went si) t ven ELEMENTARY PRINC! BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION SIXTEEN TH YEARBOOK _ JULY 1937. Vol. XV De 6 y PRINCIPAL slang ees PRINCIPALS. ‘July by the Depertment on of the United ‘ Staten. a Tia eae eligible to « es es active members to stead beceive the Bulletins. National Education Ass : ular membershi 2 “¢ Soret “00% Mico, as the Yearbook, $2; single. BS matter, NC y Vv; ¥ o oe Washington, D Die 4 ! p , 2: pomese provi xe ip Division, Herbert ©. or, 1045 N. La , M. Emma Brooke nwood Schools) Appraising the Elementary-School Program SIXTEENTH YEARBOOK THE NATIONAL ELEMENTARY PRINCIPAL Bulletin of the Department of Elementary Schoo! Principals, National Education Association Vol. XVI, No. 6 July 1937 Price $2 Copyright, 1937 National Education Association THE EDITORIAL COMMITTEE FOR 1937 SAMUEL BERMAN, Chairman James R. Ludlow School, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Maupe McBroom University Elementary School, Iowa City, lowa L. M. Frertscu Pease, Mathews, and West Avenue Schools, Austin, Texas PREFACE ARLIER YEARBOOKS have described specific school activities, ad- ministrative and supervisory policies, curriculum practises, and methods of teaching. This book deals with the appraisal of these elements in the school. It is not, however, a formal treatise on scientific research, statistical methods, or tests and measurements. The word “appraisal,” as used here, means the careful and continuous effort of school administrators, supervisors, and teachers to judge the adequacy of their own school programs. The yearbook is primarily a collection of principles, technics, and devices which have been used or proposed for evaluating the program in individual schools or school systems. Altho the yearbook’s chief emphasis is on the principles and technics of appraisal, the results of particular studies are given by many con- tributors. These results, while suggestive, are not necessarily applicable to schools or school systems other than those in which they were ob- tained. So far as possible, administrators and teachers should make their own appraisals rather than accept uncritically the results obtained by others. The contributors to this volume would be the last to maintain that the technics of appraisal which they describe are wholly satisfactory. Other administrators and teachers may be able to improve upon these procedures. In some cases they may find it advisable to combine the technics reported by two or more authors. In any event, they should make such adaptations as are necessary to meet the requirements of their own school situations. The Editorial Committee is especially grateful to all who submitted manuscripts for this yearbook. It appreciates also the careful work of Dr. Richard R. Foster and his assistants in the Research Division of the National Education Association in editing the entire book, and in pre- paring the statement on guiding principles and the review of technics of appraisal. The Association’s Division of Publications prepared a number of charts and proofread the manuscript. Miss Eva G. Pinkston, executive secretary of the Department, compiled the official records. With the publication of this yearbook, Dr. Samuel Berman completes his three years of service on the Editorial Committee. His place will be taken by Miss Cecelia Galvin, principal of School No. 3, Indianapolis, Indiana. The place of Mr. R. C. T. Jacobs, who was forced by illness to retire from the Committee a year ago, has been taken by Mr. L. M. Fertsch, principal of the Pease, Mathews, and West Avenue Schools in Austin, Texas. Tue EprrortaL CoMMITTEE [ 227 | LET US USE THE YEARBOOK! OW WELL IS YOUR SCHOOL—and mine—achieving the desirable objectives of elementary education in a democracy? What are the desirable objectives? How shall we determine the degree to which we are attaining them? What technics and devices are helpful in appraising a school program? These are some of the questions which this yearbook will help us to answer. Every elementary school needs continuous appraisal of its policies, activities, and materials. Such appraisal cannot be carried on exclu- sively by the superintendent of schools or by a central research staff; it requires also the intelligent planning and cooperation of principals and teachers. Most of us feel this need and try to evaluate our work as best we can. Often, however, our appraisals are unsystematic and are undertaken without sufficient knowledge of how other workers have attacked the same problems. Moreover, it is difficult to make adequate appraisals in many areas of the school program. As emphasized in this book, scientific technics fall far short of revealing all we need to know about the ade- quacy of our work. On the other hand, there are a number of technics and devices which can help us to do a better job of evaluation. This yearbook suggests valuable points of view, useful methods of approach, and dangers to be avoided in appraising the work of the school. Let us—principals and teachers together—study and use this book in our own schools. Let us call it to the attention of supervisors and super- intendents. Both individuals and committees responsible for various aspects of school appraisal will find much help in these pages. Teachers colleges and schools of education also may use the book to advantage in their courses. We are grateful to the Editorial Committee, to the individual con- tributors, and to the members of the National Education Association headquarters staff who in cooperation produced this volume. They have made an important contribution to the advancement of elementary education. EpytHE J. Brown, President Department of Elementary School Principals [ 228 | CONTENTS NE i502 is a ce insieh dk oianianahs-e’dbekaw cade kee aad ea 227 The Editorial Committee sassspeteied eguempad ” Bdythe + vest President, Department of Elementary School Principals CuapreR I—TuHe FUNDAMENTALS OF SCHOOL APPRAISAL ae GR FI ain oon iis Sc nk oss tere ect res He Gncws 233 CRITERIA FOR JUDGING THE SUCCESS OF A SCHOOL PROGRAM........... 240 Leversia L. Powers, Director, Primary and Special Education, Chester, Pennsylvania TECHNIcS APPLICABLE TO THE APPRAISAL OF SCHOOL PRACTISES........... 248 Harry P. Smith, Professor of Education, Syracuse University, and Director of Research, Syracuse Public Schools, Syracuse, New York CHAPTER II—APPRAISING THE SCHOOL ORGANIZATION EE, “OI oe en bis oa og bs nk 6 Se Sik paw Fetes ee Bastc CoNSIDERATIONS IN APPRAISING A SCHOOL ORGANIZATION.......... 255 Warren W. Coxe, Director, Educational Research Division, New York State Education Department, Albany, New York EVALUATING THE TRADITIONAL SYSTEM OF GRADING..................... 263 EF. W. Dolch, Assistant Professor of Education, Univ ersity of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois THE INFLUENCE OF GRADING AND PROMOTIONAL POLICIES UPON PUPIL DEVELOPMENT gaa, Eee Sk 5, . 268 Eugene S. Farley, Director, Bucknell University Junior College, Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania IXXPERIMENTING WITH A ForRM OF DEPARTMENTAL ORGANIZATION—THE “CooPERATIVE GROUP” ... 275 Byron D. Stuart, Principal, WwW oodrow W ilson and Benjamin Franklin Schools, Westfield, New Jersey Is THE PLATOON ScHoot Provinc Its WortH? ... bs 280 J. C. Yunker, Principal, Harding School, Portsmouth, “Ohio CRITERIA FOR GROUPING PUPILS WITHIN GRADES 286 Fred B. Painter, Principal, East District Elementary Schools, Ithaca, New York SELECTED REFERENCES......... emesccas A. eS . 290 Cuapter III—AppraisInc ADMINISTRATIVE AND SUPERVISORY PROCEDURES EpitorIAL COMMENT...... Ce eee THE VALUES OF COOPERATIVE ADMINISTRATION Tae: . 292 Carl H. Kumpf, Principal, Eggertsville School, Eggertsville, New York, and Cecile LaFollette Kumpf, New College, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, New York THE RELATION BETWEEN First-GrapE ENTRANCE AGE AND Success IN THE First Srx GRADES 298 H. M. Partington, Principal, Lincoln and W ashington Schools, West- field, New Jersey [ 229 ] PAGE A Srupy or Faminc Marks AND RETENTIONS............... 303 Walter Jacob, Jr., Principal, Emerson School, Plainfield, New Jersey EvaLuaTING Metruops oF CONTACT BETWEEN THE SCHOOL AND THE HoME.. 310 C. C. Crawford, Professor of Education, University of Southern Cali- fornia, Los Angeles, California, and James Clayton Haines, Super- intendent of Schools, Lennox, California APPRAISING INFORMAL REPORTS TO ‘PARENTS a carave Sh dat Parade 313 W. K. Cobb, County Superintendent of Schools, Ventura County, California EVALUATION OF A PROGRAM FoR TESTING READING READINESS AND VISUAL ee es ; 317 Mable E. Cummings, Elementary Grade Super rvisor, Rapid City, South Dakota Suamcwmp NeremEnces...................0...0005- Pct II 321 CHAPTER ITV—EVALUATING THE CURRICULUM Epitor1aL COMMENT Pa NE, aan oy ad Se RN 322 EVALUATING THE CURRICULUM FOR THE INDIVIDUAL Pu PIL 323 Cloy 8S. Hobson, Superintendent, Genoa Public Schools, Genoa, Illinois A ProGRaAM FOR EVALUATION OF CURRICULUM CONTENT...... 331 Douglas E. Lawson, Assistant Principal, Brush Training School, Southern Illinois State Normal University, Carbondale, Illinois ScHoot SuBJEcTS PREFERRED BY CHILDREN ...... 336 Ethel E. Holmes, Principal, Wyman School, Denver, Color: ido APPRAISAL AND REVISION OF A SocraL Stupres CurricuLuM 345 Helen K. Mackintosh, Associate Professor of English, Miami Univer- sity, Oxford, Ohio SELECTION AND GRADATION OF THE SPELLING VOCABULARY. . 350 Frederick 8S. Breed, Associate Professor of Education, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois APPRAISING THE PROGRAM FOR TEACHING DIVISION a 361 Foster E. Grossnickle, Professor of Mathematics, State Teachers College, Jersey City, New Jersey CHILDREN’S REACTIONS TO CERTAIN Types OF PoEeTRY 369 ( Ralph A. Fritz, Professor of Education, Kansas State Teachers College, Pittsburg, Kansas SELECTED REFERENCES............. Fidei ek 2 eae hs ; 375 CHAPTER V—APPRAISING METHODS OF LEARNING AND TEACHING Epiror1AL COMMENT 376 EVALUATING NEWER SCHOOL PRACTISES | BY THE " OpsznvAtion AL Mernuop.. 377 Frederick Pistor, Department of Education, New Jersey State Teach- ers College, Newark, New Jersey APPRAISING MeEtTHOps or HEALTH EpDvuCATION. . 390 Martha Crumpton Hardy, Staff Psychologist, Elizabeth McCormick Memorial Fund, Chicago, Illinois Tue Evaluation oF READING INSTRUCTION IN THE INTERMEDIATE GRADES 399 J. T. Worlton, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Salt Lake City, Utah TryInc Out A CoMBINATION OF MgtTHOopS IN TEACHING READING 408 Mildred A. Dawson, Supervisor of Childhood Education, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia [ 230 ] PROCEDURES FOR APPRAISING REMEDIAL READING IN GrapdE VII........ 412 Arthur E. Traxler, Research Associate, Educational Records Bureau, New York, New York EXPERIMENTING WITH APPARATUS IN TEACHING THE DIVISION oF FRAc- ee ree Pete OT eon mia ne SER ANG tee 419 John W. Dickey, Professor of Educational Psychology, New Jersey State Teachers College, Newark, New Jersey EVALUATING SUPERVISED Stupy. Subs Soakel cvces ep ed aac oa eat a oe nee 66 427 L. R. Kilzer, Professor of Education, Unive rsity of Wyoming, Lara- mie, Wyoming SELECTED REFERENCES Gal Rag Big ok GEE Ai actin ete tio e D a 433 CHAPTE EVALUATING SOCIALIZING EXPERIENCES a RS aR te Rope BATON Pre We eer AR ete en ag ps 434 AN APPROACH TO THE APPRAISAL OF INFORMAL DRAMATICS................ 435 F. E. Engleman, President, New Haven State Teachers College, New Haven, Connecticut RESULTS OF Pupt, SHARING IN RESPONSIBILITY FOR CLASSROOM SURROUND- DOE exe cues SET ee ee eee oe . 443 Helen M. Rey nolds, Director, Kindergarten- Primary Education, Seattle, Washington JUDGING THE Success oF A ScHooL NEWSPAPER.................. 453 Edward E. Keener, Principal, John Hay School, Chicago, Illinois AN INFORMAL APPRAISAL OF SCHOOL CLUBS............... ... 456 Lulie Nettleton, Principal, Green Lake School, Seattle, Washington JUDGING THE ADEQUACY OF ScHOOL LIBRARIES IN Rv RAL AREAS... . 459 Mabel Wilkinson Etheridge, Librarian, State Teachers College, Minot, North Dakota SELECTED REFERENCES {erase , staat cae as . 463 CuapteR VII—MEASURING THE PROGRESS OF PUPILS PRD. (AE INI os noo messin ok lao ae ee la el alee ee 464 ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF AN ADEQUATE ‘TestiNa PROGRARE sc. cci Se 2: .. 465 J. Murray Lee, Assistant Professor of Education, University of Wis- consin, Madison, Wisconsin THE Uses or Tests IN A SUPERVISORY PROGRAM......................00-- 470 Walter W. Cook, Professor of Education and Director of Teacher Training, Eastern Illinois State Teachers College, Charleston, Illinois STANDARDIZED ACHIEVEMENT TESTS AND THEIR RELATION TO CURRICULUM I ini iia pbs sow hre iy eovun sdae, ivan eis vie ne baaos Parente aivist NT eae 479 E. F. Lindquist, Associate Professor ‘of Education, State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa Some NEGLECTED CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING CLASSROOM TESTS...... .. 485 William A. Brownell, Professor of Educational Psychology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina MEASURING THE ATTAINMENT OF NEWER EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES...... 493 J. W. Wrightstone, Research Associate, Institute of School Experi- mentation, Columbia University, New York, New York MRAsuRING SoctAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT...................... 502 Rose H. Alschuler, Director, and LaBerta Weiss Hattwick, Research Psychologist, Winnetka Public School Nursery Unit, Winnetka, Illinois [ 231 ] PAGE THe MEASUREMENT AND IMPROVEMENT OF PupIL ADJUSTMENT 508 H. Thoburn Ralph, Principal, Washington School, Wauwatosa, Wis- consin CONSTRUCTING AND Ustna A MEAsuRE OF Goop MANNERS... 514 Morris B. Ginsburg, Principal, Adaire-Chandler School, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania er oar icals 522 (HapteR VILI—EstTiMATING THE EFFICIENCY OF TEACHERS MEANS. "MINN ic ars aandicccsoatn eo ORE HOR Rae oy af 523 DIFFICULTIES IN ESTIMATING THE EFFICIENCY OF TEACHERS 524 J. R. Shannon, Professor of Education, Indiana State Teachers Col- lege, Terre Haute, Indiana MernHops oF EVALUATING THE QUALITY OF INSTRUCTION 530 A. 8. Bush, Principal, Woodlawn School, San Antonio, Texas SmtmctTep ROPRRENCES........... 05... cccccces : 537 CuHapreR [X—JupGInG ScHOOL EQuIPMENT EpITORIAL COMMENT............. te ere ee 538 Tuer ANALYSIS AND SELECTION OF TEXTBOOKS 539 William A. Averill, Instructor in Education, Lesley School, Cam- bridge, Massachusetts; and Lecturer, University Extension Division, Massachusetts State Department of Education, Boston, Massa- chusetts A PLAN oF TEXTBOOK EVALUATION. . Don _ 547 Ivan R. Waterman, Chief, Division of Textbooks and Publications, California State Department of Education, Sacramento, California AN APPRAISAL OF Two Types oF Motion Picture EquirMENT For ScHooL UsE ; By SSS ices re cea g 558 James G. Sigman, Director, and John T. Garman, Special Assistant, Division of Visual Edueation, Board of Public Education, Phila- delphia, Pennsylvania SELECTED REFERENCES Pree Snel e ioe eeis.. 566 CHAPTER X—A RevIEW OF THE TECHNICS OF APPRAISAL 567 SELECTED REFERENCES a See ee ere 8 I. Ber as ais 587 RECORDS AND INFORMATION LecaAL PRINCIPALS ORGANIZATIONS aes 589 SECTIONAL PRINCIPALS ASSOCIATIONS 592 Strate PrINcIPALS ASSOCIATIONS 594 List oF MEMBERS we ; 596 INDEX ; ; 652 [ 232 ] ») 3 24 30) 37 38 39 66 87 89 92 194 152 CHAPTER I THE FUNDAMENTALS OF SCHOOL APPRAISAL A FEW GUIDING PRINCIPLES? CHOOL APPRAISAL is not only desirable; it is unavoidable. Admin- istrators, teachers, parents, and children all form judgments of some kind with respect to the success of the school and the ade- quacy of its various elements. These judgments may vary from hasty inferences based on hearsay or cursory observation, to conclusions reached thru the careful collection and thoughtful interpretation of objective evidence. The purpose of this yearbook is to encourage appraisal of the latter type. Before considering the specific methods and results of appraisal re- ported by the individual authors of this book, it is well to take a broad view of the field and to attempt to answer certain general questions, as follows: . What should be the scope of school appraisal? . Who should do the appraising? . When should appraisals be made? . How should appraisal be carried on? . What should be done with the results of appraisal? or whe What should be the scope of school appraisal?—School appraisal is sometimes thought of as merely the periodic administration of stand- ardized achievement tests, followed by a comparison of the pupils’ average scores with the test norms. Such a procedure, altho it has a place in a comprehensive plan of appraisal, is far from being adequate in itself. There are several reasons for this: (1) Present standardized tests do not measure all aspects of pupil development; (2) test norms are seldom satisfactory criteria for judging the achievement of children in any particular school; and (3) the comparison of average scores with the test norms reveals too little about the specific causes of good or poor achievement. The last named limitation is even more significant than the others. Obviously, little can be done to improve a school pro- gram without knowing specifically at what points it is strong and at What points weak. To be most effective, school appraisal, like the measurement of pupils, must be diagnostic in character. Every aspect of the school program needs evaluation. No part is so small or insignificant that it can safely be ignored. This does not mean that everything in the program is of equal importance, or that the same amount of time should be spent in appraising each aspect. It is doubt- This statement was prepared for the Editorial Committee by the Research Division of the Na- tional Education Association. [ 233 ] 234 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS less more important, for example, to determine whether the methods used in teaching the social studies are effective, than to discover whether the quality of paper or of other supplies used is adequate and the best obtainable at the price. Nevertheless, few would contend that the latter is not worth doing. Satisfactory school appraisal, then, must take account of the school organization, the administrative and super- visory procedures, the curriculum, the methods of learning and teach- ing, the socializing experiences sometimes referred to as extracurricular activities, the efficiency of the teaching staff, and the quality and suitability of school equipment. Each of these topies is discussed in a subsequent chapter of the yearbook. The unusual difficulty of evaluating certain aspects of the school is not a valid reason for omitting them from the program of appraisal. It is, for example, much more difficult to evaluate the organization of a school than to appraise its method of teaching spelling; yet the former is so fundamental that it should not be neglected. Difficulty may be a factor in determining the methods used and the amount of time spent in appraising a particular element. It does not, however, excuse admin- istrators and teachers from making the best possible appraisal of every element in the school program. Who should do the appraising?—Principals and teachers should have an important part in the appraisal of their own schools. If the school system has a central research staff, the latter should consult principals and teachers both in planning appraisal measures and in interpreting the results. Such cooperation is essential not only in reaching valid judgments, but in assuring the use of results for the improvement of the school program. If research specialists are net available, a heavier responsibility for appraisal rests upon the individual principal and the teachers of his school, altho considerable guidance may be provided by the central administrative and supervisory staff. Each principal may find it helpful to appoint committees of teachers to be responsible, under his direction, for various aspects of appraisal within his school. Under favorable conditions, several principals may cooperate in formu- lating a uniform program of evaluation for all their schools. In any case, both principals and teachers should exercise initiative in evalu- ating their own work, rather than depend entirely upon superior officers to initiate and supervise such activity. Pupils likewise may properly have a part in appraising the school. Their opinions are not always well founded and must be interpreted with great care, but such opinions will often help teachers and prin- cipals in making their own judgments of school policies and procedures. Certainly no school activity can be considered satisfactory which pro- duces dissatisfaction or discouragement in a considerable proportion FUNDAMENTALS OF SCHOOL APPRAISAL 235 of the children. Moreoyer, the school has an obligation to teach children to be honestly and constructively critical of their work and of their social institutions (of which the school is one). When should appraisals be made?—School appraisal should be carried on continuously. The practise of making a comprehensive sur- vey of the schools only once every five or ten years, with no effort to obtain pertinent evidence between surveys, is quite inadequate. So far as the time and size of the staff permit, information concerning the strong and weak points of the school program should be collected during each year. At least once a year these findings should be sum- marized and used as a basis for improving the program. Obviously, the appraisal of some elements of the program may take longer than that of others, depending upon the scope and method of appraisal used. For example, the checking of school clubs against a list of suitable criteria may require only a few days or weeks, while a care- fully controlled experiment to determine the relative effect on pupils of two different plans of grading and promotion may cover the entire school lives of the pupils involved. Moreover, during a given year the school may find it advisable to concentrate attention upon a major phase of its program, such as the curriculum or the pupil-guidance activities. Hence it is often impossible to make a complete report on all phases of evaluation once a year. Nevertheless, a definite plan for col- lecting and summarizing pertinent findings each year is essential to efficient appraisal. How should appraisal be carried on?—Evaluation should utilize the most reliable methods which are practicable and appropriate in the particular school situation. No single method will fit all situations, and often a combination of methods is desirable. It is neither necessary nor possible to apply rigidly scientific technics to all problems of evalua- tion. The most important thing is the scientific method of thinking, in which the appraiser tries honestly and impartially to obtain as much and as accurate evidence as possible on the problem before him, and then draws only such conclusions as are clearly warranted by the evi- dence obtained. Careful subjective judgment of a school procedure in the light of accepted criteria is better than a conclusion based on objec- tive data which were obtained thru an ill-conceived or poorly executed experiment. The first step in selecting a method of appraisal is to find out how competent persons elsewhere have evaluated the same or similar aspects of the school program. Not infrequently a teacher or principal under- takes to study some phase of his work without knowing what technics are available or appropriate. Help may be obtained from reports of research by specialists in the field under consideration, from the best 236 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS books on research methods in education, from egllege courses in school measurement and research, and from conferences with other principals and teachers in the local schools or elsewhere. While the more precise and thoro methods are to be preferred whenever practicable, it is better to choose a simple procedure, even tho its results may not be highly conclusive, than to use an elaborate technic with which the appraiser is unfamiliar or which cannot be carried on adequately in the local situation. All appraisal must be made with reference to criteria of some kind. These may take the form of norms on a test or rating scale, a series of objective items on a checklist or score-card, the observed behavior of particular groups of pupils, or merely an informal list of objectives sought. Such criteria are themselves subject to evaluation, and should be used only after careful consideration of their validity. It should be borne in mind, however, that school criteria or objectives can be evalu- ated only by a consensus of opinion. If the educational philosophies of two schools or communities differ significantly, their educational pro- grams cannot fairly be judged by the same standards. Competent edu- cators or laymen in general may decide that one philosophy or set of criteria is better than another. However, so long as schools are locally administered, every community has a right to establish its own stand- ards for school appraisal. A school program may be appraised with reference to (1) standards of pupil development, (2) standards of financial cost, and (3) stand- ards of smooth and systematic operation. Of these types, standards of pupil development obviously should receive primary consideration. If this phase of appraisal is to be carried on accurately and compre- hensively, devices for measuring pupil development must continue to be improved. There should be close agreement between the accepted objectives of a school and the instruments which the school uses to measure its attain- ment of these objectives. The practise of giving standardized achieve- ment tests containing material which the school does not intend to teach has no place in a valid program of appraisal. It is especially unfair to judge teachers or teaching methods according to pupil performances on such tests. If fundamental discrepancies exist, either the tests or the aims and content of the school curriculum should be modified. The objectives of a school may be inadequate, but their adequacy or inade- quacy is a separate problem to be solved apart from the measurement of pupil achievement. When the principal or teacher finds it impracticable to appraise a certain part of the local program satisfactorily, he should at least check that part against the conclusions of available research studies and the ‘ ls 1€ FUNDAMENTALS OF SCHOOL APPRAISAL recommendations of authorities on the subject. Such conclusions and recommendations are not always safe guides to follow because local conditions may be different from those under which the researches were conducted or the expert judgments reached. Nevertheless, if a teacher or principal varies his procedures from those recommended by spe- cialists, he should usually have valid evidence in support of these variations. Such evidence can be obtained only by making careful appraisals within the local school or school system. Statistical procedures for measuring the reliability of experimental results should be used only with a thoro understanding of their purpose and significance. It is not necessary, in appraising the work of a single school, to show whether the results are applicable to schools in general. It is helpful, of course, to know whether the repetition of an experi- ment under similar conditions in the same school would probably yield similar results. This, however, is impossible in many schools and class- rooms because of the small number of pupils enrolled. In such cases the experiment should be repeated with succeeding groups of pupils to see whether the same or different results will be obtained. In any event, the principal or teacher needs to be sure of his ground before under- taking to compute and interpret probable errors. Many unsound con- clusions have been reached thru the incorrect use of these measures. What should be done with the results of appraisal?—As indicated above, the results of appraisal should be used to improve the school program. There is no practical value in educational measurement per se. Only as the findings are made the basis for continued improve- ment, of educational services, can a program of school appraisal be justified. When used for this purpose, evaluation becomes an essential function of the school, and deserves adequate financial support as well as the careful attention of the teaching and administrative staffs. Administrators should make sure that their teachers are thoroly familiar with the results of school appraisals. If the school program is to be improved, the teachers are ultimately the ones who will improve it. To do this, they need a clear understanding of the goals to be at- tained, and a knowledge of how closely they are approaching these goals under the present educational system. Parents and pupils also should be given a true insight into the suc- cesses and failures of the school. Such insight will help to prevent unfounded criticisms, and to enlist the cooperation of those who should be most interested in improving the educational program. Summary of principles—The essential points in the foregoing dis- cussion of basic principles may be listed as follows: 1. Adequate appraisal of the school includes more than the usual program of achievement, testing. 238 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 2. School appraisal should be diagnostic; that is, it should reveal the specific points of strength and of weakness in the school program. 3. Every aspect of the school program should be appraised, regardless of its relative difficulty. 4. Principals and teachers should play important parts in the appraisal of their own schools. Their responsibility for planning and initiating appraisal measures will vary according to the plan of organization and administration in the school system as a whole. 5. Within reasonable limits and under proper safeguards, pupils also may con- tribute to school appraisal. 6. Evaluation of the school program should be carried on continuously. Per- tinent information should be collected thruout each year and summarized at least once a year. 7. Methods of appraisal should be selected on the basis of their reliability, practicability, and appropriateness in the particular situation to be appraised. A combination of several methods is often better than one alone. 8. Before undertaking an appraisal, principals and teachers should find out how competent workers elsewhere have evaluated similar elements of the school program. 9. Careful subjective judgments formed in the light of valid criteria are better than conclusions based on objective data from a poorly planned or carelessly executed experiment. 10. Every appraisal should be made with reference to specified criteria of some kind. Such criteria should themselves be carefully evaluated before they are used. 11. Of the several types of criteria which may be used, those concerned with pupil development should receive first consideration. 12. There should be close agreement between the accepted objectives of a school and the instruments which the school uses to measure its attainment of these objectives. 13. When it is impracticable to determine the merits of local school practises directly, these practises should be appraised with reference to the findings of available research studies and expert opinion outside the school. 14. Statistical technics for determining the reliability of experimental results should be used only with a thoro understanding of their purpose and significance. 15. The results of appraisal should be used to improve the school program It is essential that classroom teachers, as well as principals, be fully informed of these results. 16. Parents and pupils also should be given accurate information concerning the strong and weak elements of the school program, so that they may help to improve it. Scope of this yearbook—The following chapters of this book deal with many aspects of appraisal in the elementary school. A majority of the authors emphasize broad technics or specific instruments of evaluation. Results of particular studies also are given in many articles, but such results are of secondary importance here because they usually apply only to the school or school system in which they were obtained. The primary contribution of the yearbook lies in its descriptions of actual experiences in selecting, planning, and carrying out procedures for evaluating the school. The contributions of different authors vary widely in scope. Some deal with very informal methods of evaluation, while others describe rather elaborate experiments involving two or more different types of school procedure. Some merely present criteria for judging the merit it I FUNDAMENTALS OF SCHOOL APPRAISAL 239 of a school policy or plan of organization; others show how such criteria were applied in a specific situation, and what results were obtained. A few articles report only the findings of a particular appraisal. One chapter is devoted almost entirely to the characteristics, uses, and limitations of school tests. Another chapter reviews the broader technics of research, and attempts to show the place which each may occupy in a program of school appraisal. No chapter of the yearbook is a comprehensive treatment of the subject indi¢ated in its title. The articles in each chapter merely pro- vide illustrations of appraisal within a very broad area of the school program. In spite of this limitation, the reader will find here an abundance of stimulating and helpful material. Additional reading will enable him to fill many of the gaps. A list of selected references for further study is given at the end of each chapter except the first.” Other articles in this chapter—The next two articles are important parts of this chapter on “fundamentals.” In the first one, Powers gives a broad overview of criteria by which the success of a modern ele- mentary-school program may be judged. In the second article, by Smith, some of the major technics of evaluation are introduced and their significance in education explained. These two articles are well worth reading before turning to the later chapters. 2 For further material on the fundamentals of school appraisal, consult the references listed at the end of Chapter X, “A Review of the Technics of Appraisal.” : ARGUE that most research should be conducted in graduate schools, laboratories, and research bureaus is to under- estimate the importance of field situations in terms of the application of the results of educational investigation and the intellectual and professional growth of approximately one mil- lion teachers in this country, through the discovery and solution of important educational problems under normal field condi- tions. From this point of view, competent field workers have an important dual obligation: one relating to the practice of teach- ing, supervision, or administration, and the other relating to problem solving in their respective areas of responsibility.— Good, Carter V.; Barr, Arvil S.; and Scates, Douglas E., The Methodology of Educational Research, D. Appleton-Century Co., 1936, p. v. (Quoted by permission of the publishers.) 240 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS CRITERIA FOR JUDGING THE SUCCESS OF A SCHOOL PROGRAM Leversia L. Powers Director, Primary and Special Education, Chester, Pennsylvania T THE CLOSE of the school year 1935-36, the report card of a certain pupil in a six-grade elementary school read as follows: This is to certify that Lucille Cook has been placed in the seventh grade for September, 1936. (Signed) LeEvERSIA PowEnrs, June 17, 1936. Principal. The accompanying grade-school certificate read: This is to certify that Lucille Cook has satisfactorily completed the work of Grade VI and is promoted to Grade VII. KK. W. Broome, Superintendent. (Signed) LevEeRSIA Powers, June 17, 1936. Principal. These statements were ordinary enough. There were many others like them. But what did they mean—to the teachers, to the principal? What did “satisfactorily completed the work of Grade VI” mean to all the “Lucille Cook’s”? Had the school years been milestones along the way of conscious progress, or had they been merely hurdles? Objectives of the school program—How can we go about evaluating the work of these years? Let us examine briefly the objectives which we wish children to attain by the end of the sixth grade: 1. Essential abilities—to read, with understanding, any material within the expe- rience level of the pre-adolescent child; to use with accuracy and understanding the fundamental operations in numbers; to express ideas correctly, forcibly, and in an interesting manner thru written language, line and color, bodily rhythm, music, and handicraft; to interpret many phases of everyday life thru the applica- tion of historical, geographical, and scientific concepts, understandings, and facts. 2. Basic skills—in muscular control and coordination; in the use of books; in the use of materials and tools of the arts and sciences; etc. 3. Desirable attitudes—toward work and play; toward other people; toward social institutions; ete. 4. Appropriate social habits—friendliness, good manners, trustworthiness, self- control and poise, leadership and followership, etc. 5. Suitable interests—in recreational activities; in vocational possibilities; in avocational pursuits. 6. Good taste—as shown in the selection of color, line, and form in dress, in decorations, etc. 7. A well-balanced personality—mental and emotional health, stability, cheer- fulness, open-mindedness, and the ability to compensate in socially acceptable ways for personal deficiencies and failures. ‘or rs 1? all he ng ch ng nd Ca- er- ble FUNDAMENTALS OF ScHooLt APPRAISAL 241 These seven objectives, in the writer’s judgment, are the criteria against which the success of a modern school program should be measured. Surely no school appraisal can be considered complete unless it takes all of them into account. The following paragraphs discuss each of these criteria in turn, attempting to indicate the kind of results which must be obtained if the school program is to be considered suc- cessful. Some of these results can be measured objectively, while others can be appraised only by careful observation and judgment. Are essential abilities being developed?—Of the four types of ability mentioned above, none is more important than reading ability. This includes the ability to read silently with satisfactory speed and com- prehension, to enjoy poetry and drama thru effective oral reading, and to appreciate the best in literature. We cannot, of course, expect pupils to read and appreciate material that is too difficult or outside the range of their experience. It would be absurd, for example, to expect the aver- age sixth-grade child to read a chemistry textbook or technical stock- market news with adequate understanding and pleasure. On the other hand, a school which calls itself successful must make sure that its pupils are able to do all useful types of reading at the appropriate levels of speed and comprehension. Fortunately, it is no longer difficult to measure objectively the ele- ments of speed and comprehension in reading; several good standardized tests are available for this purpose. It is much more difficult to measure such outcomes as appreciation and good taste in reading. In the field of arithmetic, the child needs to understand the concepts of number so that he can put the fundamental operations to use in specific situations. How common is the occurrence of a child’s having memorized certain facts in arithmetic which he cannot apply when the opportunity arises. The school may evaluate its work as satisfactory when, after six years of training in this field, most of its pupils have a deep understanding of the significance of number relations in their daily lives, and can handle the basic number operations intelligently and with reasonable speed in any ordinary situation. The school must evaluate its work in arithmetic as poor if all learning in this field con- sists of abstract memorization, and if the facts memorized are not interpreted in terms of everyday living. Both computational and rea- soning abilities in arithmetic can be measured with considerable pre- cision by means of the best available tests. A third type of ability—the ability to express ideas—is not limited to any one medium of expression. This would be a barren world indeed, if all messages were conveyed thru the single medium of language. The successful school must see to it that each child has, in addition to lan- guage, one or more other ways of expressing his ideas, such as drawing, 242 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS painting, music, bodily rhythm, or handicrafts. Obviously the standards of achievement cannot be the same for all pupils, since children vary widely in their interests and native capacities within each field and from one field to another. However, unless the majority of pupils have acquired some ability in non-verbal expression, their school hardly deserves a high rating. In appraising children’s ability to express themselves, it is important not to limit the appraisal to the mere mechanies of expression. Effective writing, for example, requires much more than the ability to handle punctuation, capitalization, and grammar correctly. It calls for a sense of the relationships among ideas, and a uniqueness of style which accu- rately expresses the various shades of meaning which the writer intends to convey. In all fields of expression, ability to handle the mechanics is more easily measured than are the less tangible elements which make the expression truly effective. Nevertheless, principals and teachers should not abandon their efforts to appraise these important tho elusive outcomes of instruction. In the social studies, as in arithmetic, schools have too often been content to measure results in terms of facts memorized by the pupils. Traditionally, the subjects of history, geography, and civics have been presented as separate bodies of material to be learned, irrespective of the child’s needs. The inadequacy of these procedures is rapidly being recognized. We are realizing that each child is an integral part of presentday society. While many social problems are beyond his under- standing, many others can be made clear and interesting to him. He should know and appreciate the social institutions of the community— the fire department, police department, local government, grocery store, street cleaners, postmen, transportation and communication facilities, public utilities, schools, churches, and so forth. Does the child understand how and why these institutions came into being? Does he realize how dependent people are upon one another? Has he acquired any appreciation of the human problems which arise from the geographical environment? Does he see the relationship that must exist between the country and the city if the people of both locali- ties are to be comfortable and happy? Does he understand how certain situations in history have caused the development or the breakdown of social institutions? Has he any conception of how the climatic and social conditions of far-away places help to regulate his everyday life? Has he acquired sufficient understanding to be of help to him in dis- charging his civic duties? Unless such questions as these can be answered in the affirmative, we cannot say that the elementary school has achieved its proper objectives. ie OC =—_ FUNDAMENTALS OF ScHooL APPRAISAL 243 The adequate evaluation of these four abilities—in reading, in arith- metic, in expression, and in the social studies—is not an easy task. Objective measurement, however, offers much more help than most of us realize. We are no longer limited to tests which measure merely the child’s ability to recall unrelated facts. Tests of ability to use knowl- edge and skills are being gradually developed and improved. Let no one assume that such abilities are forever beyond the reach of appraisal. Are basic skills being achieved?—‘Skill” is not widely different from “ability.” The writer prefers, however, to think of skill as something which may be acquired more readily by drill. A person may have a great deal of skill in something whose nature or purpose he does not understand at all. A workman in a factory may learn to feed a machine its bits of metal with a high degree of skill, and yet know nothing about the construction of the machine or the purposes of the product which it helps to make. In education we may, for example, confuse a mere acquiring of skill in arithmetic with the ability in arithmetic which children should have. That is why the use of numbers in daily life was classified above as an ability rather than as a skill. Conversely, the writer would list as skills those things which a child learns to do thru continued repetition, such as certain types of muscular control and coordination, the mechanical use of books, and the manipulation of materials and tools in the arts and sciences. Muscular control and coordination are, of course, partly dependent upon the native capacity and the maturity of the individual. In most persons, however, muscular skills are readily developed by the right kind of training. Consider, for example, the singer’s control of the muscles of his throat, the tennis player’s control of his wrist muscles, and the expert penman’s control of his arm and finger muscles. Training for specific skills should be planned in relation to the child’s growth as a whole. The attempt to develop a high degree of skill in one field should not be permitted to interfere with the development of other important skills. The school must, therefore, evaluate its work with reference to the needs of the whole child. The effective use of books calls for skill in utilizing the table of con- tents, index, appendix, glossary, and so forth. Here, as in the case of all skills, a mastery of mechanics must precede their intelligent and effective application. In the upper grades, the program for insuring such mastery will include some library science, as well as practise in the use of dictionaries and encyclopedias. Just as a child cannot be said to have any real ability in the use of written language unless he can use it to communicate his ideas, so he cannot be said to have skill in the arts and sciences unless he knows the technics of manipulating the materials and tools thereof. He must 244 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS know how to hold a brush, how to place his paper, how to move his crayon, how to handle weights and measures, and so forth. It is not possible to acquire any real ability without acquiring these basic skills. It is possible, however, to acquire such skills without acquiring any appreciable ability to use them for significant purposes. Perhaps the line between skills and abilities has been a little finely drawn, but in attempting to evaluate the work of an elementary school, the writer has found it helpful to consider whether the child who has acquired certain skills has also the necessary understanding and emo- tional attitude to make conscious use of those skills in ways that are personally and socially valuable. Are desirable attitudes being established?—If we are to live in a democratic country, where the welfare of all depends upon the attitudes of every individual, the school must help to instil in children those attitudes and understandings that are conducive to better living to- gether. Unless the work of the school actually makes a difference in children’s attitudes, it is not education; it is mere training. We can judge the results of our work as worth the great amount of time, money, and effort expended, only when we have helped produce a generation of people whose attitudes are better than they would have been without the influence of the school. The study of man in relation to his environment, commonly called geography, should help the child to understand the problems of al! human beings. As a result, the child should not consider anything that is foreign to him as queer, but rather as only different. He should under- stand that modes of living are the results of men’s efforts to adapt them- selves to their environments, and that if he and his ancestors had been subjected to an environment different from their own, they probably would have developed different ways of living. When children have studied the rise and fall of nations and of social institutions, we want them to have much more than a store of facts which they can flash forth when the proper button is pressed. They should also have acquired a genuine desire to use the past experience o/ the race as a means of further understanding and improving the con- ditions of modern life. We have, for example, historical records from centuries past of great civil wars—records of man’s struggles for the social improvement of the masses. The study of these things should not represent to the child a mere rehashing of the dead past, but should help him to appraise the social upheavals of today with an attitude of toleration and understanding. The school which evaluates its work thoroly will look for such outcomes. We must appraise our success also against a standard of good sports- manship. Sometimes it has been the policy of schools to leave sports- 2 RRR Ter ene la des Ose to- in san ion out led all hat ler- m- een bly rial icts hey 2 of ‘om the not uld ork FUNDAMENTALS OF ScHOOL APPRAISAL 245 manship to games. We have long assumed that sportsmanlike attitudes were to be developed and exhibited only on the baseball and football fields. Shall we not judge the job we have done in school by the evi- dences of sportsmanship in the everyday reactions of the children to one another? Such reactions cannot be measured on any one day or by any available test. They can be evaluated only as they are observed every day, all day, in every class, at every recess period, in every type of situation. Are the children “good sports” when they can’t have their own way? Are they good sports in their treatment of less fortunate youngsters? Are they good sports in the sharing of their possessions with one another? Can the elementary school look upon its work as satisfactory unless it can say to the junior high school (or to the out- side world), “Here is a group of children who are good sports in life situations”? Are appropriate social habits being formed?—One of the things which life demands most heavily of each of us is a set of desirable social habits. When we look at children as they are leaving the sixth grade, and try to summarize what we have done for them, we must consider the kinds of social habits which the school has helped them to acquire. Have we so conducted our school that the only social habits the child has acquired are those of trying to “put something across” on the teacher, cheating in order to get the required marks in class, or bully- ing other children in order to get more attention? Have we had a curriculum which was so unsuited to the child’s needs and abilities that he has become antagonistic toward authority and toward children who are more successful than he? Has our system of promotion and retarda- tion prevented him from acquiring the approved social habits of his own age group? How can a boy or girl acquire habits of friendliness, good manners, trustworthiness, self-control, poise, leadership, follower- ship, and the like, if he is never given an opportunity to give and take with children of similar maturity and social interests? Can a fifteen- year-old boy grow in friendliness if he has only ten-year-olds with whom to make friends? Can an adolescent girl acquire appropriate manners if she is always associated with younger children? How can a child acquire the ability to lead or to follow if he is kept in a group which does not inspire his loyalty? When we evaluate our schools, let us con- sider this field of social habits. Let us bear in mind that long after laboriously acquired facts have disappeared from the memory, a certain “way of living” will continue to be the most essential thing in the life of the individual. The best way to evaluate character is to observe children both at work and at play. Little confidence can be placed in the tests of char- acter which ask what ought to be done in a given situation. Any child 246 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS will say that one ought not to steal; the point is, will he refrain from stealing? Any child will say that one ought to tell the truth, but does he do it? Any child will say that one should not cheat, but does he always abide by the rules? Schools can help build character; they can also help destroy character. Difficult tho it is to measure results in this field, we must evaluate our teaching partly in terms of its influence upon social habits and ideals. Are suitable life interests being aroused?—In adult life we spend our time partly at our vocations, and partly in ways which are recreational. On the elementary-school level, of course, little is done to provide voca- tional training. Most children of pre-adolescent age are not sufficiently mature to select the line of work at which they will later earn a living. For this reason, nothing which the grade school does should be ap- praised in terms of its vocational value. Naturally, certain skills and abilities acquired in the elementary school are fundamental in many vocations, but they are equally important in other phases of life. In the recreational field also, children of this age are too young to pick out any single type of activity as a permanent hobby or interest. They are, on the other hand, filled with curiosity about many different things. There is a great deal about them which is new and unexplained, and they should be encouraged to explore this unfamiliar territory. They should dabble here and taste there; open this door and open that one. They should be so full of the zest of living and learning that they do not have the time or opportunity to settle to one thing only. We must evaluate in this field by the breadth of interest and the degree of curi- osity among children. If we have not stimulated interest and activity in many different areas, we have to that extent failed. Is good taste being cultivated?—How shall we evaluate our efforts to develop good taste in children? Appraisal in this field is very difficult indeed. Elementary-school pupils are, for the most part, too young to buy many things for themselves. Their clothing is usually selected for them. Their homes are usually arranged by the adult members of the family. However, we must discover, so far as possible, what kinds of things the children choose when they have the opportunity. What pic- tures do they select when permitted to make a choice? What programs do they tune in on the radio? What stories give them the greatest pleas- ure? What combinations of colors do they prefer in their dress? How do they decorate the schoolroom if they are allowed to decorate it unmolested? How do they plan party decorations if they do it all them- selves? Have we taught cultural subjects in such a way that they actually make a difference in children’s tastes, or have we merely taught a few facts and rules which are not applied in practise? If we cannot answer these questions, our appraisal is incomplete. rom s he rays also this pon our nal. oca- ntly ring. ap- and any g to rest. rent ned, ory. that they nust uri- vity forts icult ig to 1 for the is of pic- ‘ams leas- How te it 1em- they ught nnot seats S/\u-\ 2 a shal on eld FUNDAMENTALS OF ScHooL APPRAISAL 247 Are well-balanced personalities being developed?—Finally, let us try to appraise the total personality of the child. Only by doing this can we tell whether the school program has been well balanced or lopsided. We may examine separately the abilities, skills, and attitudes of chil- dren in the same way that we may analyze a room, considering first its rug, then its curtains, and so on. However, the curtains are not of much value without the rug, and the value of the rug depends upon the rest of the furniture. The piecemeal analysis of a child is just as inadequate as the piecemeal analysis of a room. Even more unfortunate, perhaps, is our custom of giving examina- tions at the end of the semester on only a few very limited phases of learning, and then using the results to determine whether or not the child is to be promoted. When we give a child a slip of paper indicating where he is to work during the following year, that report should be based on an appraisal of more than two or three isolated parts of his personality. The child should be considered in the light of his attitudes, social habits, interests, and tastes, as well as his academic skills and abilities. Only when all of these elements have been considered, sepa- rately and as an integrated whole, can the child be placed where he will profit most from the next semester’s work. Only then, moreover, can appraisal of the school program be considered reasonably complete. i ONLY must test technicians help in the processes of test construction, but experienced and interested classroom teachers must cooperate also. Suggestions as to what objectives are of most value, how the attainment of these objectives can be judged, and how practical are the ideas of test experts for measuring such attainment in the classroom, must evidently come from teachers and principals. One way in which the staff of an elementary school can aid in the development of new tests is to go thru the list of purposes or objectives of the school, and indicate after each objective any methods which it thinks practicable for obtaining evidence of the degree to which this purpose is being realized—Wright- stone, J. W., p. 494-95 of this yearbook. ND eae io 2) ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS TECHNICS APPLICABLE TO THE APPRAISAL OF SCHOOL PRACTISES Harry P. SmiruH Professor of Education, Syracuse University, and Director of Research, Syracuse Public Schools, Syracuse, New York PPRAISAL of any school practise is inevitable. Such appraisal may be based on the subjective opinion of the school practitioner him- self. If he is an innovator, his appraisal may be biased in favor of the practise he has inaugurated. His reasons for favoring the practise are often the result of pure rationalization. This type of appraisal has characterized many activities in the past, and is all too frequent today. Parallel with it is the equally subjective method of the practitioner who holds to the old procedure because he is accustomed to it. Such a worker becomes conscious of an innovation, but because of his inability to understand the new practise or because of pure lethargy, he builds up arguments against the new in favor of the old. This again may be merely a defense mechanism or rationalization. While these practitioners are busy with their appraisals, we become conscious of a third group who feel it their function to sit in judgment. The general public which supports the public schools, the patrons who send their children to public and private schools, pronounce judgment upon those who instruct the young. They, too, tend to be subjective in their approach, altho they may base their opinions on changes actually observed in their children. But frequently they are bewildered by the conflicting claims of those favorable to certain practises and those op- posed. In the end, they too pass final judgment with no more data than their own general observations—judgment based upon emotional re- actions rather than adequate knowledge and careful reasoning. Until recently no other way was open to the individual who would appraise. The methods developed in the natural sciences had not been applied to the problems of education. Nor had the normative sciences developed their technics to the point where they could be used to ap- praise practises in learning and teaching. But with the turn of the cen- tury came a change. Students acquainted with both education and natural science began that application of scientific method which has made such a profound impression on education and which is destined to produce further marked changes in educational practise. Controlled experimentation—From the natural science field has come the experimental method. Ideally, this method involves such control ol the factors in the experimental situation that the influence of one factor can be determined separately from the influence of the other factors. In use to up ely me nt. vho ent » in lly the op- 1an re- uld een ces ap- en- and has ned yme l of stor In FUNDAMENTALS OF ScHOOL APPRAISAL 249 —— — ae other words, the situation is reduced to a “single variable.” This is pre- eminently the method of the physicist and the chemist, and to some extent of the researcher in the biological sciences. The chemist wishes to know the effect of varying degrees of heat on a chemical. He deter- mines this by controlling all other factors in the situation while he ob- serves the effect of varying heat. The biologist wishes to determine the effect on white rats of differing quantities of food. He selects with great care two groups which are equivalent in all important respects. He then varies the amount of food given to one group while holding constant the amount given to the other, and observes what changes, if any, take place. This method is applicable also to educational practise. A principal wishes to determine the effect of utilizing a specified system of phonics in the teaching of beginning reading in contrast to no systematic phonic teaching at all. This he can do by an experiment in which he selects two groups of children so that, with respect to learning aptitude, previously acquired skill in reading, and general social and economic status, the two groups are equivalent. Equivalence may be secured either by match- ing individuals in the two groups on each factor utilized in the section- ing, or by grouping so that the averages and variabilities' of the two groups are identical, or practically so. The same teacher should teach both groups, or the teachers should be rotated—that is, shifted at regu- lar intervals so that each group gets the benefit of each teacher’s per- sonality for the same length of time. At the beginning of the experimental period a series of tests are given to ascertain the initial status of each group in the skill to be measured. Then follows the period of experimentation, during which the “experi- mental” group receives precisely the same treatment as the “control” group except that it is given the instruction in phonics which is not given to the control group. At the end of the experimental period, tests equivalent to the initial tests are administered and any differences are noted. If, for example, the experimental group shows greater progress, and if the differences are greater than those that can be accounted for by chance errors, or errors due to an inadequate sample of children, we may conclude that the systematic work in phonics has caused the greater improvement of the experimental group. Were the findings to be reversed, we should conclude that the instruction in phonies had handi- capped the experimental group. We have here a most significant method of appraisal. When properly used it yields facts on the basis of which highly objective judgments can be rendered. It has been used in numerous instances and its possi- bilities are great in many aspects of education. ‘The spread of individual cases above and below the average. 250 ELEMENTARY ScHOOL PRINCIPALS ee, This method, however, must be applied with great care. It is much more difficult to reduce a learning situation to a single variable than to achieve similar control in the chemistry laboratory, where one deals with inanimate materials, or even in the biological laboratory, where one can keep the white rats caged from birth and can even control their ancestry. It really is possible only to approximate this type of contro| in a situation involving human learning. Probably the best method of overcoming the difficulty is to conduct the experiment over an area go extensive or a population so great that the large number of individuals involved will tend to equalize the groups on all factors except the ex- perimental one. For example, the effect of kindergarten training on the child’s subsequent school career has been studied by comparing the school records of many children in several cities having kindergartens with those of children in cities not having kindergartens. Similarly, the writer compared the effectiveness of the junior high school with that of the conventional seventh- and eighth-grade organization by study- ing all the pupils in both types of school in a large city. A second difficulty in conducting controlled experiments is the secur- ing of individuals who are trained in experimental technics, and who are sufficiently interested to carry out the details of these procedures, A supervisor of English in a large city recently set up an experiment in the city’s largest high school to determine the effect of using certain methods for improving the reading habits of tenth-grade pupils. After the supervisor had done the initial testing and had carefully sectioned the pupils into equivalent groups, the school principal became so con- vineed that the experimental methods of teaching would be valuable to all pupils that he directed the teachers of both groups to use these methods. Naturally, no significant difference in the progress of the two groups was observed. Comparison with norms—From the social sciences has come another method which is applicable to educational appraisal, namely, the normative method. This method involves collecting data from large numbers of individuals and determining from these data norms—that is, averages. The individuals and groups are so selected that, were the process to be repeated, the second set of norms would closely approxi- mate the first set of norms. The application of this method to education has resulted in the estab- lishment of numerous norms—norms of achievement in subjectmatter, norms on learning-aptitude tests, norms on performance tests, grade norms, chronological-age norms, mental-age norms, percentile norms, and so on. Once such norms are established, the status or performance of children in individual schools and classrooms can be appraised by comparison with them. ee, much an to deals vhere their ntrol od of Ca 80 duals @ ex- n the r the rtens ’, the that udy- ecur- who [ures, ment rtain A fter ioned con- 1able these f the other , the large —that e the rOXxi- stab- atter, rrace orms, lance id by FUNDAMENTALS OF ScHOOL APPRAISAL 251 OO —————— This method is probably more familiar to most educators than the experimental method. Publishers of all the newer standardized tests provide norms with which any teacher or principal may compare the achievement of his pupils or his school. School surveys have used the method widely. School administrators and supervisors frequently pub- lish reports showing comparisons of their local averages with the wider norms. It is necessary, however, to observe certain precautions in using this method for appraisal purposes. The measuring instruments used, such as tests and scales, must be both valid and reliable; that is, they must measure what they purport to measure and they must do it consistently. An achievement test in arithmetic must measure arithmetic achieve- ment and not some other skill or aptitude. A valid measure of school achievement in literature must measure school achievement in litera- ture, and not the knowledge of literature which the child has acquired as a result of living in a superior cultural environment where he is sur- rounded by good literature. Some literature tests measure the latter rather than the former. Likewise, a language-usage test may be a test of the influence of the child’s whole cultural environment upon his language habits, rather than a test of school achievement in language usage. Such tests lack validity for purposes of school appraisal. On the other hand, tests which permit latitude in the scoring of responses lack reliability. Only those tests which are both valid and reliable should be used in evaluating school procedures. In using norms for appraisal purposes, it is necessary to keep in mind that a given set of norms is valid only for comparable groups. The general norms of a test are usually based on a large sampling of the school population. If, in the use of such norms for comparative purposes, variation is found in the average achievement of different school build- ings within the same city, it may be advisable to inquire whether the groups are comparable. In a single small city a mean difference of one year in mental age, grade for grade, has been discovered between the pupils in one section of the city and those in a more favored section. Obviously any comparison of school achievement must take account of so large a difference in maturity. Variations in socio-economic status may also have a bearing on comparisons which are based on certain types of tests. The case-study technic—From medical practitioners and professional social workers we have a third method which may be used for appraisal —the case-study method. This method involves securing all pertinent data about an individual and his environment, and then making com- parisons and inferences. The difference between the normative method and the case-study method is that the former utilizes a single norm 252 ELEMENTARY ScHOOoL PRINCIPALS obtained by compiling a single set of facts from a large population, The latter method uses all pertinent data concerning each individual studied. The case-study method has not been used as extensively in education as has the normative method, but its value in medicine and in social case-work argues for its more extended use in school appraisal. A beginning has been made in the extensive diagnosis of children who are deficient in reading. Such diagnosis has resulted in the application of remedial measures to these cases with frequent marked improvement. There is no reason to believe that equally valuable results may not be secured thru the case-study technic in every field represented in the elementary school. Generalizations are also possible thru the application of this method. For example, a certain experiment is concerned with the merits of six different methods of improving the reading abilities of university stu- dents. Only a limited number of students is involved in each method, but the experimenter is making a careful analysis of each individual, involving all traits and factors that may be pertinent to the problem in any way. On the basis of the complete pictures thus secured and the differences noted over a period of many months, certain inferences and conclusions will be drawn. This, of course, has been the method of the medical practitioner for a long time, and who would say that great progress in medicine has not resulted? In the case of maladjusted pupils we already make wide use of this method. The psychologist, the psychiatrist, the visiting teacher, and all others concerned with the child’s school performance contribute to the picture of his personality as a whole. On the basis of this composite picture, remedial measures are planned in the hope that a satisfactory adjustment will be achieved. In school appraisal a wider use of the case-study method is desirable. In many instances, comparisons with norms are appropriate only after an extensive investigation of all contributing factors. The inter-com- munity comparisons in the statewide survey being conducted by the Regents of the University of the State of New York make use of this procedure on a large scale. That is, an attempt is being made to con- struct a complete picture of each community studied, and on that basis to make comparisons with other communities and with general norms. Conclusion—This article has reviewed briefly three general methods of appraisal which are applicable to education—the experimental, the normative, and the case-study technics.? Until these methods had been developed, school appraisal was based almost wholly on uncontrolled observation and subjective opinion. In many communities it still rests 2 For further critical discussion of these and other technics of appraisal, see Chapter X. FUNDAMENTALS OF ScHOOL APPRAISAL 253 on such a basis. In others the schools are increasingly making use of the newer, more systematic, and more objective technics. These newer methods need still further improvement and adaptation to meet the requirements of school situations. Above all, they need to be applied and interpreted by workers who are sympathetic toward them and thoroly familiar with the technical problems involved. HILE OBJECTIVITY is an important goal of measurement in Wy ctsasien it is still far from being attained to the same degree by every type of measuring instrument. Yet even the most subjective type cannot be thrown aside as useless. The materials with which educators work are such that the technics which have been successful in the physical sciences cannot be applied to educational problems without careful adaptation, and generally this adaptation is in the direction of subjectivity. Many elements in the school are so highly individual in charac- ter that they cannot be standardized; in fact, it would be undesirable to have them conform to a standard pattern. Teach- ers, pupils, classrooms, and even entire school systems have certain distinctive qualities and potentialities which cannot be radically changed or ignored in the process of evaluation.— Chapter X, p. 570-71 of this yearbook. CHAPTER II APPRAISING THE SCHOOL ORGANIZATION EDITORIAL COMMENT HE ORGANIZATION of a school is not easy to appraise in objective terms. It is true that standardized tests can be given in schools having different types of organization, and the results compared. It is difficult, however, to set up such an experiment so that the results may be attributed to differences in school organization alone rather than to a combination of influences. Differences in the abilities of pupils, in the qualifications of teachers, in the methods of instruction, and in the character of school buildings and equipment are almost sure to affect the outcomes unless great care is taken to equate the schools with respect to these factors. , While the results of tests and other measures of pupil development may provide some indication of the effectiveness of a school organiza- tion, it seems necessary to rely heavily upon more subjective proce- dures. Perhaps the most satisfactory approach is to (1) study the forms of organization which are in use or have been used in the past; (2) set up criteria based upon accepted educational objectives and upon com- petent opinion as to the probable contributions of various elements of organization to the attainment of these objectives; and (3) judge care- fully the extent to which the local organization meets the criteria set up. Specially constructed checklists, score-cards, or other instruments of controlled observation will be helpful in making such Judgments. This chapter approaches the appraisal of school organization in sev- eral ways. In the first article, Coxe discusses basic considerations rela- tive to four phases of organization. The next two contributions are concerned with the traditional plan of grading and promotion. Dolch shows how a small school unit examined its graded system by comparing the distributions of test scores made in successive grades. Farley reviews several studies showing the effects of premature instruction, of school failure, and of retardation upon pupil achievement and personality. The fourth and fifth articles illustrate experimental procedures. Stuart describes an experiment in which one school used a modified departmental organization while another used the one-teacher-per- grade organization. Yunker reports a similar study comparing schools of the platoon and traditional types. The closing article, by Painter, presents seven criteria for judging plans of grouping pupils within a grade. For additional material on the appraisal of school organization, the reader should consult the list of references on page 290.—Editorial Committee. [ 254] ) APPRAISING SCHOOL ORGANIZATION 255 BASIC CONSIDERATIONS IN APPRAISING A SCHOOL ORGANIZATION WarREN W. Coxe Director, Educational Research Division, New York State Education Depart- ment, Albany, New York HE ORGANIZATION of an elementary school may be appraised with reference to its effect on (1) educational costs, (2) convenience or ease of administration, and (3) pupil development. The follow- ing discussion is limited to school organization as it affects the develop- ment of pupils. Broadly defined, the term “pupil development” includes not only those academic learnings which take place thru contact with books or teachers, but also the growth of personality and character traits, atti- tudes, and appreciations which depend upon the whole social and cul- tural situation in which the pupil is placed. However, since individual schools and communities differ with respect to the educational objec- tives sought, the writer believes that there is no single best type of organization for all schools. Any particular organization must be judged by its appropriateness to the task of education as locally conceived, and to the community conditions under which this task is carried on. There are four phases of school organization which relate especially to pupil development: (1) administrative organization, (2) pupil organ- ization, (3) instructional organization, and (4) records and reports. Let us consider how each phase may be appraised in terms of its con- sistency with our theories of pupil development, and in terms of its consistency with each of the other phases. ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANIZATION Administrative organization includes the size, qualifications, and re- lationships of the school staff. Excluding budgetary limitations, ad- ministrative organization will be controlled largely by the number of pupils enrolled in the school and by the educational objectives of the staff and of the community. Length of elementary-school period—One of the first questions to be raised is: What should be the length of the elementary-school period? Shall it begin with the first grade, the kindergarten, or the nursery school? Shall it continue thru the sixth, seventh, eighth, or ninth grade? The answer will be determined by the answers given to other questions, such as: Should elementary education be pre-adolescent in character or should it include the early adolescent years? Should we expect all pupils completing the elementary school to have reached a certain minimum 256 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS achievement, or should we aim to develop each pupil’s abilities to the fullest extent and expect a varied product? If the former is expected, we must determine how many years it will take to attain the desired standard of achievement. Whether or not the kindergarten and the nursery school are to be a part of the elementary school will depend again upon the objectives of the particular school. If subjectmatter attainment, such as facility in using basic tools, is the primary objective, there is little reason for con- sidering the kindergarten or nursery school as parts of the elementary- school organization. If, however, our objectives include all phases of pupil development, these newer units naturally belong in the ele- mentary school. Question of special classes—Another question of administrative or- ganization is whether the school should provide special classes for those children who deviate so much from the average that they cannot be given adequate care in the regular organization. Adequate pro- vision for such deviates is dependent upon several factors: (1) the number of them in the community, (2) the adequacy of the regular school offering, (3) the amount of variability in the pupil group, and (4) the school’s philosophy of caring for individual pupil needs. Where the offering of the regular organization is inadequate, there is ap- parently an excessive demand for special classes; where this organiza- tion meets the needs of a fairly wide range of pupils satisfactorily, the demand for special classes is reduced. In an appraisal of adminis- trative organization, therefore, the balance between regular provision and special provision for pupil needs should be noted. While we need more information about differences among children, present indications are that such differences are too great to permit regular classes to care adequately for the needs of all. Size and type of staff-—The size and character of the school staff is an unsolved problem. A number of special services should undoubtedly be available, such as dental service, medical service, and certain types of psychological service; but to what extent there should be special personnel to care for the diagnosis of learning difficulties is not so clear. Possibly the regular teachers should be qualified to do this work. The extent to which there should be general and special supervisors also may depend upon the qualifications of the teachers. Where the regular teachers are not qualified to teach art or music, for example, there may be need for special service. In appraising this phase of ad- ministrative organization, it is necessary first to determine what serv- ices should be available, and then to determine whether they are avail- able either thru qualified members of the regular staff or thru the serv; ices of a special staff. the be onl ists cor im} ho nee be tal of en br ch st ar m the ted, red ea : of on- ry- of ‘le- for not ro- the APPRAISING SCHOOL ORGANIZATION 257 In any case, but particularly where there is a large staff of specialists, the question of staff relationships becomes important. Should the teacher be given complete control of her class under the direction of a principal only, or should she carry out the program outlined by a staff of special- ists? Again the answer must be determined by one’s philosophy and by conditions in the particular school being studied. In general, the most important consideration is that of affording essential services, and it is a secondary matter as to how they are provided. One must realize, however, that in order to encourage creativeness in children, teachers need great freedom and responsibility in the control of their classes. PuPIL ORGANIZATION Pupil organization is concerned with the grouping and the move- ment of pupils in the school. It includes such topics as the definition of a grade, ability grouping, promotion policies, groups for remedial teaching, athletic groups, social groups, and play groups. The way in which one will appraise pupil organization will depend, as with admin- istrative organization, upon one’s philosophy of education. Grouping for intellectual development—If one thinks of the school curriculum as an established body of subjectmatter to be taught, it follows logically that the grouping of pupils will be determined by their progress in mastering this subjectmatter. This is the philosophy which seems to have controlled our grade organization in the past. It implies that a child’s progress thru the elementary school will be determined by such mastery—that individual differences will be cared for by rate of promotion. It involves a policy of double promotion and repetition of grades, or a multiple-track system depending on the child’s rate of progress. On the other hand, if one’s philosophy is that instruction should be at least partially modified to meet individual pupil needs, grouping takes on a different meaning. Such a philosophy may mean the use of different subjectmatter for dull than for bright children; the pres- entation of the same subjectmatter at a later age for dull than for bright; or differences in the methods of presenting subjectmatter to children of different ability levels. Efforts to reduce the course of study to minimum essentials for the dull, and to enrich it for the bright are modifications of this kind. Other kinds of modification will be mentioned later. Such modifications as have been noted cannot be applied satisfac- torily if the school grade carries the traditional meaning of ‘a level of achievement.” They are significant, however, when applied to the range of ability found at each chronological age. The recent practise 258 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS in some places of making a grade mean a chronological-age level, makes such modifications applicable to groups within grades. Such grouping should be accompanied by efforts to adapt subjectmatter content and methods of teaching to pupil needs. Under this conception, appraisal will require (1) a knowledge of the range of pupils’ abilities at each chronological age, and (2) information as to the value of pro- cedures followed to care for different levels of ability. Grouping for emotional and social growth—The discussion of pupil organization up to this point has considered intellectual development thru the use of academic materials. There are other kinds of develop- ment for which the school must take responsibility, and which involve the use of other types of material as well as the academic. What part does pupil organization have to play in the development of apprecia- tions, social attitudes, and other aspects of character and personality? Whereas intellectual growth can take ;iace in isolation—that is, with- out contact with other pupils—the development of these other traits is largely dependent upon membership in a group. The character of the groups to which a pupil belongs does much to determine the non- intellectual traits which he develops. Should pupils be placed in these groups by the teacher and prin- cipal, or should the pupils themselves select the groups to which they will belong? The answer is to be found thru an analysis of the nature of the groups which the school organizes. It is probable that certain qualifications are required for membership in every group. These may be intellectual or they may be non-intellectual. Admission to some groups may need to be administered by teachers and principal, while admission to others may be more effectively administered by pupils. In appraising them, one must determine not only whether the groups are varied enough to care for all phases of pupil development, but also whether admission to the groups is so administered that pupils will find themselves in those groups which will contribute most to their development. It may be necessary to raise still other questions and to note whether the answers are in accord with the objectives the school is attempting to realize. Are pupils grouped on the basis of past accomplishment or on the basis of future need? Are pupils grouped to facilitate learn- ing of an intellectual character, or to insure the growth of desirable personal qualities, or to provide for both kinds of development? Promotional policies—Pupil organization must include not only the grouping of pupils, but also the ways by which they may change from one group to another, or in other words, make progress thru the school. This necessarily involves promotion policies. A school cannot consist- ently state that it is attempting to meet individual pupil needs ant vel, uch tter On, ties r'O- ipil ent op- lve art ela- ty? ith- aits r of On- rin- hey pure fain nay yme hile pils. ups also will heir ther Ling ent W'n- able the rom ool. ‘ist- and APPRAISING SCHOOL ORGANIZATION 259 then fail a large number of pupils. It cannot consistently aim to main- tain a definite level of achievement for each grade and then have a rule that a pupil shall not stay in a grade more than two years. Plans for the progress of pupils thru the grades must be consistent with the objectives of the school and with the adopted plan of grouping pupils. Relation to other phases of organization—As has been implied, one must settle the question as to whether pupil organization should be controlled by the subjectmatter to be taught, or whether the pupil organization should have appropriate influence on the arrangement of materials in the course of study. If the latter alternative is chosen, it becomes necessary to work out quite specifically the principles under- lying the grouping of pupils. Investigators have run into difficulties in attempting to formulate a single basis for grouping pupils, such as intelligence scores. They find, for example, that such scores are not applicable to grouping for the appreciation of music and art. This dif- ficulty suggests that there should be grouping on several different bases. How many we do not know. The kinds of grouping which are found necessary may have a definite bearing upon what is taught in the school, and are related, therefore, to instructional organization. In a somewhat similar way, the principles which operate in organ- izing pupils will have to be considered in planning the administrative organization of the school. A staff must be provided and so organized as to yield the guidance and assistance necessary for each group of pupils. In fact, pupil organization under certain philosophies of educa- tion is the one in terms of which all other phases of school organiza- tion will need to be evaluated. INSTRUCTIONAL ORGANIZATION All matters relating to the arrangement of the materials of instruc- tion and to the assignment of teachers to groups, grades, and subjects are included under instructional organization. Organization of subjectmatter—Traditionally, subjectmatter has been organized by grades, specific topics being assigned for teaching in each grade. The grouping of pupils into grades on the basis of achievement, and the placement of subjectmatter in the course of study according to the difficulty of the topic, were practises which had the merit of consistency. These practises were admirably suited to carry out an educational philosophy of formal discipline, under which the same subjectmatter and the same standards of attainment were used with all pupils. The trend in recent years has been to give fuller recognition to indi- vidual differences in mental ability and interests. This has involved various kinds of adaptation in the course of study, and has meant 260 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS that a rigid grade organization of subjectmatter is not followed. One must, therefore, raise a question as to what kind of organization of instructional material is appropriate and helpful. One approach is to study the differences in children of the same chronological age, and to place instructional materials in accordance with chronological age and in accordance with various levels of ability at each chronological age. Another issue has to do with the arrangement of material from the several subject fields. Is the subjectmatter divided into compartments such as reading, arithmetic, spelling, history, and geography? If so, what provision is made for integrating and coordinating these sepa- rate subjects? If subjectmatter is “fused,” how is it organized? Is the organization appropriate to the objectives of the school? As indicated above, the organization of subjectmatter should be con- sistent with the organization of pupils. It would be inappropriate, for example, to organize subjectmatter by grades only, and then place pupils in grades according to their chronological ages, or group pupils within grades on an ability basis. It would likewise be inappropriate to group pupils by traditional grade standards, and then attempt to introduce some method of adapting instructional materials to varying pupil needs. Assignment of teachers—Various practises are followed in assigning teachers to groups, grades, and subjects, and there is little to guide one in selecting the best procedure. Usually the teacher is assigned to teach all subjects of a grade; sometimes, to teach only certain sub- jects in one or more grades; sometimes to teach all ability levels; and sometimes to teach only one or two such levels. Should the teacher be assigned to a certain section or sections of a course of study, or to a group of pupils who are homogeneous with respect to their educa- tional needs? Should the pupil come in contact with only one teacher, or should every pupil have several teachers? Should the number of teachers with whom the pupil is associated depend upon the ability of the pupil? In part, answers to these questions will depend upon the policies of the school with respect to meeting individual differences in childre For example, the assignment of a teacher to teach history and geography to bright, average, and dull pupils in the seventh and eighth grades would be consistent with certain policies. It would indicate emphasis upon teaching an established body of subjectmatter and a tendency to disregard certain aspects of different pupil needs. It would conform to the traditional idea of a grade as a level of achievement. It might also provide for a limited amount of subject fusion. Or, instead of being assigned to teach certain subjects, a teacher might be given a certain group or groups of pupils. Within limits she might be given freedom APPRAISING SCHOOL ORGANIZATION 261 to select the subjectmatter to be taught. Such a situation would defi- nitely place the emphasis upon individual pupil development; it would encourage, altho not guarantee, greater coordination of subjectmatter ; and it would avoid any tendency to hold up a single standard of achieve- ment for all pupils. There is nothing inherent in subjectmatter to form a sound basis for instructional organization. Such organization, like the grouping of pupils, should grow out of pupil needs. If pupil organization recognizes pupil differences, instructional organization should unquestionably con- form. RECORDS AND REPORTS The effective working of any organization requires an adequate sys- tem of records and reports. This system must be appropriate; that is, it should not include useless records or omit records which will add to the understanding and efficiency of the organization. One of the first questions to be raised in appraising the records and reports of a school organization is whether they deal with pupil status or with pupil progress. If they deal with status only, they are consistent with the old traditional aim of a standardized product. If they deal with progress, they carry out a philosophy of differentiation to meet individual needs. If progress is the essential element of records and reports, they must be cumulative and should contain a large variety of information about the pupil, so stated that it is objective and com- parable from period to period. If the work of the school is limited to academic achievement, records and reports also may well be limited to this phase. But if the school assumes responsibility for the non-academic development of children, the records and reports must contain adequate information about these other phases. Records and reports should also be appraised with reference to their uses. If they serve as credentials for pupils transferring to other schools, the demands of other schools must be kept in mind. If they also serve to guide the principal and teachers in placing pupils in the proper groups and in selecting and organizing subjectmatter, much information of little interest to other schools may properly be included (such as samples of pupils’ work). Records should be valuable both in the placement of pupils in groups, and in the assignment of teachers to teach certain groups or subjects. SUMMARY This discussion has emphasized the idea that the basie consideration in appraising an elementary-school organization is that of consistency. 262 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS It has contended that there is no standard organization which may be considered best, and that what is best under certain circumstances may not be best under different conditions. The different phases of school organization must not only be con- sistent with one another, but must also be appropriate to (1) the educational objectives of the school, and (2) the conditions in the local community. It is, therefore, necessary to ask to what extent each school practise is in accord with these criteria. It is evident that the first, if not the most important, phase of school organization to be appraised is that of pupil organization. The appraisal of other phases, particularly instructional organization, must be made according to the way pupils are grouped within the school. NY PLAN of school organization must embody two rather fundamental principles. These two paramount considera- tions are the welfare of children and administrative feasibility. In school systems in which convenience of administration has been given a place of first importance, the resulting organiza- tion has been characterized in many instances by gross inade- quacies in its provision for the welfare of children. On the other hand, a school which provides in an ideal manner for the educational needs of each of the pupils enrolled therein might prove to be administratively impracticable. The prob- lem of devising a plan of organization which will be feasible from the point of view of administration, supervision, and costs, and which at the same time will make adequate pro- vision for the educational needs of children is not an easy one to solve—Otto, Henry J., Current Practices in the Organiza- tion of Elementary Schools, Northwestern University, 1932, ph. de APPRAISING SCHOOL ORGANIZATION 263 EVALUATING THE TRADITIONAL SYSTEM OF GRADING E. W. Do.tcu Assistant Professor of Education, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois T IS CUSTOMARY to speak of the graded school as a great educational achievement. School buildings are planned to accommodate a se- quence of graded groups. The curriculum is arranged in graded steps. Textbooks are purchased for the different “grades” of children. Finally, examinations are provided so that the children may “ from one grade to the next. Unfortunately this system, now so universally accepted, is very pass” much in need of evaluation. Our system of grading apples, tomatoes, and other commercial products has proved itself valuable because Grade A or Grade C has a definite meaning. In the school the question is whether Grade IV or Grade VI has any such meaning. The assump- tion usually made by administrators, patrons, and children is that a certain level of work is done in Grade III, work of the next higher level in Grade IV, work of a still higher level in Grade V, and so on. This assumption is one which every administrator needs to appraise in the light of cold facts. Some such facts are presented in this article. General method of appraisal—A small school unit recently got a clearer view of its graded system by the simple method of giving the same achievement test to the pupils in Grades III, IV, V, and VI. In facing the results, administrators and teachers did not look at medians or arithmetic averages alone. Of course, successive grades showed successively higher median scores because in each successive grade the children were a year older, on the average. A year’s increase in maturity and experience will produce a higher average achievement for the group in almost any field of work. Instead of considering only averages, therefore, the workers in this system also examined the detailed distributions of test scores. Perhaps the most arresting dis- tribution was that of scores in arithmetic computation, as given in Table 1. Overlapping of grades in arithmetic achievement—Table 1 shows the accomplishment of more than 1200 pupils sitting in rooms labeled Grades III to VI. Arithmetic computation is something which is usually learned in school, if at all. The best computers should there- fore have been in Grade VI, and the poorest in Grade III. To reveal the true situation, horizontal lines have been drawn separating the total number of children into four approximately equal groups, the upper group being the best in computation, the second group the 264 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS next best, the third group still lower, and the fourth group the poorest, Now, if the grade system had been working as it was supposed to work, all members of the highest group in computation would have been in Grade VI. But the table shows that one-fourth of this group were in Grade V. By the same reasoning, the next achievement group should have been found in Grade V, but these children were really sitting in the rooms of three different grades, IV, V, and VI. The third achievement group, instead of being in Grade IV, was scattered in Grades III, IV, V, and VI. The poorest group also was spread over four grades. Apparently the plan of having four different “levels” of work for the different grades does not correspond to the situation existing in this school system. TABLE 1—Grape Location oF Four ACHIEVEMENT Groups IN ARITH METI CoMPUTATION NUMBER OF CHILDREN MAKING SCORES ScORES ON In Eacn GRADE STANDARD TEST = —_—__—_— III IV | V VI ia a (2) @) | (4) (5 PE eo t sO. 3S Vikas ear CR Se 8 I eS co Se ar a rae 4 22 RE EG Gh Std bid bee wah a ee whee | | 45 a ss 5 ht ord ave hark he RO aac 11 58 TS a as ete cr aie ig a aes Si RROiS | 25 54 Rate ESSN Es ee epi tA ts 39 48 ———E ms -_ ans ad tub aelnn tkedie | 35 24 a 4 sco cdi Kr egies & WOR l 51 21 one Sgr RIS See a eos 8 75 16 SE Orr ee eee rer ee 44 28 9 ES ee 14 145 44 6 a os xi Weins a adie dead eee es 64 44 9 2 ce a A de ele alee 36 15 6 3 Sa ay S's ke pce ce we SI Ore 74 26 2 l ET aR. dick ao Kein Oatenla maea 61 22 | l hota rss 6 anc 2 ala wale fine ahaa 40 3 2 REPRE ere eee 18 | EE CIA 2 I ar ete ois JERE eT 7 RRS shete die aca oes a ed lous be bs ale 3 | eres rere 3 Bee sree saeco | | Total number................---. 321 308 | 332 | «318 * hese) | me: Read table: Eight pupils in Grade VI made scores of 110 to 114 on a standard test in arithmete computation; 4 children in Grade V and 22 in Grade VI made scores of 105 to 109; 1 child in Grade V and 45 in Grade VI made scores of 100 to 104; ete. est. to Ave yup yup lly ird in our ork ing metic child Ves a APPRAISING SCHOOL ORGANIZATION 265 Overlapping in reading ability—To change to a quite different field, let us consider the grade situation in reading. Table 2 shows the distribution of scores made by the four different grades on the same reading test. Again horizontal lines have been drawn to divide the total number of pupils into four groups of approximately the same size, ranging from best to poorest. TABLE 2—Grape Location oF Four ACHIEVEMENT Groups IN PARAGRAPH READING NUMBER OF CHILDREN MAKING SCORES SCORES ON IN Eacu GRADE | | | | STANDARD TEAST i a III | IV | V | VI " | } ‘ . . (1) | (2) (3) (4) (5) | SN ECCT ee | | | 1 es cure he ee dw ake eas | 7 SEO et aero rar | | | 4 16 gis oe tc tin on wm esodan’ | | 3 4 28 QB-90.. occ cece cece ccececcecece | 2 | 2 36 Pe Fit es WO. Gene e } ‘S 31 | Sar eer et | © | 52 tS aaa aia Oe: ER: GER oe we kee SS igcaeinnas cve-waaeeoerat 3 18 47 49 Re ee eee 2 | 2% | ~~ 864 25 | ECR re tol. 4.8 32 paar a CER aoe € ng | 2 | o | « 21 es erry ye 57 | 42 ‘| ~ 82 15 ee ee ee eee 28 32 16 3 Be eee OG bias Se. RE | 35 26 aa 3 RN hina quate Pak tials eee | 55 20 «| 7 4 SSIES eae 41 6 6 3 ee Gam it i IM eh Soa 36 7 4 MS och tod bce eh bee 11 3 1 RS abi dsoicily icesiniabanimapeihiln sie | 19 2 | 1 | MEE. 2 5 6.5 iebsa eoala'wacdaatacnaas 6 2 Nc £55. SEO an Pe 2 , Oe an de at los Ba ol 04 2 | Total number................--. | 329 | 310 ‘| 328 #+| 326 | ct | | tead table: One pupil in Grade VI made a score between 115 and 120 on a test of paragraph reading; 7 pupils in Grade VI made scores of 110 to 114; 4 pupils in Grade V and 16 in Grade VI made scores of 105 to 109; ete. Because reading ability is the result of many more factors than is skill in arithmetic computation, we find here a still wider spread in the different achievement groups. The best one-fourth of the readers were spread over three different grades. Each of the other achievement groups was spread over four grades. Surely a system of stepping-up 266 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS for each successive grade the difficulty of textbooks, the amount of reading required, and the requirements for “passing” does not fit the situation as these scores present it. Misleading character of “average” scores—This method of apprais- ing our graded system is not new. Years ago, in the first enthusiasm of the testing movement, it was suggested by Haggerty’ and others, It has been forgotten, apparently, or crowded out of the picture by the widespread practise of judging group achievement in terms of medians or averages. Yet educational statisticians have warned us repeatedly against permitting averages to conceal important facts. The very notion of the “average” of a group suggests that most mem- bers of the group are like the average. We know, however, that the chief characteristic of an unselected group of children is a tremendous diversity of ability and accomplishment. Therefore, to use only an average score in measuring the work of a roomful of children is almost sure to lead to false thinking about them and to unsound planning for them. Under the traditional graded system our plan of instruction is primarily based upon averages. This kind of thinking and planning needs to be checked or appraised in individual schools by the sort of figures given above. Conclusion—It is not within the scope of this brief article to say what should be done when wide variations in ability or accomplish- ment are found in a single classroom, or when great overlapping exists among the pupils of different grades. The appropriate solution will depend in part upon the school’s educational philosophy, local tradi- tions, quality of teaching staff, type of supervision available, and many other factors. It is clear, however, that the traditional system of grading is inade- quate to care for these enormous differences among pupils. The chil- dren in a typical grade group cannot be educated satisfactorily when all are required to use the same textbooks, to submit to the same methods of teaching, to complete the same work in the same period of time, and to pass the same examinations in order to be promoted. Under such a system, those who cannot meet the standards of their grade must undergo the discouraging experience of repeating work in the company of younger and brighter children. Those whose achieve- ment is well above the grade average must either suffer from a lack of sufficient work to keep them busy and interested, or be pushed ahead to grades in which they find it difficult to make happy social and emotional adjustments. 1 Haggerty, M. E. Educational Achievement. Ithaca, N. Y.: Joint Committee on Rural Schools 1922. 223 p. APPRAISING SCHOOL ORGANIZATION 267 Obviously, these conditions do not provide a suitable educational opportunity for every child. Some kind of remedy is possible in every school system, but no remedy is likely to be attempted unless admin- istrators, teachers, and parents understand the problem clearly as it exists in their own schools. NCREASINGLY, the problem of pupil classification must be I attacked through carefully planned experimentation. Too frequently in the past new techniques and practices have been advocated, propagandized, and adopted without adequate trial of their efficacy. New schemes have been adopted and have been followed until they become old schemes without any effort to prove their worthwhileness. If satisfactory solutions of classification practices are to be established on sound founda- tions, changes in current practices should be looked upon as experimental and accepted as standard only after searching tests have demonstrated their worth—Engelhardt, Fred, in The Grouping of Pupils, Thirty-fifth Yearbook, Part I, Na- tional Society for the Study of Education, 1936, Chapter 2, p. 29. (Quoted by permission of the Society.) 268 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS THE INFLUENCE OF GRADING AND PROMOTIONAL POLICIES UPON PUPIL DEVELOPMENT Evucene 8. Farvey * Director, Bucknell University Junior College, Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania HE GRADING SYSTEM of the American public school has contrib. uted much to the development of our educational program. It was an outgrowth of the monitorial system, and was intended to correct the weaknesses of that system and at the same time to retain the economies of group instruction. It served these purposes, and thus made possible the phenomenal development of the American schoo] during the past century. However, altho we are indebted to the graded system for significant progress in the past, we must take care not to retain the system after it has outlived its usefulness. This article reviews several methods of studying the system, and indicates such conclusions as the writer believes to be valid. Variations in achievement within a grade—The graded system attempts to bring together children of approximately the same achievements in each grade. For generations it was assumed that by a process of retardation, promotion, and elimination, a_ high degree of uniformity could be attained. To the uncritical observer there was a semblance of uniformity, but objective studies have clearly demonstrated the great differences existing within each class and each grade.? These studies have not only shown the impossibility of securing uniformity of pupil achievement in several subjects, but they have demonstrated pretty conclusively that with a large group of pupils it is impossible to maintain such uniformity in any single subject. The writer personally has never found within any of the intermediate grades a range of less than four years in the achievement of students in any subject. In most grades the differences are con- siderably more extreme. The difficulty of attaining uniform achievement within a grade was driven home forcibly several years ago in a large city school. The principal of this school had worked for over twenty years to secure the proper grade placement of his pupils. Reading had _ been his particular interest, and he was quite convinced that thru judicious 1 Formerly Director of Research, Public Schools, Newark, New Jersey. 2 See: Van Wagenen, M. J. ‘Grade Placement versus Mental Age as a Factor in School! Achieve ment.”” Nature and Nurture. Twenty-Seventh Yearbook, Part II, National Society for the Stud) of Education. Bloomington, Ill.; Public School Publishing Co., 1928. Chapter 6, p. 113-1! { Skinner, Charles E., and others (editors). Readings in Psychology. New York: Farrar ® Rinehart, 1935. p. 383-86. School surveys and routine test reports of teachers and school research departments present most convineing data on individual differences within classes or grades. See also the article by Dol in this chapter. al Tib- Was 1 to tain thus hool the care This ates stem ame that high rver have class ility but roup ingle ~ the ment con- was The cure » his c]0Us chieve- Stud! 113-19 ar an ent the r Dole! APPRAISING SCHOOL ORGANIZATION 269 retardation and promotion he had attained a considerable degree of homogeneity in reading ability within his grammar grades. To check his convictions he requested a survey of reading achievement in all grades. When the reading tests were given, an amazing discrepancy was revealed. No grade above the third had a range of less than five years 1n reading age, and in the eighth grade the scores ranged from third-grade to twelfth-grade norms. This was the homogeneity in reading ability attained by a careful policy of grading pupils. All pupils in each grade had been expected to read the same books and to profit from the same instruction. This expectation was entirely unreasonable, as the children had little in common so far as reading ability and instructional needs were concerned. The most casual observation of the test results indicated that uniform instruction was impracticable. Some pupils needed instruction in the mechanics of reading, whereas others needed freedom and encouragement to read widely in fields of special interest. Even a careful policy of promotion and retention had failed to eliminate these differences. Futility of premature instruction—Under the rigid grade system, maladjustment often commences when the child enters the first grade. At this point a few children can already read, and some are ready to begin reading, but a great number are not yet sufficiently mature to profit from instruction in this subject. The progressive school recog- nizes this fact and so modifies its program that formal instruction will begin at different times for different children. The school that endeavors to maintain rigid grade standards ignores these differences, and endeavors to teach all first-grade children to read at the same time. Under this plan the more able children are compelled to retard their progress so that they may stay with the remainder of the class, while the slow pupils are forced to grapple with ideas that are beyond their mental depth. For the latter group a period of floundering ensues, during which bad habits and attitudes are very likely to develop. Washburne * has reported that reading instruction is more effective if it is delayed until the child has attained a mental age of six years and six months; yet each year there are hundreds of thousands of children whose formal instruction in reading begins long before they attain this mental maturity. This practise of premature instruction is clung to tenaciously, and is justified by many as the only fair method of providing equal educational opportunities for all children. Such an attitude on the part of many teachers led to a study of reading achievement in relation to mental age in the schools of ee * Morphett, Mabel V., and Washburne, Carleton. ““When Should Children Begin to Read?” Elementary School Journal 31: 496-503; March 1931. 270 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Newark, New Jersey, during 1934. At the end of two years of instrue. tion all children in the experiment were given mental and reading tests The data for approximately 5000 children showed that in general they had not learned to read unless they had attained a mental age of at least six years and six months. Over 95 percent of those with mental ages below this level had not learned to read independently in spite of two years of instruction. The close relationship found betweey mental age and reading ability confirmed the results reported by Washburne and reemphasized the futility of premature instruction, Effect of failure upon attitudes and habits—In the past we have assumed that grade failure was of no serious consequence to the child, and have justified it as a means of maintaining our school organization. Recently, however, numerous studies have shown that such failure is associated with many undesirable qualities in children: In some instances these qualities have apparently been responsible for the scholastic failure, but there is also reason to believe that repeated failure encourages the development of bad attitudes, and ultimately contributes to a breakdown of personality and character, During the child’s early years in school we want him to develop good attitudes toward this institution so that we may work con- structively with him for the rest of his school life. But how can good attitudes toward the school result from the compulsion that a rigid program places upon the child? We force the child to undertake some- thing that is impossible for him, and then we brand him as a failure on his report card and in the eyes of his fellows because he does not achieve the impossible. This experience of failure is repeated again and again until a sense of futility and hopelessness creeps into the child’s consciousness. If he is docile he will bear the ordeal as bes! he can; if he has more spirit he will revolt, and problems of discipline and truancy will increase. Such a revolt is a wholesome sign. It indicates that the child possesses a spark that is worth guiding and developing. Good habits also should be developed during the early school year The child should learn the easiest way to do a thing. He should develop skills in reading and language that will provide a foundation for fv- ture development. Good habits, however, result from many successill performances; they cannot be developed by the repetition of poo! performances. In the development of habits, as in attitudes and ideals, we build toward greater achievements upon the small acco 4See: Farley, Eugene; Frey, Albin J.; and Garland, Gertrude. ‘“‘Factors Related to the Grae Progress of Pupils.” Elementary School Journal 34: 186-93; November 1933. { McElwee, Edna ¥ “4 Study of Truants and Retardation.” Journal of Juvenile Research 15: 209-14; July 1% ¢ A study made by W. Walker Cheyney and Philip A. Boyer and reported in mimeograplhe form. Extracts quoted in Elementary School Journal 33: 647-51; May 1933. as: m: 1¢- sts. ley at tal ite eel by on. ave the 1001 hat en.’ ible that and ter. elop ton- r00d ‘igid yme- ilure ; not gain the best line a. It and eal’. velop r fu ossfull poor and comnl- » Grade dna W ly 198! graphed APPRAISING SCHOOL ORGANIZATION 271 plishments that are behind us. If the child’s basic habits are poor, we have nothing to build upon but a shifting bog, and all future attempts will be futile unless a new foundation of successful performance is constructed. The case of Dorothy—The importance of a good beginning in school is well illustrated by an individual case. Dorothy entered the first grade before she had attained the mental maturity essential to success in reading. Her teacher commenced work in formal reading imme- diately, and for a month or two Dorothy was delighted. She thought she was learning to read. She was encouraged to use the books in the classroom library. Gradually, however, a change became apparent in Dorothy’s attitude. She lost interest in school work. At home she no longer spoke of reading, and she wanted to stay at home whenever possible. This concerned her parents, but it was not until she had been in school for two years that the cause of this changed attitude was discovered. At that time all children in the school were tested in reading, and it was found that Dorothy, with over half of her class, was unable to read satisfactorily. The situation naturally caused some concern, for they were all normal children from good homes, and after two years of instruction should have been reading fluently. All of the deficient children were placed in the care of a special teacher, and were given some remedial work. For six weeks no real progress was made. The children were apathetic and listless. They had no interest in reading. During these weeks, however, the teacher discovered their difficulties. All of them had inadequate sight vocabu- laries. They knew nothing of phonics, and had never been taught to get the meaning of new words from the context of the sentence. They read without comprehension, word by word, and when they met a new word they guessed at it without rhyme or reason. This floundering had gone on for two years. The habits these children had developed were wrong, and before new habits could be developed the old had to be broken down. Once this was understood, the remedial teacher dropped all reference to reading for a week. She did, however, read to them daily in order to arouse their interest, and each day new and fascinat- ing books appeared on the library table. Gradually the children showed some interest in these books, and then the work began. The teacher started at the very beginning in order to develop the right habits. Slowly at first, but with ever increasing rapidity the children developed. At the end of the year their reading ages were equal to their mental ages, on the average, and further improvement seemed assured. A bog of bad habits had, for a time, threatened the success of their school work. Now, three years later, Dorothy and her class- mates read widely and are vitally interested in their school work. 272 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Effect of retardation on pupil personality—Attempts to maintain the graded system by means of retardation arise from an over- emphasis on scholastic work, and from a failure to give proper con- sideration to other phases of pupil development. This practise defeats its own ends. Discouragement is bred and achievement is lowered. Evidence that this is true has been secured from a series of studies during the past seven years. In 1931 and 1932, studies were made in two city schools to discover what factors were associated with grade failure.’ As expected, low scholastic aptitude was found to be the most prominent factor. Further analysis revealed, however, that children of low I. Q. who had repeated several grades were not doing as well in their work as were children of the same ability who had been kept in grades with children of approximately their own age. Apparently the natural weakness of the repeaters had been aggravated by maladjustments in the class- room. Poor ratings in character were also common for children who were retarded in grade placement, and there was a slight tendency for the poor ratings to increase with the amount of retardation. It can be contended, of course, that weak character was the cause of grade failure, and in some cases this was undoubtedly true. There were other cases, however, in which the child’s character had been weakened by constant maladjustment and failure. Such cases merit our serious consideration, for they indicate a failure on the part of the school to meet all of the obligations imposed by compulsory-attendance laws. If we force all children to attend school we must provide a program that is suitable for all. In a special phase of the study dealing with twelve-year-old pupils, disciplinary problems were found to be associated with retardation. Twelve-year-old pupils who had advanced at a normal or accelerated pace seldom caused disciplinary problems. Those who were retarded, on the contrary, caused frequent disturbances. This was possibly due to inward revolt against a situation in which failure was inevitable. It was also found that the truant was generally the dull or slow boy who had failed one or more times to gain promotion. Of approximately 500 truants, 93 percent were retarded, and in most cases the cause of failure was a lack of scholastic ability. The work expected of them was beyond their capacities, and they had suffered the debilitating effects of repeated failure because the school did not provide a pro- gram that was adaptable to their needs. 5 Farley, Eugene; Frey, Albin J.; and Garland, Gertrude, op. cit., p. 186-93. APPRAISING SCHOOL ORGANIZATION 273 The writer does not believe that truancy is inherently evil. It is really an attempt on the part of a child to escape from a situation which is uncongenial and probably harmful to him. The associations that a boy develops while he is truant, and the constant necessity of avoiding school and police authorities, all too frequently lead to serious complications that affect his entire life. It is known that juvenile delinquency is frequently preceded by truancy, which in turn is preceded by maladjustment in the school. Altho other factors than school maladjustment obviously contribute to juvenile delin- quency, the relationship that exists between delinquency and school failure makes imperative a greater recognition of this problem in the school. Effect of retardation on academic achievement—If maladjustment and grade failure create problems of discipline and truancy, it is reasonable to anticipate that they will likewise have an unfortunate effect upon scholastic achievement. This simple assumption is sup- ported by objective data. In one study ° approximately 400 children in Grades II thru V were paired on the basis of achievement, I. Q., and mental age; one of each pair was then promoted and the other retarded. Gains in achievement made by the two groups during one term showed that no real advantage resulted from the policy of retardation. In no grade was there any great difference in the gains of retarded and promoted pupils. While the data were somewhat conflicting, they definitely indicated that retardation for one term had not been a particularly effective means of adapting the work to pupil needs, or of stimulating individual effort. A single failure would not, however, be expected to completely dis- courage the typical child. Most of us are sufficiently resilient to recover from one failure, but not many of us have sufficient recupera- tive powers to recover from constant failure. To check the effect of repeated failure upon scholastic achievement, data concerning the mental maturity, grade progress, and achievement of more than 3000 fifth- and sixth-grade children were studied. Appropriate statistical analysis revealed that the children who had been retarded in their grade progress were not doing school work that was commensurate with their mental abilities. This result indicates that instead of improving the scholastic work of pupils, retardation affects achieve- ment adversely. If this situation prevails in other school systems, it seems essential that the traditional system of grading and promotion be modified or abandoned. We are not justified in continuing a practise that creates maladjustment and hinders child development. ® Farley, Eugene S. ‘Regarding Repeaters.’ Nation's Schools 18: 37-39; October 1936. 274 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Conclusion—Our traditional grade organization was developed during a period when schools were responsible for little more than the three R’s, and when children were not forced by legislation to remain in an environment that was uncongenial to their abilities and interests. Delayed employment and compulsory attendance laws now cause practically all children to attend school for at least eight or ten years. If during these years the pupils are seriously maladjusted scholastically and socially, their fullest development will be hindered and their personalities warped and crippled. It is tremendously im- portant, therefore, that the schools provide a flexible and _ well- rounded program that will contribute to the development of good attitudes and wholesome interests, as well as satisfactory scholastic achievement. This apparently cannot be done within the rigid grade structure found in most schools. It is often easier to criticize school practises than to propose some- thing more worthwhile. Fortunately, ways of eliminating or modifying the graded system have aiready been developed, and are being tried out in many communities. Educators are becoming increasingly aware of the need for adapting instruction to individual needs, and technics for individualizing instruction within the classroom have been devised and are growing in popularity. These newer methods also need care- ful appraisal, but some of them at least give promise of meeting present educational needs better than do our time-honored policies of grading and promotion. UPERVISORY OFFICERS can perform a great service by assisting teachers and parents in clarifying policies with respect to the use of retardation and acceleration. Certainly the process of eliminating retardation is not that of elimination by fiat. It has far-reaching educational implications. The elimination of retardation will come naturally when the advancement of children is sympathetically appraised periodically, and a plan made for each child for the ensuing period based on his needs. —Mort, Paul R., in Personality Adjustment of the Elementary- School Child, Fifteenth Yearbook, Department of Elementary School Principals, 1936, p. 335. APPRAISING SCHOOL ORGANIZATION 275 d EXPERIMENTING WITH A FORM OF DEPARTMENTAL n ORGANIZATION—THE “COOPERATIVE GROUP” , Byron D. Stuart ¥ Principal, Woodrow Wilson and Benjamin Franklin Schools, Westfield, New Jersey n N THE FALL of 1931 the Benjamin Franklin School of Westfield, d New Jersey, embarked upon a form of departmentalized organiza- d tion, sometimes called the “cooperative group plan,”’! in the fifth 4 and sixth grades. For a number of years the school staff had felt the s inadequacy of the traditional one-teacher plan for these grades. In d undertaking a new plan, we did not want to lose the value of close C and continuous relationships between the teacher and her pupils. At eC the same time we wanted to secure certain other advantages for both teacher and pupils which were not being obtained under the traditional ‘ plan. The organization adopted gave promise of meeting these needs, and during the past six years we have had an opportunity to appraise d it in actual practise. e Nature of the new organization—In 1931 the two fifth and two S sixth grades in the Benjamin Franklin School were organized into one d cooperative group. With the increase of classes in these grades we organized three fifth grades into one cooperative group and three B sixth grades into a second group, each group having three teachers. I This arrangement has prevailed for the past four years. The school day is divided into four periods, three of which are one hour and ten minutes in length, while the fourth, a homeroom period, is forty-five minutes long. Each teacher is given responsibility for certain subjects, instead of for all the subjects of the grade. This is not an extreme form of departmentalization; yet it provides for considerable specialization of teaching in the various subjectmatter fields. At the same time, the educational philosophy underlying the cooperative group plan places the needs and interests of the child ahead of cut-and-dried subject- matter. Hence,’ the usual sharp separation of subjectmatter divisions gives way to some extent to units of work, in each of which an effort is made to integrate the various kinds of subjectmatter related to it. How subjectmatter is integrated—Under this plan each teacher contributes to the child’s total development from her specialized knowledge and experience in certain fields. For example, in the fifth grade the group developed a unit of work on Colonial life. The teacher of social studies contributed material on Colonial history, correlating it with the related geographical, civic, and social background. The teacher of language and art activities helped the children to develop ' Hosic, James F., and others. The Cooperative Group Plan for the Organization of Elementary Schools. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1931. 70 p. 276 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS original compositions and to reproduce stories about Colonial life. The children painted pictures, did soap sculpturing, and so forth, of the life and objects of the Colonial period. Likewise, the teacher of music taught the songs and rhythms of Colonial days. Thus the subjectmatter of several fields was integrated into a well-balanced unit, and the pupils thereby gained in understanding of the activities, forces, and problems of Colonial life. Not only the subjects named above, but reading, writing, and spelling also receive considerable emphasis in the development of integrated units. Sometimes even physical education has a natural and logical contribution to make. However, when there are not natural reasons for including material from all required subjectmatter fields in any single unit of work, that which cannot be integrated satisfac- torily is taught separately and in its natural order. Comparing the new plan with the old—To obtain a partial ap- praisal of the cooperative group plan, the pupil achievement of the school using this plan was compared with that of another school under the writer’s supervision which has continued to use the one- teacher-per-grade type of organization. In the following discussion the school having the traditional organization is referred to as School A, and the one using the newer arrangement as School B. School A draws its pupils from a group of well-to-do, middle class American families. There are no colored children in the school, and no children from poor homes. The median I. Q. of this school has been slightly but consistently above that of School B during the period of comparison, with the exception of the school year 1936-37. The pupils of School A are accustomed to good English usage in their homes. Thru conversation, social contacts, and travel they have built up a wealth of information and experience which supplements the work of the school. In School B, 88 percent of the pupils come from essentially the same type of homes as do the children in School A. Of the remaining 12 percent, about one-half are colored boys and girls, while the others belong to the foreign or poorer class of white people. Other significant facts concerning the groups studied—Several other facts are essential to a clear understanding of this study. In the year prior to the inauguration of the new organization in School B, there were no teacher changes in the grades included in the study in either school. Furthermore, the sixth-grade teacher in the traditional school was in charge of her class for the first three full years of the study, and the two fifth-grade teachers in the same school were in their present positions during the entire period covered by the study. How- ever, during the past three years there have been three new teachers ie i mead aoe APPRAISING SCHOOL ORGANIZATION 277 in the sixth grade of this school. The vacancies in this grade were due to resignation for the purpose of marriage, rather than to unsatis- factory work. In the school which used the cooperative-group organization, there was no change of teachers for the first three years of the experiment. This parallels identically the situation in the first school. During the past three years, three changes were made in the fifth and sixth grades of this school, one of which was the addition of a teacher. Here again marriage, not unsatisfactory work, was the reason why the remaining two teachers left the school. Another fact, which for several years was thought to be significant, was that the group of pupils in the cooperative-group organization moved into a fine new elementary-school building the first year of the study. However, two years ago the pupils representing the one- teacher-per-class organization in the study also moved into a new school building, and the change did not affect their comparative standing. Experimental procedure and results—In May 1931, the spring pre- ceding the organization of the cooperative group plan. in School B, the sixth-grade pupils of both schools were given the National In- telligence Tests and the Otis Classification Tests. At that time both schools had the traditional set-up of one teacher per grade. The results of this preliminary testing were as follows: Median superiority in School "7 dian achievement of School A ‘Q. (in school months) f 120 6 B 116 These results are typical of those achieved by the two schools for a period of five years prior to the adoption of the new plan in School B. In fact, on every standardized test given between 1926 and 1931, School A made the higher average score, not only at the end of the sixth grade but generally thruout all the grades. In the fall of 1931, the fifth and sixth grades of School B were or- ganized into a single cooperative group. Table 1 presents the results of intelligence and achievement testing in the sixth grades of the two schools during the subsequent six-year period. The tests used for this comparison were given at the close of the sixth grade, since it was felt that if there were to be any change in the relative standings of the two groups, it would more likely become evident after a two-year period. Thus, in this study we attempted to measure the growth and progress of both groups over the two-year period covered by the new form of organization. The National Intelligence Tests and the Stanford 278 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Achievement Test (Revised) were given from 1931 thru 1935. In 1935-36 the Kuhlmann-Anderson Intelligence Tests and the Metropoli- tan Achievement Tests were given. In 1936-37 the National Intelli- gence Tests and the Stanford Achievement Test (Revised) were used again. All tests were administered about the middle of May in each year, except the year 1937, when the tests were given late in February. From Table 1 it is evident that the sixth grade of School B showed a gradual increase in pupil achievement as compared with the sixth grade of School A until the year 1935-36, when the difference in terms of months declined to approximately the 1933-34 level. The unusual superiority of School B in 1934-35 may have been due partly to the fact that the cooperative group in that year had a higher median in- telligence than in either 1933-34 or 1935-36. In addition to the general achievement tests mentioned above, other standardized tests in specific subjects have been administered during the period of this study, and all the results point essentially to the same conclusion. For example, let us consider the field of reading. From 1926 until 1931 the various forms of the Gates Reading Tests were used to measure progress in reading. During this period the pupils of School A always ranked considerably higher than those of School B. In 1933- TABLE 1—Averace INTELLIGENCE AND ACHIEVEMENT OF SIXTH-GRADE PUPILS UNDER Two Types or CLAass ORGANIZATION ‘ | MEDIAN SUPERIORITY IN YEAR | Scuoo. | MEDIAN ACHIEVEMENT OF ScHoot B | 1. Q. (IN SCHOOL MONTHS) : (1) “tg | (3) | (4) | ee ete ie 10 | | B” | 107 | 0 | | | EO PORES Fone See A 122.5 | B 121 | l Ne: Se er ee ee ee A 114 B 110 5 | Boo, sitet e vox cant , 1s | 3 | B 117.5 8 A i: fk 112 ws B 110 4 ES eek . ewe ee aadies A 113 : | B 123 6 | Read table: In 1931-32 the median I.Q.’s in the sixth grades of the two schools were 110 and 107, respectively, while there was no difference in their median achievement. Similarly read data for other years. "In School A each grade group had one teacher only. >In School B the fifth and sixth grades were combined in a single cooperative group with several teachers. APPRAISING SCHOOL ORGANIZATION ——$- 34, however, one teacher was given the definite assignment of study- ing the reading situation in the fifth and sixth grades of School B. She inaugurated a comprehensive program of reading instruction in these l grades, utilizing the best methods available, while the corresponding grades in School A continued with their traditional programs in this field. The Metropolitan Advanced Reading Tests were used to check | the results in both schools. These results indicated that the pupils of School B (the cooperative group) surpassed those of School A by eight school months in 1934-35, and by ten months in 1935-36. Conclusion—From the results of our appraisal thus far, it appears that teachers who are permitted to specialize in certain areas of sub- jectmatter in the fifth and sixth grades are able to teach this subject- matter more effectively. It is unwise, however, to generalize too freely on the basis of a single experiment like this one. Other school systems might obtain quite different results. Every school or school system should undertake to appraise its own policies and procedures, rather than depend upon the findings of investigators in other localities. ) Another point to be kept in mind is that the achievement tests used ) in this experiment were limited to the ordinary subjects of the cur- riculum. No objective measure of the personality growth and adjust- ment of children was obtained. General observation, however, leads the writer to believe that the new organization sacrifices little if any of the close teacher-pupil relationship which characterizes the tradi- tional organization. Under the new plan the homeroom teacher has her pupils for one hour and ten minutes each morning, and for three-quar- ters of an hour near the end of the school day. She is interested in them as individuals and helps them with their personal problems. In fact, the relationship is most intimate and wholesome, and all pupils have an opportunity to profit from contact with three different teachers in- stead of being confined to the influence of only one. The children generally have expressed themselves both orally and by secret ballot as preferring the cooperative-group type of organiza- tion. When all the classes of the group were given the opportunity to express their choice without signing their names, they still unanimously preferred the new plan. They were also asked to give reasons for their answers. The replies, in their understanding of the needs and interests of children, would have done credit to a professor of education. These conclusions have been reached and presented in a spirit of re- search and experimentation, and not in an attempt to prove that the co- operative-group organization will secure the same results in any other : | situation. It is clear that further appraisal of this plan is needed. It is possible that the results of such appraisal may vary from teacher to teacher and from school to school, 280 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS IS THE PLATOON SCHOOL PROVING ITS WORTH? J. C. YUNKER Principal, Harding School, Portsmouth, Ohio HANGE is a characteristic of all modern life, and education can be no exception. Readjustments and improvements in the schools are necessary to keep pace with the changing social scene. Old and well-established types of organization and method must yield even- tually to those that are in accord with present needs. The platoon school represents an attempt to meet the present needs of children better than does the traditional school organization. Like other in- novations in education, however, the platoon organization must prove its worth if it is to receive the general approval of school people and patrons. The platoon organization was introduced in Portsmouth, Ohio, in 1930, when four new elementary schools were opened for use. These schools had been especially built to accommodate the platoon organi- zation, and the new physical arrangements were accompanied by appropriate changes in the organization and procedure of the school staff. This article describes an attempt to appraise these newer schools by comparing their product with that of the traditional schools in the same city. Questions raised about the platoon school—Most educators and many parents realize that the platoon schools, with their gymnasiums, play- rooms, auditoriums, libraries, and other modern features, provide many worthwhile experiences for children. Nevertheless, some feel that the very presence of so many attractive features may result in a negleet of those more formal aspects of instruction which have long been con- sidered fundamental in education. Parents have often asked the writer if he did not think there was too much “foolishness” in the platoon school. Occasionally teachers in the traditional schools have said that pupils transferring to their schools from the platoon schools were unable to do the work required. Thus, parents and teachers alike have questioned the effectiveness with which the platoon schools in Ports- mouth were educating the children who entered their doors. The fol- lowing are typical of the questions asked: 1. Is the platoon school producing satisfactory results in the three R’s? 2. Does the child’s increased interest in the newer activities result in diminished interest and effort in the fundamentals? Or does the added emotional stimulus which he receives in the auditorium, gymnasium, and library carry over and pro duce greater enthusiasm and effort in all his work? 3. Are the pupils in the platoon organization progressing thru school in a sat factory manner? 1 be ools Old en- oon ren in- ‘ove and , in 1ese Ani- by 1001 ols the any ay- ride hat lect on- iter oon aid ere hed lus pro- itis APPRAISING SCHOOL ORGANIZATION 281 — Another question, seldom raised but equally appropriate, is whether the traditional organization, if thoroly renovated and furnished with the best available curriculum content, teaching methods, and teaching skill, might not be just as effective as the platoon school in attaining modern educational objectives. This question is more difficult to answer than the others, and no adequate evidence on it is presented here. A conclusive answer could be obtained only by comparing the best pos- sible platoon school with the best possible school operating under the traditional organization. It is possible, however, to obtain reasonably satisfactory evidence on the other questions raised above. Realizing that they are legitimate inquiries and should be answered objectively and impartially, the school administration in Portsmouth has twice undertaken to compare the results of instruction in the two types of schools. The first study was made in 1934, and the second in 1936. The 1934 study—In 1934 the Otis Classification Test! was given to nearly 600 pupils in the twelve traditional and four platoon schools. All of these pupils had been in school since 1930, the year in which the platoon schools were first opened. The Otis test was used because of its satisfactory reliability and validity, and also because it tests general intelligence as well as achievement in practically all branches of learn- ing in the elementary school. It was necessary to have a measure of the pupils’ intelligence because of obvious differences in the types of neigh- borhood from which the various schools drew their pupils. Moreover, the norms for the achievement test and the mental ability test in the Otis battery are based on the same groups of children, and therefore permit comparisons that are not subject to the errors arising when tests of achievement and of mental ability are separately standardized. From the raw scores made by the pupils on these tests, several derived scores were computed, including (1) the I.Q., or intelligence quotient; (2) the E.Q., or educational quotient; and (3) the A.R., or accom- plishment ratio. The familiar I.Q., indicating the relative brightness of the pupil, is the ratio of his mental age to his chronological age. The E.Q., which measures the pupil’s educational achievement in rela- tion to the average achievement of pupils his own age, is the ratio of his educational age to his chronological age. The A.R., a measure of achievement in relation to mental ability, is the ratio of a pupil’s educational age to his mental age. The normal value for each of these measures is 100. Table 1 compares the platoon and non-platoon groups with respect to their median I1.Q.’s, E.Q.’s, and A.R.’s. The comparison reveals 1 Published by the World Book Co., Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York. 282 ELEMENTARY ScHOOL PRINCIPALS TABLE 1—Meptan ACHIEVEMENTS OF PUPILS IN ALL PLATOON AND ALL Non- PLATOON SCHOOLS, 1934 TYPE OF NUMBER OF INTELLIGENCE EDUCATIONAL ACCOMPLISHMENT ScHoou Pupits IncLupDED | Quotient (I. Q.) | Quotient (E. Q.) Ratio (A. R.) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Platoon (4 schools)... . 135 98.6 96.3 99.3 Non-platoon (12 schools)... 455 88.7 88.2 99.3 Difference in me- dian perform- REESE TE ae 9.9 8.1 0.0 Read table: The median intelligence quotient of the 135 pupils in the four platoon schools was 98.6, while that of the 455 pupils in the twelve non-platoon schools was 88.7; the difference in median 1.Q.’s was 9.9 in favor of the platoon-school group. Similarly read figures for the educational quotients and accomplishment ratios in columns 4 and 5. that the platoon group exceeded the non-platoon group by 9.9 points in median I.Q., and by 8.1 points in median E.Q., but that the median A.R.’s of the two groups were identical. The higher median E.Q. of the platoon group was undoubtedly due mainly to the superior intelli- gence of that group. The fact that both groups had the same median A.R. indicates that in relation to their intelligence, neither group sur- passed the other in school achievement as measured by the Otis test. TABLE 2—Mepian ACHIEVEMENTS OF PUPILS IN PLATOON AND NON-PLATOON ScHoo.ts LocATED IN THE SAME Parts OF THE Clty, 1934 | NUMBER OF INTELLIGENCE EDUCATIONAL | ACCOMPLISH- LocaTIon AND | PuPILs QUOTIENT QUOTIENT MENT Ratio Type or SCHOOL INCLUDED (I. Q.) (E. Q.) | (A. R.) (1) | (2) (3) (4) | (5) sill a | +e ee Pe ee East section: Platoon (1 school)... .. 48 93.2 92.5 98 .3 Non-platoon (2 schools) 72 83.0 82.5 | 100.5 West section: Platoon (1 school)... .. 32 87.6 88.8 | 102.8 Non-platoon (1 school) . 31 85.1 84.4 99.6 North section: | Platoon (1 school)... .. 18 114.0 116.2 99.0 Non-platoon (1 school) . 40 116.0 117.0 98.5 River section: Platoon (1 school)... .. 37 96.0 96.8 | 100.8 Non-platoon (1 school) . 64 80.0 75.6 | 99.7 | Read table: In the east section of the city the median intelligence quotient of the platoon group was 93.2, while that of the non-platoon group was 83.0. Similarly read figures for the educational quotients and accomplishment ratios, and for the other three sections. bec gen wit tha pla of no! Hale: 0ls nee the APPRAISING SCHOOL ORGANIZATION 283 _—_—_—_————— — a In view of obvious differences in the neighborhood environment and home life of different sections of the city, comparisons were made between platoon and non-platoon schools in each of four sections. The results are Shown in Table 2. In three sections of the city the median £.Q.’s of the platoon groups were substantially higher than those of the non-platoon groups, while in the fourth section there was no appre- ciable difference. When we consider the median achievements of these groups in relation to their mental abilities, however, the superiority of the platoon groups is much less marked. Of the three sections in which the platoon groups had the higher A.R.’s, only one showed a difference as large as 3 points. In the other section the median A.R. of the non- platoon group exceeded that of the platoon group by 2.2 points. Altho these data indicate no clear margin of superiority for either type of school, they show that in general the platoon-school pupils were mak- ing at least as good progress as were the pupils in traditional schools. The 1936 study—Two years later another comparison of the two types of schools was made on a somewhat different basis. In this study two groups of pupils were selected—one in a platoon school and the other in a traditional school—in each of the four sections of the city having both types of schools. The groups in each section were chosen so that their median I.Q.’s were approximately equal, and they were limited to pupils in the ninth month of the sixth grade who had at- tended either the one or the other type of school exclusively. The pupils thus selected were brought together in the four sections of the city, and were given the Modern School Achievement Tests." These tests were used because of their comparatively recent develop- ment, their satisfactory validity and reliability, their carefully con- structed grade and age norms, and their provision for separate scores in each school subject as well as in general achievement. When the tests had been given and scored, the raw scores in each subject and on the test as a whole were expressed as grade scores indicating levels of achievement in school years and months. Educational quotients (E.Q.’s) were also computed. It was not necessary to compute A.R.’s because the groups had already been equated with respect to intelli- gence, Table 3 compares the combined group of 83 platoon-school pupils with the combined group of 85 pupils in traditional schools. It shows that the median E.Q. of the platoon group exceeded that of the non- platoon group by 0.5 of a point, and that the general achievement level of the former exceeded that of the latter by one school month. The hon-platoon group showed superiority in only one school subject, lan- guage usage, altho it equaled the platoon group in geography, read- Seta eeiatietteeet, *Published by the Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University. 284 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS ing speed, and spelling. In the other six subjects the platoon group gyp. passed the traditional group by from two to seven months. These find. ings support the conclusion of the earlier study that the platog schools of Portsmouth were doing at least as well as the traditiong| schools in teaching children the type of material included in stand. ardized tests. Conclusion—Altho these studies indicate that the measurable achievement of pupils in the platoon schools was at least as high as tha in the non-platoon schools, they do not show conclusively that eithe type of school organization is superior to the other. Several factor not taken into account in the foregoing comparisons may have affected pupil progress as much or more than the school organization itself Among the most important of these factors are the relative abilities TABLE 3—Mepian ACHIEVEMENT OF SrxtTH-GraDE Pupits IN PLATOON AND Noy. PLATOON ScHOOLs, 1936 PLATOON Non-P.atoon Types or MEASURES ScHOOLS SCHOOLS (1) (2) (3) I Soo. a. 5 sale Parad betas Ge se ae Ral 83 | 85 ee pice a av 100.9 | 101.0 ia is gaara me heen lai 103.3 102.8 Median grade scores (in school years and months): General achievement.....................- 6.7 | 6.6 Reading comprehension................... 7.8 7.3 RE Sa “atte I nee Se 7.0 7.0 Arithmetic computation................... 7.0 6.3 A I scsi sows Sd aie cen vies 6.5 6.3 i a ats ise Sota er ara Ie apa Takeo 6 ue, ga 6.7 6.7 BE III. ives ok vc ccecncuwwewe ce 6.6 6.3 PN, « atags ocd web's Vike ced ba we’ 6.3 6.5 EE PE TET re 6.4 6.1 EE sented deen hetenernena dinate 6.8 6.8 YT SND. s 6.6 nnscasunvencsecencan 6.4 6.2 Read table: The 83 pupils in the platoon schools had a median 1.Q. of 100.9, while the § pupils in non-platoon schools had a median I.Q. of 101.0. Similarly read figures for the othe measures listed in column 1. of the teachers, the types of teaching methods employed, and the con- tent of the curriculum in the different schools. Poor teaching can nu- lify the advantages of the best school organization, while good teach- ing can do much to overcome the defects of an inferior organization. Subsequent attempts to appraise different types of organization shoull include the careful control of these other factors so far as possible. It should be borne in mind also that a number of desirable lear ings are not measured by available tests. Among these are the skills habits, and attitudes resulting from organized play; the developmen! of exp effe abi ti01 thi me SIV att APPRAISING SCHOOL ORGANIZATION 285 p sur. f of initiative, originality, and other personality traits; the ability to find. | express oneself easily before a group; and the ability to use a library too | effectively. Many educators contend that such habits, attitudes, and tiona] | abilities are more readily developed thru the platoon-school organiza- tand. | tion than thru the traditional organization. Conclusive evidence on this point is not now available. It can be obtained only by the develop- irable | ment and use of new measuring instruments, and by more comprehen- s that | sive and refined methods of investigation than have yet been used to either | attack the problem. actors ‘ected itself, ilities Noy- jake Tis much more difficult to reduce a learning situation to a roox l single variable than to achieve similar control in the chem- ts istry laboratory, where one deals with inanimate materials, or ua even in the biological laboratory, where one can keep the white rats caged from birth and can even control their ancestry. It really is possible only to approximate this type of control in | a situation involving human learning. Probably the _ best method of overcoming the difficulty is to conduct the experi- ment over an area so extensive or a population so great that the large number of individuals involved will tend to equal- ize the groups on all factors except the experimental one. For example, the effect of kindergarten training on the child’s sub- sequent school career has been studied by comparing the school records of many children in several cities having kindergartens with those of children in cities not having kindergartens. Simi- larly, the writer compared the effectiveness of the junior high eait school with that of the conventional seventh- and eighth-grade - other organization by studying all the pupils in both types of school in a large city——Smith, Harry P., p. 250 of this yearbook. con- nul- ach- tion. ould arn- cills, nent 286 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS CRITERIA FOR GROUPING PUPILS WITHIN GRADES Frep B. PAINTER Principal, East District Elementary Schools, Ithaca, New York HE PRINCIPLE Of individual variation is receiving more and mop recognition in the program of the elementary school. Rath than requiring every pupil to follow the same rigid outlix regardless of his health, educational background, and innate ability an attempt is being made to diagnose the needs of each child ap then to give him an educational experience designed to fill his par. ticular need. In attempting to meet the individual and collectiy needs of pupils, many schemes or plans of instruction have be developed, their details varying as widely as the situations in whie they were originated. In some schools a complete individualization | instruction may be the best method of meeting the needs of tly individual pupil. In a school where there are many teachers for eae grade, the sectioning of pupils into homogeneous groups may be th answer. In still another situation effective results may be obtained }y a combination of the individual and group plans. The purpose of this article is neither to describe nor to justify any particular plan | grouping pupils, but to set up criteria by which we may evaluate th effectiveness of such a plan. A list of the proposed criteria is pre sented first, and then each one is discussed briefly in turn. 1. Are pupils grouped on the basis of actual needs? 2. Do the needs on which groupings are based lend themselves to treatment separate groups? 3. Are the child’s greatest needs given precedence, even if they cannot be mm thru the group arrangement? 4. Does the instruction provided for each group satisfy the need for which t! grouping was made? 5. Is provision made for shifting children from one group to another as need are satisfied or as they change in relative importance? 6. Do all pupils receive adequate recognition and encouragement for any spe cial abilities which they may have? 7. Is there a socializing program which frequently brings the children from educational levels together in cooperative enterprises? Are pupils grouped on the basis of actual needs?—It cannot bi assumed, for example, that all pupils with intelligence quotient ranging from 80 to 90 have similar needs, any more than we can s# that all people with temperatures of 105 degrees should be given tht same medicine. We now know that not all poor readers encounter th same difficulties. One child may have difficulty in learning to rea because of poor eyesight, another because of a very barren languag background, and vet another because he has never been taught use reading as a thought-getting process. Reading is not one skill bit ES d mon Rather utline Ability ld an IS par. leetivs e bee which § tion 0 of the r eal be thi ned by of this lan oi ite the iS pre- ment i be met ich the S needs Ny spe- rom al rot be otients An say en the er the ) read ouage Be cht ti ill bu & APPRAISING SCHOOL ORGANIZATION 287 a combination of many specific skills. Unless the children are grouped on the basis of an actual need, little benefit can be expected from grouping except that which may be derived by reducing the number of pupils to be taught at any one time. Do the needs on which groupings are based lend themselves to treat- ment in separate groups?—To cite an extreme example, there might be five boys in a grade who were given to stealing, but it is very unlikely that these boys would benefit from an attempt to retrain them in a group by themselves. In fact, if each of them could be placed in a group of children who had no such weakness, there would be a better chance of effecting a cure than if the five wayward boys were herded together. This same principle seems to hold true in teach- ing most of the broader aspects of citizenship. We can analyze a skill into its elements and teach it part by part; we can do the same with a poem or other bits of subjectmatter; but as yet no standardized technics have been established for the teaching of habits, attitudes, and appreciations. These qualities are caught so much more often than they are taught, that it might be advisable to have parts of our program in which heterogeneity rather than homogeneity of needs should be the basis of selecting pupil groups. Are the child’s greatest needs given precedence, even if they cannot be met thru the group arrangement?—For example, a serious visual dificulty is of much more concern than the resulting inability to read. A nervous disorder may often be the cause of slow achievement. A child must be able to speak the vernacular before he can be expected to read it, write it, or spell it. One must first learn how to read before he ean solve written problems in arithmetic. It is often possible to care for all of a child’s serious needs by means of a grouping arrange- ment that is somewhat flexible. However, if this is not possible, matters of first importance should receive first attention, even if they must be cared for on an individual basis. Does the instruction provided for each group satisfy the need for which the grouping was made?—Again we hark back to one of the basic truths underlying this discussion, namely, that there is no value in the grouping of pupils per se. Even if all the foregoing criteria have been fulfilled, there is no advantage in arranging different groups unless the teacher of any given group understands the children and their problems well enough to do a better job of teaching them than if the grouping had not been made. Unless the instructional materials, the curriculum, the classroom environment, and the methods of in- struction are all bent to meet the situation at hand, the grouping of pupils is wasted effort. 28s ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Is provision made for shifting children from one group to another as needs are satisfied or as they change in relative importance?—l{ the group arrangement does not tend to correct the difficulties whieh it was designed to meet, there is no use in having the groups. We must recognize any beneficial results of grouping by removing the children from any given group as soon as the reason for their segregation ceases to exist. Otherwise, the whole situation will soon become as static as that of the fixed curriculum with its attendant methods of mass instruction. This is perhaps one of the most objective measures that a busy supervisor has for evaluating the effectiveness of his scheme of grouping. If there is no turnover in the various groups, pathological conditions are not being remedied. If these pupil needs are not being satisfied, any possible value of the plan is lost. Do all pupils receive adequate recognition and encouragement for any special abilities which they may have?—There is great danger in recognizing only the pathological aspects of a child’s educational development. When this is done, the plan of grouping becomes a negative influence only. Those pupils who read two or three books per week are certainly just as deserving of special recognition as are the children who do not read anything. The boy who has a reading defect but who is clever at art and music should not only receive remedial attention in his reading, but should have some recognition of his special abilities as well. Is there a socializing program which frequently brings the children from all educational levels together in cooperative enterprises?—As already indicated, plans for the homogeneous grouping of pupils have had their greatest success in the teaching of knowledge and_ skill subjects. If the school program is to be well balanced and is to teach: the social aspects of the curriculum, it must give the pupil broad social experiences. Children from wealthy homes can appreciate poverty only thru their contacts with poor children. The production of a play requires stage hands as well as actors. One who has always led sheep cannot be expected to lead asses. The psychologists tell us that there is transfer of training only so far as there are elements of similarity between the learning situation and the situation in which the response is to function. If the skills or facts which are learned in the narrow environment of the small group are to function in life, the learner must have an opportunity to use them in a lifelike situation. Conclusion—The criteria presented here were developed in a situa- tion where the school enrolments are too small to require more than one teacher for each grade. The number of children in each grade varies from 20 to 35, with most grades falling below 30. The group method of instruction is used in all grades, altho there is great flexi- APPRAISING SCHOOL ORGANIZATION 289 bility in its administration. It is believed, however, that these criteria are valid for general use, irrespective of the number of teachers available or the type of instruction employed. While they have not been standardized to the point where a given number of affirmative answers indicates a certain percentile rank, they should serve to stimulate the critical principal or supervisor who wishes to evaluate the plan of grouping used within his school. F WE ARE SERIOUS in a desire to interpret democracy in I present-day terms, education must offer not the same pro- gram to all, but an equal opportunity for all varieties of inter- ests and abilities to find and develop their potentialities. This interpretation does not imply that the school should decide the destination of pupils; it is the responsibility of the pupil to find his place under guidance in a wide variety of offerings. The school must help all levels to work together harmoniously, realizing that each level and each individual is but part of a great social organization. Groups so organized that pupils can work together within them, and at the same time develop the techniques of group interaction, can have a definite part in building up this kind of democratic social order.—Coxe, War- ren W., in The Grouping of Pupils, Thirty-fifth Yearbook, Part I, National Society for the Study of Education, 1936, Chapter 1, p. 14. (Quoted by permission of the Society.) 290 ELEMENTARY ScHooL PRINCIPALS R: 2. “J 10. 11. 13. 14. 15. 17. 18. 19. LS SELECTED REFERENCES Case, Roscor D. The Platoon School in America. Stanford University, Calif,: Stanford University Press, 1931. 283 p. Dovauerty, J. H.; Gorman, F. H.; and Puituirs, C. A. Elementary School Organization and Management. New York: Macmillan Co., 1936. 453 p, . Eastsurn, L. A. “Relative Efficiency of Instruction in Large and Small Classes on Three Ability Levels.” Journal of Experimental Education 5: 17-22: September 1936. . Gans, Roma. “Evaluation of the Work of the New School.” Education 55: 530- 34; May 1935. . GerBericH, J. R., and Prauy, C. E. “Departmental Organization versus Tra- ditional Organization in the Intermediate Grades.” Elementary School Journal 31: 671-77; May 1931. . Hann, H. C., and Smiru, J. W. “Effectiveness of Instruction in a Class Group of One Hundred Pupils.” School Review 42: 751-54; December 1934. . Kerner, Auice V. A Critical Study of Homogeneous Grouping. Contributions to Education, No. 452. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1931. 165 p. . Kirsy, Byron C. An Evaluation of the Platoon School. Doctor's thesis. Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame, 1932. 149 p. . Lurz, C. D. “Pupil Achievement in Piatoon and Non-Platoon Schools.” Platoon School 9: 9-69; September 1935. Mort, Paut R., and Hitiepor, G. L. Rating Scale for Elementary School Organization. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1930 47 p. NationaL Soctery ror THe Stupy or Epucation. The Grouping of Pupils. Thirty-fifth Yearbook, Part I. Bloomington, IIl.: Public School Publish- ing Co., 1936. Section 5, “Evaluation of Ability Grouping,” p. 276-304. . Orro, Henry J. Current Practices in the Organization of the Elementary School. Evanston, IIl.: Northwestern University, School of Education, 1932. 118 p. Orro, Henry J. Elementary School Organization and Administration. New York: D. Appleton-Century Co., 1934. Chapters 4 and 7; p. 114-53, 272-316. Prerce, Paut R.; Boumerer, Epwarp C.; and Rvusseiti, Jonn D. “Internal Organization of School Divisions.” Review of Educational Research 4: 382-403, 437-40; October 1934. Reavis, Wii141aM C. “Methods of Research in School Organization.” Review of Educational Research 4: 21-28, 110-11; February 1934. . Smiru, Harry P. “The Relative Efficiency of the Junior High School vs. the Conventional 8-Grade Type of School.” Journal of Educational Research 29: 276-80; December 1935. Ty.er, Ratpu W. “Appraising Progressive Schools.” Educational Method 13: 412-15; May 1936. Wappe.., Cuartes W. “Some Basic Considerations in Evaluating the Activity School.” Educational Administration and Supervision 16: 481-94; October 1930. West, Pari. A Study of Ability Grouping in the Elementary School. Contri- butions to Education, No. 588. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1933. 70 p. . Wricutstone, J. Wayne. Appraisal of Newer Practices in Selected Public Schools. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1935. 117 p. 30- ra- ool up ns tre on ool 130. ils, sh- vl. 3 p. ew 316. nal 4: » of the rch 15: CHAPTER III APPRAISING ADMINISTRATIVE AND SUPER- VISORY PROCEDURES EDITORIAL COMMENT IKE SCHOOL ORGANIZATION, administrative and supervisory proce- dures cannot be evaluated adequately by means of objective technics alone. It is necessary to resort to subjective judgment based on the goals to be achieved, the history of various ways of admin- istering and supervising a school, and the reactions of teachers, pupils, and parents to the methods used locally. This informal type of appraisal may be supplemented by the study of pupil performance on school tests, pupil and teacher participation in school activities, and other concrete evidence of school progress. Comprehensive and well-kept records and reports are important sources of such evidence. Back of these records and reports are the tests, rating scales, checklists, and other devices used to obtain pertinent information systematically. With the aid of such tools, the appraisal of administration and supervision can proceed far beyond mere guesswork or blind adherence to tradition. The six articles in this chapter do not purport to cover the entire field of administration and supervision; they represent attempts to evaluate only a few typical phases of this field. The opening discussion, by Kumpf and Kumpf, is a quite informal but illuminating appraisal of teacher participation in several administrative activities. The two articles which follow are concerned with objective methods of studying pupil success and failure. Partington reports a study of the relation between the ages of pupils upon entering the first grade and their later success in the elementary school. Jacob tells of a survey in his school to ascertain where and why failing marks were given to pupils, who gave them, when they were given and in what subjects, and how many pupils were not promoted at the end of the year. A simple but rather carefully controlled experiment with various methods of school publicity is described by Crawford and Haines. Cobb’s article reports a county superintendent’s evaluation of informal notes to parents as a substitute for formal report cards. Cummings closes the chapter with an appraisal of a program for determining the reading readiness and visual capacity of children in the first six grades of a small city school system. Other discussions and illustrations of evaluation in the field of school administration and supervision may be found in the references listed on page 321.—Editorial Committee. [ 291 ] 292 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS THE VALUES OF COOPERATIVE ADMINISTRATION Cart H. Kumpr Principal, Eggertsville School, Eggertsville, New York and CeciLe LaFouitette Kumpr New College, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, New York pupil participation in school administration. No school can honestly pretend to espouse a doctrine of democracy unless those administered have a voice in determining the rules or proce- dures under which they work. The democratic ideal does not sanction the arbitrary imposition of the principal’s will upon the members of his staff. Neither does it permit each member to go his own way without considering the views of his fellows as to the proper aims and procedures of the school as a whole. In the Eggertsville School an attempt is made to carry out these ideals of democratic supervision in actual practise. Teacher participation in the administration of the school is not merely allowed; it is sought. Such questions as the types of report cards to be used, the kind and extent of extracurricular activities to be carried on, and the most advantageous use of the noon hour are presented to teachers for analytical discussion and subsequent recommendations. Teacher initiative is encouraged on all sides. Electoral principles predominate where formerly the rule-of-thumb was common. Such freedom may be dangerous unless the principal conceives of leader- ship as a process of focusing the best thought of himself and his colleagues upon a common problem, and of organizing the results of this united deliberation into an accepted program of action. Under this type of leadership, however, teachers do more than is asked of them; they volunteer for administrative duties. We have found that teachers can and will assume an active, intelligent, and responsible interest in the pupil personnel of the school. Too much cannot be said of the increased willingness, the closer cooperation, the deeper insight, and higher ideals of teachers when working under shared administra- tion. This article discusses certain phases of teacher participation in the Eggertsville School, and then reviews the available evidence of its value in promoting an effective educational program. Fields of teacher participation—In every school there is a multitude of services which must be the concern of someone. These are not limited to routine matters, but include those that are creatively pro- T= ESSENTIAL ELEMENT of democracy in education is teacher and APPRAISING ADMINISTRATIVE PROCEDURES 293 gressive in nature as well. Obviously these services have to be per- formed by the principal or else omitted, delegated, or shared. The sharing seems to be accomplished best thru volunteer service because this capitalizes on the special interests of individual teachers. In the Eggertsville School each teacher volunteers for one or more adminis- trative duties. The principal acts as an assistant to the teacher in her choice, rather than remaining the director and asking the teacher to be his assistant. One such field of service is “science.” Selection of this field implies that the teacher has a special interest in elementary science. She checks all available professional literature on the subject, accumulates or notes sources of visual aids, acts as a clearing-house for science materials and information, attends the science sections of teachers conventions and other science meetings, reports her findings to the staff, advises with other teachers regarding the content and methods of science teaching, occasionally teaches a demonstration lesson in science, sponsors the science club of the school, and in general, keeps the other teachers in touch with current trends in the teaching of elementary science. Other fields chosen include “social studies,” “visual education,” “assembly programs,” “library,” “club program,” “unit planning,” “professional literature,” “faculty socials,” “athletics,” “faculty room,” “costumes and dramaties,” “special pro- grams,” and others. Report-card revision—A good example of teacher participation occurred in connection with the revision of report cards. A few teach- ers suggested that character development deserved a more prominent place in the records, and that the traditional school marks were outmoded. As a result, a whole year of research was devoted to the problem by the faculty working together and in separate committees. New report cards were developed which emphasize character and citizenship rather than scholastic achievement, and which direct attention to self-improvement rather than to the comparative ratings of different pupils. The teachers helped to bring the new cards to the attention of the community by means of a panel discussion at the last parent-teacher meeting of the year. The parents heartily accepted the revised system of reporting. Without teacher and parent coopera- tion the effort expended by the teachers would no doubt have been wasted. Thus, teachers have a share in planning the affairs of the school, in carrying out these plans, and in assuming responsibility for the outcomes. An outgrowth of this cooperation is that teachers share also in interpreting the school to the community.’ 1For further description of the method used to acquaint parents with the advantages of the new report cards, see: ‘A Method of Securing Community Approval of New-type Report Cards.” Elementary School Journal 36: 488-89; March 1936. 294 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Improved noon-hour schedule—A change in method of utilizing the noon hour will serve as another example of cooperative administration. A teacher pointed out to the staff that the administration of the noon hour could be improved. Subsequent study of the matter led the teachers to formulate an improved schedule, which provided for a lunch period, a rest period, and a play period—all under teacher supervision. The fact that the change had been recommended by the group made all the teachers willing to try the new plan. The task of obtaining public support for the plan was accomplished thru a tea for the parents, at which the principal explained its advantages and disadvantages. In spite of great inconvenience to a few parents, the new schedule was inaugurated with almost unanimous parental con- sent. Again the outcome would have been doubtful without a sharing of responsibility. Democracy requires that each individual regulate his actions with a sympathetic appreciation of their significance in the lives of others. Parents and teachers are willing to be incon- venienced if the resulting benefits to the children are made apparent.’ Curriculum revision—Thru the concentration of small groups upon definite problems and a pooling of the results, considerable progress in curriculum revision has been made in the Eggertsville School. The teachers of each grade, together with the principal, constituted a committee to work on subjectmatter concepts for their grade. The principal merely attempted to guide the discussions along profitable lines. In this manner, appropriate concepts for all grades were deter- mined by the teachers most concerned with them. Moreover, al! teach- ers are now aware of what goes before and after the work of their own grades, because this material was mimeographed and put into use immediately. It represents only a beginning, but at least attention has been focused upon a very important problem and the teachers have accepted the challenge. Cooperation in actual use of the material has been 100 percent, whereas probably not more than 50 percent of the teachers would have cooperated if the principal had dominated the program. Assemblies—Where there is free communion among teachers, it is possible to secure uniformity where uniformity is essential, and varia- tion and individual experimentation where these are desirable. Be- fore democratic supervision became the rule at this school, assemblies were held on the same day at the same hour thruout the year. Outside speakers, who generally bored the audience because they talked above its comprehension or outside its interests, appeared regularly on the programs. With teachers and pupils sharing in administrative respon- 2See: Kumpf, Carl H.: “An Asset—Or a Nuisance?” National Parent-Teacher Magazine 31: 27-28; January 1937. APPRAISING ADMINISTRATIVE PROCEDURES 295 sibilities, a new régime is in operation. There is no set time for an assembly; it comes as a natural result of completed classroom work which will be of interest to other grades. There may be two assemblies in one day if desired. A pupil chairman for the primary grades and one for the upper grades schedule assemblies for the teachers. Time for assemblies is sought by teachers who formerly had to be urged to provide opportunity for this valuable training in their schedules. As a rule, neither the teacher nor the principal is active in any assembly period unless called upon by the child chairman. The prin- cipal requests time if he needs it. Otherwise the assemblies are pupil initiated and executed, but teacher guided.* Faculty meetings—The topics to be discussed, as well as the time and frequency of faculty meetings, have all been left to the teachers. Such meetings are no longer the place to hear notices read or lectures delivered by the principal. They are now more nearly a clearing- house for the most advanced ideas and technics of teachers. Notices from the principal or teachers are handled entirely thru the office bulletin-board or by means of supervisory bulletins. The wise super- visor even encourages individual teachers to assume leadership in faculty meetings on certain problems in which they are interested. Of course, professional growth is more pronounced on the part of the teacher who assumes the active leadership of a meeting, but her enthusiasm, created thru sharing responsibility, serves to arouse the increased participation of other teachers. The wise principal constantly throws into the cauldron of educational discussion observations and information regarding significant events outside his own school. This he does in order to encourage the teachers to try out similar pro- cedures, or to throw light on ventures already undertaken, or to guard against. mistakes not otherwise foreseen. Evaluation of teacher participation in administration—When teach- ers are encouraged to assume positions of leadership, this encourage- ment is transmitted to the children. Under such a system the principal organizes his work so that teachers are encouraged to realize their highest potentialities, the ultimate purpose being to make the school organization contribute to the preparation of boys and girls for intelli- gent participation in democratic citizenship. This is the ultimate cri- terion of a school’s or a principal’s success. Children in the Eggertsville School are marked on active rather than passive participation in citizen- ship. Of what value is it to stress such qualities as leadership and re- sponsibility without providing opportunity for their exercise? %See: Kumpf, Carl H. ‘Are Clubs Desirable in the Elementary School?’ Educational Method 16: 142-47; December 1936. 296 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS It is with reference to such considerations as these that we evaluate teacher participation in school administration. Results affecting teach- ers and pupils are so closely integrated that they are best discussed together. When teachers have an opportunity to choose certain services and responsibilities, they are more willing to devote time and effort to making the results beneficial to the school. This fact becomes evident when we make a study of the effects of teacher participation in any one field of service. Having participated in administration by carrying on one or more special services, teachers in the Eggertsville School have volunteered for or initiated many other administrative services, thereby showing that they valued the first experience in terms of personal and professional growth. The fact that the teachers appreciate the values of sharing administrative activities is reflected in their close coopera- tion with the efforts of our student council, which helps to establish the policies of the school. Evidences of pupil leadership can be seen on all sides, beginning as early as the kindergarten. This growth in pupil leadership, we believe, has definitely resulted from teacher participation in administration, because evidence of such leadership was sadly lack- ing before teacher participation was established. Such concrete evidence as pupil chairmen for all meetings, pupil control of corridors, gym- nasiums, and playgrounds, pupil assistance in the principal’s office, trustworthy pupil personnel to whom a master key to any part of the building is always available, class and club officers in charge of all class and club functions, assemblies and commencements initiated and conducted by pupils, and pupil-made arrangements for trips and ex- cursions, should convince even the most skeptical that the system has great merit. An examination of the new pupil records shows an improvement in the attitudes of the children as reflected in their assumption of leader- ship, initiative, cooperation, and responsibility. This improvement in turn is traceable to the fact that teachers thru their own experience in cooperative administration appreciate the value of similar experiences for the pupils, and that they therefore provide such experiences ,in abundance. Parent cooperation with the school also has increased steadily and rapidly. A few parents now sponsor school clubs. It seems logical to suppose that the teachers, having a new appreciation of the value of cooperative service to a cause, have sought and gained greater cooperation from the parents. The reciprocal values to teachers and principal have already been pointed out. In addition, one other value needs to be stressed. The as- } 5 | sumption of certain administrative duties by teachers has produced for the principal a margin of time saved, which in turn has been used OE REERE Teter uate ach- ssed ices rt to dent one 7 On lave reby and lues era- . the 1 all upil tion ack- ence yn- fice, the all and ex- has t in dler- t in e in neces 3. in ased ems the ater eed as- iced ised APPRAISING ADMINISTRATIVE PROCEDURES 297 in additional classroom supervision and follow-up conferences for the purpose of improving instruction. Recently teachers have shared in the testing program of the school, in- cluding the giving, scoring, and interpreting of test results. The experi- ence of interpreting and applying the results of these tests has already produced tangible effects in the form of more careful pupil analysis and attendant remedial instruction. To determine the teachers’ awareness of their share in administrative duties, and of the results which have accrued to them individually as well as to the community, an inquiry form was submitted to the teach- ers. From the responses it is apparent that the teachers appreciate the value of their participation and enjoy their administrative activities. A few quotations from these responses will indicate how teachers evalu- ate such a program: I have become more interested in individual pupils and their problems... . Shared administration definitely seems to make for more pleasurable teaching. ... The teacher’s opportunity of sharing her findings, in relation to her own work, with other members of the staff, places upon her a new responsibility for judgment and leadership. . . . The management of the school has become more orderly. ... I feel that I am a functioning unit of the Eggertsville School... . I have become interested in grades other than my own. ... My standards of teaching have been raised. ...I am more conscious of the educational values behind activities. . . . Contacts occasioned by sharing duties have made teach- ing more pleasurable. As the importance of democracy in school administration is increas- ingly appreciated, we shall undoubtedly develop and improve the means of measuring its outcomes. Subjective judgment will give way more and more to valid measures of pupil and teacher accomplishment. In the meantime, on the basis of all available evidence, the Eggertsville School will continue its plan of teacher participation with an attitude that is both critical and progressive. : yee INDEX at the back of this book is a convenient guide to particular topics and authors.—Editorial Committee. 298 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS THE RELATION BETWEEN FIRST-GRADE ENTRANCE AGRE AND SUCCESS IN THE FIRST SIX GRADES H. M. PartinctTon Principal, Lincoln and Washington Schools, Westfield, New Jersey to investigate the records of 284 pupils who, during the school year 1935-36, were in Grades II to VI, inclusive. Our purpose was to determine the relationship, if any, between the chronological ages of these pupils on entering the first grade and their later scholas- tic success. General approach to the problem—To achieve this purpose, two types of data were assembled: (1) the percents of pupils entering school at each age who later made low, average, and high achievement records: and (2) the percents of pupils entering at each age whose later achieve- ments were lower than their intelligence would indicate, commensu- rate with their intelligence, and higher than their intelligence would indicate. The grouping of pupils according to their entrance ages is shown be- low. These ages were computed as of September in the year of en- trance. | GENERAL INTEREST in the subject of school failure prompted us Age in years Number and months of pupils NE afct tie ater Cen oe as tesa jaa a EE cif. a way erate zene alalosearwa Ta Saisie ee RNY er actiors Sew gfe w aris soa acts 8 eda ae NII ay Sie Panacante wibianatabouetrbinks , 32 ot Se ne een ae rH cede Me 9 Because of the small number of children in some of these age groups, the reader is warned against assuming that the conclusions of this study apply equally well to other schools or other groups of pupils. This type of investigation needs to be carried on more extensively before we can be sure that the findings are generally applicable. The classification of pupils into three levels of school achievement was based upon each child’s combined class record to date in reading and arithmetic. In the case of a second-grade pupil, for example, this record represented one year’s work only, while for a sixth-grade pupil it represented five years of work. In determining the level of achieve- ment, a mark of A or B was considered high; C was considered aver- age; and D or below was considered low achievement. The intelligence rating of each pupil was obtained by averaging his scores on two or more of the following tests: Pintner-Cunningham, Detroit Kindergarten, National Intelligence, and the Stanford Revision GE Ds, his oo n ly nt APPRAISING ADMINISTRATIVE PROCEDURES of the Simon-Binet. An 1.Q. above 110 was considered high; of 90 to 110, average; and below 90, low intelligence. Achievement in relation to entrance age—Figure I presents a com- parison of the different entrance-age groups with respect to the percents of pupils making high, average, and low achievement records in later years. This comparison reveals that the highest percent of high achieve- ment, and the lowest percent of low achievement, occurred among the pupils who had entered the first grade at 6.0 to 6.5 years of age. It should be noted, however, that high achievement was attained by a relatively large proportion of the pupils at all entrance-age levels ex- cept those who entered at 7.0 to 7.5 years of age. The latter group made the poorest record, while the youngest group (5.0 to 5.5 years) did less well than any of the three middle groups. Achievement in relation to intelligence for different entrance ages Altho a certain tendency is apparent in Figure I, such a comparison shows only a part of the picture. We need to know also how well chil- dren entering at different ages performed in relation to their intelli- gence. As shown in Table 1, the distribution of I.Q.’s varied consider- ably from one age group to another. For example, 54 percent of the 70 60 Ww © Percent of pupils nO Oo 10 5.65.11 6.065 6.66.11 Age at entrance in years and months KEY: High achievement EB Average achievement Low achievement FIGURE I—Percents or Pupits at Eacu Entrance Ace Maxine Hicu, AVERAGE, AND Low ACHIEVEMENT REcorDS 300 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS pupils entering school at 5.0 to 5.5 years of age had 1.Q.’s above 110. while none of those entering at 7.0 to 7.5 years had such high intelli. gence. Similarly, 44 percent of the oldest group had 1.Q.’s below 99, while none of the youngest group had such low intelligence. These faets may have partially obscured the effects of entering school at different ages as shown in Figure I. Figure II shows the percents of pupils in each entrance-age group whose achievement records were (1) higher than their intelligence would indicate, (2) commensurate with. their intelligence, and (3) lower than their intelligence would indicate. In determining each of thege percents, cases representing all levels of intelligence and achievement were included. For example, the percent in any age group doing work commensurate with intelligence included pupils of high intelligence and high achievement, those of average intelligence and average achieve- ment, and those of low intelligence and low achievement. TABLE 1—Dtstrisution or Pupits AccorDING TO INTELLIGENCE AT EACH ENTRANCE AGE Percent Havina I.Q.'s AGE AT ENTRANCE siiliaisiabdhemitisaida — Below 90 | 90 to 110 | Above 110 (1) (2) 3) | @ EN ey aioe bo cc0in 5a Riaitvele web lesbo rele bia dlalevae etna 0 46 | 654 | ERE San er ee st renee aes er eet bays: 8 31 | 61 NOMS xs 5's x-aisnw 5/5 WARREN eee ee ean meee 10 | 40 50 car dd tn, Sips MMe Reno wks 2 Mae. Reh Sh 19 54 28 a eo Caen tees SC a oe, on ea 44 55 0 Read table: Of the children entering the first grade at 5.0 to 5.5 vears of age, none had LQ’: below 90; 46 percent had 1.Q.’s of 90 to 110, inclusive; and 54 percent had I.Q.’s above 110. Similar) read figures for the other ages listed in column 1. Perhaps the most significant elements in Figure II are the bars repre- senting the percents of children doing better than their abilities would | = indicate. These percents increased steadily from 7 group to 31 in the group entering school at 6.5 to 6.11 years of age Conversely, the percents representing achievement lower than ability would indicate, decreased steadily from 42 in the youngest group to 6 in the group entering at 6.5 to 6.11 years of age. There was less vari tion in the percents of children doing work commensurate with thei! | intelligence, but the highest percent doing such work was found in the | middle age group, and the lowest percents were found at the two ex treme age groups. j in the youngest | aa = — oo — rH — ar hs € € » 110, itelli- w 90, facts erent croup vence lower these ment work 2 and leve- 's ve 110 (4) 04 51 30 28 0 1.Q's milarly apre- ‘ould igest age. lity to 6 arla- their F » the ) eX APPRAISING ADMINISTRATIVE PROCEDURES 301 On the whole, the group entering school at 6.5 to 6.11 years made the best showing in achievement as related to intelligence, while the group entering at 5.0 to 5.5 years made the poorest showing. The picture revealed in Figure 1I, however, may be somewhat exaggerated by the fact that the different age groups did not have equal chances of making a better or poorer showing than their intelligence would indicate. For example, 54 percent of the youngest group could not have shown up better than expected, because they were at the highest level of intelli- gence, whereas all the pupils in the oldest group could have shown up better than expected because none of them was above average in intelligence. 70 60 504 2 40+ Q a) € 30 4 o a 20 10 0 oe Door 5.6-5.11 6.6-6.11 Age at entrance in years and months KEY: Achievement higher than intelligence would indicate E33 Achievement commensurate with intelligence Achievement less than intelligence would indicate FIGURE I]—Ferrcents or Puriis at Each EntrANcE AGE MAKING Hicu, AVERAGE, AND Low ACHIEVEMENT Recorps IN RELATION TO THEIR INTELLIGENCE Conclusions—From the evidence obtained in this study, it seems safe to draw the following tentative conclusions: 1. Many of the youngest children (those entering the first grade as early as 5.0 to 5.5 years of age) are not only capable of, but do achieve excellent results. 2. While many of these brighter children in the youngest group do good work, we find here the largest percent of those who are capable 302 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS of doing better. Apparently a low chronological age is a handicap to many children in school, and with greater maturity they might achieve better results in the same grade with less strain. 3. A high intelligence quotient is not in itself a guarantee that q pupil will benefit most by entering the first grade at an unusually early age. Mental age is probably a better indicator than I.Q. 4. The combined evidence in Figures I and II indicates that in the school included in this study, an age between 6.0 and 6.11 years is prob- ably the most satisfactory for entering the first grade. 5. We should keep a watchful eye on the bright younger pupil who is doing well, in view of the possibility that he might do even better if he were older. We obviously want our pupils working to capacity. 6. Apparently it is not wise to hold back the older pupils (those who enter the first grade over 7 years of age) even tho their achievement is low. NDER THE RIGID GRADE SYSTEM, maladjustment often com- U mences when the child enters the first grade. At this point a few children can already read, and some are ready to begin reading, but a great number are not yet sufficiently mature to profit from instruction in this subject. The progressive school recognizes this fact and so modifies its program that formal instruction will begin at different times for different children. The school that endeavors to maintain rigid grade standards ignores these differences, and endeavors to teach all first-grade children to read at the same time. Under this plan the more able children are compelled to retard their progress so that they may stay with the remainder of the class, while the slow pupils are forced to grapple with ideas that are beyond their mental depth.—Farley, Eugene S., p. 269 of this yearbook. FE ip to Lleve at a sarly 1 the rob- who etter who nent APPRAISING ADMINISTRATIVE PROCEDURES 303 A STUDY OF FAILING MARKS AND RETENTIONS WALTER JACOB, JR. Principal, Emerson School, Plainfield, New Jersey success and failure needs careful investigation. A school in which a large proportion of the children fail to meet scholastic require- ments, or in which there is wide variation in the amount of failure from grade to grade and from teacher to teacher, is somehow failing to provide an adequate educational program for every child. Since the writer’s school was obviously in need of improvement in these respects, the situation was studied systematically and the results were brought before the teaching staff for discussion and subsequent action. This study undertook to discover specifically (1) the percent of failing marks given to pupils in the different school subjects and by different teachers at the end of each report period during the year; and (2) the relationship between the percent of failing marks given during the year, and the percent of pupils not promoted to the next higher grade or class at the end of the year. Collecting the pupil records—In carrying on the study, the report- card records of twenty-two classes in Grades I to VIII were used. Eleven other classes in the school were omitted, seven because they did not use formal report cards, and four because they were kinder- garten groups. Special forms were used in compiling the information on failing marks and retentions. These forms contained a column for pupils’ names and a column for each school subject. The subject columns were subdivided to permit teachers to indicate the supposed reason for failure in each case. Code letters were used to represent the various reasons for failure. At the end of each report period (six in all), each teacher received the special record form in duplicate for her homeroom class. As she filled in the regular report cards, she placed each failing mark and the reason for it in the proper columns on one copy of the special form. As soon as the report cards had been sent out, the teacher returned the special record of failing marks to the principal’s office. The other copy of the record form was used only for recording the retention (non-pro- motion) of pupils at the end of the year. Determining the percent of failure—In tabulating this information, care was taken to avoid complicated statistical procedures as far as possible. To be of greatest value to teachers the data had to be organ- ized simply and presented clearly. [ APPRAISING an elementary-school program, the extent of pupil 304 ELEMENTARY ScHOOL PRINCIPALS To determine the percent of failing marks for any teacher or class, it was necessary first to compute the total possible number of such marks for that teacher or class. This was done for each report period by multiplying the number of pupils taught by the teacher, by the number of subjects she taught them. The results of this process for the six report periods were then added to obtain the total possible number of failing marks for the entire year. When this total had been obtained, the percent of failure was computed by simply dividing the number of failing marks actually given, by the total possible number of failing marks. This method of computation made it possible to compare teach- ers or classes having different numbers of pupils or different numbers of school subjects. To illustrate the method, let us suppose that a teacher taught five subjects to each of forty pupils during each report period. The total number of failing marks which she could have given at the end of each period was 40 x 5, or 200. The total number which she could have given during the entire year (six periods) was 200 x 6, or 1200. If she actually gave a total of 60 failing marks during the year, her proportion of pupil failure was 60 — 1200, or 5 percent. Organizing and presenting the findings—The most difficult phases of the study were the organization and presentation of the findings. Care- ful thought and many conferences with field and research workers re- sulted in the preparation of a simple, concise booklet. This booklet contained a series of tables and graphs answering five important ques- tions which anyone might ask, as follows: . Where (and why) were the failing marks given? . In what subjects were the failing marks given? . Who gave the failing marks? . When were the failing marks given? . How many pupils were finally retained (not promoted)? or WN A separate section of the booklet was devoted to each of these ques- tions, presenting the appropriate information for each class, grade, and department, as well as for the school as a whole. In addition to the tables and graphs, the booklet contained an introductory page, a page explaining the procedures used, and a page of conclusions, making 4 total of twenty-five pages. On the reverse side of each table or graph, a few pertinent questions were printed concerning the next table or graph. Questions thus faced the exhibits of information. Tabbed edges with the words “Where,” “In What,” “Who,” and “When” formed 4 handy finger index to the pages showing data on percent of failure. Green pages used for the data on pupil retention were readily dis- tinguishable from the others. Because the subjectmatter thus collected was too important to be hastily scanned, it was presented to the teachers in piecemeal fashion. aad ‘lass, such riod the r the nber ined, er of iling ach- bers five total each ‘Ven lally yupil es of ‘are- 3 re- k let ues- ues- and the page ng a aph, e or dges ed a lure. APPRAISING ADMINISTRATIVE PRocEDURES 305 ——$___— At each teachers meeting a few large charts duplicating the tables and graphs in the booklet were hung on the walls, and discussion centered ; on these charts. At the close of the meeting each teacher received those pages of the booklet which had been finished up to that time. This pro- cedure continued until each teacher had a copy of the complete study. Summary of results—The results of this study caused considerable surprise among the teaching staff. Assuming that they are not un- typical, the writer believes they warrant the careful consideration of most public school administrators. They are presented below, together with a series of charts similar to those included in the booklet men- tioned above. 1. There was no relationship between the ratings which teachers received on their teaching and the percents of failing marks which they gave to pupils. The number of teachers with high ratings who gave a large percent of failing marks was about -the same as the number of teachers with high ratings who gave relatively few failing marks. 2. As shown in Figure I, failing marks were given far more frequently in those subjects which were traditionally academic, or which could be and were taught in an academic fashion. Such marks were given less frequently in subjects which were carried on by methods other than formal textbook teaching. Lack of pupil interest in the more formal : 55.208 English Drawing Music Physical Training General Science Social Studies Arithmetic FIGURE I—Proportion or ALL Famtinc Mazks GIVEN IN Eacu Scuoou Sussecr (ALL Supsects = 100 Percent) 306 ELEMENTARY ScHOOL PRINCIPALS subjects may have been partly responsible for this situation. It is also possible that these subjects lent themselves more readily to a rigorous marking of pupils. 3. The teachers gave “carelessness” of pupils least often as a reason for failing marks. The “inability” of pupils to master the curriculum content was reported more than twice as often, while “no effort” on the part of pupils was reported more than three times as often as “care- lessness” in explaining pupil failure. These facts suggest a need for improvement in curriculum content or in methods of teaching, or per- haps in both. 4. As shown in Figure II, there was great variation in the percent of failing marks given by different teachers. One teacher’s percent of failure was 58 times as large as those of several other teachers. 94 297 204 18 | 164 144 12 4 104 PERCENT 43 7 : 0 Teacher ABC Grade Vill oOo MUL FIGURE IJ—Percent or Eacu Teacuer’s Marks Tuat Were Farwinc Marks 5. A lack of consistency in the markings of individual teachers is revealed in Figure III. The variation in the percents of failing marks given to different classes by the same teacher was as high as 1500 per- cent. This variation was apparently not due primarily to differences in the average abilities of the classes, because the class groups were hetero- geneous in nature. The pupils were not grouped according to ability. APPRAISING ADMINISTRATIVE PROCEDURES 307 6. The largest percents of failure appeared in the first, second, and seventh grades, respectively, while the lowest percents were found in the intermediate grades. (See Figures II and V.) The unusually high percent of failure in the first grade leads one to suspect a peculiar lack of adjustment between the school program and the needs of pupils at that level. 29 204 184 16 14] 194 104 PERCENT 8 4 School Average 6.6% 44 94 E 0 Class 12 3 A Teacher Grade VIII VIII Vill Vil Vil oo TTT ~ TTT) Q) VI VI FIGURE IJI—Percent or Att Marks TuHat Were Fairing Marks IN CLASSES Taucut By Eacu Uprer-Grape TEACHER 7. Figure IV indicates that the number of failing marks was largest in January, at the end of the third report period. The number of such marks was lowest in October and December, and after reaching its peak in January it fell off steadily to a relatively low point in June. This trend may have been due to a natural lowering of morale and efficiency during the middle of the winter on the part of both pupils and teachers. 8. Figure V compares the percent of failure during the year with the percent of retention (non-promotion) at the end of the year for each grade. The average percent of failure in all grades was 6.6, whereas the average percent of retention was 8.9. 9. There was a positive correlation’ of .81 (with a probable error of .05) between the percent of failure in a class and the percent of reten- tion in that class. Cinta 1The coefficient of correlation is a mathematical measure of relationship between two series of factors. The lowest possible correlation is 0.00 and the highest possible is 1.00. Correlations can be either positive or negative. A positive correlation indicates a tendency for the factors to increase or decrease together; a negative correlation indicates a tendency for one factor to increase as the other decreases. 22 21 4 20 4 19 4 18 7 Se 17 4 16 4 157 144 Se ¥3 12 Report Periods PERCENT 1 2 3 4 5 October December January March May June Oo FIGURE IV—Percent or ALL Fartrinc Marks GIVEN AT THE END or Eacu Report Pertop (ALL Fertops = 100 Percent) PERCENT School Averages: Retention 8.9% VIII KEY: a Failure Retention FIGURE V—Percents or FAILurE AND OF RETENTION IN EacH GRADE APPRAISING ADMINISTRATIVE PROCEDURES 309 Conclusion—It is easier to discover such facts as those shown above, than to determine their causes. No single factor can be held responsible for the observed differences in percent of failure and in percent of reten- tion. Probably these differences are due to a combination of several factors, such as the following: . Differences in the personalities and abilities of teachers . Differences in the teaching loads carried by teachers . Differences in the standards of pupil achievement set by teachers . Differences in methods of determining pupil marks . Differences in the natural appeal of the various school subjects . Differences in the suitability of the curricular program at various grade levels and in various subjects. ~ om r WW Since the relative importance of these factors in the total situation is not definitely known, all of them should receive careful attention. Above all, in the writer’s judgment, is the need for thoro appraisal and revision, if necessary, of the kind and amount of work required of pupils of various abilities in each grade and in each school subject. W: do not recommend elimination of the failure mark, but a different method of determining it. We now set high standards; those who do not meet them fail and must repeat. Under this arrangement the child too often is ignored, and extenuating conditions or circumstances are not considered. Ideally, may we not hope to use the term “failure” only in exceptional cases? May the mark not be based upon a detailed knowledge of the pupil, so that failures will occur less fre- quently and then only to those who have profited little or not at all from the course or to those who need a complete mastery of it for further work?—Heck, Arch O., Administration of Pupil Personnel, Ginn and Co., 1929, p. 355. (Quoted by per- mission of the publishers.) 310 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS EVALUATING METHODS OF CONTACT BETWEEN THE SCHOOL AND THE HOME C. C. Crawrorp Professor of Education, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California and JAMES CLAYTON HAINES Superintendent of Schools, Lennox, California HERE is a very general faith in school publicity, but considerable doubt as to the best ways of achieving it. This article describes an attempt to evaluate certain publicity channels, in the hope that the technic used here may be applicable in the evaluation of other types of school publicity. Many of the fruits of school publicity are so intangible that they are nearly impossible to measure. The lack of an adequate yardstick in this field is a serious handicap. The yardstick used in this study was the attendance of parents at parent-teacher meetings. The underlying assumption was that the kinds of publicity that brought the parents to these meetings in great numbers would probably obtain superior results when other phases of school work were to be publicized. This assumption, altho it seems reasonable enough, is not based upon any objective data. Publicity methods compared—Six types of school publicity were compared, to see which one brought the best response in attendance at the parent-teacher meetings. These methods were as follows: 1. Simple mimeographed notice—A regular mimeographed letter over the type- written name of the head of the parent-teacher association was sent home in the hands of each pupil to present to his parents. 2. Mimeographed notice with teacher’s signature added—The second type of publicity was identical with the first, except that each classroom teacher signed the note in ink below the mimeographed name of the head of the parent-teacher organization. This was supposed to give the notice a special appeal and make it more personal. 3. Mimeographed notice with an attached coupon for the parent to sign and return—The third method included exactly the same letter as used in method 1, with the addition of a parent-signature coupon to serve as a check on whether the parent actually got the message. 4. Mimeographed notice, plus the teacher’s signature, plus the parent-signature coupon—The fourth method included both of the special items that were added in methods 2 and 3. 5. A copy of the simple notice in the child’s own handwriting—Each pupil copied the letter in his own individual handwriting, and took it home to show to his parents. This supposedly gave the pupil a personal interest in getting the mes- sage home, and was expected to arouse a different kind of interest on the part of the parent. 6. Personal visits to homes by classroom teachers—A limited amount of visiting in representative homes was done by two teachers, to determine the effect of t ; via le eS pe P= he of ed er ud S- rt Ig of APPRAISING ADMINISTRATIVE PROCEDURES 311 direct contact with parents as measured by later attendance at the parent-teacher meetings. It was realized that this method was expensive in time and effort, and the desire was to find out whether the result justified such an expenditure. Conditions under which methods were compared—Identical experi- mental procedure was employed in each of two schools—one in the so-called “better” part of town, and the other in a less desirable neigh- borhood. Since the relative merits of the different publicity methods were found to be the same in both these schools, there is reasonable assurance that the character of the neighborhood was not a significant factor in the experiment. Obviously, one method of sending notices could not be used one month and another method the next month, because seasonal changes or program changes might have invalidated the results. Also, one method could not be used in the lower grades and another in the upper grades, because it is a well-known fact that parents generally attend fewer parent-teacher meetings as their children grow older and become more advanced in school. Therefore, a system of rotation was set up. Each school was divided into groups, each group using a different type of notice from that used in any other group. For each succeeding monthly meeting the kind of notice was rotated, so that when the study was completed each group in the school had used each method of pub- licity once, and all the methods of publicity had been used in connec- tion with each monthly meeting. The teacher-visit method was em- ployed to only a very limited extent because of the labor involved, but the parents to be visited were selected carefully. Thus, conditions were well controlled and irrelevant factors were held constant so far as possible. As a result, any differences in attendance may fairly be ascribed to the differences in the methods of publicity used. All teachers received very definite directions regarding the nature of the verbal instructions to be given to pupils when the notices were distributed. Otherwise some teachers might have announced the meet- ings so emphatically and others so indifferently as to cover up any differences between the several types of messages to be sent home. Numerical comparison of results—If the proof of the pudding is in the eating, five of the methods used in this study were about equal in effectiveness, as shown in Table 1. The four types of mimeographed notices showed almost exactly equal results, namely, a 20 percent response. The handwritten notice resulted in a response of only 13 percent, while the method of home visiting, in spite of its excessive time demand, produced a 20 percent attendance at the meeting. The great uniformity of results obtained by the publicity methods used seems to point to a rather interesting conclusion regarding school publicity in general. The suggestion is that the function of school adver- 312 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS tising is to promote the consumption of “staple goods” rather than “faney goods.” When advertising is used to promote the sale of a novelty or to awaken an interest where none already exists, the char- acter of the appeal may be very important. But where an advertise- ment merely serves as a reminder of an interest already awakened, g very simple and dignified appeal is as likely to produce results as a unique, high-pressure, or bizarre approach. TABLE 1—AtTTeNDANCE AT PARENT-TEACHER MEETINGS FoLLOWING Srx Krnps OF PUBLICITY PARENTS ATTENDING NUMBER MEETING Kinp or Pusuiciry Usep OF PaARENTS| REACHED l Number | Percent . (1) a (2) re ee ee 1. Simple mimeographed notice............... 762 159 | 21 2. Simple mimeographed notice, plus teacher IS a5 a5; ts dese cate. hod ale emia ets eee oe 748 148 20 3. Simple mimeographed notice, plus coupon SN MN NI orca. u. wg sce! giv acain So 6 760 146 19 4. Simple mimeographed notice, plus teacher signature and coupon for parent to sign. ... 722 144 20 5. Simple notice copied in child’s own hand- ra cs as sassy css Gas srg eek saea wl ec 329 42 13 6. Teacher-visit to home.................... 54 11 20 Read table: Of the 762 parents who received the simple mimeographed notice of a parent- teacher meeting, 159 or 21 percent attended the meeting. Similarly read figures for the other kinds of publicity. Summary—Five of the six methods of school publicity used in this study produced almost identical percentages of response in terms of attendance at parent-teacher meetings. Having the pupils copy notices in their own handwriting produced a slightly poorer response than did the mimeographed notices or the visits of teachers to the homes. The tentative conclusion from these results is that parents who attend the meetings do so because they have a fundamental interest in the school’s work, and that this fundamental interest is little affected by superficial differences in the publicity technics employed. This study is presented as an illustration of procedures used in the evaluation of school publicity, rather than for the significance of its final conclusion. It is hoped that other investigators may find this pro- cedure helpful in appraising other and more important types of school publicity. APPRAISING ADMINISTRATIVE PROCEDURES 313 APPRAISING INFORMAL REPORTS TO PARENTS W. K. Coss County Superintendent of Schools, Ventura County, California: HIS ARTICLE is concerned with the appraisal of the informal note used in Ventura County, California, as a substitute for formal report cards. To make such appraisal effective, it is necessary to review briefly the development of this program in Ventura County. The change from formal to informal reports in this county was the result of certain studies made by the Ventura County Guidance Com- mittee, and of subsequent recommendations made by this committee in the spring of 1933. The committee, composed of representative edu- eators of the county, was a study group only, and its recommendations were binding upon no one. In two local school systems, however, the informal note had been used experimentally prior to the committee’s recommendation, and the results indicated that the new type of report would be useful in practise and acceptable to the community. Basic principles and procedures—The guidance committee, after careful analysis of early experiments, recommended certain principles which should be observed in changing to informal reports. These sug- gestions are given here in a condensed form: 1. The community should be thoroly prepared in advance if letters and visits to parents are to supplant the time-honored reports of competitive marks. 2. Begin the letter to parents with encouraging news. 3. Close with an attitude of optimism. 4. Solicit the cooperation of parents in solving the child’s problem if he has one. 5. Speak of the child’s growth—social, physical, and academic. 6. Avoid comparing the child with other pupils; such comparisons are odious at best. 7. Speak of the child’s achievement in relation to his own ability. 8. Compare the child’s present efforts and achievements with his earlier record. 9. Remember it is our professional duty to learn the reason why, if the child is not making what for him is normal growth. 10. Remember also that this letter is a professional diagnosis, and is therefore as sacred as any diagnosis made by a physician. 11. Send only a few letters at a time. 12. Be brief. 13. Use a vocabulary that the parents will understand. 14, Ask parents concerning children’s hobbies. 15. Invite parents to visit the school. Copies of these suggestions, together with illustrative letters, were sent to all teachers. Members of the guidance committee met with the teachers to discuss procedures relating to the informal report and the preparation of the community for the change. Parents were advised in advance of the change by means of a series of mimeographed letters, by special public meetings held at the various schools, and thru the 314 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS ee regular meetings of the parent-teacher association. Much credit is due this organization, which not only recognized the values in the proposal, but also assisted in spreading information regarding these values. So much has been written regarding the need for changing to informa] reports, that it is unnecessary to repeat the arguments here.' Nor does it seem necessary to comment further on the form of the letters to parents. Two such letters are reproduced below: Dear Mr. and Mrs. Smith: This is to report that Frank is progressing satisfactorily at school. His academic work is good, and his attitude toward his work, his classmates, and his teachers is excellent. He knows his subjectmatter thoroly, but is inclined to be careless in his written work. Frank is a splendid boy and is always courteous to his teach- ers and fellow classmates. I would like to have you look over his notebook and sign it, if you care to. Any suggestions you wish to make regarding his work will be greatly appreciated. Dear Mrs. Casey: Howard is showing a marked improvement in his penmanship. His arithmetic, too, is much improved. I am also happy to report that his attitude toward his work and the school is much better. He needs to improve his writing, however, and I am giving him special attention in this particular. We appreciate your cooperation very much, and sincerely hope that you will be able to visit the school again shortly. Effects on the children—An informal report of this kind is most valuable from the standpoint of the child. It recognizes abilities and achievements never mentioned on the formal report card. It tends to eliminate in the child of lesser ability the heartache due to failure, and reduces the danger of mental and emotional maladjustment. The superior child no longer has the old incentive to boast, and he no longer works for grades. The desire to fool the teacher and to “get by” without study had disappeared to a marked degree. For all pupils the new plan omits the unhappy comparison with the progress of others. It has eliminated cutthroat competition, and has helped to develop the spirit of friendly cooperation so necessary in a modern program of education. Attitudes of parents—Parents like the informal type of report card. Many say, “We have been needing a change like this for years.” Others say, “This is something that we can understand.” Surveys have been made in a number of districts within the county to learn just what parents thought of informal reports. In one district 99 percent of the replies were favorable; in another, 95 percent. In only one district has there been a return to formal report cards in the ele- mentary schools. This change was due to two factors: (1) The com- 1 Other articles on the subject by the present writer are as follows: “Ventura County Schools Abolish Formal Report Cards.” California Journal of Elementary Education 2: 243-45; May 1934. § “Formal Report Cards Can Be Abolished.’’ Nation’s Schools 16: 37-38; October 1935 q “The Report Card Progresses.” California Parent-Teacher 12: 12, 32; November 1935. due sal, mal loes ; to =>mi¢ hers less ach- > to. ited, etic, | his ver, will 10st and s to and The ger lout lan has virit i0n. ard. ners inty rict nly ele- om- hools May 1935. APPRAISING ADMINISTRATIVE PROCEDURES 315 munity had not been properly informed of the advantages of the in- formal type of report; the latter had been introduced merely because other districts were using it. (2) A new board of education, elected by a community that was disgruntled about many other things, decided to return to formal report cards without surveying the sentiments of the parents. Reactions of teachers and administrators—The teachers like report- ing to parents informally. They welcome the opportunity of coming in contact with parents either personally or thru the parents’ replies to the informal reports. These contacts enable teachers and parents to ex- change points of view, and bring about a better understanding of the pupils. Teachers say that an informal report takes more time to write, but that it is pleasanter to prepare because it is fairer to the pupil. It recognizes all the abilities of the child and. admits his shortcomings. Teachers are convinced that an informal report should be brief and to the point. Parents are more apt to reply if the note is short. The note must be definite, however, and state the truth without evasion, even if the information contained in it is not complimentary to the pupil. Teachers regard an informal report as a written diagnosis of the pupil’s abilities and accomplishments. Teachers realize also that much care should be given to the form of the note. Most of them send home samples of school work to illustrate points in the report. Many say that they desire most of all to have parents come to school to discuss the pupils’ progress, altho they do not encourage parents to do this while classes are in session. School administrators likewise state that they like the informal means of reporting to parents. They feel that it is one of the best means of establishing proper school-home relationships, and that it has brought the school and home closer together in the solving of childhood prob- lems. Some schools have a visiting week every quarter, just after the reports have gone out, as a special time when parents are urged to visit the school. As a rule, the teachers spend one or more evenings at the school building during that week, so that parents may have an extra opportunity to talk with them. Progressive educators generally “agree that the informal note is probably the best means of reporting to parents. If we are to take into consideration the individual differences among children, and provide a flexible school program to meet these differences, we must use a flexible means of reporting to parents. The informal report seems to serve this purpose best. Conclusion—Modern education has to do with the development of the whole child, including his physical, mental, emotional, and social 316 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS growth. The philosophy which demands the informal report recognizes that children differ physically, mentally, socially, and temperamentally, and that they should not be run thru a grading machine as oranges, nuts, and beans are sorted. In the program of the school, emphasis should be placed both upon the individual needs of the child and upon his social development. The well-prepared informal report recognizes and encourages the growth of the child in his relationship to his group and in his individual! abilities, This recognition of all phases of child nature has developed better atti- tudes in the pupils. Administrators, parents, and teachers in Ventura County are generally agreed that the elimination of formal report cards and competitive marks has brought about better understanding and wiser treatment of our boys and girls both at home and at school. HATEVER its relative importance in the general scheme of things educational, we are certain as we look back and then ahead, that the prime purpose of home reports is served if they bring about more frequent and more intelligent confer- ences of parents and teachers on the all-important question of the all-round development and growth of the individual child. Only in this way can the best opportunity for education that human mind can devise be given to children.—Warren, Julius E., in Harvard Teachers Record, April 1935, p. 70. nizes ally, nges, upon The th of ities, atti- itura port ding hool. APPRAISING ADMINISTRATIVE PROCEDURES 317 EVALUATION OF A PROGRAM FOR TESTING READING READINESS AND VISUAL EFFICIENCY Massie E. CumMMINGS Elementary Grade Supervisor, Rapid City, South Dakota N IMPORTANT PROBLEM of elementary-school supervision is that of determining when children are ready for reading instruction, and of discovering specific eye difficulties which may interfere with their learning to read. Among the devices recently developed to meet this problem are the Betts Ready to Read Tests.’ These tests are intended to measure reading readiness, acuity of vision, oculomotor habits, and perceptive ability. Those parts of the battery which deal with vision, oculomotor habits, and perception require the use of the Keystone Ophthalmic Telebinocular.* This instrument and the ac- companying slides are designed to test the vision of each eye while both eyes function simultaneously. The purpose of this article is to summarize some of the results of using these tests in a typical school system for one year. Scope of the testing program—During the year 1935-36, one or more of the Betts tests were administered to every child in the first six grades of the Rapid City, South Dakota, schools. It had been planned to use the reading readiness tests and the vision tests with all first-grade children, and to use the vision tests and the oculomotor and perception tests with all children showing reading disabilities in grades above the first. This plan was changed, however, because so many parents and teachers requested that the vision tests be given to their children. Accordingly, the vision tests were given to all children in the system, and the other tests were administered to as many of the children having reading handicaps as time permitted. Only a very few children were given the full battery of tests. Factors considered in the appraisal—The school administration in Rapid City has frequently been asked, “Would you advise other schools to adopt such an extensive program?” In trying to arrive at a defensi- ble answer to this question, an attempt has been made to evaluate the program under these headings: 1. Cost of the year’s program 2. Time required to complete the testing 3. Qualifications of persons administering the tests 4. Results of the Snellen test and Betts test compared 5. Attitude of eye specialists 1Obtainable from the Keystone View Company, Meadville, Pennsylvania. * Manufactured by the same company. 318 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 6. Evidence of eye difficulty among poor readers 7. Attitude of parents 8. Percent of correction obtained. Cost of the program—The entire cost for testing equipment was $96.50. This meant an outlay of about seven cents per pupil. The total expense was distributed as follows: Keystone Ophthalmic Telebinocular ........... .. $75.00 I oa oh as sl cde ck dis vin s'e% bie ewe oor 17.50 Pads for reports to eye specialists ......... b 4.00 MEE (). eacaeha Ree aC aa ie amare coo toes 2 .. $96.50 Time required to complete the testing—During the year, 1261 chil- dren were tested. The testing was begun in October and was completed by the middle of March. At first, both the school nurse and the grade supervisor worked at the testing. Near the close of the year’s program, an elementary-grade intern gave some assistance. The school nurse became so involved with multitudinous other duties that the supervisor had to carry on the work alone. She was able to give not over an average of three days a week to the testing. It seemed impossible to test first-grade children in much less than ten minutes per child. In the primary grades, the time required for each child ranged from ten to twenty minutes, while in Grades III to VI the testing could be completed in from five to fifteen minutes. After getting the testing systematized so that there were no waits between cases, the time was reduced to about seven minutes for each child in the upper grades. In order to test as rapidly as this, it was found necessary to have all personal-data blanks filled prior to the testing. Elementary- grade interns helped with the recording. It was possible, however, for the administrator of the tests to do her own recording. In Grades III to VI, thirty children could be tested in one day, while only twenty primary children could be tested in a day. Qualifications of test administrators—Most classroom teachers are capable of giving the tests, but few teachers have the time to become thoroly familiar with, and to give them. If possible, one person should do all the testing thruout the school system. For best results, the person selected to do the testing should have patience, insight, ingenuity, a workable knowledge of child psychology, an interest in the work, and a willingness to do careful work. Patience is needed in dealing with a child who has an overwhelming desire to wear glasses, and who is bright enough to make consistent response to every attempt at rechecking. A knowledge of child psychology, ingenuity, insight, patience, and kindliness are necessary in dealing with a first-grade child who has been frightened about the tests. The was otal ‘hil- eted rade ‘am, urse isor rage han ach VI fter een the sary ury- for Ill nity are ome yuld ave ogy, once e to nses ling The APPRAISING ADMINISTRATIVE PROCEDURES 319 —_——— slow child and the timid child need expert help in learning what is wanted and how to tell what they see. To forestall the frightening of younger children by upper-grade children, it was found wise to test all the primary children first in any one building. Results of the Snellen test and the Betts test compared—Every child above the IIB division in the Rapid City system had been tested by the Snellen method.