Kenney, Anna V., 125 Maple St., New Haven Kleiner, Leah R., 288 Willow St., New Haven Knight, Elton E., 87 W. Elm St., New Haven Knowlton, Lillian D., Benton School, 900 Whalley Ave., New Haven Linn, Maynard W., Asst. Supt. of Schools, Greenwich High School, Greenwich Lyon, Louisabelle, Ridgefield Rd., R. D. 36, Wilton = ‘all, Harold, Springdale School, Spring- dale McDonnell, Julia M., 436 High St., Tor- rington Slocum School, Water- 624 Orange St., New 317 Edgewood Ave., MeDonough, Julia, 95 Lambert Ave., Meriden McGrath, Elizabeth M., 1770 Park Ave., Bridgeport Madden, Grace E., 11 Crane St., Danbury **Maleoim, Elizabeth R., Truman Street School, 114 Truman St., New Haven Mink, Emma Freda, 214 Palisade Ave., Bridgeport Monahan, Julia ye Winifred, 661 Lincoln e Pluckebaum, Dorothy E., 347 Wood Ave., Cincinnati Preston, E. M., Cleveland Prose, C. T., 1341 Hazel Ave., Zanesville Putnam, Mrs. Grace M., Pfeaffer School, 2081 Ninth St., S. W., Akron Quirk, William A., Guilford School, and Ludlow Sts., Cincinnati Rebert, Ruth E., 255 E. Midlothian Blvd., Youngstown Renfrow, Omar W., Whittier School, Osage and Woodlawn Ave., Cincinnati Reszke, Felix E., Sands School, Poplar St. at Freeman Ave., Cincinnati Reynolds, Sadie, 3930 Berkeley Dr., Cleve- 13916 Colum- School, 531 Ave., To- Prospect School, East Fourth Toledo Richey, R. C., 7501 Fair Park Ave., Cin- cinnati Rider, Bess D., 2493 S. Taylor Rd., Cleve- land Heights Riggs, C. W., Livingston Avenue School, Columbus Ringenberg, Ralph A., Amanda School, Ex- cello Rippey, Dr. Andrew D., Dept. of Edueation, Ohio State University, Columbus Roemer, Edna L., 519 Plaza Hotel, Toledo Rogers, Florence M., McKinley School, 1351 W. Clifton Bivd., Lakewood Ross, Frances, Shafor Boulevard School, Oakwood, Dayton Rupel, Maude L., 21 N. Torrence St., Day ton Ryan, Mary G., 2959 Meadowbrook Blvd., Cleveland Heights *Salisbury, Robert K., Elementary School, Terrace Park Scheuermann, Alfred A., North Fairmount School, Baltimore Ave. near Seegar, Cin- cinnati Schlotman, R. C., Heberle School, Cincin- nati *Sehroeder, Esther L., Raschig School. Parkway and Elm, Cincinnati Schroeder, Henry, Winton Place Sehool. Cincinnati Schuh, Bell, 2104 Brookdale Rd., Toledo Schullian, Augusta M., 1497 Mars Ave., Lakewood Schwartz, Albert, Cummins School, Locust and Melrose Aves., Cincinnati Schwarz, Katharine E., The Lee Home stead, 120 E. Erie St., Painesville — Cc. C., 160 Parkwood Blvd., Mans- el Sellers, Mrs. Hazel B., 25 Adelford Ave.. Akron Sharp, Lyda V., McKinley School, Steuben ville §Shatzer, Owen M., R. D. 6, North Canton Sheridan, F. A., 208 E. Pacemont Rd., Columbus Shively, Arthur W., Le Roy Consolidated School, Painesville Showers, Ada B., R. D. 1, South Zanesville Sigler, Anna L., Lincoln School, 15615 Clifton Blvd., "Lakewood Singer, Clara E., 3276 Chalfant Rd., Shaker Heights Siringer, Meta L., 1451 Lincoln Ave., Lake- wood Slaght, Maude J., 142 W. Second St., Day- ton Sloane, Mary S., 10803 Lake Ave., Cleve- land Smith, Besse E., 340 Vine St., ren Smith, Dick, Asst. Dir. of Education, State Dept. of Education, Columbus Smith, John, 3847 Drakewood Dr., Cincin- nati Smith, Paul E., 1330 14th St., N. W., Can- ton Snodgrass, C. B., 794 Roslyn Ave., Akron Snyder, Belle, 1813 Oak Hill Ave., Youngs- town Snyder, John W., Fairview School, Warner and Stratford Aves., Cincinnati Somerwill, Grace, 608 Mahoning Ave., N. V., Warren Spence, A. Marie, 1908 Hampton Rd., Rocky River Steele, Louisa, 59 N. High St., Athens Stevens, W. E., Monroe School, Youngstown Stewart, Ethelyn, 2255 Rexwood Rd., Cleveland Heights *Stewart, Martha A., 1777 Carlyon Rd., East Cleveland Stough, Elizabeth, 2000 Cleveland Ave., W., Canton Stover, James D., 216 E. Ninth St., Cincin- nati