* A comparison of the results of this test with the results of the Betts test showed that the latter revealed 32 percent more eye difficulty than did the Snellen test. Fifty percent of the children registering some eye difficulty on the Snellen test registered no diffi- culty on the Betts test. Between the two tests there was a disagreement of 88 percent. A comparison of the results of the Betts test with the diagnoses made by local eye specialists on cases referred to them showed an agreement in 62 percent of the cases. Attitude of eye specialists—For the most part, the eye specialists welcomed a chance to cooperate in the program. Before the testing was started, a bulletin from the office of the superintendent was sent to every eye specialist in the city. This bulletin included a description of the Betts test, a copy of the record forms, and a copy of the report blanks to be sent home with each child needing the attention of an eye specialist. Three eye specialists asked for conferences in regard to the tests and expressed an interest in the program. Only one specialist dis- credited the tests to parents. The eye specialists were not equipped to make muscular corrections ; so when children failed on those parts of the test which reveal muscular imbalance, no report was sent to the parents. Thus we avoided some occasion for parents and physicians to criticize the tests unfairly. As soon as equipment for correcting muscular difficulties is installed by a majority of the specialists, these cases will be reported to the parents. Evidence of eye difficulty among poor readers—Careful checking of results on the Betts tests showed that of the children reported as need- ing the attention of an eye specialist, 46 percent were either reading failures or poor readers. Of these cases, 31 percent had low enough 1.Q.’s to indicate that mental immaturity could have been responsible for most of the difficulty. This left 69 percent of the cases of reading disability that might fairly be attributed to eye difficulties alone. Attitude of parents—An attempt was made to inform parents as to the purpose and the character of the tests. The school nurse visited the homes of children needing the immediate attention of an eye specialist. The grade supervisor gave talks before the different parent-teacher ® The Snellen Letter Test is a letter chart devised to check visual acuity. One eye is tested at a time while both eyes are kept open. The person being tested is seated at a distance of twenty feet from the chart. On the chart are rows of letters, each succeeding row being reduced in size. The percent of visual acuity is measured by the number of rows correctly read. > 320 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS groups, using all the testing equipment to illustrate her discussion. Ip most cases the parents were interested and willing to cooperate so far as they were able. Percent of correction obtained—Only 5 percent of the cases reported as needing such attention received the help of an eye specialist. Some of this failure was due to indifference and ignorance on the part of the parents, but in at least 75 percent of the cases it was due to lack of money. Charitable funds were available in limited amounts for treat- ing such cases. Some of these cases will be taken care of another year. Conclusion—In the light of the above summary, do we recommend such an extensive program of testing for other schools? The writer does not believe that the program should be duplicated, but that it should be shortened in some respects and lengthened in others. It is recommended (1) that for the first year no attempt be made to cheek the vision of every child in the system; (2) that all children new to the system be given the Betts test in preference to the Snellen test; (3) that the reading-readiness test be given to all first-grade children show- ing evidence of inability to do first-grade work; and (4) that the full battery of tests be given to all cases which would ordinarily be referred to a reading clinic. The writer feels that the giving of these tests was a very important part of the year’s work, but that the results have not been of enough value to warrant such an unbalanced supervisory or health program as was carried on in the Rapid City schools during 1935-36. NOTHER PROCEDURE for evaluating the effectiveness of A remedial instruction is to photograph the eye movements of the pupils, and to compare this record with the record secured before the teaching with respect to number of fixa- tions, length of fixations, and number of regressive move- ments. For pupils whose eye movement habits were very inie- rior when the remedial work was started, such a comparison may be very significant. On the other hand, the improvement in power to interpret meaning by pupils whose eye movement habits were already quite mature may not be reflected to any marked extent by changes in the eye movement records.— Traxler, Arthur E., p. 417-18 of this yearbook. . In » far rted ome the k of “eat- year, nend riter at it It is heck ) the (3) how- » full rred rtant ough pram _— — or Sc = 10. = APPRAISING ADMINISTRATIVE PROCEDURES 321 SELECTED REFERENCES _Aumack, J. C., editor. Modern School Administration: Its Problems and Progress. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1933. Chapter 5, “The Organiz- ing and Administrative Work of the School Principal,” p. 113-56. _ Anperson, C. J., and Simpson, I. J. The Supervision of Rural Schools. New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1932. Part V, “The Appraisal of Rural- School Supervision,” p. 403-31. . Barr, A. 8. “Expressing the Scientific Spirit Through Better Supervision.” Journal of Educational Research 29: 47-52; September 1935. _ Barr, A. S. “Measurement in the Supervision and Improvement of Teaching.” Twenty-second Annual Conference on Educational Measurements. Bulle- tin of the School of Education, Vol. 12, No. 1. Bloomington, Ind.: Bureau of Cooperative Research, Indiana University, 1935. p. 25-31. . BruecKNeEr, Leo J., and Curricut, Prupence. “A Technique for Measuring the Efficiency of Supervision.” Journal of Educational Research 16: 323-31; December 1927. }. Burton, W. H. “The Evaluation of Supervision.” Educational Supervision. First Yearbook of the National Conference on Educational Method. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1928. Chapter 17, p. 219-33. . Fox, Guy. “Basic Principles of Testing Procedures, ‘Grading’ Systems, and Pupil Records.” Educational Method 15: 366-68; April 1936. . GatserR, SAMUEL. “Efficient School Supply Management.” School Executive 55: 316-17; April 1936. 9, Gist, ArtHur S. The Administration of Supervision. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1934. Chapter 14, “The Evaluation of Supervision,” p. 320-53. GREENFIELD, B. L. “A Study of the Effectiveness of a Program of Elementary School Supervision.” Journal of Educational Research 27: 123-26; Oc- tober 1933. . Haun, Jura L. A Critical Evaluation of a Supervisory Program in Kinder- y 7 garten-Primary Grades. Contributions to Education, No. 495. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1931. 148 p. . Heck, Arcu O. A Study of Child Accounting Records. Bureau of Educational Research Monographs, No. 2. Columbus: Ohio State University, 1925. 245 p. . Knupsen, Cuartes W. Evaluation and Improvement of Teaching. Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday, Doran and Co., 1932. Chapter 12, “The Evalua- tion of Supervision,” p. 445-85. . Mezsy, Ernest O. A Critical Study of Existing Organization and Administra- tion of Supervision. Bloomington, Ill.: Public School Publishing Co.., 1929. 158 p. . NATIONAL EpucaTION ASSOCIATION, DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. The Superintendent Surveys Supervision. Eighth Yearbook. Washington, D. C.: the Department, 1930. Chapter 7, “Suggested Experimental Studies in Measuring Supervision,” p. 141-75. . NATIONAL EpucaTION ASSOCIATION, DEPARTMENT OF SUPERVISORS AND DIRECTORS oF Instruction. The Evaluation of Supervision. Fourth Yearbook. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1931. 181 p. . StRAYER, GeorGe D., and ENncevuarpt, N. L. A Score Card and Standards for the Records and Reports of City School Systems. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1923. 82 p. . Towner, Earte M. “The Formal Rating of Elementary-School Principals.” Elementary School Journal 35: 735-46; June 1935. . VanAnTWwerP, Harriet. “Teachers’ Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Super- visory Activities.’ Educational Method 15: 441-47; May 1936. Weser, Orvitte E. “A Study of Pupil Reports Issued by the Public Elemen- tary Schools in Cities Having a Population of More than 100,000.” Pitts- burgh Schools 9: 95-98; January-February, 1935. CHAPTER IV EVALUATING THE CURRICULUM EDITORIAL COMMENT taken as part of a program of curriculum revision. It would be useless to evaluate a course of study without subsequently trying to improve it. It would be equally unwise to revise a course of study without first determining how well it meets appropriate criteria. Both appraisal and revision must be based on the same educational philosophy and the same guiding principles or objectives. Often the thoro appraisal of an existing course of study involves the collection of materials which will have a place in the revised course. In practise, therefore, there may be no sharp distinction between appraising and building a curriculum. If the curriculum is conceived broadly—as the aggregate of chil- dren’s experiences and activities in the school—it may be partially appraised thru the results of valid achievement tests and other meas- ures of pupil development. Achievement tests, however, obviously cannot determine the value of subjectmatter. They can only ascertain how well pupils know and are able to use subjectmatter. There are many possible criteria for evaluating and revising curricu- lum content. Among them are present practises in other schools, chil- dren’s experiences, adult needs, children’s creative impulses, judgments of frontier thinkers concerning the issues of modern life, present social values, the social heritage of the race, and desirable human abilities and attitudes. A combination of approaches is usually desirable. The contributions to this chapter necessarily represent relatively limited phases of curriculum appraisal. Hobson describes the use of the case-study method in evaluating the curriculum for each individual child. Lawson reports an attempt to appraise curriculum content with reference to major educational objectives and courses of study used elsewhere. Holmes reviews a study of the subjects liked and disliked by the children of her school. Mackintosh describes the evolution of 4 social studies curriculum for the later elementary grades. Breed pre- sents a comprehensive picture of problems and progress in developing a course of study in spelling. Grossnickle proposes criteria for judging the teaching of division. Fritz tells of two attempts to evaluate poems by obtaining children’s reactions to them. Since many aspects of curriculum appraisal are not covered in this chapter, the reader should consult also the references listed on page 375.—Editorial Committee. Prister ss be APPRAISAL of an existing curriculum is usually under- [ 322 ] ler- be ing ady nal the tion Lise, and ‘hil- ally eas- usly ‘tain ricu- chil- ents ocial lities ively se of idual with used liked of a pre- oping dging yoems n this page EVALUATING THE CURRICULUM 323 EVALUATING THE CURRICULUM FOR THE INDIVIDUAL PUPIL Crioy 8. Hosson Superintendent, Genoa Public Schools, Genoa, Illinois HE IDEAL of adapting the school program to the needs and abilities of the children has become almost universal. In the typical school of a few years ago, the administration set up a standard curricu- lum and expected the child to conform; in the progressive school of today, the child is considered the standard and the school attempts to build curriculums which conform to his requirements. Common practise, however, falls far short of this ideal. Many schools have been content to consider pupils in the mass—to establish and evaluate the curriculum in terms of mass needs and abilities. The peculiar needs of the indi- vidual pupil, particularly of the pupil who deviates widely in any direction from the central tendency of the group, have not been a major consideration in constructing and evaluating courses of study. The school may adapt its program to the child by building a general curricu- lum suited, with only slight individual modifications, to the require- ments of the large central group, and individual curriculums for those pupils whose capacities vary widely from the capacities of the central group. Evaluation of each of these curriculums in terms of the pupil’s individual needs and abilities is necessary to attain the ideal. DIFFICULTY OF ADEQUATE EVALUATION The task of evaluation is fraught with difficult problems. How may the teacher know with certainty which pupils belong to the large middle group for whieh the established general curriculum is suitable? How may the teacher discover which pupils deviate far enough from the central tendency to need radically changed or wholly different curricu- lums? How may the teacher know whether a more suitable adjustment of the curriculum to the pupil can be made by reclassification of the pupil or by changes in content within the grade? How may the teacher know whether or not a given maladjustment is a curriculum problem? The symptoms of poor adjustment may be caused by emotional, social, or physical disorders, or by defects in instructional methods. These problems and many others baffle and often discourage teachers and supervisors. To solve these problems the school must have more knowledge about the curriculum and about the child than it commonly has. In any task of measurement, the qualities both of the thing measured and of the measuring device must be known. The curriculum to be measured and 324 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS the pupil used as the standard of measurement are extremely complex, The knowledge and skill required to measure accurately the items in the course of study for a particular grade in terms of the abilities and needs of a particular child are probably much greater than the educa- tional profession possesses at the present time. The profession can improve its knowledge and skill only by working constantly at the task and by pooling the experiences of its members. A Meruop or APPRAISAL General features—The method used for evaluating the curriculum in the school system in which the writer is employed is an outgrowth of the diagnostic and remedial program used for maladjusted pupils. The preliminary procedures are much the same as those formerly used to discover minor maladjustmenés of any kind among the rank and file of pupils. The point of view, and some of the later procedures in cases in which the curriculum must be adjusted to the child, are different from those in the usual program of guidance. The following paragraphs describe in general terms the method used: 1. To facilitate the appraisal of the curriculum in terms of pupil needs and abilities, the school keeps and makes available to the teacher continuing individual records of the pupils, including data pertaining to each pupil’s mental, physical, emotional, social, and economic status and habits. 2. The school provides record forms for diagnostic and remedial work, and instructs the teacher in their use. 3. The record forms provide outlines under which teachers may fill in facts and opinions about the pupil and about the subjectmatter of the curriculum. The outlines are as brief and simple as possible, yet complete and detailed enough to be effective. They include only ma- terial and terms which the teacher can use. 4. The topics in each outline are general enough to include any con- ditions which need description in a case. Detailed directions for use, and detailed outlines of specific items under the general topics, are supplied in a manual.' 5. The record forms provided vary in completeness and complexity. A problem case may be solved long before all the facts called for on a complex form have been collected and recorded. For simple cases a simple form is adequate. All cases are recorded at first on a simple or preliminary form; those found to be more difficult or complex are transferred to a more complete form. Supplementary forms may be t Published materials may be used instead of a local manual. For example. see: Torgerson, T. 1 The Diagnosis and Treatment of Pupil Maladjustment. Ann Arbor, Mich.: Edwards Brothers, In EVALUATING THE CURRICULUM 325 6. A study of the psychology of subjectmatter aids teachers in com- paring the pupil’s nature with the learning processes involved in the mastery of the subject. 7. The results of standardized tests and of school examinations are usually inadequate and often unreliable for individual diagnosis. Im- provised measuring devices, focused on a suspected weakness, may reveal hidden facts. Observing the pupil’s habits of work, studying his mental activities as he describes how he is solving a selected problem, and noting his difficulties as he reacts to a carefully graduated scale of selected material, are often keenly diagnostic procedures. 8. The teacher is advised to remain open-minded about each case. Altho conclusions must be drawn early and remedial work based on them must be begun, the conclusions should remain tentative until the teacher is sure the correct remedial measures have been applied. 9. As the study of any pupil progresses, the pupil will inevitably grow. The conditions observed in him one day may not exist the next week or the next day. The teacher is advised to recognize and record this growth and to change her procedures if necessary. 10. When it seems wise because of physical or social conditions, the problem child is passed on to the next grade whether he has achieved the standards set for his grade or not. If he has been given a curriculum adapted to his needs and abilities and has succeeded in it, he has achieved all that should be expected of him. Differentiation of curricu- lums implies differentiation of promotional examinations. Each child is given an examination based on the curriculum he has pursued. 11. For some pupils it may be appropriate to change the grade placement of items in the general elementary-school curriculum. When once a pupil’s curriculum is made, even tho it contains material usually assigned to a higher or lower grade than the one in which he meets it, or material not included in any other curriculum, the pupil is made to feel that he is developing his peculiar abilities and that success in his curriculum is just as respectable as success in any curriculum. 12. The forms on which a pupil’s case is recorded are passed on from teacher to teacher as long as the information supplied therein is of value in educating the child properly. Each succeeding teacher, how- ever, regards the child without prejudice, compares the data on the forms with the present status of the child, and continues the case with an open mind. Record forms used—Case-study record booklets may be obtained from several publishers.2 They are usually too complex and technical - For example, see: Torgerson, T. L. Case Study Record. Madison, Wisconsin: University of isconsin, 326 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS for use by the classroom teacher. They are valuable chiefly for work with difficult cases that are being handled by supervisors or guidance officers. Two different record forms are being developed by the writer and the teachers under his supervision. In their present form they have been in use only one year. Figure I shows the simpler of the two forms—the one used for the preliminary record of each pupil in the school. It is printed lengthwise on an 814” by 14” sheet. All the data called for are about the pupil himself. Many of the pupils whose records are placed on this form are found to be readily adjustable to the general curriculum. The specifie cases listed on the form reproduced here were selected from the records of several teachers. Spaee does not permit inclusion here of the second form, which is used in further diagnosis and treatment of the more difficuit cases. It is printed on the two sides of an 814” by 14” sheet. Only item 12 in Form 1 is ineluded also in Form 2. The latter calls for further infor- mation about the pupil, information about the subjectmatter, changes made in the curriculum to adapt it to the pupil’s particular capacity, the results of the work done to help him, and critical comments that may help in subsequent work with the pupil. Provision is made for having the study continued by three teachers. Criticism of the method—Teachers may object at first to the method just described, because they lack understanding of its purposes and specific procedures, and because it takes time from the usual class routine. Adequate instruction of teachers, with the aid of a manual and with illustrations of completed forms, such as that reproduced in this article, should help to remove the objections. Evaluating curriculums on the basis of individual needs and devising suitable instructional materials require much more intelligent thought than merely offering a general curriculum and either forcing pupils who do not succeed with it to repeat the same work, or letting them advance from grade to grade with barely passing marks. The former plan requires the aban- donment of old, and the organization of new classroom methods—the devotion of less time and energy to ineffective group instruction, and more to effective individual instruction. Intelligent practise in using the method should in time produce master teachers who are capable of using it well. Since the method contains many of the simpler technics commonly practised by guidance experts and supervisory officers, the bare description of it may seem trite and inconsequential. It is de- signed, however, to give two tasks to the people most capable of dis- charging them. 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Ye sem 9-66bl sz a 4104 | pool o joy ji Poe pon rang Be ui py” HA a 4A + | "meq oh) re yje sTsousetg ay jeany | Aaomyny pape arr ka / LM pd M sUTUT 67083 S3TQBH | SUCT3 V Tetg | Wuouolg| sepnztady uaLBeH rount eau - pus ° 4 ue Our >on [eqoos —_ s30a50eq cetee Teng;avul . seer fy | gueutqazez| s4e0203u teotséui | -TTom caret | Standen jpue s d as Tt I] -oyotsy | Teopsfuz FFB4L Tereues |- qoef | A103sTH i oT 6 9 Ug | teqosrsyy poaaeeen qng Too] |ts y a o38q L | 9 Bs y shams -WUNN}| yuey |-uiny d ; : Pe te Saavur) TIV F d-Al V-AI J ia d V-IA Loagrang :HaVuUr) NI SAOIOHD ISUly aqvar) HOVY NI SilidOd Ad L8saq GaMIT SLoardng—T WTAVL EVALUATING THE CURRICULUM 339 ——— subjects liked best, and its high place among the subjects liked least give us something to think about. Music is fifth, sixth, or seventh among the subjects liked best in the various grades, holding a rank of 7 in all grades combined. This subject is second among those liked least (see Table 2), which seems to indicate an active antagonism toward it. Since many of the children’s comments were based on inability to read notes or to interpret keys, we challenged both our own teaching and the heavy assignment re- quired. Certainly the music period should be a joyous experience for the average child. Penmanship is eighth in the composite ranking. It is not liked best by any of the children in Grades II-A, III-B, or IV-A, and holds from sixth to ninth place in the other grades. Its standing improves slightly in the upper grades. That language was placed so low in the list was an occasion for grief among the teachers. It is ignored among the subjects liked best in Grades II-A, IV-A, VI-B, and VI-A, and received only eight of the 808 choices in all grades. It also ranks low among the subjects liked least, indicating an attitude of indifference on the part of the children. The teachers feel that this situation is due to the pupils’ failure to consider all oral and written expression as a phase of “language,” and their consequent association of this term with drill periods only. After discussion we decided to feature English under its proper name, to make the class periods an occasion for delight, and to say frequently after lessons which are frankly enjoyed by the children, “This is English!” No pupil can afford to approach the continuous study of an important subject with so disastrous a mind-set. The only subject toward which the pupils seem more indifferent than toward language is elementary science. It ranked lowest both among the subjects liked best and among those liked least. Subjects liked least—-Reference has already been made to some of the subjects liked least. Table 2 shows the children’s responses on this question in detail, giving the number of times each subject was chosen and the corresponding rank by grades. The choices here were more evenly distributed among the subjects and more persistent from grade to grade than in the case of the subjects liked best. As mentioned above, the subject receiving the most negative votes (140 in all grades combined) is social science. It holds first or second place in every grade except II-A, III-B, and III-A. Music, in second place for the school as a whole, ranks lowest in Grade V-A and IV-B, where it holds fourth place. Spelling, arithmetic, and penmanship are third, fourth, and fifth in the composite ranking, but are quite incon- sistent from grade to grade. Ul s8JIOyuo ou WATAIAL joo fe ns 8) vsn Boo UdeATS uBl O { 1 1 Nt ‘T uu ay} 410} sandy pel § 938 ‘sao10yo oF ya V-A apelin ul ysuy “sa0toyo 0g ara H-IA opBiry ur HY ‘S@OIOYO 9I qua V-IA opBiry ut #8D9) Poy syafqns ey su0Wwy -9)qQD) po. 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BUIPBaY 9 gg 8 ad 9 € ¢ 9 G €I ¢ ar}; ¢ 9] at] $8) 2 ¢°9)| 9 9 Th, Maas: a g 28 j 9 € L cr | at L ¢ 6 P € 0% L It; ¢9/ 9 P SS tae drysueurueg v c6 € ¢ 9 € € IT 9/8 ce | &T P cI j 91 PF él ¢ 6 | eReuqyy 3s € m6 | Go| Ss ct; 8 v L F oI | Ge} &I ¢ el | ¢ P| él € eI € ae, 3 ee suyjedg == a eet) it 8 ct; 8 Gr} él Pv él I 6Z G 12} Gh] &l z 91 a ee ne ; I OFT " . ¥ ¥ 9 ¢ if al z 8I I €% I O€ I 0€ I _ rat BIUBTOS [BIOS 1% 0Z 61 8I LI 91 ST ia! eI a IT or 6 8 Z 9 ¢ t £ z I 13q 13q 10q 10q 1aq 193q 1aq 1aq 19q 1aq - yuey |-unN| yuey j-unN] yuey |-uNN|) yuey j-uinN| yuey j-wnN|] yuey |-wnN|) yuey j-wny] yuey |-wnN) yaey j-unN) yuey j-wny — . ee ee Loaraag sadavul) TIY V-II ad-Ill V-Ill ad-Al V-AI ad-A V-A a-IA V-IA :9aVul) NI SADIOHD ISUly aqvur) HOVY NI SildNg Ad Isva'] GaUI'T SLOarang—Z WIAV.L EVALUATING THE CURRICULUM 341 Art and reading again emerge as favorite subjects; they are sixth and seventh among the subjects liked least. Physical education is apparently disliked by very few children, and the same is true of language and elementary science. The latter received only 23 of 808 choices as the least liked subject in the list. Combining favorable and unfavorable votes for each subject—Since every subject was liked best by some pupils and liked least by others, it was necessary to combine the two types of votes in order to see their real significance. This was done by subtracting the number of times a subject was reported as “liked least,” from the number of times it was reported as “liked best.’”’ When the former number was larger than the latter, the difference between them was given a minus sign. The results of this computation for all grades combined are as follows: Liked best Liked least Difference Arithmetic och Pateniinsce Seca Ria ek os 307 92 215 Art ; Seabee teben ale Suede PRG 127 65 62 Social science ......... si teeneG 59 140 —81 Language . i tikaeGaleie Baek ine 8 55 —47 Reading .. ee 117 59 58 IIE sc dco Sing othe Sramiranaes hed , 62 94 —32 Penmanship ........... , 15 82 —67 Elementary science ; ; 3 23 —20 eee Sears 44 133 —89 Physical education ................ 66 27 39 From these figures it is clear that arithmetic, art, reading, and physical education were the only subjects liked best more often than they were liked least. All the others received more negative than positive votes. Children’s reasons for their choices—We have been much more interested in children’s reasons for liking or not liking a subject than in the choices themselves. Following is the outline of reasons used in tabulating the responses, together with the percent of all‘ responses classified under each major heading: REASONS FOR LIKING SUBJECTS BEST I. Power (43 percent) A. I ean do it. It’s fun. B. I get good grades. C. I can do it better now than I used to. II. Desirable subjectmatter (43 percent) A. I like this study. It is interesting. B. I enjoy the specific thing that the subject brings: working with tools, clay, or color; multiplication, fractions, keeping score, running, writing notes, learning to write a story, variety of opportunities, creating. C. Best by comparison. (I like it better than any other.) ITI. Value (14 percent) A. It is valuable to me now. B. It will be valuable later. C. It strengthens my character. 342 ELEMENTARY ScHOOL PRINCIPALS REASONS FOR LIKING SUBJECTS LEAST I. Lack of power (49 percent) A. I can’t do it well. 1. I don’t understand some specific thing, such as reading notes, division of fractions, ete. B. I get poor grades. C. The work is too hard. (Note the difference in the attitudes of pupils who give A and C as reasons for liking a subject least.) Subjeetmatter shortage (33 percent) . Iam not interested in this subject. I don’t enjoy the specific thing we have to do in this subject. . The subject is too indefinite. . It is monotonous. . It takes too long. I can never finish the lesson. . I can get it somewhere else (at home). . No reason given. III. No value (2 percent) IV. Method unsatisfactory (9 percent) A. I don’t like drill. B. We have to write too much. I don’t like to write. C. I don’t like the way we do it (specific method). D. There are too many questions. EK. Too much memorizing. V. I like this subject less than others (2 percent). VI. I dislike none (5 percent). Il. AMO Ot > 2 lon G2 The subheadings in these outlines represent the actual answers of most pupils. A few responses, however, were not covered adequately by any of the headings listed. Such unusual answers as “I like arithmetic because Miss 0.00.0... makes it interesting,” and “TI like art because I can draw the things out of my own head,” were perforce classified under the same headings as “The subject itself interests me,” and “I like the things we do in this subject.” In tabulating the replies, it was impossible to take account of the fact that one pupil may be keenly responsive to the part played by the teacher, while another pupil is strongly creative and less dependent upon the teacher. Of the 808 reasons given for liking subjects best, 86 percent were based either on a sense of power or on an interest in the subjectmatter itself, while only 14 percent emphasized the value of the subject. Of the 808 reasons for liking subjects least, 82 percent were centered either in a lack of power or in a lack of interesting subjectmatter, while only 2 percent stated that the subject had no value. These facts indicate that the children in this school are not much concerned about the values of various subjects, but are influenced strongly by the nature of subjectmatter and by the degree of successful achievement which they are able to attain. This information should help us to increase the popularity of subjects which are now in disrepute. It is gratifying that only 4 percent of the responses mentioned good grades as the reason for liking a subject best, and only 3 percent listed EVALUATING THE CURRICULUM 343 poor grades as the reason for liking a subject least. It is also encourag- ing to note that among pupils who had difficulty with their work, the number who said, “I can’t do it well,” was nearly twice as large as the number who said, “The work is too hard.” On the other hand, one cannot help being concerned about a situation in which 67 pupils say they don’t like music because they “can’t sing,” and in which 40 pupils reject the subject of art because they “can’t do it well.” Aren’t elementary-school children a little young to be assuming that any avenue of activity is entirely closed to them? Several different criticisms of teaching methods were received, but the only one of outstanding frequency was, “I don’t like the way we do it.” Apparently most of these children do not realize the significance of method; yet this phase of instruction is undoubtedly responsible for many of the difficulties and dislikes of pupils in the school. Stability of children’s interests—One of the questions we raised was whether there was any permanency of pupils’ likes and dislikes, or whether their interests were wholly variable from year to year. In measuring this factor, one point was allowed for each choice that remained constant thruout all of a pupil’s responses; that is, a subject received one point if a pupil selected it twice out of two choices, three times out of three choices, four times out of four choices, and so forth. Anything less than complete stability was expressed fractionally; for example, a subject chosen twice out of three choices received two-thirds of a point, while a subject chosen only once or not at all received no points. By this method of measurement, arithmetic was by far the most stable among the subjects liked best, receiving about twice as many points as its nearest rival, art, and about two and one-half times as many as reading, which ranked third. The most unstable subjects were language, penmanship, and elementary science, none of which was chosen by any pupil more than once during the study. Among the subjects liked least, none was chosen with outstanding consistency year after year. Music was the most stable, with social science, spelling, and arithmetic following closely. The most unstable were elementary science, physical education, and language. Individual responses—A study of the responses of individual pupils has amply repaid teacher effort. Here, for example, is a child who for six semesters has said, “I like art least because I can’t do well in it.” There is surely an obligation on somebody’s part to dissipate this attitude, particularly as teachers report that this pupil does very well in art. Physical difficulties also become apparent in such replies as these: “I have a headache whenever I read.” “I always get out of breath 344 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS during physical education.” “I always have a nose bleed.” “I don’t like to recite orally because I have a split tongue.” Several children betrayed the childish love of routine when they said, “T don’t like elementary science because we don’t have it often enough.” One naive answer came from a small maid who disliked social science because she was not a very “geographical person.” A rather dreadful arraignment of one teacher’s method was made by the boy who said, “I don’t like reading because we have to write so much.” Another child little knew how great an indictment of the school lay in his statement, “I like arithmetic because my father makes it like a game.” With true missionary spirit we wish all pupils could reply as did one, “The subject I like most is all of them.” Conclusion—As stated at the beginning, this study proves nothing about the subject likes and dislikes of school children in general. The results of such a study are of value only to the individual school con- cerned. Differences in methods of teaching, in the abilities and person- alities of teachers, in the amount of time devoted to the various subjects, and in the mental abilities of pupils undoubtedly exert an influence upon the preferences which pupils express. To determine the specific contribution of each of these factors will require further study. How- ever, as a first step in appraising the curriculum in practise, and as a means of inspiring teachers to examine their work still more critically, the procedure described above has been found very useful. It is not to be expected, of course, that all pupils will learn to like all subjects equally well. Nevertheless, there is value in concentrating the school’s effort, for a time, on the subjects they like least, especially if these are generally recognized as among the most important by educational leaders. Children are not likely to profit greatly from school activities in which they are not interested, or which they actively dislike. URN OT le Ss EVALUATING THE CURRICULUM 345 APPRAISAL AND REVISION OF A SOCIAL STUDIES CURRICULUM Heten K. Mackrntosu * Associate Professor of English, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio HE SOCIAL STUDIES CURRICULUM for the later elementary grades in Grand Rapids, Michigan, has evolved during a period of years. In its first published form it appeared in 1928 as separate mimeo- eraphed bulletins in geography, history, civics, and practical arts. Altho issued separately, all these courses had a common starting point in the general aims of education. Each course had its own specific aims, but all courses had somewhat similar sections on methods, materials, and bibliography. Each one emphasized child activities as important for learning. Early progress in integrating the social studies—The teachers used these courses until they had developed a feeling for the contributions of each—geography, history, civics, and practical arts. They suggested additions and subtractions of content, and recommended the activities that had been found most successful. The goal toward which superin- tendent and supervisors were working was a unified course in the social studies for the later elementary grades. A revision of the original courses in the four separate fields appeared in 1932. This revision was a unified course, altho the units presented were recognizable as essentially geography, history, or civics. The practical arts content was inserted largely in the form of activities related to the subjectmatter units. These units were of the conventional type, with such titles as “How the Pioneers Lived,” “Earning One’s Living in Michigan,” “The British Commonwealth of Nations,” and “School Costs.” There were also some optional units in practical arts, such as “Dishes Americans Use” and “Modern Communication.” The teachers welcomed these units as a means of eliminating separate periods and the resultant overlapping in the several social studies fields. But by 1934 the teachers had grown in their thinking about social problems and in their ability to look at a course of study from a broad rather than from a narrow viewpoint. They felt the need for content that would touch the lives of girls and boys, that would avoid over- lapping, and that would represent some continuity of thinking from the kindergarten thru Grade VI. Criteria for further revision—The yardstick which the teachers used in appraising the course in social studies was subjective rather than objective. They felt that the citizens of the community did not fully 1 Formerly Supervisor, Later Elementary Grades, Grand Rapids, Michigan. 346 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS appreciate their schools. They believed that the only way by which different attitude could be built was to educate the next generation in terms of community problems, with less emphasis than in the past upon content that is far removed from the actual experiences of chil- dren. It seemed to these teachers that if children knew where tax money comes from; how it is spent; how schools get funds; what industries are important to the community; what part the average individual, whether child or adult, plays in the promotion of safety; what the transportation needs and problems of a city are; what persons have been the leaders in community enterprises; what the cultural centers of city life are; how a city is governed; and other similar topics —they (the children) would be more intelligent citizens. The teachers were aware that some children engaged in no recrea- tional activities; that many came from families who were on relief: that others had diseased tonsils and bad eyes; and that there were children in every school building who needed more and better foods. All these situations led thinking teachers to believe that schools should be more concerned with present problems than with past history. A two-year cooperative program—aAs a result of this conviction, a group known as the “conference group on social studies” planned a cooperative two-year program. The first step was that of orienting members of the group with respect to community problems. A panel discussion was used to bring the issues involved out into the open. Several teachers, a parent, and a business man were included as mem- bers of the panel. The conclusion drawn from this discussion was that small committees should study the educational, industrial, civic, and recreational agencies of the city. As a background for this study, teachers became familiar with the aims and purposes of the Virginia course of study.? They read recent magazines with articles on the problem. They familiarized themselves with the revised course in social studies for the kindergarten and first grade in their own city. They called in an industrial leader to discuss community problems with the large group. In a similar way they called in the city director of social agencies and a man interested in the field of religious education. They tried to get the opinions of these people with regard to what the schools were doing and ought to do. Com- mittees of teachers obtained informal interviews with the director of the art gallery and with the head of the Y. M. C. A. They visited a cooperative exchange where no cash was used, but where many men earned a living. They made similar visits to other interesting centers in the community. 2 Virginia State Board of Education. Tentative Course of Study for Virginia Elementary Schools: Grade I-VII. Bulletin, Vol. 17, No. 1. Richmond: the Board, 1934. 560 p. eee ca Seek ed sity PNY an an EVALUATING THE CURRICULUM 347 ha Questionnaires answered by children—In addition, a number of ion teachers used questionnaires with their children to discover facts con- ast cerning the children’s health, problems discussed in the home, chil- iil- dren’s recreations, and the like. The results from one such question- Lax naire are presented here: “ SURVEY OF CHILDREN’S INTERESTS IN THE COMMUNITY ze . F ” 1. Did you go to any of the following places over the week-end? (Number y; answering ‘ Yes”) ms Grades ral IV V VI Total ics a. Library 16 6 28 50 ‘ b. Museum 6 8 10 24 c. Park 3 8 10 21 is d. Movies ele Se ow 65 f - e. Sunday school ............. 17 23 39 79 —< f. Art gallery : 1 3 4 8 ” 2. Did you listen to the radio? Do you have a favorite program? Did you learn ls, } anything new? ld a. Number that listened... 21 12 12 45 b. Number of favorite programs 8 9 12 29 (1) Eddie Cantor .. 14 7 r 4 28 a (2) Joe Penner ... 8 0 2 10 a (3) Lone Ranger 7 8 3 18 ms ce. Number of things learned 3 12 15 30 . 3. What thing in the neighborhood would you miss most if it were taken away? el f a. Library 6 4 8 18 n. b. Movies . ay : 7 3 15 - ec. Museum 4 1 0 5 d. Trees 3 6 1 10 at e. Playground - ; 3 3 3 9 id f. Park ..... eeinsie ites 1 2 3 6 4. Do you know of any problems your father and mother are thinking about? F ae eee 4 3 6 13 e ' b. Moving 2 0 2 4 t fi c. Budgets 7 19 14 40 a d. Jobs 8 4 6 18 Fi ' e. Clothes 2 8 2 12 ~ | f. Taxes 3 1 7 11 s &§ g. Education 0 3 2 5 d : The conclusions reported by the teacher making this survey were as d follows: e £ 1. Unemployment is a real problem. 2. Most families in this neighborhood are operating on reduced budgets. f 3. People in this community who are not already on relief have difficulty in , | paying taxes. : 4. Parents want a good education for their children. 1 § Interest in the art gallery needs stimulating. There is a movie problem in this district. Places for active play are popular. library. 5. 6. 7. Most children listen to the radio just for fun. 8. 9. Greater emphasis should be given in the school program to the work of the 348 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Summarizing pertinent information—The results of all these studies were pooled as informal reports to the conference group on social studies, and were then reported at a summary meeting to all teachers o{ the later elementary grades. A permanent file of source materials was built, to which any teacher had access. Summary sheets such ag the following were distributed to all teachers of the grades concerned and to others interested: SOCIAL STUDIES SUMMARY Do You Know: 1. That thru the work of the Anti-Tuberculosis Society our death rate has beep reduced from 125 to 31.7 per 100,000 of population? 2. That the Humane Society picks up an average of 250 cats a month and 2500 dogs a year? 3. Why there is a 345-foot well under the Civic Auditorium? 4. That a record for comparative purposes is kept of all school supplies used within each building of the city schools? 5. That there is a movement among the students in some church schools of Grand Rapids “to take a stand against demoralizing types of literature and motion pictures, and to consider a moral code for social life’’? 6. That about one out of every thirty people in Grand Rapids (one-half thy number being children) makes a regular monthly visit to the Art Gallery, whi in other cities about one out of every eight or ten attends regularly? 7. That the Grand Rapids Art Gallery receives no financial support from the city, while most other cities the size of Grand Rapids either partially or fully finance their art galleries? 8. That about 700 wandering boys are cared for each year by the Grand Rapids Y.M.C.A.? 9. That the Herold-Bertsch Shoe Company began in Grand Rapids becaus Alonzo Herold and Christian Bertsch saw a market for loggers’ boots in the early days? 10. That the Edgar S. Kiefer Tanning Company began here because in th early days Grand Rapids was a good location as a wool pullery? 11. That Grand Rapids has the largest of all carpet-sweeper, school-seat, win- dow-sash-pulley, excelsior, sticky-fly-paper, show-case, and refrigerator factories in the world? Organizing and evaluating material—Plans were made to continue the conference group on social studies for a second year for the purpose of actually building units of material in terms of its findings. In the fall of 1935 the original group, with some additions, met as a com- mittee of the whole—forty in number—to develop units cooperatively. First the group as a whole went thru the steps of organizing a unit 0! work in the light of their reading, discussion, investigation, and think- ing of the previous year. Themes were developed, generalizations made, content suggested, activities pooled; and desirable outcomes stated The group set up the following simple standards for guidance: 1. Make all statements simple enough for the “man on the street” to under- stand. 2. Keep generalizations few and to the point. 3. List type activities that can apply to many situations. (Too many detailed activities are confusing.) udies Ocia] Ts of Was 3 the and been and used Is of and the vhile the fully pids A USE arly the vin- ries er- led EVALUATING THE CURRICULUM 349 4, Avoid overlapping outcomes. State outcomes in terms of children; avoid generalities. After the large-group experience with developing a unit was con- cluded, groups of four or five teachers worked together to develop units. Each of these groups presented its material to the larger group for criticism. The standards indicated above were applied in evaluat- ing the material presented. As yet the results of this project are available only in the form of new units which are to be tried out this year, at least one by each individual teacher. These units are organized under the general heading of “Mutual Responsibilities and Opportunities of the City and Its Citizens.” They are tentatively grouped according to grades and topics, as follows: Grade III: Transportation—Safety Grade IV: Food Supply—Health—Housing Grade V: Communication—Education—Leaders Grade VI: Government—Cultural Centers—Religion—Civic Organiza- tions Since these are the results, not of the work of a small committee but of a large number of teachers, and since they are based upon concrete experiences, the material should serve the purpose set up for it. The work of revision cannot at present be evaluated objectively because the ends sought will be changes produced in the personalities of children and in the thinking of the community itself. O STANDARDIZED ACHIEVEMENT TEST, if only because of its limited sampling, can be taken as a safe guide to what should be taught at any grade level. Moreover, because of the characteristic lack of agreement, in local courses of study and among curriculum authorities, regarding the proper grade placement of specific instructional materials, it is extremely doubtful that a test could be constructed so as to serve as such a guide. The test results may sometimes indicate the need for curriculum reorganization, but the test itself will not indicate how that reorganization should be effected. To secure such help, the teacher should refer not to the test but to the better courses of study now available; to reports of curriculum inves- tigations; and to the writings of authorities on the curric- ulum.—Lindquist, E. F., p. 483 of this yearbook. 350 ELEMENTARY ScHOOoL PRINCIPALS SELECTION AND GRADATION OF THE SPELLING VOCABULARY FREDERICK S. BREED Associate Professor of Education, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois INCE THE PUBLICATION, in the late nineties, of Rice’s article entitled “The Futility of the Spelling Grind,”’! educators have showy greatly increased interest in the improvement of courses of study in spelling. They have been endeavoring to find out how many words should be included in the minimal spelling list, whether the words should be chosen on the basis of childhood or adult usage, whether they should be chosen on the basis of frequency of use or frequency of mis- spelling, and whether they should be graded according to difficulty, according to the grade in which they first occur, or according to the grade in which they are most commonly used. Masor ProsBteMs or Worp SELECTION Size of vocabulary—Most investigators have come to agree that children should not be given more than about 3500 words in the minimal list. It has been found that the 3500 words most frequently used included 98.3 percent of 1,000,000 running words taken from adult writing.? Three recent studies * of children’s writing vocabularies, including a total of 541,790 running words, showed that the 300 words of highest frequency comprised from 71 to 74 percent of all the running words in each study. Altogether, the available data indicate that if one goes much beyond 3500 words in the total for the minima! list, one encounters the law of diminishing returns. After the first 3500 adult words chosen on the basis of frequency, the next 500 similarly chosen would enable the child to spell less than 0.5 percent more of the total number of running words. By mastering these 500 additional words, the pupil would become able to spell correctly only one more word in every 233 written. There is a general consensus of opinion among those who have carefully studied the problem that for everyday or general usage it is not necessary to aim at greater efficiency than this in direct instruction. a Hie, inencat Tks Corioulaes for the Gifted: Beane Principles and an Inustration.”” 7 Education of the Gifted Child. Twenty-Third Yearbook, Part I, National Society for the Study of Education. Bloomington, Ill.: Public School Publishing Co., 1924. p. 87. 3 Mitchell, Philip S. The Writing Vocabulary of Children in the Southern States. Masters thesis. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1932. § Troutt, Madge M. Development of the Wntr Vocabulary of Children. Master's thesis. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1931. { Wheeler, Arville. The Writing Vocabulary of Rural Children. Master’s thesis. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1%4 ERY tled wn udy rds rds hey 1is- ty, the le. 4. ae re EVALUATING THE CURRICULUM 351 Recent data furnished by Foran‘ indicate that the above conclusion in regard to size of vocabulary is consistent with the present trend in spelling instruction. Foran reports the total number of words in the vocabularies of fifteen spellers in common usage, as follows: A—4845 F—4135 K—3572 B—4833 G—4016 L—3468 C—4797 H—3819 M—3158 D—4766 I—3698 N—2708 E—4206 J—3614 O—2500 His comment on these figures includes the following statement: “The median number of words in the above table is 3819, and it happens that this speller (H) is one of the best and most recent.” Adult usage versus childhood usage—The decision as to whether frequency of childhood usage, frequency of adult usage, or both should be the basis of the minimal spelling list depends largely upon one’s philosophy of education, and will so depend until experimental results take the problem out of the field of speculation. If childhood is merely a preparation for adult living, then it is proper to teach only those words commonly used by adults, with the hope that the words will not be forgotten before they are needed. If, however, childhood itself is regarded as a section of real life, then it seems proper to teach the P words children need when they need them. If childhood is life itself as well as a period of preparation for adult life, then words used most commonly by both children and adults (or commonly by either) should probably be taught. To determine the degree of resemblance between the vocabulary of children and that of adults, the writer at an earlier date compared a composite list of eleven vocabularies of adult correspondence, and a composite list of five vocabularies of children’s themes.® He found 60 - percent identity between the two lists. When he similarly compared the Commonwealth list ® with the composite of five vocabularies of chil- dren’s themes, he found an identity of 58.5 percent. When the dis- tinctive portions of the two lists were analyzed it was found that they were composed of almost entirely different types of words; that the distinctive element in the children’s list consisted of words referring to home and school, children’s adventures, activities, and the like, while the distinctive element in the adult list consisted of abstract and gen- ‘Foran, Thomas G. The Psychology and Teaching of Spelling. Washington, D. C.: Catholic Education Press, 1934. p. 45. 5 Breed, Frederick S. ‘‘What Words Should Children Be Taught to Spell?’’ Elementary School Journal 26: 118-31, October; 202-14, November; 292-306, December, 1925. ® Horn, Ernest. A Basic Writing Vocabulary: 10,000 Words Most Commonly Used in Writing. ie of Iowa Monographs in Education, Ist Series, No. 4. lowa City: the University, 1926. p. 352 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS eral terms, and words referring to business and other interests acquired only after a considerable degree of maturity. These results made it ultra-clear that a spelling vocabulary based on adult usage alone would include certain words that are not needed, and omit certain words that are needed, in the written expression of the child. Need of further investigation—Altho numerous investigations of children’s vocabularies have been made, it has been difficult to profit from these because of defects in the methods of tabulating and selecting the words. Some of these lists include all derived forms; others include only a few. Some omit all words of two letters, technical words, or very common words. The gravest defect of all is the omission of word frequencies, for such data are indispensable for the scientific selection and gradation of the spelling list. To the writer’s knowledge, there is not yet a single published study of the vocabulary of children’s writing that provides frequency of usage for the individual words. SevEN Newer STUDIES OF CHILDREN’S WRITING To secure the data required, an investigation’ of children’s writing was begun in 1928 at the University of Chicago, in connection with which six studies have now been completed.* A seventh study,” made at the Colorado State College of Education (formerly the Colorado State Teachers College), was included in the general investigation. Table 1 shows for each study whether the words were drawn from an urban or a rural source, what section of the country the sample represents, what grades were sampled, when the study was made, whether the material consisted of letters or themes, how many running words were tabulated in each grade, and how many different words were found. Method of study—The six University of Chicago studies all used the same technic. Themes were collected from a large number of children, who were permitted to write on topics of their own choice. The children were instructed to use, as they wrote, any word they wanted to use, and to write a word whether they were certain of the spelling or not. They were not permitted, however, to receive any help in spelling from either a teacher or a dictionary. A half hour was allowed for writing each theme. 7 This study was made possible by the assistance of the Federal Emergency Relief Administra- tion and the National Youth Administration, thru assignments of the Board of Vocational Guid- ance and Placement, University of Chicago, and by financial support received from the Depart- ment of Education, University of Chicago. 8 Dillon, Bessie. The Writing Vocabulary of Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, and Eighth Grade Pupis Chicago: University of Chicago, 1932. { Mitchell, Philip S., op. cit. { Troutt, Madge M., op. ev { Van Bruggen, John A. Geographic Differences in the Writing Vocabularies of Children. Mas ter’s thesis. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1933. { Wheeler, Arville, op. cit. | Wilson, Kathari G. The Writing Vocabulary of Second-, Third-, and Fourth-Grade Pupils. Master's thesis. Ch eago: University of Chicago, 1928. ® Simpson. Mary I. Vocabulary of Children’s Letters. Master's thesis. Greeley: Colorado Sta! College of Education, 1929. ¥ ng ith ite ] or he re ' EVALUATING THE CURRICULUM 353 In tabulating the data, all derivative forms: were listed as separate words. Frequency of usage and frequency of misspelling of each word were recorded by grades. It was possible to include the study from the Colorado State College of Education with the others, because it in- cluded words from all elementary grades and reported the frequency of each word in each grade. TABLE 1—INFoRMATION ReGARDING THE SEVEN INVESTIGATIONS OF CHILDREN’S Writina FEATURES AUTHOR Urban Section Grades Year of Type No. of No. of or of Included Investi- of Running Different Rural U.S. gation Material Words Words ae a (2) (3) (4) (5) 6) (7) (8) a Urban Middle | V-—VIII | 1932 | Themes 289,096 | 7,411 West Mitchell... .| Urban South II-VIII 1932 | Themes 141,952 5,269 Simpson... .| Urban 39 I-VIII 1929 | Letters 67,143 3,735 & Rural | States Troutt..... Urban East II-VIII 1931 | Themes 110,363 4,579 Van Bruggen..| Urban Pacific | II-VIII | 1933 | Themes 108,756 | 5,329 Coast Wheeler....| Rural Ken- II-VIII 1934 | Themes 289,475 | 5,540 tucky Wilson... ..| Urban Middle | II-IV 1928 | Themes &| 186,427 3,765 West | | Letters | I Number of running words—The total number of running words tabulated in the seven studies was almost 1,200,000: 1,126,069 in the Chicago studies and 67,143 in the Colorado study. The total number of different words found was 12,437.’4gspace does not permit including a tabulation of the number of running’ words by grades. The total for each study is given in Table +. Number of different words—Tfe number of different words found in each grade in each study is presented in Table 2. The total number of different words found in a study is, of course, not.the same as the sum of the numbers of different words found in the sevéral grades, because many words used in one grade are also used in other grades. For the same reason—repetition-—one cannot obtain the total number of differ- ent words used in a given grade by adding the nitm@ical values presented in a single column of the table. Res This number is tentative, being subject to slight change after further checking. The complete list, with grade and total frequencies for each word, is in preparation for publication. 354 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS TABLE 2—Numser or DIFFERENT Worps TABULATED BY GRADES IN SkEvEN INVESTIGATIONS OF CHILDREN’S WRITING GRADE Toran — No. or INVESTIGATOR DIFFERENT I nu | m | iv Vv vi | vir | vit | Wonps (1) 2 | @ | @ | ol] @ol]@m is @] (10) Dillon......... wee | eee | eeee | ee. | 3248 | 354013713] 4900} 7411 _ Mitchell....... .... | 605 | 1394 | 1673 | 2025 | 2215 | 2394 | 2760 | 5269 Simpson.......| 322 | 567 | 1197 | 1360 | 1364 | 1403 | 1511 | 1853 | 3735 Troutt........ 6th 254 | 1417 | 1448 | 1687 | 1943 | 2348 | 1919 4579 Van Bruggen...| .... | 871 | 1594 | 1682 | 1950 | 2162 | 2020 | 2696 | 5329 Wheeler....... .... | 1313 | 1806 | 2131 | 2306 | 2753 | 2841 | 2511 | 5540 Wilson........ cove | A EEE Bedxes Bocce Basene bosse'| 3765 OTHER IMPORTANT VOCABULARY PROBLEMS There are several important vocabulary problems on which these studies provide additional information, among which are the following: 1. What is the difference, if any, between the writing vocabulary of rural chil- dren and that of urban children? 2. What is the difference, if any, between the writing vocabulary of children in one section of the country and that of children in a widely separated section? 3. What is the difference, if any, between a writing vocabulary based on chil- dren’s themes and one based on children’s letters? 4. What is the difference, if any, between a spelling vocabulary based on fre- quency of usage and one based on frequency of misspelling? Rural and urban usage—Wheeler, whose study was confined en- tirely to the writing of rural children, compared his findings with those which Troutt and Mitchell had obtained from themes written by urban children. He found only 248 words with frequencies of ten or more in the rural study which were not found at all in the urban studies, and only 26 of these words seemed particularly related to rural life. As a result of this comparison, Wheeler concluded that ‘the writing vocabularies of rural and urban childrey are practically identical. The slight variations noted are probably dhe largely to the influence of the topics upon which themes were written.” '' These results have more than mere academic interest, for they help determine to what extent, il at all, different spelling courses should be prepared for city and country children. Geographic influence on vocabulary—Comparisons of the vocabu- laries from different sections of the country show that differences in word usage between sections are exceedingly small. Troutt’s Atlantic- Coast list and Wilson’s Middle-West list show 63 percent identity for 11 Wheeler, Arville, op. cit., p. 59. n- th EVALUATING THE CURRICULUM 355 the third grade and 61 percent identity for the fourth grade. Mitchell’s Gulf-Coast list and Troutt’s Atlantic-Coast list also show 63 percent identity, and there is 81 percent identity between the 1000 words of highest frequency in each list. Van Bruggen’s Pacific-Coast list and Troutt’s Atlantic-Coast list show 62 percent identity. These percent- ages may at first glance seem low, but when one considers that two lists based on such extensive tabulations as Thorndike’s }* and Horn’s '* show only 55 percent identity, they appear to be relatively high. The writing vocabularies of children in different geographic locations thus seem to vary one from another less than the reading vocabulary of adults varies from the writing vocabulary of adults. In fact, such vocabularies of children’s writing seem to vary less, one from another, than the writing vocabulary of adults varies from the writing vocabu- lary of children. But percentage of disparity is not an entirely satis- factory measure of the difference that exists in cases like these. This percentage expresses only degree of difference, when the kind of difference is extremely important also." Another approach to this problem is to make a detailed analysis of the different words in two compared vocabularies. This was done by Mitchell in his comparison of southern and eastern usage, and revealed only eleven words which could definitely be said to have been in- fluenced by geography, as follows: skate, skiing, sled, sledding, sleds, sliding, slippery, snowed, snowball, snowballs, and snowing. The conclusion reached in these studies is that geographic influence on the minimal writing vocabulary is exceedingly small, but should be recognized in preparing a course of study in spelling. Children’s letters versus children’s themes—A comparison of the lists obtained by Mitchell from children’s themes and by Simpson from children’s letters revealed 55 percent identity between them. When only the 700 words of highest frequency in each list were considered, 65 percent identity was found. When Troutt’s list, secured from children’s themes, and French’s list, secured from children’s letters, were com- pared, 54 percent identity was found. These percentages suggest that the theme and letter vocabularies ef children differ more from each other than do theme vocabularies from different sections of the country. If this is true, the use of children’s letters as a source of material will 1 Thorndike, Edward L. The Teacher’s Word Book. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1921. 13 Horn, Ernest. A Basic Writing Vocabulary: 10,000 Words Most Commonly Used in Writing. ow of Iowa Monographs in Education, ist Series, No. 4. Iowa City: the University, 1926. p. “A part of the disparity between the writing vocabularies of any two groups of children is due to sheer chance; that is, two other groups chosen in exactly the same way would show a different degree of disparity from that shown by the first two groups. The influence of this chance factor upon the results of vocabulary studies has never been measured satisfactorily. 356 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS probably contribute a small but important element to the minimal spelling vocabulary. Frequency of misspelling and frequency of use—To throw light on whether frequency of misspelling or frequency of usage should be adopted as the basis of selecting words for the minimal list, a com- parison was made between the 100 words having the highest frequency of usage in Van Bruggen’s list, and the 100 words having the highest frequency of misspelling in the same list. The percentage of identity was 38. When one considers that words of high frequency of usage afford frequent occasion for misspelling, it may be surprising that the identity was so small. Perhaps the reason is that frequency of usage also represents opportunity for practise, and hence improvement. These results tend to confirm previous conclusions that a spelling vocabulary based upon frequency of misspelling will differ considerably, other things equal, from a spelling vocabulary based on frequency of usage, Which means that it is important to make a decision between the two bases. This decision should be made on the grounds of principle. The principle, negatively stated, is that difficulty of spelling should have nothing whatever to do with the determination of the minimal spelling list. Difficulty is important for the organization of lesson units, and for the guidance of instructional emphasis; usage is important for the selection and gradation of words. PRINCIPLES OF WorD SELECTION Certain principles derived from a critical study of various sources of words, and the contributions which these sources make to the minima! spelling vocabulary, are briefly described in the following paragraphs. Between the writing vocabularies of urban and rural children, of children in one section of the country and those in a widely separated section, and of children’s themes and children’s letters, the differences are very small but of such a nature that they should be recognized. The amount of significant difference is at present more safely indicated by detailed analysis of the divergent elements in two vocabularies compared, than by a general percentage of disparity between them. Such analysis will indicate whether or not the distinctive element in one vocabulary is composed of words that differ in kind from the dis- tinctive element in another, and, therefore, whether or not the difference can safely be attributed to chance. In comparing the vocabulary of adults with that of children, or the vocabulary based on frequency of misspelling with that based on frequency of usage, the detailed analysis of divergent elements reveals that the differences observed are due less to chance than to the in- clusion of words of different types. PF HS RHR ce EVALUATING THE CURRICULUM 397 What do these results mean when applied in practise? They seem to mean that every approved source of words which makes a distinctive contribution should be properly sampled and used. For this reason urban as well as rural writing, writing from various sections of the country, and themes as well as letters should be included. With regard to the adult-childhood problem, the writer has recently taken the position that the adult vocabulary is not an approved source of words for Grades II to IV, inclusive. Frequency of children’s usage appears to be a sufficient basis for word selection in these grades, if the frequency values are large enough to be reliable. This principle leads to the inclusion of an appreciable percentage of words that would be excluded on the basis of adult usage alone. But what about the use of the adult vocabulary in Grades V thru VIII? The answer will vary with different workers. Altho the Chicago investigation provides the frequencies of the words by grades, the frequency values of many obviously important words remaining after the lists for the lower grades have been selected are so low as to be unreliable. From the fifth grade on, therefore, the following principles are recommended: (1) of several childhood words, all equal and rela- tively low in frequency, that word is a better selection which is found also in the usage of adults; (2) of several words of equally low fre- quency in the usage of children, and found also in the usage of adults, that word should be given preference which has the highest frequency of adult usage; and (3) in the highest grades, especially the eighth, the inclusion of a limited number of words found only in the adult vocabu- lary is justified, if the frequency of usage is sufficiently high. A TrecuNnic or WorpD SELECTION Simultaneous selection and gradation of words—In deriving a min- imal vocabulary, the size of the list should be determined before selec- tion of words begins. The question as to the size of the minimal list was briefly discussed at the beginning of this report. We shall, therefore, turn at once to the technic of word selection. To give the reader a clearer picture of the detailed data used in selecting spelling words from the new composite of seven writing vocabularies of children, Table 3 presents the first eighteen words in this composite, together with the frequency of each word in each of seven grades, and the total frequency of each word in all grades com- bined. The words appear in alphabetic order in the first column; then in regular sequence come the data for Grades II thru VIII, and the column showing the grand total for each word at the extreme right. The frequency values in Grades II, III, and IV have been statistically adjusted to place them on a comparable basis with the frequency totals in the remaining grades. 358 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Detailed application of the method—Selection of words from the tabulation illustrated in Table 3 is begun in the second grade. Words are selected on the principle, implied above, that to the second grade should be assigned the words most frequently used by pupils in that grade. The data in the second column of the table show precisely which words, of all those used by the elementary-school pupils, were used by second- graders. For example, the second-grade pupils whose writing was sampled in this investigation used the word a 6885 times, and the word about 191 times, but they made no use whatever of the words abbrevia- tion and aboard. The second-grade words are selected from this column by simply withdrawing the words of highest frequency until the desired number is obtained. After the second-grade words have been excluded as possibilities for selection in the third-grade column, this column is canvassed precisely as was the preceding column, and the words are chosen that have the highest frequencies among all the remaining ones used by third-graders. Similarly, the process is continued in the fourth grade. As already indicated, the data on children’s usage are supplemented by data on adult usage in selecting words for Grades V to VIII, in- clusive. For example, all of the following words are selected, altho none of them can be reliably selected on the basis of its frequency in the childhood vocabulary: absolutely, accept, according, addressed, ad- TABLE 3—SpectmMen oF TABULATION CONTAINING WorDS AND FREQUENCIES BY GRADES GRADE Worp r J . ; ; | | Tora. III IV \ vi | vin | VIN (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) | @) 9) OEE eee 6,885 | 6,225 | 4,633 | 4,449 | 4,903 | 4,589 | 4,347 |36,031 yt rer 0 0 0 0 0 0 l | abbreviation. . 0 0 0 0 1 0 | 0 l re 0 0 0 0 ] 0 | 0 l ability....... 0 0 0 0 1 2 | 6 9 ablaze....... 0 0 0 1 0 3 | 0 4 ae 0 22 245 167 29 24 | 39 526 aboard 0 3 0 0 1 7 | 9 | 20 abounding... . 0 0 0 0 0 0 | l l about........ 191 276 387 607 649 903 | 953 | 3,966 above........ 0 0 3 29 39 20 | 45 | 136 abroad....... 3 0 0 0 4 l 3 ll abscess....... 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 absence. .... 2 0 0 0 4 0 3 9 absent....... 2 0 9 5 3 6 5 30 absolutely... . 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 | 7 absorb....... 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 4 absorbed... .. 0 0 0 0 0 0 | l NTE ee RE ee rd nn ed for sly he TS. — — wma Bor-— & EVALUATING THE CURRICULUM 359 vise, advised, agent, appreciated, approval, and article. The frequencies of these words are all below 12 in the children’s vocabulary, but all are among the 1000 words used most commonly in adult writing, according to the Commonwealth list. Incidentally, these words have a mature flavor about them and suggest the phraseology of business correspond- ence, Which was a large and appropriate source for the Commonwealth study. Attention should be called to the most doubtful segment of the vocabulary proposed, namely, words frequently found in adult writ- ing, but not found at all in the new vocabulary of children’s writing. The following are examples, with their location in the Commonwealth compilation:'® acceptance, 3a; advisable, 2b; application, 1b; behalf, 3b; bond, 2a; bulletin, 2b; cancel, 2a; canceled, 2a; cancellation, 3a; and circumstances, 2a. The number of such words is relatively small. They should obviously be placed high in the grades, if included at all. To what extent does a vocabulary built in the manner described— that is, on the basis of both childhood and adult usage—differ from one built entirely on the basis of adult usage? To answer this question let us compare a vocabulary of 3815 words selected as just described, with the 4000 words of highest frequency in adult writing. This comparison reveals 801 words in the former vocabulary that are not found in the latter. This figure represents a preliminary count, but is approximately correct. It means that 21 percent of the new vocabulary consists of words that would not be selected if the data on adult writing were the only source for a spelling vocabulary of 4000 words. The words on which the two methods of vocabulary construction show the greatest divergence are the following: acorn, balloon, clown, cowboy, cowboys, dive, elephant, Eskimos, fox, foxes, hind, jack-o’- lantern, jerk, kite, paw, paws, princess, Santa Claus, scooter, snowball, snowballs, tiger, and tigers. These words not only do not appear in the 10,000-word adult list; they are not represented by derived forms, and none is a derivative of a root form in that list. They furnish the best illustrations, in written discourse, of the verbal interests of chil- dren as contrasted with the verbal interests of adults. Such words are used frequently enough by children, but not frequently enough by adults, to warrant their selection for the minimal spelling vocabulary. OuTLOOK FOR THE FUTURE While much remains to be done in the field of spelling vocabulary, more remains to be done in the field of spelling instruction. No other subject can claim so large a body of objective material for curriculum % The numeral following a word indicates the thousand; the letter, the first or second half of that thousand. 360 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS making as spelling. Tho a certain percentage of the words to be taught is still in dispute, the importance of this dispute should be weighed in the light of two considerations: 1. Differences due to unreliability of frequency values—Such differences result from insufficient sampling, from the nature and variety of topics upon which pupils write, and from other variable factors. These differences create uncer- tainty where reliable frequencies have been exhausted for a particular grade and additional selections have to be made from the remaining words. In some of these instances, however, the difference may be insignificant, and the choice of words a matter of indifference. 2. Differences due to disagreement on princtples—The question of selecting words on the basis of children’s usage alone or on the basis of adults’ usage alone is an example. Differences of this type will persist regardless of improve- ment in the reliability of word frequencies. Such differences cannot be settled by accumulating more frequency data; they can be settled, it seems, only by the accumulation of experimental results. In the writer’s opinion, we are nearer to a solution of the vocabulary problem in spelling than is ordinarily supposed. In any case, it seems obvious that there are more important avenues of advance in this subject than any in the domain of vocabulary. The days have passed when a barren list of words can pass for a course of study in spelling. Supervisors and classroom teachers seem ready for a more effective application of the best results of research to methods of teaching. HE APPRAISAL of old and the discovery of new curriculum material which contributes to contemporary life and guides it in the direction of social advance is by far the most difficult method of curriculum building. It requires broad scholarship on the part of teachers. It involves mastery of the psycho- logical principles governing the growth of human personality. It requires the intensive study of past and contemporary civ- ilizations, an analysis of their strengths and weaknesses, and the far more difficult task of predicting desirable directions for further social advance. It calls for deep insight into the forces which direct the currents of civilization. It demands continual reappraisal of the purposes and procedures of the school in the light of changing conditions. It implies that a school curriculum can be forward-looking only if it is the subject of constant revision, experimentation, and reappraisal. —Norton, John K., and Norton, Margaret A., Foundations of Curriculum Building, Ginn and Co., 1936, p. 81-82. (Quoted by permission of the publishers.) EVALUATING THE CURRICULUM 361 APPRAISING THE PROGRAM FOR TEACHING DIVISION Foster E. GrossNICKLE Professor of Mathematics, State Teachers College, Jersey City, New Jersey ONG DIVISION is generally looked upon as the most difficult process in arithmetic in the elementary school. There are two apparent reasons why this is true. First, division is a composite of other processes. Second, the actual need for long division is seldom experi- enced by pupils in the elementary school. As a result, this process must be learned chiefly as a manipulative procedure. Other processes in arithmetic may be taught in an activity program, but the writer has never seen a published report showing how long division will fit into such a program. Breed? recently reported an unanswered challenge from representatives of certain teacher-training institutions to show how long division may be taught by the project method. To make the process of division as easy as possible, the program for teaching it should be appraised with reference to the following ques- tions: 1. Is division with a one-figure divisor taught in the short or long form? 2. Is checking taught as part of the process of division? 3. What method is used in estimating the quotient when the divisor is a two- figure number? 4. In which grade or grades is the topic of long division taught? This article summarizes certain research findings which bear on these questions, and makes recommendations which may be used as criteria in judging the program for teaching division in an elementary school. What form of division should be used for a one-figure divisor?—This question can be answered with a degree of assurance that is seldom possible in the solution of an educational problem. Only the long form should be used for both easy and difficult divisors. The writer has re- ported elsewhere? an experiment in which the preponderance of evi- dence favored the long form. Since that study was reported, letters have been received requesting evidence on the relative merits of the short and long forms for the easy divisors—2, 3, 4, and 5. In the reported study, all one-figure divisors from 2 to 9, inclusive, were used. In May 1936, a test in division was given in two nearby school T centers to a group of pupils in Grades V and VIII. The same test was 1Breed, Frederick S. ‘The Liberal Group in Education.’’ Educational Administration and Supervision 22: 322-30; May 1936. _? Grossnickle, Foster E. ‘An Experiment with a One-Figure Divisor in Short and Long Divi- sion.” Elementary School Journal 34: 496-506, 590-99; March and April, 1934. 362 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS given also to a group which is referred to here as Grade XV. This group was composed of juniors and seniors in the college where the writer js employed. The pupils in Grade V had been taught to use the long form in dividing by a one-figure divisor, but those in the other two groups had been taught the short form. Each group was asked to solve the test problems by means of both the short and long forms of division, The quotient in each example included either three or four figures. The number of estimations for each divisor used was as follows: divisor 2, ten estimations; divisor 3, fifteen estimations; divisor 4, estimations; divisor 5, nineteen estimations. Only the number of errors was considered in scoring .this test. An error consisted of an incorrect figure in either the quotient or the re- mainder. The results of the test are given in Table 1. fourteen TABLE 1—Comparison or Errors Mabe IN SHort AND Lona Division wit Divisors or 2, 3, 4, AND 5 Num- AVERAGE Num- AVERAGE Num- DIFFERENCE | Ratio or Dtr- GRADE BER BER OF ERRORS BER OF ERRORS (Cotumn 3 FERENCE TO oF IN SHORT In LonG Minus | PROBABLE ERRor Puptts DIVISION Division Cotumn 4) | oF DIFFERENCE (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) | (6) , Serer 317 3.68 2.60 1.08 §.5 VIII 236 3.50 1.96 1.54 5.6 XV* 148 2.15 0.70 1.45 9.9 Read table: The 317 pupils in Grade V made an average of 3.68 errors in short division, and an average of 2.60 errors in long division; the difference of 1.08 was 5.5 times as large as its “‘prob- able error.’’ Similarly read figures for Grades VIII and XV. 8 Grade XV included college juniors and seniors. Table 1 shows that the average number of errors made in short division was larger for each group than the average number of errors in long division. Altho the differences seem small, column 6 shows that none of them was less than 5.5 times as large as its probable error. When a difference between two averages is at least 4 times its probable error, there is said to be a “significant” difference between the averages. When this ratio is 4.9, the chances are only 9 in 10,000 that a similar difference would not be obtained if the experiment were re- peated with other groups of pupils.* Hence, the chances that another group would make fewer errors by the short method than by the long method are almost infinitesimal. Since the preponderance of evidence is in favor of the long method, the teacher should see that her pupils learn to divide by that method, regardless of the number of figures in the divisor. 3 Holzinger, Karl J. Statistical Methods for Students in Education. Boston: Ginn and Co., 1928 p. 237. PEP EI es EVALUATING THE CURRICULUM 363 Should checking be taught as a part of the division process?—Else- where the writer * has reported the results of an investigation on the value of checking as a means of increasing the accuracy of the com- putation in division when the divisor is a one-figure number. The check consisted of multiplying quotient by divisor and adding the remainder, if there was a remainder, to the product. The study included the daily records of 404 fourth-grade pupils from October to January, inclusive, during the school year 1934-35. These records indicated that checking did not increase the accuracy of the computations. The results of another study, including the records of this same group of pupils for the second semester of the school year mentioned, are now available. In this study the pupils divided with two-figure divisors only. As in the previous investigation, each example was checked by multiplication. When the papers were scored under the writer’s supervision, the cause of each error was indicated. Then the paper was returned to the pupil, and he was required to correct the error in the example and in the check before the paper was filed by the writer. This process was continued from February to May, inclusive. The ineffectiveness of checking as a means of increasing accuracy among these fourth-grade children was further validated by this second experiment. There was not one case in which the pupil changed an example because the final result of the checking process was not the same as the dividend. However, there were many cases in which the check was made to agree with the example. This fact is shown by the second item in Table 2. Table 2 shows the frequency of different types of errors made in checking the examples. An “error” was defined as an incorrect pro- cedure or as a mistake in a number combination. This table indicates that the incorrect examples either were made to check by means of errors, or were not corrected at all when the check did not equal the dividend. Since this practise persisted during an entire school year for both one-figure and two-figure divisors, it is reasonably safe to con- clude that checking does not aid the typical fourth-grade pupil in increasing the accuracy of his computation in division. It is to be re- membered that each week the pupils’ errors in checking were pointed out, just as were their errors in solving the original examples. The writer does not wish to minimize the practical value of checking an arithmetical computation. The point at issue is the time at which this process should be introduced. The data summarized here show that checking is of no apparent value in creating and maintaining *Grossnickle, Foster E. “‘To Check or Not to Check.” Elementary School Journal 36: 35-39; September 1935. 358 ELEMENTARY ScHOOL PRINCIPALS es Detailed application of the method—Selection of words from the tabulation illustrated in Table 3 is begun in the second grade. Words are selected on the principle, implied above, that to the second grade should be assigned the words most frequently used by pupils in that grade. The data in the second column of the table show precisely which words, of all those used by the elementary-school pupils, were used by second- graders. For example, the second-grade pupils whose writing was sampled in this investigation used the word a 6885 times, and the word about 191 times, but they made no use whatever of the words abbrevia- tion and aboard. The second-grade words are selected from this column by simply withdrawing the words of highest frequency until the desired number is obtained. After the second-grade words have been excluded as possibilities for selection in the third-grade column, this column is canvassed precisely as was the preceding column, and the words are chosen that have the highest frequencies among all the remaining ones used by third-graders. Similarly, the process is continued in the fourth grade. As already indicated, the data on children’s usage are supplemented by data on adult usage in selecting words for Grades V to VIII, in- clusive. For example, all of the following words are selected, altho none of them can be reliably selected on the basis of its frequency in the childhood vocabulary: absolutely, accept, according, addressed, ad- TABLE 3—SprectMeEN OF TABULATION CONTAINING WorDS AND FREQUENCIES BY GRADES GRADE Worp a “ ae Tora. II Ill IV V VI VI VIII (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) | (9) REESE ORS pare 6,885 | 6,225 | 4,633 | 4,449 | 4,903 | 4,589 4,347 |36,031 Sree 0 0 0 0 0 07 1 | abbreviation. . 0 0 0 0 1 0 | 0 l ee 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 l ability....... 0 0 0 0 1 3 6 | 9 ablaze....... 0 0 0 1 0 3 0 | 4 OOO. nice se 0 22 245 167 29 24 39 | 526 aboard....... 0 3 0 0 1 7 9; 2 abounding. ... 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 | l about........ 191 276 387 607 649 903 953 | 3,966 above........ 0 0 3 29 39 20 45 | 136 abroad....... 3 0 0 0 4 | 3 | ll abscess....... 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 | 2 absence...... 2 0 0 0 4 0 3 | 9 absent. ...... 2 0 9 5 3 6 5| @ absolutely 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 | 7 absorb....... 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 | 4 absorbed... . . 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 | ] EVALUATING THE CURRICULUM 359 —— vise, advised, agent, appreciated, approval, and article. The frequencies of these words are all below 12 in the children’s vocabulary, but all are among the 1000 words used most commonly in adult writing, according to the Commonwealth list. Incidentally, these words have a mature flavor about them and suggest the phraseology of business correspond- ence, Which was a large and appropriate source for the Commonwealth study. Attention should be called to the most doubtful segment of the vocabulary proposed, namely, words frequently found in adult writ- ing, but not found at all in the new vocabulary of children’s writing. The following are examples, with their location in the Commonwealth compilation:'® acceptance, 3a; advisable, 2b; application, 1b; behalf, 3b; bond, 2a; bulletin, 2b; cancel, 2a; canceled, 2a; cancellation, 3a; and circumstances, 2a. The number of such words is relatively small. They should obviously be placed high in the grades, if included at all. To what extent does a vocabulary built in the manner described— that is, on the basis of both childhood and adult usage—differ from one built entirely on the basis of adult usage? To answer this question let us compare a vocabulary of 3815 words selected as just described, with the 4000 words of highest frequency in adult writing. This comparison reveals 801 words in the former vocabulary that are not found in the latter. This figure represents a preliminary count, but is approximately correct. It means that 21 percent of the new vocabulary consists of words that would not be selected if the data on adult writing were the only source for a spelling vocabulary of 4000 words. The words on which the two methods of vocabulary construction show the greatest divergence are the following: acorn, balloon, clown, cowboy, cowboys, dive, elephant, Eskimos, fox, foxes, hind, jack-o’- lantern, jerk, kite, paw, paws, princess, Santa Claus, scooter, snowball, snowballs, tiger, and tigers. These words not only do not appear in the 10,000-word adult list; they are not represented by derived forms, and none is a derivative of a root form in that list. They furnish the best illustrations, in written discourse, of the verbal interests of chil- dren as contrasted with the verbal interests of adults. Such words are used frequently enough by children, but not frequently enough by adults, to warrant their selection for the minimal spelling vocabulary. OUTLOOK FOR THE FUTURE While much remains to be done in the field of spelling vocabulary, more remains to be done in the field of spelling instruction. No other subject can claim so large a body of objective material for curriculum % The numeral following a word indicates the thousand; the letter, the first or second half of that thousand. 360 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS making as spelling. Tho a certain percentage of the words to be taught is still in dispute, the importance of this dispute should be weighed in the light of two considerations: 1. Differences due to unreliability of frequency values—Such differences result from insufficient sampling, from the nature and variety of topics upon which pupils write, and from other variable factors. These differences create uncer- tainty where reliable frequencies have been exhausted for a particular grade and additional selections have to be made from the remaining words. In some of these instances, however, the difference may be insignificant, and the choice of words a matter of indifference. 2. Differences due to disagreement on principles—The question of selecting words on the basis of children’s usage alone or on the basis of adults’ usage alone is an example. Differences of this type will persist regardless of improve- ment in the-reliability of word frequencies. Such differences cannot be settled by accumulating more frequency data; they can be settled, it seems, only by the accumulation of experimental results. In the writer’s opinion, we are nearer to a solution of the vocabulary problem in spelling than is ordinarily supposed. In any case, it seems obvious that there are more important avenues of advance in this subject than any in the domain of vocabulary. The days have passed when a barren list of words can pass for a course of study in spelling. Supervisors and classroom teachers seem ready for a more effective application of the best results of research to methods of teaching. HE APPRAISAL of old and the discovery of new curriculum material which contributes to contemporary life and guides it in the direction of social advance is by far the most difficult method of curriculum building. It requires broad scholarship on the part of teachers. It involves mastery of the psycho- logical principles governing the growth of human personality. It requires the intensive study of past and contemporary civ- ilizations, an analysis of their strengths and weaknesses, and the far more difficult task of predicting desirable directions for further social advance. It calls for deep insight into the forces which direct the currents of civilization. It demands continual reappraisal of the purposes and procedures of the school in the light of changing conditions. It implies that a school curriculum can be forward-looking only if it is the subject of constant revision, experimentation, and reappraisal. —Norton, John K., and Norton, Margaret A., Foundations of Curriculum Building, Ginn and Co., 1936, p. 81-82. (Quoted by permission of the publishers.) wught ed in result which uncer- le and me of ice of ecting usage prove- settled ly by ulary seems | this assed ling. ctive EVALUATING THE CURRICULUM 361 APPRAISING THE PROGRAM FOR TEACHING DIVISION Foster E. GrossNICKLE Professor of Mathematics, State Teachers College, Jersey City, New Jersey ONG DIVISION is generally looked upon as the most difficult process in arithmetic in the elementary school. There are two apparent reasons why this is true. First, division is a composite of other processes. Second, the actual need for long division is seldom experi- enced by pupils in the elementary school. As a result, this process must be learned chiefly as a manipulative procedure. Other processes in arithmetic may be taught in an activity program, but the writer has never seen a published report showing how long division will fit into such a program. Breed’ recently reported an unanswered challenge from representatives of certain teacher-training institutions to show how long division may be taught by the project method. To make the process of division as easy as possible, the program for teaching it should be appraised with reference to the following ques- tions: 1. Is division with a one-figure divisor taught in the short or long form? 2. Is checking taught as part of the process of division? 3. What method is used in estimating the quotient when the divisor is a two- figure number? 4. In which grade or grades is the topic of long division taught? This article summarizes certain research findings which bear on these questions, and makes recommendations which may be used as criteria in judging the program for teaching division in an elementary school. What form of division should be used for a one-figure divisor?—This question can be answered with a degree of assurance that is seldom possible in the solution of an educational problem. Only the long form should be used for both easy and difficult divisors. The writer has re- ported elsewhere? an experiment in which the preponderance of evi- dence favored the long form. Since that study was reported, letters have been received requesting evidence on the relative merits of the short and long forms for the easy divisors—2, 3, 4, and 5. In the reported study, all one-figure divisors from 2 to 9, inclusive, were used. In May 1936, a test in division was given in two nearby school centers to a group of pupils in Grades V and VIII. The same test was 1 Breed, Frederick S. “The Liberal Group in Education.’’ Educational Administration and Supervision 22: 322-30; May 1936. 2 Grossnickle, Foster E. ‘“‘An Experiment with a One-Figure Divisor in Short and Long Divi- sion.” Elementary School Journal 34: 496-506, 590-99; March and April, 1934. 362 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS given also to a group which is referred to here as Grade XV. This group was composed of juniors and seniors in the college where the writer js employed. The pupils in Grade V had been taught to use the long form in dividing by a one-figure divisor, but those in the other two groups ‘had been taught the short form. Each group was asked to solve the test problems by means of both the short and long forms of division. The quotient in each example included either three or four figures. The number of estimations for each divisor used was as follows: divisor 2, ten estimations; divisor 3, fifteen estimations; divisor 4, fourteen estimations; divisor 5, nineteen estimations. Only the number of errors was considered in scoring .this test. An error consisted of an incorrect figure in either the quotient or the re- mainder. The results of the test are given in Table 1. TABLE 1—Comparison or Errors Mabe IN SHort AND LoNnG DIVISION WITH Divisors or 2, 3, 4, AND 5 Noum- AVERAGE Num- AVERAGE Num- DIFFERENCE | Ratro or Dir- GRADE BER BER OF ERRORS BER OF ERRORS (Cotumn 3 FERENCE TO or 1n SHORT 1n Lone MINUS | PROBABLE Error Puptts Drvis1on Division CotumN 4) | OF DIFFERENCE (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) — —— EE — — | | Seay 317 3.68 2.60 1.08 5.5 VIII....} 236 3.50 1.96 1.54 5.6 XV*....); 148 2.15 0.70 1.45 9.9 Read table: The 317 pupils in Grade V made an average of 3.68 errors in short division, and an average of 2.60 errors in long division; the difference of 1.08 was 5.5 times as large as its “‘prob- able error.”’ Similarly read figures for Grades VIII and XV. ® Grade XV included college juniors and seniors. Table 1 shows that the average number of errors made in short division was larger for each group than the average number of errors in long division. Altho the differences seem small, column 6 shows that none of them was less than 5.5 times as large as its probable error. When a difference between two averages is at least 4 times its probable error, there is said to be a “significant” difference between the averages. When this ratio is 4.9, the chances are only 9 in 10,000 that a similar difference would not be obtained if the experiment were re- peated with other groups of pupils.* Hence, the chances that another group would make fewer errors by the short method than by the long method are almost infinitesimal. Since the preponderance of evidence is in favor of the long method, the teacher should see that her pupils learn to divide by that method, regardless of the number of figures in the divisor. 8 Holzinger, Karl J. Statistical Methods for Students in Education. Boston: Ginn and Co., 1928. p. 237. up r is rm ups the ion. The r 2, een An re- IF- ro RROR NCE nd an prob- hort rrors 10WS vable s its 1 the iat a > re- other long lence upils es In »., 1928. EVALUATING THE CURRICULUM 363 Should checking be taught as a part of the division process?—Else- where the writer * has reported the results of an investigation on the value of checking as a means of increasing the accuracy of the com- putation in division when the divisor is a one-figure number. The check consisted of multiplying quotient by divisor and adding the remainder, if there was a remainder, to the product. The study included the daily records of 404 fourth-grade pupils from October to January, inclusive, during the school year 1934-35. These records indicated that checking did not increase the accuracy of the computations. The results of another study, including the records of this same group of pupils for the second semester of the school year mentioned, are now available. In this study the pupils divided with two-figure divisors only. As in the previous investigation, each example was checked by multiplication. When the papers were scored under the writer’s supervision, the cause of each error was indicated. Then the paper was returned to the pupil, and he was required to correct the error in the example and in the check before the paper was filed by the writer. This process was continued from February to May, inclusive. The ineffectiveness of checking as a means of increasing accuracy among these fourth-grade children was further validated by this second experiment. There was not one case in which the pupil changed an example because the final result of the checking process was not the same as the dividend. However, there were many cases in which the check was made to agree with the example. This fact is shown by the second item in Table 2. Table 2 shows the frequency of different types of errors made in checking the examples. An “error” was defined as an incorrect pro- cedure or as a mistake in a number combination. This table indicates that the incorrect examples either were made to check by means of errors, or were not corrected at all when the check did not equal the dividend. Since this practise persisted during an entire school year for both one-figure and two-figure divisors, it is reasonably safe to con- clude that checking does not aid the typical fourth-grade pupil in increasing the accuracy of his computation in division. It is to be re- membered that each week the pupils’ errors in checking were pointed out, just as were their errors in solving the original examples. The writer does not wish to minimize the practical value of checking an arithmetical computation. The point at issue is the time at which this process should be introduced. The data summarized here show that checking is of no apparent value in creating and maintaining ‘Grossnickle, Foster E. ‘‘To Check or Not to Check.”’ Elementary School Journal 36: 35-39; September 1935. 364 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS TABLE 2—Errors or FourtH-Grape Pupits IN CHECKING DrvISION wiTH Drivisors oF Two Figures DESCPIPTION OF ERROR FREQUENCY (1) (2) 1. Did not find error when result in check and dividend were not the RS 0 nh G. 0 he 6 04 Shara Mid Belek 4 BiG Bint bre doa eee Sha Nee Oe 8 ack is aes 510 2. Multiplied quotient and divisor so that example checked......... 399 3. Multiplication error in check same as in example................ 295 4. Added remainder incorrectly (number combinations)............. 288 5. Added partial products incorrectly (number combinations)....... . 252 6. Combination error in multiplication.........................4-. 246 ee Ne ne ea lacasiete ccntey cocctvevncces 190 8. Added wrong ‘‘carry”’ number in multiplication................. 160 Dh, ee Oe GREE Ue) I 6 occ ncn cme cccceiccvcsccccccenes 135 10. Did not add remainder to product..................0.0.000005. 92 11. Carried when not necessary in multiplication................... 70 12. Did not carry when adding the remainder....................... 68 13. Carried wrong number in adding the remainder.................. 37 14. Used quotient different from that in example................... 36 15. Carried when not necessary in adding remainder................ 32 16. Placed partial products incorrectly..........................45- 24 17. Added different remainder from that in example................ 22 18. Multiplied by number not the divisor......................... 16 19. Subtracted remainder instead of adding it...................... 15 I BA a 6s ah a ak iki wT te cs ea ahi are gh eet aa acenl pharng aieshl'#) wick as Sok 2,887 accuracy in division in the fourth grade. Evidently, therefore, check- ing should be taught at a later date when the pupil has mastered the intricacies of the division process itself. When checking is taught, not only the correct method should be shown but the need and importance of checking should be emphasized. In business and industrial fields, more than one check is often em- ployed. Likewise, more than one means of checking should be presented to pupils. The judicious use of an answer book seems most commendable for checking. Of course, the pupil should be shown the multiplication check, and also be taught to go over his work another time. When the value of checking is fully appreciated, all three of these checks can be used to advantage. Until the pupil becomes aware of the need and im- portance of checking division, however, any of the three means sug- gested will be perfunctory. Therefore, the writer’s answer to the second question proposed for appraising the program in division is as follows: First, teach the process of division without wasting time with checking. As soon as division itself has been mastered, and when the importance of checking can be really appreciated, teach the pupil how to check his work in division. <4 EVALUATING THE CURRICULUM 365 How should the quotient be estimated when the divisor is a two-figure number?—At least ten different methods for estimating the quotient in long division are used in arithmetic textbooks.> Two of the most widely used methods are known as the “apparent method” and the ‘“inerease-by-one method.” By the apparent method, the tens’ figure in the divisor remains unchanged regardless of the units’ figure. By the increase-by-one method, when the units’ figure in the divisor is 5 or less, the tens’ figure is unchanged; when the units’ figure is 6 or more, the tens’ figure is increased by one. Upton ® has made a plea for the increase-by-one method with a few minor variations. Because the method which he advocates brings the correct quotient in a relatively high percent of estimations, he recommends it as the best procedure. To determine whether an advantage accrues from using the ap- parent method instead of the increase-by-one method, or vice versa, the writer obtained data from two school centers during the spring semester of the school year 1934-35. Seven fourth-grade teachers co- operated in each school center. In one of these centers, 216 pupils were taught by the apparent method; in the other center, 233 pupils were taught by the increase-by-one method. The two groups were equated on several factors: (1) I. Q., as de- termined by the National Intelligence Test; (2) ability to give the correct responses to the 100 subtraction facts, the 90 multiplication facts, and the 90 even-division facts; and (3) ability to use a one- figure divisor. The score made on each of these tests by a pupil in the group using the apparent method, was paired with the score made on the same test by a pupil in the group using the increase-by-one method. All of the practise exercises used by these pupils were supplied by the writer. No practise was given in subtraction, multiplication, or division except that contained in these special exercises. The work con- sisted of 76 days of teaching, or about 15 weeks. At the first of each week, that week’s quota of practise exercises was supplied to the pupils, as well as the practise sheets used during the preceding week. The latter were scored and each error was pointed out to the pupil. He was required to correct each example and to check it correctly before his paper was filed by the writer. The new work assigned each week and the correction of previous work usually required from two to four periods of 38 minutes each week. The remaining time assigned 5 See: Grossnickle, Foster E. “Methods of Estimating the Quotient in Long Division Used by Teacher-Training Students.” Elementary School Journal 35: 448-53; February 1935. * Upton, Clifford B. “Making Long Division Automatic.” The Teaching of Arithmetic. Tenth Yearbook. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1935. p. 251-89. 366 ELEMENTARY Sctioot Princrpats Se to arithmetic each week could be devoted to any phase of number except division and its concomitant processes. Four different achievement tests in division with a two-figure divisor were given to each of the two groups. The first test was given at the * beginning of the experiment, before the pupils had had any practise with two-figure divisors. This test consisted of the easy estimations in which the quotient was self-evident, as in the example 24) 264, or in which the estimated quotient was the true quotient. The second test was given after 35 days of teaching. In this test, the estimated quotient was always the true quotient. All types of quotients containing zeros were included. The third test was given after 18 more days of teaching and practise; it consisted of examples in which the true quotient was the estimated figure or one less than the estimated figure. The fourth and final test was given after 23 additional days of teaching and prac- tise. All types of difficulties were included in this test, except for the division “demons” (divisors from 13 to 18, inclusive). The time for the tests was determined by the results on the practise exercises. When a majority of the pupils had perfect papers with a certain type of estimation, the test on that type was given. Space does not permit inclusion of the detailed results of this experi- ment in this article. A comparison of the average scores on each test showed very small differences between the two groups. In only one case was the difference statistically significant. When the two groups were equated on the basis of I. Q., the difference between their average scores on Test 4 was 4.7 times its probable error. In this case, there- | fore, the difference was significant, but in all other cases it could be | attributed to chance. The one significant difference was in favor of the | group using the apparent method. In view of these facts, surely no one can defend the use of the in- crease-by-one method as the correct procedure for “making long divi- [| sion automatic.” The writer believes that the third question proposed | should be answered as follows: There is no appreciable difference between the apparent and the increase-by-one methods for producing | accuracy in long division, but since many more people use the apparent | method than any other, children should be taught to use this method | for estimating the quotient when the divisor is a two-figure number. In what grade or grades should long division be taught?—Recently | there has been a movement to put long division in the fifth grade. Cali- q fornia was one of the first states to make this change, and since then 7 other states have taken similar action. Buckingham * showed that the | 7 For the detailed results, see: Grossnickle, Foster E. ‘An Experiment with Two Methods of Ex Estimation of the Quotient.’’ Elementary School Journal 37: 668-77; May 1937. Pe 8 Buckingham, B. R. ‘‘When to Begin the Teaching of Arithmetic.” Childhood Education ll: | 339-43; May 1935. as mber visor t the ictise tions 4, or 1 test tient ZeYros ching ; Was ourth prac- r the e for When pe of ‘peri- 1 test y one roups erage here- ld be of the e in- divi- posed rence ucing arent ethod er, ently Cali- then it the hods of tion Il: EVALUATING THE CURRICULUM 367 tendency at present is to push the teaching of arithmetic into the later grades. One of the most extreme illustrations of this tendency is re- ported by Benezet.® He would postpone all drill material in arithmetic until the pupil reaches the sixth grade. The work of the Committee of Seven of the Northern Illinois Con- ference on Supervision has exerted an influence on the grade placement of long division. The following recommendation on this question was made by that committee: At the mental level of nine years ten months, which is approximately the fourth-grade level, considerably less than half the children have a chance of making a retention test score of 80 percent in long division, even if they have made a score in simple multiplication of 100 percent, one in short division of 88 to 100 percent, and one in subtraction of 100 percent. Long division apparently should not be taught until a mental level of twelve years seven months, or well along into the sixth grade for children who are average or above in mental age.” The average mental age of the pupils in the investigation reported under the third question above was nine years and seven months, as determined by the National Intelligence Test in October. Since the final division test was given in the following June, it may be assumed that the pupils’ mental age had increased about eight months, on the aver- age, thus giving an average mental age of ten years and three months. The average accomplishment of the two groups on the final test was about 96 percent instead of the 80 percent recommended as a satis- factory standard of accomplishment by the Committee of Seven. Thus, it is clear that the recommendations of the Committee of Seven are not in agreement with the results of this investigation. This study shows conclusively that pupils who have the average mentality of the typical fourth grade can be taught long division with a two-figure divisor. Because division can be taught successfully in the fourth grade, how- ever, it does not follow that this is the most satisfactory place for the topic. The writer believes that putting all two-figure division in the fifth grade is not the correct solution of the problem of grade place- ment. Placement should be determined by the inherent difficulty of the process. Instead of a topical grade placement, there should be a spiral sequence of the process as determined by difficulty. It is not rational to teach all division with a one-figure divisor before introducing work with certain two-figure divisors. Surely the pupil encounters much more difficulty in the example, 7) 4031, than in the example, 21) 672. The latter can be taught very easily in the first part of the fourth grade. On the other hand, an example like 28) 1923, or 16) 9125, ® Benezet, L. P. ‘‘The Story of an Experiment.’’ Journal of the National Education Association 24: 241-44; November 1935. 1 Washburne, Carleton. ‘Mental Age and the Arithmetic Curriculum: A Summary of the Com- mittee of Seven Grade Placement Investigations to Date.’’ Journal of Educational Research 23: 226; March 1931. 368 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS probably should be taught in the fifth or even the sixth grade. With these points in mind, the answer to our fourth question may be sum- marized as follows: No one grade should be used for presenting all the difficulties in long division. This kind of sequence is a perpetuation . of “bunched learning.” The writer recommends that the topic be placed in at least two different grades, the placement of specific proc- esses being determined by the inherent difficulty of those processes. This kind of sequence is conducive to “spaced learning,’ and most psychological experiments on learning show that “spaced learning” is superior to ‘bunched learning.” Summary of criteria—This article proposes that the program for teaching division be appraised in the light of the following recommen- dations: 1. Only the long form of division should be taught, regardless of the number of figures in the divisor. This is true for both the easy and difficult divisors. 2. Checking should be taught as a separate process after the essential procedure of division is well known. 3. There is no significant difference in the results obtained from estimating the quotient by the apparent method and by the increase- by-one method. Since the apparent method is more widely used than the other, the pupil should be taught to estimate the quotient by this method when the divisor is a two-figure number. 4. Division with a two-figure divisor should be placed in several grades instead of in the fifth grade only. The placement of various phases of this topic should be determined by their inherent difficulty, so as to provide opportunities for “spaced learning” instead of “bunched learning.” HE REFERENCES listed at the end of each chapter will be useful as a basis for further study of the problems of school Editorial Committee. appraisal. ——. With sum- ll the ation ic be proc- PSses, most ”) Z 18 a for men- f the and ntial from ease- than this veral rious ulty, ched EVALUATING THE CURRICULUM 369 CHILDREN’S REACTIONS TO CERTAIN TYPES OF POETRY Raveu A. Fritz Professor of Education, Kansas State Teachers College, Pittsburg, Kansas HAT PLACE should poetry have in our school offerings? Adequate appraisals of its value and of its contribution seem almost lack- ing. This article describes two attempts to evaluate the use of poetry as a part of school work. One undertook to measure the value of certain poems in teaching American history; the other, to determine the place and value of selected poems in building desirable attitudes. While the results are not conclusive, they are at least suggestive, and the technics used to obtain them will be of interest to principals and teachers. The writer realizes that the learning of facts and the development of character are perhaps not the chief purposes of reading poetry. Reading in this field may need no justification other than the sheer enjoyment it gives. Nevertheless, it is worthwhile to discover what poems, if any, may be expected to contribute to certain other objectives of education. Poems AS SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL FOR AMERICAN HIsToRY The first study ' tried to discover whether certain poems add to the pupils’ interest and understanding of American history. It also at- tempted to determine the school unit in which the contribution of each poem was greatest. Selection and appraisal of poems—About 800 poems were examined, and forty-four of them were selected by the subjective ratings of the investigator on the following six criteria: Each poem must (1) express a fact, (2) exalt worthy ideals, (3) arouse a feeling which the child should experience, and (4) add details not given in the history text; it also must (5) be interesting, and (6) be easy to understand. The poems selected, most of which appear in Poems of American History,’ are listed later in this article. These forty-four poems were evaluated by 378 pupils, of whom 80 were in Grade VI, 213 in junior high school, and 85 in senior high school. Forty-four exercises were mimeographed, each containing a prose quotation from a history textbook giving an important historical fact, followed by a quotation from one selected poem dealing with the same historical fact. Each pupil read both the quotation and the poem, and 1Johnson, Macie E. Historical Poems as Supplementary Material for Teaching American His- tory. Unpublished master’s thesis. Kansas State Teachers College, Pittsburg, Kansas, 1930. “Stevenson, Burton E., editor. Poems of American History. Rev. ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1922. 370 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS then stated whether or not he thought the poem added interest and understanding to the textbook quotation. The general directions and the first of the forty-four exercises are given below: DIRECTIONS This is a type of reading exercise. It consists of statements taken from history. There are two parts to each exercise. The first part is a prose statement taken from a history textbook. The second part is a portion of a poem. Both the statement and the poem deal with the same historical fact. Read each statement carefully; then read the corresponding poem. If the poem adds interest or under- standing to the prose statement, write “Yes” on the dotted line at the end of the poem. If the poem does not add interest or understanding to the prose, write “No” on the dotted line. Read all the exercises and write either “Yes” or “No” on each dotted line as you come to it. Do not leave any blank. Your answer will not affect your history grade. Your teacher will not score these papers. Please write just what you think. Write “Yes” if the poem adds interest or understanding to the prose. Write “No” if it does not. Any questions? Ready—Begin. “At daybreak of Friday, October 12, 1492, the boats were lowered and Columbus, with a large part of his company, went ashore, wild with exultation. They found they were on a small island, and Columbus named it San Salvador.” “Then, pale and worn, he kept his deck, And peered through darkness. Ah, that night, Of all dark nights; and then a speck— A light! A light! A light! A light! It grew, a starlit flag unfurled! It grew to be Time’s burst of dawn. He gained a world; he gave that world hd ” Its grandest lesson: ‘On! Sail on! ewmeacseeoecoeeanacaeese Twenty-five poems were given during the first sitting and the other nineteen at a second sitting. The pupils seemed to take the task seriously and the experimenter felt that the answers were frank and honest. How- ever, the procedure leaves much to be desired so far as proof of its validity and reliability is concerned. Results—About three-fourths of the answers stated that the poem in question added interest and understanding to the textbook material. No pupil voted either “yes” or “no” on all the poems. Each poem re- ceived some votes of “yes” and some of “no.” The poems are apparently usable at all school levels, altho senior high-school] pupils gave more “ves” votes, probably because of their greater knowledge of history. There was very little difference between the interests of boys and girls in these poems. Pupils of superior ability understood them a little better than average and slow pupils. No attempt was made to determine whether the poems helped the pupils to retain historical facts. As a result of this study, 13 poems were recommended for use in and and tory. aken 1 the ment nder- f the write “No” score adds nbus, ound yther yusly low- f its m in rial. n re- ently more tory. girls etter mine se in EvaLvuatTine tHe CurricuLumM 371 Grade VI; 13 for junior high school; and 18 for senior high school. The jist of titles for each level is as follows: FOR GRADE VI Title of Poem Author ES Perret pice heauaceae Joaquin Miller Landing of the Pilgrims. . [Pp eRe OMY ae Felicia Hemans The First Proclamation of Miles Standish.......... Margaret Preston The First Thanksgiving Day...................... Margaret Preston ods aaa katien on deumennee Sey Henry W. Longfellow og eee oer Minna, Irving TIE, bier 22.05 oie iat. of'e o kaha hah oe William Henry Venable ee ee sb avis BU Julia Ward Howe TE EUR oie ons os 55k ead aos no serene John G. Whittier Indian Names..... Sees MRE SS oor epee Lydia H. Sigourney The Brooklyn Bridge. Sons duende toe ha ee Edna Dean Proctor ee ee Or ID nono ke tacce nds ccnicne sen Arthur Guiterman A Game of POMOMS....... 25... cc cee. pectcceccce MMPOG DD. BUnvOR FOR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL j The Thanksgiving for America...... cans oe ee Hezekiah Butterworth The Fountain of Youth...... Tee tise ude .... Hezekiah Butterworth Roger Williams....... Leeeeesseeeeeees....Hezekiah Butterworth “ngland and America in 1782........ .........Alfred Tennyson eer eee ..........KEdna Dean Proctor ‘Te Deets of Jeflerson:. .... 2.26 66s caine eae Hezekiah Butterworth CORE ......+ NEE a es pees eae 5 asia eee en Harriet Prescott Spafford Chicago..... Le EA Mee eee Rae John G. Whittier The Ride of Collins ( ee ee OT Pee John B. O’Reilly 3 The Pacific Railway............ ne site SSE Moree C. R. Ballard - Panama... De peer ey Oe IE alone, John Jeffrey Roche In Flanders Fields........... Ei Mlareid asseaais ec pee John McCrae The Republic... paved pidioid alta qiolive teaada giana aaeveee Henry W. Longfellow FOR SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL New England’s Growth... bazk iese William Bradford God Makes a Path...... ee TR is 8 nA Roger Williams The Mother Country...... Ee i Benjamin Franklin What’s in a Name....... et, ye Fe ee eee Helen F. Moore Se er Seen nts tere ate Joseph R. Drake ce ee BO ee ere .... William C. Bryant ews Prem LOCK TOW... ie. do iiecsessas ccandens Lewis W. Smith “hne Mederal Convention. ...5 2.26. cc. ces cocseswes Unknown SO Se eee rrr er err Francis Hopkinson (On the Death of Benjamin ae rare: Philip Freneau Lincoln the Man of the People .................. Edwin Markham Brother Jonathan’s Lament for Sister Caroline. .... Oliver Wendell Holmes © Captain! My Captaim......... 26. cccesenccce. Walt Whitman 9 Oe ee re ene Francis Miles Finch OO eee William C. Bryant PO eee eee oe John G. Whittier ee a rere Alfred Austin PE HE INS 5 oo ot vcs snclemes thay sees Medan John H. Jewett 372 + Undegline the WORD OR PHRASE which tells how you feel toward the main person in the poem. I DO NOT LIKE the person. I ADACZRE the person. I WISH TO BE LIKE the person. FIGURE I—FacsiMite or BaLtot A 374 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS BALLOT B NA‘E OF PUPIL SCHCOL AGE GRADE SEX DIRECTIONS: Read the following facts about each poem before writing the items asked for at the bottom. NAVE OF POEM IS: MAIN PERSON IS: STORY IS ABOUT: 1. “Goethals, the Prophet Goethals Goethals and the mountains Engineer” in Panama. 2. “The Highwayman” Bess, the landlord's Redcoats at the inn, and daughter the highwayman. 3. “Incident in the French The soldier Napoleon's messenger at Camp" Ratisbon, 4. “The Service” The third man The race, and the man who won third plece, 5. "The Legend of Bregenz” The Tyrol maid The night ride home to Bregenz. 6. “The Listeners” The traveller The traveller who found nobody home, 7. “Little Giffen of Little Giffen The soldier who went back Tennessee" to the fighting. 8. “Winged Man" The winged man The man who flew and fell, 9. “The Little Black- Little black-eyed The letters and the apple- Eyed Rebel” rebel wagon. 10. “The Minstrel Boy” The minstrel boy The old-time minstrel and his harp. + Write the name of the poem you like best of the ten. bd. Write the neme of the poem you like least ef the ten. c. Write the name of the person you admire the most of all those in the poems, a. Write the name of the person you admire the least of all those in the poems, FIGURE Ii—Facstmite or Batior B Conclusion—Nearly all the pupils found these poems narrating the adventures of heroes to be interesting. A majority were able to discern and check the principal trait of each hero. However, there is no assur- ance that the poems caused these pupils to develop any particular atti- tudes, or sufficiently emotionalized their attitudes to make them act like the hero, even tho they said they wished to be like him. Neverthe- less, when we know which poems grip the interest of pupils, and know that pupils can discern the desirable traits of their heroes, we are able to select those poems which are most likely to emotionalize the partic- ular attitudes we desire to strengthen. x the scern ssur- atti- 1 act rthe- cnow able rtic- 1. EVALUATING THE CURRICULUM 375 SELECTED REFERENCES BAMESBERGER, VELDA C. An Appraisal of a Social Studies Course in Terms of Its Effect upon the Achievement, Activities, and Interests of Pupils. Con- tributions to Education, No. 328. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1928. 91 p. . Barr, A. S. “Some Problems in Curriculum Making.” Journal of Educational Research 30: 357-59; January 1937. . CasweE.L, Houuts L., and CaMpseLtt, Doak 8. Curriculum Development. New York: American Book Co., 1935. See especially: “Characteristics of a Good Course of Study,” p. 455-59. . Cotuines, Evtswortu. “Learning the Fundamentals in the Activity Curricu- lum.” Journal of Experimental Education 1: 309-15; June 1933. _ CONFERENCE ON CURRICULUM REORGANIZATION AND Revision, 1931. Curriculum Making in Current Practice. Evanston, Ill.: School of Education, North- western University, 1932. 244 p. . Draper, E. M. Principles and Techniques of Curriculum Making. New York: D. Appleton-Century Co., 1936. 875 p. . FREEMAN, Frank N. “An Analysis of the Basis of the Activity Curriculum.” Elementary School Journal 35: 655-61; May 1935. _ Nationat Epvucation ASsocIATION, DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. The Social Studies Curriculum. Fourteenth Yearbook. Washington, D. C.: the Department, 1936. Chapter 14, “Continuous Curriculum Revision,” p. 344-62. . Harap, Henry, and Bayne, Atice J. “A Critical Survey of Public School Courses of Study Published 1929 to 1931.” Journal of Educational Re- search 26: 46-55, 105-109; September and October 1932. . Harap, Henry. “Evaluation of Courses of Study and Textbooks.” Review of Educational Research 4: 194-98; 242-44; April 1934. . Harare, Henry. “A Survey of Courses of Study Published in the Last Two Years (1932-1934).” Journal of Educational Research 28: 641-56; May 1935. . NationaL Society ror THE Stupy or Epvucation. Curriculum-Making: Past and Present. Twenty-sixth Yearbook, Part I, Bloomington, IIl.: Public School Publishing Co., 1926. Chapter 30, “A Critical Appraisal of Current Methods of Curriculum-Making,” p. 425-47. . Nationa SocreTty ror THE Stupy or Epucation. The Teaching of Geography. Thirty-second Yearbook. Bloomington, IIl.: Public School Publishing Co., 1933. Chapters 7 and 8, p. 73-145. . Norton, Joun K. “Curriculum Construction and Revision.” Modern School Administration. (Edited by John C. Almack.) Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1933. Chapter 6, p. 159-88. . Norton, Joun K., and Norton, Marcaret A. Foundations of Curriculum Building. Boston: Ginn and Co., 1936. Chapter 4, “Contributions of Re- search to Curriculum Building,” p. 92-111. . Norton, Maracaret A. “Research and Various Approaches to Curriculum Build- ing.” Review of Educational Research 4: 4-14, 108-10; February 1934. . Prunty, Merwe. “Evaluating Curriculum Reconstruction.” School Executive 55: 234-35, 239; February 1936. . SrRATEMEYER, FLorENCE B., and Bruner, Hersert B. Rating Elementary School Courses of Study. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1926. 193 p. . TRILLINGHAM, CiiInton C. The Organization and Administration of Curricu- lum Programs. Los Angeles, Calif.: University of Southern California, 1933. Chapter 6, “The Value of Curriculum Programs,” p. 135-49. . Wricutstong, J. Wayne. “An Evaluation of the Integrated Curriculum in the Upper Grades.” Elementary School Journal 35: 583-87; April 1935. CHAPTER V APPRAISING METHODS OF LEARNING AND TEACHING EDITORIAL COMMENT difficult task. Altho teaching procedures have probably received more scientific study than any other aspect of education, the results obtained have often been conflicting and of doubtful validity, Research workers are beginning to suspect that there is no best method of teaching in many fields. The relative effectiveness of different meth- ods may depend considerably upon the personalities, abilities, and previous experiences of teachers and pupils. However, some methods are undoubtedly better than others in specific situations. These con- siderations indicate that while teachers and principals may properly accept as hypotheses the conclusions of careful research conducted by others, they should test these hypotheses thoroly in their own schools. The experimental technic has been the most widely used in recent years for appraising methods of teaching. This technic, while theo- retically the most scientific, has certain limitations: (1) Influential factors other than the teaching procedures being appraised are difficult to control; (2) the conclusions of an experiment may apply to most of the pupils or teachers included, but not to certain individuals; and (3) many schools are not large enough to provide the equivalent groups of pupils required. Altho the experimental technic should prob- ably be used wherever feasible, its results must be carefully inter- preted. In addition, case-study procedures may be employed to evalu- ate methods of teaching for those exceptional pupils (or teachers) who do not succeed by the generally effective methods. The seven articles in this chapter illustrate appraisal in several areas of instruction. Pistor describes an experiment comparing progressive and traditional school practises by the observational technic. Hardy presents the procedures and results of an experiment with different methods of health education. Worlton emphasizes reading objectives, and shows how each phase of the program may contribute to them. Dawson tells how she tried out a program combining unit teaching, Ti APPRAISAL OF METHODS Of learning and teaching is a peculiarly differentiated assignments, and remedial work. Traxler reviews the | procedures used in appraising remedial reading in a seventh grade. In the sixth article, Dickey reports his experience with apparatus in teaching the division of fractions. The last article, by Kilzer, presents > several devices for appraising supervised study. The references listed on page 433 contain additional suggestions for | evaluating methods of learning and teaching.—Editorial Committee. | [ 376 } RE nT ND liarly elved 1, the jidity, ethod meth- , and ‘thods » con- yperly ed by hools. recent theo- ential fficult most ; and valent prob- inter- valu- ) who areas essive Tardy ferent tives, them. ching, ‘s the le. tus in esents ns for vittee. APPRAISING MetHops or TEACHING 37 EVALUATING NEWER SCHOOL PRACTISES BY THE OBSERVATIONAL METHOD FREDERICK PIsToR Department of Education, New Jersey State Teachers College, Newark, New Jersey HE OBSERVATIONAL METHOD has been widely used with infants and preschool children. By this method the child’s spontaneous beha- vior is watched and recorded. No attempt is made by the observer to get a specific response; he takes notes on whatever behavior attracts his attention. An improvement in this procedure has been made in recent years. It consists of controlling the observer by limiting and defining the traits he is to look for. More recently the length of the period of observation has been determined for various types of beha- vior. Olson ' reports a method of observational measurement of nervous habits, using as a unit of measurement one manifestation of the desig- nated behavior per stated unit of time. By the use of carefully defined categories of overt behavior, relatively short time-samples, repeated observations, and systematic recording, he attempted to measure cer- tain characteristics of children thru direct observation. The adapt- ability of this method to a variety of behavior traits has also been illustrated by Goodenough.” The observational method of research as improved by various work- ers has not been used widely in evaluating the work of the public school. This has been due to two chief reasons: (1) The improved observational technics are so new that not enough time has elapsed to permit their use and application in the schools. (2) The nature of the work in the majority of public schools has not encouraged the use of the observa- tional method. Most of the conventional activities of school children have been limited to listening, reading, writing, and reciting at their desks. Where there are some physical and social activities in the school, these have usually been so directed and controlled by the teacher that pupils have not manifested trait-actions which are indexes of their real personalities. Even in many schools having activity programs, there are few or no opportunities to observe the natural behavior of children. In recent years Wrightstone* has developed some codes for observa- tion of social behavior to be used in appraising newer practises in selected public schools. His codes were used by trained observers who 1Qlson, W. C. Measurement of Nervous Habits in Normal Children. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1929. 97 p. 2 Goodenough, Florence L. ‘Measuring Behavior Traits by Means of Repeated Short Samples.” Journal of Juvenile Research 12: 230-35; 1928. 3 Wrightstone, J. Wayne. Appraisal of Newer Practices in Selected Public Schools. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1935. 117 p. 378 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS recorded the manifestation of each activity next to the name of the pupil who engaged in it. During the total period of observation each pupil was found to engage in the various acts a certain number of times. This number became a quantitative index of pupil participation. In 1929, after several years of informal experimentation in observing and recording trait-actions, the present writer developed and used a similar code with children of the intermediate grades in the experi- mental school at Ball State Teachers College, Muncie, Indiana. This article describes the use of this code in appraising progressive school procedures during a period of four years.* PuRPOSE AND GENERAL PROCEDURE The purpose of this study was to measure the growth of fifth- and sixth-grade children working under experimental conditions commonly found in progressive schools. Two equated groups of children were studied. Group 1 consisted of pupils who enrolled with the writer as their teacher for fifth-grade work in September 1929. These children came from the city school which was abandoned when the laboratory school was opened. They had spent four years in Grades I, IT, III, and IV of the city school, where they had received a conventional type of education. They remained with the experimenter for two years as fifth- and sixth-grade pupils. Group 2 consisted of children who had spent two years as first- and second-grade pupils in the city school, and who were received by the laboratory school as pupils beginning the third grade in September 1929, when the city school was abandoned. These children were taught by one of the laboratory school teachers for two years in the third and fourth grades. In September 1931, they were promoted to the classroom of the writer, where they were pupils for the next two years in the fifth and sixth grades. The important difference between the two groups was the nature of their school experience while in Grades III and IV.° Group 1 had no progressive-school experience prior to the fifth grade, while Group 2 had two years of progressive- school experience in the third and fourth grades of the experimental school. Twenty-nine pupils were studied in each group.® Comparisons were made between the two equated groups while they were in Grades V and VI in terms of specific objectives in personality 4 Based on: Pistor, Frederick. A Comparative Study of the Growth of Children Under Tra- ditional and Progressive Practices. Unpublished doctor’s thesis. New York: New York Univer- sity, 1933. 204 p. 5 Other possible variables of minor importance are considered in the author's original docu- ment. Only those pupils who were enrolled during the entire period of experimentation and who could be matched readily for the purpose of equating the groups were studied. In Group ! twenty-eight children were eliminated, and in Group 2 fourteen. f the each imes. rving sed a As measured by the Brace Scale of Motor Ability Tests (published by A. S. Barnes and Co., New York City). ¢ As measured by independent ratings of pupils by five workers. 4 As measured by independent ratings of pupils by three workers. ¢ As measured by the Stanford Achievement Test, Primary Examination, Form A (published by World Book Co., Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York). Selecting trait-actions to be measured—The thirty-eight trait-actions referred to above were selected according to their frequency of occur- rence in pupil activities, ease of being observed in the classroom, ease of being culled from stenographic records, agreement with class objec- tives, and agreement with the principles and practises of progressive schools. In order to validate the trait-actions on the last-mentioned basis, they were submitted to 100 educators identified with progressive education. Each of these educators was asked to vote “Yes” or “No” on each trait-action according to whether or not he believed that en- couraging fifth- and sixth-grade children to perform the action would help to develop a certain general trait, such as “initiative,” “work spirit,” “reliability,” and so forth. Returns were received from seventy- three of these judges, and their responses may be summarized as follows: Number of judges Number of voting “‘Yes’’ trait -actions re le 72 or more : a . & 71 or more ff 20 70 or more .. Be sed’, 69 or more 32 68 or more a er 66 or more Ae ; Pee Wetec 58 or more........ eA th eee Ee 36 56 or more Hae Sar ans UR i Oe eA sais. hace gash dmds agit Xie eases 38 A complete list of the trait-actions as they were classified for use in the experiment is given later in this article. 382 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Scheduling the observation periods—The classroom activities of the children while they were in the fifth and sixth grades were observed during regularly recurring periods comparable in length and type of activity. These observation periods were distributed thru each semester in such a way that the work of every alternate two-week period was measured. There were four such periods in each semester, and a total of eight in each year. The two-week observation periods included six different types of pupil-activity periods. These six types, and the mney with which they were observed, were as follows: Type A—Practise or drill periods Twice a week Type B—Conference periods Twice a week Type C—Problem-solving periods Three times a week Type D—Creative work or construction periods Three times a week Type E—Directed study or research periods Three times a week Type F—Before-school periods Six times a week Of the nineteen pupil-activity periods observed in any single week, four were thirty minutes in length, nine were fifty minutes in length, and six were about fifteen minutes in length. In order not to interfere with the flexibility of the school program, some activity periods were not observed during the week. This margin of time also took care of special events or holidays which occasionally broke into a school week. Recording the trait-actions—Two types of workers recorded the trait- actions as they occurred in the classroom activities of the children, namely, trained observers and stenographers. The observers were equipped with mimeographed seating charts of the class. Under the name of each child on the chart were spaces in which the observer entered code letters for the trait-actions as he observed them. Each observer had a list of from six to nine trait-actions in order to know what to look for. These lists differed according to the type of period being observed, but were not mutually exclusive. Following are the six lists used in the experiment: PERIOD TYPE A Practise or Drill Period—Two Times a Week Code Letter W2* Completing work sooner than others and not using time wisely. W3 Depending upon unnecessary help while working. W4 Not concentrating deeply upon work which requires close attention. R2 Not working as efficiently when the teacher leaves the room or is not nearby. 8W2 is the code letter for the second negative trait-action listed under the general trait, Work Spirit. The other letters and their significance are: R-Reliability, C-Cooperation, P-Courtesy, H-Housekeeping, N-Initiative, and X-Work Spirit positive trait-actions. a SS he ee CY ] f 1ot ait, ion, Pl p2 H2 H5 » » es Ne , 4 an Nl N2 ZAZz or oo N6 N7 N9 Cl APPRAISING Metuops or TEACHING 383 Carrying on conversation with neighbors when attention should be given elsewhere. Touching or borrowing property of other children without their permission. Letting materials or paper remain on the floor. Written work not neatly arranged, legible, or free from blots and eraser marks. PERIOD TYPE B Class Conference Pertod—Two Times a Week Suggesting an activity or problem for group consideration and undertaking. Suggesting possible ways of carrying out an activity or a method of solv- ing a problem. Suggesting advantages and disadvantages of a contemplated or executed procedure. Volunteering to be chairman or a member of a committee. Criticizing work by bringing out good points or by offering suggestions for improvement. Volunteering in emergencies for extra work which will be for the good of the group. Not being courteous when speaking to others. Refusing to help others when help is necessary. Not holding oneself responsible to others for conduct. PERIOD TYPE C Problem-Solving Periods—Three Times a Week Suggesting an activity or problem for group consideration and undertaking. Suggesting possible ways of carrying out an activity or a method of solv- ing a problem. Suggesting advantages and disadvantages of a contemplated or executed procedure. Asking questions of other children in order to understand their reports more fully. Defending a point which appears correct to the child even when the majority differ. Bringing in voluntarily from home or elsewhere, news clippings, books, or selections containing appropriate material to be shared with others. Engaging voluntarily in art, construction, or experimentation at home or elsewhere, and bringing in the results for class consideration. Bringing in voluntarily pictures, samples, or exhibits from home or else- where, to explain or to show to the class. Not being courteous when speaking to others. PERIOD TYPE D Creative Work or Construction Periods—Three Times a Week Suggesting advantages or disadvantages of procedure. Criticizing work by bringing out good points or by offering suggestions for improvement. Asking questions of other children in order to understand their reports more fully. Asking the teacher for help when the work is not understood. Showing evidences of leadership in group work. Carrying out an original idea in art, construction work, or experimental work. (Original here means original to the child.) Bossing others in the group. 384 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS C2. Exhibiting actions which interfere with carrying forward the purposes of the group. C3 Refusing to help others when help is necessary. PERIOD TYPE E Directed Study or Research Periods—Three Times a Week The trait-actions used for this type of lesson were identical with those listed under Period Type A. PERIOD TYPE F Before-School Periods—Three Mornings a Week, 8:00-8:30, and Three Noon Periods a Week, 12:46-1:00 Mornings: R1 Not performing assigned or selected maintenance duties. H4 Not returning books, tools, and materials clean and undamaged. X4 = Engaging in voluntary work for the class after school or on Saturday. H3 Not keeping a clean, orderly iocker. W1_ =Not using spare time wisely at the beginning of a session. W5 Not being prompt in getting materials, in organizing them for work, and in getting started. Noon periods: Rl Not performing the assigned or selected maintenance duties. Hi Not keeping books and materials neatly arranged in desks. W1_ = Not using spare time wisely at the beginning of a session. W5 Not being prompt in getting materials, in organizing them for work, and in getting started. Periods providing silent evidence of trait-actions—Two kinds of evidence were used by the observers in recording trait-actions. One consisted of the physical actions of the pupils or the results of such actions; the other was the oral expression or conversation of the pupils. In lessons of the A, E, and F types, the interpretation of pupil behavior depended largely upon silent evidence. Therefore it was not necessary to use a stenographer. Instead, two observers worked simultaneously but independently. In lessons of the B, C, and D types the evidence was largely oral. Stenographers and observers in combination were used for such periods. In the A periods the pupils practised and drilled themselves in spell- ing, language forms, accuracy and speed in computation, processes in arithmetic, arithmetic problems, and geographical locations. As a rule, the pupils sat in their seats and worked independently, altho occasion- ally two or three of them would sit together at a table to drill each other on special material. During the E periods the pupils sat at their own places to study com- mon material, either in books or on specially prepared study sheets; or they consulted various books on the classroom library shelves; or they used the time not in studying books, but in connection with some laboratory work or with something seen on a field trip. When the chil- on pe of on nd nd n- ey ne APPRAISING MetruHops or TEACHING 385 dren got out of their seats their identity was not lost to the observers, since the names of the pupils were learned by the workers. When ob- servers or children were new, identification disks were worn by the children. The F periods of observation were conducted largely while the chil- dren were not in school, altho the observers continued to watch the children as they came into the classroom at the beginning of the morn- ing and afternoon sessions. Periods providing oral evidence of trait-actions—As stated above, the B, C, and D periods were attended by both observers and stenog- raphers. The B periods were conference periods in which the children met to discuss the affairs of the group, including maintenance work, self-government work, and plans for various activities. At that time individual points of view were brought together, and concerted judg- ment and action were arrived at. The C or problem-solving periods were usually class meetings during which the children considered one or more challenging problems arising in the course of their activities. These problems represented various subjectmatter fields: geography, arithmetic, history, industrial studies, science, and many others. The D periods were creative work or construction periods, in which the children individually or in groups attempted to embody some idea in concrete form. This activity included creative work in music, writing, literature, and art, as well as less original work in manipulating and constructing. When small groups met to work together in various parts of the room, it was necessary to have two observers and a stenographer for each group. The stenographers used numbered seating charts for rapid identification of the pupils. They did not bother with the lists of trait- actions. They took down the words of each child and supplemented the dialog with comments on the actions of the pupils, the materials with which they dealt, and other useful data. When the stenographie reports had been typewritten, they were passed to another group of workers, the interpreters. Interpreting the stenographic reports—The stenographiec reports of the children’s work were interpreted by pairs of workers who culled the trait-actions from the manuscripts. These interpreters used the same lists as the observers, and examined the manuscripts of lesson-types B, C, and D for evidences of the trait-actions. When an interpreter found a sentence or group of sentences which indicated a particular trait-action, he recorded the child’s name and the trait-action in code on a strip of adding machine paper. Each interpreter worked inde- pendently. 386 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS When the reports of two interpreters were completed, they were com- pared with each other and with the reports of the two observers. This was done for each lesson. It was found that the observers and the inter- preters agreed rather closely on many of the trait-actions. The reli- ‘ability of the workers’ judgments was determined by comparing the reports of different workers.° Tabulating the trait-actions—The trait-actions recorded by obsery- ers in the A, E, and F periods were entered in the final tabulation only if they were reported by both the observers in the same lesson. The trait-actions recorded in the B, C, and D periods by the observers and a stenographer were not counted in the final tabulation unless they were reported by at least two of the four workers (the two observers and the two interpreters of the stenographic record). No trait-action was included in the final tabulation if it was reported by only one worker. SuMMarRY OF RESULTS Four different comparisons were made between the two groups of pupils with respect to the trait-actions exhibited: (1) a general com- parison for the two-year period during which these pupils were in the fifth and sixth grades; (2) a comparison for the first two-week meas- uring period in the fifth grade; (3) a comparison for the last two-week measuring period in the sixth grade; and (4) a comparison of the prog- ress made by the pupils during the two-year period. In addition, the two groups were compared with respect to their performances on standardized achievement tests during the two-year period. Comparing the groups with respect to trait-actions—Space does not permit a detailed presentation of the findings in regard to the trait- actions exhibited by the two groups of pupils; only a few general state- ments can be made at this point. Group 2, consisting of the pupils with two previous years of experience under the experimental learn- ing conditions, was found superior to Group 1 in all of the trait-ac- tions, as measured by the average number of manifestations reported for each pupil during his two years in the fifth and sixth grades. In all except four of the trait-actions, the differences were large enough to indicate that similar results would almost certainly be obtained if the experiment were to be repeated with other groups under similar conditions. Since the two groups at the beginning of the fifth grade differed with respect to their previous school experience—Group 1 having attended the third and fourth grades in a traditional school, and Group 2 having attended the same grades in the experimental school—it was believed ® Pistor, Frederick, op. cit., p. 63-66, 114-15. ‘Vs ‘he nd ley ion yne of m- the as- ek og- the on not uit- ite- pils rn- ac- ted In ugh 1 if ilar vith ded ring ved APpPRAISING MetrHops oF TEACHING 387 that some differences might be noted in the trait-actions manifested by the two groups at the beginning of the fifth grade. Hence, the average numbers of manifestations reported for the groups during the first two-week measuring period were compared. In this comparison the averages for the experimental group were superior to those for the traditional group in nearly all the trait-actions, but in many cases the differences were too small to be considered significant. Of the thirty- four trait-actions considered, fourteen showed significant differences in favor of the experimental group, while none,showed significant dif- ferences in favor of the traditional group. The small number of signifi- cant differences revealed by this comparison may be attributed partly to the small number of trait manifestations reported during a single period of two weeks. While both groups showed improvement between the first and last observation periods, the experimental group made the greater amount of growth in positive trait-actions. No adequate comparison of growth in negative trait-actions could be made because the experimental group showed such a consistently excellent record with respect to them thru- out the two years of observation. Testing academic achievement—The pupils of both groups were also tested in achievement when they were in the first month of Grade V, the first month of Grade’ VI, and the ninth month of Grade VI. The results of these tests show that the pupils in the experimental group did somewhat better, on the whole, than the pupils in the traditional group. Table 2 gives the average grade scores of the two groups in individual school subjects and in all subjects combined, in terms of norms for traditional schools.’° This table indicates that each time the tests were administered, Group 2 (experimental) made a higher average score than Group 1 (traditional) in every subject except dictation (spelling), altho some of the differences were small. Group 2 was also superior in all subjects combined, the differences ranging from four months at the first testing to nine months at the second testing. This second difference was large enough to make it practically certain that a repetition of the experi- ment with other groups under similar conditions would yield results in favor of the experimental group. Tt has been found that the norms for progressive schools when measured by traditional- school testing instruments tend to be lower than those for traditional schools in such subjects as spelling and arithmetic computation, and higher in such subjects as reading and geography. However, no attempt was made in the writer’s study to apply progressive-school norms; the two groups of pupils were compared only in relation to the traditional-school norms. In the writer’s judgment, it would be fairer when testing the efficiency of the two types of schools, to compare them in relation to the norms established for each type of school. However, since Progressive-school norms had not been fully established in 1933 (the year of the original report), the author made comparisons only with reference to the norms for traditional schools. 388 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS In general, both groups did better than the typical class in a tradi- tional school, and both improved in their ability to exceed the tra- ditional norms. Group 2 made the greater improvement in this ability, TABLE 2—Averace Grape Scores OF THE Two Groups ON Tests or ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT Scores ¢ oN Tests ' GIVEN IN: ScHoo. SuBsects Fyrst MONTH OF First Montu or Ninta MONTH OF Grave V Grape VI Grape VI scteaapeteaiaesieinanlietoe nail idl eee : Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 Group 2 (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) | (7) a ee 5.5 5.6 6.7 7.2 7.8 9.0 Dictation..... 4.6 4.6 6.0 5.7 6.4 | 6.4 Language usage...... 6.0 6.2 5.4 7.6 St i aa Literature........... 4.9 5.9 5.8 7.8 6.4 | 7.6 ere 4.7 4.9 5.9 7.0 6.4 7.4 Geography.......... 4.9 5.5 6.7 7.5 - See Se 4.5 5.5 6.2 6.3 6.8 7.9 Arithmetic.......... 4.6 4.9 6.1 6.7 7.2 8.4 All subjects combined . 5.0 5.4 6.1 7.0 7.1 | 7.9 Read table: On the test given in the first month of Grade V, Group 1 made an average grade score of 5.5 in reading, while Group 2 made an average score of 5.6 in the same subject. Similarly read figures for other subjects, and for the later testing periods. “The grade score is the equivalent of the average point score made by a large, typical group of pupils at the grade level indicated. Thus, a grade score of 5.5 represents the average point score made by a representative sampling of pupils in the fifth month of Grade V. >The test used for these comparisons was the New Stanford Achievement Test, Advanced Examination, Forms V, X, and Z (published by the World Book Co., Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York). ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF THE OBSERVATIONAL TECHNIC The observational method of measurement used in this study has both advantages and disadvantages as a means of appraising a school program. Its chief advantage is that it provides a direct measure ol pupil functioning in the classroom society. The pupil is judged in terms of actual samples of his behavior. None of his time is taken from his regular classroom work. In fact, he usually does not know that he is being tested. The method is essentially one of simple counting, and the results can be expressed quantitatively. Temporary fluctuations in a pupil’s behavior have little influence upon his total score if the ob- serving is done on many different days. . On the other hand, the method is a time-consuming and costly proc- ess, and this fact limits its general use somewhat. Moreover, in a long- continued appraisal, the observer may change during the period of ob- 1 A OE RET RA Se di- ra- ty. ry MIC p2 0 o> oro of ‘rade larly roup point inced dson, Cc has 1001 > of rms his e is the in a ob- roc- yng- ob- se: ee APPRAISING MetHops or TEACHING 389 servation. Certain practise effects may enter into the recording; the personal bias of the observer may color the results; variations in re- cording may be produced by other factors. All these sources of error can be guarded against if the experimenter tests his workers and their reports for reliability, but this requires time and considerable tech- nical knowledge. Unfortunately, the standards used and the results obtained in a specific situation cannot be generally applied to other schools. Results obtained thru the use of observational methods must be interpreted in terms of situations of which they are typical. The observational technic seems to be particularly suited to schools in which an unusual amount of physical and social activity is en- couraged. Since the method is probably applicable to behavior traits of many different types, and since the program of the activity school permits much more natural activity than does that of the conventional school, it is reasonable to believe that investigators in the activity- school field will find the method most profitable. ROM WITHIN THE RANKS of progressive education has now Wisse a call for the appraisal of the newer values in educa- tion. The question is: How can we measure such values, or aspects of such values, in the educative process? The answer is still in a tentative state, but efforts to measure personal and social attitudes and conduct are being made. New tech- niques are being devised for diagnosing social conduct. They are techniques of direct observation of defined units of be- havior. These newer instruments of diagnosis and measure- ment have enjoyed a promising growth in a relatively short period of time. They are, nevertheless, still in experimental stages of development and will undoubtedly be revised and refined by experience and criticism.—Wrightstone, J. Wayne, in Progressive Education, February 1935, p. 95. 390 Exementary Scuoot Prrncrpats APPRAISING METHODS OF HEALTH EDUCATION Martua Crumpton Harpy Staff Psychologist, Elizabeth McCormick Memorial Fund, Chicago, Illinois has been interested in developing efficient and practical methods for health education. It has supervised teaching programs in pub- lic schools, nursery schools, special centers, and other institutions. This work has included programs which focused attention both on the child and on the adults who supervise the child’s activities—parents, teachers, and housemothers. Recently the Fund has made an effort to appraise some of the methods used. This article reports the procedures and re- sults of appraisal in the case of health education programs conducted during a three-year period in a number of public elementary schools in Chicago and Joliet, Illinois. Fi: A NUMBER OF YEARS the Elizabeth McCormick Memorial Fund Score oF THE APPRAISAL The general aim of health education is to develop attitudes, habits, and knowledge on which good health depends. The immediate ends are an improved physical condition and the acquisition of health informa- tion and hygienic practises. Any method which achieves these objec- tives must obviously rely, to a large extent, upon individualized in- struction. Hence, a careful physical examination of the pupils by a pediatrician, with one or both parents present, formed the hub around which revolved all the health education methods used in these projects. The Chicago project—In the Fund’s program in the Chicago schools, regular classroom instruction on health topics was given in Grades I thru VI for three consecutive years. This teaching was supplementary to periodic examinations by, and conferences with, the physician. At many of these conferences the principal was present. Frequent contacts between health specialists and the child, as well as consultation periods for teachers and parents, were special features of the plan. The Fund was fortunate in securing the services of a physician well trained in pediatrics and psychiatry for the duration of this project. An oppor- tunity was thus provided for a broad program of health education. The groups of pupils included were predominantly white, and repre- sented what may be called the average or middle socio-economic level. The Joliet study—The Joliet project was set up as a research investi- gation of the influences of health education on the child’s growth and development.’ For the sake of expediency, the study was restricted to 1For a complete report, see: Hardy, Martha Crumpton, and Hoefer, Carolyn H. Healthy Growth: A Study of the Influence of Health Education on Growth and Development of School Children. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1936. 360 p. o> et, tet och oh =e ot -_~ = _ > ~~ Mm APPRAISING MetHops oF TEACHING 391 pupils who were in the same grade (Grade III) at the beginning of the program. These pupils were followed as they progressed thru the later elementary grades. A number of methods were used to stimulate their interest in the principles of healthful living. These methods were similar to those previously described, and may be classified into three general categories: (1) specific instruction on health topics presented in the classroom; (2) information and recommendations given to the child, his parents, and his teachers, based on the findings of a pediatrician and a psychologist as to the child’s present condition of health; and (3) individual conferences for the parents and school authorities with child specialists, and follow-up work by the school nurses. The children included in the Joliet study were American-born white children mentally capable of doing third-grade work, whose parents were interested in cooperating with the schools in a long-term program. All pupils participating in the project shared equally in the physician’s and psychologist’s services, and in the follow-up work of the school nurses. Every home was visited at least twice by the Fund’s repre- sentatives, and the teachers were regularly interviewed. For one group of 104 pupils the health instruction was restricted to these features of the program. Another group of 268 pupils participated in the entire health education program, including the classroom instruction. In addi- tion, there were 37 pupils who transferred from one group to the other, thus having a limited contact with all aspects of the health work. Each of these three groups represents some combination of the dif- ferent methods utilized in teaching the principles of health to elemen- tary-school pupils. Methods of measurement—The immediate outcomes of both the Chicago and Joliet projects were measured by means of yearly in- spections of the children by a pediatrician, dietary histories covering the period of health instruction, and records provided by parents as to the amounts of medical and dental service obtained. Appraisal of the educational procedures employed has been made in terms of the changes reported in these several sources of information. The results are presented to show: (1) the effect of health education on physical condition and health practises, and (2) the relative efficacy of certain combinations of methods in health education. GENERAL RESULTS OF THE HEALTH PROGRAM The findings from physical examinations, whether taken singly or collectively, show that pupils who participated in the health instruction projects were in better health and were following a more hygienic schedule of living at the conclusion of the instruction than they were 392 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS before. Evidence of improvement was clear-cut and definite in the schools under observation. Table 1 presents some of the major results of the physical examina- tions for those pupils who participated in comprehensive health pro- grams. It summarizes the findings of the initial and final examinations, and the gains made during a three-year period, for both the Joliet and the Chicago pupils. These figures reveal an interesting similarity in the results from the two school systems. In both cities the frequency of specific types of physical defect was decreased, and the general health of the children was improved during the period of health in- struction. At the time of the final examination the pupils generally were in better all-round condition, and fewer were reported as having in- fected tonsils, carious teeth, defects of eyes, and other defects, than at TABLE—1—CuHaAnces 1n HEALTH AND HEALTH FRACTISES OF PUPILS DURING 4 THREE-YEAR COMPREHENSIVE ProGRaAM OF HEALTH EpucaTion IN Two Crrtigs IN ILLINOIS PERCENTAGE OF PUPILS SHOWING CONDITIONS LisTED iN CoLuMN 1 Jo.iet PuPILs (268) Cuicaao PupIts (421) ConDITIONS AND PRACTISES eet i= ah Before After Gain Before After Gain Health Health (Col. 3 Health Health (Col. 6 Program | Program | minus 2) | Program | Program | minus 5 (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) General physical condition good| 51 85 34 28 | 62 | 34 Muscles firm................. 69 99 30 50 | 74 | 24 Posture erect................ 38 60 22 34 | 40 | 6 Tonsils infected. ............. 45 24 21 65 | 44 ,. Teeth with cavities........... 63 45 18 67 48 19 ee ere 7 2 5 14 3 ll Dietary practises adequate” aR Seay pede ee 78 93 15 80 89 9 Cesc ae cleanses ened 62 87 25 II. «dike eincatinhg with nie Pioiate 67 93 26 SD acd a aoe Wc by die,» wR 59 93 34 v a4 ey Sleep satisfactory........... a] 78° 88° 10 25¢ | 72¢ | 47 Read table: Of the 268 pupils participating in the health education program in Joliet, 51 per- cent were rated ‘‘good”’ or “‘very good” in general physical condition at the first examination and 85 percent received such ratings at the last examination; thus the increase in the percent receiving such ratings was 34. Again, 45 percent had infected tonsils at the first examination but only 24 percent at the last, the difference showing a decrease of 21 in the percent having this type of defect. Similarly read figures for other items in column 1, and for the Chicago stud) “Sixteen percent showed marked improvement in posture, altho only 6 percent more had good posture the last year. » According to standards given in this report. ¢ According to current standards for age. 4 According to pediatrician’s judgment of the child’s needs. iG A TIES 1) ain ol. 6 jus 5) 47 1 per- nation, yercent ination having study. ‘e had APPRAISING Metruops oF TEACHING 393 the time of the first examination. Of the Joliet group, 85 percent were said to be in “good” or “very good” health? at the conclusion of the project, as compared with only 51 percent at the beginning. Of the Chicago pupils, 62 percent were in good general health at the final examination, as opposed to 28 percent at the first examination. In each case there was a gain of 34 in the percent of pupils who were in good or very good condition.® Increase in health practises—Information concerning health prac- tises was obtained from several sources. The results presented in the five lower rows of Table 1 are from answers given by the mother and the child to the pediatrician at the time of his regular examinations. On the whole, a decidedly more hygienic regimen was indicated after the program than before. This was evidenced particularly in the larger number of pupils taking vegetables, fruits, milk, and adequate break- fasts; in the smaller number taking coffee or tea; and in the smaller number getting an inadequate amount of rest. Complete results for these practises are given for Joliet only. The Chicago findings with regard to the use of cereals, vegetables, and fruits have been organized around the needs of the individual, and are not comparable to the Joliet data. Therefore, the former have been omitted from the table. RELATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF DIFFERENT PROCEDURES Since the physical examination was utilized by the physician in in- structing the mother and the child in the principles of healthful living, every pupil who was examined participated in this aspect of health teaching. Consequently, no real “control” group is available to deter- mine the improvement in health and health habits which may be ex- pected of pupils who receive no health education in the schools. How- ever, the plan for the Joliet project makes it possible to evaluate, in a general way, the relative efficacy of certain procedures employed in health education. As previously mentioned, three groups of pupils had different amounts of contact with the classroom instruction on health topics. One group had no classroom instruction; a second had two or more semesters of such instruction; and a third had six semesters, or the complete program of instruction. These groups are hereafter re- 2 The term ‘“‘general physical condition” represents the physician’s judgment of the health of the child at the time of examination, expressed in the form of a descriptive rating: ‘‘very good,”’ “good,” ‘‘fair,’”’ ‘‘poor,”’ or ‘very poor.’’ This rating gives a brief summary and evalua- tion of the detailed findings for each pupil. It was made at the completion of the doctor’s examination and before the child dressed. 3 With only two exceptions the gains shown in Table 1 are large enough to be considered “statistically significant”; that is, they are at least four times as large as their probable errors. This means that if the experiments were to be repeated with similar groups of pupils under similar conditions, the chances that no improvement would result are negligible. For detailed figures on the reliability of the Joliet results reported here, see: Hardy, Martha Crumpton, and Hoefer, Carolyn H., op. cit. 394 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS ferred to as the “non-instructed,” “limited-instructed,”’ and “exten- sively-instructed” groups. Effect on health—On the whole, the non-instructed pupils were healthier than the other pupils at the time of the first examination. It should be mentioned that the physician was unaware of the classifi- cation of the pupils and gave equal attention to all cases. At the final examination the results were overwhelmingly to the advantage of the pupils receiving classroom instruction. This advantage appeared con- sistently, regardless of the ages and home conditions of the pupils. Among children of similar ages, physical conditions, and types of homes at the beginning of the program, those who participated in the extensive instruction were said to be healthier after instruction than were the non-instructed pupils, and the difference was highly reliable. There is evidence that each of the methods used was to some extent effective in bringing about healthier conditions. In each group the chil- dren’s general health appeared to be improved, and the number and types of defects somewhat decreased. A representative cross-section of a large array of findings showed that pupils given extensive health in- struction made definite improvement in every item, all changes being large enough to denote certainty of trend. In 78 percent of the measures, the extensively-instructed pupils showed greater improvement than the limited-instructed pupils, who had improved in at least 44 percent of the health items. In turn, the limited-instructed pupils showed greater improvement than the non-instructed pupils in 67 percent of the items, the latter having improved in only 22 percent. The selected items in- cluded the physician’s summary ratings on physical condition, meas- ures of nutrition, muscle tone, posture, and condition of feet, the total number of remedial defects, and the adequacy of dietary and rest habits. Correction of defects was strikingly evident among the children re- ceiving regular health instruction. The average pupil participating in the instruction program had fewer types of remedial defects at the com- pletion of the teaching, and some improvement within the different cate- gories of defect had been made. For example, there were definite de- creases in the number of children having visual defects uncorrected, infected tonsils and adenoids, enlarged thyroid gland, flabby muscles, poor posture, dental caries, and defects of the feet. Remedial work among children of school age depends primarily on the parents—their appreciation of the importance of good health and freedom from defects, and their financial ability to have the necessary work done. The fact that corrections were made for some pupils in each of the three classifications implies an increased interest on the part of the parents in the health of their children during the progress ApprAIsING Metuops or TEACHING 395 of the health education program. It is evident, however, that this increased interest was most pronounced among the parents whose children participated in the extensive instruction projects. When par- ents of the extensively-instructed pupils and those of the non-instructed pupils were equally able to pay for remedial work, a larger proportion of the former than of the latter had corrections made. Some of the major findings of the physical examinations for the three groups of pupils are presented graphically in Figure I. The height of each column represents the increase in percent of pupils in good condi- tion or having certain remedial work done between the first and third examinations. In each of the five health items represented in this chart, the extensively-instructed group gained the most and the non-instructed group gained the least. Effect on health habits—The adequacy of dietary practises among the Joliet cases was determined from food requirements based on the gen- erally accepted theory that the daily diet of growing children should contain the following types of foods: (1) from a pint to a quart of milk, preferably a quart; (2) cereals; (3) at least two vegetables in addition to potatoes, one of which should be a leafy vegetable; (4) 3 w : N uw i no 2 Certain Health Conditions Increase in Percent of Pupils Showin tt HH Good Good Correction of Correction ot General Nutrition Posture Dental Work Foot Defects Condition Defects KEY: Pupils given extensive health instruction = Pupils given limited health instruction Pupils given no health instruction in school FIGURE I—Heattu ImproveMENT or Puriis As RELATED TO EXTENSIVENESS OF A HeattH Epucation ProcraM IN JouiEt, ILLINOIS, DURING A THREE-YEAR PERIOD 396 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS fruits; and (5) no tea or coffee. Adequacy of sleep was determined from current standards according to age. Improvement in dietary practises was clearly shown for all food habits inventoried in the case of the extensively-instructed pupils. In- creases in the percent of these pupils eating the recommended foods ranged from 15 to 34. In several of the food habits the limited-instructed pupils also manifested marked improvement. However, there was little assurance that the general dietary of the non-instructed pupils was more satisfactory at the conclusion of the investigation than before. Consumption of fruit was the only food habit surveyed in which the non-instructed children showed definite improvement. Thirty-nine per- cent more of the pupils in this group were getting some fruit each day during the last year than during the first year, according to the reports from the mother and from the child. With respect to sleep, clear-cut evidence of an increase in the number of children obtaining adequate amounts of rest was noted in the case of the extensively-instructed pupils. Among pupils receiving limited instruction some improvement occurred, while the least amount of change during the three years was noted in the case of the non-instructed pupils. Marked differences between the groups were found when the factors of age, socio-economic level, general health, and adequacy of sleep at the time of the first examination were taken into consideration. Schedules showed that only 10 percent of the extensively-instructed pupils, as compared with 25 percent of the non-instructed pupils, were getting an insufficient amount of rest at the time of the last examination. Effect on pupils’ school work—An interesting altho indirect check on the influence of the health instruction projects is found in the results of educational achievement tests.‘ When the groups of pupils were equated on the basis of age, I.Q., and initial achievement, the average gain of the extensively-instructed pupils on school tests® during the health teaching program was larger in each of the school subjects than was the average gain of the non-instructed pupils. Further evidence was found in the scores of pupils who had no contacts with any aspect of the special health projects. The data permit a comparison of five groups of pupils under as many different instructional arrangements, as follows: 1. Classmates of the non-instructed pupils who had no special contacts with the Fund’s program 4For full details, see: Hardy, Martha Crumpton. “Improvement in Educational Achievement Accompanying a Health Education Program.” Journal of Educational Research 30: 110-2 October 1936. 5 Kelley, T. L.: Ruch, G. M.; and Terman, L. M. New Stanford Achievement Test. Yonkers- on-Hudson, N. Y.: World Book Co. om od rds ted tle vas re. the er- lay rts ber ‘Ase ited of ‘ted the r of ion. ted vere i0n. c on ults vere rage the chan ence pect five ents, with rement 10-23; nkers- APPRAISING Mrtruops or TEACHING 397 2. Non-instructed pupils who had only the yearly examinations and confer- ences with child specialists 3. Classmates of the instructed pupils who had no examinations but who participated in all the instruction projects, and whose teachers had regular con- tacts with the health program in its entirety 4, Limited-instructed pupils who transferred from the instructed to the non- instructed classes or vice versa, and who had regular examinations and confer- ences 5. Extensively-instructed pupils who participated in the entire program. Figure II shows the average gain in test scores during the program in terms of composite educational ages, for each of the five groups men- tioned. It is evident that the pupils who participated in the classroom projects showed greater progress in their school work than did the non- participants. The classroom teaching of health topics in combination with other methods of health education appeared to be more effective than classroom instruction alone, but regular class instruction in the principles of healthful living seemed to be a greater stimulus to general school achievement than did contacts with health specialists at inter- vals of several months. 35 ‘ 304 > KEY: 5 INSTRUCTED GROUPS = 954 & Extensive health program = ~ Limited contacts with all 5 § 0 aspects of the health program 3 6 Health-projects in the classroom only ¢ 154 0 NON-INSTRUCTED GROUPS 5 104 ES Yearly examinations and < interviews only [] No direct contacts with the 54 health program 0 FIGURE II—ImproveMENT IN Puptis’ ScHoot Work As RELATED TO EXTENSIVE- NESS OF A HeattH EpucaTION PROGRAM IN JOLIET, ILLINOIS, DURING A THREE- Year Periop 398 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION From the findings reported above, it seems safe to conclude that specific classroom instruction on health topics, supplemented by periodic physical examinations with advice to parents, is an effective method of health education for elementary-school children. There is indication that yearly conferences with a physician will stimulate sufficient interest on the part of both parent and child to produce an appreciable improve- ment in the child’s health. When such conferences are accompanied by health teaching in the classroom, this improvement is markedly in- creased. These procedures seem to be effective, not only in improving the average child’s general health, but also in correcting specific bodily defects and establishing better health habits. This improvement in health is in turn reflected in a higher level of school achievement. In accomplishing these objectives, a comprehensive program of health education is more effective than one or two procedures used alone. Moreover, the longer and more continuously health instruction is carried on, the more satisfactory the results are likely to be. Since the correc- tion of defects and improvement of the diet and general hygiene of the home are primarily the responsibilities of the parents, the effectiveness of a health education program will depend upon the extent of the coop- eration between the home and school. The results reported in this article show conclusively that when the home and school work together, marked improvement in the health of the pupils can be expected. moore in health may be organized and systematized into a respectable body of knowledge about how to live, but it has merit as education only to the extent that it influ- ences living... . It is a weakness of educational method today that much traditional subject matter is taught with nothing more than an optimistic hope that it will give power to the individual. . . . The only justifiable theory for health instruction is based upon this principle: knowledge of hygiene is defined in the lives of people—its content is their habits and attitudes, its methods are the routine of daily life, its results are the happier and healthier people of the nation.—Williams, Jesse F., and Brownell, Clifford L., The Administration of Health and Physical Education, W. B. Saunders Co., 1934, p. 261-62. (Quoted by permission of the publishers.) he 138 p- le ed APPRAISING MretuHops or TEACHING 399 THE EVALUATION OF READING INSTRUCTION IN THE INTERMEDIATE GRADES J. T. Woriton Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Salt Lake City, Utah HE EVALUATION of reading technics in the intermediate grades requires first a clear identification of the objectives or purposes to be served in teaching children to read. This principle is more often ignored than applied in the construction of tests and other devices for evaluating instructional procedures. The practical diffi- culties encountered in attempting to measure pupil progress in the more fundamental aspects of education have been almost insurmount- able. This article reviews some types of instruments and technics of appraisal which have been found advantageous in focusing the atten- tion of children and teachers upon the important goals of reading instruction. OBJECTIVES TO WHICH THE READING PROGRAM SHOULD CONTRIBUTE The teacher’s purposes in teaching reading may be classified under two major headings: (1) the fundamental objectives of education, and (2) those specific goals which seek to make reading an effective tool of learning and of recreation. A brief list of purposes of each type is presented here as a background for the methods of appraisal recom- mended. Major educational objectives—Most teachers and principals will probably agree that the following are among the basic purposes of education: 1. To help the child understand the society in which he lives, and to develop in him an attitude of cooperation with others for the common welfare. 2. To encourage the use of the scientific method in solving problems. 3. To develop the individual personality of each child. 4. To develop a mastery of such skills and factual information as are neces- sary for effective participation in life activities. 5. To develop independence and power. 6. To develop an appreciation and a desire for the esthetic and spiritual values of life. 7. To establish a sound body, controlled emotional reactions, and desirable personal attitudes. The writer believes that reading can and should be made to con- tribute to each of these general objectives. A later section of this article will indicate in a general way how such contributions may be made. Specific goals of the reading program—No sooner does the teacher in the intermediate grades begin to seek the ultimate goals of educa- 400 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS tion thru reading activities than she becomes aware of certain handi- caps under which her pupils are working because of their limited abilities and skills in the field of reading. These deficiencies must be overcome if the child is to enjoy the various experiences which facility in reading affords. Therefore, we have a second series of reading objectives—those which involve the mastery of desirable reading habits, tastes, abilities, and skills. The typical pupil entering the fourth grade has a foundation on which the more mature reading technics can be developed. It is the responsibility of the intermediate grades to build upon this foundation a structure of reading skills and abilities which will enable the pupil to secure and enjoy the world of experiences locked up in printed symbols. Some of the more valuable of these specific reading objectives are the following: 1. To give the child a variety of experiences in the widest possible areas of human interest, including biography, history, science, art, travel, recreation, geog- raphy, music, and literature. 2. To increase the rate and comprehension of silent reading. . To develop skill in the use of library facilities. . To secure rapid growth in power and habits of effective study. . To develop the necessary abilities, skills, and tastes for effective oral reading. . To develop wholesome and permanent interests in reading. It is not necessary that the reader accept as his own the educational objectives listed above, in order that the writer’s present purpose may be achieved. The object in stating these goals is to emphasize the relationship which should exist between the objectives of reading instruction and the technics of appraisal used in evaluating the teach- ing methods and procedures employed to achieve those objectives. > or hm APPRAISING SUCCESSIVE STEPS IN THE READING PROGRAM Following is a description of a program for teaching reading in the intermediate grades which has been found effective in achieving not only the more specific reading skills and abilities, but also the funda- mental purposes in education listed above. The tests and other methods used in measuring pupil growth and in appraising the instructional technics are described briefly with each phase of the work. Preliminary activities—Certain preparatory activities must be per- formed by the teacher before the reading itself can begin. These activities cannot be formalized or routinized. They include the fol- lowing: 1. The teacher determines the minimum essentials of achievement for the class as a whole, and plans an enriched program for the more able pupils. She calls upon her own experience and the experience of others in order to identify the probable requirements of her pupils, and APPRAISING Mrtruops or TEACHING 401 arranges alternate types of reading activities to meet the needs of the advanced pupils. The criterion for evaluating this important step is the subjective opinion of the teacher or other person making the appraisal. A study of the opinions of recognized authorities in reading is helpful in making sound judgments. 2. The teacher determines, thru the use of reading tests and other survey procedures, the general reading ability and the interests of the individual members of the class. There are a number of excellent survey reading tests' which will indicate the grade level in reading which the individual child has attained. A general achievement test such as the New Stanford Achievement Tests? or the Metropolitan Achievement Tests will reveal not only the child’s grade level in read- ing but also the relationship of reading efficiency to achievement in other subjects. The interests of individual pupils may best be deter- mined from the give-and-take experiences of group life and from the teacher’s personal interview with the pupil. 3. In a school having two or more classes in the same grade, the teacher groups the pupils as homogeneously as possible with reference to their reading needs. When the school program makes it imprac- ticable to group pupils on the basis of reading needs, a classification based upon general success in academic subjects and upon social maturity is recommended. The best subjectmatter tests to use for purposes of grouping are survey reading tests or general achievement tests such as_ those suggested above. The teacher’s subjective opinion of the pupil’s social maturity, health requirements, and other characteristics which are likely to affect his progress in reading should have a weight equal if not superior to that of test results in determining the class to which a pupil is assigned. 4. The teacher provides a rich variety of carefully organized read- ing materials, and classifies them according to the degree of difficulty or grade level of each. In addition to the basic reader, a copy of which should be supplied to each child, fifteen or more sets of readers with from three to five copies each should be a railable in the reading room. A miscellaneous set of fifty or more single titles would make a desirable addition. As a beginning step in identifying the vocabulary difficulty of reading materials, the teacher should consult the graded booklists issued by reputable organizations. The Graded List of Books for 1 For the titles and publishers of such tests, see the article by Traxler in this chapter.— Editorial Committee. ? Published by the World Book Co., Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York. 402 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Children* and the Children’s Catalog‘ are valuable guides. The teacher’s opinion based upon her experience with a book in the hands of pupils is the best final criterion for the classification of a book. The unit procedure—The reading program recommended here ip- volves the organization of reading activities around broad units of understanding. The teaching procedure in developing a unit of reading is similar to that often employed in the social studies and other content subjects. Following are the steps involved in developing such a unit, together with appropriate types of tests and other methods of evaluation: 1. Motivation—The teacher’s first aim is to present the subject content of the unit so as to win the hearty interest and approval of the pupils. This activity is conducted with the entire class and may take a full period or more. Two basic questions constitute the criteria for evaluating this step: (1) Does the child have a clear idea of the nature of the problem to be solved or of the work to be accomplished? (2) Does he adopt this problem or work as his own? The personal opinion of the teacher gives the best answers to these questions. 2. Defining specific objectives—This activity, which involves all members of the class, is intended to orient the pupils with reference to the reading objectives to be attained. By means of class discussion under the guidance of the teacher, these purposes are clearly defined and illustrated. In actual classroom practise this step and the preced- ing one are often developed concurrently. As a result of this step, the child should see not only the funda- mental aims to be achieved by studying the unit, but also some of the specific reading skills and habits which he needs most. in order to make his reading more effective. The best sources of evidence on these points are the experience of the teacher and of the child, and the results of reading tests previously given. The nature of these tests will be described later. 3. Planning the study activities—After the pupils have been ae- quainted with the content and purposes of the reading unit, the next important step is to plan the individual and class activities necessary to accomplish the work outlined. This planning is essentially a dis- cussion activity involving all members of the class. Selections whicl should be read by all the pupils as basic minimum requirements are identified, and a general class procedure is adopted. Selections from supplementary readers and reference materials which are to be read by individual pupils are located, and administra- 3 American Library Association. Graded List of Books for Children. Chicago: the Associ tion, 1936. 161 p. 4 Children’s Catalog. 5th ed. rev. New York: H. W. Wilson Co., 1936. lhe nds 0k, in- s of ling ther uch s of ject 1 of may era the ned? onal : all ne to 3s10N fined ced- nda- 1e of order ‘e On and tests 1 ace next ssary . dis- which $ are erials jstra- A ssocia- APPRAISING MetrHops or TEACHING 403 tive procedures whereby these materials may be obtained are con- sidered, together with the self-testing procedures and other details connected with the independent work of each pupil. The pupils are made acquainted with the location and purposes of the various types of drill material and self-checking exercises available, and a time schedule is agreed on for the use of this material, which is completely individualized. The first three steps in the development of the unit may require from two to four reading periods. 4. Carrying out the study activities program—The heart of the reading program lies in the actual reading and study activities carried on by the children. The selections for general class study are taken up first, in order to familiarize all pupils with this common basic material. This activity may require a week or more. In the second stage of this step the pupils pursue their work individually. Under the guidance of the teacher each child locates the selection or book that he desires, follows the study guide in reading it, and then reports to the teacher for an oral or written test of his mastery of the content. This activity may continue for two weeks or more, with such variation as may be desired for purposes of remotivation, review, drill on reading skills, and so forth. The teacher endeavors to guide each child so that he will read material suited to his interests and level of ability, and so that he will do the widest possible amount of reading consistent with reasonable mastery of the content. This plan enables the pupil to progress at his own rate of reading and at his own level of comprehension. There are three methods of appraising the activities in this phase of the work. The first consists of self-checking exercises provided by the teacher, whereby the pupil can check his own comprehension of the various materials read. This feature provides valuable experiences in character development and encourages independence and power. The second method is provided in the specialized test and practise exercises which are used for training in reading skills. The third method of evaluation is based on the judgment of the teacher, as formed during a brief conference with the individual pupil following his completion of each important selection read. The tests mentioned in the foregoing paragraph provide the teacher with a wealth of diagnostic information on the basis of which she can guide the child in his reading activities. Moreover, experience shows that the plan herein described enables a teacher with thirty- five to forty children to have frequent individual conferences with pupils during the regular reading periods. 5. Socialized discussion—Immediately following the study activities the pupils as a class discuss their findings. Opportunity is given for 404 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS oral reports from committees or individuals. Choice selections are read orally in real audience situations. The stage is set for the dramatic presentation of significant episodes in the reading completed, and for the vigorous discussion of problems arising from the pupils’ studies. These activities may continue for several days. The best means of evaluating these activities is the trained judg- ment of the teacher. Her conclusions, based on oral reports of studies made, book reports, oral reading, and dramatic presentation, will guide her teaching activities. She will use oral reading tests for appraising the features of oral reading which these tests are designed to measure. Such tests as the Gray Standardized Oral Reading Check Tests® and the Gates Word Pronunciation Test * have been found useful for this purpose. 6. Measuring progress—As the final step in the development of the unit, the teacher and the pupils cooperate in appraising the progress made. Tests are given to cover the basie content of the unit and the skills involved in both silent and oral reading. Records of results are kept by the teacher and also by the pupils. These records include (1) rate of reading on standardized material, (2) scores on comprehension tests, (3) number of selections read for each unit, and (4) number of books read in the library and in the home. APPRAISAL WITH REFERENCE TO Masor AIMS OF EDUCATION Evaluation of the reading program with reference to the more fun- damental objectives of education cannot be made adequately by means of objective tests alone. The seasoned judgment of the teacher, based upon her own experience and her knowledge of psychology, is also essential in determining the contribution of the program to these fundamental goals. Following are a few suggestions as to how the reading program may contribute to the major objectives listed on page 399. Each objective is restated here, and is followed by a brief discussion. 1. To help the child understand the society in which he lives, and to develop in him an attitude of cooperation with others for the com- mon welfare. As a means of securing this objective the school seeks to utilize the environment of the home, the school, and the community as the basic raw material of the curriculum. The child’s contact with the give-and-take reactions of group life in the school and the community furnishes the primary experiences out of which education develops. 5 Published by the Public School Publishing Co., Bloomington, Illinois. 6 One of the tests in the Diagnostic Tests in Reading by Arthur I. Gates, published by the Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. ne he APPRAISING METHODS or TEACHING 405 Reading intensifies these experiences and gradually extends them to include all significant experiences of the race. The unit plan of or- ganizing reading activities, described above, contributes especially to the direct study of life activities. Children are guided in selecting problems for study which deal with vital social functions. The ex- perience of working together on units of work furnishes excellent opportunities for pupils to practise cooperation with others for the common good. 2. To encourage the use of the scientific method in solving problems. Educational leaders recognize that the uncertain problems of the future cannot be solved by learning solutions discovered by our fore- fathers. The organization of the curriculum content into units of understanding is the reading teacher’s contribution to this goal of education. The discovery and evaluation of evidence on the question to be solved in the unit of study offers direct practise in open-minded, scientific problem-solving. The experience of deciding questions in terms of the best evidence available, and of suspending judgment until all the evidence has been considered, is a direct application of the scientific method. 3. To develop the individual personality of each chitd. The interests of a democracy such as ours demand that each citizen’s talents be developed and utilized in the service of the group. The success and happiness of the individual likewise require that his constructive personal characteristics be developed to their capacity. Reading makes a unique contribution to this goal by facilitating the development of the child in the direction of his own interests and capabilities. The individualization of instruction in the plan herein described furnishes a vehicle for meeting directly this personality need of the child. 4. To develop a mastery of such skills and factual information as are necessary for effective participation in life activities. Reading contributes more than any other subject of the curriculum to this basic aim of education. The unique contribution of reading to this objective has been given special attention in the section dealing with the development of effective reading habits and skills. In meeting the challenge of this goal, each step of the unit plan is accompanied by diagnostic and remedial procedures designed to identify and correct the reading defects of the individual child so that he may participate effectively in life activities requiring reading. 5. To develop independence and power. The ability and disposition to assume responsibility for directing one’s own affairs in cooperation with others is of priceless value in a 406 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS democracy. The reading teacher’s contribution to this goal inheres in an organization of reading activities which calls for the pupil’s initiative and independence in pursuing his individual reading pur- poses. The type of reading program outlined above contributes di- rectly by shifting to the child the responsibility, under teacher guid- ance, of selecting his own problems for study and the reading ma- terials which will contribute to their solution. Such a program en- courages the child to manage his own reading activities as rapidly as he can assume this responsibility. 6. To develop an appreciation and a desire for the esthetic and spiritual values of life. It is obvious that reading has a unique contribution to make to this basic goal of education. Much of the culture of the race reposes in its literature, and this culture is open to exploration by the person who can read with understanding and whose sensitiveness to esthetic and spiritual values has been developed. A sound program of reading instruction develops the reading tastes and habits of children and gives them the ability to understand what they read. The teacher- pupil conferences which characterize such a program provide oppor- tunities for personal guidance in securing these values. 7. To establish a sound body, controlled emotional reactions, and desirable personal attitudes. So far as this important series of goals is fostered by scientific knowledge and by an understanding of natural laws, the person who reads with facility and comprehension has a clear advantage over one who does not. The reading program described above has been found effective in achieving these results.’ CONCLUSION The plan of procedure outlined in this article shifts much of the responsibility from the teacher to the pupil. The suggested technics are designed to develop in the child an urge to accomplish certain immediate goals which fit his needs, and to provide the environment, equipment, and guidance necessary to foster his development as an independent, intelligent worker. The major functions of the teacher are (1) to motivate and guide the pupil in determining his reading purposes, (2) to provide the necessary reading materials, (3) to set the stage so that the child may pursue his work under the most fa- vorable environmental conditions, (4) to assist the pupil in evaluating his own progress from time to time, and (5) to give such guidance and 7 For a more detailed report of this reading program and of the experimental results obtained by it, see: Worlton, J. T. “Individualizing Instruction in Reading.’’ Elementary School Journal 36: 785-47; June 1936. eres pDil’s yur- di- 1id- ma- 7 as and » to oses ‘son etic ling and ner- 0r- and tific who yver een the nics Lain ent, an sher ling set fa- ‘ing and ained urnal APPRAISING MEtTHops or TEACHING 407 encouragement that the child may work intelligently and with con- fidence. Much of the teacher’s time is spent at her desk in private conferences with pupils. Class activities, small-group activities, and individual instruction occupy the class period as occasion requires. The methods proposed for evaluating reading technics in the inter- mediate grades include the use of diagnostic tests, standardized survey tests, and the trained judgment of the teacher. Diagnostic tests make their principal contribution by revealing the child’s immediate read- ing needs and interests as a basis for remedial procedures. Standardized survey tests furnish an index of the child’s general level of reading ability, and thereby provide a basis for selecting reading material of suitable difficulty for him. These tests also furnish a valuable index of pupil growth in reading ability over a period of time. In the final analysis, however, the trained judgment of the teacher is the most important means of evaluating the reading program. It is in constant demand even for those phases which are measured by objective tests. Moreover, there are many important functions of reading—perhaps the most important—which do not lend themselves at present to. objective measurement. In these areas, the teacher’s judgment remains supreme. Chief among these functions is the contribution of teaching technies to the major goals of education and to pupil growth in habits of effective study, in reading tastes, and in the effective use of reading in daily life. PROGRESSIVE READING PROGRAM is so broad and its aims are A so diverse in nature, that attainment must be studied with reference to numerous specific objectives. Only thus can indi- vidual and group needs be revealed and served effectively. Constant study of pupil progress is the essential function of the teacher. A regular checking on a well selected range of objectives would do much to reduce over-emphasis on narrow aims or the uncritical adoption of ready-made “methods” or “devices.” Undue use of devices unrelated to sound aims and principles of procedure too often results in superficial work and reduced learning values——Report of the National Com- mittee on Reading, Twenty-fourth Yearbook, Part I, National Society for the Study of Education, 1925, Chapter 9, p. 264. (Quoted by permission of the Society.) ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS TRYING OUT A COMBINATION OF METHODS IN TEACHING READING Mitprep A. Dawson Supervisor of Childhood Education, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia HIS ARTICLE presents briefly the procedures used in evaluating g program of reading instruction in which three distinct methods were combined: (1) unit teaching, or the continuous reading of materials about a single topic for a considerable period of time; (2) differentiated assignments in reading for pupils of different abilities and interests; and (3) corrective teaching for pupils with specific read- ing weaknesses. The article does not describe a scientific experiment. Rather, the writer’s purpose is to acquaint teachers and supervisors with a simple, informal, everyday plan for trying out a program of reading instruction when a truly scientific investigation is impracticable. The tryout described here was carried on under ordinary classroom conditions. Only one group of children was used. There was no mateh- ' ing of experimental and control groups to determine the relative merits of new and old types of instructional programs. The situation was simi- lar to that faced by the typical teacher who is trying to obtain what evidence she can as to the success or failure of a new teaching procedure. THE INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAM Unit teaching—The writer had been convinced, on the basis of prae- tical experience and professional reading, that keen and sustained in- terests in reading could better be developed thru continuous and unin- terrupted reading of materials on a single topic than thru reading a miscellany of stories and poems day after day. She had, therefore, been directing a reading program in which reading selections that dealt with any single topic were pooled—regardless of their location in various books and periodicals—and taught consecutively. Prior to the inaugu- ration of the new program, however, such related selections were taught | separately and no real unity was attained. Consequently, a plan was devised whereby the pupils could read without interruption for several days—or even weeks in the higher grades—on some one theme or topic common to all the materials in the reading unit. Differentiated assignments—Realizing that pupils vary in speed and efficiency of reading, and that their interests and tastes differ in similar manner, the writer had earlier used the differentiated assignment to meet these varying needs. This procedure included an extensive bibliog- raphy of reading materials and a three-part assignment as follows: (1) a minimum amount of reading, with questions directing attention t0 ‘gia ing a thods ng of +5 (2) ilities read- ment, Visors am of cable. sroom 1atch- merits simi- what edure. prac- ed in- unin- ling a ., been t with arious augue faught n was everal r topic od and similar ent to ibliog- s: (1) ion t Saati APPRAISING Mertuops or TEACHING 409 essential ideas; (2) exercises for developing knowledge and apprecia- tion of an enriched vocabulary; and (3) additional reading or dramatic and other expressional activities. This plan permitted each pupil to work at his optimal speed, select materials in accordance with his inter- ests and his reading efficiency, and participate in the expressional ac- tivities that most appealed to him. This procedure was combined with the unit teaching in the new program being tried out. Corrective teaching—In planning the program of uninterrupted read- ing, it became apparent that pupils who were deficient in reading skills would have little opportunity for corrective instruction and remedial practise. To meet this problem, periods devoted to remedial instruction were combined with the periods given over to continuous reading of related materials. Specifically, the first or the last ten minutes of each reading period were devoted to the corrective teaching of individual pupils or of small groups having needs in common. Tue Tryout To try out this combined program, the writer obtained complete charge of a sixth-grade class for an hour each day during one quarter of the academic year. Evaluation of the program was made by means of thoro altho informal inventories of the pupils’ interest and skill in reading at the inception and the conclusion of the tryout. Any gains in interest and pleasure in reading could be measured only indirectly and subjectively, two procedures being used by the writer for this pur- pose: (1) direct observation of the children in their reading activities as ordinarily carried on, and (2) conferences with the teacher who had previously had charge of the sixth-grade reading. The latter, in turn, based her opinions on extended observation during the period of the tryout, on the amount of voluntary reading done in the third part of the differentiated assignments, and on the spontaneous comments of the pupils. The gains in reading skills were more definitely and objectively determined. The writer first carefully inspected the cumulative record ecard of each pupil who was to participate in the new program. For the pupils whose records indicated low or mediocre attainments in reading, the copies of the Stanford Achievement Test and of the informal tests of reading skills were taken from the files and studied in detail. Con- ferences with the sixth-grade teacher and further observation of read- ing classes supplemented these data, so that health conditions, home environment, habits of work, and attitudes toward school and toward reading in particular were taken into consideration. 1 Published by the World Book Co., Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York. 410 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS It was, of course, necessary that pretests be devised and administered immediately upon the inauguration of the program. Similar informal tests were then constructed and given at the conclusion of the tryout. These tests were designed to measure rate and comprehension, the or- ganization of ideas, and meaning-vocabulary in silent reading, as well as to identify deficiencies in oral reading skills and word recognition. On the basis of the initial results, reading case studies were written up for the pupils who were in need of corrective teaching, and one or two of the more glaring deficiencies of each pupil were selected for remedial attention. Three of these pupils were found to have difficulties of an aggravated and apparently individual sort; six others apparently needed some cor- rective teaching of one kind or another. Two small groups were organ- ized for the purpose of improving rate of reading: (1) children who were satisfactory in comprehension and ability to recognize words but prone to read slowly because of painstaking application to the printed page, and (2) those who were deficient in word recognition. Appropriate exercises were administered separately to each of these groups. The three problem cases were treated according to their respective difficulties. Each such pupil was given individual attention three days per week; he also read with the group the materials in the unit of reading at hand, but was directed to choose those selections and books that had been placed on a separate shelf because of their relative simplicity. Meanwhile, the entire group had become acquainted with the oppor- tunity to read extensively and uninterruptedly during a period of days. An orderly procedure for obtaining books from the shelves was worked out, and pupils were encouraged to find related materials in the library and bring them to the classroom. In the twenty minutes not devoted to remedial teaching, the writer observed the evidences of interest and the quality of attention manifested by the pupils, and made note of their individual reactions and overt symptoms of pleasure. The experimental period concluded with an assembly at the sugges- tion of members of the class. The writer closed the period two weeks early for two reasons: (1) to give time for the end tests, and (2) to afford an opportunity to spend a few days on the traditional separate- lesson procedure. The latter was done to get the pupils’ spontaneous comments when the teacher assigned them a lesson to be read and treated in one day, in contrast with continuous reading on a topic for several days. GENERAL RESULTS AND CONCLUSION It is feasible here to make only general comments in regard to the results of the program described above. In the first place, the pupils openly expressed their pleasure in being able to go ahead with their Se eee ero reA APPRAISING Metuops or TEACHING 411 reading on the same topic day after day. This was particularly true of the proficient readers, and even more so of the less able readers after the first four or five days. More books were voluntarily brought from the library than had been the case under the separate-lesson mode of teach- ing, altho special assignments calling for such activity had been frequent under the old plan. Moreover, more pupils participated in bringing books from the library. The more intelligent and proficient readers had less time to dawdle, and contributed more than they ordinarily had done in the expressional activities suggested in part 3 of the assignment. Those pupils who had been reading slowly because of too conscien- tious attention to each word of their reading materials, apparently over- came all their handicaps with respect to rate of reading. The abilities to analyze unfamiliar words, to recognize them thru context, and to enunciate more clearly were distinctly improved in the other slow- reading group. The three problem cases made considerable improvement in ability to attack their reading independently. The writer is convinced that teachers can do much to improve their teaching procedures if they will consider the results of scientific inves- tigations concerning the technics and materials of instruction. Such investigations take on value in proportion to the intelligent use that administrators, supervisors, and teachers make of the findings in im- provising improved technics of instruction. The writer also believes that teachers and supervisors can evaluate new procedures with reason- able objectivity and adequacy, even if they cannot carry on a truly scientific investigation. An informal tryout under the usual classroom conditions—including systematic observation of class work, thoro study of the school records and personal histories of the pupils, and careful analysis of the results of standardized and informal objective tests— would seem to be an adequate means of evaluating most changes in teaching procedure in a typical school. It is probably the duty of every teacher to study her status quo, to consider her unsolved teaching problems and the possible means of solving them, and to set up an inventory of the abilities, attitudes, habits, and needs of her pupils both as the preface and as the conclusion of her attempt to try out a new and promising method of instruction. While there should undoubtedly be some use of standardized tests, a wide-awake teacher can make good use of the check tests found in the study type of readers, and can devise supplementary informal tests of her own that will help significantly in evaluating new procedures. Teaching as a profession will improve as more and more teachers make objective and thoro studies of their problems, inaugurate intelligently conceived programs of improvement, and evaluate these programs without prejudice in a systematic and careful fashion. 412 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS PROCEDURES FOR APPRAISING REMEDIAL READING IN GRADE VII Artuur E. Trax.er* Research Associate, Educational Records Bureau, New York, New York accompanied by careful measurement. Measurement must be made, first, in the interest of the individual pupils concerned, for it is only thru testing that the pupils who need attention can be isolated with accuracy and their progress during remedial treatment followed with any degree of precision. Initial tests, if they provide for sufficiently detailed analysis, will show the specific weaknesses of the pupils so that intelligent attention may be given to their needs, and tests administered at intervals during the teaching will show the points at which the pupils are making satisfactory response to treatment and the places at which instruction must be especially thoro and prolonged. In the second place, measurement is needed in order that the school may evaluate the various methods of instruction and finally select a group of technics whose efficacy has been demonstrated. The school may, for example, wish to compare the results of individual teaching with those obtained from group instruction, the effect of remedial in- struction carried on in a regular class with that of instruction in small groups scheduled at study periods, the effectiveness of remedial work- books with that of a program developed by the teachers for directing attention toward specific skills—-or to make any of several other com- parisons. All this calls for careful measurement and interpretation of results. It is highly important that the difficulties of pupils who reach the end of the elementary school handicapped by an inability to read effectively, be discovered when they enter the junior high school. For this reason many schools are making increased use of procedures for reading evaluation at the end of Grade VI and in Grade VII. To show concretely how such measurement may be carried on, this article will describe procedures used in evaluating reading achievement during several years of remedial and corrective work in Grade VII of the University of Chicago Laboratory Schools. Survey to discover inferior readers—Nearly all tests suitable for measuring the reading achievement of upper-grade and junior high- school pupils have been tried out, at one time or another, in Grade VII of the Laboratory Schools. The most satisfactory practise seems to be to include in the battery of placement tests administered before the NY PROGRAM of remedial teaching, if it is to be successful, must be 1 Formerly Psychologist, University of Chicago High School, Chicago, Illinois. APPRAISING MeEtTHops oF TEACHING 413 —_—— pupils enter the grade, two survey reading tests—that is, relatively short tests that provide one or two gross scores in reading achievement —and a group intelligence test, and to follow up these survey tests with a diagnostic reading test soon after the beginning of the fall term. Since a group mental test has obvious limitations for measuring the intelli- gence of pupils with reading handicaps, the results of such a test are usually checked by means of I.Q.’s on the Stanford-Binet test. Stanford- Binet 1.Q.’s are already entered on the records for pupils who have been in the Laboratory Schools in preceding years, and new pupils can readily be scheduled for an individual test early in the school year. Thus the scores on three reading tests, a group intelligence test, and an individual mental test are available for use in selecting pupils for remedial work. The pupils who are consistently in the lowest quarter of the class are usually scheduled for special help in reading. Grade norms receive little attention in the selection of the pupils, since it is believed that if a pupil is an inferior reader in comparison with his classmates, he should receive corrective teaching, even if he is up to the norm for schools in general. Other pupils who are not especially low in reading skill, but who are not reading as well as their scholastic aptitudes indicate that they should read, are sometimes placed in the special reading group. Conversely, pupils of limited scholastic aptitude whose reading, tho inferior, is as good as can be expected in view of their mental level, are occasionally excused from participation in the special reading work, on the ground that it would be inadvisable to place them under additional pressure. However, except in rare instances, it has been the practise to place all the less capable readers in the reme- dial reading group. It is believed that reading is so important for suc- cessful adjustment to school and to adult life that every effort should be made to advance the reading skill of practically all pupils who con- sistently make low scores on reading tests. The judgment of the elementary-school teachers who have taught these pupils is a valuable supplement to the test scores when it can be secured. Thru the use of all available evidence, about twenty retarded readers have ordinarily been chosen from a class of seventy-five or eighty pupils entering Grade VII. Diagnosis of reading difficulties—The Monroe Standardized Silent Reading Test* and the Thorndike-McCall Reading Scale® are two sur- vey reading tests that have been used rather consistently in the place- ment test battery given to pupils entering Grade VII of the University 2Monroe, W. S. Standardized Silent Reading Tests, Revised. For Grades III-VIII. Bloom- ington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Co. 5 Thorndike, E. L., and McCall, W. A. Thorndike-McCall Reading Scales. For Grades II-XII. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University. 414 ELEMENTARY ScHOOL PRINCIPALS Ss Laboratory Schools. Altho the scores on these tests do not provide for diagnosis, some diagnostic work is done with them thru an analysis of the test papers of the pupils. An additional basis for diagnosis is pro- vided by a diagnostic reading test, usually the Jowa Silent Reading Test,* that is given as a part of the fall testing program of the school, Still another diagnostic test is ordinarily given before remedial training starts. A test frequently used at this point is the Sangren-W oody Read- ing Test.’ Since no two diagnostic tests deal with precisely the same set of reading skills, the results of the second diagnostic test serve to extend the detailed information already available about the reading weaknesses of each pupil. The diagnostic work usually involves one or more periods of obsery- ing each pupil while he reads aloud. For this purpose, an oral reading test such as the Gray Standardized Oral Reading Paragraphs® may be used, or material in textbooks designed for the particular grade level may be utilized in the same way as the Gray test. Altho this oral read- ing takes a good deal of time, since it must be done individually, it is not advisable to omit it, for a record of the number and kinds of errors made by a pupil in oral reading is very valuable in understanding his difficulties. Since one of the purposes of the remedial reading work has been to develop procedures that may be applied in other schools, the diagnosis has usually been confined to tests and other instruments that are avail- able to all schools. Occasionally, however, two special technics have been used. One of these is the technic for photographing eye movements and analyzing the record thus obtained. Altho this method is well known, the special apparatus for carrying it out is usually not available except in educational and psychological laboratories. The other special diagnostic procedure involves the use of a simple tachistoscopic device for testing the child’s speed of association.’ The purpose of this test is to discover the pupils who are especially slow in associating ideas with words. Since a fairly high degree of relation- ship has been found between rate of reading and speed of association, it seems inadvisable to try to get pupils who are very slow in speed o! association to reach the grade norm in rate of reading. Pressure to increase rate will probably not result in any noteworthy gain in speed by these pupils, and it may upset them emotionally. 4Greene, H. A., and Kelley, V. H. Iowa Silent Reading Tests. Elementary Test, for Grades IV-IX. Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York: World Book Co. 5 Sangren, P. V., and Woody, C. Sangren-Woody Reading Test. For Grades IV-VIII. Yonkers- on-Hudson, New York: World Book Co. ®Gray, W. S. Standardized Oral Reading Paragraphs. For All Elementary Grades. Bloom- ington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Co. 7 For a discussion of this test, see: Traxler, Arthur E. “The Relation Between Rate of Read- ing and Speed of Association.” Journal of Educational Psychology 25: 357-65; May 1934. ee e for is of pro- ding hool. ning ead- same e to ding ery- ding y be level ead- it is ‘TOrs r his n to 10Si8 ail- lave ents well able nple The slow ion- ion, d of 2 to eed rades kers- oom- tead- APPRAISING MrtrHops or TEACHING 415 | The diagnostic work is done by the school psychologist, with the as- sistance of the teacher responsible for giving the remedial training to the pupils. The final step in the diagnosis is to write a brief descriptive statement of the major reading deficiencies of each pupil. After this has been done, it is sometimes possible to classify the pupils into four or five groups such as the following: 1. Pupils retarded in all phases of reading 2. Pupils weak in the mechanics of reading—poor eye movement habits, visible lip movement, head movement, ete. 3. Pupils who cannot comprehend study materials involving the seeing of rela- tionships 4. Pupils with limited vocabulary 5. Pupils who read slowly but with fair comprehension. Evaluation during the period of instruction—A preliminary analysis of the kind just described is basic to the early stages of the remedial training, as it indicates the direction which the teaching should take. It is not within the scope of this article to describe in detail the various remedial reading procedures that have been used in Grade VII of the Laboratory Schools. Descriptions of the instructional work have been recorded in other places that may be accessible to persons interested.® In general, four plans for organizing the remedial instruction have been tried out at different times: (1) assignment of all pupils in the remedial group to one English class in which the reading instruction is carried on as a part of the regular work in English; (2) instruction of small groups of six or eight pupils with similar difficulties at study periods or other convenient times; (3) utilization of the English conference period® for special remedial instruction by the English teachers; and (4) individual remedial instruction given by the psychologist or by a specialist in remedial reading. Regardless of the way in which the instruction is organized, several kinds of measurement may be applied during the period of teaching. One type of measurement utilizes an alternate form of one of the same tests given before instruction was begun. This test is ordinarily admin- istered about three weeks after the beginning of the remedial teaching in order to discover the extent to which the methods used are taking effect, and to find out how much progress is being made by the individual pupils. The results may serve to redirect the teaching and to eliminate a few pupils from some phases of the remedial work. 8 See: McCallister, James M. ‘‘The Effectiveness of Remedial Instruction in Reading in the Junior High School.” School Review 39: 97-111; February 1931. { Traxler, Arthur E. ‘Group Corrective Reading in the Seventh Grade—An Experiment.’’ School Review 41: 519-30; Sep- tember 1933. { Traxler, Arthur E. ‘An Experiment in Teaching Corrective Reading to Eight Seventh-Grade Pupils.” Journal of Educational Research 29: 247-53; December 1935. * Under this plan classes meet four periods a week for their regular work. The fifth period is a “conference” period in which pupils who are having difficulty with their work are given special help by the teacher, while the other pupils are sent to the library. 416 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS If a standardized series of test lessons providing for the translation of raw scores into comparable grade scores, or G-scores, is used in the remedial instruction, these G-scores become convenient indexes for evaluating the reading progress of the different pupils. While a single lesson is ordinarily too short to afford very reliable results, an average of several G-scores and the general trend of a pupil’s G-scores from day to day are of considerable significance. Such comparable measures lend themselves to a graphic record so that a visual presenta- tion of the reading growth of the various individuals may be made. It has been found that pupils are motivated to improve if they are permitted to keep graphs of their own scores. Frequent informal tests also are given during the period of remedial teaching. These consist of reading selections taken from textbooks for Grade VII and other books of suitable difficulty, followed by com- prehension questions on the material. While the results of these in- formal tests are, of course, not directly comparable, they do furnish some evidence about improvement in reading skill. For instance, if the rate of reading study-type materials in social science is measured at regular intervals over a period of several weeks, a consistent trend toward higher rate scores will be indicative of growth in speed of reading, even tho the various selections used as tests are not identical in difficulty. A procedure sometimes used in the Laboratory Schools to evaluate the improvement in study habits accompanying remedial teaching, is to observe the pupil while he is studying in the library or classroom and to make a record of his periods of application and of distraction on a specially prepared form known as the Chicago Sustained Applica- tion Profile Sheet.