Suter, W. E., 6121 State Rd., Cleveland Taylor, Eva, 1252 E. 115th St., Cleveland Tefft, Edna, Watertown Rd., Marietta Terrill, Maymie I., Victory Park School. South Euclid Thomas, Crilla B., 125 W. College St., Oberlin Thornton, Charles A., Moreland School, Lee Rd. and Moreland Blvd., Shaker Heights Tole, Isabel, 317 Abbey Ave., Dayton Tracy, Kathleen, Morgan School, Kilgour, Ellen _ Finn Sts., Cincinnati Trankle, L., Adams School, Cooper and aa. Youngstown Tucker, Ethel M., 2129 Fulton St., Toledo Ulrich, Robert P., Bellefontaine Public Schools, Bellefontaine Vance, W. H., Eighth Avenue School, Co- lumbus Van de Water, Myrtle, 2105 Warren St.. Toledo Vermillion, Kenneth R., 969 Brunswick Rd., Cleveland Heights Viets, Vivian Vera, Elm Road School, War- ren Voldan, Edna F., 3191 W. 31st St., Cleve- land Von Engeln, Dorothy, 140 La Belle St., Dayton Waldron, J. Harley, S. Detroit St., Route 1, Xenia — Helen, 1330 E. Broad St., Colum- us Warnking, May, Twenty-third District School, Cincinnati *Watts, M. P., Daniel Worley School, Can- ton N. E., War- N. List OF -MeMBERS 683 Wells, Bessie F., 14012 L. S. Blvd., Cleve- land White, A. A., Washington C. H. White, Mrs. Ethel S., 2628 Brookford Dr., Toledo Wilcox, Flora J., Wilson School, 1457 War- ren Rd., Lakewood Williams, Ann Carol, 743 Lake Dr., Youngs- town Wilson, C. A., Avondale School, Reading Rd. and Rockdale Ave., Cincinnati Woodside, J. Barnes, Mentor Village School, Mentor Wright, Pearl M., Clifton School, Clifton and MeAlpin Aves., Cincinnati Wyles, Paul, R. D. 1, North Industry Xavier, Florence E., 3530 W. 46th St., Cleveland Yauch, Dr. W. A., Roosevelt School, E. 200 and Monterey, Euclid Yunker, J. C., 5548 Kentland Ave., Ports- mouth Zapf, Sophie L., 1190 Carlyon Rd., East Cleveland Ziska, Agnes L., 3344 Meadowbrook Blvd., Cleveland Heights OKLAHOMA *Adrean, Toner H., 804 Garfield St., Sand Springs Akin, Emma E., 118 S. Creek, Drumright Alders, R. L., Garfield School, Sixth and Cherokee, Bartlesville Arnold, F. B., Box 213, Drumright “=o: Mrs. Jessie W., 708 E. 17th St., Ada Bailey, Willis B., 711 S. Knoxville, Tulsa Beall, Dr. Ross, 2601 E. 15th St., Tulsa Benfer, Mabel C., 417 Osage Ave., Bartles- ville *Berkey, Mildred, 602 E. Bridge St., Black- ll we Blakeslee, Opal, 1305 E. Broadway, Enid Bogan, L. E., Supt. of Schools, Okay Bowles, A. G., 1223 S. Columbia St., Tulsa Brokaw, A. Willard, Irving School, Shaw- nee Brookes, Virginia Jane, 722 Culbertson Dr., Oklahoma City Brooks, C. H., Century School, 715 W. Fifth St., Pawhuska Calkins, May, 104% W. Broadway, Drum- right Callihan, Cordia, Houston School, Mus- kogee *Caperton, Joseph C., Junior High School, Box 896, Pawhuska Chapman, Mrs. Jewel, 2735 N. W. 18th St., Oklahoma City Claiborne, E. W., McKinley School, Bartles- ville Coffey, Iva, Lake School, Sand Springs *Coffman, George W., 225 E St., 8S. E., Ardmore Conner, J. Carl, 2215 N. Walker Ave., Oklahoma City Coppers, A. E., 114 N. Tacoma, Tulsa Costley, C. E., 2600 N. W. 15th St., Okla- homa City Couch, Mrs. Mary D., 1130 N. W. Tenth St., Oklahoma City Cowan, C. L., 2401 Columbus Ave., Mus- kogee *Dale, Etta D., 505 S. Rock Island Ave., El Reno *Daniels, W. W., 1005 S. Wood, Hominy Dean, Lillie, 2213 N. Shartel, Oklahoma City +Denny, Earl C., 1502 S. Troost Ave., Tulsa 684 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Drewry, Mrs. Agnes Mayo, Wagoner Fisk, Clay, 2245 BE. — PL, Tulsa Floyd, A., Box =, Ad Petiesen, Edith | 123% a. Oklahoma City +Giles, O. A., 1348 S. Florence Ave., 19th St., Tulsa Gilmer, Juliette, 1106 N. W. 14th St., Oklahoma City Gingerich, Inez, 1617 W. Cherokee, Enid Griffith, Harriet Louise, 414 N. W. 24th St., Oklahoma City Griggs, oO. C., 43 N.z Wheeling St., Tulsa Grove, Edith, 