‘° The sheet is marked off vertically in thirds, and each third is divided into a column for distraction and a column for application. Time units of ten seconds are marked off by lines drawn horizontally across the page. The person who observes the pupil records the latter’s application or distraction in terms of time by drawing a vertical line in the appropriate column. Three twenty- minute periods, or a total period of one hour, may be recorded on a single sheet. If one application record is made early in the period of training, and another after the remedial teaching has been carried on for some weeks, a comparison of the two records will afford some evidence as to improvement in application or concentration, provided the situations in which the observations are made are similar. Evaluation following remedial teaching—Comparable forms of at least two, and usually three of the reading tests used in selecting the 10 Distributed by the University of Chicago Bookstore. Lion l in 2Xes ea an ores ible ita- . It are dial oks om- in- lish , if red end of ical ate , 18 yom lon ca- and for wn ipil by ty- na | of ‘ied me Jed at the APPRAISING MetHops oF TEACHING 417 deficient pupils and in diagnosing their difficulties, are given at the end of the remedial period to measure growth in reading ability. One of these is always a diagnostic test so that progress in specific skills as well as in total reading achievement may be indicated. The gain in raw score on each test is usually translated into terms of growth in months. It has been found that most junior high-school pupils who are given remedial instruction in reading gain much more than the normal amount for pupils not in remedial classes during the same period of time. The average improvement of four groups of pupils is shown in Table 1. It would be inadvisable, however, to draw conclusions from this table about the efficacy of the different plans of instruction, for the tests used were not uniform, and the groups were small and not equated in initial reading skill. TABLE 1—Averace GAIns oF REMEDIAL GrouPs ON CERTAIN READING TEsTs *% NUMBER OF AVERAGE NUMBER OF LENGTH OF TRAINING TEACHING PLAN OF INSTRUCTION GAIN IN PuPILs PERIODS Monrtus? 1 f 2 3 4 5 24 8 months, but not con- 69 Group instruction in 14 tinuous English class 22 8 months, but not con- About Group instruction in 16 tinuous 75 English class 8 2 months 19 Group instruction out- 13 side class 4 Varied from 3% to 7 22-24 Individual instruction 22 months (one or two periods per week) Read table: A group of 24 pupils who were given remedial instruction in English class for 8 months, including 69 teaching periods, made an average gain of 14 months in reading test score. Similarly read figures for the other three groups of pupils. * Based on results of the following tests: Monroe Silent Reading, Iowa Silent Reading, Sangren- Woody Reading, and Traxler Silent Reading. >The gain in months represents the average gain in score-points which pupils at this level usually make in the same number of months. Another procedure for evaluating the effectiveness of remedial in- struction is to photograph the eye movements of the pupils, and to compare this record with the record secured before the teaching with respect to number of fixations, length of fixations, and number of regressive movements. For pupils whose eye movement habits were very inferior when the remedial work was started, such a comparison may be very significant. On the other hand, the improvement in 418 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS power to interpret meaning by pupils whose eye movement habits were already quite mature may not be reflected to any marked extent by changes in the eye movement records. Improvement in eye move- ments may be taken as evidence of gain in reading skill, but absence of change in fairly satisfactory eye movement records is not in itself evidence of failure to gain in reading ability. When remedial instruction is given to a large group of pupils at one time, a few pupils usually fail to respond to the training and do not show any significant gain in test score. These pupils are, as a rule, scheduled for further instruction, which is carried on individually so that it can be aimed definitely at the particular needs of each pupil. This training is ordinarily conducted by the psychologist or special worker in remedial problems, rather than by a classroom teacher. Evaluation procedures are unchanged except that regular observation and descriptive records play a larger part. Evaluating permanency of improvement—lIt is often assumed that when pupils are brought up to a certain score on tests given at the end of a period of remedial teaching, they will continue to gain from that point. As a matter of fact, when the pressure of remedial work is removed, a considerable number of the pupils tend to lose in score for a time. It is therefore very desirable to retest the pupils some months after training has been discontinued. The remedial reading work in Grade VII of the University Labora- tory Schools has usually been brought to an end near the close of the school year in June. The pupils are retested for permanency of im- provement when they come back to school in the fall. Since most pupils do comparatively little study-type reading during the summer vacation, it seems logical to assume that a comparison of scores made at the end of the teaching with scores made at the beginning of the following school year, will furnish some evidence about the per- manency of improvement in reading achieved during remedial in- struction. It has been found that, on the average, pupils who have been given remedial work tend to lose somewhat in rate of reading over the summer period, but make comprehension scores very similar to those obtained immediately after the close of the remedial teaching period. Some individuals gain, and some lose considerably in all phases of reading, but very rarely does a pupil who has shown significant im- provement during the progress of the remedial work fall as low in reading test score as he did before the instruction was given. bits tent ove- ence tself s at 1 do rule, y so upil. ecial cher. ition that end from work score some ora- f the most nmer cores ag of per- | in- riven * the those riod. es of | im- w in APPRAISING MetrHops or TEACHING 419 EXPERIMENTING WITH APPARATUS IN TEACHING THE DIVISION OF FRACTIONS JoHN W. Dickry Professor of Educational Psychology, New Jersey State Teachers College, Newark, New Jersey the fifth grade or the early part of the sixth grade. Judging by an examination of seven recent and widely used series of arith- metics, children are practically always taught to perform the operation of division by inverting the divisor and multiplying. Moreover, writ- ers on professionalized arithmetic, such as Morton, Roantree and Taylor, Overman, Klapper, Lazar, Thorndike, Stamper, Brueckner, Newcomb, Bond, Upton, Buswell and Judd, Miller, Smith, Brown and Coffman, and Grossnickle, agree on rational grounds that the proper way to divide fractions is to invert the divisor and multiply. Osburn seems to be the only writer who advocates that fractions be divided by the common denominator method. At present there is no experimental evidence upon this problem. General practise is determined by the textbooks, which in turn are based upon a consensus of expert opinion. All who speak of the difficulties in learning the division of fractions agree that the greatest hazards are in connection with inverting the divisor and changing the sign to multiplication. This article reports the present writer’s experience with a unique visual aid in teaching the process by this method. The discussion proceeds as follows: (1) a brief statement as to the prevalence and value of apparatus in the schools; (2) a description of the writer’s teaching the division of fractions to a class of fifth-grade children with the help of the appara- tus—the fraction divider; and (3) the results, objective and sub- jective, accruing from the use of the fraction divider. It must be said in the beginning that the writer has not conducted a strictly scientific experiment (which to his way of thinking cannot be done), but that all the evidence collected points in the same direction. In addition to the writer’s own experience, three of his students in the teachers college used the apparatus during their student teaching, and all were in accord as to its values in facilitating the learning process. Di OF FRACTIONS is customarily taught in the latter part of PRESENT Uses or APPARATUS IN SCHOOLS It is common knowledge that physical apparatus is used extensively in the science courses given in colleges, in senior high schools, and even in junior high schools. In the elementary school, objects, specimens, and models are used to some extent in nature study, and one of the 420 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS forward-looking tendencies is to introduce into the elementary cur- riculum more of the physical sciences which require additional appara- tus. Mathematics also makes considerable use of apparatus, particu- larly at the college and senior high-school levels. Recently the junior high school has been taking an interest in apparatus for mathematics courses woven around field projects. In elementary-school arithmetic, however, only a meager amount of apparatus is used, such as rulers, liquid and dry measures, and certain devices to drill children in the fundamental facts of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and divi- sion. In both science and mathematics the general tendency is to extend downward the appropriate practises of the colleges and uni- versities, and the use of apparatus is no exception to this rule. Since learning is probably carried on in essentially the same way at all levels of maturity, we should give careful attention to practises which have been found successful at levels other than our own. A word should be said also about the specific function of any apparatus, irrespective of the field of learning in which it is used. Apparatus explains the “how” of things and not the “why” of things. The reasons for a given procedure are not infrequently made easier to grasp when apparatus is used, but to show these reasons is not the function of apparatus. With the apparatus alone we cannot guarantee to explain the “why” of inversion, but we can show the “how” and perhaps make it easier for the child to arrive at the “why” when the apparatus is combined with other approaches. TEACHING THE EXPERIMENTAL LESSON General conditions—Thru the cooperation of the city school sys- tem of Newark, New Jersey, it was possible to secure thirty-three fifth-grade children who had just learned something of the addition, subtraction, and multiplication of fractions. They had learned nothing about the division of fractions prior to this lesson. All of them were in the second half of the fifth grade, and were the only pupils at this level in a school of 1008 children. Three of the thirty-three children had been promoted by the principal despite their low marks; two had been recommended for the “Binet group”; and three had “skipped” a half-grade. The remainder of the group had experienced normal progress in school. These facts, with others obtained from the prin- cipal, led the writer to believe that the group was rather typical of fifth-grade children in general. At 10 o’clock on Monday just preceding the Christmas holidays these children arrived at the writer’s classroom for their instruction in the division of fractions. The instruction period lasted for fifty- cur- ara- icu- nior ities etic, lers, the livi- s to uni- ince b all hich any ised, ings. asier t the untee and 1 the sys- three ition, thing were t this ldren > had ped” ormal prin- cal of lidays iction fifty- APPRAISING MeEtTHops oF TEACHING 421 five minutes, and the teaching was done by the writer. He had some disadvantage for he did not know the children, and the children no doubt felt some discomfort due to the entirely new surroundings. More than fifty teacher-training students were visitors—another dis- traction for the pupils. In all probability the conditions were not as conducive to learning as are normal classroom conditions. Introducing the division of fractions—After each child had fastened upon himself a piece of paper bearing his name so that the writer could see it, we began teaching the division of a fraction by a fraction —a process supposed to be more difficult to learn than either the division of a fraction by an integer or the division of an integer by a fraction. We began by trying to understand the “why.” We placed twelve twenty-five-cent pieces (quarters) in the clear view of the entire class. These twelve quarters were then divided into piles of two quarters each, and the number of piles was counted. This process was then expressed on the blackboard as follows: 12 quarters — 2 quarters = 6 In a similar manner we divided the twelve quarters into piles of three, four, and six quarters each. Each such division was accompanied by a blackboard demonstration. We then wrote our blackboard ex- amples in the form of 1% + % = 6, and so forth, in a column parallel to the first blackboard presenta- tion. These two columns made it easy to see the relationship between the two ways of writing the examples, and the fact that only numer- ators need to be divided when the denominators are alike—an obser- vation made by one of the boys in the class. As a class we verified this observation. Inverting the divisor—The next step in the lesson was to present such examples as “124 + 4.” After the writer had asked a few leading questions, the class soon realized that this example could be written “124 + 24 ——6.” A number of similar examples were experimented with and written on the blackboard in column form. Then came the time for the inversion of the divisor. Parallel with the last column and to the right of it, the writer wrote the examples with the divisor inverted and the division sign changed to a multiplication sign.’ As a class we solved these last examples and always got results agreeing with the corresponding examples on the left. Finally the writer said, “It works, doesn’t it?” “Yes,” said the class. “What did I do with the 1 Elsewhere the writer has traced the historical development of this rule, and has shown that it renders the denominators common and non-effective and places the numerators in an indicated division. See: Dickey, John W. ‘‘Why Invert the Divisor and Multiply?” School Science and Mathematics 26: 299-302; March 1936. 422 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS divisor?” There was no reply. “I inverted the divisor and changed the sign to a multiplication sign.” Here the writer wrote “invert” on the blackboard. Using the “fraction divider’—At this point the fraction divider, which had been kept from sight up to this time, was brought into clear view. Thirty-three children had eyes as large as saucers. Figure | is a front view of the fraction divider. The dark, circular areas on the left are small blackboards upon which can be written any fraction. The “34” on the right, as well as the division and equals signs, are movable. This makes it easy to adjust the parts after the slab on the right—the divisor slab—has been inverted. The back view of the fraction divider (see Figure II) shows the circular blackboards built in one slab, and the movable parts of the other slab which permit the inversion of the entire slab. The circular disks make it possible to aright the integers, “2” and “3,” after inversion has taken place. The parts upon which the operational signs are painted are movable. These signs are so arranged that back of the division sign (shown in Figure I) is placed the equals sign, and back of the equals sign, a multiplication sign. This makes it possible to invert the divisor slab without interchanging the signs. After inversion the signs are readily adjusted by turning the back of each sign to the front. This is the last adjustment to be made after inverting. Figure III is a detailed drawing of the fraction divider, showing all the parts drawn to scale. This apparatus is not patented, and may be constructed and used by anyone. During the manipulation of the fraction divider care was taken to keep the divisor, ‘‘34,” on the right. While dividing five examples with the help of the apparatus, we presented also the blackboard work. One boy came to the front of the room and solved an example with the apparatus; a girl solved another example. Great interest was shown thruout the fifteen minutes during which the apparatus was used. Attention was constantly called to the fact that we were “inverting the divisor, which is on the right,” and that “the sign was changed to multiplication.” The apparatus was then removed from the children’s view, and they solved the following four examples on paper: %- %= %4 = %= 1% —- %= y= %= After each example had been solved by the great majority of pupils, the writer verified their results by solving the example orally. Then 4 show of hands was made to indicate successes. We were making real progress when the bell rang. The period was at a close, and the chil- dren left for their own school building. the the ler, nto re I the ion. are the the the ilar sion are the ack > to sion the r all y be n to with ork. with own ised. r the d to ren’s ipils, en 4 real chil- Gere sere 2 = eC FIGURE I—Front View or Fraction Diviper FIGURE II—Rgar View or Fraction Diviper SAHONT NI NGAI) SLUVd TIY AO SNOIS -NAWIGQ] HLM ‘YaGIAIGQ] NOILOVU JO MAIA OIHdVHDOHLUGQ GM1IVIAG—]]I AUMNDIA Wb-MOLLITIE DETAILED ORTHOGRAPHIC VIEW OF FRACTION VIVIDER, WI? Atli™meen* xURE IlI— FIC sIons or ALL Parts GIVEN IN INCHES pied APPRAISING Mrtruops oF TEACHING 425 On the following half-day of school (the day before the Christmas vacation) their regular teacher had the children solve these three division examples: A-h = 3 Ne 142+ % = No results from this test were recorded, however. The children then had a vacation of eleven and one-half days, during which they prob- ably had very little practise in the division of fractions. ! RESULTS OF THE LESSON During the arithmetic period on the first day after school recon- vened, the teacher administered the test of ten examples shown below: %s - % ” — 2S %—-%= *—- A3= Ye - k= ”45— A2= 4 4 a> a 42+ 4% A2- &= The test papers were collected and scored by the regular teacher, and were then turned over to the writer for additional study. A sum- mary of the results appears in Table 1. Sixteen of the pupils made TABLE 1—AcHIEVEMENT oF FirrH-GrapE Pupirs ON AN INFORMAL TEST IN DIVISION OF FRACTIONS NUMBER OF ExampLes SOLVED CORRECTLY NUMBER NUMBER Born or Boys or GIRLS SExEs (1) (2) (3) (4) ES Choe corre nee ity eet ee n> ar aige em oe 8 8 16 Ee oe apn ein gie S Ee ee ge 2 6 8 De Taare ack chs eis secret tack: ores Ne ae se ate Pe 4 1 5 Petites s- cee cae TE 2 1 1 EI SPa a) genet er TGS ee er SE Cn ee pane at Te a ae ee ee 1 1 ect tere ico ON ekcis a ak ak CAs Eee oma eteke bia: dd + 4 Oe ai SS HD ee ES WSS RE SE a i ee ee Re ES ee ER eee ee ee tn ne Oe ga Seed ann wate sR Biase «ate a RE aL Oy see ee Eee ang edo ade 5 aN 2 2 APES Ce eee os eee nae eS 16 17 33 A RT SEALE Se TPO Hae 8.9 8.4 8.6 Read table: Eight boys solved ten examples correctly, two solved nine examples correctly, etc. The mean number of examples solved correctly by the sixteen boys was 8.9. Similarly read figures for girls and for both sexes combined. 426 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS perfect scores; eight solved nine examples; five, eight examples; one, seven examples; one, five examples; and two solved no examples cor- rectly. The average for the boys was 8.9 examples, and for the girls 8.4 examples. A study of the errors made by these children proved very interest- ing in view of the consensus of opinion regarding the hazards of in- verting the divisor and changing the sign to multiplication. The only failure due to not inverting the divisor was made by a boy in the seventh example listed above. One girl who failed in all examples did not attempt to invert any divisors, but tried to solve all examples by the common denominator technic which we had used in the initial stages of the lesson. This girl had a rather severe case of near- sightedness, which may have been partially responsible for her be- havior. All other errors were made in multiplication or in reducing fractions to lowest terms. Thus, only one example in 320, or 0.3 per- cent, was incorrectly solved because of an unsuccessful attempt to invert the divisor and change the division sign to a multiplication sign. CoNCLUSION The results reported above are largely quantitative in nature. We have no results which shed light on the degree to which the children understood the “why” of the procedure in dividing fractions. In this short hour of instruction we were trying to explain both the “why” and the “how.” The available evidence indicates, however, that the fraction divider was helpful in (1) making more vivid the act of in- verting, (2) stressing the fact that we always invert the divisor which is on the right, (3) stressing the idea that we change the sign and multiply, and (4) teaching this rather difficult process with un- usually good results. The writer believes that the process of learning is fundamentally the same for all ages, and that much can be gained by the introduction of more well-chosen apparatus in the teaching of elementary arith- metic. The results reported in this article, together with those ob- tained by three teacher-training students in practise, seem to favor the use of apparatus. However, since the number of pupils involved was small, and the tests used were brief and informal, it is not wise to draw broad conclusions concerning the value of the apparatus for all children or all teachers. Those interested in using the fraction divider will take steps to determine its results in their own schools and classrooms. est- in- The y in ples ples the par- be- cing per- t to sign. We dren this vhy” , the f in- Thich and un- tally ction rith- » ob- favor olved wise is for ction hools APPRAISING MetHops oF TEACHING 427 EVALUATING SUPERVISED STUDY L. R. Kivzer Professor of Education, University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming periodicals for approximately three decades, and altho it is no longer an innovation, little progress has been made in the meas- urement of its outcomes. This is due very largely to two main factors, namely, (1) the lack of agreement in regard to just what supervised study is, and (2) the lack of convenient and effective technics or devices for the measurement of results obtained. This article first defines supervised study, and then presents a few technics or devices that have been found worthwhile in attempts to measure its outcomes. What is supervised study?—If a dozen educators chosen at random had been asked a decade or two ago to characterize supervised study, there would probably have been almost a dozen different characteriza- tions. There is still a confusion of tongues when this procedure is discussed, but the various points of view may be grouped fairly well into three main categories. One group of educators holds that super- vised study is synonymous with the educational process as a whole, a point of view which is undoubtedly somewhat too broad. Others con- tend that they are using supervised study when they are making use of only one or two of the many essential activities which constitute real supervised study. Those who believe, for example, that they have supervised study simply because they use the divided-period plan, represent this point of view. The third point of view is set forth in a recent book,’ in which supervised study is characterized as “the effective direction and oversight of the silent-study and labora- tory activities of pupils.” This definition, the present writer believes, is sufficiently inclusive to encompass the necessary activities of real supervised study, and at the same time it sets up limits which prevent the confusion of this procedure with education as a whole. Attention is called to the fact that this definition emphasizes both direction and oversight (supervision) of study. Some teachers, unfortunately, seem to believe that direction alone is sufficient. If educators will agree on a definition, the first step in the evaluation of supervised study will have been taken. A checklist of basic principles—One of the first technics which make it possible to measure the results of supervised study is the formula- tion of a set of guiding principles, and a careful checking of the appli- G perc sTupy has been discussed prominently in educational 1 Maxwell, C. R., and Kilzer, L. R. High School Administration. Garden City, N. Y.: Double- day, Doran and Co., 1936. p. 345. 428 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS cation of these principles in actual classroom practise. Democratic school administration and supervision demand, of course, that the classroom teachers be given a significant part in building this set of principles. On the basis of extensive and intensive reading, intelligent observation in schools where supervised study is markedly successful, and much careful thinking, the principal and his staff should build tentative set of guiding principles to be revised from time to time in accordance with newer philosophy, experience, and experimental re- sults. The following list is merely suggestive, but it represents at least a starting point: 1. Since the assignment is the key to supervised study, it should be given careful consideration. 2. During supervised study in a given course, pupils should devote all their time to the study of only that course. 3. On the whole, at least half the total time available for a given course should be devoted to supervised study under the careful supervision of the regular classroom teacher. 4. The graduated plan should be used, i. e., a gradually diminishing percentage of total class time should be used for supervised study as a pupil progresses thru the school and as he gains proficiency in his study technics. 5. During supervised study, the teacher should devote her time to the super- vision of the study of her pupils, and not to the grading of papers, the making out of examinations, etc. 6. The teacher should not disturb other pupils while supervising the study of one or more pupils. 7. Remote control (supervision of the study of a given pupil from a consider- able distance in the classroom) should be avoided. Individual differences re- quire intimate contacts. 8. The group study plan should be used whenever two or more pupils are con- fronted with the same difficulty. These pupils should be treated temporarily as a group rather than as individuals, and wholesome competition should be set up in this group. 9. The teacher should give sufficient help to avoid discouragement and the formation of poor habits of study, but she should not do the work for the pupil. 10. Physical factors which provide comfort for pupils and teacher should be given constant and careful attention. This implies that equipment must be suit- able and properly arranged. 11. The technic for supervised study should be revised from time to time in the light of philosophy, experience, and experimentation. A self-rating. chart for teachers—Having formulated a set of guid- ing principles for use in supervised study, the next logical step is the provision of a chart whereby each teacher and each supervisor may rate himself conveniently at various times on the basis of his success in applying each of the principles set up. Figure I shows such a chart.’ With minor changes the supervisor can adapt this chart so that it may be used in rating each teacher under his supervision. A list of questions for swpervisors—Supervisors have found it help- ful to be provided with a set of questions which tend to make their 2 Maxwell, C. R., and Kilzer, L. R., op. cit., p. 359. ratic the t of gent sful, ild a 1e in l re- least given their should egular ontage s thru super- raking study nsider- eS Te re con- rily as set up nd the » pupil. uld be ye suit- > in the - guid- is the r may success chart? that it t help- e their APPRAISING MetHops or TEACHING 429 supervision of supervised study as objective as possible. The follow- ing list of twenty questions* is merely suggestive, but it may well be used as a guide in preparing the list to be used locally: 1. In what way should the teacher improve-her technic in making the assign- ment? 2. Just what does the teacher do during supervised study? 3. Are the pupils permitted to work on only this subject during the supervised- study period for this class? (Note: The entire time belongs to the subject sched- uled for this hour.) 4. Does the teacher give adequate encouragement and assistance to pupils without doing too much of their work herself? 8 Kilzer, L. R. ‘Some Devices for Use in Checking the Supervision of Study.’’ American School Board Journal 91: 25; August 1935. TEACHER'S SELF-RATING CHART (For Supervised Study) DIRZECTIOUS:-- This form provides for nine successive monthly self-ratings on a 5-point scale. Let "1" represent highest possible efficiency in the application of a guiding principle, and let "5" represent complete lack of efficiency with re- gard to that principle. With your list of guiding principles before you, give yourself, in the left- hand (lst) column, a fair rating on each of the principles which you helped com- pile. A month later, cover the left-hand column, and in the next column (2nd) rate yourself again with regard to each of the guiding principles. Now compare the ratings in the two colunns. Record successive monthly ratings similarly, and compare the successive rat- ings with all previous ratings on each principle. SUI Ee _SEL RAT let | 2nd | 3rd | 4th | 5th | 6th [7th [8th [9th e list you helped ile No. No. No. No. No. an ’ ‘ = ° ° a I~ TO TO Te Jw Of No. wo 10 11 No. 12 No. 13 No. 14 No. 15 FIGURE I—Svccestep Cuart ror Setr-Ratina By TEACHERS 430 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 5. How effectively does the teacher use both direct and indirect methods of teaching a study habit? (Note: In the direct method both teacher and pupil have a definite aim in mind, but in the indirect method only the teacher has a definite aim in mind.) 6. How effectively does the teacher use both generalized and specific technics in teaching pupils to study effectively? (Note: Generalized technic applies equally well to all subjects, but specific technic applies particularly to only one subject.) 7. Does the teacher place proper emphasis upon methods of study, or does she overemphasize factual information and memorization? 8. Does the teacher disturb other pupils while she is assisting one or more pupils? 9. Is adequate attention given to individual differences among pupils? 10. What use is made of the group study plan? (If several pupils are having exactly the same difficulty, they should be handled as a group.) 11. How much homework does the teacher require? 12. How much time, on the average, is devoted to supervised study in this class? 13. Is the entire class time of one or more (successive) meetings of this class sometimes used for the supervision of study? 14. What evidence is there of poor control technic, i. e., inability to secure and maintain attention and good discipline? 15. In what ways should physical conditions be improved? 16. Does the teacher regard supervised study as a cooperative enterprise? 17. What use does the teacher make of devices for improving supervised study? 18. What are the most important improvements the teacher should make? 19. What are the good points that I can pass on to other teachers? 20. In what ways can I be of service to the teacher of this class? Checking on time spent in supervised study—Unless there is a defi- nite check upon the percent of total class time devoted to supervised study, many teachers tend to neglect the newer procedure and continue to pursue the older. Altho the success of supervised study cannot be determined entirely on the basis of the percent of total time devoted to it, the chances are greater that it will succeed where adequate time is provided for it than where inadequate time is provided. It is no longer considered good practise to divide the class period so that half the time in every class is devoted each day to supervised study. On some days, for example, it is wise to devote all the time of the class period to supervised study, while on other days it is equally wise to devote all the class time to some other step of the teaching cycle. On the whole, at least half the total class time in a given course should, in the opinion of the writer, be devoted to supervision of study. A form such as that in Figure II will assist the teacher in checking upon the total amount and the percent of class time devoted to supervised study in each course. The supervisor may readily adapt the form for use in rating those who work under his supervision. Recording questions and suggesttions—The teacher and the super- visor in the course of their regular work in supervised study are often confronted with questions which they wish to discuss with others in APPRAISING MrEtTHops oF TEACHING 431 conference. Unless these items are jotted down immediately, they are usually forgotten or overlooked. A simple but convenient device for this purpose is a sheet containing brief directions at the top and two blank parallel columns below, one headed “Some Questions Needing Attention,” and the other “Some Helpful Suggestions.”* The teacher or supervisor who is provided with such a form but who fails to record on it questions and suggestions from time to time, is in all probability doing unsatisfactory work in supervised study. FIGURE II—Form ror Daity AND WEEKLY CHECK ON TIME DEVOTED TO SupPEeRVISED STuDY Other technics—Many progressive teachers and supervisors who have adopted supervised study make use of the Morrison Sustained Application Profile.© On the left side of a vertical line are indicated the nature, number, and length of distractions for a given pupil, and on the right side of the same line are indicated the nature, number, and length of the periods of application for the same pupil. The efficient use of this profile gives immediate and convincing evidence of what goes on in the case of a given individual during supervised study. Many teachers and supervisors are also using the Maddox Group Application and Attention Chart.* This chart facilitates the simulta- neous recording of the nature, number, and length of distractions in- volving all pupils during a given class period. It also indicates the percent of application for each pupil and for the class as a whole dur- ing any minute or phase of the class period. *See: Maxwell, C. R., and Kilzer, L. R., op. cit., p. 362. 5 See: Morrison, Henry C. The Practice of Teaching in the Secondary School. Chicago: Univer- sity of Chicago Press, 1931. Chapter 9, ‘Sustained Application,” p. 141-57. ® Distributed by the University of Chicago Bookstore, Chicago, Illinois. 432 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Conclusion—Still other technics of appraisal might be described, but such description is not necessary to fulfil the purpose of this article. The alert teacher and supervisor will probably wish to make adapta- tions in the technics already presented, and will also devise new tech- nics not mentioned here. The use of technics such as those here de- scribed will not only help to evaluate supervised study but will help to improve supervised study as well. es the history of educational endeavor much em- phasis has rightly been placed on the way in which the learners do their work, because it has long been recognized by the ablest leaders in the field that how a thing is worked at is of more importance than what is actually being done or learned. This is true because the method of work employed by a learner in the performance of his tasks develops as a natural by-product certain sets of habits that make him per- sonally efficient or inefficient in the performance of his future tasks.—Book, William F., Learning How to Study and Work Effectively, Ginn and Co., 1926, p. 462-63. (Quoted by permis- sion of the publishers.) _ ~I APPRAISING MrEtTHops oF TEACHING 433 SELECTED REFERENCES . BROWNELL, WituiAM A. “Some Neglected Safeguards in Control-Group Ex- perimentation.” Journal of Educational Research 27: 98-107; October 1933. . CLrarK, CLARENCE C. “Effectiveness of Sound Films as Aids in Classroom Teaching.” Education 53: 337-42; February 1933. . CurricHt, Prupence. “Methods of Teaching.” Review of Educational Re- search 6: 310-23, 347-49; June 1936. . Douaiass, Haru R. “Scientific Investigation of Instructional Problems.” Jour- nal of Educational Research 29: 130-38; October 1935. . DRANSFIELD, J. Epcar. Administration of Enrichment to Superior Children in the Typical Classroom. Contributions to Education, No. 558. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1933. 107 p. . Feany, P. J. “A Survey of Instructional Practices and Equipment Used in Observed Lessons in the Social Studies in Grades Six, Seven and Eight in Selected Cities of the Middle West.” Journal of Educational Research 30: 348-56; January 1937. . Gates, ArtHurR I. “Recent Developments in Diagnostic and Remedial Teach- ing in Reading.” The Application of Research Findings to Current Edu- cational Practises. Official Report of the American Educational Research Association, 1935. Washington, D. C.: National Education Association, 1935. p. 83-91. . Goop, Carter V.; Barr, A. S.; and Scates, Dovetas E. The Methodology of Educational Research. New York: D. Appleton-Century Co., 1936. Chap- ter 9, “The Experimental Method,” p. 482-531. . Henmon, V. A. C. “Measurement and Experimentation, in Educational Methods.” Journal of Educational Research 18: 185-94; October 1928. . McCati, WitwtAM A. How to Measure in Education. New York: Macmillan Co., 1922. Chapter 5, “Measurement in Evaluating Efficiency of Instruc- tion,” p. 149-68. . Mecsy, Ernest O., and Lien, Aangs. “A Practicable Technique for Determin- ing the Relative Effectiveness of Different Methods of Teaching.” Jour- nal of Educational Research 19: 255-64; April 1929. . Monrog, Watter 8S. “Controlled Experimentation as a Means of Evaluating Methods of Teaching.” Review of Educational Research 4: 36-42, 113; February 1934. . NATIONAL EpucaTION ASSOCIATION, DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRIN- cIpALs. Aids to Teaching in the Elementary School. Thirteenth Yearbook. Washington, D. C.: the Department, 1934. “Effectiveness of Aids as Shown by Research,” p. 434-54. . NATIONAL EpucaTION ASSOCIATION, DEPARTMENT OF SUPERVISORS AND DIRECTORS or Instruction. Scientific Method in Supervisory Programs. Seventh Yearbook. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1934. 194 p. Chapter 5, “How to Use the Scientific Method in the Appraisal of Instruction,” p. 68-90. . RosenTeENGEL, W. E., and Turner, Cuaries. “Supervised School Study vs. Home Study.” American School Board Journal 92: 42; April 1936. . Tate, Harry L. “An Evaluation of the Project Method.” Elementary School Journal 37: 122-32; October 1936. . WricHTsTong, J. Wayne. “Appraising Newer Practices in Teaching Social Studies.” School Review 42: 688-93; November 1934. CHAPTER VI EVALUATING SOCIALIZING EXPERIENCES EDITORIAL COMMENT N RECENT YEARS a Variety of special activities, sometimes referred | to as “extracurricular,” have been given an important place in progressive elementary schools. There is a widespread belief that such activities, if wisely administered, will contribute significantly to the essential objectives of education. Unfortunately, little or no ob- jective evidence is available on this point. Owing to the limitations of present measuring instruments and the difficulty of controlling in- fluential factors, practically no scientific experimentation has been carried on in this field. The lack of adequate technics, however, does not excuse principals and teachers from evaluating these informal activities by the best means available. At present it is perhaps more fruitful to focus atten- tion upon the processes of pupil and teacher participation than upon the direct measurement of changes in pupil personality, altho the latter should not be neglected. Among the useful devices for appraising these processes are checklists of individual and group participation, running commentaries on pupil behavior during the course of an activity, and score-cards or rating scales for judging the product of an activity. Ex- periments utilizing controlled observation of the type described in the preceding chapter may yield the most valid and reliable results obtain- able under present conditions. This chapter reflects the difficulty of making adequate appraisals of the activities described. In the first article, Engleman discusses the general principles and objectives of informal dramatics, and outlines specific procedures for evaluating dramatic activity. Reynolds presents an informal appraisal of cooperative activities in a second grade, basing her judgments on the children’s own reactions to the results of their work. Keener reports an effort to evaluate a pupil newspaper project with reference to the number of articles submitted, their distribution among school grades, the interest of children who managed the paper, and the attitudes of pupils and teachers in general. Nettleton reviews the ob- jectives of pupil clubs in her school, and gives the reactions of teachers and pupils to the club program. Etheridge concludes the chapter with a discussion of criteria for judging rural-school libraries and of the status of such libraries in her state. While relatively little has been published concerning the systematic appraisal of socializing experiences in the school, the references listed on page 463 will provide a background for further study of this problem. —Editorial Committee. [ 434 ] EVALUATING SocriaALizING EXPERIENCES 435 AN APPROACH TO THE APPRAISAL OF INFORMA DRAMATICS F. E. ENGLEMAN President, New Haven State Teachers College, New Haven, Connecticut is based on two assumptions: (1) that informal dramatics involve relatively free interpretations of ideas and emotions thru the media of voice and bodily expression; and (2) that altho measure- ments reducible to mathematical terms are largely inapplicable, those more elastic technics for Judging and evaluating are practicable and, in fact, indispensable to the child’s greatest growth in dramatic ability. Procedures of the latter type are flexible in content, form, application, and interpretation. They permit the appraiser to make his judgments, to a large degree, in terms of a particular dramatic situation and the results sought in that situation. T= DISCUSSION of evaluation in the field of informal dramatics Wuo SHovutp EvALuAtTe INFORMAL DRAMATICS? Probably all will agree that the most effective appraisal calls for understanding, judgment, and discrimination on the part of the learner as well as on the part of those who assist with the learning. The evaluation of a dramatic experience may be made by (1) the indi- vidual pupil, (2) small groups within a classroom, (3) the whole class, (4) the teacher, (5) the principal or supervisor, and (6) outside groups who participate as an audience. The responsibility for appraisal should be shared by all who participate. If the teacher or the supervisor alone assumes this responsibility, the child’s growth in judgment, in creative powers, and in self-dependence is curtailed. Moreover, the assumption of sole responsibility by the teacher lessens the child’s sense of satis- faction in completing a satisfactory job, and the sense of humbleness which should come to him after participating in an ineffective dra- matic production. Probably the most successful appraisal results from a sharing of judgments, because this leads to common understandings and therefore yields the most valid and acceptable criteria for judging dramatic activities. WHEN SHovutp APPRAISAL BE UNDERTAKEN? Evaluation of a dramatic interpretation must be a part of the inter- pretation itself. The concept of the thing to be interpreted is, or should be, the result of careful thought and judgment which are in them- selves evaluations. As the interpretation proceeds—be it a simple characterization of a single person, one emotional experience, or a 436 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS whole drama of human experiences—evaluation on the part of the performers is a necessary parallel. Interpretation of ideas involves both intelligent thinking and emotional feeling. A sort of measure- ment is involved, then, when the individual first determines to produce an interpretation, when he chooses what he is to interpret, when he is clarifying his concept of the thing to be interpreted, when he is re- hearsing, when he is actually presenting the idea or ideas, and when he looks back upon the completed production, either in whole or in part. One of the chief responsibilities of the teacher is to determine the degree to which the children evaluate their work while the dra- matic activity is in process. OBJECTIVES OF INFORMAL DRAMATICS Clearly defined objectives are essential to any effective program of evaluation. Such objectives as the following, with even more detailed analysis of each, should bé in the consciousness of every elementary- school teacher. Some of these may well be brought to the attention of the children, while others should be kept in mind only by the teacher. The writer has not attempted to make a comprehensive list of aims, or to rank them in order of importance except in case of the first, which in his judgment is the basis of success in informal dra- matics. This objective must be approached first; then the finer technies which call for more detailed analysis may be introduced. 1. Release of the child from the inhibitions, formalisms, fears, and _ self- consciousness which inevitably prohibit the release of self and the freedom to create and express inner feelings or personal understandings. (This requires a rela- tionship among pupils, teachers, and their environment which will stimulate self-respect and an appreciation of differing personalities.) 2. Growth in creative expression and in ability to plan and shape the play, including the ability: a. To make up original plays based on the child’s own thought and imagin- ation b. To plan plots and scenes in a logical and systematic fashion c. To solve cooperatively problems of acting, character portrayal, prop- erties, and costumes d. To make costumes, settings, and properties e. To plan and act out plays based on stories f. To create the necessary dialog, avoiding conversation which is trivial and which does not advance the plot or characterization. 3. Growth of skill in speech technics, including the ability: a. To take part in a play with poise, identifying oneself with the character in the play b. To improvise c. To speak in pleasing, well-modulated tones, using different shades oi expression d. To use posture, gesture, and facial expression appropriate to the char- acter and situations e. To use pantomime as part of the speech, action, and characterization of the play EVALUATING SOCIALIZING EXPERIENCES 437 he f. To say lines in a conversational manner g. To speak audibly, sending the words out to the front of the mouth €8 h. To increase the volume of the voice without raising the pitch e- i. To articulate distinctly, taking special care to pronounce both the con- ce sonant and the vowel sounds of little words like just and of, without : being pedantic 18 j. To speak with emphasis on the important words, being careful not to "e- drop the last word in the sentence en k. To increase the vocabulary, using appropriate words and phrases from x the story m 1. To keep the right time or tempo of the play, responding to cues ne promptly and speaking at the rate one would use if thinking the “ lines for the first time. 4. Growth in knowledge and appreciation of drama, including the ability: a. To discriminate between the good and poor in radio playlets, moving pictures, and stage plays, distinguishing the cheap, exaggerated melo- drama from the drama which is plausible or true of b. To become acquainted with some of the better programs, cultivating a lal taste for well-made plays and beauty of language c. To catch promptly the mood of a dramatic presentation, whether one ‘y- of adventure, humor, pathos, or fantasy ‘on d. To appreciate pleasing voices and the beauty of the spoken word ow e. To enjoy beauty in costumes and settings. ~~ 5. Growth in desirable reading habits, including the ability: bi a. To imagine vividly the persons and the action in the story the b. To visualize clothing, weapons, houses, and other details in the back- ra- ground of the story ; c. To enjoy characterization in a story, seeing logical relationships between 18 character and action d. To enter imaginatively into the feeling and actions of children in other elf- lands, seeing universal human nature in diverse surroundings and to ee : ainsi “a 8 e. To experience history vicariously, comparing presentday life with that late of earlier people. 6. Growth in social attitudes, including the development of: lay, a. Qualities of leadership and initiative : b. Independence, resourcefulness, and ingenuity zin- c. Cooperation and teamwork in planning and producing a play d. Desirable attitudes toward right and wrong, toward qualities of character and personality (as in dramatizing stories of King Arthur), and toward ‘op- 6 other persons e. Ability to criticize intelligently, constructively, tactfully, and imper- sonally. ’ and Some Tecunics or APPRAISAL ter Since evaluation of informal dramatics is to be the responsibility of both learner and educator, and since evaluation must be carried a on continuously in many different types of situations, the available methods of appraisal overlap considerably and are largely descriptive ha 1 Dramatization, because it is largely a process of visualization, helps to develop in the reader the power to form clear mental images. Thus, dramatization not only increases the child’s en- a of B caent of reading, but it vitalizes and enriches the study of history, geography, and other subjects. 438 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS in character. The application of these methods must be governed by the objectives which the teacher has accepted, and by the maturity of her pupils. Standards, criteria, and specific checking devices for measuring growth in dramatic activities must develop gradually as children are led to conceive of and to appreciate the finer technics of dramatic interpretation. If the finer technics are introduced before a reasonable degree of power in free expression is achieved, there is danger that adult standards and adult methods of analysis will be imposed too soon. When adult-conceived perfection becomes the goal, the whole process becomes so formalized that child growth in creative self-expression and dramatic interpretation is stifled. The following procedures of appraisal, then, must be taken as merely suggestive of what may be done to measure growth in informal dramatics in any specific school situation. The procedures are listed first and then described in the same order. 1. Comparing written descriptions of dramatic experiences at different dates 2. Preparing a running commentary on the behavior of individual pupils in connection with dramatic activities 3. Joint use by teacher and supervisor of a check-sheet for appraising a particu- lar dramatic production of the pupils 4. Use of a class check-sheet for recording pupil participation in various phases of dramatic activity 5. Self-criticism and group criticism by the children 6. Helping pupils to select and accept standards for judging dramatic presenta- tion in general. Comparing written descriptions of dramatic experiences—The fol- lowing statement illustrates a type of activity which may be recorded in detail and later compared with a similar activity involving the same pupils: This activity developed in the fourth grade of a typical American city school The principal had suggested that this class share some dramatic experience with the rest of the school at an assembly period. The teacher then raised the question, “What shall we do?” After a short discussion, it was agreed that each pupil would do some reading during the week with the purpose of discovering a suitable story which could be dramatized on the stage. When the stories were presented, it was found that three children had selected the same story, “The Wild Swans.” As their selection seemed popular the teacher said, “I know a place where you can find that same story, but changed and written in another way.” “Maybe there are more than two stories about the same thing,” interjected a bright little girl. “Let’s see if we can find some others,” urged another. So it was agreed that a further search would be made for other versions. When the search ended, six dif- ferent versions of “The Wild Swans” had been discovered. To select the best one of the six versions became a problem. Finally it was de- cided that the story could be made into a seventh version, incorporating the various points which the pupils liked and which would best serve their purpose. One child, for instance, pointed out the desirability of using the version with the greatest number of boy characters, since the room contained more boys than girls. Another warned that one version had a part which could not be staged properly. pal, ‘lve ‘ing » of any hen es s in ‘icu- nta- fol- ded the 100] with tion, ould tory cted cher itten ed a at a dif- 3 de- rious hild, atest yther EVALUATING SOCIALIZING EXPERIENCES 439 — The organization of a play based on the story was next discussed, and the general divisions or scenes were agreed upon. Then committees were set to work organizing each scene, suggesting the action, and in some places preparing the script. Other committees had the responsibility for the back drops, scenery, and costumes, while another group began planning the staging and furnishings. Still another group set to work to list the characters and place them by scenes. At the next discussion period the class had reports from all committees, criticized them freely, and suggested improvements. A cast was then chosen. This was done by first analyzing the character to be portrayed and then selecting the person who could best portray that individual. Many factors of social behavior and personal fitness were overlooked by the children. Coaches, together with under- studies for each member of the cast, were also chosen for each scene at this discussion period. Rehearsals and the creation of stage scenery began at the first opportunity. In fact, time for such work had to be decided upon. This was done in the full light of other school tasks which were under way and which had to be continued. As the production proceeded, adjustments, criticisms, and evaluations were par- ticipated in by all. Personal responsibility for a given task brought self-criticism of that task. All the children shared in two complete rehearsals. At this time, individual pupils offered suggestions relative to moods, facial demonstration of emotions, bodily movements of actors, their position on the stage, voice inflection and volume, good and poor descriptive words, good and poor sentences, action which needed to be enlivened, parts where there was too much talk and not enough action, and many suggestions relative to staging and scenery. After the play was given, the class held another discussion relative to the merits and weaknesses of the finished product. In this discussion the principal and three members of advanced classes who had been in the audience were asked to partici- pate, and they made a number of helpful suggestions. A description similar to the above, with details filled in concerning the part each child played and the degree of his success, gives the teacher a “photograph” of her class as it actually appeared at a given time. If this description is compared to a similar picture of the same group at an earlier or later stage of development, growth can readily be detected. This technic of appraisal may be applied by any teacher. A running commentary on pupil behavior—School people are in- creasingly realizing the significance of anecdotal records in revealing the behavior patterns of individual children in a given environment. If the teacher will keep a simple diary of the dramatic activities of children, this record will help not only to diagnose specific weak- nesses and strengths but also to indicate general progress. A review of such records from time to time will reveal a great deal about the direction and extent of changes in pupil behavior. The following is a segment of a simple record of one child’s participation in dramatics: September 16—Sat in impassive silence while playlet was being given. 28—Showed by facial changes a degree of enjoyment at a review demonstration. October 16—Volunteered to take a non-speaking part in a dramatization. 24—Stated that she thought one player acted “just like an old lady.” ’ 29—Painted tree to be used as part of a back drop. ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 440 November 6—Brought in a story from her reading which she thought could be dramatized. ” 10—Took a speaking part, but was too timid to suggest appropriate lines until given much help. " 17—Impersonated by pantomime a field laborer hoeing cotton, Showed considerable understanding and gave a fair interpre- tation. . 26—Named a book she had read and told of one character by saying, “She always talked like this: .. .” Then in a whining voice and with a sad face she repeated some of the character’s words, ye 28—Suggested to another child that the latter did not speak so the audience could hear every word. Check-sheet for judging an informal dramatic production—lIn using this method of appraisal, the teacher and supervisor independently apply accepted criteria to a given dramatic production, and indicate their judgments on a check-sheet. Since the desired development of the children is a result of the production in process rather than of a “finished show,” the criteria need to be applied from time to time as the activity is going forward. The check-sheet used may be similar to the form illustrated below. The teacher and supervisor observe the children, underline the words which best describe their degree of | development, and then compare sheets. Characteristics displayed by children Ratings by teacher and supervisor . Freedom from inhibitions and fears none atall alittle considerable very much . Imagination and creative power noneatall alittle considerable very much — oo Ww bd . Power to discover effective —— . Power to organize none atall alittle considerable very much | . Joy and interest in presentation noneatall alittle considerable very much | . Insight into character none atall alittle considerable very much | dramatic episodes none atall alittle considerable very much | Further measurement may be carried on by describing evidences of | growth in greater detail. Such crude scales may be refined by teacher | and supervisor until they can be used as effectively as handwriting and composition scales. Check-sheet for recording individual pupil participation—Altho participation in a given phase of dramatics does not in itself indicate growth, it does indicate certain fields of interest. Moreover, under alli 2s tac Sade proper guidance and constant evaluation, it may be assumed that vigorous participation will enhance growth in a given direction. It likewise may be assumed that in those areas where there has been no participation, growth has been curtailed. The class check-sheet helps to reveal each child’s activity or lack of activity in the various phases of dramatic experience. Figure I contains merely a suggested analysis | of the various areas of participation, together with the hypothetical | Te # ild be priate otton. erpre- aying, voice words, so the using ently licate F nt of FF ofa time F milar © e the ee of © 7 much 7 much 7 much y much § y much & y much ces of acher g and & -Altho dicate under 1 that on. It en no helps phases alysis retical F EVALUATING SocIALIZING EXPERIENCES RECORD OF INDIVIDUAL PUPIL PARTICIPATION others Actively planned organization t tation Reported a radio playlet with criticiam Showed appreciation of good Planned and presented an original dramatic book review Made suggestions to group in Painted sce Selected a cast Was an understudy Acted major NS Acted minor part NS | maiviaual performace Ss SS N ¥ Y Vv V , an FIGURE I—Svacesrep Form ror RecorpING ParTICIPATION OF INDIVIDUAL Pupits IN Dramatic ACTIVITIES records of two pupils. The form of the check-sheet will vary accord- ing to the judgment of the teacher. It is obvious from Figure I that John Doe is doing much with acting, but very little in the field of creative planning or staging. On the contrary, Mary Doe is giving her energies to creative production and is not active as an interpreter. Self-criticism and group criticism by the children—Possibly no evaluation is so valuable as that which comes naturally as a part of the dramatic activity itself. When the learner is considered a dis- criminating agent, and is made to assume responsibility for the con- tent and quality of his work, self-appraisal is inevitable. To make informal dramatics most successful, the teacher must encourage chil- dren to choose, to criticize, and to evaluate such activities. In the fourth-grade activity described earlier, self-criticism, small-group judgment, teacher measurement, class thinking, and audience ap- praisal all served to improve the activity as a whole. Evaluation was an ever present factor from the initial stages of production to the “post mortem” following the final performance. Helping pupils select standards for appraising dramatic presenta- tions—Pupils should help to formulate their own criteria for judging dramatic presentations of all kinds. Such criteria may be arrived at by: 1. Discussion and consensus of class opinion 2. Using authority as found in certain books 3. Considering the judgments of parents and other adults 4. Obtaining the opinions of teachers. 442 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS When appropriate standards have thus been set up, they may be kept before the children by making a wall chart, writing them on the blackboard, or writing them in notebooks. By such devices the pupils are encouraged to be critical of radio, screen, and stage productions as well as their own dramatic activities. CONCLUSION While appraisal of pupil development in the field of informal dra- matics is a difficult task and probably can never be accomplished with mathematical precision, certain technics may profitably be utilized to identify changes in interests, attitudes, and behavior. That an indi- vidual must know his destination before embarking on a journey, all will agree. That he must check from time to time to determine how well he is progressing toward his destination is but common sense. Procedures for determining both of these essentials must be employed by successful teachers of informal dramatics. The destination and the devices for measurement in any particular case are necessarily depend- ent upon the traveler’s interests and needs, and upon the skill and wisdom of the pilot. sp suRVEY of status and needs implies the acceptance of certain goals. Determining where we are is a process of measuring the present situation against a set of criteria. These criteria are, in turn, dependent upon the goals we have con- sciously or unconsciously set up. If we change the desirable ends, there will be a consequent revamping of the factors to be observed. We tend to see in any situation the presence or absence of what we are looking for, and to ignore other mani- festations no matter how significant they may be. Obviously, if the felt need is to be a common need, the principal must enlist the cooperative endeavor of teachers and pupils in set- ting up the goals.—Ginsburg, Morris B., p. 515 of this year- book. eae iss ee be the pils ons lra- vith ized ndi- , all how nse, yyed the end- and EVALUATING SOCIALIZING EXPERIENCES 443 RESULTS OF PUPIL SHARING IN RESPONSIBILITY FOR CLASSROOM SURROUNDINGS HELEN M. Reynotps! Director, Kindergarten-Primary Education, Seattle, Washington opportunities to include or represent those interests in life which seem to them worth striving for—a view of the hills, a glimpse of the sea, a garden spot, pets, musical instruments, a workshop, toys, good books to read, a chance to share responsibilities. Wise fathers and mothers try to give children an appropriate part in the family merry- makings, a share in the family feast days, and an understanding of the family difficulties and problems in proportion to their ages. We believe that children should have similar opportunities and responsibilities in the school. We are trying in Seattle to base our work on an adaptation of the philosophy of William Morris: “I shall have in my home nothing which I do not know to be useful and believe to be beautiful.” “We” means the teachers, the children, and others of us who are trying to help make the school life an extension of the good home life. We would like to have in the schoolroom nothing that we do not know to be useful, nothing that is not filled with meaning to the children, and all things as beautiful as we can make them. We are trying to rid ourselves of high-hung pictures and prints of the Parthenon in classrooms for seven-year-olds. We see little place for decorative bor- ders made by the teacher. We believe in planning for a workshop and a library as opportunities for all the children. This article enumerates a variety of items in the classroom environ- ment of a group of second-grade children, and presents the children’s own descriptions of these items as recorded by the teacher.? Obtaining reactions of this kind from children is admittedly a very informal and quite unscientific method of evaluation. It does, however, give teachers and supervisors an insight into child growth that is difficult or impossible to obtain otherwise. In this sense the procedure on which this discussion is based may be considered an appraisal meas- ure, altho the results cannot be expressed quantitatively and the amount of social growth cannot be determined objectively. [ A GOOD HOME the parents consciously plan their surroundings and 1 With the assistance of the pupils in Grade II-B of the Seward School, Seattle, and their teacher, Miss Clare L. Wilson. * These descriptions were prepared as a group statement by jhe children, written on the black- board by the teacher, read by the children, corrected, and then sent to the writer of this article. The children were told that the writer wanted to tell the story of their room to some other interested teachers and children. 444 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Puptl-made books—The children were asked to list all the spaces, places, or objects in their room which they liked and found interesting. Among the items listed was a book about their city which the children had made themselves. The preparation of this book served the dual purpose of stressing the children’s responsibility for making their classroom a place of significance to them, and of emphasizing the utilization of our natural and industrial environment outside the school. The children’s choice of “Our City Book” reflects their interest in this purpose. OUR CITY BOOK We have a big book about our city. It looks much like our neighborhood book because it is made on wrapping paper, and because we had to hang it on the wall so that we could read it. We have not finished it yet. We have only four pages done. We have written about “The Markets,” “The Hotels,” and “The Policemen.” We are planning to have this book finished soon. Its title is, “Our Beautiful City— Seattle, Washington.” An appreciation of the immediate neighborhood also is included in our plans for the second grade, B class. The record of excursions and neighborhood stories for this class is given in OUR NEIGHBORHOOD BOOK We live in a very beautiful neighborhood, so we made a great big book about it. Every day we made a new page for our book. Miss Wilson printed them with her big pen and we drew pictures for them. When the book was finished Miss Wilson put all the pages together and hung the book on the wall. Each page looks like a big reading chart. The book tells about “The View of Lake Union,” “The Uni- versity Bridge,” “The Art Museum,” “Volunteer Park,” “The University Museum,” “Seward School,” and “Rogers Playfield.” When we have finished our work it is fun to read this big book that we made. What evidences of cooperative planning do these two descriptions give? The following seem to be outstanding: 1. The children are quite clear as to their share in the making of the books. 2. They recognize at least part of the teacher’s contributions. 3. They are growing in appreciation of “a very beautiful neighborhood.” 4. They felt in making their record of “our city” a consciousness of work accom- plished and something yet to be done. They have definite plans for the use of “Our Neighborhood Book.” There is always something for the children to do when they have finished their work in a room which they have helped to “make” and keep in order. A class news magazine—Among the treasures of the room is listed the “Second-Grade News Magazine.” The issue of November 9, 1936, with a manila cover on which is a drawing in color of “The Library Corner,” was chosen by the children as the most interesting issue thus far. Its contents indicate the possibilities of the magazine as a means of discovering what happens over Saturday and Sunday that may contribute to the classroom difficulties or delights of Monday and Tuesday. In this issue are listed, among other week-end pleasures, com ise of to do nake” isted 1936, rary thus 1eans may and ures, EVALUATING SOCIALIZING EXPERIENCES 445 several desirable experiences. These may have been stimulated in part by the schoolroom discussions: four trips to Woodland Park, going to see the government locks, going to the airport, and finding a poem to bring to school. The children who habitually write about “going to shows,” and the one whose news is always concerned with “what father is doing for mother out at camp” may give the teacher an insight into the basis for steadiness or flightiness of personality. Following is the children’s statement about the magazine: SECOND-GRADE NEWS MAGAZINE Every Monday we make a news magazine about the things we saw, or heard about, or did over the week end. Each child writes his news item and draws a picture for it. Then the news and the pictures are put into a book. Someone draws a cover picture and Miss Wilson prints the name of the magazine and the date on the cover page. Everyone likes to read all the old magazines. At present all the issues rest in a magazine rack in the library corner. Several children have specially called the writer’s attention to this rack. The following comment of one parent to the teacher suggests the motivation which the preparation of the news magazine provides for correct spelling and writing: ‘“We’ve been so glad because Nancy is taking such an interest in learning to write and spell well, because she started out so poorly. Now she wants so badly to be able to write a good news story for the news magazine.” Dictionaries made by the children—The preparation of the news magazine—this carrier of home and neighborhood happenings into the classroom—involved the making by each child of his own dictionary, a project described thus by the children: DICTIONARIES Sometimes we need to find out how to spell certain words. We made a diction- ary. It has a page for every letter in the alphabet. When we need to know how to spell a word we look to see if it has been written in our dictionary. If it has not been written there we look in our spelling book and if it is not there we ask Miss Wilson to write it in our dictionary. We open our dictionary to the right page before we take it to Miss Wilson. In this project the children are helping to make some of the neces- sary equipment for their other work. They are aware that they must pay attention to words, and they are working toward the use of what grown-ups have found they need—a dictionary. Equipment for handling financial problems—The following descrip- tions of “Our Number Books,” “Our Lunch Money,” and “Our Num- ber Charts” show that the room equipment takes care of the financial matters of this “children’s cooperative.” There is also available a set of arithmetic readers, What Happened to Other Children in Arithmetic. 446 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS The children even bring “grocery lists” from home if their parents are willing. One mother said, “We’re quite amazed at Don’s willing- ness to go to the grocery these days. He’s so anxious to have a grocery list to take to school.” OUR NUMBER BOOKS We need to know many number facts in second grade so that we can figure up our lunch money and our bank money and do other things that we need to do. We keep a record of every number fact which we use. We keep this record in our number books. We made our number books ourselves and we keep them in our desks. We write every number fact we use in our book. If we’ve already had it and have already written it in our book we put a check near it. Some of them have many, many checks. The fact “1 and 0” has the most checks now. It has thirty-one checks. OUR LUNCH MONEY We have a cafeteria in our school. So many people bring money for their lunches, Each person who brings lunch money in our room writes his name on the lunch- money board, and he writes the amount of lunch money he has. Then he puts his money in the lunch-money purse. Later in the morning we check the money in the purse with the amount written on the board. We find out how much lunch money is in the purse. When the children are ready to go to lunch they get their money from the teacher. OUR NUMBER CHARTS We are trying to learn to count by tens and by fives and by twos. Some children can already do this. They write their names on the number charts. All but three children have their names on the number chart for counting by tens; all but six children can count by fives. Sixteen children can count by twos. Thru the use of money in the lunchroom and in making bank deposits, the recording of the amount brought, the checking of the facts involved, and the accounting of their own achievements, the | children are using arithmetical materials and learning to keep records | of this use in an orderly way. The library corner—The corner of the classroom devoted to books and magazines is described at length by the children, as follows: OUR LIBRARY We are glad to have a library for we enjoy it very much. Everyone likes to read at the library table. It is a pleasant place. We have story books and poem books there. There are some “Weekly Readers,” a puzzle book, and some magazines which children brought from home. Some of the things that are in the library we made ourselves. There is a number book with pictures of our true number stories in it. “Our Address Book” and “Our Helpers” were made by the children in the room. Some children wrote poems for the library. David made a poem book to put on the table. There are folders for “Poems for Fun,” “Sea Poems,” and one for “Autumn | Poems.” There are some magazines which were made by some other children in — another school who are in the second grade, too. A We have a magazine rack near our shelves. Our second-grade magazines are in it. 7 Some of the girls made a table scarf in the workroom for the library table. Mary Jo brought a vase to make the library a more pleasant place. Joanne brought a funny monkey because it made her think of the monkey in one of our books. Shirley brought a funny man to hang near the monkey. kes to iders,” umber ” and poems utumn lren in e in it. table. rought books. EVALUATING SOCIALIZING EXPERIENCES 447 We use our library when we need to look for something in one of our books. We read there when we have finished our work. There are five chairs in our library; one of them is a rocking chair which Shirley T. brought from home. In this description we may note the children’s evident pleasure, the idea that everybody reads in the library, that a variety of material to suit all interests is provided—story and poetry and puzzles. There are magazines from home and school-made books as well as child- written poetry. The children enjoy an exchange list as well as do grown-ups. “Do the same things happen at Fauntleroy School?” they ask. The library is properly furnished, with a handmade table scarf, a magazine rack, and amusing objects to make us smile whenever we look at them—‘funny monkeys” and “funny men.” The delight in collecting comes early, and a folder for sea poems is needed in our seaport town. The children know why the library is there. They may look for something or read for fun. The rocking chair is the latest acquisition. In bringing the chair for Shirley her mother said, “I’m sure Shirley will enjoy this rocking chair much more at school than she does at home. She is so thrilled about the room library here. She wants to give this chair for it.” Close to the library corner is the “Clean Hands Shelf,” a special place for special treasures in books. Note that in their descriptive statement the children say “this week.” This reminds us that “some- thing new” and “something old” are good charm words in libraries as well as elsewhere. CLEAN HANDS SHELF On one of our window shelves we have some very beautiful books. This week we have a book called Snippy and Snappy. The kindergarten teacher, Miss Erick- son, loaned us this book. We have some other good books there, too. We put up a “clean hands” sign because we wanted to keep these books especially clean. We call this shelf “The Clean Hands Shelf.” On a recent visit among the books in the library, the writer found The Tugboat, Ola and Blacken, Trains, Poems of Today, A Child’s Garden of Verses, Angus Lost, Silver Pennies, I Spent the Summer, I Go A-Traveling, and I Live in a City. All of these are reflections of what is going on in the room or just outside. Classroom exhibits—The recognition of achievement in any field is an incentive to continued effort. Their plan for “Good Work Places” is thus commented on by the children: GOOD WORK PLACES We have two places to put good work in our room. When someone has been especially careful when he made a picture in the workroom, and if the picture tells a story, Miss Wilson puts the picture on a piece of cardboard and hangs it on the wall. After it has hung there for a week it can be taken home. 448 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS ——.. There is a shelf where we keep clay work, woodwork, sewing, printing, or any- thing else that has been well done in the workroom. The frequent changing of the exhibit offers all the children a chance to share the joy of recognized achievement. Children as well as baseball fans find a bulletin-board useful. In the following paragraph the children note the values evident to them in this joint ownership of OUR BULLETIN-BOARD Sometimes we find something very interesting in the newspaper, or sometimes there is some important thing we all need to know. We have a bulietin-board to use for such things. At the top of the board it says, “Interesting Things.” Anyone may use the bulletin-board. Sometimes Miss Wilson uses it and sometimes the children use it. Now the notices on the board tell about our banking and about some daffodil bulbs which Don brought. There is a page of poems which were written by some other second-grade children. There is a neat paper which Shirley T. wrote when we banked this morning. On a recent visit by the writer to a I-B room, a small child pointed out a bulletin-board on which was displayed a labeled picture of a boy with his dog. “That got changed since yesterday,” said the child. Interesting, suggestive changes in posted materials offer stimulation to thinking. We all pause to see what is new in our favorite shop win- dows, and we all ignore the drug store with time-yellowed bills and posters. The children’s statement includes the standards for any good bulletin-board, which are as follows: 1. It must be available to all. 2. It must display matters of interest or importance to all. 3. It must provide fresh material. 4. It must provide a variety of valuable material. The fun cupboard—There is in this room one of those narrow-from- front-to-back cupboards, of door size, which are used often to harbor odds and ends that usually need to be cleaned out but often remain long after their usefulness is over. The door, always open at the wrong moment, has been removed and the shelves painted a warm yellow- green with red edges. This to the children is OUR FUN CUPBOARD We have a “fun cupboard” in our room. It is painted with bright colors. There are toys, games, colored paper, and other things to have fun with in this cupboard. On rainy days we come in and play with the things in the fun cupboard. We use these things sometimes when we have finished our work, too. There is a drum, a triangle, and some bells which we use some days when we have music and play the victrola. The children in our room brought the things for the fun cupboard. We enjoy playing with these things very much. Here and in the “museum” is provided a place for the contributions of the children: a red and black drum, a rolly polly, a green canoe, a - + pS RRND Tp DLO ny- nce In em mes d to yone the bout were hich ited of a rild. tion win- and r00d rom- bor main rong llow- There board. Je use drum, 1 play enjoy itions 10€, & EVALUATING SOCIALIZING EXPERIENCES 449 small red and white rocking-horse, a red cloth elephant, a red toy truck, a gray Teddy bear, and colored paper. When we are resting for a moment there is always something pleasant to look at. There are always things to draw. Museum and sand table—The museum is an outgrowth of the science interests fostered by the classroom teacher and by the science room upstairs, where the younger children are invited to visit. THE MUSEUM We have a museum in the back of our room. There are many interesting things in it. Different children in our room brought these things. They brought them because they thought that they were interesting for other children to see. There are some big shells, some caterpillars, an Indian doll, a Japanese doll, some gold, some gourds, and some petrified wood in the museum. Each thing has a label to tell what it is and where it came from. Patty and her mother made a carrot Indian for the museum. Almost every day someone brings something new for it. In the back of the room is a sand table, also the possession and work of the children. The two purposes served are thus revealed by them: OUR SAND TABLE We like our sand table very much. Each week we have a different story in it. This week Raymond’s group made a story of the Four Bears. There is a little girl named Bright Eyes in the story. She is hiding in the hole from the bears. Her little dog, Scratch, could not get into the hole because it was too small so he tried to hide outside. The bears did not hurt her. Their names were Gruff, Huff, Puff, and Tiny. We did not know the story but Raymond’s class told it to us when they showed us the sand table. OUR TERRARIUM Some children in our room are making a terrarium in one side of the sand table. They put gravel in the bottom of the sand table before they put in the dirt because Miss McKelvey (the science teacher for the older children) said that would help the water to drain off the dirt when the children watered the plants in the terrarium. They are bringing moss, ferns, and little plants to grow there. The pool was made by putting a flat glass dish down into the dirt and filling it with water. Raymond put stones and moss all around the top of the dish so that it would look like a pond. He is going to bring his turtle tomorrow. We are trying to find a lizard for the terrarium. A mother’s comment on the sand table gives us Dorothy’s view of its possibilities: “I’ve come to see the sand table. I hear it has a bear story in it and that Dorothy made a bear for it and ‘shellacked it and everything’ all by herself.” Other items—There are other significant things in the room: “Health Rhymes” by students of the Calgary Normal School, sent by some visitors from British Columbia; a riddle written on the board by the teacher: Mary brought me to school today. I am in a sack. Mary says that you may eat me. Iam red. I grow ona tree. What am I? 450 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS An invitation from the kindergarten: The kindergarten has invited us to their room to see the white rat. We will go at 1:30 o’clock this afternoon. , Also on the blackboard, the following financial news: Twenty children banked this week. There were forty children here so just half of us banked. Among other posters containing poems made by the children is one on THE SHIPWRECK There was a ship sailing high There was a bird flying low The waves were rocking so The captain sent for help He gave the message to the bird The bird came back with help. —Parry M. Dororuy JANET Eri The children also have one blackboard for their own use exclusively, On this they may write or draw when their other work is done. Caring for the room and its contents—This room with its many possessions must be taken care of, and this is accomplished by com- mittees. The children describe this work as follows: OUR COMMITTEES We have housekeeping committees to keep our room clean. Some of these committees do their work after school, some before school, some at recess, and some during school. We have a committee to fill the paste jars, a committee to water the flowers, one to sharpen the pencils, one to keep the cloak hall clean, one to dust the museum, and one to keep the fun cupboard neat. We have a committee to arrange the benches for reading classes, a committee to wash the boards and clean the erasers, and we have a committee to keep the library in order. We have a hostess and inspector, too. Miss Wilson prints the names of each committee on a big piece of paper so that we won’t forget our work. This sharing of the care of the room serves many ends. A teacher in another classroom describes the situation thus: “I used to spend an hour after school in the care of the room doing what the children now do in ten minutes. They take a personal pride in its care and are thoughtful about making work for each other or the janitor.” One of the prominent articles in the cupboard is an inspector’s badge. One parent comments: “I’m anxious to know how you get George so interested in doing things around the schoolroom. He talks a great deal about washing boards and dusting at school, and seems to enjoy that work, but we have a terrible time getting him to help with any- thing around home.” The school workroom—Altho it is not a part of their classroom, the children feel that their choicest possession is the workroom which they share with four other groups of children. OTHY L vely. nany com- these 3, and owers, st the rrange in the per 80 acher spend dren d are ne of eorge great enjoy any- n, the 1 they EVALUATING SOCIALIZING EXPERIENCES 451 OUR WORKROOM We have a workroom in the basement of our building. We make things for our room during our work period there. Some children make things to take home, some children sew and knit, some children print things for our library table. Soon we’re going to start making Christmas presents in our workroom. There are five work benches in this room, five easels, a clay table, and a long wallboard for painting or drawing. There is a big block table and a cupboard full of blocks. There are several tables and a shelf with books that tell how to make things. There is paper, paint, clay, crayons, and all kinds of materials for children to make things out of. We take very good care of this room because four other groups of children use it. We have two big cupboards to keep our things in. We have one big lumber shelf for our lumber. All the products of the workroom must serve some good purpose, either of the group or of an individual child. The room is the children’s to use, to keep in order, and to leave in good condition for the next group. Conclusion—One approach to the appraisal of a school program is to answer this question: Is the classroom the possession of the children and their parents as well as of the teacher? In finding the true answer, it is helpful to obtain the reactions of the children themselves to the various elements in their classroom environment. In the classroom described above, the children have evidently contributed the following to make the room a center of cooperative ownership and responsibility: 1, Accounts of experiences at home, in the street, and on trips—told to the other children and to the teacher 2. Records of these experiences in stories written, in pictures drawn, and in articles made 3. Gifts and loans of objects brought from home or collected on trips . Books loaned by the home . Appreciation of the contributions of others . Work in making needed objects for the school . Care of the classroom . Persistence of effort day by day . Continued use of technics in reading, writing, and spelling . Continued use of arithmetic in cases where accuracy counts. To these contributions of the children the teacher has added: 1. Understanding of the viewpoints and interests of the parents and children— the beginning of community living 2. Contributions in stories of her own experiences and collected treasures 3. Continued efforts to lead the children into new fields of interest in science, in story, in poetry, in music, and in art 4. Continued planning for utilization of the children’s contributions in teaching reading, writing, and spelling 5. Continued guidance of the children’s efforts to carry responsibility 6. Good taste and careful attention to the elimination of unused materials, so that the room would not become crowded and confused. 7. Continuous attention to details so that the children would retain their feeling of responsibility for completing all work with good standards of workmanship. 452 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS A number of other factors—the cooperation of the principal in pro- viding the workroom and needed materials, the aid of other teachers and older children, and the help of the custodian—have been essential to the success of this experiment in cooperative living. — likewise may properly have a part in appraising the school. Their opinions are not always well founded and must be interpreted with great care, but such opinions will often help teachers and principals in making their own judg- ments of school policies and procedures. Certainly no school activity can be considered satisfactory which produces dis- satisfaction or discouragement in a considerable proportion of the children. Moreover, the school has an obligation to teach children to be honestly and constructively critical of their work and of their social institutions (of which the school is one).—Chapter I, p. 234-35 of this yearbook. r0- ners tial EVALUATING SOCIALIZING EXPERIENCES 453 JUDGING THE SUCCESS OF A SCHOOL NEWSPAPER Epwarp E. Keener Principal, John Hay School, Chicago, Illinois the John Hay School during the spring semester of 1936. The newspaper was prepared and published entirely by pupils under the supervision of a teacher. The management was in the hands of a beginning eighth-grade class, but the collection of material for publica- tion was largely a function of the Press Club, which consisted of a reporter from each room in Grades III to VIII, inclusive. The members of this club met once a week to discuss ways of gathering news and other articles. The paper was mimeographed in the school by the pupils. Evaluation of the project covered the following phases: (1) the num- ber of articles submitted for publication, (2) the distribution of articles by school grades, (3) the interest manifested by those who managed the paper, and (4) the attitudes of pupils and teachers in general to- ward the publication. While this little study was not as complete as one might wish, it gave the principal some basis for judging the success of the newspaper enterprise. Increase in number of articles—During the semester four issues of the paper were published. Each issue included all the usable articles submitted. The total number of articles published in each issue was as follows: March, 26; April, 42; May, 43; and June, 66. The growth in the number of articles submitted and published is some indication of the appeal of the paper. At first many pupils were reluctant to submit articles either because they were not interested or because they felt that they were unable to write for publication. When they had read articles written by their classmates, however, they were encouraged to make a try at writing. Consequently an increasing num- ber of articles were written each month. Altho it was possible to publish all usable articles submitted in the four issues, it would probably be impossible to continue this practise indefinitely. The selection of material would have to become more exacting because of the necessary limitation of space. Increased number of classes contributing—The accompanying table shows the percents of all articles contributed by the various classes to each of the four issues. Altho contributions for each issue were solicited from every class, the first issue was written chiefly by the VIII-B class —the class which managed the paper. In the first issue this class con- tributed 88 percent of the articles, and in the last issue only 33 percent. The range of grades contributing to the last issue was from the kinder- Te NEWSPAPER PROJECT discussed in this article was carried on in 454 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS garten to Grade VIII. There were six classes (half-grades) that did not contribute an article to any of the four issues. This was probably due to the failure of the reporters in those classes to promote interest in the paper and to secure the help and cooperation of the teacher. Changed attitudes toward managing the paper—The interest of members of the class that managed the paper grew rapidly during the semester. At first some were hesitant to assume responsibilities about which they knew little or nothing. Before the close of school, however, they were eager to manage the various phases of publication. In fact, relays of pupils were used in many of the activities. The last issue of the paper was produced almost wholly by the pupils. They secured the articles, edited them, typed them, arranged them in columns, cut the stencils for the mimeograph, operated the mimeograph machine, stapled the sheets together, sold the papers, and kept an accurate record of their cash accounts. The children gladly came to school an hour early and remained an hour or two after school whenever this was necessary in order to have the paper out on time. It is hardly surprising that they TABLE 1—Percenr or Artictes ContrIBuTED BY Eacu CLAss T0 THE First Four Issues or A ScHoot NEWSPAPER Monts or Issue Ciass | Marcu APRIL May JUNE (1) (2) (3) (4) | (5) Ie dbs vileectieledaevaweu ess ae 5 21 17 I isi oa tadiz apes aren es See Soke 88 59 49 33 a eae, * Yo hl alt hl dlp gl Ail Meg 14 7 | __ _. SESSURR OT reo Tt 12 aa 2 RS otc are guyeid a. entielguna abel igs 6 RE AE eae e 4 9 3 ET Re PM rine te Pecks 4 6 Be a Sea lciae gk Pods Oe 5 2 ae ene mere ere ES ey eer Ne Fetex at hahee earn aan 4 5 5 15 MTT? Shih; ts) eaeedae. Se eae. NE a oe capac e eae eae ly: is wigs rk cleats aah re SMa cdale cuca euenean 4 1 eer eee err l I <5 wea one te ae, heme a 100 100 100 100 Read table: In the first (March) issue of the newspaper, 88 percent of the articles were con: tributed by pupils in the VIII-B class, 4 percent by the V-A class, 4 percent by the V-B clas # and 4 percent by the III-B class. Similarly read figures for the other three issues. a —— t did ably terest er. st of gz the about vever, fact, of the d the it. the apled rd of early »SSary t they tT Four EVALUATING SOCIALIZING EXPERIENCES 455 gained a great deal, not only in the ability to use English correctly, but also in office skills and in the exercise of initiative, reliability, and industry. One boy who had been a serious disciplinary case became eager to help with the publication of the paper. He wrote at least one article for each issue and did much of the work of mimeographing. There were no more disciplinary troubles so far as he was concerned. General attitudes of pupils and teachers—The general opinions of both pupils and teachers are now very favorable toward the publication of a school newspaper. As indicated above, the interest of pupils is shown by the increasing number and the widening distribution of articles submitted. This interest is also indicated by the increase in circulation of the paper, which grew from about 300 copies at three cents per copy for the March issue, to nearly 500 copies at five cents per copy for the June issue. Some comments by pupils are quoted below: An elementary-school newspaper is a fine thing for the school. It helps the school as a whole because it gives the pupils practise in typing articles, cutting stencils, and running a mimeograph machine. In drawing the cover for the paper, it shows the pupils how good they are. It cultivates an interest in news of the school and makes the pupils want to write. It creates a strong school spirit. When the pupils give sales talks they gain confidence in speaking before an audience. Altogether it is a fine thing for a school. I believe an elementary-school newspaper is a good thing to have. It makes the pupils eager to write good English in the articles they send to the paper so that it will be put in the paper. The newspaper gives the pupils who are working on it, training in how to use the mimeograph, how to cut stencils, how to arrange the pages, and many other things. The teachers agree that a newspaper furnishes motivation for the correct and effective use of English, builds up a wholesome attitude toward the school, and is a valuable means of carrying information to parents concerning the school activities. A mimeographed paper is preferred for these purposes because it gives practise in office procedure which is not afforded by a paper printed outside the school. 456 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS AN INFORMAL APPRAISAL OF SCHOOL CLUBS Luu NeErrLeTon Principal, Green Lake School, Seattle, Washington in terms of cold figures or by means of standardized tests. Thus far, at least, it can be measured only by the subjective judg- ments of teachers and principal, based upon careful observation and study of the children’s reactions to club work. To be considered success- ful, these small organizations must meet the approval of children and teachers as well as of the principal. They must demonstrate their worth in the form of increased inspiration, initiative, responsibility, and happiness of their members in working together for the good of the group. Some objectives of club work—When the question of establishing clubs in the Green Lake School was raised, faculty conferences were held to discuss the probable worth of such activities to the children. At these conferences the principal and teachers presented and analyzed the values which they desired to see emerge from club experiences. Following is the list of desirable outcomes prepared, together with a few suggestions as to how the club program might contribute to these out- comes: Ts VALUE OF CLUBS in the elementary school cannot be estimated 1. Initiative—to be developed by giving children a chance to suggest the kinds of clubs needed, to plan each club’s program of activities, and to elect suitable officers. 2. Leadership—to be encouraged by giving children greater opportunity for exercising leadership in small groups than they had hitherto enjoyed. 3. Community consciousness—to be aroused by giving children the experience of participating and rejoicing in the accomplishments of the group. 4. Sportsmanlike attitudes—to be inculcated by means of games and other ac- tivities in which the children may learn to win modestly, lose gracefully, and make personal sacrifices if necessary for the welfare of the group. 5. Civic responsibility—to be achieved thru the children’s experience in electing appropriate officers and in managing club affairs in an efficient, businesslike manner. 6. Toleration—to be developed by encouraging children to consider impartially both sides of questions which arise in connection with the operation and activities of a club. Our experience has been that the pupils should be allowed to have a hand in suggesting the types of clubs to be organized. Such suggestions are accepted from any child who has something constructive to offer. If a suggestion is impractical the pupil making it is told why his idea cannot be put into effect at the time. No child should be made to feel that his ideas are not given adequate consideration. On the other hand, a particular club should not be organized merely because the children 1s le or of C- Ke ng ke ly es EVALUATING SOCIALIZING EXPERIENCES 457 want it. Sometimes an excellent idea for a club cannot be utilized be- cause a suitable sponsor is not available. Without an adult sponsor who has enthusiasm, interest, a knowledge of the field to be covered, and an appreciation of the opportunities for pupil development, a club in any field of activity is likely to be worse than useless. Teachers’: opinions of various clubs—Some of the criteria used by teachers in evaluating the work of clubs are evident in their opinions of the several clubs in the Green Lake School. These opinions are as follows: 1. Art Club—worthwhile because its members experience the thrill of creating some beautiful thing (beautiful at least in the eyes of the maker); because they learn the joy of freedom in selecting subjects and mediums for artistic expression ; and because they develop more discriminating taste and learn to accept construc- tive criticism gracefully. 2. Junior Safety Council—valuable because its members develop a new feeling of responsibility for the safety of themselves and of others; because the considera- tion of safety problems in the immediate community gives the members a keener civic consciousness; and because the Safety Color Guard, together with the safety pledge and songs, draws the members into a closer fellowship for worthy purposes. 3. Sewing Club—significant because its members learn to enjoy the quiet happi- ness of sitting in an attractive room and chatting with companions and a kindly teacher while employing their hands in useful work; and because the opportunity to select materials and colors, and to plan simple needlework, gives many shy children a joy they have not known before in all their school lives. 4. Dramatic Club—helpful because the exhilaration of having even a small part in a simple production puts many children’s feet on the trail to new interests and increased efforts; and because initiative and creative ability are required in work- ing out stage settings and costumes. 5. Indoor Games Club—valuable because the children learn to win or lose gracefully; because they learn new games to play at home instead of depending on the radio and movies for all their recreation; and because they develop concen- tration and knowledge thru playing such games as “Lindbergh,” “Touring,” Check- ers,” “Flinch,” and so forth. 6. School Chorus—worthwhile because well-directed group singing brings its par- ticipants together in a common spirit of enjoyment; because the children have to concentrate in learning new music; and because they work together for the pleasure of others, and experience the feeling of success when a beautiful musical number receives the approval of listeners. During the past few years several clubs have been tried for a semester and then abandoned because they were failing to contribute distinctively to pupil development. For example, the science club was discontinued because its sponsor, an excellent teacher of science, felt that the club was becoming merely an extra class period in this subject. The health club also passed out of existence for the same reason. The travel club was abandoned because its sponsor, a world traveler and an extremely interesting speaker, felt that she was conducting a lecture course rather than a school club. Children’s replies to a questionnaire—When asked for their opinions of the club work in this school, the pupils replied overwhelmingly in 458 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS favor of the program. Some of their reasons are quoted here: . Clubs give us children time to do things we really want to do. . They help groups learn to know each other better. . We learn to play fair. . Clubs help our school because they make the children happy. . It is fun to help little children to keep out of danger. . You always have something to do. . Clubs help you to learn what you most enjoy. . Clubs are something different from regular school work and are a pleasure. . The Games Club helps us to think for ourselves. 10. Clubs make it more fun to come to school and we are always thinking of ways to make our club better. 11. Clubs give our school a better atmosphere and better school spirit. 12. Clubs help the children to know the teachers better, and they help the teachers to know the pupils. 13. Clubs give us pleasures to look forward to. 14. I work with people in my own class and get to know children in other classes who like to do the things I like to do. CON OUhkWwWN The principal’s evalwation—As an administrator, the writer tries continuously to evaluate the club program with reference to four general criteria, as follows: 1. Do the clubs help prepare pupils to use leisure time worthily? 2. Are the clubs helping our boys and girls to form satisfactory standards of social relationships: (a) toward their contemporaries both of their own and of the opposite sex; (b) toward the “elders” of their environment—parents, teachers, and civic leaders; and (c) toward the handicapped of society? 3. Are the clubs helping our pupils to acquire ethical habits of conduct—playing fair, owning up, being honest in work, learning to respect the rights and property of others? Are the pupils learning to regulate conduct in terms of consequences to themselves and to others? Are the more thoughtful and mature learning to regulate their conduct in terms of accepted principles? 4. Are the clubs making the children more sensitive and responsive to the needs of others: to the need for friendly companionship on the part of new pupils; to the need for friendliness and toleration on the part of those who are “different” in dress, in speech, in nationality, and in temperament; to the need for helpfulness on the part of those who are strange or have fallen behind in their work? * To all of these questions, we who have used clubs during the past five years feel that we can give affirmative answers. Moreover, our objectives for the clubs seem to have been fulfilled in a larger measure than we had expected. We believe that as an opportunity for pupil guidance and character building, the school club is the most valuable instrument we have found. 1 Adapted from: National Education Association, Department of Superintendence. Character Education. Tenth Yearbook. Washington, D. C.: the Department, 1932. p. 240-42. of the SSeS ies of the ers, ing rty 3 to ate ast yur ure pil ble cter EVALUATING SOCIALIZING EXPERIENCES 459 JUDGING THE ADEQUACY OF SCHOOL LIBRARIES IN RURAL AREAS Maset WILKINSON ETHERIDGE Librarian, State Teachers College, Minot, North Dakota libraries in rural areas for at least two reasons: (1) teachers as well as parents and schoolboard members have not been well in- formed as to the proper functions of a library in the school; and (2) eriteria and methods for judging such a library have not been satis- factorily developed. This article discusses briefly the status of certain school libraries in North Dakota, and suggests a modification of the criteria now available for determining their adequacy. A training-school library—Most school libraries in rural areas have developed without reference to standards of any kind. A typical example is the library in the training school at the teachers college in Minot, North Dakota. This collection of books is the result of a few meager purchases, miscellaneous gifts from friends during book “drives,” and material cast off by teachers who have left to accept positions else- where. Comparing this library with the standards set up by the state department of education,’ we find the following: [lites has been little attempt to evaluate elementary-school 1. Approximately 25 percent of the books are on the required list of the state department. 2. More than the minimum required number of 100 books per room are available. 3. There is good cooperation between the school library and the town library. 4. Considerably fewer than one-half of the books are suitable for use in the first four grades. 5. Little or nothing is being done with the pupils’ voluntary reading course pre- scribed by the state department. These findings do not reveal much about the adequacy of the school library. Let us consider it with reference to the five objectives stated in the tentative standards for elementary-school libraries of the American Library Association.” Objective 1: To select a balanced collection of books to meet the demands of an integrated educational program as it is outlined by grade and subject in the curriculum. This is an excellent objective, but in a frontier community where money and books are scarce, one must take what one can get and make the most of it. It is impossible for us to attain the distribution of expenditures recommended as necessary to obtain a balanced collection of books, which is as follows: 1 North Dakota Department of Education Bulletin No. 5, 7th rev. ed., 1933. 2 American Library Association, School Libraries Committee. School Library Yearbook Number Five. Chicago: the Association, 1932. p. 3-9. 460 ELEMENTARY ScHOOL PRINCIPALS Percent Reading and literature...................... 25 SR a en ee | 25 MS Secor eee PREY Cos cc ihiadc cabawe 20 Other departments (arts, music, etc.)......... 10 TER Pet MEE Ue Ge 10 ee ee Grek 10 UE os et aE SE a aks bork bi 100 The training-school library has no definite funds of any description; hence it is very short of books in science, social studies, and the arts, and overbalanced with books in certain other fields. The recommended book fund of approximately seventy-five cents per year for each pupil enrolled is not raised in this vicinity on account of the shortage of money. Objective 2: To encourage an interest in reading and books. A large proportion of the available books are printed in such small type and in such unattractive form that the average child will not read them. Others are so old that their contents are misleading or positively in- accurate. The fact that many of these volumes were contributed to the library makes it hard to dispose of them without creating friction between the school and the community. Objective 3: To stimulate exploratory reading for facts, and the effective use of library tools for research. Approximately one-half of the books in the training-school collection would contribute to this objective. Objective 4: To establish the habit of using the public library freely. This is an easy matter as long as the public library has funds to supply interesting, attractive material for children. Objective 5: To foster a fine feeling for books and a discriminating judgment in values. This has been accomplished to some extent among elementary-school pupils. It is usually the child with few if any books at home who cares nothing about them. Apparently the social and cultural backgrounds of the child and his parents are influential factors in attaining the fifth objective. Lack of trained librarians—Desirable standards for librarians or teacher-librarians are difficult to attain because of the lack of trained workers. The tendency is to use unskilled PWA or NYA workers in- stead of competent, experienced librarians because the former can be obtained for less money. In the local teachers college, NYA students are keeping the training-school library open from 8 A. M. to 3 P. M. daily under the supervision of the college librarian. This arrangement is satisfactory so far as the performance of mechanical and clerical duties is concerned, but it is impossible to accomplish the most im- the f of this ely. yply ting 1ong 0ks and tors 3 or ined ; in- n be ents . M. nent rical im- EVALUATING SOCIALIZING EXPERIENCES 461 —— portant educational purposes without a full-time, trained librarian in a school of this size. Some guidance in reading, as well as training in the use of books and libraries, was given to the training-school pupils during the past year by members of the college class in library practise. With the help of games illustrating the classification and arrangement of books on the shelves, the card catalog, dictionaries, encyclopedias, and special references, each grade was given seven twenty-minute lessons on the practical application of the principles worked out by the librarian and teacher together. At the completion of the course, the children were able to locate library materials and references more rapidly and effec- tively than some of the supervisors and practise teachers. Rural-school libraries in general—Apparently most rural-school libraries in North Dakota are no more adequate than the training- school library described above. From a questionnaire answered by ele- mentary teachers attending the summer session of the teachers college, the following facts were obtained: 1. Few if any schoolboards have paid the least attention to the minimum re- quirements of the state school-library law during the past five years as to the amount to be spent for elementary-school libraries. 2. The collections, while meeting the minimum requirements as to the number of volumes, are made up largely of obsolete texts and other books which must be classed as “dead timber” so far as the function or recentness of their contents is concerned. 3. Many schools have no book collections other than textbooks. Their attitude seems to be that “a book is a book, and that’s all there is to it!” 4. One county superintendent *® is building a good collection of attractive new books among the schools of his county, where no other library service is available. 5. State lists are not up-to-date, and they lack information as to the timeliness of materials listed. 6. Many school buildings have been abandoned. Some of these contained fairly good collections of books, but as the law requires the books to be kept in the local district, only mice and rats are benefiting by them. 7. Books housed in active schools have been there so long that they have lost their appeal to the pupils; yet they might interest children in other schools if exchanges between districts were possible. 8. Supplementary service from the State Library Commission is slow and in- adequate. Moreover, high transportation rates make the use of this service im- possible in communities where it is most needed. 9. Where attractive new books are available for use in the first four grades, all pupils showed marked improvement in reading interest and reading ability. Need for better criteria—In existing criteria for evaluating school libraries, the major emphasis seems to be placed on equipment, num- ber of books, and amount of money to be spent, rather than on service rendered the school child, the requirements of the curriculum, or the needs of the library in its relation to the school. Apparently little at- * Superintendent J. B. Voeller of Pierce County, Rugby, North Dakota. 462 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS tempt is being made to correlate the reading interests of children with the contents of the average rural-school library. It would seem that an evaluation of the elementary-school library should consider pri- marily the effectiveness of library service rather than its size and equipment—its quality rather than its quantity. Such evaluation should take into account the following: 1. The reading interests of children 2. The needs of the school with respect to curriculum requirements 3. The needs of the school library in its relation to the school and to the use to be made of it, including: a. The purpose for which the collection is intended b. The grades to be served c. The kind and type of materials needed, whether educational, inspira- tional, or recreational d. The authenticity and reliability of the collection e. Supplementary needs f. Timeliness or recentness of materials g. Interests of the pupil other than required reading 4. The place of the teacher-librarian in evaluating the library a. Thru reading-guidance programs b. Thru library supervision (1) As a check-up on the quality of pupil preparation and achievement (2) As a check-up on the quality of teaching and teacher preparation. No one is in a more strategic position for checking on the quality of either pupil or teacher preparation than the librarian. She knows which pupils are doing the reading, and what they are reading. She also knows which teachers are keeping themselves informed about the newer educational practises, and which ones are merely hobbling along on the textbook crutch. Thru observation from the back of the library circulation desk, a principal also may learn a great deal about the reading habits of the teachers and pupils in his school. Conclusion—It has been definitely shown that where plenty of in- teresting, attractive books are available in the school, the quality of teaching and of pupil achievement has noticeably improved thru ap- propriate guidance and practise in reading. Greater effectiveness of library service in all schools will be possible as soon as a sufficient number of “library-minded” superintendents, teachers, schoolboard members, and parents are available. The public as well as the educa- tional profession must realize that the life of the modern school is de- pendent on its library, and that the librarian’s function is to make available published materials which will meet children’s needs and | reflect the changing interests of modern life. Teachers must cooperate to the extent of keeping pace with our changing world, and of guiding the child to a realization of the unlimited possibilities open to him | thru the intelligent use of library resources. bi Ai i oT EVALUATING SOCIALIZING EXPERIENCES SELECTED REFERENCES 1. AttsteTTer, M. L. “Essentials of a Program of Extra-Curriculum Activities.” School Review 43: 371-73; May 1935. . Borceson, F. C. All-School Activities. New York: A. S. Barnes and Co., 1931. 143 p. . Borceson, F. C. Group-Interest Activities. New York: A. S. Barnes and Co., 1931. 135 p. . CaLtow, Russet S. “Educational Values of Non-Competitive Inter-Scholastic Activities.” Educational Programs for Today and Tomorrow. Schoolmen’s Week Proceedings. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 1935. p. 523-29. . Corcoran, J. P. “The Correlation between School Subject Achievement and Participation in Extra-Curricular Activities.” Catholic Education Re- view 35: 96-105; February 1937. . DeaM, THomMas M., and Bear, Ottve M. Socializing the Pupil through Ezxtra- Curricular Activities. Chicago: Benjamin H. Sanborn and Co., 1928. 324 p. . Eaton, Epwarp J. “Basic Conceptions for Extra-Curricular Activities.” Edu- cation 56: 65-69; October 1935. . Goon, I. C., and Crow, J. M. Home-Room Activities. New York: Professional and Technical Press, 1930. 325 p. 9. Heiter, Nina A. “A Study of the Junior-High School Assembly.” Junior- Senior High School Clearing House 10: 356-61; February 1936. . Jones, GALEN, Extra-Curricular Activities in Relation to the Curriculum. Contributions to Education, No. 667. New York: Teachers College, Co- lumbia University, 1935. 99 p. . JonDAN, Riverpa H. Extra-Classroom Activities in Elementary and Secondary Schools. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Co., 1928. 302 p. . Knupsen, Cuartes W. “You and Your Clubs.” Social Studies. (Edited by William McAndrew.) Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1935. Chapter 8, p. 213-36. . Kumpr, Cart H. “Are Clubs Desirable in the Elementary School?” Educa- tional Method 16: 142-47; December 1936. . LumMspEN, Fiorence M. “The School Assembly as an Integrating Force in the Curriculum.” Educational Method 14: 266-71; February 1935. . Meyer, Harotp D. The School Club Program. New York: A. S. Barnes and Co., 1931. 178 p. . Micuaget, Raymonp §. “The Possibilities of the School Paper.” Educational Method 15: 139-44; December 1935. . Nationa EpucaTIon AssocraTION, DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRIN- cipaLs. Socializing Experiences in the Elementary School. Fourteenth Yearbook. Washington, D. C.: the Department, 1935. 412 p. . Ruac, Earte U., and orners. Summary of Investigations Relating to Extra- Curricular Activities. Education Series, No. 9. Greeley, Colo.: Colorado State Teachers College, 1930. 304 p. . Worp, Wrn1Frep L. Creative Dramatics for the Upper Grades and Junior High School. New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1930. 304 p. . Wytanp, Ray O. Scouting in the Schools. Contributions to Education, No. 631. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1934. 200 p. CHAPTER VII MEASURING THE PROGRESS OF PUPILS EDITORIAL COMMENT school program. Most authorities agree that objective meas- ures of such progress are generally superior to estimates based on personal opinion alone. Altho many areas of pupil development have not yet been measured satisfactorily, considerable progress is being made. It is no longer necessary to rely entirely upon either un- controlled observation or poorly constructed objective tests in de- termining important educational outcomes. Resourceful principals and teachers will help to develop new and better measures. At the same time they will use the best means now available for estimating the growth of children. Validity is undoubtedly the most important characteristic of a good test. Unless a test really measures what it is supposed to measure, no meaningful conclusions can be drawn from its results. Tests used to appraise a school program should include only those abilities, know|- edges, and attitudes which are recognized as objectives of that program. Standardized tests should be scrutinized carefully to determine their validity in the local school situation. Whenever such validity is lack- ing, school officers and teachers will need to construct their own tests. This chapter should help administrators and teachers in selecting, using, and interpreting measures of pupil development. Lee reviews essential elements of an adequate testing program. Cook indicates some uses and limitations of tests, outlines a specific testing program, and lists criteria for the selection of tests. Lindquist discusses the major purpose and characteristics of standardized achievement tests, and shows why such tests cannot properly be used as guides to cur- riculum content in any single grade. Brownell proposes five criteria for appraising tests with reference to their effect on learning and teach- ing. Wrightstone suggests several approaches to the measurement of newer educational objectives. The last three articles deal with instruments for measuring aspects of child personality. Alschuler and Hattwick describe two behavior rating scales, one for nursery and kindergarten children, and the other for children in Grades I to VI. Ralph tells how progress in pupil ad- justment was measured in his school. Ginsburg describes the develop- ment and use of a checklist of good manners. The list of references on page 522 provides a basis for further read- ing on methods of measuring pupil progress.—Editorial Committee. [ 464 ] eee OF PUPIL PROGRESS is essential in evaluating a od no to cts ior 1er d- )p- id- MEASURING ProGREss OF PUPILS 465 ——————— —_——— ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF AN ADEQUATE TESTING PROGRAM J. Murray Lee Assistant Professor of Education, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin EASUREMENT is a tool for the improvement of instruction. Many of the educational crimes which have been committed in the past twenty years have been due to a wrong concept of the purpose of measurement. As a result, several years ago many of the so-called progressive schools raised a hue and cry against tests; they wished to eliminate such instruments from the educational program. Today it is interesting to find the most progressive schools among those which are doing the most to develop new instruments of measurement.' Now, more than ever before, teachers and principals are making effec- tive use of tests in improving the learning of children. Much criticism has been directed against standardized tests for not measuring the outcomes in which the modern elementary school is inter- ested. Certainly that criticism is well directed against many of the standardized tests available today, but not against all of them. Stand- ardized tests which measure merely a knowledge of facts in literature, history, or geography were constructed for an elementary school whose central purpose was the mastery of a given body of subjectmatter. There is no more reason for using such tests today than there is for using books which were written for that type of school. The modern elementary school is interested in knowing to what extent the child has mastered the basic tools of learning, such as read- ing, arithmetic processes, and the use of language. It also wishes to know how well children understand and can use important facts and concepts in elementary science and the social studies. Tests which measure such abilities are of great value to the elementary teacher. Several batteries of tests have been constructed for measuring one or both of these areas of learning,? and a number of publishers handle separate tests which are of value. Thus, as instructional methods have changed, a corresponding change has occurred in the types of tests being developed. The best tests today measure much more than the mere ability to recall specific items of subjectmatter. 1See: Tyler, Ralph W. “Defining and Measuring Objectives of Progressive Education.” Educa- tional Record Supplement No. 9 (January 1936). p. 78-85. *Such as the Modern School Achievement Tests, published by the Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York; the Unit Scales of Attainment, published by the Educa- tional Test Bureau, Minneapolis; and the Progressive Achievement Tests, published by the Southern California School Book Depository, Los Angeles. The last named test is limited to abilities in read- ing, arithmetic, and language. ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS PLANNING THE TESTING PROGRAM The first step in planning a testing program is to decide the uses which are to be made of tests. The principal should consider especially the uses which the teachers will make of the tests. A testing program is worse than useless if the teachers do not use the results. After desir- able uses have been determined, the tests which will satisfy these needs can be selected. The second important consideration is to be certain that the testing procedure followed insures the use of results for the improvement of instruction. Too often a testing program does more damage than good. The writer has had the opportunity to observe the effects of two types of testing programs. In one case tests of facts and skills were given at the end of the year by a state department of education. In the other case tests of skills were given at the beginning of the year and were selected by the local school authorities. The first procedure resulted in cramming by the pupils and in much cheating on the part of teachers. In the system that gave tests at the beginning of the year, the teachers were vitally interested in analyzing the needs of each pupil. There was no feeling that the teacher was being judged; the attention of everyone was focused upon the needs of the child. The third essential is to be sure that the teachers understand the implications of the test results and do the necessary follow-up work. Many of the school research departments in large cities are doing an excellent job in this regard.* Most of the responsibility, however, must be carried by the principal of the individual school. There are a num- ber of devices for facilitating follow-up work, such as forms for report- ing the results of such work to the principal, the listing of pupils who are very poor in achievement, individual conferences with teachers, reports on remedial procedures used, and retesting to determine growth. Some devices are effective with some teachers, and some with others. The principal should vary his procedure somewhat from year to year. As just indicated, the effectiveness of any testing program rests largely with the school principal. He must make sure (1) that the uses of tests are carefully planned; (2) that the tests selected will furnish information which the teacher can use to improve the learning of chil- dren; (3) that the tests are given at the proper time; and (4) that an adequate program of follow-up work is carried on. Types or Tests AND THEIR USES IN THE CLASSROOM While tests are not general cure-alls, they can be put to several profitable uses in the classroom. The following paragraphs review some 8 For a description of such work, see: Lee, J. Murray. A Guide to Measurement in Secondary Schools. New York: D. Appleton-Century Co., 1936. Chapter XII. uses ially ram esir- eeds sting it. of rood, ypes n at ther were -d in hers. ‘hers was yone | the york. g an must 1umM- v0rt- who hers, wth. hers. year, rests uses nish chil- it an veral some ondary bs MEASURING ProGrREss OF PUPILS 467 of the ways in which teachers can make use of test results. These uses are classified under three main types of tests, as follows: (1) tests of capacity or intelligence, (2) standardized tests of educational achieve- ment, and (3) teacher-made tests of achievement. Tests of capacity or intelligence—Boys and girls are complex human beings. The more we know about them as individuals the better we are able to plan an educational program suited to their individual needs. Tests of capacity or intelligence furnish one very important measure of these needs. We now recognize that these tests do not tell the whole story of a child’s potentialities, but if his problems are to be understood such a measure cannot be omitted. The past few years has seen a great improvement in such tests. There are now available reading-readiness tests to predict success in first- grade reading, special aptitude tests to predict success in art, music, algebra, geometry, and a number of other fields. Recently there has appeared a new test, the California Test of Mental Maturity,* which furnishes in addition to the usual I.Q., a separate I.Q. based on lan- guage abilities and another on non-language abilities. There are also pretests which distinguish the child whose eyesight, hearing, or muscular coordination is so poor as to affect the results of ordinary tests. These newer types of tests enable us to know much more about a child’s capacities than did the traditional intelligence test. A teacher can use such measures to: 1. Provide a diagnostic evaluation of the mental abilities of each child 2. Interpret learning difficulties in the light of pupil abilities 3. Identify outstanding pupils of either high or low ability who need special educational procedures 4. Analyze individual problem cases, such as failing pupils, disciplinary prob- lems, and personality difficulties 5. Understand the general mental level of the class as a guide in the selection of instructional materials and experiences. Standardized tests of educational achievement—Requirements of modern unit-of-work programs demand that teacher-made tests and standardized tests supplement each other. Neither type is complete in and of itself. Moreover, their differences in purpose should be clearly understood by teachers. The standardized achievement test can furnish a much more comprehensive measure of abilities and skills than can teacher-constructed tests. On the other hand, to measure the specific understandings which were the aim of a given unit of study, and the definite informational materials which were taught in that unit, is clearly the function of teacher-made tests. It is to this aspect of meas- urement that the teacher should devote her time and effort in test construction. —_—_— * Published by the Southern California School Book Depository, Los Angeles. 468 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Most standardized tests which the teacher is likely to use yield a diagnostic profile which provides an analysis of the abilities of each individual pupil. They also have comparable norms for the various abilities. All this information makes it possible for the teacher to utilize the results in the improvement of her instructional program. She can use standardized achievement tests to: 1. Discover the difficulties and shortages of each child in the skills which are essential for success in pupil activities 2. Obtain a measure of each child’s skills in such fields as reading vocabulary, reading comprehension, arithmetic, and language 3. Provide a basis for planning an individual remedial program to meet the needs of the pupil 4. Provide a basis for grouping pupils according to their needs for remedial instruction. This refers to the formation of groups in reading or other specific fields, and not to the practise of grouping classes homogeneously for the entire instructional program. 5. Show the pupils in which skills they are in need of special work 6. Discover which pupils are not doing work which compares favorably with that done by pupils of the same ability in other schools. The use of a mental maturity test together with the achievement test will furnish the basis for this information. 7. Evaluate strengths and weaknesses of instruction in the various skills 8. Provide a basis for studying the adjustment problems of the child. Many of the behavior problems of pupils are due to educational maladjustments. Teacher-made tests of achievement—One difficulty in the unit-of- work program in many schools is that the teachers have hoped for certain outcomes but have not known what outcomes were attained. Too often there has been no effort to check on the actual results. The need for checking does not mean that the teacher should make the pupils feel that their passing or failing depends on the results of tests. It does mean, however, that the teacher should use tests to determine whether the class and its individual members do or do not have certain understandings. All fear of the testing situation can be eliminated if the pupil is not made to feel that his whole future depends upon his success on a particular test. Situations which show whether understandings have been attained should be the basis of most test questions. A mastery of facts does not mean that the pupil will understand the implication of those facts. We have made the mistake in the past of measuring only knowledge of the facts rather than the children’s understanding of them. An excellent illustration of this point is the usual test on graphs. Such a test covers the facts of the graph, but not the implications of the data represented. The test item must be placed in a functional setting to be effective. The change from the traditional test to the functional test is largely a matter of emphasis and of imagination in providing test situations. ra ae ia ci aes en aaa da ach ious lize can are lary, the dial cific ntire with ental this iy of -of- for ned. The the ests. nine tain d if | his ined ; not We F the llent vers ited. The atter fit i Di Oe TNL MEASURING ProGRESS OF PUPILS 469 —_—— Teachers should construct many of their own tests and use the re- sults: 1. In determining to what extent the understandings of a given unit of work have been attained 2. In determining what changes in attitudes, beliefs, and appreciations have taken place 3. To show pupils where they need to place more emphasis in their work 4. To evaluate strengths and weaknesses of instruction 5. To guide in the future selection of work units and types of activities 6. To discover weaknesses in skills for which standardized tests are not available. The construction of test situations which are functional will challenge the cleverest teacher. A study of some of the newer published tests should be helpful. Also, there has been gradually built up a considerable body of material on various types of test questions,® and these sug- gestions and illustrations should be valuable to teachers on all levels. A FrnaLt Worp : No elementary school today can have an efficient instructional pro- gram without knowing what it is accomplishing. Tests are a means of finding out what is happening to pupils in order that further progress may be made. The emphasis on the individual requires not only a gen- eral knowledge of what is happening to the group, but also specific knowledge for each individual. As devices for obtaining such informa- tion, tests of capacity or intelligence, standardized tests of skills and abilities, and teacher-made tests of understandings and knowledges are of primary importance in the evaluation program of the school. 5 Lee, J. Murray, op. cit., Chapters X and XI. HE ELIMINATION of examinations is not the panacea for Tenten educational ailments. With present educational sys- tems, examinations are both necessary and desirable. It is not the examination that is objectionable so much as is the way in which it is sometimes misused. Properly understood as edu- cative and not as punitive or inquisitorial instruments, exami- nations have a legitimate function in the school.—Rivlin, Harry N., Educating for Adjustment, D. Appleton-Century Co., 1936, p. 361. (Quoted by permission of the publishers.) ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 470 THE USE OF TESTS IN A SUPERVISORY PROGRAM Water W. Cook Professor of Education and Director of Teacher Training, Eastern Illinois State Teachers College, Charleston, Illinois possible to appraise specific tests used in specific situations for specific purposes. Much effort has been dissipated in praising or condemning essay-type tests, objective tests, standardized tests, regional testing programs, and other gross features of the educational measurement movement without consideration for the essential ele- ments of a valid appraisal. These elements include the purpose which the test is designed to serve, the educational status of the pupil being tested, the use made of the test results, and the extent to which the test accomplishes its purpose.’ In this article an attempt is made to set forth some of the uses and limitations of tests in school supervision, and to describe briefly the testing program of the Laboratory Schools of Eastern Illinois State Teachers College. T is impossible to appraise testing as a supervisory device. It is only INFLUENCES OF TESTING IN THE SCHOOL Tests are both powerful and dangerous instruments. It is important that supervisors and teachers recognize this fact. Every testing program has far-reaching effects on the curriculum, on the objectives and methods of instruction, and on the study habits of the pupils. These effects may be either beneficial or detrimental, depending upon the specific nature of the tests and the uses made of the results. Effects on curriculum emphasis—An effective supervisory testing program must be continuous and systematic, and the findings should be cumulatively and graphically portrayed. When these conditions are met, the skills, abilities, attitudes, knowledges, understandings, or other | characteristics measured by the tests become the objectives of the F school. These objectives tend to determine the curriculum emphasis, the teaching procedures, and the methods of study. Thus, a testing 7 program may, to a large degree, determine the curriculum of the school. 7 It may promote desirable changes, prevent desirable changes, or warp | the teaching emphasis in such a way as to nullify the advantages of a | really superior curriculum. Since systematic testing tends to focus in- : structional effort upon the characteristics measured by the tests, it is | highly important that these include all the desired outcomes of in- 7 struction. The importance of testing all the objectives of a school subject may | 1 An excellent background for the appraisal of tests for various purposes may be secured by | reading: Hawkes, H. E., and others. The Construction and Use of Achievement Examinations. i Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1936. Chapters I, II, and III. E | State 3 only is for ng or tests, tional | ele- which being e test 0 set ision, ‘hools rtant gram and These n the sting hould 1S are other f the hasis, sting shool. walp 3 of a is in- it is yf in- , may ired by nations. MEASURING PROGRESS OF PUPILS 471 be illustrated by considering the reading program. It is not uncommon for achievement tests in reading to measure only vocabulary knowledge and paragraph comprehension. Emphasis upon these limited objectives over a period of time encourages the neglect of such important goals in reading as the ability to use basic reference material, to use an index, a table of contents, and a dictionary, to use library card files, to com- prehend maps, to read graphs and tables, to organize what is read, to summarize materials, to place topics in their proper order, to outline what is read, to pronounce words correctly, to make the voice pleasing in oral reading, to assume proper posture in oral reading, to care for books, to select interesting reading material, and many other objectives which are included in a modern course of study in reading. Many of these abilities are now being measured by the more comprehensive and carefully constructed achievement tests, such as the Jowa Every-Pupil Tests of Basic Skills.2 There is reason to believe that these tests are exerting a wholesome influence upon the curriculums of the schools in which they are used. Effects on methods of teaching and learning—Perhaps even more important than the influence of the testing program upon the curric- ulum, is its influence upon teaching procedures and study habits. In a great many American schools, teaching still consists of making assign- ments in textbooks and of hearing recitations which require the pupils to reproduce from memory the materials of the text. In such schools study consists largely of memorizing textbook content. Mechanical, rote-memory procedure dominates the classroom, and the development of the higher mental processes is neglected. Most teacher-made tests of both the essay and objective types reflect this conception of teaching; they consist largely of the name, identify, define, describe, who, what, when, and where types of questions. Altho it must be admitted that many of the earlier standardized tests and the examinations furnished by certain state examining boards have tended to encourage and per- petuate this type of teaching and learning, our most competent test builders are striving with a large degree of success to construct tests which will discourage this memoriter type of teaching. The best of the newer tests avoid the use of stereotyped textbook language, require the application of laws and principles in new situations, emphasize under- standing and the relationships of ideas rather than mere verbal learn- ing, and stress the functional value of what has been learned, rather than the subjectmatter itself. Such tests are freed from the specific con- tent of textbooks or courses of study, and measure rather the intel- lectual development which should be achieved thru that content. ? Published by the Bureau of Educational Research and Service, State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa. 472 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Tests of this kind are difficult to build; few classroom teachers have the necessary time, technical knowledge of test construction, or insight into educational objectives to do it. The fact that such tests, when built, can be successfully used in schools thruout the nation is reason for optimism. In many colleges and schools of education we now find the curriculum experts in various fields cooperating with the test experts in building such tests, and in furnishing yearly testing pro- grams to the public schools which they serve. This service probably has had more influence in modernizing the curriculums in the areas served, and in clarifying educational objectives for the teachers, than has any other agency. It is an extremely important and difficult service to render.’ Uses Mape or Tests IN A LABORATORY SCHOOL Space will not permit a critical evaluation of all the uses made of tests in the Laboratory Schools of Eastern Illinois State Teachers Col- lege. Instead, a classification of such uses is presented. Tests are used in the supervisory program of these schools in the following ways: 1. To redirect curriculum emphasis, thru a. Measurement of the extent to which educational objectives are being realized b. Measurement of as many desirable educational outcomes as possible ce. Clarification of educational objectives d. Diagnosis of weaknesses in the instructional program . Discovery of inadequacies in the curriculum content. 2. To provide a basis for educational guidance of pupils, by . Predicting pupil performance . Classifying pupils . Diagnosing learning difficulties . Setting up standards of pupil performance . Discovering special aptitudes . Discovering pupils in need of guidance and individual attention . Measuring pupil achievement. 3. To encourage pupils to put forth their best efforts, by . Enabling pupils to think of their achievements in objective terms . Giving pupils credit for the progress they make, rather than for the level of achievement they attain c. Enabling bright pupils to compete with superior pupils in other schools over a wide area . Promoting competition between groups . Enabling pupils to compete with their own past records . Measuring achievement objectively in terms of accepted educational standards, rather than by the subjective appraisal of teachers. 4. To direct and motivate supervisory effort, by a. Discovering teachers in need of supervisory aid oo. De ome @ mo b. Giving the supervisor a measure of the effectiveness of his school organi- ~ zation, and of his supervisory and administrative policies. 3 For a statement of newer educational objectives, together with suggestions for measuring theif fe attainment, see the article by Wrightstone in this chapter.—Editorial Committee. ee have sight when ason find test pro- ably areas than rvice » level cchools organi- ng their MEASURING Procress oF PUupPiLs 473 5. To provide a basis for the marking and promotion of pupils a. The report card used in the laboratory schools devotes four times as much space to personality and physical traits as to educational achievement. The marks in educational achievement are based on progress made during the marking period, and not on the level of achievement attained. . Promotions are made on the basis of physical and social development. Adjustments are made in the primary grades. Above the primary grades regular promotion is universal. The average range of ability within each grade is approximately five years. This is no greater than in other schools where retardation is a common practise. 6. To build and maintain desirable skills, abilities, and understandings. Test periods are considered as very effective learning periods as well as testing periods. Tue TESTING PRoGRAM OF THE LABORATORY SCHOOLS Intelligence tests—Intelligence tests are not an integral part of the testing program in the laboratory schools, because no purpose has been found for them that is not better served by tests of achievement or of specific aptitudes. For purposes of classification, guidance, and teach- ing, special capacities are assumed to exist, such as facility with lan- guage, capacity to do abstract thinking in mathematics, capacity for computation in mathematics, capacity for developing motor skills, capacity for musical development, capacity for making social adjust- ments, capacity for relational thinking in the sciences, and capacity to memorize. Altho all these special capacities are positively correlated, the correlations are not sufficiently high to enable one to use a single measure of intelligence as a basis for classification and guidance in all fields of work. In an intelligence test certain special capacities are measured indirectly thru a series of achievement tests, the resulting scores are combined in a purely arbitrary manner, and the result is assumed to be a measure of general intelligence. In the writer’s judg- ment, a more valuable procedure for educational purposes would be to establish independent norms for each of the special capacities. In the laboratory schools the pupils are grouped into grades on the basis of their physical and social ages. They are classified within each grade on the basis of their achievement in each subject field. In read- ing and in the content subjects the classification is based on reading comprehension. In arithmetic the classification is based on achievement in arithmetic. Shifts are made from group to group whenever the need arises. Reading tests—The laboratory schools do not include a kindergarten. A pupil enters the first grade when his sixth birthday falls within six months of the opening of school. Within the first few weeks of school the Betts Ready to Read Tests * and the Metropolitan Readiness Tests ° ‘Betts, Emmett A. Betts Ready to Read Tests. (Individual Tests) Meadville, Pa.: Keystone View Co. 5 Hildreth, Gertrude, and Griffiths, Nellie L. Metropolitan Readiness Tests. (Group Tests) Yonkers-on-Hudson, N. Y.: World Book Co. 474 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS are administered. If the tests and observation reveal that a child is not sufficiently mature physically and mentally to do first-grade work, the parents are asked to keep the child out of school for another year. Approximately 6 percent of the six-year-olds are rejected. In a few cases visual defects and auditory defects that were not discovered in the general physical examination are revealed by the Betts tests. The development of reading readiness, with the exception of physical and mental maturity, is assumed as a responsibility by the first-grade teacher. At the end of the first semester of the first grade, at the close of the first grade, and at the close of the first semester of the second grade, the Gates Primary Reading Tests* are administered. At the close of the second year the reading section of the New Stanford Achievement Test? is administered, and at the beginning of the third grade the Thorndike-McCall Reading Scale* is used. In Grades II thru VIII the complete battery of the Stanford test is administered every May, and the Thorndike-McCall test is used every twelve weeks. In Grades III thru VII the Standard Test Lessons in Reading ® are administered from two to three times each week. The Iowa Every-Pupil Tests of Basic Skills *° are administered to the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades each January. With the exception of the Standard Test Lessons in Reading, the results of every test from the first grade thru the eighth are recorded on both an individual pupil graph and a grade graph which portray reading progress thruout the elementary school. The teachers and pupils look forward to each test and are eager to know the results. The eighth-grade class of the laboratory schools contained thirty- eight pupils in 1936. The average chronological age of these pupils in May was thirteen years and eleven months. Their average reading age was sixteen years and five months (New Stanford Achievement Test), and the percentile rank of the class in the reading section of the Jowa Every-Pupil Tests of Basic Skills was 99. Arithmetic tests—The essential feature of the testing program in arithmetic is the “Self-Testing Drills” of the Study Arithmetics,” 6 Gates, Arthur I. Gates Primary Reading Tests. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University. ? Kelley, T. L.; Ruch, G. M.; and Terman, L. M. New Stanford Achievement Test. Yonkers-on- Hudson, N. Y.: World Book Co. 8 Thorndike, E. L., and McCall, W. A. Thorndike-McCall Reading Scale. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University. ® McCall, W. A., and Crabbs, L. M. Standard Test Lessons in Reading. New York: Bureau of F: Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University. Books II, III, IV, and V. 10 Lindquist, E. F., and others. Iowa Every-Pupil Tests of Basic Skills. lowa City, Lowa: Bureau of Educational Research and Service, State University of Iowa. 1 Knight, F. B.; Studebaker, J. W.; and Ruch, G. M. Study Arithmetics. Chicago: Scott, Fores- man and Co., 1934-36. i “4 ork, ear, few d in The and rade the ade, e of nent the VIII lay, ades ered Ss of ades - the rded tray and irty- ls in r age est), [owa m in ics," >achers rs-on- MEASURING PROGRESS OF PUPILS 475 which are administered once each week. These tests are designed both to maintain skills and to furnish a constant diagnostic record of achievement. Every skill built up in arithmetic is reviewed systemat- ically by means of mixed drills. A record of errors is kept for diagnostic purposes. All the drills are standardized, and the pupils are thus enabled to compete with children in other schools as well as with their own past records. There is also competition among grades for the highest rank each week. Individual and class graphs are made to show progress. In May 1936, the eighth-grade class of thirty-eight pupils, with an average chronological age of thirteen years and eleven months, had an average arithmetic age of seventeen years as measured by the New Stanford Achievement Test. The percentile rank of the class in the arithmetic division of the Iowa Every-Pupil Tests of Basic Skills was 94. Spelling tests—In the primary grades the study-test method is used in spelling. In Grades IV thru VIII the test-study method is used. The latter method is essentially the Monday-Wednesday-Friday test pro- cedure recommended by Horn and Ashbaugh,’? with some variation in study procedure. The method of checking achievement may be illustrated by using the fifth grade as an example. There are approximately 600 words in the fifth-grade spelling list. Two hundred of these words are selected for testing purposes. One hundred words are pronounced to the pupils some time during the first two weeks of school. The scores on this test represent the percent of words in the fifth-grade list that each pupil can spell without study. The average score for the class represents the percent that the class can spell. All pupils scoring 90 or higher are excused from spelling for the year. The other 100-word test is ad- ministered about two weeks before school closes. If the words are properly selected and graded and the class is of average ability, the average class score on the first test will be approximately 50. If the teaching is effective, the average score on the final test will be above 90. A graph is made each year and passed on to the new teacher receiving the class. The names of the pupils are arranged in a list, from the pupil with the lowest spelling ability to the pupil with the highest spell- ing ability. Two bars are drawn opposite each pupil’s name showing his percent of correct spelling at the beginning and at the close of the term. The percent gained is written opposite each pupil’s name, and the average percent gained by the class is shown at the bottom of the sheet. There is no question about the validity of these tests, and they effectively motivate both pupils and teachers. 2 Horn, Ernest, and Ashbaugh, E. J. Progress in Spelling; Grades I to VIII. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1935. 200 p. 476 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Handwriting tests—The writing of all pupils above the second grade is rated for speed and quality twice each year by means of the Ameri- can Scale of Handwriting..* The results of each rating are recorded graphically and are posted where the pupils may examine them. In making the graph, a sheet of white paper 12” x 18” is used. A suitable heading is placed at the top. The pupils’ names are typed in a column down the center of the paper, one-half inch apart. On the right side of the names a scale for speed is constructed, indicating the number of letters per minute with the norm for the grade shown in red. On the left side of the names a scale for quality is constructed, with the norm for the grade represented by a red line. As each pupil is rated, a colored line is drawn on each side of his name to show the speed and quality he has attained. There is room on each chart for at least six lines. Thus, a chart may be used for three years by indicating a new norm for each year. The Freeman Chart for Diagnosing Faults in Handwriting * is used for diagnostic purposes. This chart is posted on the bulletin-board of each room, and the pupils are taught to diagnose their own deficiencies in handwriting. It is surprising how conscious each pupil becomes of his specific deficiencies and how effectively he works to overcome them. Content-subject tests—The testing program of the laboratory schools is weak in geography, history, hygiene, and literature. The New Stan- ford Achievement Test is given once a year, but altho the pupils’ scores on these tests are well above the norms, their validity is not accepted. The validity of the Jowa Every-Pupil Tests of Basic Skills is accepted, and the development of the ability to comprehend maps, to read charts and graphs, to use an index, to use basic references, and to use a diction- ary, is striven for in teaching the content subjects. CRITERIA FOR SELECTING ADEQUATE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS In planning a testing program, it must be recognized that many of the most important educational objectives cannot now be measured by paper-and-pencil tests. The ability of a pupil to stand with both | knees straight and express himself at some length in correct and force- ful English is such an objective. Honesty, respect for the rights of others, the ability to take responsibility, and other character traits belong in this category. Their development requires long and persistent effort by teachers. Any program for evaluating instruction or achieve- ment must recognize such objectives. Many of them, perhaps, can be 13 West, Paul V. American Scale of Handwriting. Boston: A. N. Palmer Co. 14 Freeman, Frank N. Chart for Diagnosing Faults in Handwriting. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. ee ‘rade neri- ded 1. In table umn de of er of 1 the norm lored ality Thus, 1 for used rd of ncies es of hem. hools Stan- cores pted. pted, harts tion- ae ry of sured both orce- ts of Traits stent ieve- in be Hin Co. MEASURING ProGRESS OF PUPILS 477 measured only thru the recitation, the oral examination, attitude scales, or controlled observation.*® The failure of school administrators to recognize such objectives and to give teachers due credit for their achievement, combined with an ill- advised emphasis on the results of poorly selected and inadequate standardized tests, has caused such a reaction against tests in some cities that their proper use is almost impossible. Moreover, the effective use of a testing program in a school system with inadequately prepared and politically entrenched teachers is difficult for even the most capable and tactful of supervisors. Testing programs are like dynamite: they are effective but must be used with caution and by individuals who know how. The following criteria for the selection of tests are presented in the hope that they will aid in making the testing program not only more effective, but also more acceptable to the teaching staff. 1. The tests selected should measure valid educational objectives which the teaching staff is attempting to achieve or should attempt to achieve. Most of the standardized achievement test batteries contain tests which are not valid in a par- ticular situation. For example, the spelling test frequently contains a high percent of words which are not and should not be in the elementary spelling lists. The history, geography, hygiene, and literature tests are frequently of the purely factual type, with no items designed to measure the functional value of the information; and the factual material included in the tests is frequently foreign to the curric- ulum of the school. 2. As many as possible of the skills, abilities, habits, attitudes, knowledges, and understandings which are accepted by the school as valid objectives should be measured. These outcomes should be measured by test items which require their functional application in new situations. 3. The tests should be well organized and sufficiently detailed to make diagnosis specific and adequate as a basis for remedial instruction. 4. Unless speed is an important factor, liberal time limits should be prescribed for administering the tests in order to permit every pupil to work to the limit of his ability. Whenever possible, the optimum administration time for the tests should have been experimentally determined by their authors.” 5. The test items should have been revised in the light of comments from teachers and supervisors, and except in the case of purely diagnostic tests, all items should have been evaluated with respect to their power to discriminate between different levels of achievement.” 6. The test norms should be up-to-date and based on the performances of pupils in similar schools and in similar environments. One set of norms for all types and sizes of schools is of little value. 7. A new form of the test battery should be provided yearly. The norms of as many of the tests as possible should be directly comparable for a given year and from year to year. 8. Individual and school profile charts should be available on a good grade of bond paper. 4% For a description of a measurement program using observational methods, see the article by Pistor in Chapter V.—Editorial Committee. 16 Cook, Walter W. The Measurement of General Spelling Ability Involving Controlled Compari- sons Between Techniques. University of Iowa Studies in Education, Vol. VI, No. 6. Iowa City, Iowa: the University, 1932. p. 60-78. " Lindquist, E. F., and Cook, Walter W. ‘‘Experimental Procedures in Test Evaluation.”’ Journal of Experimental Education 1: 163-85; March 1933. 478 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS CoNCLUSION When tests are properly selected and administered, and when the results are graphically portrayed for the use of the teaching staff, they render the same service to a supervisor that the various instruments on the instrument panel of an airplane render to the pilot. Supervision without adequate instruments of measurement is no more effective, and equally as dangerous, as is blind flying without instruments for determining altitude, speed, direction, and so forth. The directing of an instructional program, however, is infinitely more complicated than piloting an airplane, and the instruments for showing the rate, depth, and type of learning are more numerous and complex. Hence it is desirable that both supervisors and teachers be well informed concern- ing the characteristics, uses, and limitations of educational achieve- ment tests. The leaders of the testing movement have reason to be proud of their accomplishments during the past ten years. When their work is criticized, they are entitled to receive detailed criticism of individual items in specific tests. Their thinking will not be helped by the con- tinued repetition of general criticisms of the testing movement. When the desired outcomes of education are more clearly defined, better tests will undoubtedly be constructed to measure them, and when better tests are built, better teaching will follow. For the present, it is im- portant to realize that while many important outcomes of education cannot be measured by means of available tests, sufficient progress has been made to warrant the continued use of the best tests as a part of every supervisory program. BJECTIVE TESTS are not worthless as measuring instruments, but they are not as satisfactory as many people believe them to be. If we do not soon attain a more intelligent attitude toward them, it is inevitable that eventually there will develop an uncritical and extreme distrust of them. Meanwhile, serious mistakes will be made because persons using objective tests do not understand them.—Monroe, Walter 8., in School and Society, January 12, 1935, p. 52. 1 the they nents rision tive, s for of an than epth, it. is cern- leve- id of rk is idual con- WV hen tests etter 3 im- ation TESS , part MEASURING PROGRESS OF PUPILS 479 STANDARDIZED ACHIEVEMENT TESTS AND THEIR RELATION TO CURRICULUM CONTENT E. F. Linpquist Associate Professor of Education, State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa of elementary-school achievement—of the type currently repre- sented by the Progressive Achievement Tests,’ the New Stanford Achievement Test,? the Unit Scales of Attainment,? the Metropolitan Achievement Tests,* and the Iowa Every-Pupil Tests of Basic Skills >— have during the last ten or more years been either systematically or occasionally employed in nearly every progressive school system in the country. In spite of this fact, test users in general have not yet learned to recognize and appreciate fully the true nature and function of such test materials, and many serious misconceptions concerning them are still widely prevalent. As a result of these misconceptions, numerous efforts have been made and are being made to put such tests to uses for which they are neither intended nor adapted. Among the most serious misconceptions about test usage are those concerned with the relationship between the content of a standardized test and the content of the curriculum. As a result of their experience with the traditional examination, many teachers feel that a pupil’s per- formance on a test should not be considered satisfactory unless he is able to respond correctly to 70 or 75 percent of the test items. Again, teachers often look upon each individual item in a standardized test as measuring something which all or at least a large majority of their pupils should know or be able to do. Consequently, teachers have tended to consider a standardized test as an abbreviated course of study or as a convenient guide to the distribution of teaching emphasis, and have tended to point their instruction toward the specific content of the tests which they know will later be administered to their pupils. The purposes of this discussion are (1) to explain what is the major function of standardized tests of the type previously mentioned, (2) to show what must be the characteristics of these tests if they are to perform this function most effectively, and (3) to show why, in light of these characteristics, a test may not be employed as a guide to proper curriculum content at any single grade level. For the sake of simplicity, (| oi cementar STANDARDIZED TEST BATTERIES for the measurement 1 Published by the Southern California School Book Depository, Hollywood, California. 2 Published by the World Book Co., Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York. 3 Published by the Educational Test Bureau, Minneapolis, Minnesota. ‘Published by the World Book Co., Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York. 5 Published by the Bureau of Educational Research and Service, State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa. 480 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS we shall be concerned here only with a comprehensive achievement test intended for use in Grades VI, VII, and VIII, and designed to yield measures of the basic skills or abilities in reading, language, arithmetic, and study technics. The conclusions drawn will, however, apply equally well to tests designed to include other areas of instruction or for use with any other combination of grades. Nature of the skills and abilities measwred—To understand clearly what these tests are intended to do, it is essential to consider certain truths concerning the skills and abilities which they purport to measure. We may note, first, that while a test may be designed only for use in the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades, each of the basic skills which it measures is developed gradually and continuously thruout most of the elementary-school period, and that the development of these skills proceeds both in and out of school. This development, furthermore, is the common responsibility of teachers in all grades and in al! depart- ments of instruction. Language habits are being formed in the arith- metic as well as in the language classroom, and arithmetic is not the only subject in which the pupil practises quantitative thinking. What a single teacher may accomplish in a single classroom in one semester or year may influence the pupil’s status relatively little in comparison with the cumulative influence of instruction in other subjects and in previous years, or of incidental learning. It should be noted, secondly, that each basic skill is capable of de- velopment to a very high level. Each can be developed beyond the level tested by even the most difficult item in any test of this character, and certainly all skills can be and are developed in some pupils to a level far beyond that reached by the typical eighth-grader. The develop- ment of silent reading, for example, begins in the first grade or earlier and is continued beyond the high-school level. Individual differences among pupils—It is very difficult to say, for any one grade, exactly what stage of development should have been reached by the typical or average pupil in that grade. On the other hand, it is well known that pupils in the same grade, even within the same school, show very large individual differences in the levels of achievement which they have reached. Some pupils, while still in the sixth grade, are able to read better, or can use better English, or can spell better, than the typical high-school freshman or sophomore. Other pupils, even tho in the eighth grade, are below the level of the average fifth-grader in many skills. Standardized test results have shown re- peatedly that the range in achievement among the pupils in a single grade may often be eight to twelve times as great as the difference in average achievement from one grade level to the next; that is, the for een ther the s of the can ther rage 1 re- ingle ve in the MEASURING ProGRESS OF PUPILS 481 difference between the highest and lowest scores made on a test in the seventh grade may be over ten times as great as the difference between the sixth- and seventh- or the seventh- and eighth-grade norms for that test. These facts concerning individual differences are generally recog- nized in theory, and should be given careful consideration in teaching practise. If John Smith, a sixth-grader, can now read as well as, or better than, the average ninth-grader, his teacher should know that fact and should consider it in adapting her instruction, and particularly her individualized assignments, to his ability. If Charles Stone, in the seventh grade, is not capable of interpreting the simplest statistical graph, or can use the dictionary no better than the average fourth- grader, his teacher should know about these deficiencies and provide instruction to correct them. If Frank Jones, in the eighth grade, shows an unusual aptitude for arithmetic and is capable of a level of work far beyond that which may reasonably be expected of the typical eighth-grade pupil, that fact also should be known and considered in instruction, as should similar facts for pupils who are seriously re- tarded in their development of the same skill. Instruction cannot be effectively individualized, or adequate educational guidance be pro- vided, until such information about each pupil is available in depend- able form. Major purpose of a general achievement test—In the light of what has just been said, the major purpose of a comprehensive standardized test is to describe reliably and in comparable terms how far each pupil has progressed (not how far he should have progressed) in his develop- ment of each of the skills tested. In other words, its purpose is to enable the teacher to construct an educational “profile” for the pupil that will indicate his true relative status in each of the areas measured. If it serves this purpose, the test will also show how far groups or classes of pupils have progressed, but it will not indicate how far any class or grade should have progressed or what specific skills the pupils should have mastered at the end of any given grade. Essential characteristics of a general achievement test—Before con- sidering the reasons for the qualifications stated in the preceding para- graph, let us see what must be the nature of a test capable of serving the purpose just stated. For example, if a reading test is to be capable of showing that John Smith, a sixth-grader, can now read better than the average ninth-erader, it must contain some items that the typical sixth-grader, or even the typical eighth-grader, cannot fairly be ex- pected to handle. If an arithmetic test intended for Grades VI to VIII is to demonstrate that Frank Brown, in the eighth grade, is capable of solving verbal problems that are far beyond the ability of most of 482 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS his classmates, it must contain some (altho perhaps very few) verbal problems that only a small percent of eighth-graders, and perhaps no sixth-graders, will be able to solve. In other words, a test intended for any given grade level must contain a certain proportion of items that call for a level of ability which only a very small number of superior pupils in that grade can reasonably be expected to attain. Tests that are intended to reveal dependable profiles of individual achievement must therefore contain items extending over a very wide range of difficulty, since the range of ability among the pupils to be measured is itself so very wide. This would be almost equally true of a test intended for the sixth grade alone and of one intended for Grades VI to VIII, since the range of ability in the sixth grade alone has been shown to be almost as great as that in Grades VI to VIII combined. To serve its purpose most effectively, a test of this type must actually utilize as much as possible of the whole range of possible scores. That is to say, the scores made on the test should range from near zero to near the highest possible score. If the test intended for Grades VI to VIII contains too many items that can be answered by the slow sixth- grader, it will not be possible, without making the test too long, to include enough items that will discriminate between superior eighth- graders. It is only to be expected, then, that the backward sixth-grader will find very few items that he can answer; in other words, some near zero scores are to be expected. The purpose of the test is to discover differences between pupils. Items that all pupils can answer will obvi- ously not help to discover such differences, and therefore the test should contain very few if any such items. Ideally, these tests should be so adjusted in difficulty that the poorest sixth-graders will score near zero, the average seventh-graders will make half of the possible score, and the best eighth-graders will just fall short of a perfect score. In actual test construction, some compromises must be made with this ideal because of other considerations, but in general the distributions of scores on tests like those mentioned earlier will have roughly these characteristics. Relation of test content to curriculum content—The foregoing con- siderations have a number of important implications concerning the interpretation of test results in relation to curriculum content. The major purpose of these tests is to show, for each individual pupil, how his proficiency in each of the skills measured compares with that of other pupils, and how his relative proficiency compares from skill to skill. As. pointed out above, such information is essential to effective individualization of instruction and to adequate educational guidance of the pupils. To provide this information, the tests must contain a cer- tain proportion of items that the average eighth-grader cannot reason- al no for at ior 1al ide fa Jes en ed. lly nat to to th- to der ear ver Vi- uld : $0 ear ore, In this ons 1ese on- the The how t of 1 to tive nce cer- 30n- MEASURING ProGREss OF PUPILS 483 ably be expected to answer, a larger proportion of items that are beyond the ability of the average seventh-grader, and a still larger proportion that are beyond the average sixth-grader. Because of this fact, the content of the tests cannot be taken as an indication of what specific subjectmatter should be taught at any grade level. A small proportion of the items in a test intended for Grades VI to VIII, for example, will be concerned with specific skills which have been acquired by most pupils by the time they reach the fourth grade. Other items will be concerned with specific skills which should be mastered by most pupils in the fifth grade, and some with skills that only the eighth-graders can be expected to master. Still other items should perhaps not be included even in the eighth-grade course of study, but are included in the test in order to identify those pupils who have on their own initiative gone beyond the formal content of their eighth- grade classes. Each item in the test may be properly taught at some grade level, but there is nothing in the form or arrangement of the test to indicate at what level any given item should be taught. These facts are clearly of crucial importance in deciding what to do about the test results in a program for improvement of instruction. Many teachers in the past have considered the content of the tests as equivalent to a list of “minimum essentials.” They have used the tests as a source of instructional material, and have attempted, by means of intensive drill on specific items, to get all of their pupils to do all of the things which are measured by the tests. Such practise is inevitably futile, but even worse, it may do serious harm to the pupils involved. Each of these tests contains some items that are definitely beyond the ability of all but very superior eighth-grade pupils. Under no circum- stances should the average sixth-grader, or even the average eighth- grader, be drilled upon such items, and condemned if he cannot handle them. No standardized achievement test, if only because of its limited sampling, can be taken as a safe guide to what should be taught at any grade level. Moreover, because of the characteristic lack of agreement, in local courses of study and among curriculum authorities, regarding the proper grade placement of specific instructional materials, it is extremely doubtful that a test could be constructed so as to serve as such a guide. The test results may sometimes indicate the need for curriculum reorganization, but the test itself will not indicate how that reorganization should be effected. To secure such help, the teacher should refer not to the test but to the better courses of study now avail- able; to reports of curriculum investigations; and to the writings of authorities on the curriculum. If, then, the average test score made by a class of pupils is seriously below the norm, the thing to do, so far as the local curriculum is con- 484 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS cerned, is to check that curriculum against the sources just mentioned, to reorganize it if necessary, and then to attempt to do a better job of teaching the materials that are adapted to the level of the class. Perhaps the worst thing that can be done is to insist that all pupils do every- thing measured by all items of the test. Such a practise not only will usually fail to raise the scores on later tests, but may even lower them. Time spent on tasks for which the pupils are not yet ready results in a feeling of futility and loss of confidence, and decreases the amount of time which may be fruitfully spent on tasks within their level of ability. Even tho the teacher may succeed, by intensive instruction in some narrow area, in raising the scores of her pupils on a test limited to that area, too often the price paid is the serious neglect of other and perhaps more important aspects of instruction. Summary—tThe essential points in the foregoing discussion may be stated briefly as follows: 1. Comprehensive standardized achievement tests for elementary- school use measure skills and abilities which are continuously developed over a period of years, both in and out of school and in all departments of instruction. No teacher can alone be held responsible for the per- formance of her pupils on such tests. 2. The major purpose of a standardized test is to reveal individual differences. 3. Individual differences in any single grade are sometimes more than ten times as great as the differences in average ability from one grade to the next. 4. To serve its purpose effectively, a test intended for any one grade must contain some items far beyond, and others far below, the ability of the average pupil in that grade. 5. The content of such a test cannot indicate what should be taught at any grade level. Neither can such tests reveal how well the teacher has “covered” the course of study for her grade and subject. 6. When a standardized test is uncritically used as a list of minimum essentials, or when all pupils are drilled on all of the test content, many pupils are forced to attempt tasks for which they are not ready or which are so far beyond their ability as to destroy their self-confidence and deaden their interest. 7. The standardized test should be looked upon solely as a measuring instrument, and not as a teaching instrument® or as an abbreviated course of study. 6 For a contrary opinion, see the article by Brownell in this chapter. Brownell does not argue that courses of study should be based upon the content of standardized tests, but he believes that an important function of every good test is to improve instructional practise directly.—Editorial Committee. 1 nm yr no) ue at ial MEASURING PROGRESS OF PUPILS 485 SOME NEGLECTED CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING CLASS- ROOM TESTS WituiAm A. BrowNeELi Professor of Educational Psychology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina evaluation of testing instruments on the basis of such technical criteria as their validity, reliability, objectivity, adequacy, and the like. Important as are these criteria, there are others fully as im- portant but much less commonly recognized. These other criteria relate directly to the processes of teaching and of learning. According to these latter criteria, a test is good if it furthers sound, economical learning and advances the quality of instruction. Only in small degree are considerations of teaching and learning involved in the typical discussion of the better-known test criteria. Validity and reliability, for example, have, in the hands of the measure- ment experts, become increasingly statistical in nature and correspond- ingly remote from the classroom situation. Indeed, some experts have insisted that teaching and measurement must be divorced from each other if both are to realize their possibilities. The rather general acceptance of this artificial distinction between teaching and learning on the one hand, and evaluation on the other, is the reason for this article. That the distinction may have values for certain types of research need not be denied. At the same time, it should be stressed that in the practical enterprise of educating children, teach- ing and learning are inseparably united with measurement. In the following paragraphs five criteria are proposed for evaluating tests in relation to the instructional process. Other criteria also should probably be mentioned, but the space available is hardly sufficient for adequate explanation, illustration, and defense of the five to be con- sidered. These five criteria are listed first, and are then discussed in turn. Gert TEXTBOOKS on educational measurement recommend the 1. Does the test elicit from the pupils the desired types of mental process? 2. Does the test enable the teacher to observe and analyze the thought processes which lie back of the pupils’ answers? 3. Does the test encourage the development of desirable study habits? 4. Does the test lead to improved instructional practise? 5. Does the test foster wholesome relationships between teacher and pupils? Criterion 1: Does the test elicit from the pupils the desired types of mental process?—This criterion implies that there is a variety of mental processes with which one may react to subjectmatter. Exactly how many there are, no one would undertake to say, but certainly there are many. In view of the overemphasis placed by current testing prac- 486 ELEMENTARY ScHOOL PRINCIPALS tises on one or two of these mental processes, it may be well to note what some of the others are. Odell, omitting such mental functions as interests, attitudes, pur- poses, and the like, and restricting his list to the more purely intellectual functions, mentions the following twenty: 1. Selective recall 2. Evaluative recall 3. Comparison of two things on a single designated basis 4. Comparison of two things in general 5. Decision, for or against 6. Cause or effect 7. Explanation of the use or of the exact meaning of a phrase or statement 8. Summary of a unit of material 9. Analysis 10. Statement of relationships 11. Illustrations or examples (original) 12. Classification 13. Application of rules or principles to new situations 14. Discussion 15. Statement of aim, or author’s purpose 16. Criticism as to adequacy, relevancy, etc. 17. Outline 18. Reorganization of facts 19. Formulation of new questions or problems 20. New methods of procedure. To this rather formidable list may be added others from Raths’ report:* (21) interpretation of data, (22) ability to generalize, and (23) ability to propose and test hypotheses. Nor is the list complete as yet. For example, Scates* suggests (24) ability to draw inferences, (25) ability to support a position, and so on. It is the business of the school to see that children, so far as possible, develop all these types of mental process in relation to the curricular content they study. It is not enough to be able to recall facts; the facets learned must function. No longer can we delude ourselves in the trust that knowledge of facts is equivalent to ability to use them, or even that a measure of the former is also a measure of the latter.* Instead, we must deliberately set out first to teach the desired mental processes, and then to measure the degree to which instruction has developed these processes. 1 Odell, Charles W. Traditional Examinations and New Type Tests. New York: Century Co. 1928. p. 205-06. 2 Raths, Louis. “Basis for Comprehensive Evaluation.’’ Educational Research Bulletin (Ohio State University) 15: 220-24; November 11, 1936. 3 Scates, Douglas E. “Complexity of Test Items as a Factor in the Validity of Measurement.” Journal of Educational Research 30: 82; October 1936. 4For data on this question, see: Tyler, Ralph W. ‘‘The Relation Between Recall and Higher Mental Processes.’’ Education as Cultivation of the Higher Mental Processes. (Charles H. Judd and others.) New York: Macmillan Co., 1936. Chapter II, p. 6-17. ———— — aths’ (23) : yet. (25) sible, cular facts trust even tead, »Sses, these & 'y Co. (Ohio ment.” Higher dd and MEASURING ProcrReEss oF PUPILS 487 In this connection it may not be amiss to note a definite limitation of so-called “objective” tests. It is comparatively easy to construct true-false, or multiple-choice, or completion test items to measure factual knowledge. Measurement experts are probably right in assert- ing that these new test forms can be used to evaluate other kinds of mental process as well. Be that as it may, a scrutiny of standardized tests (prepared by these same experts) discloses a dearth of questions which measure the abilities numbered 4, 8, 10, 13, 14, 18, 22, and many others in the list presented above. Furthermore, most teachers are as yet unequipped to adapt to these new ends the objective test forms which they commonly use to measure factual knowledge. To do so would require for them an excessive amount of time and considerable technical skill. To summarize, a test, according to Criterion 1, is good to the extent that it calls forth the mental processes which should be measured. There are many different kinds of such processes. Teachers and ad- ministrators must know which ones they want to measure and must construct their tests accordingly. Whether they use objective or tra- ditional test forms matters little, tho in general the essay-type ques- tion can be more widely, or at least more readily, adapted to sampling the multiplicity of mental processes. Criterion 2: Does the test enable the teacher to observe and analyze the thought processes which lie back of the pupils’ answers?—This criterion relates to the diagnostic function of measurement. For in- structional purposes that test is most valuable which reveals most com- pletely and most intimately the elements of weakness in the child’s learning. There are many “diagnostic” tests, but few of them actually diagnose. Most of them yield scores; few of them get at the basic causes of difficulty. The reason is not hard to find: Test answers generally show only the results of thinking, not the process of thinking. Particularly is this true in the case of new-type tests. Here the pupil selects an answer from two or more given him, or he fills in a blank space in the question. Why he selects the answer he does, or how he hits upon the missing item he supplies, can hardly be determined from the test paper. For example, one fifth-grade boy gave the correct answer, 3, to the following geography question: In how many zones is North America? ..... Upon being questioned the boy revealed that he was thinking of hemi- spheres, and not of zones at all, and that he had written 3 because North America is in “the western, the northern, and one other that I can’t remember.” His thinking, which was both incomplete and wrong, 488 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS led to an answer which was accepted as correct and was awarded full credit.® In this particular instance, the error in thinking might have been revealed, and credit denied, if a different form of objective test had been used. Still, one can scarcely predict the likelihood of such happen- ings and devise special test forms to forestall them. In answering an essay question, on the other hand, the pupil almost necessarily shows something of his thought processes. In some cases his answer may be a fairly complete and faithful record of these proc- esses, thus enabling the teacher to detect deficiencies and to plan specific remedial instruction. In few cases indeed will there be as slight a basis for instructional guidance as is typically found on new-type test papers. The foregoing statement is not intended as an attack upon the ob- jective test in general. The position taken has been ably presented by Sims * and by Monroe,’ who wrote, “Objective tests are not worth- less. . . . If we do not soon attain a more intelligent attitude toward them, it is inevitable that eventually there will develop an uncritical and extreme distrust of them.” The same views are expressed else- where * by the writer of this article. As in the case of Criterion 1, the particular test form employed is a secondary consideration. The important matter is to construct class- room tests which yield data on the nature of the pupils’ thought proc- esses. If in a given instance this purpose is best served by an objective test, then the objective test should be used. Criterion 3: Does the test encourage the development of desirabli study habits?—Educational outcomes are usually stated in adult terms and are intended for adult consideration. Even if he saw them, the typical pupil would not know what such outcomes mean. He determines outcomes for himself from the demands made upon him by the teacher —in reading assignments, in the questioning of the recitation period, in the making of reports, and perhaps most concretely of all, in the examinations set for him. From the grades up thru the graduate school this fact is implicit in the question, “What kind of an examination will it be?” Within recent years, fortunately, research workers have begun to give serious study to the question raised in Criterion 3 and, again fortunately, the data they have collected are in substantial agreement. 5 From an unpublished study by Earl V. Pullias, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina. ® Sims, Verner M. “Objective Tests and Teachers’ Measurements.” School and Society 36: 300-02; September 3, 1932. 7 Monroe, Walter S. ‘“‘Hazards in the Measurement of Achievement.’’ School and Society 41: 48-52; January 12, 1935. 8 Brownell, William A. “The Use of Objective Measures in Evaluating Instruction.” Educational Method 13: 401-08; May-June 1934. he es er he ol on un MEASURING ProGREss oF PUPILS 489 First, Terry ° demonstrated that college students review for essay tests quite differently than for objective tests. Such was the report of 83 per- cent of his experimental subjects. Terry’s findings have been corrobo- rated in every respect by Douglass and Tallmadge,’® by Meyer,” and by Class,’? in investigations which differed somewhat in the experi- mental procedures employed. Second, not only do college students vary their study methods for essay and for objective tests; they also vary their methods for different kinds of objective tests. What seems to be sound evidence on this point has been furnished by Terry,’* and even more convincingly by Meyer."4 Third, the type of test preparation influences (1) scores on tests given at once,’® (2) scores on tests given after a lapse of time,’*® and (3) per- sonal attitudes toward what is studied.'” In view of these facts it becomes important to know just what types of study habits are encouraged by different kinds of tests. Here again the investigators cited are in agreement. The following quotations from Terry can be matched by conclusions reached by the others: The most striking characteristics of . . . methods of study (for objective tests) is their emphasis on details. More than one-half of the methods mentioned . . . are concerned with small units of subjectmatter, such as words, phrases, and sentences. If the student uses methods of this kind too consistently, he risks the possibility of acquiring the vice of shallowness or superficiality.” The outstanding characteristic of the methods (of study employed in preparing for essay tests) is their emphasis on the study of large units of subjectmatter.” Now, there are occasions (1) when superficial knowledge is justified, (2) when what is learned needs to be remembered for only a short time, and (3) when the mastery of details is important. On such occa- ®Terry, Paul W. ‘How Students Review for Objective and Essay Tests.’? Elementary School Journal 33: 592-603; April 1933. 1 Douglass, Harl R., and Tallmadge, Margaret. ‘‘How University Students Prepare for New Types of Examinations.’’ School and Society 39: 318-20; March 10, 1934. 11 Meyer, George. ‘‘An Experimental Study of the Old and New Types of Examination: I. The Effect of the Examination Set on Memory.”’ Journal of Educational Psychology 25: 641-61; Decem- ber 1934. { Meyer, George. ‘‘The Essay Type of Examination.’’ American School Board Journal 89: 17-18; December 1934. 2 Class, E. C. “The Effect of the Kind of Test Announcement on Students’ Preparation.’’ Jour- nal of Educational Research 28: 358-61; January 1935. 3 Terry, Paul W. “How Students Study for Three Types of Objective Tests.’’ Journal of Edu- cational Research 27: 333-43; January 1934. ™ Meyer, George. ‘The Essay Type of Examination.” American School Board Journal 89: 17-18; December 1934. § Meyer, George. ‘‘An Experimental Study of the Old and New Types of Examina- tion: II. Methods of Study.” Journal of Educational Psychology 26: 30-40; January 1935. % Class, E. C., op. cit. { Meyer, George. ‘‘An Experimental Study of the Old and New Types of Examination: I. The Effect of the Examination Set on Memory.” Journal of Educational Psy- chology 25: 641-61; December 1934. 16 Meyer, George. ‘‘An Experimental Study of the Old and New Types of Examination: I. The ae of the Examination Set on Memory.”’ Journal of Educational Psychology 25: 641-61; Decem- ver 1934, ™ Douglass, Harl R., and Tallmadge, Margaret, op. cit. Terry, Paul W. ‘How Students Review for Objective and Essay Tests.’’ Elementary School Journal 33: 592-603; April 1933. Terry, Paul W., ibid. 490 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS sions, the announcement of an objective test should lead to the use of appropriate study methods. On these same occasions the announcement of an essay test might not have equivalent results. On the other hand, there are many occasions when a grasp of relationships, an appreciation of cause and effect, and the like are important. Then the right sort of preparation would most probably follow the announcement of an essay test.°° Criterion 3 thus calls attention to an important aspect of the teach- ing-learning-testing situation: The type of test given determines the “set” adopted by the pupil in his study. If this set is made habitual by reason of the teacher’s more or less exclusive use of a particular type of test, the pupil builds his study habits accordingly and neglects other valuable methods of attack upon subjectmatter. The following general conclusion reached by Meyer is worth repeating: When equal amounts of time are spent in preparing for an examination it is much more economical to spend one’s time preparing for a recall type of examina- tion (completion or essay), because that type of preparation gives one a more complete mastery of the material as measured in terms of recognition and recall Criterion 4: Does the test lead to improved instructional practise?— Jones states, ““Unconsciously a teacher tends to match his instruction with his form of examining, or at least both will tend to be associated.” Somewhat earlier, Sims had expressed a similar view and had illustrated his meaning in this way: “One could hardly imagine a teacher, testing month after month, year after year, on narrow, single items, who did not eventually think of the acquisitions of such habits as being the ends of instruction.” ** The weight one attaches to such opinions is pretty well determined by one’s own observations and prejudices. Those who agree with Sims and Jones argue that just as the student adapts his study procedures to the type of test which has been announced, so the teacher adapts her instruction to fit the type of test she intends to give. On the other hand, those who stand for the separation of testing and teaching quite naturally see no effects of the former upon the latter. The difference of viewpoint is well reflected in the recent symposium on the influence of measurement on instruction.** Of the twelve educational leaders who 20 All of the investigations cited, and another now under way at Duke University, employed college students as subjects. It is possible, tho rather improbable, that markedly different results would have been obtained from elementary-school pupils. 21 Meyer, George. ‘“‘An Experimental Study of the Old and New Types of Examination: I. The Effect of the Examination Set on Memory.” Journal of Educational Psychology 25: 658; December 1934. 22 Jones, Edward S. ‘“‘The Relationship of Examinations and Instruction.’’ Tests and Measure- ments in Higher Education. (Edited by William S. Gray.) Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1936. Chapter XIV, p. 200. *3 Sims, Verner M., op. cit. 24 Woody, Clifford, and others. ‘‘A Symposium on the Effects of Measurement on Instruction Journal of Educational Research 28: 481-527; March 1935. ise of ‘ment hand, ation ort of essay each- s the al by type other neral 1 it is mina- more ecall” se?— ection d 1) 22 rated sting o did ends nined Sims res to s her hand, quite rence lence ; who iployed results I. The cembet easure- j Press iction.” a A al MEASURING Procress oF PUPILs 491 participated, four were frankly convinced that use of standard tests and reliance on objective measures had lowered rather than raised the general level of instruction. About the same number of participants were convinced that the opposite was true, while the rest were undecided or non-committal. Whether or not the newer testing technics have been an unmixed blessing for instructional practise may be left as a problem for future research. Whatever the answer, it will not lessen the importance of Criterion 4. Any test, traditional or new-type, which misdirects instruc- tion is to that degree a poor test. Conversely, any test, traditional or new-type, which improves instructional practise is to that degree a good one.° Criterion 5: Does the test foster wholesome relationships between teacher and pupils?—No one who has observed children under test con- ditions can doubt the possible effects of such situations upon their mental health. The pressure imposed by time limits, the excitement in- duced by rivalry, the tension aroused by eagerness to succeed—all these are fraught with possible dangers of maladjustment. In spite of these self-evident facts, little research attention has been given them. For example, we do not even know for a certainty whether, in general, new- type or traditional tests are preferred by pupils. Such data as we have are inconsistent.2° Neither do we know when it is, and why it is, that tests, which are pleasurable experiences to young children, become events to be dreaded and avoided by older children. Even textbook writers on the hygiene of school instruction give slight consideration to the examination. One of the most extended discussions is only ten pages long.?? Nevertheless, the paucity of quantitative data on the influence of various kinds of test on the teacher-pupil relationship (and on other personal relationships within the school) in no way affects the worth of Criterion 5. Its validity depends upon no such evidence. Even the small amount of defense here offered for the criterion would seem to be super- fluous. Nowadays when the social hygiene of the schoolroom and the mental health of pupils are recognized in their true importance, no one is inclined to support practises or procedures which make for dis- harmony, conflict, and maladjustment. If a test in any way impairs % For a somewhat different point of view on this question, the reader should see the article by Lindquist in this chapter. While admitting that standardized tests are often misused as guides to instruction, Lindquist contends that such tests should be looked upon not as teaching instru- ments, but as measuring instruments only.—Editorial Committee. * Jones, Edward S., op. cit. 1 Klise, Nira M. “Student Opinions of Type of Examinations.” School and Society 24: 23-24; July 3, 1926. 7 Rivlin, Harry N. Educating for Adjustment. New York: D. Appleton-Century Co., 1936. 492 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS healthful, wholesome relationships and growth toward integrated per- sonality, that test is bad. Criterion 5, then, is the most crucial of the five here proposed. A test which meets all other criteria (the commonly recognized ones and the four discussed above) and yet fails to meet this last criterion, must be regarded as an unsatisfactory measuring instrument. Summary—lIn brief, the position taken in this article is that teaching and testing must be brought closely into line with each other, and that classroom tests must be evaluated with respect to their effect on teach- ing and learning. There can be no possible objection to evaluating such tests against the familiar criteria of the measurement experts, namely, validity, reliability, adequacy, objectivity, and so on. On the contrary, such evaluation is wholly desirable. At the same time it may be in- adequate, for these criteria have become formalized and abstracted from the teaching-learning situation. On this account the writer sug- gests that classroom tests be evaluated against five criteria which are definitely related to the teaching-learning situation. To meet the pro- posed criteria, a test must (1) elicit from pupils the desired types of mental process, (2) enable the teacher to observe and analyze the thought processes which lie back of the pupils’ answers, (3) encourage the development of desirable study habits, (4) lead to improved in- structional practise, and (5) foster wholesome relationships between teacher and pupils. CIENTIFIC MEASUREMENT in education is closely related to S educational progress. Effectiveness in the field of medicine would be decidedly reduced without the use of the thermometer. It would likewise be difficult to know the results of dietetic feeding except as it is possible to measure accurately change in weight. In the same manner, the effectiveness of the teaching of spelling is decidedly reduced if we pay no attention to measuring how well children can spell before and after they have been taught spelling. . . . The fact that many phases of education are not as yet scientifically measurable by delicately perfected instruments is no excuse for not using the crude meas- ures that are available—Smith, Henry L., and Wright, Wen- dell W., Tests and Measurements, Silver, Burdett and Co., 1928, p. 5. (Quoted by permission of the publishers.) er- est the be ing hat uch ely, ‘ry, ted ug- are ro- we o = the ‘age een Ste ee MEASURING ProGRESS OF PUPILS 493 MEASURING THE ATTAINMENT OF NEWER EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES J. W. WRIGHTSTONE Research Associate, Institute of School Experimentation, Columbia University, New York, New York HERE is a growing body of evidence that a comprehensive and accurate evaluation of a pupil’s growth cannot be obtained from a few tests of his ability to recognize and recall subjectmatter. An index of achievement in recalling facts in the social studies, for example, does not provide an adequate measure of the pupil’s ability to obtain, organize, and interpret facts in the social studies, of his ability to generalize from social events, or of his civic interests and attitudes. Curricular objectives in both elementary and secondary schools have become much more comprehensive than the instruments thus far devised for measuring pupil progress. Hence, many educators have felt the need for new tests and other instruments of evaluation. Many schools have reached a stage of development, both in curricular practise and in testing, where new objectives have definitely created a demand for new and better tests. Changed concepts of what a school program should accomplish require a reconstruction of our thinking with regard to the measurement of results. This does not mean that the older tests must be cast aside. Rather it means that they must be sup- plemented by newer and more inclusive means of evaluation. Let us consider briefly what has been done and what may be done along this line. Examples of tests designed to meet new needs—There is, first of all, a need for tests of essential skills which cut across traditional subject- matter lines and even enter new fields of study. An adequate test of skills in obtaining information, for example, would represent reading, English, social studies, science, arithmetic, and library instruction. Several pencil-and-paper tests' at the elementary- and secondary- school levels have already been prepared in tentative form to meet certain phases of this new need. Much additional work is necessary to make sure that these tests are valid measures of pupil behavior in actual life situations. Another important aim in a progressive educational program is to develop the power to interpret, to infer, or to generalize from facts and information. This power is distinctly different from memory, recog- 1 Lindquist, E. F., and others. Iowa Every-Pupil Tests of Basic Skills. lowa City, Iowa; Bureau of Educational Research and Service, State University of Iowa. § Pirtle, Mrs. Lela N. Library Test-6B. Thomas Jefferson High School, San Antonio, Texas. § See also: Barnes, Emily Ann, and Young, Bess M. Children and Architecture. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1932. p. 259-61. 494 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS nition, and recall of facts, and must be measured separately. What do the stated facts mean? What do the stated facts not mean? Recently a test was devised to measure the ability of pupils to draw inferences from described facts or data in the social studies.” Facts in the test are presented in verbal, tabular, and graphic form; in content they are statistical and non-statistical. The need for this new type of test has arisen from the emphasis which progressive schools place upon thinking about and thru facts rather than merely remembering and reciting them. Still another new need in testing arises from the emphasis in the modern elementary school upon interests, attitudes, and beliefs. Thur- stone and others at the University of Chicago have developed some new tests, especially in the field of civie and social attitudes.’ Further instruments will undoubtedly be developed for measuring these objec- tives of education. Experiments are now in progress at the Ohio State University Elementary School in appraising children’s interests by the paired-comparison method,* which seems a fruitful approach to this problem. One of the most important new objectives of elementary education is the personal and social adjustment of children. In these areas new self-descriptive tests, rating scales such as the Haggerty-Olson-Wick- man Behavior Rating Schedules,® and case-history technics provide partial methods of appraising adjustment and emotional status. These devices are adapted for use by trained workers in both elementary and secondary schools. Symonds * has provided a comprehensive discussion of such devices. How schools can aid in the improvement of tests—Altho considerable progress has already been made, a great deal of work lies ahead in the development of these newer instruments. They must be tried out, criti- cized, revised, and reconstructed until they measure validly apd re- liably the important objectives of the curriculum. Not only must test technicians help in the processes of test construction, but experienced and interested classroom teachers must cooperate also. Suggestions as to what objectives are of most value, how the attainment of these objectives can be judged, and how practical are the ideas of test experts for measuring such attainment in the classroom, must evidently come from teachers and principals. 2See: Wrightstone, J. W. “Measuring Some Major Objectives of the Social Studies.’’ School Review 43: 771-79; December 1935. § Clark, Marion G. Ezercises in the Use of Historical Evidence. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1935. 3 Thurston, L. L., and Chave, E. J. The Measurement of Attitude. Chicago: University of Chi- cago Press, 1929. 96 p. +See: Frutchey, F. P. ‘‘Collecting Evidence of Children’s Preferences.’’ Educational Research Bulletin (Ohio State University) 14: 173-78; October 16, 1935. 5 Published by World Book Co., Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York. 6 Symonds, P. M. Diagnosing Personality and Conduct. New York: Century Co., 1931. 602 p do ya ces are are has ing em. the ur- me her ec- ate the this ‘ion 1ew ck- ride ese and 310n ible the ‘iti- test ced 3 as 1ese erts ome chool lence. Chi- earch 02 p. MEASURING ProGRESS OF PUPILS 495 One way in which the staff of an elementary school can aid in the development of new tests is to go thru the list of purposes or objectives of the school, and indicate after each objective any methods which it thinks practicable for obtaining evidence of the degree to which this purpose is being realized. In making such notations, three kinds of statement are possible. The staff may state that valid evidence about the attainment of the purpose is already being gathered by means of some particular test or other procedure. For example, a school which includes among its purposes the development of facility in silent read- ing might state after this objective that evidence could be obtained thru the use of such a test as the Jowa Silent Reading Tests,’ and that this was already a part of the plan of evaluation in the school. In the ease of certain other objectives, the staff might be able to indicate practical ways of obtaining evidence which had not heretofore been a part of the school program for evaluation. For example, one of the purposes of the elementary-school curriculum may be to develop dis- criminating taste in the selection of reading materials. The teachers might indicate that evidence on this point could be obtained by having each pupil keep a reading diary in which he would state what books or magazine articles he had read in school, and his own reaction to each selection read. There will probably be a third group of objectives, such as those concerned with the development of attitudes, habits, or inter- ests, after which the staff will put question marks indicating that it does not know any practicable methods which can be used in the school for measuring the attainment of these purposes. In areas of education where more reliable means of getting evidence of pupil growth are needed, teacher committees may be organized. For example, a committee of interested teachers may work upon methods for appraising the development of social habits. Another com- mittee may be concerned with means for discovering growth in social attitudes, while a third group strives to discover methods for determin- ing pupils’ interests. Each committee will be attacking an important problem in the development of instruments for evaluating modern education. A proposed plan for measuring the outcomes of elementary education —The revision of the elementary-school curriculum in New York State has led to a reformulation of the cardinal objectives of elementary edu- cation. These objectives are described in a small pamphlet issued by the State Education Department.* This pamphlet states that the func- 7 Published by the World Book Company, Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York. : 8 New York Council of Superintendents, Committee on Elementary Education. Cardinal Objectives in Elementary Education. Second Report. Albany: New York State Education Department, 1929. p. 13-18, 496 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS tion of the public elementary school is to help every child: (1) to under- stand and practise desirable social relationships; (2) to discover and develop his own desirable individual aptitudes; (3) to cultivate the habit of critical thinking; (4) to appreciate and desire worthwhile activities; (5) to gain command of the common integrating knowledge and skills; and (6) to develop a sound body and normal mental attitudes. As these cardinal objectives are reviewed, it becomes increasingly apparent that thoroly valid and reliable measures are now available for only one of the purposes listed, number 5. This objective, “to gain com- mand of the common integrating knowledge and skills,” includes such abilities and habits as correct spelling, writing, and reading, as well as the arithmetical and social studies skills. In a few other areas an ocea- sional test may be found which allows a valid and reliable measurement of pupil attainment. It is apparent, however, that for the remaining five cardinal objectives of elementary education in New York State, new tests and measures must be devised if an objective and valid ap- praisal is to be carried on. As a tentative and partial basis for measuring pupil attainment in all of these areas, the outline shown in Table 1 has been prepared. This outline purports merely to suggest some profitable methods for making an evaluation in each field covered by the cardinal objectives listed above. These initial suggestions may need to be revised thoroly if and when practical application of them is attempted in school situations. They are presented here in the hope that they may help principals and teachers to develop more complete programs of evaluation than have usually been carried on in the past. TABLE 1—Svucacestep APPROACHES TO THE MEASUREMENT OF IMPORTANT EpUCA- TIONAL OUTCOMES Ossecrive 1: To UNbersTtanp AND Practise Destraste Social RELATIONSHIPS Definition of Objective Suggested Approaches to Measurement Since character is largely determined by the relationships of an individual to his fellows, the public school will con- tinue to encourage the pupil’s practise of the older virtues, namely, trust- worthiness, reliability, obedience, kind- ness, courtesy, and loyalty. More specifically, the goals to be sought in developing not only the pupil’s ideals but also his conduct with his fellows, are: The measurement of such specific re- lationships or factors as respect for others, leadership, initiative, and co operation may be attempted by means of observational technics and cumula- tive observer-diary records such 4s those described in: Wrightstone, J. W. “Constructing an Observational Tech- nic.” Teachers College Record 37: 1-9; October 1935. Such aims as F and G in the left-hand ——., \der- and : the vhile edge ental ingly e for com- such 11 as »CCa- ment ining tate, 1 ap- nt in This iking ‘isted T and ‘ions. 3 and have \DUCA- ent ifie re- ct. for 1d c0- means imula- ch as I. Tech- rs 1-9; t-hand juss tet MEASURING ProGRESS OF PUPILS Ossective 1: To UNDERSTAND AND Practise DestraBLe SocraAL RELATIONSHIPS (CONTINUED) Definition of Objective Suggested Approaches to Measurement A. Respect for authority B. Leadership activities C. Self-initiated activities D. Respect for the rights and contri- butions of others E. Cooperation (team spirit) F. An appreciation of the interde- pendence of all people G. An interest in civic functions and participation for community _better- ment. column presumably might be measured by specially devised pencil-and-paper tests, supplemented by anecdotal records of the kind suggested in: Ran- dall, J. A. “The Anecdotal Behavior Journal.” Progressive Education 13: 21- 26; January 1936. Ossective 2: To Discover aND Devetop His Own Desirasie INpIvipuAL APTITUDES Definition of Objective Suggested Approaches to Measurement It is the function of the elementary school to develop in every child the ability to express his ideas thru such activities as: A. Telling and writing stories B. Writing poetry C. Dramatization D. Drawing and painting E. Modeling F. Construction G. Projects H. Music I. Dancing J. Games and sports K. Social contacts L. Personal conversation M. Leading N. Following. Certain phases of individual interests and aptitudes might be measured validly by a test employing the paired- comparison technic, such as that de- vised at the Ohio State University Ele- mentary School. See: Weedon, Vivian. “A Technic for Determining Interest.” Educational Research Bulletin (Ohio State University) 13: 191-97; Novem- ber 14, 1934. Other phases might be measured by cumulative observer-diary records, and by qualitative scales of judgment em- ploying the equal-appearing-interval technics such as are described in: Wrightstone, J. W. “Constructing an Observational Technic.” Teachers Col- lege Record 37: 1-9; October 1935. Ossective 3: To CULTIVATE THE Hasit or Critica, THINKING Definition of Objective Suggested Approaches to Measurement Long before he starts to school the child begins to reason from the data at hand. Even before learning to talk, he finds ways and means of attaining his desires; in his own childish way, he de- cides between two courses of action; even his attempts thru trial and error represent the basic raw material of the thinking process. From the moment the child enters the school, it should help him realize the need for, and give him practise in, the art of testing his own thinking. Thruout the elementary This objective might be measured validly above the third-grade level by a battery of especially constructed pen- cil-and-paper tests devoted to the abili- ties of pupils in: 1. Obtaining facts for problems 2. Organizing facts 3. Interpreting or explaining facts 4. Applying facts to new situations For a more extended discussion of such tests, see: Wrightstone, J. W. 498 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Ossective 3: To Cuttivate THE Hasit or CriticAL THINKING (CoNTINUED) Definition of Objective Suggested Approaches to Measurement grades it is the duty of teachers to help children develop ability: A. To recognize problems B. To find, select, and reject evi- dence bearing upon these problems C. To organize materials D. To weigh evidence E. To draw conclusions, that is, to render judgment F. To test their conclusions. “New Tests for New Needs.” Educa- tional Method 15: 407-11; May 1936. Ossective 4: To APPRECIATE AND Desire WorTHWHILE ACTIVITIES Definition of Objective Suggested Approaches to Measurement It is a function of the elementary school to help every child not only to desire and appreciate worthwhile activi- ties, but also to participate in them for the pure enjoyment he gains from such participation. The habits of childhood determine adult life. If every child de- velops an appreciation of, a desire for, and the habit of participating in varied activities for pure enjoyment, there need be no fear as to how he will use whatever leisure time adult life may give him. Activities to be encouraged in the elementary school are: art, music, read- ing, games and sports, handwork, ex- perimentation, travel, trips to places of community interest, and contact with nature in its various forms. Not the least important of the goals to be at- tained under this objective is the ca- pacity to enjoy being alone. This objective in its various aspects involves not only a reorganization of the extracurricular activities of the school, but also a stimulation of the child’s interest and enjoyment thru regular curricular activities. This objective might be measured by instruments very similar in nature and construction to those proposed for Ob- jective 2, “To Discover and Develop His Own Desirable Individual Apti- tudes.” There seems to be a great deal of overlapping between Objectives 2 and 4, altho sufficient differences may exist to permit development of distinctly separate instruments of measurement. Ossective 5: To Garin CoMMAND OF THE CoMMON INTEGRATING KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS Definition of Objective Suggested Approaches to Measurement While the subordinate elements of this objective are classified under the general heading of “abilities,” the at- tainment of each one assumes the de- velopment of an ideal concerning it and an appreciation of its value. AE errs Sk saa by nd )b- lop \ti- ind cist tly it. MEASURING PROGRESS OF PUPILS 499 Ossective 5: To Gain CoMMAND OF THE COMMON INTEGRATING KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS (CONTINUED) Definition of Objective Suggested Approaches to Measurement A. The ability: a 10. 14, 15 16. . To organize and To speak easily with freedom from gross errors . To organize and present ideas clearly and consecutively in oral language . To listen attentively to the oral expression of others express thoughts in written form . To use good form, order, and arrangement: margins, spacing, paragraphing, capitalization, punctuation, abbreviation, syl- labication . To spell correctly one’s vocab- ulary . To write with ease, legibility, and speed . To understand and use title page, index, table of contents, and appendix of a book .To read either silently or orally, with ease, speed, and comprehension, material suit- able to his age level To use the voice in an agree- able way To reproduce a simple story, news item, or part of a lesson after one reading . To observe accurately . To perform accurately the four fundamental operations in arithmetic, and to know when to use them ‘ To use the more common kinds of measuring devices . To understand and use arith- metical language To understand and use the forms of social arithmetic com- mon to his age level Rating scales on habits and qualities of speech, constructed by a teachers’ com- mittee Rating of a stenographic record of several samples of the pupil’s oral ex- pression Records of teacher observation related to the attention of the pupil, and sub- sequent relevant questions or comments Rating samples of pupil’s work by means of a qualitative scale (Hillegas,* Trabue,* Hudelson,” etc.) Pencil-and-paper test, or rating of sam- ples of pupil’s work upon a basis of error count per 100 words Spelling scale (Morrison-McCall,” ete.) Handwriting scales (Thorndike,* etc.) Standardized achievement test, such as the Iowa Every-Pupil Tests of Basic Skills (Test B)° Standardized achievement test, such as the Metropolitan,” Stanford,” ete. Rating scales which might be especially devised by a committee of teachers Special test which might be especially devised by a teacher or a committee Writing a description of some object or objects displayed for an equal period of time to all pupils Standardized achievement test (Stan- ford,” Metropolitan,” Jowa Every-Pupil Tests of Basic Skills (Test D),° ete. Performance scales on measuring the classroom and playground with foot- rule, yardstick, ete. Analytical Scales of Attainment: Arith- metic* Analytical Scales of Attainment: Arith- metic 500 ELEMENTARY ScHoot PRINCIPALS Ossective 5: To Gain ComMMAND oF THE CoMMON INTEGRATING KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS (CoNTINUED) Definition of Objective Suggested Approaches to Measurement 17. To understand geographical principles and their applica- tions to problems of life 18. To read and use maps for repre- senting ideas 19. To reconstruct (in imagination) the experiences of people who lived in the past 20. To understand the civic and social principles upon which American democracy is founded 21. To use dictionary, encyclopedia, atlas, indexes, and other refer- ence materials 22. To know and appreciate the ele- ments of natural and physical science in the child’s environ- ment. Special test (Parker-Calkins tests® may provide significant suggestions) Special tests (Parker-Calkins tests‘) Essay-type tests, rated according to qualitative scales, like Hillegas,* ete. Special test, or Jowa Every-Pupil Tests of Basic Skills (Test B)° Test of concepts and attitudes in science, especially devised by a committee of teachers. Ossective 6: To Devetop a Sounp Bopy AND NormMaL MentAL Artirubes Definition of Objective Suggested Approaches to Measurement A. Physical health 1. Proper habits and attitudes with respect to the following, based upon adequate knowledge: (a) cleanliness, (b) fresh air, (c) exercise and recreation, (d) bodily processes, (e) relaxation, rest, and sleep, (f) posture, (g) protection against disease — quarantine, (h) care of eyes, ears, throat, scalp, feet, hands, skin, nails, and teeth, (i) health- ful dress, (j) avoidance of pre- ventable accidents, (k) foods— eating and drinking 2. Knowledge of and ability to practise “first aid” 3. Knowledge of the effect of harmful drugs, narcotics, and alcoholic stimulants B. Mental health 1. Habits of (a) concentration, perseverance (driving oneself now to attain an ultimate end later), (b) generosity, (c) or- derliness, (d) emotional stabil- ity (balanced control of mental states) Existing tests for health information and knowledge, as well as special tests for health attitudes (e. g., the Gates- Strang Health Knowledge Test*) Adaptation of the Rogers battery of physical-capacity tests and the use of a physical-fitness index, or use of the Neilson-Cozens Achievement Scales in Physical-Education Activities Special pencil-and-paper tests and a performance scale Evidence for this might be gained from tests of emotional stability (e. g., the Woodworth-M athews Personal Data Sheet)‘ and from anecdotal records and observations which were suggested for Objective 1, “To Understand and Prac- tise Desirable Social Relationships.” See also the Haggerty-Olson-Wickman Behavior Rating Schedules’. to esls nce, » of ition tests ates- y of of a the es im ind a ained (e. g., Data is and d for Prac- ships.” ‘-kman MEASURING PROGRESS OF PUPILS 501 Ossective 6: To Devetop a Sounp Bopy anp Norma Mentat Artritupes (CoNTINUED) Definition of Objective Suggested Approaches to Measurement 2. Attitudes of (a) interest in peo- ple and things, (b) desire to cooperate, (c) self-control and justifiable self-confidence, (d) willingness to work, (e) dissatis- faction with failure and satis- faction with accomplishment, (f) tolerance of ideas, (g) cheer- fulness and friendliness, (h) sense of humor, (i) optimism. 4 Published by the Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, New York. » Published by the World Book Company, Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York. ¢ Published by the Bureau of Educational Research and Service, State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa. 4 Published by the Educational Test Bureau, Minneapolis, Minnesota. eIn preparation for publication. fC. H. Stoelting Company, Chicago, Illinois. Summary—New needs growing from new curricular practises in ele- mentary schools have created demands for new tests. The tests thus far developed to meet these demands show certain major tendencies. First, they are built upon a functional analysis of pupil activities and of the curriculum. In other words, they are constructed in terms of behavior units and changes in children as these are emphasized in the newer objectives of the educational program. Second, the new tests tend to disregard and cut across the conventional subjectmatter lines; a single test of functional pupil behavior may include such materials as are usually found in the traditional subjects of reading, arithmetic, English, social studies, and natural sciences. The construction of these newer tests is still in the experimental stage. The prospects, however, are sufficiently bright to indicate that within a few years we shall have valid and reliable tests for measuring many of the significant achieve- ments of progressive education. To achieve this purpose, our present tests must be revised and reconstructed continuously so that they will measure functional behavior rather than the items of a subjectmatter field. New instruments must be devised for new areas and objectives of education as these emerge in the newer practises of the schools. A large and only slightly explored field of measurement is here open to imagi- native, informed, and inventive students of education. 502 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS MEASURING SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT Rose H. Atscuuter, Director and LaBerta Weiss Hatrwick, Research Psychologist Winnetka Public School Nursery Unit, Winnetka, Illinois RACTICALLY ALL INSTRUMENTS so far devised for measuring socia| and emotional behavior are crude. Probably no one who has at- tempted to develop a scale of this kind is satisfied with the results. A number of available forms, however, are highly useful in analyzing children’s behavior, in measuring progress, and in formulating recom- mendations for treatment. This article describes certain forms which have been developed and used for these purposes in the Winnetka Public Schools. The Winnetka school system includes nursery and junior kindergar- ten groups, as well as the regular kindergartens and the elementary grades. Since the trends of child development at the lower and upper age levels are somewhat different, two separate rating scales are used: (1) a seale for nursery and kindergarten children, and (2) a scale for children in Grades I to VI, inclusive. Tue Bewavior RATING SCALE FOR NuRSERY AND KINDERGARTEN CHILDREN Children from two to five years of age are in a period of very rapid change. Within a single year they may grow from relatively helpless infants who perhaps cannot feed themselves adequately or speak dis- tinctly, into individuals who are able to assume full responsibility for their daily routines. They may change from individuals who have no interest and little facility in making adequate social contacts, into individuals who actively seek and participate in social relationships. Changes are so great that behavior which is characteristic of the two- year-old, such as lack of bladder control, dawdling at meals, dependence upon adults, avoiding play with others, and thumb-sucking, is quite unusual among four-year-old children. Some changes occur so rapidly that marked increase or decrease in usual reactions can readily be noted from month to month. In general, it may be said that among children of these years, responses to people, to situations, and to materials depend more upon the age of the child than upon his environment. In other words, certain types of behavior seem to be characteristic of two-and-one-half-year- olds, of three-year-olds, and so on. NT ocial s at- sults. yzing com- rhich etka rgar- itary pper ised: e for ‘apid pless dis- y for e no into hips. two- lence juite vidly y be ears, pon rtain rear- MEASURING ProGRESS OF PUPILS 503 Types of behavior measured—The rating scale described here was devised specifically to measure the rapid changes that occur in social and emotional development during these early years. Like an intelli- gence test, it offers an objective tho not infallible method of measuring each child’s development in terms of his own maturing processes and his relationship to the group in which he is placed. The scale consists of sixty items of behavior which are common among children of these years. The sixty items are grouped in the following nine categories: (1) eating habits, (2) sleeping habits, (3) enuresis, (4) nervous habits, (5) speech habits, (6) fears, (7) reaction to adults, (8) reaction to children, and (9) other personality reactions. Ratings are based on the frequency with which the various types of behavior occur during a given month. Sample items and the method of rating are shown in Figure I. Use of the rating scale—This rating scale has been used in the Winnetka Public School Nursery Unit for approximately eight years. To make it of greatest value, careful supplementary records are kept. These include full social and medical histories, which are obtained during individual interviews with parents before the children are placed in any groups. Parents are also asked to fill out the behavior rating scales before the child enters school. Teachers fill them out as soon as they become acquainted with the children. In January and May the parents and teachers again check the children’s behavior and fill out the forms as before. The first report on the rating scale from the parent gives the teacher a picture of the child’s social and emotional adjustments as the parent sees them at the time the child enters school. Research data as well as long experience with the scale have shown that the parent’s ratings may be accepted as a relatively true picture of the child as he is at home. While the teacher accepts this information as a valuable back- ground for her work with the child, she does not let it color her ex- pectancies. Experience has shown that problems which are common at home may not appear at all in school. Full knowledge of the child’s behavior at home as well as at school is considered important for in- telligent, consistent handling of the child under all circumstances. As indicated above, the findings from the behavior scale are inte- grated with other records and reports, and are discussed at a faculty meeting as early in the year as possible. The integrated reports include the social, medical, and developmental history of the child, the reports of the physical examination and the intelligence test, and the mother’s report on the behavior rating scale. Individual progress records are also kept and reported. These are prepared in diary form and cover the 504 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS status of the child upon his entrance to the group, as seen by the teacher. They include details of the child’s interests, abilities, coordinations, physical habits, and behavior, including his social reactions to children and adults, together with a summary of his problems (if any) and the remedial procedures planned. As early in the year as possible, friendly contacts with the family are established and visits to the home are made. BEHAVIOR: The habits listed below are Check column which best describes those which we expect to occur to child during the PAST MONTH some extent in every normal child, less They have been worded as problems, a Never | than Once | Several) Daily since it is usually easier to re enee @ Pe Sines ol en member that type of behavior. week week| week nore Nervous Indications Sucks thumb or fingers (1) during day. (2) at rest-nap or bedtime . . « Bites nails, . . . . . -_ a . . . . . . Chews objects. «+. +eseeeetee Picks nose z.ccccrceceveceevee Plays with fingers or fingers objects, Twists hair or clothes . ..se+seeeree Handles sex organs . .