2646 N. W. 12th St., Okla- homa City Hackendorf, William, 1020 S. Florence Ave., Tulsa Hagar, W. E., Route 11, Box 149, Tulsa Hairston, Esther, Washington School, Shawnee Hamilton, Kate, Woodrow Wilson School, Shawnee Harris, Earl, Bethany Haynes, J. Harold, 3307 E. Easton, Tulsa *Head, Pearl, 104%4 W. Broadway, Drum- right Hellman, Paul L., 2540 E. 14th PL, Tulsa Herndon, V. E., 1421 N. Santa Fe, Tulsa Higdon, Alex, 4415 N. W. Tenth St., Okla- homa City Hilton, H. G., 3416 N. W. 17th St., Okla- homa City Hodge, Games. County Supt. of Schools, Court House, Tulsa Hodges, Dr. J. H., 3512 E. Archer, Tulsa Holman, Mrs. Oscar H., Supvr., Osage County Schools, County Court House, Pawhuska Hooper, George Pe Bryant School, **Hudson, Jess S., ‘2823 E. Fifth St., Hughes, J. W., 2039 N. Hyden, A. F., Route 9, Box 380, Addition, Tulsa Jester, C. L., 1412 E. 35th PL, Jones, T. E., Irving School, Kelly, Anna K., 506% N. W. Oklahoma City *Kennedy, Ralph H., 1908 W. Tulsa Tulsa Tulsa Berryhill Peoria, Tulsa Muskogee 25th St., 4ist St., Tulsa Kniffin, Carl, 1200 W. 13th St., Sulphur Knight, R. W., 712 S. Knoxville, Tulsa Koonce, B. E., 1415 S. Delaware P1., Tulsa Lackey, Guy A., Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College, Stillwater La Mar, Esther, Roosevelt School, Okmul- ee *iebhart, Ethel M., 1733 N. W. 21st St., Oklahoma City Love, Mrs. Anna Burks, 2721 N. W. 24th St., Oklahoma City McCall, L. C., Longfellow School, Mus- kogee McCarrel, Ed, 1128 N. E. 16th St., Okla- homa City McElroy, Mr. Merreon M., Prin. of Ele- mentary Grades, Carnegie MeLeod, John A., 1641 E. 19th St., Tulsa MeMillan, Ethel, 31 W. 14th St., Oklahoma City Magee, Maurice, 1115 S. Evanston St., Tulsa Mason, C. C., Asst. Supt., Elementary Schools, Board of Education, Tulsa Melton, Cleo, 921 Frisco Ave., Clinton Miller, Mrs. A. E., Edison School, Mus- kogee Mitchell, Ina Lewis, 502 W. Broadway, Enid Moore, T. E., 2415 N. Boston, Tulsa *Moorhouse, Mrs. Lulu D., kee, Enid Morton, Mrs. Muskogee 1120 W. Chero- Hallie D., Franklin School, Mosier, Mrs. Lotta, 317 S. W. 26th St. Oklahoma City ™ Mullinax, H., 6382 S. W. 32nd St., Okla- homa City Nuzum, Lee M., 1705 KE. Madison, Okla- homa City Ogle, A. V., 7 W. 17th St., Tulsa Patman, Mrs. sage 1021 S. Hoff, El Reno Pauly, Frank R., 15 S. College, Tulsa Peters, T. E., Franklin School, Shawnee Petree, Mrs. Marie, 508 W. State, Enid Phillips, Evert J., Whittier School, 1900 N. W. Tenth St.. Oklahoma City *Pitts, Lena, Beaue lair Hotel, Okmulgee Price, Mrs. Fern, 1002 W. Maple, Enid Ramsey, Alice, Route 6, Box 443, Tulsa Redman, Clara, Antlers Reid, Etta, Harrison School, Shawnee Richards, A. L., 1901 S. Gary PL, Tulsa *Richie, Ellis B., 524 FE. Osage, McAlester Riechel, Adolphine, 422 12th St., Okmulgee Risher, Gladys, 1427 N. Market St., Shaw nee Roads, Elsie, 420 W. State, Enid Roberson, L. G., Box 388, Turley ey J. Otis, 4314 Granger, Oklahoma Setzepfandt, A. O. H., 1547 S. Delaware Pl, Tulsa *Shirley, Mary, Sequoyah School, Mus- kogee 1405 S. Eighth St., Ponea 1156 Wallace, *Smiley, Eva M., City "smith, A. J., Shawnee Smith, Mrs. Levia Meyers, 1509 N. E. 14th St., Oklahoma City Stephenson, H. H., Whittier School, Mus- kogee Swan, Oliver J., 711 S. Cincinnati, Tulsa *Timberlake, Beulah S., 312 Washington St., Stillwater *Vrooman, Lula E., erford Walkup, Lydia, Beauclair Hotel, Okmulgee *Watson, Isabel, 706 Jennings, Bartlesville Watts, Winifred, Beauclair Apts., Okmul- gee Widner, Guy L., 217 N. Rosedale, Tulsa *Wood, Linnie R., Box 202, Bristow Wright, Mrs. Elizabeth E., 414 S. Elm St., Ponea City Young, George, Route 8, 901 N. Indiana, Weath- Comanche OREGON Alden, Joseph A., Box 107, Kinzua Alexander, Mrs. Alevia, 2134 S. E. 55th Ave., Portland Asheraft, Lyle