-e«seeeeee0 Twitches any part of body, oeevevee Wriggles a great deal when sitting .. Holds body or hands tense. » « « » ° Laughs, squeals, jumps around excessive ely Reaction to Adults Refuses to comply with adult requests. Ignores requests see eeseee eevee Ie hard to reason with ..e-seeeses Seeks attention by calling or showing off Oe et *e eee . . . . . . Asks for unnecessary help. oeeeee Looks for praise ..+-eee eevee Goes to adult with criticism of others Stays close to adult ..se«eessees Shrinks from notice. . «e«se«seeeee + Reaction to Children Avoids play with others. ... Bosses others. «.«eseesseesesee Gives in too easily. .«seseecesesere Refuses to share or take turns « « « + « Grabs toys from other children ,. eee Attacks others (hits, kicks, bites, gsoratches). «s+ seccecesecerevee Ie jealous of others ..e.seeeseeee FIGURE I—A Ssrction or THE Form For Ratina Nursery AND KINDERGARTEN CHILDREN ler, ms, ren and ble, yme TEN MEASURING Procress oF PUPILS 505 Altogether, these contacts and reports form the basis for diagnostic, remedial, and therapeutic work. The various forms and methods used are mentioned here because the staff believes that behavior rating scales, like intelligence tests, can be valuable only if their results are used skilfully in conjunction with everything else that can be discovered about any child under discussion. If so used, these instruments greatly augment the insight and precision with which individual children may be handled. Need for norms—The behavior rating scale, as used thus far, has been without the norms necessary for comparing individual behavior with group behavior. At present the staff is assembling data on over 600 children of nursery-school age, in order to secure such normative ma- terial. With this information at hand, the development of the individual child may be seen in relation to that of the group. Actual scores and profile summaries may then be obtained, as in the case of the scale described in the next section of this article. THE SCALE FOR RATING ScHooL BEHAVIOR IN GRADES I To VI As already stated, the scale just described is helpful in measuring social and emotional adjustments during the early years when relatively gross changes are taking place. By the time children enter the elemen- tary grades, group trends in behavior become relatively insignificant. A study by Van Alstyne and the preprimary faculty of the Winnetka schools ' revealed practically no measurable differences between chil- dren of different ages in the first six grades, with respect to such traits as cooperation, social consciousness, emotional adjustment, leadership, and responsibility. This may have been due to a tendency on the part of the investigators to rate children in comparison with others of their own age, rather than in relation to a more fixed and general standard, or it may be that there is really little change in these behavior patterns during the elementary-school period. At any rate, we find that for chil- dren of this age a scale which undertakes to determine their usual or typical behavior is more useful than one which records the frequency with which certain types of behavior occur. Nature of the scale—The “Winnetka Scale for Rating School Be- havior” was developed to meet this need in Grades I to VI, inclusive. The scale is based upon actual school situations. It contains five general categories: (1) cooperation, (2) social consciousness, (3) emotional adjustments, (4) leadership, and (5) responsibility. Each heading is 1Van Alstyne, D.; Hattwick, L. W.; and Totten, H. ‘‘A New Scale for Rating School Behavior and Attitudes.’’ Elementary School Journal 37: 115-21; October 1936. (A reprint of this article may be purchased from the Winnetka Educational Press, Winnetka, Illinois.) § Van Alstyne, D. ‘A New Seale for Rating School Behavior and Attitudes in the Elementary School.” Journal of Educational Psychology 27: 677-94; December 1936. 506 ELEMENTARY ScHOOL PRINCIPALS represented by three different types of situations in which the desig- nated behavior may be observed. For instance, leadership is judged 1. When the child is in an organized group with the teacher present 2. When the child has an opportunity to take responsibility for a group task 3. When the child is in a social situation which allows for initiative. The types of response which children might make to a given situation are listed under that situation, and are assigned a decile rating (from 1 to 10) on the basis of the 1100 ratings obtained from children initially tested with the scale. An example follows: When in an organized group with teacher present, the child: Decile rating Is able to lead a group without being nervous or embarrassed. . 10 Leads group in spite of being nervous or embarrassed....... ee ee 8 SEE EE DOT RE OO PCT Als 2 7 Does not lead group but is confident in dealing with individuals........ 6 Tends to be shy with adults but not with children................ Tends to be shy with children but not with adults.................. Is shy with both children and adults........................0005. bt bo CO Use of the ratings—The decile ranks make it possible to give a child a definite score on each of the five major traits. This is done by aver- aging his decile rank for the three situations on which a given head- ing is based. A profile may then be drawn to show the child’s assets and - liabilities, and his change in relative position from year to year. The midpoint (fifth decile) on such a profile will represent the median rank of the 1100 children originally tested on the scale. A sample profile is shown in Figure II. Cooperation Social Consciousness Emotional Adjustment Leadership Responsibility 1 5 KEY: ememee Fall Rating oe Spring Rating FIGURE II—Samp te Prorites SHOWING A CHILD’s Procress IN CERTAIN TRAITS FT te mae gee MEASURING PROGRESS OF PUPILS 507 The child represented by this profile was below average on all traits but leadership at the time of the fall rating. By spring his position with respect to leadership had not changed, but he had improved on all the other characteristics and had jumped far above the average in social consciousness. It should be noted that the scale is most revealing if used only two or three times during the school year. Supplementary records—This scale for rating school behavior, like the other rating scale discussed earlier, is but one of a number of forms used for the analysis of children’s behavior. At the close of each year a set of six sheets, headed as follows, are filled out in diary form for every child by all teachers in the elementary grades: (1) academic adjustment, (2) social adjustment, (3) individual interests, (4) group experiences during the year, (5) home situations, and (6) methods of handling. These reports, consisting of brief, running commentaries, do not take the place of, but do give the teacher a better insight into, the more objective scales. CONCLUSION While the measures of social and emotional adjustment described here are not without their limitations, they are the best instruments for this purpose, both from the standpoint of accuracy and practicality, that have yet been devised for use in the Winnetka school system.’ The behavior rating form for nursery and kindergarten children, and the diary forms for giving pertinent characterizations at all levels, have already stood the test of time. The scale for rating school behavior in the elementary grades is more recent, and therefore has not had so rigid a test as the others. Its greatest value may perhaps be in its use as a basis for further experimentation in the field of personality measure- ment. 7 SECTION of “Records and Information” following the last chapter of this yearbook contains a list of members of the Department of Elementary School Principals, and lists of local, sectional, and state organizations of principals—Edi- torial Committee. 508 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS THE MEASUREMENT AND IMPROVEMENT OF PUPIL ADJUSTMENT H. Tuosurn Rateu Principal, Washington School, Wauwatosa, Wisconsin N A SCHOOL which undertakes to facilitate the personal and social adjustment of children, the principal and teachers dare not wait to act until a boy or girl commits a serious misdemeanor. Really serious maladjustments are difficult to correct, and are costly in terms of time and human suffering. When case studies are made of individuals who have committed grave misdeeds, it is usually found that the viola- tion in question was preceded by a series of acts having as their begin- ning only minor deviations from normal social behavior. The writer be- lieves that principals and teachers can do much to prevent the more serious personality difficulties by wise handling of children whose prob- lems of adjustment are still in the early stages. Before this can be done, however, steps must be taken to determine which children are well adjusted and which ones are not. Periodic surveys of pupil adjustment are necessary to discover what remedial measures are needed, and how much has been accomplished by the methods used during a given period of time. The adjustment inventory—In making a survey of pupil adjustment it is necessary to have some device or scale to use as a basis. In the Washington School the “Pupil Adjustment Inventory,” devised by Torgerson,' has been used for this purpose. This inventory, reproduced in Figure I, helps the teacher to identify the pupils who are maladjusted, and to determine the nature and ‘degree of their maladjustments. It briefly defines normal or desirable behavior and three levels of malad- justment for each of ten behavior traits. Desirable behavior or satis- factory adjustment is set forth in column 1, while slight maladjustment, considerable maladjustment, and very serious maladjustment are de- fined in columns 2, 3, and 4, respectively. The inventory is arranged on one sheet, with space at the top for the pupil’s name, grade, school, ob- server, and date. When each trait has been checked at the level which best describes the child, a line connecting the ten check marks may be drawn, produc- ing a graph which is easily read. A pupil whose behavior is checked in column 1 for all of the ten traits is considered normally adjusted. A pupil who receives one or more checks in column 3 or 4 is rather seriously maladjusted. This pupil should be studied carefully in order 1 See: Torgerson, T. Le. The Diagnosis and Treatment of Pupil Maladjustment. Ann Arbor, Mich.: Edwards Brothers, 1933. Parts B and C. MEASURING ProcreEss oF PupIts 509 that the causes of his maladjustment may be determined and, if possible, removed. It is also important that pupils checked in column 2 (slight maladjustment) be given such study and treatment as are necessary to prevent more serious difficulties. PUPIL ADJUSTMENT INVENTORY (T. L. TORGERSON) GRADE SCHOOL OBSERVER DATE Friendly; makes Has few friends I. Social Attitude Unfriendly; no intimate Shunned by others +.) friends easily friends le 2.(_] s.(_] II. Emotional Control Well poised Easily irriteted Frequent emotional out- bursts Se a S.f } Fearful; depressed 4.[_] Calm and selr- Uneasy; bites III, Nervousness Stammers; nervous tics; Afflicted with nervous controlled ringernails, etc, hyperactive disease 1. 2. 3.[] 4. ] IV. Day Dreaming Responsive and Generally alert Seldom alert to school Withdraws to world of alert in school tasks phanta 36 2.(_] 3. “(2 Vv. Responsibility Responsible Frequently ir- Assumes responsibility Irresponsible responsible unwillingly 1.[_] 2. 3.[_] 4.0] VI. Interest Spontaneous in- Procrastinetes Interested only in Slight interest in any terest in work school activity subject or school activity le 2.[— ] 3.[_] 4._] VII. Laziness Industrious Occasionally re- Consistently needs Difficult to motivate; quires motivating motivating listless 1-(] 2. 3. ] 4.[_) VIII. Happiness Happy Frequently un- Moody Morose bappy a 2.(_] sf) +] IX. Conduct Well-bdeha ved Frequently annoys Impudent; quarrelsome; Cruel; bullies other other ils domineering pupils 1.(_] 1 | 3.[_] 4.) X. Success in School Passing in all Pailing in one Failing in two Failing in most sad jects subject subdjects subd jects le 2. 3. ] 4.[_] FIGURE I—Form Usep ror Surveyina Pup. ADJUSTMENT 510 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS The adjustment inventory should not be used until the teacher js thoroly familiar with the behavior traits of her pupils. Moreover, the rater should avoid letting her general impression of a pupil’s adjust- ment or maladjustment influence her checking of the specific traits listed. It will be noted that the rating form itself does not use the terms “adjustment” or “maladjustment” with reference to any of the traits or symptoms described. The rater is supposed to indicate merely the types of behavior exhibited by the child. A two-year study of pupil adjustment—Tables 1 and 2 present the results of adjustment surveys in Grades I to VI of the Washington School in 1934 and in 1936. Table 1 contains two sets of data for each behavior trait: (1) the percent of all pupils showing some degree of maladjustment; and (2) the percent of all pupils showing serious maladjustment. On the whole, these data indicate a considerable re- duction in the maladjustments of pupils during the two-year period. TABLE 1—Percent or Pupits SHowrina SyMpTOMS oF MALADJUSTMENT WITH Respect To CerTaAIn TrAITs IN 1934 AND IN 1936 Some DEGREE OF MALADJUSTMENT® SeR10ous MALADJUSTMENT? BEHAVIOR TRAITS 1934°¢ 1936° 1934¢ 1936¢ Percent} Rank | Percent} Rank | Percent} Rank | Percent | Rank () @ale|]@|o|]@o|a@]@e |]. 1. Social attitude... .. 74.9| 1 |25.2] 6 | 30.7] 1 | 3.4|] 9 2. Emotional control. .| 30.3 7 24.4 7 15.5 3 8.9 | 3 3. Nervousness....... 37.5 4 33.3 5 9.2 6 7.7| 4 4. Day-dreaming...... 52.6 2 | 51.3 1 9.8 5 10.7 I 5. Responsibility......| 35.7 6 | 35.5 3 6.7 7 §.7 6.5 6. Interest........... 36.8 5 33.9 4 16.6 2 73) & y A eee eee 51.1 3 | 42.0 2 15.1 4 9.9| 2 8. Happiness......... Ree 4) 13.9]; 10 |....4 41 5.7] 6.5 9. Conduct........... 24.6| 8 |20.0|] 8 | 3.7] 9 | 2.2| 10 10. Achievement....... 21.0 9 14.8 9 6.5 8 | 3.64 8 Read table: Of the 580 pupils in the school in 1934, 74.9 percent showed some degree of maladjust- ment with respect to “social attitude,” while in 1936 only 25.2 percent showed some maladjustment with respect to this trait. In 1934 “social attitude’ ranked first among all the traits in the percent of pupils showing some maladjustment, while in 1936 it ranked sixth in this respect. In 1934, 30.7 percent of the pupils were seriously maladjusted with respect to ‘“‘social attitude,” while the corresponding percent in 1936 was only 3.4. This trait dropped from first to ninth rank in the percent of pupils showing serious maladjustment. Similarly read figures for the other traits listed in column 1. 4 Includes, for each trait, all pupils who were checked at levels 2, 3, and 4 on the ‘Pupil Adjust- ment Inventory” shown in Figure I. > Includes, for each trait, only those pupils who were checked at levels 3 and 4 on the ‘Pupil Ad- justment Inventory” shown in Figure I. © The total number of pupils in the school was 580 in 1934, and 536 in 1936. 4 The trait ‘“‘happiness’’ was not included in the inventory until 1936. a te Gade eee b= it t- {- MEASURING PROGRESS OF PUPILS 511 —— The most pronounced change occurred in social attitude, where the percent of pupils maladjusted in any degree dropped from 75 to 25, and the percent seriously maladjusted decreased from 31 to 3. Appreci- able improvements were evident also with respect to emotional con- trol, interest in work, laziness, nervousness, general conduct, and school achievement. Little or no improvement was noted in day-dreaming or responsibility. No comparison is possible with respect to happiness be- ‘ause that trait was not included in the inventory in 1934. In general, the relative decrease in serious maladjustments appeared to be greater than the relative decrease in all maladjustments. These results may have been due partly to a tendency on the part of the teachers to rate pupils more leniently in 1936 than in 1934. How- ever, with the exception of two teachers, the rating was done by the same teachers in both years. Each teacher rated a different group of pupils in each year. Table 2 shows the number and percent of pupils who were well adjusted with respect to all traits, and the number and percent who were maladjusted in at least one trait, in 1934 and in 1936. Group A, the well-adjusted group, increased from 15 percent to 31 percent of all pupils in the school. Group B, including all who appeared to be malad- justed in any degree, decreased from 85 percent to 69 percent of all pupils. Group C, containing only those who were rated as considerably or very seriously maladjusted, decreased from 47 percent to 27 percent TABLE 2—SummMary or Purr, ADJUSTMENT IN 1934 AND 1936 | 1934 1936 Grovups* | ; ’ Number | Percent Number | Percent — a) | (2) (3) (4) (5) Group A—Well-adjusted pupils (checked at evn 0 M06 Mt QIN s kos cic os eae eo 89 15.3 166 30.9 Group B—Maladjusted pupils (having at least one trait checked at level 2, 3, or 4).. 491 84.7 370 69.1 Group C—Seriously maladjusted pupils (hav- ing at least one trait checked at level 3 Gel ee Sek ere a ots eer 271 46.7 145 27.1 Read table: Of the 580 pupils in the school in 1934, 89 or 15.3 percent were well adjusted with re- spect to all traits; 491 or 84.7 percent were maladjusted to some extent in at least one trait; and 271 or 46.7 percent were seriously maladjusted in at least one trait. Similarly read figures for the year 1936, ® Based on the results of ratings on the “Pupil Adjustment Inventory” shown in Figure I. » The total number of pupils in the school was 580 in 1934, and 536 in 1936. 512 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS of the school population. Again the relative improvement appeared to be greatest in the case of the seriously maladjusted children. Possible cause of improved adjustment—While it is helpful to know that pupil adjustment improved during the two-year period, it js even more important to inquire into the causes of that improvement. This is a difficult question to answer. So many factors contribute to per- sonality development that the relative contribution of each cannot be determined with precision. Moreover, causes vary greatly according to the nature of the individual case. The writer does not believe, how- ever, that the personality changes described above were entirely for- tuitous. He believes that they were due in some measure to a combina- tion of elements in the school’s program of personality guidance. Follow- ing are some of the steps that have been taken to help children as a result of the 1934 survey: 1. An effort has been made to improve teacher-pupil relationships. The study and discussion of pupil adjustment has helped crystallize among the faculty a feeling of friendliness, an understanding and a more sympathetic and tolerant attitude which is favorable to a happier relationship between teachers and pupils. 2. Teachers have become more alert and more skilful in discovering causes of maladjustment in children. 3. The health of the pupils has been watched more carefully than ever before. A few pupils have attended school only half days until nervous conditions were improved. 4. Home visits have increased. Thru this closer contact, parents and teachers have worked toward the same educational objectives. 5. The parent-teacher association has been active in circulating pertinent maga- zines and other valuable reading material among parents. 6. Special help has been given to pupils with reading difficulties. Diagnostic tests have been given to determine specific deficiencies and to aid in selecting material for remedial work. 7. Careful selection of children for admission to the first grade has helped to prevent maladjustment resulting from failure to learn to read within a reasonable time. 8. Materials of instruction have been selected more carefully than before. Teachers have aimed to use interesting material written at the reading level oi the pupils. 9. Leadership has been developed in the physical education or game periods. The “squad leader” system is used. 10. Special recreational opportunities have been provided for children after school hours and on Saturdays. 11. Tests of intelligence, achievement, and personality adjustment, together with conferences and observation, have helped to determine the nature, extent, and causes of existing maladjustments. 12. Doctors, nurses, social workers, and psychiatrists have been asked to help in diagnosing pupil difficulties and in planning remedial treatment for them. The appropriate procedures for the correction of maladjustments in pupils vary as each case is analyzed. There are many ways of helping individuals to readjust themselves so that they may live normal, happy les ests rial to ble ore. | of rds. ter her ent, ielp MEASURING PROGRESS OF PUPILS 513 lives, and the Washington School tries to utilize as many of these methods as possible. Conclusion—Schools cannot excuse themselves from their share of responsibility for the personality development of boys and girls. As this responsibility grows, the need for professional study increases. Thru professional study the entire program of the school can be made to contribute to better pupil adjustment. It is the duty of each teacher to plan the instruction for her pupils. Courses of study and suggestions from supervisors are helpful in the selection of content material, but the adaptation of this material to the needs of the individual pupil is the teacher’s task. In order to know these needs the teacher must be thoroly acquainted with her pupils in every possible way. The adjustment inventory helps the teacher to ob- tain systematic knowledge of her pupils at an early date and to plan for their development. The need for permanent and cumulative records is now generally ac- cepted. Where these are available, conscientious teachers will go to the files to study valuable data, and will be ready to help pupils much varlier than if such records had not been kept. A pupil may be satis- factorily adjusted for a number of years and then begin to show symp- toms of maladjustment. A study of the inventory records helps the teacher to determine when behavior changes have occurred, and thus makes it easier for her to locate the causes. A regular survey of adjustment keeps the teachers and the prin- cipal informed as to the amount of adjustment and maladjustment in the school. It also points out the symptoms needing attention and the specific pupils needing aid. While the adjustment inventory described in this article is by no means a perfect instrument for measuring pupil adjustment, it will, if used cautiously by competent and well-informed teachers, yield information of great value for the study and guidance of children. 514 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS CONSTRUCTING AND USING A MEASURE OF GOOD MANNERS Morris B. Grnspure Principal, Adaire-Chandler School, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania campaign, which was undertaken as part of a year’s supervisory program. In the main, however, the discussion is limited to a justi- fication for, and a description of, the construction of the measuring de- vice used. Only such reference to the campaign itself will be made as is necessary to explain the part which measurement played in it. In this distribution of emphasis there is no reflection of relative importance, but merely a concentration of attention on the technics by which the construction of a measuring instrument became the focus for an entire supervisory project. Relating the project to pupil needs—Annually there is selected for supervisory emphasis in the Philadelphia Public Schools some phase of educational activity. For the year 1936-37 this topic was “good manners.” The following is quoted from the superintendent’s letter an- nouncing the project: Te ARTICLE is based on an attempt to evaluate a “good manners” The term “good manners” has been chosen in preference to “courtesy” or “politeness,” as the expression is probably more meaningful to the children and will make more general appeal to various groups of pupils. . . . Essentially, good manners are a phase of character education. They are based primarily upon consideration for others and upon the ability to put oneself in another’s place. In addition to these basic considerations, however, there is also the problem of acquainting children with certain social conventions suited to their respective ages and social situations. Any attempt by a school to give more than mere lip service to the development of good manners requires some judgment as to the rela- tion of the general topic to the specific needs of that school. The super- intendent put it thus: ‘Work in this field will have to be highly in- dividualized and socialized. ... The school should study its own situation, particularly with a view to analyzing the present ‘courtesy level’ of its pupilage.” In other words, the school must identify itself with the project. In such a situation a principal could, by fiat, set up the entire super- visory project for his school, relying on his own judgment of the needs of the school. This judgment might range all the way from the most subjective, based on cumulative subconscious impressions, to the most objective, based entirely upon tests and controlled observation. It would, however, be the judgment of only one person in the school. If the law of the “felt need” is to operate here, the opinions of teachers and one AY {= 1s st It If MEASURING ProGrREss oF PupILs 515 pupils are equally necessary for success. The identification of principal, teachers, and pupils with such a project can be reached thru coopera- tive activities whose purpose is to reveal the present status of the pupils and their subsequent needs. Cooperative determination of goals—Every survey of status and needs implies the acceptance of certain goals. Determining where we are is a process of measuring the present situation against a set of criteria. These criteria are, in turn, dependent upon the goals we have con- sciously or unconsciously set up. If we change the desirable ends, there will be a consequent revamping of the factors to be observed. We tend to see in any situation the presence or absence of what we are looking for, and to ignore other manifestations no matter how significant they may be. Obviously, if the felt need is to be a common need, the prin- cipal must enlist the cooperative endeavor of teachers and pupils in setting up the goals. As an initial step in the “good manners” project, the teacher and pupils were asked to submit instances of action contrary to good manners which they had observed during the term. These reports were called for at the close of June 1936. No limitation was placed on the number of reports submitted by any one person, but pupils below the third grade were not included because they were unable to write out reports. After combining variously described situations which were es- sentially the same, and throwing out those noted by fewer than 10 percent of the reporters, the bulky list was reduced to manageable proportions, as follows: . Pushing ahead of others in line, ete. . Not flushing toilets . Loud, harsh, or unpleasant voices . Walking in front of others and not saying “excuse me”’ . Running in the halls or on stairways . Defacing property . Obstructing the view of others in assembly . Laughing at others’ mistakes . Taking advantage when the teacher is occupied elsewhere 10. Teasing others about their handicaps 11. Playing dangerously in the yard 12. Boys not lifting hats when meeting ladies 13. Choosing the best when materials are distributed 14. Saying “huh?” or nodding the head when questioned 15. Chewing gum in the classroom 16. Interrupting the conversation of others 17. Playing with water at the drinking fountain 18. Failing to say “excuse me” after unintentional discourtesy 19. Pouting or sulking after correction 20. Walking noisily in rooms or halls 21. Not looking at the person to whom one is speaking 22. Taking choicest seats in assembly 23. Not using handkerchief when necessary COnoo fr WN 516 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 24. Being untidy in dress 25. Untidy in use of cloakroom 26. Unclean hands, face, or body 27. Not neat in use of desk 28. Not neat in yard 29. Using improper language 30. Slouching in seat or at desk when called upon 31. Distracting attention by playing with pencil, pen, etc. 32. Disobeying the safety patrol 33. Neglecting necessary notes for absence, lateness, etc. 34. Taking advantage of permission to leave 35. Not speaking distinctly 36. Not saying “please” or “thank you” at proper time 37. Refusing to share play materials. A quantitative survey of manners in the school—We now had a quali- tative analysis of our field of activity; we knew with what “manners situations” we had to deal. However, several important questions, the answers to which were vital to efficient procedure, remained unan- swered. Which situations were the most numerous and which were the least numerous? Which ones showed a fairly constant frequency thru- out the grades? Which increased in number as the pupils grew older, and which diminished? Which seemed equally obvious to teachers and pupils? Which were noticed by one group and ignored by the other? What would a quantitative analysis reveal? An inventory form was mimeographed and distributed to each teacher, and to two pupils in each classroom in Grades III, IV, V, and VI. These pupils, a boy and a girl in each room, were those in whose judg- ment the teacher could place greatest reliance. The inventory form listed the manners situations as given above, and provided space for noting the frequency of occurrence of each. It designated certain periods during which the teachers were to make observations, and others during which the pupils were to observe. The pupil observers were not notified of their appointment until the teachers’ observations had been recorded, and neither teachers nor pupils discussed the project with other pupils until all the records were in the principal’s office. We felt that we had assured natural behavior on the part of those under observation. The facts thus gathered were summarized under headings corre- sponding to the following groups of judges: . Pupils in Grades III and IV . Pupils in Grades V and VI . Teachers in Grades I and II . Teachers in Grades III and IV . Teachers in Grades V and VI . Boys in Grades III, IV, V, and VI . Girls in Grades III, IV, V, and VI. IAQ oP whe ili- ers the the ru- ler, ind er? ier, VI. rm for ain und ers ons ject ‘Te- MEASURING ProGREss oF PUPILS 517 ——_— Since the number of observers differed from group to group, the results had to be reduced to a percentage or rank basis for purposes of compari- son. In Table 1 the rank basis is used. Only the ranks of the twenty most frequent items of behavior are given in this table. The behavior occur- ring most frequently is ranked 1, and that occurring least frequently, 20; except that where two or more items have the same frequency, each is given the average of the ranks which they would otherwise have. For all groups of judges, the twentieth rank represents less than one occur- rence per observer, on the average. To assist teachers in interpreting these results, a chart was prepared showing them graphically. The following questions were appended to the chart: 1. Are there wide variations in the findings when pupils’ reports are compared with those of teachers? Are there cases in which what seems important to the teacher is ignored by the pupils, or vice versa? Ought we not be building a common viewpoint? How else can we determine what factors to stress? 2. Is there progress in the elimination of some situations from Grade I to VI? Is this accidental, or is it the result of natural growth or of conscious effort? Will we make more progress if we concentrate our efforts at the points where they are most needed? Ought we not “put the grease where the squeak is”? 3. Is there retrogression in some situations? Is there a point where this inci- dence becomes critical? Is this not the point at which special watchfulness and special stress are needed? Ought we not grade our expectations and requirements? 4. Are the situations which rank consistently low, or which are not observed at all, really those which never or: rarely occur, or are we merely unconscious of them? Is not this a matter of standards? Are we accepting some reaction because of an attitude of “You can’t expect any better”? Is this attitude justified? Are the highest ideals in good manners too high?? Obviously, such an approach was entirely too mature for the pupils. For their benefit, a simple bar graph showing the combined frequencies was mimeographed, and a copy was posted in each classroom. This graph was made the center for discussion and activity with reference to good manners in the room. A program for encouraging good manners—The teachers were asked to bring their reactions to the next faculty meeting for a pooling of views. At this meeting there was general agreement that a committee should draw up a plan for the school, and that this plan should include: 1. The designation, for each month, of a core of manners situations to receive special attention 2. The grade or grades where attention should be given to each manners situation 3. Provision for flexibility so that the teacher could adapt the program to the particular needs of her classroom. 1The writer has found that such questions are unusually effective in directing thinking about any graphic presentation of facts. 518 ELEMENTARY ScHOOL PRINCIPALS TABLE 1—Resutts or MANNERS INVENTORY IN OctToBER 1936 VI | Pu RANK OF BewAvior ITEMs ACCORDING TO PiLS | } Grades |Grades |Grades |Grades |Grades V and III and} V and IV (6) | VI | St OO .| 19.5 19 FREQUENCY AS OBSERVED BY TEACHERS ITeMs OF BEHAVIOR ALL - ie Os- SERV- ERS ITand |III and Com- II IV BINED (1) (2) (3) (4) Taking advantage when teacher is oc- ERS er ear Eee 1 8.5] 2 Distracting attention by playing with I ibs 0G ia gs wR eee Ae a 2 2 1 Pushing ahead of others............... 3 5.5] 4 Loud, harsh, unpleasant voices......... 4 17.5] 8.5 Chewing gum in the classroom.......... 5 17.5 | 14 Slouching in seat when called upon...... 6 3 3 Walking noisily in rooms or halls. ...... 7 8.5| 6 Running in halls or on stairs........... 8 11.5| 6 Interrupting others’ conversation. ...... 9 1 11.5 Walking in front of others.............. 0.5)...... 15.5 Not looking at person speaking......... 10.5| 7 6 Saying ‘‘huh” or nodding when spoken to.| 12 4 18 Picking the best when materials are dis- NR a kinins ana mad eice es qa See - a eS 15.5 Not flushing toilets.................... See Playing dangerously in the yard........ oe owe 18 WE IE MNOID oc ecin viv csousw Was walauds 16 10 8.5 Not using the handkerchief when neces- Sr re ee ee err 17 | | Bae Rie WOO UE MN. 60. i ek ee 18 13.5] 11.5 Laughing at others’ mistakes........... 19.5] 18.5]..... Not saying “‘please”’ or “thank you”’....| 19.5 | 17.5) 11.5 Teasing others about handicaps.........|......)......)...-5- Not saying “excuse me” after discourtesy .|......| 17.5 | 20 Choosing the most desirable seats in as- aw alain watandal Sua y ae Oe ARES Neen! Ay) Pe Unclean hands, face, or body........... wdsiee of 287-28 Untidy use of cloakroom.............../...... 17.5 | OEE OI re arr Serre on: ES aay SC: Ber Aree Disobeying the safety patrol............|......[.....e}eeeee- Neglecting necessary notes for absence, in ee eee heres | pa & Not speaking distinctly ................|.....s[e..0-- 11.5 | Refusing to share play materials........ eee. Se Saree ies se | Read table: The item “Taking advantage when teacher is occupied’’ occurred more frequently than any other listed, according to the combined reports of all observers; it was given a rank of 84 by the teachers in Grades I-II, of 2 by the teachers in Grades III-IV and V-VI, of 1 by the pupils in Grades III-IV, and of 5 by the pupils in Grades V-VI. Similarly read figures for each of the other items listed in column 1. MEASURING ProGrREss oF PupPILs 519 The program developed to meet these specifications was as follows: : GOOD MANNERE TO BE EMPHASIZED DURING 1936-37 As a result of our inventory of manners situations, the following are selected for emphasis with a view to substituting the acceptable response. Teachers should feel free to modify the program to suit the special needs of their classrooms at any Pe. particular period. and Emphasize in Grade VI Month Manners Situation Needing Correction I-II III-IV V-VI 7 November— Interrupting the conversation of others... ... x neni December Running in the halls or on stairways......... x Loud, harsh, or unpleasant voices........... x Saying “huh,” nodding the head, etc......... x 2 Not using handkerchief when necessary..... . x Walking noisily thru halls, etc............... x Not neat in use of the desk................. x Pushing ahead of others in line, ete.......... x < Taking advantage when teacher is occupied Oe SE A SEE ee at ree x > Distracting attention by playing with pencils, | EY ee eee Ce ee x x x Slouching in seat or when called on to speak.. x x x Not looking at person with whom one is speak- PPS re) Pree eer ret ee ry x x x om | — — VIiWwWwe ao Lo] Ww VY or on ne. January Taking advantage when teacher is occupied EES TE OE ee Walking noisily thru halls or in room........ Unclean hands, face, body................. Running in the halls or on stairways........ Loud, harsh, or unpleasant voices........... x Not saying “‘please”’ or “‘thank you’’........ 8 Not neat in use of the desk................. : Laughing at others’ mistakes............... x I ore er eee ee eee x 9.5 § Interrupting the conversation of others...... Not speaking distinctly.................... x Walking in front of others and not saying : RN eee ene 6.5 § Saying “huh,” nodding the head, etc........ oo © © “a ww ew Mad ww w~ ww eK OK ~ February Reemphasize those items above which need more attention; add others. yi March Loud, harsh, or unpleasant voices........... Not saying ‘‘excuse me”’ after discourtesy... . Untidy use of the cloakroom................ Neglecting necessary notes for absence, etc... Taking advantage of permission to leave the “~ KK Ow 5 “ _ Walking in front of others without saying of 83 gE pe Er Re Oe ape eee Gee Wy Sell at x pupils Playing dangerously in the yard............. x of the Unclean face, hands, or body............... x Pushing ahead of others in line, ete.......... , —— 520 ELEMENTARY ScHooL PRINCIPALS Emphasize in Grade Month Manners Situation Needing Correction I-II IJIII-IV V VI Walking noisily in halls or room............ x Chewing gum in the classroom.............. x x Picking the best when materials are dis- SINE: 5: 5:6 daha mae tee Kaas Xx x April Walking in front of others without saying NN cenccGubMets saved baeewed's s x eR I RE Ga hE wan sa'oes cae x Picking the best when materials are dis- I, i's 6.4% saree whiiee bance al sites x Saying ‘‘huh,” nodding the head, etc........ x Unclean hands, face, or body............... Not saying ‘‘excuse me” after discourtesy.... x Running in the halls or on stairways......... x Not using handkerchief when necessary... .. . x Not saying “‘please”’ or “‘thank you”’........ x x ~“ May See February. June Reinventory and plan emphasis for the dura- tion of this term and next. The forward-looking teacher will, of course, endeavor to lead her pupils to make this program their own. The principles on which she bases her activities will be essentially those which guided the writer in the activities described above. But the teacher will need to adjust her technics to the maturity of her pupils and to the interests they have developed. Conclusion—A partial measure of our success should be available at the close of the year. A reinventory at that time should reveal whether or not there has been significant improvement in the behavior stressed. However, since any gain revealed at the close of the campaign may be lost as soon as the pressure of the campaign is removed, it will be necessary to allow a term or a year of normal emphasis to elapse, and then to take a third inventory. The results, when compared with the findings of the previous inventories, will show how much of the initial gain has been retained, and where reemphasis is needed. Any attempt to reduce to a quantitative basis an intangible such as good manners is fraught with the danger of mechanization. The writer believes that the desire to measure such behavior is in itself insufficient justification for undertaking an activity of this kind. When, however, it becomes possible thru the planning and use of a measuring device, to lead teachers and pupils to identify themselves with the school’s pro- gram, and to identify this with the city program, lack of warrant cannot MEASURING PROGRESS OF PUPILS 521 be claimed. In such a scheme measurement has its proper place. A super- visory program needs to be trestled upon something more substantial than the subjective determination, by any single individual, of the immediate needs, the subsequent progress, and the ultimate goals of the school. T IS SAFE TO SAY that there is no definable aspect of character I or personality which could not be measured by expert per- sons, given reasonable time and funds, with reliability equal to or superior to the better classroom tests in particular subject- matter fields. No one conducting any research in which char- acter outcomes are important can excuse failure to measure them by the assumption that such measurement is impossi- ble. . There is very little hope of magic touchstones for character. It looks very much as though results were going to be depend- ent upon extensive, expensive, and long-continued thoroughness in observing and recording human behavior. The school pro- gram made up of whatever is easiest to do will have little im- mediate place for character measurements. The school program centered about what is most important to do will very probably lead to another conclusion.—Character Education, Tenth Year- book, Department of Superintendence, 1932, p. 348, 404. 522 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. SELECTED REFERENCES . Aten, Ricuarp D. “Testing and Guidance in a City Public School System.” Educational Record Supplement No. 10 (October 1936). p. 82-92. . Broom, M. E. Guide to the Study of Educational Measurements in the Ele- mentary School. Ann Arbor, Mich.: Edward Brothers, 1936. 115 p. . Buros, Oscar K. Educational, Psychological, and Personality Tests of 1933, 1934, and 1935. Studies in Education, No. 9. New Brunswick, N. J.: Rut- gers University, 1936. 83 p. . GREENE, Harry A., and JorceENsEN, A. N. The Use and Interpretation of Ele- mentary School Tests. New York: Longmans, Green and Co., 1935. 530 p. . Keviey, Truman L., and Krey, A. C. Tests and Measurements in the Social Sciences. Report of the Commission on the Social Studies, American Historical Association, Part IV. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1934. 635 p. . Knupsen, Cuartes W. Evaluation and Improvement of Teaching. Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday, Doran and Co., 1932. Chapter 8, “Evaluation of Instruction by Means of Standardized Tests,” p. 285-320. . Lrncotn, Epwarp A., and Workman, L. L. Testing and the Uses of Test Results. New York: Macmillan Co., 1935. 317 p. . Linpquist, E. F., and ANnperson, H. R. “Achievement Tests in the Social Studies.” Educational Record 14: 198-256; April 1933. . Mapsen, Iver N. Educational Measurement in the Elementary Grades. Yonk- ers-on-Hudson, New York: World Book Co., 1930. 294 p. McConn, Max. “Examinations Old and New: Their Uses and Abuses.” Edu- cational Record 16: 375-411; October 1935. Me sy, Ernest O. “Some Problems in Measurement.” Education 56: 170-74; November 1935. Mort, Paut R., and Gates, ArtHuR I. The Acceptable Uses of Achievement Tests. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1932. 85 p. Opett, C. W. Traditional Examinations and New Type Tests. New York: Century Co., 1928. 469 p. OssurN, W. J., chairman. “Educational Tests and Their Uses.” Review of Educational Research 5: 441-535; December 1935. Sece,t, Davip. “Recent Developments in Educational Measurement.” Educa- tion 56: 161-64; November 1935. Speer, Rosert K. Measurement of Appreciation in Poetry, Prose, and Art, and Studies in Appreciation. Contributions to Education, No. 362. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1929. 77 p. Tiras, Ernest W. Tests and Measurements for Teachers. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1931. 470 p. Tyter, Rate W. “Needed Research in the Fields of Tests and Examinations.” Educational Research Bulletin (Ohio State University) 15: 151-58; Sep- tember 16, 1936. Woopy, Cuirrorp, and SaNcren, Paut V. Administration of the Testing Pro- gram. Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York: World Book Co., 1933. 397 p. . Wricutstone, J. Wayne. “Constructing an Observational Technique.” Teach- ers College Record 37: 1-9; October 1935. le- ial an 34, en lu- 14; ent rk: of LCa- and rk: ton ep- >r0- CHAPTER VIII ESTIMATING THE EFFICIENCY OF TEACHERS EDITORIAL COMMENT NTIL RECENTLY, teacher rating was associated primarily with the retention and promotion of teachers. During the past decade, however, there has been a growing interest in the measurement of teaching ability as a means of improving instruction. While most administrators would probably agree that such measurement cannot yet be used safely in determining teachers’ salaries, few would contend that it cannot contribute to the improvement of teaching service. Ideally, the efficiency of teachers should be judged according to the results which they obtain with pupils. It is extremely difficult, however, to determine the extent to which pupil achievement is due to the teacher rather than to other influences. For this reason most appraisals of teaching success have focused attention on the personality, pro- fessional knowledge, and classroom methods of the teacher. Either of these two approaches, when used alone, is likely to lead to serious error. Both approaches seem necessary if reasonably valid judgments are to be reached. Fortunately, the improvement of instruction does not require a fine discrimination between the abilities of different teachers. It is sufficient if the principal or supervisor, in cooperation with the individual teacher, can discover the points of strength and weakness in the latter’s per- sonality and methods of teaching, and can use this knowledge to foster teacher growth. This process, of course, should utilize any special tech- nies which will facilitate the discovery of pertinent facts about the teacher and her work. The two contributors to this brief chapter offer no ready-made solu- tion to the problem of teacher rating. In the first article, Shannon re- views the methods which have been used in this field. In the light of research findings and the opinions of educational authorities, he con- cludes (1) that a combination of methods is essential, and (2) that much additional research must be conducted before a truly scientific appraisal is achieved. The second article, by Bush, describes the application of certain methods in actual school situations. The author proposes criteria for judging instruction in several areas. Further information on the problems and possibilities of estimating teacher efficiency may be found in the references listed on page 537.— Editorial Committee. [ 523 ] 524 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS DIFFICULTIES IN ESTIMATING THE EFFICIENCY OF TEACHERS J. R. Stannon Professor of Education, Indiana State Teachers College, Terre Haute, Indiana chase a rainbow. Precise measurement of teaching efficiency is a limit which may be approached but probably never will be at- tained. Before such measurement can be achieved, we must know what each individual child should be taught, what standards each child should attain, how all teaching should be done by each teacher with each pupil, and how achievement in all fields of learning can be measured. At present none of these things is known with certainty, altho tentative standards have been formulated with respect to many aspects of them. Our gradual growth in knowledge of these things will undoubtedly enable the variable of success in measuring teacher efficiency to ap- proach its limit more closely. This article reviews the principal methods of teacher measurement which have been used or suggested thus far, and discusses their limitations for practical school use. Ways of measuring teacher efficiency directly—The direct means for measuring efficiency in teaching fall into two general categories: (1) the measurement of teaching procedures, and (2) the measurement of teaching results. A number of particular proposals have been made, but all which purport to measure teaching merit directly are applications of one or the other or both of these two general types. For example, Stevens! has shown how the teacher’s questions can be used as a measure of efficiency in instruction. Her idea clearly falls under the heading of measuring teaching procedures. Numerous score-cards have been devised to measure teachers and teaching. These include both items of procedure and items of results. They usually include also a limited number of general qualities, such as the personal traits and pro- fessional training of the teacher, that are only indirectly valuable in measuring teaching. These qualities in themselves have little signifi- cance; it is only as they are manifested in classroom procedures or results that they become potent factors in teaching success. Thus, whether estimates of teaching success are made by pupils, by supervisors, or by parents, they are arrived at either consciously or un- consciously thru one or the other (or both) of the two approaches just mentioned. Various impeding factors, however, prevent each of these methods or any combination of them from being fully satisfactory. T: HOPE TO MEASURE EFFICIENCY in teaching with exactitude is to 1 Stevens, Romiett. The Question as a Measure of Efficiency in Instruction. Contributions to Education, No. 48. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1912. EstiMATING EFFICIENCY OF TEACHERS 525 Difficulties in judging teaching procedures—Perhaps the chief diffi- culty in measuring teaching efficiency thru judging teaching procedures is that there is no one best way to teach. Both common observation and competent authority support this conclusion.’ The teaching act cannot be reduced to a formula. That which is good teaching in one situation or with one pupil may not be appropriate in another situation or with another pupil. With a variety of individual needs among the members of a class, a given teaching act may at the same time be both good and bad. Also, some teachers may find certain procedures successful while other teachers find them ineffective. A more obvious difficulty is the unreliability of judging teaching pro- cedures. Those doing the rating are themselves erratic in their judg- ments; they often do not know enough about teaching procedures; and they are prone to confuse the issues involved. That one critic fre- quently will call a teaching performance good which another will call poor is too patent to necessitate further argument. Arguments for judging teachers by results—Those who disapprove of using teaching procedures as the basis for measuring teacher efficiency . are often inclined more favorably toward the measurement of results. This point of view is expressed emphatically by Sharp, who declares that the teacher should be allowed great freedom to work out his own policies. Ignorant school boards and fussy superintendents can easily spoil a good man’s work, or drive him out of the field, and indeed out of the profession. Even if he is willing, or is compelled to stay, interference on the part of others will hamper him, for he can do his best only by methods which he approves. He should therefore be held responsible solely for results.’ . A statement perhaps even more impressive is the following: It is the teacher’s task to make changes for the better in the abilities, habits, and attitudes of the boys and girls. Her efficiency can be evaluated fairly only in terms of her success at this task. In other words, if a teacher is rated at all, she should be rated, not by the clothes she wears, or the method she chooses, but by the results she secures. Other writers have expressed similar views. Among them are Barr and Burton, who say, “The final test of efficiency is to be found in the amount and quality of service rendered—in the actual output of work.” ° In discussing teacher rating, however, the same authors say: 2See: Hudelson, Earl. ‘‘Experimental Supervision.” Educational Supervision. First Yearbook of the ‘National Conference of Educational Method. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1928. Chapter XV, p. 208-15. { Monroe, Walter S. Directing Learning in the High , School. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, Page and Co., 1927. p. 89. Sharp, Frank C. Education for Character. Indianapolis, Ind.: Bobbs-Merrill Co., 1917. p. 21-22. *Connor, William L. ‘‘A New Method of Rating Teachers.”’ Journal of Educational Research 1: 338-58; May 1920. 5 Barr, A. S., and Burton, William H. The Supervision of Instruction. New York: D. Appleton Co., 1926. p. 323. 526 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Just because human judgment is fallible is no reason to do away with proced- ures which rest upon judgment. We have to rely upon that same fallible judg- ment in many vitally important affairs in life. We base courses of action affecting the welfare of many people upon it. Likewise rating which affects the welfare of teachers may be based upon carefully controlled judgment. In the absence of objective methods and data, it is not only legitimate to rely upon controlled subjective methods; it is the only recourse.’ Difficulties in evaluating results of teaching—Altho there is a heavy demand for evaluating teaching merit on the basis of results instead of on the basis of procedures, to do so is to jump from the frying pan into the fire. Even more serious and difficult obstacles are encountered in this area. Two of the most obvious objections to measuring teacher efficiency on the basis of pupil accomplishment are (1) that we are unable to isolate all the things to be measured, and (2) that numerous aspects of pupil development cannot yet be measured at all. These objections are effectively stated by Gast and Skinner, as follows: We are not justified in basing promotions of teachers on their degree of success in getting classes up to an efficiency of 100. The validity of our tests is too uncertain, and the pupils’ scores are influenced by too many factors to justify any such procedure. Moreover, . . . teachers will work to get results of this more formal and measurable sort, and thus neglect the more important and more in- tangible marginal outcomes such as habits, attitudes, ideals, appreciations, and sentiments.’ Similar views are expressed by Wrinkle and Armentrout, who say: If the success of the teacher is to be measured in terms of such objectively determined progress of students, the teacher who is interested in attaining such success is likely to emphasize those things most likely to be involved in the achievement tests. ... By no means is such achievement the most important outcome of education. . . . The progress and achievement of students who have been working under the direction of a teacher . . . cannot be accepted as a sole or even major factor in determining teaching success until it is possible to meas- ure student progress and achievement in ways other than in terms of knowledge and skill required® Other objections to rating teachers on the basis of pupil achievement are the low correlations found between the acquisition and the retention of knowledge, and between the acquisition of knowledge and its use in later life. Also, we are warned to guard against the over-use of tests because of their possible conflict with the mental hygiene of the child and of the teacher.*® ®Ibid., p. 459. See also: Courtis, Stuart A. “Standards of Teaching Ability.’’ Educational Review 62: 183-86; October 1921. 7 Gast, Ira M., and Skinner, Harley C. Fundamentals of Educational Psychology. Chicago: Benjamin H. Sanborn Co., 1929. p. 67-68. 8 Wrinkle, William L., and Armentrout, Winfield D. Directed Observation and Teaching in Secondary Schools. New York: Macmillan Co., 1932. p. 351-52. ® Lancelot, William H. ‘“‘Standards of Measurement of Teaching Ability.’’ School and Society 34: 236-38; August 15, 1931. 10 Myers, Garry C. “Schoolroom Hazards to the Mental Health of Children.”’ Mental Hygiene 12: 18-24; January 1928. EsTIMATING EFFICIENCY OF TEACHERS 527 Combining the two methods—With only two means for directly measuring efficiency in teaching, both of which possess demonstrable weaknesses, some combination of the two probably should be used until something better can be devised. The two means are comple- mentary. To measure results without keeping teaching procedures uni- form provides no real measure of teaching efficiency, for we cannot tell what the results might be if all teachers measured followed the same procedures. To measure procedures only and ignore results is likewise unsatisfactory. Both types of appraisal are needed. If a given procedure is sound, then skill in its use should correlate highly with final results, provided that physical conditions in the class- room, traits of the teachers, and other influential factors are constant. However, since these factors cannot be kept constant, and since there is no reliable measure of skill in using the teaching procedures, correla- tions between estimates of teachers’ ability and the test scores of their pupils have been low."! It is probably justifiable, therefore, to propose that attention be focused largely on teaching procedures, and that measurable results of instruction be considered also as a gross check on the functioning of these procedures. Such a combination, in the writer’s judgment, will form as satisfactory a scheme as can be hoped for at present. ‘““The worth of the teacher can be estimated only by a careful study of the actual teaching performance, and by accurate measurement of the attainments of the pupils which can be accounted for in terms of the teacher’s work.” '* In connection with the proposal just made, two further considerations should be borne in mind. First, the measuring of classroom procedure must be done by means of a more analytical device than most of the so-called score-cards now in circulation. The latter give too gross a picture of the teaching process. Most of them do not tell the whole story. Too many significant elements are omitted, and regardless of how well or how poorly a teacher may perform in respects not covered by the score-card, her “score” remains unaffected thereby. It is probably true that a score-card at present “can do no more than systematize the judgment of the one who uses it.” ** The second point to be considered is the apparent tendency among educators at present to swing away from an attitude of extreme “‘ob- 11See: Crabbs, Lelah M. Measuring Efficiency in Supervision and Teaching. Contributions to Education, No. 175. New York: Teachers College, Columbia Universiay, 1925. 98 p. § Baird, James, and Bates, Guy. “The Basis of Teacher Rating.’”’ Educational Administration and Supervision 15: 175-83; March 1929. 2 Nutt, Hubert W. The Supervision of Instruction. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1920. p. 229. (Italics by the present writer.) 18 Monroe, Walter S., and Weber, Oscar F. The High School. Garden City, New York: Double- day, Doran and Co., 1928. p. 489. 528 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS jectivity-ness,” toward a sane and carefully considered “subjectivity- ness.” Two illustrations of this shift are found in the statements of Deutsch and of Engleman. Deutsch says: How then should we know good teachers? There is only one way—to place the decision in the hands of those who are qualified to judge—qualified by their learning, by their knowledge of what constitutes good teaching—and who, above all, have that rare power to see whether those under consideration possess the qualities and knowledge necessary.“ Engleman wonders “whether our pedagogical passion for objectivity may not be due quite as much to our proneness to laziness as to a pen- chant for the techniques of science.” '® An indirect approach—Altho there are only two general ways of di- rectly measuring efficiency in teaching, there are in addition certain indirect means. One of these which has been advocated in recent years is the measurement of pupil attention.’® The assumptions back of this device seem to be (1) that good teaching will hold pupils’ attention while poor teaching will not; (2) that if pupils remain attentive, defi- nite and valuable learnings are bound to result; and (3) that pupil at- tention can be measured with a relatively high degree of reliability. There are serious limitations, however, which make the use of this device unsatisfactory as a measure of teaching success. Blume, himself an advocate of the technic, deprecates its value for this purpose by saying, “The supervisor who uses the scores as a rating device is as grossly negligent of his duty as he would be were he to use a standard test in arithmetic for the same purpose.” '7 An experiment by the present writer ** showed that altho attention scores obtained by different observers correlated closely and were therefore sufficiently reliable, their correlations with more subjective measures of teaching merit were considerably lower. At the best, attention scores give only symptoms of satisfactory or unsatisfactory conditions. Further analysis of the teaching when pupil attention is poor must be made before one can tell the cause of the inattention. Further study needed—Much careful study will be necessary before we can expect to arrive at a scheme for measuring efficiency in teaching 14 Deutsch, Monroe E. “How to Know Good Teachers.’’ School and Society 31: 525-28; April 19, 1930. 15 Engleman, J. O. ‘“‘The Place of Objective Standards in Judging Student Teaching.’’ Educa- tional Administration and Supervision 17: 321-29; May 1931. 16 See: Morrison, Henry C. The Practice of Teaching in the Secondary School. Chicago: Uni- versity of Chicago Press, 1931. Chapter VIII, ‘‘Measuring Group Control,” p. 121-40. { Blume, Clarence E. “Techniques in the Measuring of Pupil Attention.’’ Scientific Method in Supervision. Second Yearbook of the National Conference of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1929. Chapter III, p. 37-51. 17 Blume, Clarence E., op. cit., p. 49. 1%8Shannon, J. R. “A Comparison of Three Means for Measuring Efficiency in Teaching.” Journal of Educational Research 29: 501-08; March 1936. ed ™m > YW ~ ESTIMATING EFFICIENCY OF TEACHERS 529 which is valid, reliable, and democratic. Many extensive researches will have to be carried on. Probably no one person or small group of persons can do the work necessary to accomplish the desired result. The ultimate solution will be reached, if ever, only by the gradual ac- cumulation of verifiable data. School principals and supervisors can contribute to this solution by studying the problem of teacher appraisal in their own schools, and reporting the results so that others may profit from them. NE OF THE GREATEST OBSTACLES to the administration of O rating schemes of whatever kind is the insurmountable personal factor. By the very nature of the case, judging teacher efficiency is subjective. Even if we knew all the factors that enter into teacher efficiency and had an objective measure of each personal factor, subjective judgment would not be elimi- nated. It is unnecessary that it should be eliminated. The essen- tial thing is to eliminate mere personal opinion, to make sure that all the elements of teacher efficiency, so far as we know them, are given proper consideration and weight in the forma- tion of the final judgment, and that every judgment be based on a sure foundation of facts and sound educational principles. —Cooke, Dennis H., Problems of the Teaching Personnel, Long- mans, Green and Co., 1933, p. 211. (Quoted by permission of the publishers.) 530 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS METHODS OF EVALUATING THE QUALITY OF INSTRUCTION A. 8. Busu Principal, Woodlawn School, San Antonio, Texas ing efficiency primarily from the viewpoint of the improvement of instruction, rather than from the administrative point of view. If we knew how to estimate the efficiency of teachers more justly and more scientifically, the problem of supervision would be greatly simplified and the principal’s important task of training teachers in service would be easier and much better done. Because of our present limited knowl- edge of the true objectives of teaching, our uncertain measuring devices, and our imperfect technics for controlling irrelevant factors, even the most careful procedure yields results that are only partially reliable. In addition to conditions within the school, there are many outside factors that tend to confuse the picture. Among these are the child’s family background, the character of the community, the child’s experi- ences with reading, travel, movies, radio, and so forth. There is the difference in the ways superior and dull children react to instruction. There is the personality of the teacher—her attitude toward life, to- ward her work, and toward children. All these factors affect the out- comes of classroom teaching in subtle and unpredictable but vital ways. The difficulty and complexity of the problem, however, do not justify supervisors and principals in sidestepping the responsibility of evaluat- ing the work of teachers. Without standards of achievement and sys- tematic appraisal of the teaching process, the whole basis of supervision is reduced to the subjective judgment, or maybe to the personal whims, of the supervising officer. This article first discusses two practical and direct approaches to the problem: (1) critical observation of the teacher at work, and (2) measurement of pupil growth. It then describes the application of these methods in actual school situations. I THIS DISCUSSION the writer is interested in the evaluation of teach- OBSERVING THE TEACHER AT WorK By critical observation is meant such intelligent, sympathetic, and professional observation of a teacher’s work during a series of visits as any principal must make before he can talk constructively to her about her work. It is an insult to a teacher’s integrity and intelligence, as well as a demonstration of the principal’s inefficiency, to invite a teacher into conference after only one or two brief periods of observa- tion, and to attempt to tell her about everything she is doing wrong. aa tnt ao os ah en Co oe oO ™m oO. ~ mi EsTIMATING EFFICIENCY OF TEACHERS 531 The principal cannot yet even tell her what she is doing right, and com- mendation for effective work is a good introduction to any conference. Direct observation of a teacher in action reveals a great deal as to the quality and outcomes of her teaching. It reveals an ease of manner born of self-confidence and a sense of mastery, or a lack of poise due to uncertainty and self-depreciation. It reveals her knowledge and organi- zation of subjectmatter or units of work. It shows her resourcefulness or lack of it in meeting changing situations. It discloses her personality— whether attractive or repellent, inspiring or depressing, cooperative or domineering. It shows strength or weakness in planning, organizing, and directing pupil activities. It reveals the teacher’s technics of approach and her procedures in teaching and in checking the outcomes of instruc- tion. It shows her sense of values, her alertness, and her ability to follow leads. It shows up her housekeeping, the general physical condition of the classroom, and a score of other evidences of strength or weakness. Direct observation which reveals all these things seems indispensable to any valid scheme of evaluating teacher efficiency. MEASURING Pupit GROWTH The growth of pupils also is a fair pragmatic test of teaching effi- ciency. The term “pupil growth” is used here deliberately. Growth implies much more than achievement in school subjects. It signifies all- round personality development—physical, mental, emotional, and social. It includes both individual and social maturation. There are two ways of measuring pupil growth: (1) by alert observa- tion of the reactions of children in the classroom and in the larger school community, and (2) by the use of standardized and informal tests. Observing pupil behavior—Just as the observation of teacher per- formance helps to evaluate teaching, so does the observation of pupil behavior help to estimate teaching efficiency in terms of pupil growth. Such observation reveals the pupils’ general attitudes, whether good or bad; their social attitudes, whether courteous and cooperative or boorish and selfish; their work habits, whether orderly or slovenly; their approaches to learning situations, whether direct and intelligent or indirect and bungling; their attitudes toward their work, whether alert or indifferent; and, in short, their changing adjustments to the entire school environment. A careful analysis of pupil responses to the school situation tells a revealing story of teacher efficiency or ineffi- ciency. This process must become a part of the evaluation of teaching. Using tests of intelligence and achievement—Some phases of pupil growth can be accurately estimated by means of objective tests. This is true of all the elementary skill subjects. Achievement tests covering 532 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS these fields are now developed to a high degree of validity and re- liability. Thru their use we may know not only that a child is growing, but also something about the rate and specific nature of his growth, measured objectively. Both achievement and intelligence tests are used in determining pupil growth. However, neither the achievement score nor the intelligence quotient is in itself of highest significance. A more significant index of growth is the accomplishment ratio. The intelligence quotient indicates the pupil’s relative capacity. The achievement score indicates only what he has actually accomplished. His achievement must be measured against his intelligence (as in the accomplishment ratio) before one knows whether he has achieved up to his ability. Diagnostic achievement tests are of special service in rating teaching efficiency in the skill subjects. In this connection, the writer believes that the ordinary skills of learning—reading, writing, and arithmetic— have to be definitely and specifically taught. In his judgment these skills are not and never will be mere concomitant outcomes of projects, activity programs, or unit studies. They need to be analyzed into their elements and taught specifically, as indicated later in this discussion. In other fields, such as social studies, science, literature, and citizen- ship, measuring rods vary greatly in accuracy. Even there, however, practically reliable evidences of growth can be obtained. THE EVALUATING Process IN OPERATION The following paragraphs attempt to show how the plan of evaluating teaching efficiency by observing teachers and measuring pupil growth works out in actual practise. The reader will observe how closely this plan is tied into the entire school set-up—its guiding philosophy, general organization and administration, curriculum organization, methods of teaching, extracurricular activities, and supervision. From the point of view assumed in this discussion, the efficiency of teachers must be ap- praised with reference to all these aspects, because an efficient school is an integrated school. Descriptions of three types of school activity will illustrate the method used. A look at school assemblies—As the first step in the development of school assemblies, the assumed values of assemblies are set up and discussed in faculty meetings. These values are listed as follows: 1. Assemblies afford occasions for organizing and dramatizing significant out- comes of classroom instruction and other vital school experiences. 2. They call into play a desirable integration of the various activities used in the development of large units of study. 3. By requiring a revival of the setting and spirit of historical episodes and other social situations, they make past and present social experiences more real to children. nd al EsTIMATING EFFICIENCY OF TEACHERS 533 . They develop initiative and cooperation in planning and producing programs. . They make school life more attractive to children. 6. They widen the educational horizons of the pupil audience. . They serve to acquaint parents with the work and standards of the school. . They develop poise and self-confidence. . They reveal special talents, interests and aptitudes. 10. They serve to unify the school and to strengthen morale. oo oO os] The second step is to set up desirable standards for the assembly pro- gram. The following desirable characteristics are indicated: A. Negative 1. Is not teacher-dominated in planning or execution 2. Is not judged by adult standards ' 3. Does not strive for artistic perfection 4. Does not specialize in star exhibitions 5. Does not require elaborate costuming or staging 6. Does not utilize ready-made or second-hand patterns. B. Positive 1. Is on the level of child life and interests 2. Is interesting in form and worthwhile in content 3. Is simple, free, and realistic 4. Is child-planned and executed. The teacher’s skilful guidance is vital, but only suggestive and stimulating. 5. Satisfies the critical standards of children rather than those of adults 6. Utilizes and correlates various contributing interests and activities, such as music, art, literature, costuming, and stage setting 7. Uses in some role all the children of the class or club group 8. Is usually the outgrowth and consummation of a unit of classroom or school activity. The third step is to make ample provision for administering the pro- gram as set up. The school assembly is scheduled for a regular time, and is supervised and administered as faithfully as any other curricular activity. The fourth and final step is to judge teacher efficiency and pupil growth in assembly activities in the light of the objectives, standards, and procedures set up. These will change as experience and judgment may warrant. Evaluation in content subjects—In all content subjects, such as social studies, the evaluation of teaching begins with the teacher’s organiza- tion of curricular materials. We therefore begin by attempting to organ- ize the social studies into large units. The organization of each unit is judged in accordance with the following general outline: 1. General objectives 2. Specific objectives, stated in terms of detailed outcomes to be achieved. These specific objectives reach into as wide a range of related fields as may be explored in developing the unit—history, geography, science, invention, biog- raphy, art, literature, music, and construction ‘ 534 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 3. Approach or orientation 4. Procedures in ample detail a. Teacher activities b. Pupil activities 5. Methods of checking outcomes 6. Bibliography of available reference material. According to the maturity of the children, the nature of the unit, and the amount of detail given, units built on this plan occupy from two or three to ten or fifteen typewritten pages. In some instances an entire semester’s work may be organized as a single integrated unit of study. In all cases, the main divisions of the large unit become subordinate units, which in turn are broken up into their component parts and finally into the details shown in daily lesson plans. The psychology of this procedure includes (1) seeing a unit as a whole, (2) analyzing it into its component parts and studying the rela- tion of these parts, and (3) reconstructing the now familiar parts into an integrated unit. In other terms, this is the well known synthesis- analysis-synthesis method of teaching. A unit of study set up by a teacher after this fashion constitutes a reliable index of her ability to think thru and organize her teaching material. Such ability is in turn one type of evidence of her teaching efficiency. Further evidence of efficiency is found in a teacher’s method of “fol- lowing thru” the teaching of a unit after it has been well planned. The following outline is suggested as a tentative guide in judging the merits of the teaching procedure: 1. Approach: Based on an apparent or easily aroused interest 2. Assimilation: A prolonged period of investigation and study, involving Rugg’s five-point activity program as follows: a. Orienting (excursions, etc.) b. Building (construction work and related industrial arts) c. Creative work (art, music, literature) d. Research (use of references and library in solving problems) e. Group discussion and conferences 3. Organization of learning into usable form 4. Testing for outcomes 5. Presentation. of finished unit (exhibit of results or an assembly program). The teacher’s skill in following thru to the consummation of a unit of study is unquestionably valid evidence of her efficiency. The growth of her pupils in skills, knowledges, abilities, habits, and attitudes is also acceptable evidence of teaching efficiency so far as such growth can be attributed to the teacher’s influence rather than to other factors. Evaluation in skill subjects—In all skill subjects diagnostic testing plays an important part in the teaching process. It is, in fact, a neces- sary preliminary step in intelligent, economical teaching. It is mainly by means of this preliminary testing that the element of time can be cut down in teaching the three R’s. Intelligent remedial instruction certainly EstTiIMATING EFFICIENCY OF TEACHERS 535 should follow careful diagnostic testing. No skill is most economically and efficiently taught generally; it is taught specifically. Classroom teachers might well observe the methods of those who teach athletic skills. The latter do not attempt to teach tennis or swim- ming all at once by general directions. They analyze such skills into elements, teach these elements separately, and then try to coordinate the elements into a skilful, unified performance. The same principle applies to the teaching of skill in arithmetic, for example. Multiplica- tion or subtraction is not learned economically by general practise. It is more efficiently learned by mastering, one at a time, the elements that are essential in the skilful handling of numbers. With this principle in mind, evaluation of efficiency in teaching the skill subjects may begin by examining the accuracy with which each subject is analyzed into its elements. The teacher who does this skilfully has made a good beginning on the road to effective teaching. Next fol- lows the diagnostic test to reveal the elements in which each pupil is strong or weak, and to locate the trouble spots in cases of weakness. Finally, when the trouble spots are isolated, specific remedies are sought and applied to cure the troubles. Insight and skill in following thru these processes are sure evidences of efficient teaching. Description of a simple experiment in arithmetic may help to make these procedures clearer. The fundamental number operations are first analyzed and classified under certain types. Every year, usually in October, tests are given that contain one or more examples of each type. Results of these tests are carefully recorded and analyzed. Any type of error that occurs two or more times is considered a trouble spot and is explained before the class as a whole. Types of errors occurring only once may or may not indicate an element of difficulty; they are just as likely to be due to carelessness. We take no chance, however, and these errors are checked with the individuals who made them. Then for about four weeks teaching and drill are based on the types of errors revealed in the preliminary test. After this a second test is given, covering the same types of number operations. The results of the second test show the amount of improvement made during the period of specific reme- dial work. Definite evidence of improvement in pupil achievement dur- ing this period indicates efficiency in the use of diagnostic tests and remedial instruction. SUMMARY 1. Evaluation of teaching is a complex process not limited to a study of what goes on in actual classroom instruction. 2. There are two practical approaches to the study of teacher effi- ciency: (a) observation of teacher performance, and (b) estimating pupil growth. 536 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 3. Adequate observation of a teacher’s performance must take into account her personality, her philosophy of education, her attitude to- ward life, her attitude toward children, parents, and fellow teachers. her grasp and organization of subjectmatter, and all her technics of classroom management and instruction. Valuable insights into her traits and abilities are gained by observing the teacher at work. 4. Pupil growth may be estimated by observation and by objective tests. Such growth is reckoned in terms of individual and social adjust- ments as shown by the child’s behavior, and in terms of scholastic achievement as shown by his performances on standardized and in- formal tests. Schools are organized and operated for the purpose of fostering pupil growth. The core of the school is its teaching function. Therefore, the pragmatic test of teaching efficiency is ultimately the growth of the pupils. HERE should be close agreement between the accepted ob- firemen of a school and the instruments which the school uses to measure its attainment of these objectives. The practise of giving standardized achievement tests containing material which the school does not intend to teach has no place in a valid program of appraisal. It is especially unfair to judge teachers or teaching methods according to pupil performances on such tests. If fundamental discrepancies exist, either the tests or the aims and content of the school curriculum should be modified. —Chapter I, p. 236 of this yearbook. 1. ~I 11. 12. EsTIMATING EFFICIENCY OF TEACHERS SELECTED REFERENCES Aumy, H. C., and Sorenson, Hersert. “A Teacher-Rating Scale of Deter- mined Reliability and Validity.” Educational Administration and Super- vision 16: 179-86; March 1930. . Barr, A. S. “The Measurement of Teaching Ability.” Journal of Educational Research 28: 561-69; April 1935. . Barr, A. S., and Jayne, C. D. “The Use of Sound Recording Equipment in the Study and Improvement of Teaching.” Journal of Experimental Edu- cation 4: 279-86; March 1936. . Berts, Giipert L. “Evaluation Through Ratings and Other Measures of Suc- cess.” Special Survey Studies. U. 8S. Dept. of the Interior, Office of Edu- cation, Bulletin, 1933, No. 10. National Survey of the Education of Teachers, Vol. V. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1935. Part II, Chapter 1, p. 87-116. . Broom, M. E., and Avutt, J. W. “How May We Measure Teaching Success?” Educational Administration and Supervision 18: 250-56; April 1932. . BruecKNER, Leo J. Scales for the Rating of Teaching Skill. 2d edition. Minne- apolis: University of Minnesota, 1929. 31 p. . CHAMBERLAIN, Leo M. The Teacher and School Organization. New York: Prentice-Hall, 1936. Chapter 12, “The Measurement of Teaching Eff- ciency,” p. 356-86. . Crapss, Letan M. Measuring Efficiency in Supervision and Teaching. Contri- butions to Education, No. 175. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1925. 98 p. . Dawson, Mitprep A. “A Superintendent’s Check List for Evaluating Ele- mentary-Grade Teaching.” American School Board Journal 93: 45; Sep- tember 1936. . ENGELHART, Max D., and Tucker, Lepyarp R. “Traits Related to Good and Poor Teaching.” School Review 44: 28-33; January 1936. Harpesty, Ceci D. “Can Teaching Success be Rated?” Nation’s Schools 15: 27-28; January 1935. Knupsen, Cuartes W. Evaluation and Improvement of Teaching. Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday, Doran and Co., 1932. Chapter 6, “The Use of Rating Devices in the Evaluation of Teaching,” p. 205-48. . Monroz, Water S. Measuring Teaching Efficiency. Bureau of Educational Research, Circular No. 25. Urbana, IIl.: University of Illinois, 1924. 26 p. . Ocanovic, Nicuoutas J. “Teacher Rating Scale.” Hducational Method 16: 343-47; April 1937. . Sencer, Harry L. “Status Teacher-Rating in 1936.” American School Board Journal 93: 56; September 1936. . SEYFERT, WARREN C., and Tynpat, BaLrour 8S. “An Evaluation of Differences in Teaching Ability.” Journal of Educational Research 28: 10-15; Sep- tember 1934. . SHANNON, J. R. “A Comparison of Three Means for Measuring Efficiency in Teaching.” Journal of Educational Research 29: 501-508; March 1936. . Treas, Ernest W. Tests and Measurements for Teachers. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1931. Chapter 11, “The Evaluation of Teaching Efficiency,” p. 210-21. . Torcerson, T. L. “The Measurement and Prediction of Teaching Ability.” Review of Educational Research 7: 242-46, 319-20; June 1937. . WavKer, Heten M., editor. The Measurement of Teaching Efficiency. Kappa Delta Pi Research Publications. New York: Macmillan Co., 1935. 237 p. CHAPTER IX JUDGING SCHOOL EQUIPMENT EDITORIAL COMMENT supplementary materials, mechanical and pictorial devices, classroom furniture and supplies, play equipment, and other items intended to facilitate instruction. Such materials need as careful evaluation as do other elements in the school program. The appraisal of school equipment has two major aspects: (1) de- termining the inherent quality of materials in relation to their cost, and (2) determining the appropriateness and utility of materials in the educational program. The first phase usually requires laboratory facilities and technical skill which are seldom available in public school systems. While the teacher or administrator may improve his selection by checking each product against desirable specifications, he must usu- ally rely on the manufacturer’s statement as to whether the product meets these specifications. Fortunately, the statements of many man- ufacturers may be accepted with confidence. The second phase of appraising school equipment—determining its usefulness in the educational program—is the one to which principals and teachers can contribute most. In undertaking such appraisal, they should not rely on personal opinion alone, but should formulate and use suitable objective measures. Checklists and score-cards are useful in certain situations. Classroom experimentation may help to ceter- mine the effect of different kinds of equipment upon pupil achieve- ment. This chapter deals with only two types of school equipment: text- books and motion picture projectors. In the opening article, Averill discusses criteria for judging a textbook. He stresses the need for a more objective and analytical approach, but recommends that ap- praisers also consider each book as a whole. In the second article, Waterman describes a plan for selecting textbooks, including the for- mulation of criteria, the construction of a score-card, the analysis of different books, and the rating of books according to the results of this analysis. The closing article, by Sigman and Garman, presents the results of a survey of two types of motion picture projector in a large city school system. The authors conclude that the narrow-width equipment is the more satisfactory for elementary schools. In view of the limited scope of this chapter, the reader should con- sult the references listed on page 566.—Editorial Committee. | MERICAN SCHOOLS spend millions of dollars annually for textbooks, [ 538 J ks eS, her ful ory ool ion su- uct an- vals hey and ful er- ve- xt rill ra ap- cle, for- : of this ; of 001 the on- JUDGING SCHOOL EQUIPMENT 539 THE ANALYSIS AND SELECTION OF TEXTBOOKS Wi.uiaAM A. AVERILL Instructor in Education, Lesley School, Cambridge, Massachusetts, and Lecturer, University Extension Division, Magsachusetts State Department of Education, Boston, Massachusetts HE INCREASING SUPPLY of printed materials of instruction offers to the schools an unprecedented volume and variety of basal text- books, supplementary texts and reading books, pupils’ workbooks, teachers’ manuals, pupils’ laboratory manuals, and other auxiliary materials for classroom use. From this bewildering wealth of publica- tions, busy administrators and teachers must choose the particular books which, in their opinion, will best suit the needs of the children who will use them, and which will meet. course-of-study requirements and other conditions imposed by the local school situation. Difficulties of selection—The problem of textbook selection is made difficult by a number of factors, as follows: 1. The large number of publishers’ offerings in every subject 2. The undeniable merits of each textbook or series of textbooks which has already met the exacting demands of a modern publishing house 3. The convincing arguments of publishers’ representatives, and the ability of demonstrators to show that their books will function in the classroom 4. The time-consuming nature of any worthwhile examination of the books by committees or by individual appraisers 5. The fact that many teachers are not trained in the technics of comparative appraisal 6. The frequent relegation of this important task to after-school and evening hours 7. The large role played by subjective opinion and by preferences as well as prejudices for and against specific textbook features 8. The inadequacy of available criteria for judging the suitability of textbooks for a given subject or grade 9. Considerations of cost, personal contacts, and other factors unrelated to the respective merits of the books. Important as each of these elements in the problem is, there is space in this article for only the partial elaboration of actual criteria for the examination and comparison of textbooks. Types of textbook appraisal—The criteria employed by administra- tors and teachers will vary with the type of examination given to the books. Analysis of current practises reveals at least three kinds of examination: 1. A general perusal of the books by an individual appraiser without reference to any specific plan 2. A detailed analysis of all the quantitative aspects of the books, consisting largely of counts of pages devoted to given topics, the number of questions and problems, the number of illustrations, and other similar items 3. A study of the larger, more comprehensive, and more significant features of the books, such as their organization and content, use of effective teaching pres- 540 ELEMENTARY ScHOOL PRINCIPALS entations, provision for activity programs, suitability to particular grades, and other characteristics of each book as-a whole. Many experienced teachers, using their classroom situations, loca] courses of study, and knowledge of their pupils’ capabilities and limita- tions, can decide which textbook they would prefer to place in the chil- dren’s hands. A supervisor, knowing school conditions thruout the local system, may make the same sort of selection. The opinions and prefer- ences of the teacher or supervisor may rest upon a valid foundation of practical experience and a desire to meet the needs of the children. On the other hand, a large measure of subjective opinion and prejudice may enter into appraisal of this type, and the present need is for the use of more objective criteria in textbook selection." The minute analysis of quantitative features goes to an undesirable extreme when it is made the sole basis of appraisal. A considerable amount of counting pages and items is necessary and should enter into all objective comparisons of textbooks. There is, however, no necessary relation between the bulkiness of instructional material and its effective- ness as an instrument of teaching. Hence, quantitative comparisons alone are inadequate. The combination of large, significant features of the books with an appropriate amount of detailed analysis is probably the best basis for comparison. Before these criteria are applied, however, a very essential background should be established, namely, the way in which the text- book selected will be used in the subject and grade under consideration. Anticipated use of the book—Because a textbook or a series of basal texts may be utilized in the classroom in a variety of ways, the exact manner in which the books will be used should be determined. A brief list of possible uses will indicate the importance of this point. A text- book may be used: 1. As the sole basis for content and method of iastruction 2. As one of two or three books used by a class or by sections of a class during a course 3. As a partial source of content and method, with considerable material sup- plied by the teacher 4. With or without printed workbooks or other supplementary published ma- oS With or without a detailed course of study which takes precedence over the textbook as a guide. With this background determined, the criteria suggested in the re- mainder of this article may be more effectively applied. Qualifications of authors—Much confidence may be placed in pub- lishers with respect to the selection of competent authors. The latter are 1A plan involving the use of objective criteria is described in the article by Waterman in this chapter.—Editorial Committee. r | \- JUDGING ScHOOL EQUIPMENT 541 usually chosen with much more painstaking care than textbook commit- tees can give to this important question. Advertising circulars usually give full data on the qualifications and experience of authors. Rating sheets for books to be considered for adoption often ask for the teach- ing experience of the author in the grade for which the book is intended. A textbook written by more than one author may have a broader view- point than the work of a single writer, and the participation of an active teacher in the preparation of a text may bring the book and its questions to the desired grade level. Undoubtedly there is, in a series of books, an advantage in having a group of authors or collaborators when such a group represents scholarly oversight of the subject com- bined with classroom experience at several grade levels. Promises made in the preface—Following the title page, the examiner next comes upon the preface. It is suggested that he carefully mark therein all claims and promises made by the author, particularly those in which exceptional and unique merits are stated or implied. Prefatory statements of aims and purposes are important when they are made specific and definite; too often they are general and vague. It is some- times helpful to delete from the prefaces of the several books being examined those statements which would apply equally well to all the texts; the remainder of each preface is then more pertinent to the book in which it appears. All claims and promises made in the preface should be checked in the examination of the book itself. Content of the book—With the items of authorship and prefaces noted, the textbook committee or individual examiner begins the actual comparison of the books by surveying their content. The content should first be considered apart from the way in which it is organized. The comparison of textbook content includes: . The field covered by the book as a whole . The range of time (as in history) and of space (as in geography) 3. Correlations with other subjects 4. Topics and subjectmatter used in lesson development 5. Subjectmatter used in making applications of principles 6. Subjectmatter involved in questions, problems, and activities. Noe It is necessary to go into these aspects of content to bring out existing differences among authors in resourcefulness and ingenuity, in breadth of view, and in the ability to see the lessons and truths of their subjects reflected in many different phases of everyday life and in a multitude of objects and phenomena in the pupils’ environment. The significant differences with reference to items 1, 2, and 3 are easily discovered by examining the tables of contents and by a rapid turning of pages to catch any unusual items in the section headings. The comparison of the details of content suggested in items 4, 5, and 6 requires careful reading 542 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS and transcription upon cards, or the preparation of typewritten lists of items in parallel columns. The time-consuming work of applying items 4, 5, and 6 to several textbooks cannot be extended to include the books in their entirety. A few chapters, one or two units, or the treatment of a single aspect of the subject occurring at intervals thruout the book will suffice for detailed analysis and comparison of this sort. General organization—Intimately associated with the contents of a textbook is its organization into larger parts which indicate the relative emphasis given to successive topics or aspects of the subject. This large-feature organization is Seen in the table of contents. Thus, ap- praisers can easily determine the proportionate emphasis given to gram- matical drill and to composition in a series of language books, the amounts of algebra, arithmetic, and geometry in a junior high-school mathematics series, or the percent of the content of a United States history devoted to the period since the World War. The organization of a reading series will show the balance between reading of the rec- reatory type and that of the work type. The organization as shown in the table of contents will also indicate any serious lack of conformity with the local course of study. Chapters versus units—It is now the fashion in textbook organization to label all the larger divisions as “units.” Indeed, there are many books in which the subdivisions corresponding to chapters are also labeled as units. A sixth-grade language book, recently published, is organized into more than fifty so-called units. In examining textbook units, ap- praisers will find helpful guidance in an article by Wilson,? who con- siders a valid unit to be ‘‘a body of subjectmatter, every item of which is related to a central core of thought.” Further, “the unit idea, or central core of thought, is a generalization, comprehensible thru the data grouped about it, and the data themselves acquire full meaning only when they are in direct focus on the generalization.” While the unit organization has a number of advantages over the traditional chapter plan, no textbook should be condemned forthwith because it adheres to the chapter organization. Order of topics—The tables of contents will also show the order in which the author presents the main topics of his subject. Variations in topic sequence may be found in geographies, arithmetics, language texts, elementary science books, and histories. It is difficult to prove that one sequence of topics is better than another. Textbook committees will favor agreement with local courses of study in this respect. The nature of the material and its effective presentation should outweigh the order in which the topics are treated. 2 Wilson, Howard E. “The ‘Unit’ in the Social Studies.”’ Junior-Senior High School Clearing House 9: 29-31; September 1934. -— b+ 5 —— Se teal JupGINnG ScHooL EquiPMENT 543 Suitability to the grade—By reading a few consecutive pages in several parts of a textbook, an experienced teacher can form an opinion as to the suitability of the book for use in a given grade. This opinion, while subjective, is based on the teacher’s knowledge of the pupils’ abilities and limitations, in the light of which she takes note of the author’s vocabulary, sentence structure, and literary style. The teacher will also give particular attention to the difficulty of questions, prob- lems, and exercises, and she may appraise the work involved in carry- ing out the activities suggested in the book. In practise, a book will be pronounced ‘“‘too hard” when any of these difficulties appear to char- acterize it. Objective measurements of textbook difficulty have been devised and applied to hundreds of books by a few educators who have had extensive research facilities at their command. Selected elements of reading ease and difficulty have been weighted and expressed in formulas to indicate the proper grade placement of the books. Among the elements chosen for this purpose are: 1. The number of “easy” and “hard” words based on standard word lists, such as that in Thorndike’s T'eacher’s Word Book * The number of simple sentences The average length of sentences The number of personal pronouns The number of prepositional phrases The number of different words in the passages . The number of words beginning with certain letters . The number of monosyllables and polysyllables. GO MD Om ots No satisfactory summary of the procedures followed by investigators in this field can be given in this article. For further information the reader is referred to the references given in a footnote below.* In addition to the difficulties inherent in words, technical terms, and English constructions, textbooks frequently present ideas and concepts which are beyond the grasp and appreciation of children in the grades where the books are used. Textbook committees should give particular attention to this apparently unavoidable difficulty in the books. In which grades, for example, would it be proper to introduce the follow- ing concepts in the pupils’ reading: ‘The rough surface hinders farming and transportation”; ‘““‘With the interest of the true naturalist, he pur- ’ Thorndike, Edward L. Teacher’s Word Book. Revised edition. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1932. 182 p. *The Winnetka Chart for Determining Grade Placement of Children’s Books. Winnetka, IIl.: Public Schools. § Vogel, Mabel, and Washburne, Carleton. ‘‘An Objective Method of Deter- mining Grade Placement of Children’s Reading Material.’’ Elementary School Journal 28: 373-81; January 1928. § Lewerenz, Alfred S. The Vocabulary Grade Placement Formula Chart. Los Angeles: Public Schools. { Thorndike, Edward L., and others. “An Inventory of English Con- structions with Measures of their Importance.” Teachers College Record 28: 580-610; February 1927. { Gray, William S., and Leary, Bernice E. What Makes a Book Readable. Chicago: Uni- versity of Chicago Press, 1935. 358 p. § Stone, Clarence R. Better Primary Reading. St. Louis, Mo.: Webster Publishing Co., 1936. p. 61-136, 306-26. 544 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS sued his task”; “Man had advanced a long way on his climb to civiliza- tion’; “At the bottom of society were the slaves’; “The colony was distinguished for a generous toleration in religious matters” ; and “Many forces were uniting our vast country into a unified republic”? The col- lection and grade placement of expressions of this type, containing ideas beyond the mere meanings of the words themselves, would be a laborious task indeed, but it would greatly assist those who are endeavoring to place suitable textbooks in the children’s hands. The lesson presentation—All textbooks contain passages which spe- cifically teach a particular lesson or explain in detail an important principle. There are many such passages in arithmetic, general science, geography, and language texts. Appraisers should study and compare the presentations of the same lesson in the several books under con- sideration. Just how is long division developed? How are the seasons of the year explained? How is the pupil made to understand complex and compound sentences or clauses and phrases? Every subject has its hard spots. How are they presented in the books? Examiners should select a few such lessons for detailed examination as to (1) introduction and motivation, (2) development of the lesson, (3) statement of neces- sary information, (4) the principle or generalization involved, (5) its immediate illustration and application within the child’s experience, and (6) questions and activities which compel the child to use the new knowledge obtained. Resourceful authors often find opportunity on subsequent pages to refer to lessons and principles previously learned. Connecting links of this sort are helpful to the pupil. Sometimes it is possible to indicate the use or importance of a lesson later in the pupil’s school life and in the years to follow. Correlations with other subjects are always valuable. Questions, problems, and exercises—When pressed for time, textbook committees and individual appraisers often resort to counting the num- ber of questions, exercises, and problems as the sole method of com- paring these important features of the textbooks. An abundance of such aids and checks in the book is both convenient and desirable. Keeping in mind that the number of exercises has nothing to do with their effec- tiveness, we are justified in making quantitative comparisons among the books, provided that comparable exercises are counted in each case. The following cautions should be observed: 1. Drill exercises in arithmetic, for example, should be counted in such a way as to show differences in the amount of computing required of the pupil. Such exercises vary from those which can be performed by recalling a single number combination, to those requiring forty or fifty successive manipulations of number combinations, as in column addition and long division. lex its uld ‘ion 1€8- 3 to ; of the the ble. ook m- ym- uch ing fee- the ase. way such aber nber JUDGING SCHOOL EQUIPMENT 545 2. Concrete problems should likewise be analyzed according to the number of steps of which they consist, and the amount of work involved in their completion by the pupil. 3. The longer assignments, consisting of entire projects or other extended appli- cations of knowledge gained, should be given separate consideration. Far more important than these quantitative aspects of textbook exer- cises is their actual teaching{ power when they are studied by the pupils. What do the questions cause the pupil to do? Do they lead to genuine thought on his part or only to the recall of an item that has been memorized? “Thought questions” are claimed for every textbook, and this claim should be carefully investigated. More thought is stimu- lated if, in a true-false test, the pupil is required to tell why each state- ment he marks false is so regarded, than if the pupil is asked merely to indicate truth or falsity without giving reasons. To get at the heart of this matter of questions and problems, textbook appraisers will do well to give separate consideration to: 1. The balance between memory questions and thought questions 2. Questions (a) within the pupils’ experience, and (b) outside their experience 3. Questions calling for study or reading outside the textbook 4. Variety of form and range of content in the questions themselves 5. Balance in the number of traditional and of “new type” questions 6. Individual and group activities called for 7. Activities which take pupils away from books and desks. Many children have trouble with problems of all sorts because of reading difficulties. For this reason the phrasing and vocabulary of all questions and directions for activities should be carefully examined. Illustrations and mechanical features—In the absence of published evidence on the subject, the writer offers here a few suggestions for judging textbook illustrations, based on his interviews with teachers and on his experience in the field of textbook publishing. First of all, the teaching purpose of each picture in a book should be evident, and the connection between text and pictures should be indicated to the pupil. Among the most effective types of illustration for driving home a lesson is the “contrast” picture which brings out differences between past and present ways of living, between desert and jungle, between agriculture and manufacturing, and the like. Serial and composite pic- tures also are instructive because of the relationships they show. Pic- tures in which the pupils can see people at work and play are usually superior to views of empty streets and buildings. The presence of an operator adds to the value of a picture of a machine. Statues showing costumes and other objects give more information than do pictures of shafts. Interiors of factories are generally more instructive than ex- teriors. A legend imparting information or asking a question is often preferable to a mere title for a picture. In short, the illustrations in the 546 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS textbook should be possessed of teaching power, and the author’s use of them as instruments of instruction should be evident. Publishing houses have developed high standards of excellence in the physical makeup of textbooks. Their experts go into all phases of tech- nical manufacture—paper, printing, illustrating, binding, and artistic planning—to a degree not possible with, a committee of teachers. All teachers can, however, be on the lookouf for any defects which appear, such as paper with a glare, paper on which the reverse printed side shows thru, monotonous-looking and otherwise badly planned pages, and awkward size or weight in the book. The textbook as a whole—The trend of criteria for judging textbooks has been in the direction of detailed analysis. Special rating schemes are necessary for each subject in the curriculum. Existing score-cards are for the most part still too indefinite; they should in many cases be made even more detailed than they now are. It is inevitable that text- book committees will expend most of their effort on analysis and dissec- tion. This work of dissection, however, should be counterbalanced by the careful consideration of each book as a whole. Every textbook has its own individuality, its own contribution, and its own “totality.” There is something inherent in each textbook over and above the arith- metic sum of its component elements as defined and weighted by the statistician. Appraisers of textbooks, upon the completion of their analytical work, should examine each book anew in search of that unique totality which it is sure to possess. Viewed in this way, a text- book may have a new force and power not discoverable in the customary examination by minute analysis. In this total pattern is the living thought and spirit of the author. Let textbooks be chosen which, in ad- dition to essential details, have a desirable and potent totality. O ELIMINATE all except recently published books from basal 4, ome is to shut one’s eyes in ignorance and arrogance to the fact that there are schoolbook classics just as there are classics of general literature and classics of music. . . . It would be sad indeed if the curricular unrest characteristic of American edu- cation today should blind teachers to the fact that there are such things as schoolbooks that have permanent or at least semipermanent value.—Knowlton, P. A., in Nation’s Schools, May 1934, p. 24. m ol S€ ju sp JuDGING ScHOOL EQUIPMENT 547 A PLAN OF TEXTBOOK EVALUATION IvAN R. WATERMAN Chief, Division of Textbooks and Publications, California State Department of Education, Sacramento, California EXTBOOKS are used to a greater extent and exert more influence on the quality of instruction than any other instructional tool. In consequence of this fact, the selection of textbooks is compara- ble in importance to the selection of teachers. Too often has teaching been handicapped by poor textbooks, chosen without adequate exami- nation or by haphazard methods of evaluation. During recent years, however, the trend toward scientific selection of textbooks has been distinctly encouraging. This trend may be at- tributed first to a growing realization of the importance of the textbook as a tool of instruction. This, in turn, has led to the development of technics which offer reasonable assurance for the selection of those textbooks best suited to the educational purposes they are intended to serve. This article presents a plan of evaluation designed to aid in selecting textbooks which are best suited to educational demands. GENERAL FEATURES OF THE PLAN The two chief characteristics of this plan are: (1) an analytical ap- proach involving the comparison of books under consideration on each of the several factors which contribute to the ability of a text to fulfil its purpose; and (2) the use of objective measurement wherever possible in making comparisons. The plan involves the following four basic pro- cedures, each of which will be described briefly and illustrated with ex- amples from practise: 1. The formulation of a set of criteria or standards by which the textbooks may be judged 2. The construction of a score-card based on the assignment of a numerical value to each of the criteria, in accordance with its relative importance 3. The conduct of comparative studies of the textbooks, such studies being objective in nature so far as possible 4. The rating of textbooks on the score-card on the basis of data from the com- parative studies. FORMULATION OF CRITERIA Evaluation presupposes valid standards or criteria. The use of a valid set of criteria in selecting textbooks has the following definite values: 1. It forces an analytical approach to the problem, and assures that the final judgment of relative merit is based on comparisons of the textbooks on each specific point of consequence. 2. It tends to eliminate hasty judgments based on superficial examination and general observation. 548 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 3. It assures that books will not be selected because of their excellence in a few traits, altho they may be deficient on others. 4. It provides the same basis of judgment for all judges. 5. It furnishes a basis for objective comparisons in determining the relative merits of the textbooks. Even tho few objective comparisons are made, the final judgment is analytical rather than general. Consideration of purposes to be served—Fundamental to the develop- ment of criteria for textbook selection is a careful consideration of the purpose or purposes to be served by the book. Several points may well be emphasized in this connection: 1. The nature of the textbook must be determined by the purposes of instruc- tion. Otherwise, the result is likely to be confusion, or, even worse, the textbook will determine the nature of instruction. 2. The criteria are very largely an expression of educational philosophy with respect to teaching in the subject under consideration. 3. The course of study should serve as a guide in developing a statement of the purposes and nature of the textbook. 4. As purposes and methods of instruction change, so will the criteria by which textbooks should be judged. The function of the textbook is now being rapidly modified. Full recognition should be given this trend in developing criteria for selecting textbooks. Standards satisfactory a few years ago may be entirely inade- quate today. 5. Criteria should be formulated specifically in terms of the subject of the book. While a few general standards will apply to textbooks in many subjects, there are many points of major importance which apply to one subject and not to others. Score-cards devised to evaluate books in all or many subjects, and con- taining a few general standards organized under such headings as content, method, and mechanical features, are ill-suited to scientific textbook evaluation. 6. Textbooks may not properly be expected to contribute to all purposes of instruction; other types of instructional materials may be necessary or more effective for the accomplishment of certain purposes. Sources of criteria—There are two general sources from which criteria for textbook evaluation may be derived: (1) conclusions from researeh on methods and materials of instruction, and (2) where research is lack- ing, a consensus of educational authority. Many standards for textbook selection proceed directly or impliedly from well-established psychological principles or from more specific conclusions of research on learning. The following criteria * appear to be justified on this basis: In arithmelic: 1. The amount of drill on different combinations shall be so distributed that more practise is provided for the more difficult combinations. 2. The texts should include diagnostic tests designed for the discovery of spe- cific weaknesses. 