J., 3830 N. E. Wistaria Dr., Portland Baker, L. L., 4910 S. E. Taylor Court, Portland Baker, N. A., Shattuck School, 1914 S. W. Park Ave., Portland Bennett, Mildred E., 903 Jackson St., Pen- dleton Boyd, Charles H., 5825 N. E. Rodney Ave., Portland Brookhardt, Harry B., Multnomah Brown, Elmer, Rose City Park School, 2334 N. E. 57th Ave., Portland Christensen, Walter, Astor Junior High School, Astoria Craske, Fred H., 7825 S. W. Tenth St., Portland De Graff, Grace, 2312 S. W. Sheffield Ave., Portland Dorman, Hugh B., 5625 S. E. Morrison St., Portland {., James John School, 7439 Ferguson, C. Portland N. Charleston Ave., List or MEMBERS Ford, W. I., 2645 N. E. 38th Ave., Port- land Freel, A. O., 2421 S. E. Orange Ave., Port- land Hanna, Mrs. Blanche E., 941 S. E. Ave., Portland Hays, O. W., Beach School, 1710 N. Hum- boldt St., Portland Heyden, J., Sprague River School, Sprague River Hoskins, Elbert L., 1511 N. E. Portland Howard, Dr. (. A., State Supt. of Public Instruction, Salem Hull, Bruce H., 2018 Auburn St., Klamath “alls Hull, Mrs. Gussie, 1108 Jackson St., Ore- gon City Keeney, Henry G., George School, 9448 N. Calhoun Ave., Portland +Loose, C. W., Tualatin McConnel, Anna F., 610 Albany McCulloch, Paul R., High School Building, The Dalles McCune, Helen C., 205 8. 55th 45th Ave., Ellsworth St., Logan St., Pen- dleton Meyer, Vernon A., Prin., Publie Schools, Wendling Moore, Viron A., Frances Willard School, Eugene Richmond School, 2276 8. Portland Box 419, Klamath Nelson, M. V., E. 41st St., Olson, A. C., Route 2, Falls Painter, W. C., 425 S. E. 45th Ave., Port- land Perry, C. E., Lents School, 5526 8. E. 92nd Ave., Portland Pettys, W. A., 4007 S. E. land Poynter, James W., Supt. of Grades, Hillsboro Prideaux, A. J., 5915 S. E. Portland *Rinearson, L. E., Milwaukie Roberts, Cecil L., Route 3, Box 202, Grants Pass Roberts, L. D., land Rush, Mabel E., 200 N. School St., Newberg 64th St., Port- Elementary Taylor St., Route 10, Box 479, 2930 N. E. Bryce St., Port- Schnebly, William Buford, County Supt. of Schools, Court House, St. Helens Sherwood, H. M., 141 S. E. 65th Ave., Portland Shuey, Ada R., 1062 Adams St., Eugene Smith, John E., 5917 N. Michigan St., Portland **+Smith, Stephen E., 2825 N. E. 384th Ave., Portland Swinney, Ruth, 435 Fowler St., Roseburg Tallman, H. €., Beaumont School, 40438 N. E. Fremont, Portland Thaxter, B. A., Couch School, 2033 N. W. Glisan, Portland Thompson, Cecil T., Llewellyn School, 6301 S. E. 14th Ave., Portland Tiffany, Lewis E., Clatskanie Elementary School, Clatskanie Turner, Loren O., 411 S. berg Waddill, D. T., Central School, Lakeview Webb, Horton E., Buckman School, 320 College St., New- S. E. 16th Ave., Portland Wickham, J. Portland +Zook, Carl S., 7200 S. E. 60th Ave., Port- land Alan, Route 38, Box 1085, 685 PENNSYLVANIA Adee, J. N., Glenside Amberson, Dr., Jean D., Assoc. Prof., Home Economics Education, Pennsyl- vania State College, State College Arnold, Thomas G., 1016 Morningside Ave., Pittsburgh *Barker, H. B., 124 S. High St., Fayette City Bartine, Helen W., Ethan Allen School, Robbins and Battersby Sts., Philadel- phia tarto, W. H., Grant Street Sehool, Hazle- ton Beach, Mrs. Gertrude S., 583 Abbottsford Ave., Philadelphia Beacham, Mabel, 1601 Edgmont Ave., Ches- ter Beard, Mary E., 307 Peebles St., Sewickley Beatty, C. Evelyn, Beechwood School, Rockland and Sebring Ave., Pittsburgh a Mary E., 301 Kelly Ave., Wilkins- yurg Beichler, Mrs. C. M., Llanerch **Berman, Dr. Samuel, ham St., Philadelphia Best, Burns F., Wynnewood Road School, Ardmore Best, Elizabeth M., 414 Richland Ave., Dravosburg setts, Dr. E. A., Dir., Reading Clinie and Research, Pennsylvania State College, State College Biswanger, Wilhelmina A., Edwin Forrest School, Cottage and Aldine Sts., Phila- delIphia Bjork, Ellen D., 37 Belleview Ave., Brad- Llanerch School, 5336 N. Syden- ford Blake, Celia J., Liberty School Building, Ambridge Blessing, Louise, 4837 Lytle St., Pitts- burgh Bonner, Rt. Rev. Msgr. John J., J. W. Hallahan Catholic Girls’ High School, 19th and Wood Sts., Philadelphia Bowers, Frances L., 1906 W. Tioga St., Philadelphia Highland Ave., Bowman, Calvin, 325 Johnstown Breeze, Mary P., 325 N. Craig, Pittsburgh Breitwieser, William, 201 Summit Ave., Pittsburgh *Brewer, Karl M., 231 Dixon Ave., Du Bois Bright, Nellie R., Joseph E. Hill Public School, Rittenhouse and McCallum Sts., Philadelphia Brinser, Ira S., Supvg. Prin. of Schools, Public School Office, Wallingford Brubaker, Ella M., 418 Biddle Ave., Wil- kinsburg Bucher, Caleb W., M. J. Brecht School, R. D. 38, Lancaster *Burley, Mary M., 1216 Logan Ave., Tyrone Byers, Benjamin H., Supvg. Prin. of Schools, Box 38, Elizabeth Carey, Elizabeth S., Supvg. Prin., White Hall, Norristown *Carlin, Mary L., 943 Clara St., Houtzdale Chase, Marie S., 2088 Master St., Phila- delIphia Chambers, Raymond L., 24 W. Logan St., Philadelphia Choate, Ernest A., Kenderton School, 15th and Ontario, Philadelphia Cochrane, George C., 225 E. Cliveden Ave., Philadelphia Collins, Bessie Eleanor, 4910 Larchwood Ave., Philadelphia Corey, Carolyn F., Elementary School, Conneaut Lake 686 ELEMENTARY ‘ScHOOL PRINCIPALS | Courtney, Grace A., 515 S. Aiken Ave., Pittsburgh -—_ James C., Grant School, Bellevue rawford, Martha W., 318 Kilbuck St., Glenfield Greys, Lavina E., asting School, Eighth and Lincoln Ave., Erie Crumrine, M. Ella, 917 Chislett St., Pitts- burgh Currie. Anna N., Ninth Street School, Monessen Dager, Mrs. Frances G., Dir. of Elementary Education, Beaver College, Jenkintown Dale, o/s B., 1127 S. 52nd St., Phila- Dart, Iretta V., 750 E. Washington St., New Castle Davenport, Ralph F., 186 Drexel Rd., Ard- more Dean, Rodney G., Regent Square School, Henrietta and Milton Sts., Pittsburgh Deery, Edward B., Walnut Street School, Darby Dobbins, Thomas J., 531 Hansbury St., Philadelphia Doyle, Florence A., Philadelphia Normal School, 138th and Spring Garden Sts., Philadelphia “Teeaners. Joseph M., 418 Breck St., Scranto Eckard, “El izabeth T., 1957 69th Ave., Philadelphia Edgar, Robert H., 531 Orchard Ave., Belle- vue Edmundson, Clifford A., Mifflin School, Lincoln Place Edwards, Nellie E., 1434 Chew St., Allen- town Kichler, G. A., Supt. of Publie Schools, Northampton interline, Myers B., Grant School, Milton Erdly, C. V., Supt. of Schools, School Ad- ministration Office, Hanover Euwer, Mrs. Ora, Clayton School, Clayton Ave., Pittsburgh Evans, Abel J., 5215 Chester Ave., Phila- delphia *Evans, Mark M., Schools, Brownsville Evans, Walter P., 7246 N. 21st St., Phila- delphia Fels, Maurice, Garden Court, 47th and Pine Sts., Philadelphia Fleischman, Charlotte C., D. Newlin Fell School, Ninth and Oregon Ave., Phila- delphia Flinn, May, 1025 McKean Ave., Donora Fornwalt, James E., Main St., McCelland- town Foulkrod, Emily, Washington Hotel, Sev- enth and Dauphin Sts., Philadelphia — Adam Q., 402 E. Goepp St., Bethle- *F T. Russell, Abington *Frankenfield, Ira M., 637 Center St., Bethlehem — Kathleen R., 3 Heinz Ter., Sharps- ur Frew, Mesnaret A., Iola St., Glenshaw Fromouth, Carl L., 808 W. Sedgwick St., Mt. Airy, Philadelphia *Froyvd, Edna C., 218 Walnut St., Clear- Brownsville Grade eld *Fugett, Joseph R., 120 FE. Miner St., West Chester Funk, M. Estelle, M. H. Stanton School, 16th and Cumberland Sts., Philadelphia Galter, Israel, 3133 W. Columbia Ave., Philadelphia Gamble, Maude I., 133 Walnut St., Har- risburg Geedy, Calder B., 310 S. Brown St., Lewis- town Gehrett, J. Foster, 458 Arden Rd., Mt. Lebanon, Pittsburgh Geiss, Newton W., Asst. County Supt. of Schools, ted Gibbs, Mary S., 350 W. Duval St., German. town, Philadelphia Gilland, Dr. Thomas M., Dir. of Teacher Training, State Teachers College, Cali- fornia Ginsburg, Morris B., Adaire Chandler School, Palmer and Thompson Sts., Philadelphia Gladfelter, Howard B., James Dobson School, Umbria and Hermitage Sts., Philadelphia Goll, Dr. Reinhold W., 1830 W. Lindley Ave., Philadelphia Graham, Martha M., 633 Linden Ave Johnstown Greenwood, Ella L., 308 Washington Ave., Charleroi *Grunizer, W. F., 301 Vine St., Johnstown —. Mrs. Inez, 2017 West St., Mun ha Hagerty, Jean B., 1244 Christian St., Phila delphia Hamilton, Ella J., 829 S. 58th St., Phila delphia Hampton, Elsie D., Elementary School, Abington Hanlon, Beatrice, 121 Lenowee Ave., Mo- nessen Hanna, Edith B., 5700 Ogontz Ave., Phila- delphia Hardy, Majorie, Germantown Friends School, Philadelphia Hart, Ida M., 5720 Thomas Ave., Philadel phia Hart, John C., 538 Carey Ave., Wilkes- Barre Hay, Charles K., Thomas McKean School, 82nd and Tinicum Ave.. Philadelphia Hazlett, William W., Benjamin West School, Fourth St. below Lehigh Ave., Philadelphia Heffernan, Elizabeth P., Fort Pitt School. Hillcrest St., Pittsburgh Heiding»r, Blanche L., 315 Lemonte St., Philadelphia *Hinkle, Thomas L., 576 James St., Hazle ton Hirth, Alice, 317 E. Tenth Ave., Home stead Homer, Francis E., 4800 Conshohocken Ave., Philadelphia Hood, Mrs. Vivian P., 529 Turner Ave., Drexel Hill Horsman, Ralph D., Washington School, Mt. Lebanon, Pittsburgh Hostetter, E. Juliet, 226 N. Franklin St.., Hanover House, Ralph W., 522 W. Beaver Ave., State College Howarth, Walter E., 1140 Allengrove St., Philadelphia Hughes, John H., Mill and Winton Rds., Upper Darby *Johnson, A. Bessie, 109 Wayne St., War ren Jones, Mary F., Upper Darby Judelsohn, Samuel J., Cleveland-Boker School, 19th and Butler Sts., Philadel phia Katz, Samuel, Baughan School, Marlbor- ough North of Thompson Sts., Phila- delphia *Kell, Jane F., 622 Linden Ave., York Kelley, Florence A., Preston School, Mar- tin Ave., Bryn Mawr Kelso, John S., 2824 Crosby Ave., Pitts- burgh Highland Park School, \- 4 =e OUlrlUtlC tl athe 2 Ont er li- a Kemp, Grace K., 2020 S. 16th St., Phila- delphia Kendall, Amy Marion, 449 E. Washington Lane, Germantown, Philadelphia Kirk, Mabel E., 622 S. Allen St., State College Kirk, S. Elizabeth, Garrettford School, Drexel Hill Kiser, Leitha M., 48 Jerome Ave., Brad- ford Klingel, Emma L., 314 E. 28th St., Erie Kohne, Emma M., Birmingham School, Pittsburgh Krah, W. Edward, 346 Oak Rd., Glenside *Krall, Helen, Boas School, Harrisburg Kramer, Alice, 203 Nichols St., Clearfield Kreider, Emma K., B. B. Comegys School, 51st and Greenway Ave., Philadelphia Landis, Wilmer Myers, R. D., Souderton **Laramy, William J., 2452 Merwood Lane, Upper Darby. Laubach, Helen M., 2423 W. Fourth St., Williamsport *Law, Aura, 307 E. Union St., Punxsutaw- ney Leslie, R. G., 505 Moore Ave., New Castle Linn, Eva E., 829 N. 63rd St., Philadelphia Liveright, Alice K., The Drake, 1512 Spruce St., Philadelphia Llewellyn, Harold, South Main Street School, Wilkes-Barre Long, Clyde O., Listie Lowman, Margaret Jane, 468 S. 11th St., Indiana Lowry, Sarah N., 14 W. Jenkintown Rd., Glenside Luckenbill, N. P., Freeland Lyle, George, 415 N. 53rd St., Philadelphia Lytle, Annie, 745 N. Negley Ave., Pitts- burgh McBride, Russell W., 4000 Primrose Rd., Torresdale, Philadelphia McClure, E. Isabella, 1964 74th Ave., Phila- delphia McCutcheon, Lyda B., Kirkwood Hotel, Pittsburgh McDowell, Stella D., 112 Race St., Edge- wood, Pittsburgh McGowan, Mrs. Mabel D., 31 Washington St., Shillington McHale, Katherine, J. W., School, Shenandoah *MacLaren, Roland T., 685 Fourth Ave., Williamsport Mahoney, Anna B., 589 Baldwin St., Mead- ville *Mahoney, D. J., Conyngham School, 50 Westminster St., Wilkes-Barre Marburger, Harold, Pattison St., Evans City Maris, Mrs. Edith C., R. D. 2. Oil City Martin, Jane B., 261 N. Dithridge St., Pittsburgh *Mates, Dr. James W., 1124 Chelton Ave., Pittsburgh Mathews, Elizabeth A., Newportville Mendenhall, Georgiana S., Martin Ortho- pedic School, 22nd and Brown Sts., Philadelphia Michels, Veronica R., 149 Apsley St., Ger- mantown, Philadelphia *Miller, Frank M., 4619 Upland Dr., Erie Miller, J. Ross, 538 N. Mary St., Lancaster Miller, Madge E., 320 Laurel St., Edge- wood, Swissvale Miller, Paul D., 7113 Boyer St., Philadel- phia Mills, Russell J., Elm PIl., Honesdale Milnor, Sidney V., 631 Lincoln Ave., Wil- liamsport Mitcheltree, Nannie L., Mahoning School, New Castle Cooper High List of MEMBERS Moore, J. F., 2346 Beaufort Ave., Pitts- burgh Morley, Christine C., Cardington Stone- hurst School, Upper Darby Morse, Melvin E., 507 W. 28th St., Erie —— Minnie M., 721 E. 23rd St., erie Myers, Edward T., 5143 Oakland St., Phila- delphia *Neill, John A., 420 Electric Ave., Lewis- town Nelson, Mary F., J. M. Conroy School, Pittsburgh Noe, Elizabeth T., 3234 N. 16th St., Phila- delphia = Warren P., Supt. of Schools, Mead- ville Notz, Hulda M., 4331 Dakota St., Pitts- burgh O'Connor, Mary, 501 Sassafras St., Erie Ott, E. D., Box B, Barnesboro Owen, Dr. Ralph D., Temple University, — and Montgomery Ave., Philadel- phia Parker, Sarah J., 706 Sproul St., Chester Parry, Samuel D., Andrew J. Morrison School, Third and Duncannon Ave., Philadelphia Parson, Mrs. Edna Gray, 521 Maplewood Ave., Ambridge Patterson, Dr. Allen D., Dir. of Teacher Training, State Teachers College, Lock Haven Patterson, Arthur C., 1949 Medary Ave., Philadelphia Payne, Edna P., 939 East End Ave., Wil- kinsburg Peirce, Elizabeth N., 180 E. Chestnut St., West Chester Pierce, Charles B., Moore School, Brent- wood, Pittsburgh Porter, Hugh L., Chatham School, 227 Bonvue St., Pittsburgh Pote, Mrs. Lillian Baldwin, 1848 N. 16th St.. Philadelphia Powers, Mrs. Leversia L., 312 E. 20th St., Chester Price, A. W., Colver Queripel, Mrs. A. W., 608 Lincoln St., Milton Quinn, William B., 5363 N. 16th St., Phila- delphia *Raup, Zura E., 128 Hepburn St., Milton Reed, Byron F., 94 Lincoln Ave., Lans- downe Regner, Helen, 3139 Peach St., Erie Reisse, George B., 5366 Wingohocking Ter., Germantown, Philadelphia Reynolds, C. M., R. D. 2, Johnstown Rial, David W., Frick Training School, Pittsburgh Rice, Pearl E., 725 Milton Ave., Easton Ridge, Mrs. W. C., 197 Watson Blvd., Pitts- burgh Riebsaamen, Mary A., 507 Dock St., Schuyl- kill Haven Rieger, Geo., Jr., 611 E. Allens Lane, Mt. Airy, Philadelphia Riegner, Rebecca W., Simon Muhr Public School, 12th St. and Allegheny Ave., Philadelphia Robson, William K., 6614 N. Seventh St.., Philadelphia Rogers, William C., 6688 Ardleigh St.. Philadelphia Rohrer, Mary M., Hamilton Court, Ard- more Ross, Anna, 310 Washington Rd., Pitts- burgh Rowland, Albert Lindsay, State Teachers College, Shippensburg Russell, Mary L., Horace Mann School, Indiana 688 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS #Sacks, Solomon, 4827 N. Tenth St., Phila- delphia Sarver, Cyril C., Supvg. Prin., Hampton Township Schools, Allison Park Sauerbier, May M., 409 N. Fifth St.. Reading Scheel, Elizabeth A., 242 W. Tabor Rd., Philadelphia j : Schillinger, Alberta, 13084 Louise St., Munhall ; Schlegel, Albert G. W., Supvg. Prin. of Schools, Red Lion Schott, Lester, Main St., Box 86, Bechtels- ville Schrader, N. Blanche, 519 Lincoln St., Milton Scorer, Sadie Mae, Box 404, Homestead Shannon, James E., 614 Pennridge Rd., Pittsburgh J Sharlip, Mr. Lou N., 5058 N. Eighth St., Philadelphia Sharpe, Mildred J., 304 Birmingham Ave., Pittsburgh 4 Sheaffer, C. C., 1512 Coursin St., McKees- ort spblly, Colsin R., 301 Ruby St., Lancaster Shires, Beulah M., Adams School, Tyrone Shoener, Elizabeth S., 154 W. Abbottsford Ave., Germantown, Philadelphia Simpson, Charles E., McIntyre School, 30th and Gordon Sts., Philadelphia Slothower, Harry G., Supvg. Prin., Pax- tang Borough School, Harrisburg Soffel, Catherine A., 16 Greenbush St., Pittsburgh : Spangler. Thomas B. F., Jr., 6108 N. Seventh St., Philadelphia Spencer, R. O., 320 E. Market St., Clear- field el¢ Sprenkel, Julia €., Spring Grove Sprowles, M. Reba, 4833 Griscom St., Phila- delphia Stage, Bertha, 4 W. Fourth Ave., Clear- field Staneruck, Bessie E., 654 E. Summit Ave., Philadelphia Stark, Katherine I., 4733 Cedar Ave., Phil- adelphia Steadman, H. L., Perry School, 29th and Cascade Sts., Erie Steinberg, David L., 723 Glenview St., Philadelphia Stevenson, Martha C.. W. F. Harrity School, 56th and Christian Sts., Phila- delphia Stewart, Laura E., 123 E. Agnew Ave., Pittsburgh Storey, Bernice L:, 5728 Baum Blvd., Pitts- burgh String, Hazel R. Milton Stuart, Cecilia Unzicker, Chief, Kinder- garten and Elementary Edueation, State Dept. of Public Instruction, Harrisburg Stuart, R. R., Columbus School, Erie Symons, Wilfrid L., 32 Yale Rd., Brook- line, Upper Darby Templin, R. J. W., West Pittston High School, West Pittston *Tennis, Marguerite, 38 N. Harwood Rd., Upper Darby *Thomas, Alfred, Administration Building. Lancaster Thomas, Oscar D., 6160 Webster St., Phila- delphia Thompson, Irene A., 925 N. St. Clair St., Pittsburgh Thornlev, Mary, 5 Somerton Ave., Phila- delphia *Tomb, Fannie B., 211 Walnut St., La- trobe Truby, Charlotte C., Humboldt School, 20th and Sarah St., Pittsburgh Ubinger, Magdalene, 114 Brownsville Rd., Pittsburgh Veith, Charles F., 831 Unruh St., Phila- delphia Waldman, John L., H. ©. Lea School of Practice, 48rd and Locust Sts., Phila delphia Walker, Anna W., 5732 Spruce St., Phila- delphia Walker, James, Jr., 6039 Washington Ave., West Philadelphia Walters, George R., 1601 Warren Ave., Williamsport Warshaw, Harry A., Samuel J. Randall School, Ninth and Bainbridge Sts., Philadelphia Watson, Jennie A., 3301 Walnut St., Me- Keesport Weaver, Ruth H., 947 Walnut St., Allen town Webb, Ella P., 1525 Christian St., Phila delphia Webber, Mr. Deane H., 2941 Oakford Rd., Ardmore Wetter, Allen H., 4324 Tyson St., Phila- delphia Wickersham, Mrs. Lillian M., 106 W. Oak- dale Ave., Glenside Williams, G. T., 839 N. Main Ave., Seran ton Williams, Wesley R., Box 213, Vandergrift Williamson, Anna, 22 Arbor St., Pitts burgh Williamson, Edith E., 22 Arbor St., Pitts burgh Willis, Minnie C.. Emerson School, Tenth and Cascade, Erie Wiltbank, Dr. Robert C., 6 Oak Lane, Upper Darby Wolf, M. Elizabeth, 581 Moorhead Pl., Pittsburgh Wolfe, Blanche, Henry A. Brown School, Sergeant and Jasper Sts., Philadelphia Wright, Anne, Wissahickon School, Phila delphia Wright, Louise, King Edward Apts., 4609 _ Bayard St., Pittsburgh Yerkes, Helen K., 4957 Rubicam Ave., Philadelphia Zahn, Dr. D. Willard, Barry School, 59th _and Race Sts., Philadelphia Ziegler, Florence L., Schuylkill Avenue Building, S. E. Cor Schnylkill Ave. and W. Greenwich St., Reading Ziel, Hermann A., Woolslair School, 40th St. at Liberty Ave., Pittsburgh RHODE ISLAND *Baldwin, Elizabeth, Garden Street School, Pawtucket Barry, Ursula M., 60 E. Manning St., Providence Bray, Miss Marion B., 248 Webster Ave., Providence *Brogan, Marguerite, 12 Chureh St., Bristol Burton, Caroline A., Harmony School, Har- mony Casey, Katherine L., 27 Claremont Ave., Providence Chapman, Mrs. Carrie L., Sackett Street School, Providence Clarke, Lena H., 45 Narragansett