1 Kersey, Vierling. ‘‘The Place of the Textbook in the Modern Educational Program.’’ California Schools 7: 309-12; October 1936. Sacramento, Calif.: State Department of Education. 2 The examples given here are among the criteria used by the writer and the California State Curriculum Commission in evaluating elementary-school textbooks. JupGInc ScHooL EquIPMENT 549 3. The processes presented shall be of demonstrated social value. Known learn- ing difficulties should be anticipated in the presentation and the provisions for practise. 4. Problems and processes involved in their solution should be presented in connection with each other. 5. Problems should be meaningful in terms of children’s experiences, and real in terms of life situations. In reading: 1. The material should be written in terms of children’s known interests. 2. Material should be provided for developing the several distinct types of reading skills. 3. The reading difficulty of the materials should be in aceordance with the grade placement of the book. In spelling: 1. There should be more frequent repetition of words of greater difficulty for review purposes. 2. Words should be assigned to grade levels on the basis of spelling difficulty and frequency of usage. In geography: 1. The relative number of pictures on various subjects, such as native life, human habitation, manufacturing, and commerce, should correspond to the im- portance attached to the subject. 2. In upper-grade geography texts there should be more pictures of the “cul- tural-natural” type than of the “cultural” or “natural” types. The foregoing examples are suggestive of the rich source for text- book standards provided by the conclusions of research. Many charac- teristics of textbooks, however, are not subject to appraisal on the basis of standards of this type. In such cases, criteria must be based on a con- sensus of educational authority as to what constitutes best theory and practise. Following are examples of such criteria:* Inarithmetic: 1. The texts should include informational arithmetic materials in which the emphasis is placed on understanding, interpretation, and use, rather than on processes and skills. 2. The problems should be so organized that several problems arise from one large situation. In spelling: 1. The major basis for grouping words should be their meaning and use relation- ships rather than their similar structure. 2. Texts should include exercises for helping the pupil to study word meaning. Inveading: 1. There should be an appropriate balance between the amount of material devoted to the various curriculum fields such as history, science, geography, and civics. 2. Selections should be of high literary character. ® Classification taken from: National! Society for the Study of: Education. The Teaching of Geography. Thirty-Second Yearbook. Bloomington, Ill.: Public School Publishing Company, 1933. p. 163. *There may be a difference of opinion as to whether some of these criteria represent a consensus of expert judgment. This, however, does not detract from their value for purposes of illustration.—Editorial Committee. 550 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS In formulating criteria it is important to list all specific items which contribute to the merit of a textbook, so that no factor of consequence will be overlooked in comparing books. Overemphasis on small details may be avoided by proper weighting of the several items. CONSTRUCTION OF A ScorE-CArD The use of the same set of criteria by each member of an evaluating group assures that the same general standards will be used by all. It will be immediately apparent, however, that certain criteria are o! greater importance than others, and that different individuals will attach varying degrees of importance to each criterion. These facts sug- gest the advisability of constructing a score-card by weighting the cri- teria in accordance with their relative importance. The following pro- cedure is suggested: Let each member of the evaluating body assign a numerical value to each criterion in accordance with his judgment of its relative importance. A 1000-point scale will prove convenient for this purpose. Then average the values assigned to each criterion by the several judges. These average values will constitute the weighting to be used on the score-card. Advantages of a score-card—While such weighting is based on opinion, the score-card has certain definite values. First, it reflects the judgment of the evaluating body as to the relative importance of each standard. Furthermore, it assumes that all judges will use the same measuring stick for determining the relative merits of textbooks under consideration. The following example will illustrate the practical value of using a score-card constructed in the manner described: Suppose two reading textbooks are being considered, each book conforming fairly well to all the criteria for judging them. Without a score-card, Book A may be considered best by one judge because its materials conform most closely to children’s known interests—the point he considers of greatest im- portance. Another judge, admitting this superiority, may rate Book B as best because its reading difficulty—the point which he considers of most importance—conforms best to the grade placement of the book. It is easily conceivable that different judges, each using the same criteria and a careful analytical approach, will arrive at different conclusions. Pos- sibly, of nine judges, three groups of three each will favor three different books. Such a result is confusing, to say the least. The use of a score-card helps to remove this difficulty. Different ideas on the relative importance of the several criteria are ironed out in con- structing the score-card on the basis of average judgment. In rating several textbooks by means of the score-card, it is highly probable that or vs a — U cr Us JUDGING ScHooL EQuIPMENT 551 the several judges will agree closely on the relative merits of the books. Thus the use of such an instrument appears of distinct practical ad- vantage, especially if one considers the situation of an adopting board confronted with a recommendation based on a close decision of the evaluating body. Caution needed—One danger in the use of score-cards for evaluating textbooks may well be indicated at this point. A book might be entirely deficient in some essential feature, and yet be so superior on other points that it would be rated highest. For example, the vocabulary diffi- culty of a book might be entirely unsuitable, and yet the book might have the highest rating. Such a case would be similar to that of a school building with a score-card rating in excess of 900 points, but with no light in the classrooms. Both the book and the school building would be utterly unusable. The danger of selecting an inferior book on the basis of highest total score may be avoided by first eliminating from further consideration those books which obviously fail to meet an im- portant criterion, and then rating on the score-card only those books which are at least fairly satisfactory on all important points. An illustrative card—As an example, Figure I presents the score-card used by the California State Curriculum Commission in evaluating music textbooks for the seventh and eighth grades. MAKING COMPARATIVE STUDIES The items contained in a score-card form the basis for a series of comparative studies by which the relative merits of the textbooks under consideration may be determined. Many such studies may be largely objective. To indicate their nature, Tables 1, 2, and 3 are presented showing comparative data in summary form on different aspects of textbooks in three subjects—reading, arithmetic, and geography.® Comparison when objective data are not obtainable—On many points, comparative studies of an objective nature are impossible, but valid comparisons may nevertheless be made. One example will serve to illustrate this. An important criterion of music textbooks is that the songs shall be of high musical quality. Altho objective means do not exist for determining the relative merits of books on this point, recourse may be had to expert judgment. Each of several qualified experts may be asked to rate each song in each book for musical quality on a scale ranging from excellent to poor. The average of the individual judgments may be used as the measure of musical quality. The degree of agreement among the judges is a measure of validity. 5 These data are taken from studies made by the Division of Textbooks and Publications of the California State Department of Education as a basis for the evaluation of elementary- school textbooks by the California State Curriculum Commission. CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING SEVENTH=- AND EIGHTH-GRADE MUSIC TEXTBOOKS The textbooks should present a program of instruction in music designed to ac- complish a series of specific objectives, and graded in terms of the misical interests and abilities of seventh- and eighth-grade pupils. Textbooks must represent far more than a mere collection of songs, Neighting I. The songs should be of musical and literary excellence and of such 175 nature as to contribute to the development of the love and under- standing of good music. II. The songs should appeal to the interests of seventh- and eighth- 150 grade children, and the content should be meaningful to the pupils of these grades, III. The music should be within the voice ranges of seventh=- end 25 eighth-grade pupils, IV. The material should be graded in such @ manner as to facilitate 100 pupil learning, and should be suited to individual differences in musical ability among the pupils, V. There should be an adequate number and a wide and appropriate 100 variety of: A. Musical types B. Rhythms C. Nationalities D. Periods E. Subjects F, Unison, two-, three-, and four-part songs VI. The msic materials should correlate with other activities of the 100 curriculum, should be of such a nature as to contribute to pupil activity both in and out of school, and should include appropriate material for school programs and special school and cammunity occasions, VII. Descriptions and expositions of important facts, such as biograph- 50 ical and historical sketches, should be included, VIII. Material designed to aid understanding of and appreciation for 30 instrumental music should be provided, IX. Illustrations that stimlate interest in msic and aid in promoting 50 understanding and appreciation should be included, X. References to other musical selections, phonograph music, and other 30 sources should be included, XI. Suitable accompaniment should be provided, 35 XII. An appropriate index should be provided, 20 XIII. Mechanical features: 35 A. Suitable type and music notation B, Attractive appearance C. Durable binding D. Suitable paper E,. Attractive cover F, Well-proportioned margins and suitable arrangement of printed material on page G. Illustrations Total Possible Score 1000 FIGURE JI—Score-Carp Usep spy CaALirorn1A CurricuLuM CoMMISSION For APPRAISING Music TEXTBOOKS COMPARATIVE Data on Srx READING TEXTBOOKS FOR Grape VI 3. 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JUDGING ScHooL EQUIPMENT 555 RATING THE Books The final step in the plan of evaluation consists of the interpretation and utilization of the data from the comparative studies in rating text- books on the score-card. Careful interpretation is highly important. The data from comparative studies, even if highly objective, often are not of such a character that they may be directly translated into points on a score-card. Furthermore, there are qualitative differences of as great importance as the quantitative ones, and these qualitative differ- ences are not always apparent in the data of an objective study. For TABLE 2—NumMpber or LINes oF INFORMATIONAL ARITHMETIC IN Srx ARITHMETIC Series, Grapes VII anp VIII | SERIES Topic ——— — —— - ——--— —— |} a | B | Cc D E F ; 2 | 3 | 5 6 7 | 1. Buying and selling........ | 64 41 | 119 470 180 40 2. Thrift and economy....... ree wt ere 33 32 74 3. Keeping simple accounts... 263 | 123 56 73 296 121 4, Building up capital........ | WB iw exis Raceceal 33 113 56 5. Marks of a good investment. | - 2 i ate. 6 33 20 156 6. Stocks and bonds......... 164 172 229 345 270 228 W ROUN OMNG Soo Seok ce acies Re er, ee ee ee 16 8 8: Building and loan....... 0... )<...... 3 eee Be Pea Migies 33 A ee 141 169 409 694 388 139 WO, DECTUROROS. oc. i cscs [RA TRUA PMs Gere rind a eens 8 ag 0 ac ae ee 41 24 56 723 89 66 WD, BUMPOMOR. ooo ss on Peaks 96 90 119 508 179 340 13. Buliding homes, «...ck cis fevcsc.. Bi as nce : if ee 30 39 Ee ey Mee eet 4] 14 65 , 7 rere 15. Taxes, levies, public ex- | PONGIGUTES. «6 6 hee 16 | 78 | = 227 418 219 406 Ce ee | 16 | 7 | 45 49 16 16 17. Home and public service. .. | 40 94 | 54 146 328 74 18. Government............. We ay nee | oe | eee es eee ee 22 19. Sending money........... Beas 49 | 7 99 Bats iw 20. Agriculture............... Bs scalars | 68 | - oe 208 97 21. Manufacturing........... Bee eariay eer Pree ys: 8 24 2% Transportation. ..........]..+.... 19 | __ 3 Sree s 83 Se ere RRS eer | eee ere 10 2. A ew RE: een 5 Ae 33 5 SINE oes nih acne cerns eSeends oe Bees ere east 24 |——_|_—__|— Total number............ | 920 | 1,000 | 1,481 | 3,782 | 2,529 | 2,069 | Read table: The number of lines of material dealing with ‘‘buying and selling’? was 64 in Series A, 41 in Series B, 119 in Series C, 470 in Series D, 180 in Series E, and 40 in Series F. Similarly read figures for the other topics listed in column 1. 556 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS example, Table 2 indicates the amount of informational arithmetic of each kind in several arithmetic series, but does not reveal anything con- cerning the quality of this material. Further study is needed to judge this point, and it is largely a matter of opinion to combine amount and quality into a single measure of adequacy. Briefly stated, the rating of books on a score-card may be accom- plished as follows: 1. Let the total weighting assigned to any criterion represent the number of points which may be assigned to a book which meets the criterion perfectly. 2. Let each judge assign to each book on each criterion a point value which represents his opinion of the extent to which the standard is met. This implies that a zero rating will be assigned to a book on any item of the criteria which is totally lacking. TABLE 3—Nvumbser or Mars in TrtReEE Series or Geocraruy Tex TreookKs Type or Map | : SERIES | A B ( 1 | 2 3 { I. Colored maps: ES ESET ROE PO CATE eee Seanad Sit 16 42 eis Kaa ue dae eee doh MOes ha aelnioel | @ i] 12 NS ish 5 5's ssa Setorgias tale’ a Siecle digs vietee- ak oe 44 | 3 17 IN oy crying: o uranS aieserw ane homie bec eae ots ng SES ee 7 ETE ER eC RR OE e 2 ae 6 A 9 2's MaGra sad babs soe dae Keke ev 5 15 6 IS 555 ois) hb chs oo dime Kika eiaaiw ards oe) See 2 BEER EE a paren GS 108 | 49 92 | } II. Black-white maps: pr lic. Snag Sie ip lasik giao hela aun eee 25 14 39 2. Natural regions and resources................ 6 | 15 19 ee ere ree eee ee Tee 8 | 52 61 NL o's odke naka cbMie keh aks cen daseed 12 | 4 9 LS 60 chen dene eR Ke Chass RRO OR ia gdaiics | 5 22 ne ee eee eee 4 | 2 28 a a a aM lS LE. aa vre ar i i REE l 10 IIE og dvs bide wands ve wiemainnd han eid eee 6 9. Maps used as study guides................... | 7 | 4 10 Fe IN on 5 eae cd abe ad deKdinesn dp neae ds | 12 | 12 31 IN. 05.50dsnabcdneswedansenadease 74 | 114 235 wea See ocamine Rs 55: di aicds ¢0-36 -claaln cad Wa Ao CRE wsccinn ot 182 | 163 | 327 Read table: Under ‘‘Colored maps,’’ the number of physical-political maps was ‘‘none’’ in Series A, 16 in Series B, and 42 in Series C. listed in column 1. Similarly read figures for the other types of map JUDGING SCHOOL EQUIPMENT 557 3. The total point score assigned to each book will represent its relative merit. The average of the several judges’ ratings will represent the judgment of the evaluating group. The extent of agreement among the several judges is one measure of the validity of the group rating. PERSONNEL FOR TEXTBOOK EVALUATION Altho this article is devoted to procedures for textbook evaluation, a brief statement concerning the personnel for carrying it on should not be amiss. Following are a few suggestions on this point: 1. Textbook evaluation should be performed by a committee or commission, rather than by a single individual or by an entire teaching force. 2. Altho textbook selection may properly be considered an administrative prob- lem, it is highly important that classroom teachers participate in the evaluation of books under consideration. 3. Committees for textbook evaluation should consist of teachers, supervisors, principals, and members of the superintendent’s staff. 4. There should be a close relationship between course-of-study committees and textbook-evaluation committees. 5. In textbook selection by cities and counties, there are advantages in estab- lishing separate committees for the evaluation of books in different subjects. 6. The services of a research department or of individuals with special qualifi- cations for conducting research studies on the relative merits of textbooks are essential to the success of any plan to select such books on a scientific basis. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION The plan of textbook evaluation described above is designed to assist in selecting those textbooks which are best suited to meet educational needs. The two most important characteristics of the plan are (1) an analytical approach by which the relative merits of textbooks are judged with reference to specific standards of excellence, and (2) the use of objective methods in comparing textbooks. Four basic procedures are involved: (1) the formulation of criteria for judging textbooks, (2) the construction of a score-card, (3) the conduct of comparative studies, and (4) the use of the score-card to rate the books on the basis of data from the comparative studies. The success of this plan depends upon the validity of the criteria, and upon the extent to which objective data rather than opinion are used in the rating. Each procedure involved in the plan appears to be essential in the application of scientific methods to the problem of textbook selection. A textbook committee using the plan intelligently can be reasonably confident that it will result in the selection of the book or series of books which is best in terms of the criteria or standards used for evaluation. 558 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS AN APPRAISAL OF TWO TYPES OF MOTION PICTURE EQUIPMENT FOR SCHOOL USE JAMES G. S1GMAN, Director and Joun T. GARMAN, Special Assistant Division of Visual Education, Board of Public Education, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania HE earliest educational motion picture projectors were theatrical machines adapted for booth projection in auditoriums. Because of their size and cost, these projectors were later supplemented by portable and semi-portable types of lower prices, available under proper protection for classroom use with the standard or 35 mm. film.’ At the same time, quite a variety of sub-standard motion picture projectors appeared, some for 28 mm., others for 23 mm., and still others for 16 mm. or narrower film. From these many confusing sizes it gradually became evident that the 16 mm. type combined the qualities of economy, portability, and safety to the greatest degree, and this size has been adopted rather universally in the United States for narrow-width film projection. It should be remembered, however, that the standard motion picture projector still has its uses in our schools and colleges, particularly since the adaptation of sound to film exhibition. The larger equipment has by far the greater choice of film subjects for instructional and entertain- ment purposes. It still excels in power and brillianey of projection, and is the only type of machine which will throw pictures across the great galleried auditoriums of our large city high schools. But many of these very factors have also handicapped its use for truly instructional ends. The initial survey of the sixty-two standard (35 mm.) projectors in the publie schools of Philadelphia in 1929 disclosed the fact that their operation had hitherto been very irregular and unorganized due to a number of causes. DIFFICULTIES IN THE USE OF STANDARD EQUIPMENT Use limited to auditoriums—One of these factors was found in the fact that standard (35 mm.) machines are housed in booths in school auditoriums, where they cannot be used to advantage thruout the schoo! day because of the constant occupancy of the auditorium for class work in publie speaking, for study-period purposes, or for mass instruction or forums in civies, oral English, hygiene, or music. At times these subjects are supplemented by films, but in general the instructional demand for 1 The number of millimeters refers to the width of the film. JUDGING ScHOOoL EQUIPMENT 559 ints asa ea IAA the assembly hall restricts the use of pictures to morning assembly periods or after-school activities. It gradually dawned upon educators that motion pictures would never take their rightful place in the educa- tional scheme of things until they were placed in the classroom, to be shown exactly at the time and place in the course of study where they would possess true and correlative value. Such value is very hard to obtain in the school auditorium even when it is vacant at the desired period, because of the massing of classes, the mixture of grades, and the resultant holiday spirit. The best instructional approach and the correct review of any film lesson are much harder to obtain under assembly projection than under classroom projection. Operators’ licenses hard to obtain—Our survey also discovered a drawback to the best use of the standard or auditorium motion picture machines along the line of operation and upkeep. Since most of the the- atrical film is of the nitrate or inflammable type, the rules regarding the operation and care of machines and booths are very strict in practically all states and cities of our country, and properly so. The examinations for operators’ licenses are correspondingly rigid, and it is difficult for teachers to pass the commercial license requirements. This is par- ticularly true in those cities where the educational or special license has been abolished and where the full technical demands must be met, even to serving for a period of time as apprentice in a motion picture booth. Teachers ordinarily cannot meet these tests. About twenty of the sixty-two machines in the Philadelphia schools were found to be generally unused both because of the lack of operators, and because of the rapid turnover of operators thru the promotion of the young man teachers to principalships or to higher school teaching positions. Practi- cally all the junior and senior high schools were free from this handicap, however, because their teachers of electrical and scientific subjects had passed the examinations for operators’ licenses before these became excessively severe. Since this survey, the board of public education has employed four licensed operators as part of the personnel of the division of visual education for the service of those schools which have no local licensed operators, and practically all the standard machines are now in use, periodically at least. Danger from inflammable film—A third drawback to the constant use of booth machines is the danger that lurks in the inflammable or nitrate film. The film library, which is located in the offices and work- rooms of the division of visual education, contains only acetate or safety film. Beginning in 1930, all bookings from outside sources were discontinued, and the sixty-two schools with standard machines have been serviced and supplied with film and accessories from this central film library. All booths have been constructed with exact fidelity to the 560 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 5 RO 58 i As AI cael. AE: rules of the city fire marshal. As a result of these changes it is believed that the fire hazard has been completely removed. Unsuitable content of films—A fourth factor which militates against the sole use of standard (35 mm.) machines in schools arises from the character of the film available. The latter is undoubtedly superior in regard to the vast variety of titles, especially in the field of historical films, altho many of the best of these are now being printed upon the narrow-width stock. The wide film has the advantage in the entertain- ment type of picture, which has a place in after-school or extracurricular programs, as before mentioned. But unfortunately the rental and pur- chase prices of these higher grade films, notably the Yale Chronicles of America, have made their universal use a matter of slow accumulation. Many of the smaller school units and communities, as well as some of the larger cities, have turned to the free lists for their film, including industrial, governmental, and commercial sources of all sorts. Without any disparagement whatever of these splendid films, it must be con- ceded that in most cases they are general information reels, made with- out special thought to courses of study or specific instruction, and fre- quently containing a marked amount of advertising material. INTRODUCTION OF NARROW-WiptH FILM ANpD PROJECTORS For all these reasons, in spite of the great value of standard equip- ment for mass instruction in special subjects in higher schools, school- men have turned with enthusiasm to the consideration of the narrow- width film and projectors, commonly called the classroom or teaching type. These made their first appearance on the market many years ago, and gradually, of a variety of sizes, the 16 mm. became the favorite. Many reasons may be advanced for their lower cost, especially the absence of expense for a booth or similar equipment. They were even more portable than the so-called “suit-case” models of the standard machines, accompanied by their portable booths. The latter were not permitted as legal in some cities because of the impossibility of install- ing the proper flues and fans found in regularly constructed booths. They had to be inspected by a representative of the fire marshal’s office before each separate showing or setup. All such complications were avoided by the adoption of the 16 mm. machines for use in homes, churches, and schools, since only safety film is made and sold for this type, and no booths are required. The operation of these machines is free from technical difficulties, and examinations for licenses either are not required or are very simple. The 16 mm. equipment, therefore, possesses all the merits of safety, economy, and simplicity. Purchasing new machines—As a result of the survey and inventory of visual materials in the Philadelphia schools, the visual education JupGiInc ScHoo, EquipMENT 561 committee of the board of education decided to supply new senior high schools needing standard motion picture machines by transferring little- used projectors from certain elementary schools, and to make a tryout of the narrow-width or classroom projectors in other schools which were interested. It was finally settled that sixteen of these projectors should be purchased, eight of one standard make, and eight of its lead- ing competitor at that time. Developing a film library—Formation of a circulating library of 16 mm. film was, of course, the next logical step to facilitate the proper functioning of these new projectors in the schools. About 120 reels covering 80 titles were purchased from a half-dozen companies as an initial investment in film. Half of these were made up of required subjects, closely connected with the course of study in geography, with several prints of each subject selected. The other half of the circulating library included supplementary subjects in the departments of health, nature study, geography, and general science—one print each. This second section was intended to enrich the required curriculum, and also to try out new titles before their purchase on a large scale for required use in schools. COMPARISON OF STANDARD AND NARROW-WipTtTH EQUIPMENT Narrow-width machines a success—As the years pass, this experi- mental use of 16 mm. projection alongside the standard or auditorium type has given us an unusual opportunity to compare their respective advantages and disadvantages. With all due allowance for the enthu- siasm of teachers and principals possessing a new and long-desired piece of apparatus, it may safely be stated that the 16 mm. machines have justified their adoption. While the standard machines have been serviced at the same time, and supplied with an ample film library under new organization and operation, the use of the 16 mm. projectors has been much more regular and systematic, and the demand for 16 mm. film correspondingly greater. During the first term’s use, six of these machines required minor repairs, and one had to be returned to the factory. This is a fair record in view of the fact that all were being used for the first time, and by varied and unskilled operators. Lesson plans are published with all reels of classroom film. These are sent regularly in advance of the film to the schools, and the show- ing of films in the classrooms is directly related to the curriculum and the daily assignment. Films are supplied to each school for a period of one week each. Standard machines valuable for certain purposes—At the same time, the 35 mm. machines have been used with much more regularity, and many of the older models have been repaired and serviced for the first 562 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS time in years. It must be noted, however, that these standard pro- jectors are largely in use for morning assembly or after-school and club periods. The films requested are generally of the quasi-entertainment type—scenic, commercial, and industrial. Several principals of higher schools using these standard projectors have requested that they be furnished also with 16 mm. classroom projectors, in order to have the advantages of both types. Realization of the limitations of the audi- torium type, together with recognition of its distinct value for mass entertainment or instruction, must be responsible for these requests. The fact that many of the finest films, such as the Yale Chronicles of America, are now made in both 16 mm. and 35 mm. sizes, would seem to make such a plan entirely feasible. The fact that most of the classroom or 16 mm. film issued thus far falls within the realm of the elementary or junior high-school curric- ulum, seems to indicate that this type of projector is particularly adapted to these schools, while the standard machine is better for the senior high schools. This is true because the senior high schools are able to make better use of the industrial and commercial film which is pub- lished in such profusion for their specialized courses, and because these schools are equipped with the booths and auditoriums required for standard equipment. Their facilities, and also those of the junior high schools, are fairly sure to include electrical or other shop teachers who will give the standard booth machines the care and repair that they require, and who are also able to qualify as licensed operators if the local requirements are reasonable. As a matter of fact, the senior high schools and the junior high schools, with their more highly specialized courses, will perhaps ultimately be the educational center of motion picture usage, both for classroom and for auditorium projection. In industrial and mechanical courses nothing can equal the motion picture for supplementary instruction in the de- tailed processes of manufacturing. Motion pictures are the best form of visual instruction where action is to be portrayed. Their value for projecting dramatic situations of all sorts will make them just as help- ful in the study of history and literature, provided that the great mas- terpieces can be preserved and reprinted for school use upon safety stock at a price within reach of the ordinary school budget. In biology the growth processes of plant and animal life will be available in every classroom, while chemical and physical changes will no doubt be re- corded with equal fidelity. Pictures of games and sports, projected in slow motion, will supplement the work of physical and health educa- tion, helping to teach posture, form, and the technic of athletics. Many of these topics have already been treated and taught by the scenario method, but their application to the 16 mm. or classroom y JUDGING ScHOOL EQUIPMENT 563 machine is needed to make them of more practical and general service to schools. Even in teachers colleges, films have been employed in the classroom for instruction in methods and for illustrative material, notably by Dr. Herbert Spencer of the Frick Training School for Teachers in Pittsburgh. The 16 mm. machine usually has been the medium of projection employed. Its suitability for demonstration work in medical and dental clinics has likewise been tested with success. Reports from elementary-school principals—Our own use of the 16 mm. projector at first was restricted largely to elementary schools, only a few higher schools making any extended use of these machines. These projectors gave their greatest service in the fourth, fifth, and sixth grades. There it was found that the unit lessons in geography and nature study were the best in quality and the greatest in quantity. The results have been remarkably good, and may best be appreciated by the perusal of excerpts from the reports of principals in the schools using the equip- ment. Such excerpts are given by number rather than by name in the following paragraphs: 1. Our motion picture machine (16 mm. type) is an invaluable addition to our equipment. It is easily operated. Every teacher has learned how to use it. The new portable screen is very satisfactory. The geography films are most inter- esting and instructive, but the hygiene films are too advanced for pupils of ele- mentary schools in some cases. Teachers report that they find fifteen minutes of good motion pictures bring better results than several regular lessons. In the follow-up there is no difficulty in getting children to discuss the subjectmatter, and to read of it in their books. The question arises whether we should not have a new time allotment sheet to allow for these visualization lessons. I hope that the time will come when we will have good pictures taken from literature and history. 2.1 think the new motion picture machine is an excellent addition to our equipment. The children love it and so do I. After each visit to the visual room we have had a regular lesson on the same subject as the film. It is amazing how much the children remember. They also ask if they will ever see the same picture again. They seem to want to see the pictures again, especially after we have discussed them. The machine ran beautifully on the occasions when I used it, and I am sure the more I learn about it the better I'll like it. In fact, to be honest, I cannot at this moment give any criticisms. I am satisfied with films, screen, and machine. 3. Our experience with the projector, the silver screen, and the reels supplied by your division has been so extraordinarily profitable and pleasant that there seems to be nothing in the way of constructive criticism to be offered in addition to the comments already made on Form 8265. We find the motion picture outfit an invaluable teaching aid because it imparts to impressions a vividness and reality not obtainable in any way other than by immediate physical contact. So far as we can determine, the machine and all the material used have been without technical fault. The school faculty—all feminine gender—find it very convenient to handle and easy to operate. They are elated by their success in its use. 4. I am pleased to report very favorably upon the motion picture equipment recently placed in my school. We receive our film on Tuesdays, and a teacher- representative from each grade section makes inquiry on Wednesday morning concerning the presence in the school of films and slides adaptable to the coming week’s work. In this way the material is used up to a maximum of its usefulness. 564 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS The machine itself is a simple, yet wonderfully efficient projector. We have had no trouble with it, and eight or ten teachers now know how to operate it without assistance. 5. My teachers have been very much pleased with the operation of the small classroom motion picture machine. The reels which we have had have been most satisfactory. A sharply defined picture has been splendidly developed in each case. We experience no difficulty whatever with excess of light in rooms with northern exposure, but those with southern exposure should be equipped with dark shades. I hope that the time will come when every classroom will be fitted with an outlet so that the work will not be interrupted when a room is needed for visual work. Are there any films of historical plays which would be suitable for our history work? A historical novel gives a knowledge of background, atmos- phere, color, and life to the study of history which can be obtained in no other way. Reports from higher schools—In concluding this group of typical re- ports from principals, it seems only fair to present two letters from higher schools where the 16 mm. machines were used this year. All these schools are also equipped with standard auditorium machines and booths, and therefore have had an excellent opportunity to compare the two types of projectors (the 35 mm. and the 16 mm.) in actual operation under the same educational and mechanical management. They write as follows: 1. The teachers of the Normal School faculty, as well as those of the Stevens School of Practice, have used the 16 mm. machine with entire satisfaction. We have even found it fairly satisfactory in rooms not equipped with dark shades. We expect to extend the use of this material as fast as we have opportunity to instruct our teachers in its use, and as the number of film subjects is extended. The teachers who have used the new equipment are enthusiastic over the results obtained. 2. I am glad to report favorably upon the 16 mm. films which I have been using. It is too bad they are not longer. We could use more films on mineralogical and geological subjects, such as a reel on the formation of limestone caverns of the Luray type. A good library of films on Latin America would appeal to our language department too. CONCLUSION While the standard motion picture equipment still has an important place in the higher schools of Philadelphia, the 16 mm. equipment is beginning to have an even wider field of service. The classroom pro- jector appears to be well suited to a type of work for which the standard equipment has proved inadequate. It seems likely that the small pro- jector will permit the closer correlation of films with regular class work, will be operated more readily by many teachers of both sexes, and will not encroach upon the field covered by the 35 mm. machine, at least for some time to come. The advantages of the 16 mm. machines, as revealed by the reports of those who have used them during the past few years in Philadelphia, may be summarized as follows: JUDGING ScHOOL EQUIPMENT 565 1. They have the merits of safety, economy, and simplicity. 2. They approach the ideal of proper pedagogy by their use of lesson plans and of projection within the classroom. 3. They relieve the school of practically all booth and license problems. 4. They offer fewer roster complications, and better correlation with courses of study. 5. They develop greater interest and more direct motivation in instructional material hitherto untouched by motion pictures. As a result of these favorable criticisms it is hoped that Philadelphia may complete a program of gradual installation of 16 mm. machines. Pittsburgh has already completed such a program, while New York City and Newark, other near neighbors, have begun the process of gradual placement. At the same time, the sixty-two 35 mm. machines will be serviced and supplied with the best possible film library, but it seems unlikely that any new standard machines will be purchased except for new higher schools. DUCATIONAL RESEARCH has made many contributions to the E efficiency and economy of practically every phase of edu- cation. The curriculum, methods of teaching, administrative procedures, and finance owe much to the findings of research studies. It is therefore surprising to find that so little real re- search has been done in the field of school buildings and physical equipment. The explanation may lie in the fact that in the past, and to a great extent at present, the process of education has been largely a sitting-at-a-desk one with the major emphasis on textbook study. As a result, buildings and equipment facili- ties were given slight consideration. The broadening curriculum, the more active methods of learning, and emphasis upon doing and working with things rather than merely studying books— all have focused attention upon the importance of the physical environment and the supply of materials necessary for this changed type of work.—Holy, T. C., in Review of Educational Research, October 1935, p. 406. 566 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. SELECTED REFERENCES . Benrens, Ricuarp H. “A Program of Testing School Supplies.” American School Board Journal 93: 43; July 1936. . Bennett, Henry E. “Measuring School Equipment Values.” American School Board Journal 89: 28-29; December 1934. . Berry, Frances, compiler. Equipment and Supplies for Nursery, Kindergarten, and. Primary Grades. Washington, D. C.: Association for Childhood Edu- cation, 1937. 37 p. . Brown, E. J., and Byatt, R. D. Consumer’s Research in School Supplies. Bulletin of Information, Vol. 16, No. 9. Emporia, Kans.: Kansas State Teachers College, 1936. 44 p. . BuckincHaM, B. R. “The Scientific Development and Evaluation of Textbook Materials.” Official Report, 1933. Washington, D. C.: Department of Superintendence, National Education Association, 1933. p. 159-66. . Dent, Ettswortn C. “Time to Take Stock of Equipment for Visual Educa- tion.” Nation’s Schools 14: 62-64; September 1934. . Firkem, Jens. “Testing Public School Janitorial Materials and Supplies.” Proceedings, 1935. Trenton, N. J.: National Association of Public School Business Officials, 1935. p. 253-60. . Hispert, R. W. “The Selection and Management of School Equipment and Supplies.” American School Board Journal 85: 27-28; December 1932. 86: 41, 63; March 1933. . JENSEN, Frank A. Current Procedure in Selecting Textbooks. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1931. 157 p. Lona, Frank M. Desirable Physical Facilities for an Activity Program. Con- tributions to Education, No. 598. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1933. 116 p. Maxwe ti, C. R. “The Use of Score Cards in Evaluating Textbooks.” Thi Textbook in American Education. Thirtieth Yearbook, Part II. National Society for the Study of Education. Bloomington, IIl.: Public School Publishing Co., 1931. Chapter 8, p. 143-62. ME po, Irvine R., and WaTerRMAN, Ivan R. “Evaluation of Textbook Mate- rials in Handwriting.” Elementary School Journal 36: 204-10; November 1935. Nasu, L. V. “The Selection of Pupil Seating Equipment for Classrooms.” American School Board Journal 89: 26, 75; July 1934. NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF PusBLIC ScHoot BustNess OFFICIALS, COMMITTEE ON Supp.ty AND Resgarcu. Tests of Quality for School Equipment and Sup- plies. Bulletin No. 5. Pittsburgh: the Association (Sec.: H. W. Cramblet, Board of Education), 1934. 52 p. Rocers, Don C., and Hicetns, THomas J. “Equipment, Apparatus, and Sup- plies.” Review of Educational Research 5: 362-63, 421-25; October 1935. TuRALLS, Zor A. “The Selection and Use of Pictures.” Journal of the National Education Association 21: 247-48; November 1932. Utiricu, Fevrx Hetmutu. “Trends in School Equipment.” American School Board Journal 87: 29-30, 59; August 1933. WATERMAN, Ivan R., and Metso, Irvina R. “A Plan of Procedure for the Evaluation of Textbooks in Reading.” Elementary School Journal 35: 662-74; May 1935. Wuippte, Gertrupe, “Procedures Used in Selecting Schoolbooks.” Hlementary School Journal 36: 760-75; June 1936. 37: 47-57; September 1936. . Wootten, Gertrupe. “Furnishing the Art Room.” School Arts Magazine 31: 574-75; May 1932. CHAPTER X A REVIEW OF THE TECHNICS OF APPRAISAL’ HE PRECEDING CHAPTERS have dealt principally with methods and results of appraisal in specific school situations. Most of the con- tributors have told how certain technics were used, or may be used, in evaluating particular aspects of the school program. While supervisors and teachers may profit from studying these reports of individual appraisals, they will wish also to obtain a unified view of the characteristics, uses, and limitations of the research procedures which are available for school evaluation. This chapter undertakes to present such a picture briefly and with a minimum of technical detail. The following discussion is not intended to be exhaustive. Its purpose is to provide a general background rather than specific directions—to suggest useful procedures rather than to prescribe a definite program of appraisal. References to more extensive and detailed treatments of the technics of evaluation are given in footnotes and at the end of the chapter. INFLUENCE OF IMPROVED TECHNICS UPON ScHOOL EVALUATION As recently as three or four decades ago, appraisal of the elementary- school program gave little concern to either school or community. Neither educators nor laymen had become aware of many problems relating to the schools which stood in sore need of investigation. Efforts at measurement and evaluation were limited generally to an occasional written examination, and to a still less frequent visit by a school trustee to see how the school was “getting on.” Such unsystematie efforts were regarded as satisfactory by both the officers and the patrons of the school. The teacher of that day was confident that when she marked a history paper 88.3 percent, she had stamped it with its true value. Likewise, the school trustee who casually observed classes for an hour or so felt entirely qualified to report to his fellow trustees upon the efficiency of the teacher and the progress of the school. So year after year traditional practises—the worthless or harmful along with the good—passed unquestioned. There were many reasons, no doubt, for this uncritical attitude with regard to school policies and procedures. One of these was the age-old tendency to accept unresistingly whatever has the sanction of time and tradition, but a far more cogent reason was that no reliable methods 1 Prepared for the Editorial Committee by the Research Division of the National Education Association. [ 567 ] 568 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS for studying many school problems were available. Penetrating and extensive studies were not made because no one knew definitely how to undertake them. Standardized tests, rating scales, and score-cards had not yet been devised, while controlled experimentation and the processes of statistical analysis had not been applied to the field of education. The recent development of instruments with which to measure and evaluate has been the chief stimulus to educational research. McCall says: “The very process of research stirs up a hornet’s nest of insistent problems. Spencer expressed a profound truth when he said that if we enlarge ever so little the sphere of light we increase infinitely its points of contact with the darkness.” ? Since the turn of the century the un- disturbed complacency with schools which had prevailed thruout our entire educational history has been severely disrupted, and every phase of school activity, from the administration of the system to the achieve- ment of the smallest child in the kindergarten, has been measured and evaluated with more or less accuracy. The amount of educational in- vestigation has reached astonishing proportions. Brownell says: ‘For three decades, at an ever increasing tempo, the results of educational research have been accumulating. The sheer bulk of research literature is now in 1935 little short of astounding.” * Gray points out that the fifty studies of reading published by 1910 had increased to 1500 by 1936. The early investigations of the psychologist in his laboratory played no small part in bringing to educators the scientific technics which had first been applied in the physical sciences.‘ Laboratory studies of the learning process and of the nature of the child produced theories which required testing under schoolroom conditions. Teachers, school ad- ministrators, and other field workers borrowed certain technics from the psychologists, adapted them to school conditions, and added others of their own creation as the need arose. Marked changes both in character and frequency of use become evi- dent when early research technics are compared with those in use today, altho much research in all social fields is still primitive in character. However, progress is evident. Older research technics have been refined and new ones devised. Franke and Davis® analyzed the kind and amount of scientific research in education during a period of forty vears, as reported in representative periodicals. They found the greatest increase to have been in the use of statistics, and that this increase has 2 McCall, William A. How To Experiment in Education. New York: Macmillan Co., 1923. p. 8. 3 Brownell, William A. ‘“‘The Field Worker as a Consumer and Producer of Research.’’ Journal of Educational Research 29: 144-49; October 1935. 4See: Gates, Arthur I. ‘‘Contributions of Psychological Research to Education.’ Society 31: 485-93; April 12, 1930. 5 Franke, Paul R., and Davis, Robert A. ‘‘Changing Tendencies in Educational Research.” Journal of Educational Research 23: 133-45; February 1931. ’ School and TECHNICS OF APPRAISAL 569 been most marked in the last twenty years. There has also been an in- creased application of the experimental method. The questionnaire experienced its greatest popularity in the earlier decades. A finding of special interest to elementary-school teachers and principals is that more research studies have been made in the elementary school than at any other level, and the largest proportion of this research has been for purposes of evaluation. Today, evaluation has come to be regarded in many quarters as an integral part of the elementary-school pro- gram.® Tyres or TECHNIC EMPLOYED Evaluating the many aspects of the school program requires the ap- plication, at one time or another, of practically every research technic that has ever been devised for the study of educational problems. There are no research procedures which are exclusively “technics of appraisal.” The methods described here are used to investigate many types of school problems, evaluation being only one purpose for which they may be employed. However, some technics of research are better adapted than others to problems of evaluation. The following pages are devoted principally to those technics which are regarded as most useful for appraisal in the school. Ways of classifying research technics—There are several bases for classifying appraisal procedures. They may be classified according to the device used to gather the data, such as the questionnaire or the test- ing technic; according to the character of the data gathered, such as objective or subjective data; or according to the purpose for which the study is made, such as to determine status or causes and relationships. Each of these classifications is convenient at times. For the purpose of this chapter, the technics most widely employed in evaluating the school are broadly classified according to the specific purpose which they serve, as follows: (1) the survey method, used to determine present conditions, (2) the experimental and correlational methods, used to determine rela- tionships and to study cause and effect, and (3) the historical method, for use in the analysis and interpretation of the experiences of the past.’ The case-study and genetic methods also may contribute to the ap- praisal of an educational program. They are, however, better suited to the analysis of a variety of factors in the lives of individual children 6 For an illustration of this point of view in the field of the curriculum, see: Caswell, Hollis L., and Campbell, D. 8. Curriculum Development. New York: American Book Co., 1935. 600 p. 7This classification is based on that given in: Good, C. V.; Barr, A. S8.; and Scates, Douglas E. The Methodology of Educational Research. New York: D. Appleton-Century Co., 1936. Chapter 5, ‘‘The Classification of Research Methods,” p. 205-58. 570 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS than to the evaluation of school procedures and materials for groups of children.® Selecting methods of study—When making a selection among the available technics of research, the investigator needs first to analyze his problem and to decide which method promises results of the highest validity. Methods useful for measuring pupil achievement are not suit- able for appraising curriculum content. The teacher, principal, or super- intendent also needs to take into account the general school conditions. Certain practical questions inject themselves into the situation, such as: How much time can be given to this particular investigation? What facilities and assistance are available for carrying it on? What degree of refinement of measurement will be necessary? How widely will the results of this study be applied? Other problems will no doubt occur to the practical worker who realizes that his first responsibility is not research but teaching children, supervising instruction, or administer- ing a school system. It is well to recognize from the beginning that neither the classroom nor the school system is a laboratory.* This fact places certain limita- tions upon the experimenter, who quickly finds that his studies must be carried on under ordinary school conditions, and that these conditions are not easily controlled. However, there are compensations. The very fact that a study is made in a typical school situation may produce results which are more useful to the school than a similar study carried on under the artificial conditions of the laboratory. This is especially true of evaluative procedures. In conducting such a study, however, the possible or probable effects of uncontrolled working conditions on the outcome of the experiment should be borne in mind, and the results interpreted in the light of these conditions. Neglecting to make allow- ance for the influence of uncontrolled factors has been a serious weak- ness of many studies of classroom problems. Objective and subjective approaches—While objectivity is an im- portant goal of measurement in education, it is still far from being attained to the same degree by every type of measuring instrument. Yet even the most subjective type cannot be thrown aside as useless. The materials with which educators work are such that the technics which have been successful in the physical sciences cannot be applied to educational problems without careful adaptation, and generally this adaptation is in the direction of subjectivity. Many elements in the school are so highly individual in character that they cannot be stand- 8 The value of the case-study method in school appraisal is discussed by Smith in Chapter I. An application of this method in the field of curriculum evaluation is reported by Hobson in Chapter IV. ®Freeman, Frank N. “The Place of Laboratory Experiment in Educational Research.” Review of Educational Research 4: 97-107, 118-19; February 1934. TECHNICS OF APPRAISAL 571 ardized; in fact, it would be undesirable to have them conform to a standard pattern. Teachers, pupils, classrooms, and even entire school systems have certain distinctive qualities and potentialities which can- not be radically changed or ignored in the process of evaluation. “Ap- parently, the more nearly we get to the heart of human problems, the less completely we can depend on approaches that are acceptable to those who emphasize the formal characteristics of objective science. In these areas one has to choose between loyalty to formalism and the desire to do something of practical worth, even though it is not entirely above criticism.” !° Hence it is often necessary to use methods of appraisal which take account of individuality within the school, even tho such methods may be more or less subjective. The results obtained by these methods may not apply beyond the classroom or school system in which they were obtained, but this is no particular drawback from the field worker’s viewpoint. For him the investigation has been satisfactory if it has solved a problem in the local school. In this respect the investigations of the teacher, principal, or school administrator differ markedly from those of the research worker in the laboratory. The research worker seeks to test the general truth of hypotheses and principles, whereas the field worker is interested primarily in solving the problems of his own school only. Lack of a “best” technic—There is no research technic which can be characterized as “best.” Research instruments and methods do not pos- sess quality in themselves. The value of a particular technic depends on (1) its applicability to the problem under investigation, (2) the judgment and care with which it is applied, and (3) the wisdom with which the resulting data are interpreted. In support of this viewpoint Good, Barr, and Scates comment as follows: No attempt is made to characterize one method as more important than an- other, since the purpose to be served and the conditions to be met must determine the value of a research method in a given situation. The value of a machine gun, a rifle, a shotgun, and a revolver as a weapon must be determined in relative rather than absolute terms. The difficulty of establishing a sharp line of demarcation between fundamental methods of research and minor techniques or devices for collecting or analyzing data will be recognized; since, under the direction of an expert, what was a minor technique in a different situation or in the hands of a beginner—the case study, for example—may become a major procedure in the approach to truth.” In this connection it should be noted also that most studies require the use of more than one research technic; seldom is a well-planned 10 Good, C. V.; Barr, A. S.; and Secates, D. E., op. cit., p. 410. 11 Good, C. V.; Barr, A. S.; and Seates, D. E., op. cit., p. 222. 572 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS investigation limited to one. Many studies require historical research to the extent of collecting and evaluating past investigations as an initial step. Practically all research finds some use for statistical methods, altho the calculations may be extremely simple. A large pro- portion of investigations are improved by a certain amount of experi- mentation. It would generally be unwise to limit a particular study to any one method.'” Tue Survey TecHNICc The survey method is the one most often used to evaluate the school program. It is so called because it utilizes data on current conditions, usually from a relatively wide area or from a large number of cases, or both. The results are expressed statistically in terms of averages, and these averages are used in making comparisons between classes, schools, or school systems. By means of the survey the average achievement of a group of pupils, the amount of training possessed by teachers, the condition of school buildings, and other facts regarding the status of the schools may be determined and compared with similar findings in other localities or with accepted standards. The study may be concen- trated on a single phase of education in a single school, or it may cover all aspects of an entire school system.’* The survey technic is not pri- marily concerned with relationships or with causes and effects. It is not analytical in its approach, altho it often provides data which may be subjected to analysis. It does not aim at individual diagnosis. It does, however, aid the practical worker in obtaining information basic to the intelligent formulation of school policies, and in making comparisons among schools and school systems which are essential to evaluation. The survey method utilizes a number of data-gathering devices which may be adapted to widely varying problems and situations. Some of these, such as controlled observation, rating scales, and checklists, in- volve a considerable amount of subjective judgment. Others, such as standardized tests, are relatively objective. There are also, among simi- lar devices, varying degrees of reliability according to the particular instrument used or the nature of the thing to be measured. For instance, a scale for rating character traits may be less reliable than a scale for appraising school buildings because of the difference in the problems to which the device is applied. “For a fuller discussion of types of research technics see: Barr, A. S., and others. ““A Sym- posium on the Classification of Educational Research.’’ Journal of Educational Research 23: 353-82; May 1931. 1% For survey technics employed in state school surveys, see: National Education Association, Research Division. ‘‘Estimating State School Efficiency.’”’ Research Bulletin 10: 77-131; May 1982. ~~ TECHNICS OF APPRAISAL 573 The survey devices most commonly used for school evaluation are: (1) the instruments of controlled observation, such as record forms, rating scales, checklists, and score-cards; (2) questionnaires and inter- views; (3) standardized tests; and (4) the analysis of pertinent records. These are discussed in the order given. Instruments of controlled observation—Observation as a method of research has, within recent years, been lifted out of the class of technics regarded as too subjective to be included among scientific procedures, and now bids fair to become a genuinely scientific method for measur- ing certain “intangibles” which have heretofore baffled the ingenuity of research workers. This technic is probably superior to diary and case- study procedures for certain phases of school appraisal, since the results of controlled observation lend themselves to statistical treatment more readily than do those yielded by these latter devices. The observational technic has been refined in the following ways: 1. The things to be observed are carefully defined and limited in quantity. 2. Observations are made systematically. The length of the observation period, the intervals of time between observations, and the number of observations are definitely determined. 3. The number of instances of the type of activity which the observer is studying is recorded immediately. Nothing is left to memory. 4. The observations are made by one trained to do this work. 5. The results are recorded in such a way that they can be checked and verified. Special forms for recording observations are used.” Obviously, the success of this method depends largely upon the care with which its administration is planned, the clear definition of activi- ties so as to leave a minimum to the judgment of the observer, the arrangement for recording observations, and the training of the ob- servers. Altho controlled observation has been developed largely in answer to the need for an effective method of studying the behavior of very young children,’® it is becoming an additional technic for measuring the larger outcomes of the school, such as the development of character and personality traits. It is also of value in appraising the work of vari- ous types of schools, such as the traditional and the progressive school.'® Observation can become a highly effective experimental method if such conditions as the classroom and its equipment, the groups of pupils, and 144 For a comparison of systematized and unsystematized observation, see: Goodenough, Florence L., and Anderson, John E. Experimental Child Study. New York: Century Co., 1931. p. 428-29. % For illustration of this use of the observational technic, see: Jack, Lois M. ‘‘An Experimental Study of Ascendant Behavior in Preschool Children.’’ Behavior of the Preschool Child. Studies in Child Welfare, Vol. 9, No. 3. Iowa City: University of Iowa, 1934. Part 1, p. 9-65. 16 Wrightstone, J. Wayne. ‘‘Measuring Intangibles in Progressive Schools.’ Progressive Educa- tion 12: 95-97; February 1935. § Pistor, Frederick. ‘‘Valid Scientific Appraisal of an Enterprise in Progressive Education.”’ Journal of Educational Research 28: 433-49; February 1935. See also the article by Pistor in Chapter V of this yearbook. 574 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS the observers are controlled, leaving some other one factor to exert a varying influence upon the groups of pupils studied. Rating scales, checklists, and score-cards are variations of the direct observation technic. They are based on the same assumptions: (1) that a better estimate of an object or situation can be secured by centering attention on one of its aspects at a time; and (2) that the status or value of the whole can be approximated by adding together the esti- mates of its parts. While there are objections to these assumptions from a theoretical standpoint, the devices themselves are of practical value in appraising many phases of the school program. These three devices are somewhat similar in character. There are differences among them, however, which may make one more applicable than either of the others to a particular problem. These differences need to be carefully considered in the light of the investigator’s purpose when one of the devices is to be selected as an instrument of appraisal. The rating scale is the most generally used of the three. It directs attention to a number of separate items, but not to so many as the checklist or score-card. The scale may rank the persons, objects, or activities observed in order of merit, or it may provide a range of values to be assigned to them. The reliability of the results may be increased by combining the ratings made by several observers. As with the check- list and score-card, the success of the rating scale depends largely upon the care with which it is constructed and administered. Rating scales have been extensively used for judging teacher effi- ciency.’ Broadly speaking, the work of the teacher may be evaluated either in terms of processes or of results—that is, by observing actual classroom activities under the teacher’s direction, or by measuring the achievement of her pupils. Ideally, pupil achievement should be the ultimate criterion of the teacher’s success, but many factors other than the teacher enter into any teaching situation and condition the pupils’ attainments, such as assistance received at home, and the ability, in- terest, and energy of the pupils. Such conditions make it practically im- possible to isolate and measure the teacher’s influence by testing the pupils only. It is therefore necessary to supplement achievement tests by other devices, such as the rating of teaching procedures. However, the measurement of teaching ability by means of rating scales, even when supplemented by tests of social intelligence, health scales, personality measurement, and other psychological tests, has been far from satisfactory,'* altho it is superior to the casual, unaided 17 Knudsen, C. W. Evaluation and Improvement of Teaching. Garden City, New York: Double- day, Doren and Co., 1932. p. 205-48. § Torgerson, T. L. ‘“‘The Measurement and Prediction of Teaching Ability.” Review of Educational Research 4: 261-66, 329-30; June 1934. 18 Barr, A. S. ‘““The Measurement of Teaching Ability.’’ Journal of Educational Research 28: 561-69; April 1935. ns Gaus o — TECHNICS OF APPRAISAL 575 judgment of untrained observers. Much remains to be done in this field. Controlled observation of the type outlined above, including the use of carefully prepared checklists of activities to be observed, offers perhaps a more promising approach to the appraisal of teaching efficiency.’® Checklists usually contain many details, since their chief purpose is to call attention to points which might easily be overlooked. They are often more useful as a starting point for study than as a means of evaluation. They may be made to yield a total score by assigning values to the various points listed, but in such cases they are usually called “seore-cards.”’ Checklists are used for appraising school property,?° the business administration of schools,” instructional activities,?? and super- visory policies. ** Such devices have also been an important means for evaluating textbooks.** A more recent development in the use of the checklist is the measurement of group discussion.” The score-card is the most elaborate form of direct rating. It usually contains a considerable number of items, each of which is assigned a definite maximum number of points. Examination of available score- cards reveals a variety of ways of determining the values to be assigned for each item. These instruments yield total scores which make possible comparisons among the objects or situations appraised. They have been found especially useful in the appraisal of school buildings.?* Score- cards have also been developed for the school budget,?7 school records and reports,?* guidance activities,*® and school organization.*° 19 The rating scale has also been used for evaluating courses of study. For example, see: Stratemeyer, Florence B., and Bruner, Herbert B. Rating Elementary School Courses of Study. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1926. 193 p. 2 Smith, Henry Lester, and Noffsinger, Forest Ruby. Bibliography of School Buildings, Grounds, and Equipment. Parts II and IV. Bulletin of the School of Education, Vol. 9, No. 2 and Vol. 11, No. 2. Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University, 1933 and 1935. ‘‘Score Cards and Building Equipment,”’ Part II, p. 40-42; and Part IV, p. 32-35. 2ZLinn, H. H. ‘‘Check Lists for Determining Possible Economies in Public School Adminis- tration.’’ American School Board Journal 87: 31-32, 62-63, July; 31-32, 59, August; 43, 59, September; 32, October; 41, 54-55, November 1933. 22 Wrightstone, J. W. ‘‘Measuring Intangibles in Progressive Schools.’’ Progressive Education 12: 95-97; February 1935. % Barr, A. S. Introduction to the Scientific Study of Classroom Supervision. New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1931. Chapter 5, ‘“‘The Validation of Data-Gathering Devices,”’ p. 190-248. *For a critical review of technics used for evaluating textbooks, see: Buckingham, B. R. ‘Scientific Textbook Appraisal Is Essential.’’ Nation’s Schools 12: 45-48; July 1983. See also the articles by Averill and Waterman in Chapter IX of this yearbook. * Wrightstone, J. Wayne. ‘Instrument for Measuring Group Discussion and Planning.” Journal of Educational Research 27: 641-50; May 1934. *6Score-cards have been developed for rating rural-, elementary-, and high-school buildings of various kinds by research workers at Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. 7 Clark, Harold F. ‘‘Suggestions for Scoring School Budgets.’’ American School Board Journal 71: 47-48, 133-34; October 1925. Strayer, George D., and Engelhardt, N. L. A Score Card and Standards for the Records > Reports of City School Systems. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1923. 1 p. *® Proctor, W. M. “Evaluating Guidance Activities in High Schools.’’ Vocational Guidance Magazine 9: 58-66; November 1930. *® Mort, Paul R. ‘Rating Scale for Elementary-School Organization.” Teachers College Record 32: 34-49; October 1930. ao 76 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Questionnaires and interviews—These instruments are used to obtain data which are unique, that is, data which can be secured from certain individuals only. The interview secures information directly by means of face-to-face contacts, while the questionnaire usually obtains in- formation from persons who are distributed over a relatively wide area. The questionnaire is, in a manner of speaking, a long-range interview. Both have advantages and disadvantages. One disadvantage common to both is that the person making the inquiry is entirely dependent upon the individual from whom the information is secured for the truth and validity of the answers given. Even when the person responding is will- ing to cooperate, a chance ambiguity in a question may produce a “wrong” answer. The interview has all the advantages of close-range conversation; misunderstandings may be immediately cleared up. This procedure is time-consuming and expensive, however, and few cases generally can be included.*! The questionnaire, on the other hand, may more readily reach a large number of people. Its convenience as a research device has caused it to suffer from over-use and from misuse. Often it has been used to collect data which could better have been secured from public documents and records. Perhaps its most serious misuse is in obtaining opinions on questions which can be answered adequately only thru carefully conducted experiments.** Davis and Barrow * analyzed 500 questionnaire studies reported in six educational periodicals during a period of thirty-eight years. The analysis included (1) the number of questionnaires sent out and re- turned, (2) the types of responses called for, (3) the types of approach used in obtaining replies, (4) the reliability of responses, and (5) the validity and types of items. The investigators concluded that practically nothing has been scientifically established concerning the reliability and validity of the questionnaire, and suggested that serious attempts be made to determine these, rather than allow the questionnaire to be discredited as a research technic. Survey testing—The administration of school tests is perhaps the best-known method of evaluating the school program. Tests have long been given to groups of pupils for the purpose of measuring their achievement in the school subjects. The efficiency of the teacher, of 31 For further information on the interview, see: Bingham, Walter V., and Moore, Bruce V. How to Interview. Rev. ed. New York: Harper and Bros., 1934. 308 p. { Hartmann, George W. “Interview as a Research and Teaching Device.’’ Journal of Applied Psychology 17: 205-11; April 1933. 32 For further discussion of the questionnaire, see: Koos, Leonard V. The Questionnaire in Education. New York: Macmillan Co., 1928. 178 p. § National Education Association, Research Division. ‘‘The Questionnaire.’’ Research Bulletin 8: 1-51; January 1930. 33 Davis, R. A., and Barrow, E. L. “A Critical Study of the Questionnaire in Education.” Educational Administration and Supervision 21: 137-44; February 1935. be he ru ng in rch TECHNICS OF APPRAISAL 577 the principal, and of the school system as a whole is often estimated in a general way according to the achievement of the pupils on tests.* Standardized tests have made possible the comparison of different classes, schools, and entire school systems, as well as the comparison of each of these with the general test norms.**° The examinations used may include tests of ability as well as of achievement, in order to make the scores on the latter more meaningful. While carefully selected stand- ardized tests can be highly useful, considerable caution must be exer- cised in interpreting their results. Monroe ** warns against “a child-like faith in the efficacy of objective tests as instruments for measuring school achievement.” He believes that too great reliance is being placed on tests as measures of such highly important matters as the school’s efficiency and the pupil’s readiness for graduation, and as bases for educational changes. He emphasizes the necessity for a more intelligent attitude if educators are to prevent an uncritical and extreme distrust of tests. It is especially important that there be close agreement between the tests used and the specific educational objectives of the school using them. Analysis of records—Available school records often play an im- portant part in school appraisal. For example, a superintendent of schools may summarize records of educational costs or of teachers’ salaries in his school system during a period of years, and may com- pare these with similar summaries from other school systems. A school principal or teacher may summarize records of the educational and personality growth of children in his school or classroom, and may com- pare these with similar records compiled by other schools in the same system or with norms based on the development of pupils in similar schools elsewhere. Obviously, much of the information obtained from records must be collected originally by means of the devices mentioned earlier, such as checklists, score-cards, rating scales, questionnaires, interviews, and survey tests. As in the case of these other devices, the usefulness of records in school appraisal depends in large measure upon the educational significance of the data which they provide. Record systems themselves should be frequently appraised with reference to % Knudsen, Charles W. Evaluation and Improvement of Teaching. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, Doran and Co., 1932. Chapter 8, ‘‘Evaluation of Instruction by Means of Standard- ized Tests,’’ p. 285-320. § Barr, A. S. ‘‘Measurement in the Supervision and Improvement of Teaching.”” Twenty-second Annual Conference on Educational Measurements. Bulletin of the School of Education, Vol. 12, No. 1. Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University, 1935. p. 25-31. * For examples of extensive survey-testing programs, see: Sangren, Paul V. ‘State and National Testing Programs.” Review of Educational Research 5: 456-58; December 1935. § Na- tional Education Association, Research Division. ‘‘Estimating State School Efficiency.’’ Research Bulletin 10: 78-131; May 1932. ‘‘State-Wide Achievement Testing Programs,”’ p. 97-100. *% Monroe, W. S. ‘‘Hazards in the Measurement of Achievement.’’ School and Society 41: 48-52; January 12, 1935. 578 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS this criterion. The value of records is increased by making them con- tinuous and cumulative from year to year. In using records for appraisal purposes, allowance must be made for all possible factors which may be responsible for the relative status of different classes, schools, or school systems. Records in themselves are meaningless for evaluation; only thru careful interpretation can they be made to throw light on the adequacy or inadequacy of specific phases of the school program. THE EXPERIMENTAL METHOD According to Monroe and Engelhart, experimentation is ‘“‘the type of educational research in which the investigator controls the educative factors to which a child or group of children is subjected during the period of inquiry and observes the resulting achievement.” *’ Experi- mentation is theoretically more scientific in its approach and procedure than are other research technics. It is the method most favored by in- vestigators in the physical sciences; it is well adapted to laboratory conditions; and it has generally been regarded as the ultimate objective of investigators in all fields. However, the experimental method has not entirely fulfilled the opti- mistie expectations of its proponents in the field of education, chiefly for this reason: Its success rests primarily on the principle of the “single variable.” That is, all the factors in the situation under investigation must be held constant except the one whose influence is to be measured. In the typical school it is almost impossible to control all factors. Varia- tions in the abilities and interests of the pupils, in the personalities of the teachers, in the general school situation, and in the out-of-school conditions may exert unmeasured and even unrecognized influences. Yet it is more important to evaluate methods of teaching in a typical classroom than in a laboratory. In reporting experimental studies carried on in such classrooms, it is important that the operation of uncontrolled factors be recognized and recorded even if it is not possible to measure their influence. Bixler ** suggests that “the experimenter should make plans for keeping an experimental log or record of events, with dates, and should include irrelevant factors and unusual condi- tions.” There are other differences between the work of the laboratory in- vestigator and that of the teacher or principal who undertakes the experimental study of problems in the schoolroom. The latter is gen- % Monroe, W. S., and Engelhart, M. D. Experimental Research in Education. Bureau of Edu- cational Research, Bulletin No. 48. Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois, 1930. p. 15. 38 Bixler, Harold H. Check Lists for Educational Research. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1928. p. 16. — =. “FF du- ge, TECHNICS OF APPRAISAL 579 erally concerned only with obtaining results which are valid in the local situation; the laboratory study usually aims at generalization. Waples and Tyler make a distinction between the typical research problem and the typical field or service problem as follows: In general, the service problem differs from the research problem in that (1) the service problem is larger in scope, (2) it arises in a particular classroom but need not be confined in it, (3) it necessitates less precise methods of investigation if solutions are to be promptly obtained for the problem as a whole, and (4) it can only be investigated by the average classroom teacher on the basis of various assumptions that can seldom be verified.” The service study represents a method of investigation that is more systematic than ordinary thinking, but less systematic and carefully controlled than the research study. McCall thus cautions those who would use the experimental method: An experimenter ought to think through his experiment from the conception of the problem to the formulation of the conclusions and beyond. If he has six months to devote to an experiment he can, with advantage, spend five months in planning the experiment and one month in conducting it. Ideally an experi- menter should not start his experiment until he has gone through, mentally at least, every step even down to the smallest statistical detail.” An experimental investigation may be so organized that the reactions of only one group of pupils is studied, or it may utilize parallel or rotated groups. The next few paragraphs describe briefly these varia- tions in experimental procedure. The one-group technic—The essentials of the one-group technic are: (1) an initial test, (2) the application of an experimental factor, and (3) observation of the results, which may range from casual subjective evaluation to highly objective measurement with the aid of instruments. This eyele may be repeated as many times as are necessary to complete the experiment. One-group experimentation is the simplest and most feasible of all experimental procedures for use in the classroom; at the same time it is probably the least valid. Bixler states: “The one-group experimental method is valid where the change produced by an experi- mental factor is not conditioned significantly by any preceding factor, and where the change effected by each experimental factor is measur- able in equal units.” * The parallel-group technic—This procedure attempts to overcome the limitations of the one-group method. It requires two or more groups as nearly equivalent as possible on certain essential factors. When two groups only are used, the experimental factor is applied to one group while the other group, acting as a “control,” follows the usual plan of ® Waples, Douglas, and Tyler, Ralph W. Research Methods and Teachers’ Problems. New York: Maemillan Co., 1930. p. 9. McCall, William A. How To Experiment in Education. New York: Macmillan Co., 1923. p. 6. “| Bixler, Harold H., op. cit., p. 16. 580 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS activity for purposes of comparison. The technic may be varied to include three or more equivalent groups, in which event the experi- mental factor or factors are applied to two or more groups, while the remaining group serves as a control. The chief disadvantage of the parallel-group technic arises from the almost insuperable difficulties involved in securing the equivalence of groups. When large numbers of pupils are included in a study, chance selection may be used to equate the groups. However, few teachers or principals have pupils in sufficiently large numbers to justify the use of chance selection. Where pupils must be carefully selected, the particular factors upon which the groups should be equated depend first of all on the nature of the problem to be studied. For example, if the study is one of academic achievement, it is essential that mental age, chronological age, and past achievement in the school subjects be among the equaliz- ing factors. On the other hand, if the experiment is concerned with physical attainment, certain measures of physical capacity and effi- ciency will be needed as bases for equating the groups. It should be noted that, in order to secure genuine equivalence of groups, they must have similar means and similar variabilities above and below the means. Each individual in one group may be “matched” with an individual in the other group or groups. However, the groups do not need to be equal in size. Bixler suggests that one or more of the following bases may be used in equating groups: . Random selection . General ability . Initial status in the experimental trait . Composite of several test scores . Rate of growth or change in the experimental trait . Multiple bases, such as chronological age, mental age, and initial status.” oor wn The rotation technic—The plan of rotating the experimental and control groups has been developed with a view to overcoming the limi- tations of the parallel-group method. As pointed out above, the diffi- culty in using the latter method is to secure genuine equivalence of the groups included in the experiment. The rotation technic does not re- quire such a high degree of equivalence as the parallel-group method, because the groups are reversed at intervals so that the original ex- perimental group becomes the control group and vice versa. However, the equating of groups cannot be totally ignored even in using the rota- tion method. While the measures for determining equivalence need not be so exact as when parallel groups are used, there should be reasonable equality between the groups at the beginning of the experiment. 42 Bixler, Harold H., op. cit., p. 19. ial nd ni- ffi- the re- od, eXx- ta- not ble TECHNICS OF APPRAISAL 581 The rotation technic is subject to the same limitation as the one- group method; that is, there may be a carry-over effect from one teach- ing procedure to another. The technic is valid where the change pro- duced by one teaching procedure or type of pupil activity is not conditioned significantly by any preceding method of teaching or type of activity. A major limitation of the experimental method—Controlled experi- mentation has been the chief technic used in appraising methods of teaching and learning. While results of unquestionable value have been obtained, too many studies of the same factors have reported findings which are in conflict, to encourage acceptance of the validity of all studies employing this method. Some of the difficulties involved in applying the experimental technic to classroom problems were pointed out above. Errors of measurement may be added to these. But a still greater difficulty is inherent in the type of problem to which the technic is applied; that is, methods of teaching cannot be rigidly standardized. This point should be considered in evaluating the findings of studies of teaching methods as guides to future action. It is probably a vain search to try to find a best method of teaching even within relatively narrow fields of learning. The effectiveness of any method is conditioned by the personality of the teacher, her enthusiasm for the method she em- ploys, the abilities of the pupils, and many other factors. As Monroe points out, “the superior teacher is resourceful and constantly adapts her instruction to the needs of her pupils as they are revealed from day to day. A method that is best today may not be best next week. A method that is best for one class may not be best for another.” * Experimentation undoubtedly has had a stimulating effect on the work of teachers, and has contributed much to our knowledge of learning processes. Yet the conclusions derived thru experimental research into methods of instruction should be regarded critically, and as subject to revision in the light of everyday experience in the classroom.** 48 Monroe, Walter S. “Controlled Experimentation as a Means of Evaluating Methods of Teaching.”’ Review of Educational Research 4: 36-42; February 1934. 44For further discussion and illustration of the experimental method, see: Brownell, W. A. “Some Neglected Safeguards in Control-Group Experimentation.’”’ Journal of Educational Re- search 27: 98-107; October 1933. § Douglass, H. R. “Scientific Investigation of Instructional Problems.’"’ Journal of Educational Research 29: 130-38; October 1935. 1 Gates, Arthur I. “Ex- perimental and Critical Appraisals of Certain Progressive Methods in Education.” Nineteenth Annual Conference on Educational Measurements. Bulletin of the School of Education, Vol. 9, No. 1. Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University, 1932. p. 37-48. § Melby, E. O., and Lien, Agnes. “A Practicable Technique for Determining the Relative Effectiveness of Different Methods of Teaching.”” Journal of Educational Research 19: 255-64; April 1929. { National Education Asso- ciation, Department of Elementary School Principals. Aids to Teaching in the Elementary School. Thirteenth Yearbook. Washington, D. C.: the Department, 1934. Chapter X, ‘“‘Summary of Research,” p. 433-54. This chapter describes a number of experimental procedures used in the appraisal of teaching aids. 582 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS THE HistoricAaL MetHop Values—Of the three kinds of research reviewed in this chapter, the historical method probably has been applied least often to problems of school evaluation. Altho one of the earliest methods of research in education, it has been largely displaced in recent years by the survey and experimental technics. The fact that many of the early historical studies were little more than collections of information has perhaps tended to discourage the use of the method by practical school workers. The functional value of carefully related historical facts was formerly little recognized, so that no special attempt was made to throw light on prevailing educational or social conditions. However, the possibilities of historical research as a means of evaluating phases of the school pro- gram which are not easily investigated by either experimental or survey methods are coming to be recognized. Knight points out the value of historical research to the school as follows: Much of the work of the school is traditional. The nature of the work of the teacher and the school administrator is restrictive and tends to foster prejudices in favor of familiar methods. The history of education is the “sovereign solvent” of educational prejudices... . Only in the light of their origin and growth can the numerous educational problems of the present be viewed sympathetically and without bias by the teacher, the school administrator, or the public... . The history of education is an ally in the scientific study of education rather than a competitor. It serves to present the educational ideals and standards of other times, and it enables social workers to avoid the mistakes of the past.” Historical research, then, is valuable in (1) establishing trends, (2) instituting comparisons, and (3) finding causes and reasons.** To the appraisal of such phases of education as plans of school organization, administrative and supervisory procedures, and the curriculum, his- torical research can contribute by giving perspective and emphasis. The light of long experience, shed on many problems which seem new and perplexing to our generation, often reveals that such problems are as old as the race itself and are not easily brought to solution by the naive if ingenious panaceas which are suggested daily.*’ Requirements—The historical approach to educational problems, like the other approaches described above, requires the collection, # Knight, E. W. Education in the United States. Boston: Ginn and Co., 1934. p. 38. 46 Good, H. G. “The Possibilities of Historical Research.” Journal of Educational Research 29: 148-53; October 1935. # For information on the use of the historical method, see: Alexander, Carter. How to Locate Educational Information and Data. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1935. 272 p. 1 Good, H. G. “Historical Research in Education.” Educational Research Bulletin (Ohio State University) 9: 7-18, 39-47, 74-78: January 8 and 22, and February 5, 1930. § Hockett, Homer C. Introduction to Research in American History. New York: Macmillan Co., 1931. 168 p. 9 Reisner, Edward H. “The History of Education as a Source of Fundamental Assumptions in Education.’’ Educational Administration and Supervision 14: 378-84; September 1928. fe LO in TECHNICS OF APPRAISAL 583 evaluation, organization, and interpretation of data. The student of history, according to Good, gathers data industriously, of course, but also resourcefully, noting particularly any facts which might tend to controvert his preformed views, all unpleasant and unwelcome evidence, scrutinizing any discrepancies and disagreements, and keeping a sharp eye for circumstances previously unnoticed or neglected. He looks not only for facts but for clues. Facts must lead to ideas. He must respect the facts, but in themselves they are blind. He must draw conclusions, because he aims not at knowledge merely, but wisdom. “What we need to know, for most purposes, is not what happened in the past, but what may be expected to happen in the future.” Of this latter kind of knowledge, one important source is correct ideas of the past.“ The usefulness of historical research in curriculum study is pointed out by Judd: Curriculum research is, I think, perhaps more difficult than most other types of educational investigation. Unless educational officers can look beneath the surface and find fundamentals, they certainly should accept what tradition hands down. Tradition has the sanction of time and trial and is far safer than mere guesswork. .. . Research workers should be critical and patient. They should approach their tasks with a clear understanding that arduous inquiry is necessary to success. They should study the trends of civilization. A trend is much more important to understand than is any particular content of thought or any particular skill. It is more important to know how to cultivate industrious and precise modes of thinking than it is to catalogue particular school subjects or particular items of experience. Knowledge of a trend of civilization carries the educator forward. It gives him a standard of selection, a guiding principle. It indicates to him the lines of development through which civilized society has arrived at its present stage. Such knowledge will lead to the organization of a progressive curriculum rather than to the acceptance of a curriculum composed of static units.” Loomis *° suggests that curriculum research which involves the his- torical method is made difficult by lack of adequate sources. This is equally true of many other phases of education. He adds, “Aside from textbooks and courses of study, historical research requires well-kept records of actual teaching procedures. Such records are seldom kept, even in the laboratory and experimental schools. Possibly no more im- portant service could be rendered by master teachers than by the keep- ing of complete records of the teaching actually done.” The same writer describes such a plan of record-keeping and its use in curriculum evalua- tion in the University of Chicago Laboratory Schools. 48 Good, H. G. “The Possibilities of Historical Research.’’ Journal of Educational Research 29: 148-53; October 1935. The quotation by Good is from Drake Durant’s Invitation to Philosophy. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1933. p. 67. # Judd, Charles H. ‘‘The Place of Research in a Program of Curriculum Development.” Journal of Educational Research 17: 313-23; May 1928. 5 Loomis, A. K. “Needed Research in the Curriculum.” Journal of Educational Research 29: 126-30; October 1935. 584 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS INCREASING THE USEFULNESS OF APPRAISAL TECHNICS Thinking clearly—The above discussion has been centered on the ma- nipulative technics and devices of school evaluation. Nothing has been said about the contribution of the philosophical approach to appraisal; yet the value of any research study depends ultimately upon reflective thinking and subjective judgment. The application of even the most scientific technics must be preceded by the selection of a problem and by the formulation of hypotheses, and it must be followed by interpre- tation of the information collected. Both of these steps require thought and judgment. No mechanical device can determine the problems which stand most in need of investigation in a particular school situation. As Holmes points out, “We do not know what to be scientific about until we have thought carefully on the issues involved, so that our experi- mentation and our gathering and handling of statistical data may give us facts on the questions that really matter’”;*' and Brim adds, “The careful selection of problems in terms of their significance for human well-being and happiness is of basic importance in research. In the main, the research worker in education has been without vision—a slave of conventional education. He has improved and polished its practices but he has not challenged its fundamental assumptions.’ Within recent years it has become apparent to many persons that too much emphasis has been given to the manual processes of research, and too little to the intellectual aspects. In other words, there has been too much handwork and too little brainwork. Voluminous quantities of information have been collected by means of questionnaires and standardized tests, but often the meaning of these data has evidently been little comprehended by the investigators themselves and conse- quently they have been clumsily or incorrectly interpreted to other people. Intelligence, especially that variety known as “common sense,” is essential to research, and no mechanical device, however efficient, can take its place. Approaching problems simply—lIn these considerations there is a note of encouragement to teachers, principals, and other field workers. It is this: The seeing eye and the thinking mind are still of greater value in research than is the most generously equipped laboratory. Those whose first duty is teaching, supervising, or administering a school, and who have but little time for research, are likely to feel overwhelmed by the array of highly technical processes which seem to be employed in studying even the simplest problems. The air is so 5t Holmes, Henry W. “The Philosophie Element in Scientific Method.”” School and Society 41: 41-48; January 12, 1935. 52 Brim, O. G. “Orientation of Educational Research to Present-Day Science and Philosophy.” Educational Research Bulletin (Ohio State University) 13: 29-38; February 14, 1934. TECHNICS OF APPRAISAL 585 filled with coefficients of correlation, reliabilities of differences, meas- ures of central tendency and variability, the rotation technic, and the like, that the practical worker is in danger of being utterly confused. While these measures and devices are important, it clears the atmos- phere somewhat to reflect that some of the finest contributions of pioneer research were made either with no laboratory equipment what- ever or with only crude tools, often made by the research worker him- self. Pasteur, when experimenting on diseases of grapes, used an old room that had once been a cafe, apparatus contrived by a carpenter and a tinsmith, and an open charcoal brazier with a pair of bellows and water from the town pump. Such instances could be multiplied indefinitely. Educational research is still in a pioneer stage. There is need for the investigator who can produce results with relatively crude equipment. Darwin once said: I have been speculating . . . what makes a man a discoverer of undiscovered things, and a most perplexing problem it is. Many men who are very clever— much cleverer than the discoverers—never originate anything. As far as I can conjecture, the art consists in habitually searching for the causes and meaning of everything which occurs. This implies sharp observation and requires as much knowledge as possible of the subject investigated.™ Recording activities and observations—Many educational processes must be evaluated every year—and every day, for that matter—by the teacher’s judgment. The value of such informal but important ap- praisals depends primarily upon the acuity with which the teacher makes her observations and interprets them. Teachers can cultivate both the ability to observe and the ability to interpret their observa- tions by reading research studies critically, and by keeping a system- atic record of their own ideas, observations, and activities. If a number of competent teachers would record carefully the everyday activities of their classrooms over a period of years, and their critical reactions to these activities, they would make an invaluable contribution toward evaluating the work of the school. Such records have rarely been kept, altho they require no equipment beyond a notebook and pencil. Adapting research technics to practical school situations—One of the greatest needs in educational research today is a better adaptation of research technics to the practical problems and conditions of the schoolroom. Who is better fitted to bring about such adaptation than competent principals and teachers?°* These workers are in closer con- tact with the school’s problems, and should be able to judge the ap- plicability of research technics to these problems better, than the 53 Quoted in: Boyd, T. A. Research. New York: D. Appleton-Century Co., 1935. p. 85. 54 See: Goodykoontz, Bess. “Opportunities for the Classroom Teacher as a Research Worker.” School Life 15: 161-63; May 1930. 586 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS research worker who is trained only in the technics themselves. The exercise of greater initiative in this matter, after careful study of the technics available, will save teachers and principals from having im- posed upon them methods of school appraisal which they do not under- stand or in which they have little confidence. The value of any program for evaluating the school depends in no small measure upon the intelli- gent cooperation of well-trained principals and teachers. HE STUDY OF EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS ordinarily involves a Wie fairly well recognized sequence of mental opera- tions: (1) the recognition and definition of a problem; (2) the survey of past experience (recorded in books and elsewhere) with the problem under consideration for ideas about what to do; (3) the formulation, upon the basis of a preliminary survey of past experience, of certain tentative generalizations (hypo- theses) about how to proceed and possible solutions; (4) the critical examination of these tentative generalizations for veri- fiability, logical consistency, and agreement with fact as found in past experience with the problem; and (5) a further appeal to experience made according to the conventions of science, employing better controls, more systematic observation, and better instruments of measurement, when and if necessary.— Barr, A.8., in Journal of Educational Research, January 1937, p. 357. he he n- re m bo ~I TECHNICS OF APPRAISAL 587 SELECTED REFERENCES . ABetson, H. H. The Art of Educational Research. Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York: World Book Co., 1933. 332 p. . ALEXANDER, Carter. How to Locate Educational Information and Data. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1935. 272 p. . BLrackHurst, J. Hersert. “Do We Measure in Education?” Journal of Edu- cational Research 27: 273-76; December 1933. . Boyp, T. A. Research. New York: D. Appleton-Century Co., 1935. 319 p. . Breep, FrepertcK §. “Is a Science of Education Possible?” Scientific Monthly 39: 530-35; December 1934. 3UCKINGHAM, B. R. Research for Teachers. New York: Silver, Burdett and Co., 1926. 380 p. . CrRawForpD, Ciaupge C. The Technique of Research in Education. Los Angeles: the Author (University of Southern California), 1928. 320 p. . Darsiz, Marvin L., and orners. “Evaluation in Theory and Practice—A Sym- posium.” California Journal of Secondary Education 11: 275-98; May 1936. 9. ENGELHART, Max D. “Educational Research at the Crossroads.’ American School Board Journal 87: 15-17; October 1933. 10. Frurcuey, F. P. “Testing for Application of Scientific Method.” Educational Method 15: 427-32; May 1936. 11. Goop, Carter V.; Barr, A. S.; and Scares, Dovatas E. The Methodology of Educational Research. New York: D. Appleton-Century Co., 1936. 882 p. 12. Ho.mes, Henry W. “The Philosophic Element in Scientific Method.” School and Society 41: 41-48; January 12, 1935. 13. KeLtey, TRUMAN L. Scientific Method. New York: Macmillan Co., 1932. 233 p. 14. Koos, Leonarp V. The Questionnaire in Education. New York: Macmillan Co., 1928. 178 p. 15. McCati, Witutam A. How to Experiment in Education. New York: Mac- millan Co., 1923. 281 p. 16. Monroe, Water S., and ENcetuart, Max D. Scientific Study of Educational Problems. New York: Macmillan Co., 1937. 504 p. 17. Norron, Marcaret A., and oruers. “Methods and Technics of Educational Research.” Review of Educational Research 4: 1-119; February 1934. 18. SEYFRIEND, JoHN E. Principles and Mechanics of Research. Bulletin, Educa- tion Series, Vol. 9, No. 1. Whole No. 269. Albuquerque, N. Mex.: Uni- versity of New Mexico, 1935. 240 p. 19. WapLes, Dovucias, and Tyter, Ratpo “W. Research Methods and Teachers’ Problems. New York: Macmillan Co., 1930. 653 p. 20. Witney, Frepertck L. Methods in Educational Research. New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1931. 335 p. RECORDS AND INFORMATION The information in this section is of two types: (1) the names of officers of professional organizations in which elementary-school prin- cipals participate, and (2) the names and addresses of paid-up mem- bers of the national Department of Elementary School Principals. The list of organizations is divided into three parts: (a) local principals organizations, (b) sectional principals associations, and (c) state prin- cipals associations. While these lists are not complete, they include every organization from which up-to-date information about its officers was received in time for publication. The Department hopes that all organizations of elementary-school principals or supervisors will supply such information regularly for inclusion in future yearbooks. The growth of membership in the national Department has continued at an accelerated pace during the current year. The number of mem- bers as this yearbook went to press was 5161, including 154 life mem- bers. This represents an increase of 1025, or 25 percent, over the mem- bership of a year ago. This unusual increase should be a source of pride to those who have helped to bring it about. It reflects not only improved economic conditions, but also a growing spirit of unity and of professional purpose among the elementary-school principals of America. The Department wishes to serve every elementary principal and supervisor in the nation, and hopes thereby to foster better edu- cation for children, to elevate school supervision as a profession, and to improve conditions for teachers. Let us keep on growing! [ 588 ] 3 of rin- 2m- The vals rin- ude cers all yply ued em- em- em- » of nly and - of ipal du- and LOCAL PRINCIPALS ORGANIZATIONS In the following roster the symbol (1) is used to indicate the person reported as president and (2) is used to indicate the secretary. ABERDEEN, S. DAK.—ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. (1) Maude Johnston, 414 11th Ave., S. E. (2) Maud C. Rasmussen, 920 S. Jay St. AKRON, OHIO—WOMEN PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. (1) Harriet Callow, Anthony Wayne Hotel. (2) Bess Householder, 665 Hazel St. ALLENTOWN, PA.—SCHOOLMEN’'S CLUB. (1) Melville J. Boyer, 2116 Highland St. (2) Charles F. Zinn, 1821 Penn- sylvania St. ATLANTA, GA.-—ELEMENTARY PRINCI- PALS’ CLUB. (1) Margaret Solomon, Formwalt School. (2) Mrs. Annie S. Johnson, 904 Beecher St., S. W. BALTIMORE, MD.—PRINCIPALS’ ASSO CIATION. (1) Wendell FE. Dunn, 1704 Lakeside Ave. 2) Edna M. Engle, Greenway Apts. BATTLE CREEK, MICH.—PRINCIPALS' ASSOCIATION. (1) Paul Rehmus, High Scheol. 2) Mrs. Doris Klaussen, Fre- mont School. BEAUMONT, TEXAS—ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS’ AND SUPERVISORS’ CLUB. (1) Mary Jo Popplewell, 2126 Orange St. (2) Helen Pool, 1180 Liveoak. BELLINGHAM, WASH. — ADMINISTRA- TIVE UNIT. (1) Madge S. Ware, R. F. D. 1. (2) Carl L. Irish, 1200 E. Maplewood. BERKELEY, CALIF.—PRINCIPALS’ AND SUPERVISORS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) H. H. Glessner, Berkley High School. (2) Dwayne G. Young, Berkeley Board of Education. BIRMINGHAM, ALA.—SCHOOLMASTERS’ CLuB. (1) L. M. Harrison, Woodlawn High School. (2) Ralph Martin, Ken- nedy School. BOSTON, MASS.—PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIA- TION. (1) Helen E. Cleaves, 15 Beacon St. (2) Esther L. MecNellis, 177 Har- vard St., Dorchester. BRIDGEPORT, CON N.— ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. (1) Mary Foley, Staples School. 2) Elizabeth Roche, Garfield School. BROOKLYN, N. Y.—PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. (1) Ethel F. Huggard, Junior High School No. 162. (2) Sara L. Rhodes, 5105 Ft. Hamilton Pkwy. CAMDEN, N. J.—PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIA- TION, (1) C. Paul Nay, Mt. Vernon School. (2) M. Grace Fenstermaker, Broadway School. CANTON, OHIO—PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. (1) Lena M. Fowler, 1832 Logan Ave., N. W. (2) Mary B. Swope, Hotel Flory. CASPER, WYO.—ELEMENTARY PRINCI- PALS’ CLuB. (1) Mrs. M. Woodle, Hard- ing School. (2) Mrs. Nona Dunlap, Willard School. CHARLESTON, S. C.—PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. (1) S. A. Lanham, Courtenay School. (2) J. E. Rogers, Mitchell School. CHICAGO, ILL.—ELLA FLAGG YOUNG CLusB. (1) Mercedes Howe, 5250 8S. Rock- well St. (2) Anna Wise, 2524 S. Cen- tral Park Ave. CHICAGO, ILL.—PRINCIPALS’ CLuB. (1) George E. Anspaugh, 5731 N. Artesian Ave. (2) Harry W. Wood, 1319 Ard- more Ave. CINCINNATI, OHIO—ELEMENTARY PRIN- CIPALS’ CLUB. (1) W. Earl Hutchin- son, 3040 Junietta Ave. (2) John H. Smith, 3847 Drakewood Dr. ‘ CLEVELAND, OHIO—ELEMENTARY PRIN- CIPALS’ CLUB. (1) Agnes L. Ziska, 3344 Meadowbrook Blvd., Cleveland Heights. (2) Laura H. Henschen, 3444 Marvin Ave., Cleveland. CLEVELAND HEIGHTS, OHIO—PRIN- CIPALS’ AND SUPERVISORS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Signor W. Davidson, Roxboro Junior High School. 2) Mrs. Dorothy R. Sloan, 1749 Lee Rd. CLIFTON, N. J.—PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIA- TION. (1) Charles Sheehan, School No. 1. (2) Marguerita Dobbins, School No. 6. CLIFTON, N. J.—SCHOOLMASTERS'’ CLUB. (1) Conrad Schweitzer, Hawthorne. (2) Charles W. Robinson, 265 W. Second St., Clifton. COLORADO SPRINGS, COLO.—PUuvBLIc SCHOOL PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Ross M. Grindle, 1138 Palmer Blvd. (2) Kathryn J. Morgan, 1101 N. Cor- ona, COUNCIL BLUFFS, IOWA—ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. (1) Kathryn Put- nam, 115 Platner St. (2) Nannie M. Hardin, 903 Fifth Ave. DALLAS, TEXAS—PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. (1) Nelle McCorkle, Stephen J. Hay School. 2) W. W. Bushman, Winnetka School. DANVILLE, ILL.—CvuBBERLEY CLUB. (1) L. M. Erickson, 911 N. Franklin St. (2) R. G. Seitzinger, 102 S. Crawford St DAYTON, OHIO—PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIA- TION. (1) Earl C. Rowe, 501 Niagara Ave. (2) Isabel Tole, 317 Abbey Ave. DAYTON, OHIO—PRINCIPALS’ AND SUPER- vIsoRS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Besse L. Fouts, 115 N. Williams St. (2) Cor- inne Brabec, 106 E. Hudson Ave. DENVER, COLO.—PRINCIPALS’ AND Dt- RECTORS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Peter C. Holm, Cole Junior High School. (2) Mayme A. Sweet, 24th Street School. DETROIT, MICH.—WoOMEN PRINCIPALS’ Ciusp. (1) Irene Sauble, 8118 Dexter Blvd. (2) Helen J. Burk, 5116 S. Martindale. [| 589 | 590 DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA—ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Mar- garet Pepper, E. V. Brown School. (2) Mrs. L. R. Duganne, George Truesdell School. DUBUQUE, IOWA—ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. (1) Augusta M. Frey, 1226 Rhomberg Ave. (2) Helen Litz, 2265 Roosevelt. EAST ST. LOUIS, ILL.—ApMINISTRA- TORS COUNCIL. (1) W. Morris Jones, 2542 Forest Pl., (2) J. A. MecCollom, 1426 N. 45th St. ELIZABETH, N. J.—PRINcIPALS’ ASSO- CIATION. (1) Isabel Y. Killough, School _ . (2) Anna M. Witteman, School o. q EL PASO, TEXAS—ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Mrs. Alberta Morse, 1114 N. Ochoa. (2) Alicia Swann, 2931 Aurora. ERIE, PA.—ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS’ AND SUPERVISORS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Minnie C. Willis, 627 Parade St. (2) Alta L. Postance, 1013 Chestnut St. EVERETT, MASS.—PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIA- TION. (1) William P. Canty, 96 Swan *. (2) Mabel M. Gardner, 46 Forest ve. EVERETT, WASH.—PRINCIPALS’ CLupB. (1) E. O. Arnold, 1127 Hoyt St. (2) Lawrence H. Bohanon, Route 4. FALL RIVER, MASS. =NTARY PRIN- CIPALS’ CLuB. (1) Julia V. Brennan, 90 Stanley St. (2) Isadore M. F. Hathaway, 49 Stafford Rd. FORT WAYNE, IND.—Pvustic ScHoou PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. (1) Robert Harris, Smart School. (2) Keturah Williams, MecCulloh School. FORT WORTH, TEXAS—PRINCIPALS AND VICE-PRINCIVALS’ ASSOCIATION. (t Ella J. Smith, 1316 Clover Lane. (2) David Sellars, 2524 May St. FRESNO, CALIF. LLEMENTARY PRIN- CIPALS’ CONFERENCE. (1) Graham C. Loofbourow, 1320 Wilson Ave. (2) Grace M. Fuller, 581 Yosemite Ave. GARY, IND.—PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) E. A. Spaulding, Emerson School. SS) pane A. Edwards, Roosevelt choo GRAND RAPIDS, MICH.—ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS’ EXCHANGE CLUB. (1) Bertha Greenbaum, 318 Paris Ave., S. E. (2) Ada A. Fuller, 1334 Under- wood Ave., S. E. HARTFORD, CONN.—PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. (1) Frank Burke, Weaver High School. (2) Mary E. Readette, Hooker School. HAVERHIL . RINCIPALS’ CLUB. (1) Helen M. Palmer, Fox School. (2) Alice L. Haynes, 273 Lowell Ave. HOLYOKE, M OMEN PRINCIPALS’ CuLusB. (1) Mary C. MeTigue, William Whiting School. (2) Ann Halfpenny, In- gleside School. HOUSTON, TEXAS—PRINCIPALS’ AND SUPERVISORS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) W. S. Brandenberger. James Hogg Junior High School. (2) E. D. Martin, Hamilton Junior High School. ELEMENTARY ScHooL Princ IPALS HUTCHINSON, KANS. SCHOOL PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. (1) Botkin, 102 E. 17th. (2) scheidt, 227 W. 12th. INDEPENDENCE, MO. PRINCIPALS’ Cuus. (1) Virginia Evans, 725 S. Main. (2) Almer Sheehy, 1624 W. Walnut. INDIANAPOLIS, IND.—CouncIL oF RINCIPALS SSOCIATION. _. Ts. (1) Mary Dingle, Alexander School, e, Elizabeth Ramacher, 1628 White Ave., Shreveport (2) Mae Newton, Cres- Age > (2) Ruth Catlin, 816 Kern well School, Shreveport ye 7 , St., Kingsburg. : ait . ie eee a ELEMENTARY PRIN- MAINE—ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCI- L) CIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) David Telfer, PALS’ ASSOCIATION. : : : LaVina School, Madera County. (2) Hancock County SCHOOLMASTERS - Truman Bratton, Howard School, Ma- CLuB. (1) Theodore Emery, Bar Har- dera County. bor. (2) Chandler 8S. W. Richmond, MARIN CouNTY ELEMENTARY PRIN- Kllsworth. < ‘ : CIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Henrietta _ KENNEBEC VALLEY ScHOOLMASTERS Crawford, Lagunitas. (2) Mrs. Dorothy CLuB. (1) George Bucknam, Water- Olsen, Corte Madera. ville. (2) Herbert S. Ingraham, Skow- MONTEREY COUNTY ELEMENTARY hegan. : s’ SCHOOL PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) PENOBSCOT VALLEY SCHOOLMASTERS k- M. T. Joseph, 1201 Ninth St., Monterey. Crus. (1) Charles E. Taylor, Bangor. Py (2) Mrs. Emma Dennis, 209 Maple St., (2) C. E. Page, Jr., Bangor. . Salinas. WASHINGTON COUNTY SCHOOLMEN’S . ORANGE CouNnTY RURAL PRINCIPALS’ CLuB. (1) Raymond Steward, LEast- t. ASSOCIATION. (1) Frederick T. Chom port. 2) Earle D. Merrill, Machias. ang berlin, R. F. D., Anaheim. (2) Mrs. M. "LAND—ALLEGANY shsicskolamanie ILE- s Matte Lou Maxwell, R. F. D., Anaheim. ee Porat wh gap og U- San BERNARDINO COUNTY ELEMEN- (1) Loretta MceGeady, Cumberland. (2) eC, TARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. John F. Manley, Frostburg r (1) G. T. Goodwill, Bloomington. (2) Pe: ay ‘ Mrs. Mabel H. Brush, Route 1, Box 315, MASSACHUSETTS—Wo0OkRcCESTER PRINCI- San Bernardino. CIPALS’ CLUB. (1) George H. Boyden, B. San Mateo County JLEMENTARY Soylston. 2) Ethel M. Rankin, 18 ri PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) George Norton St., Worcester. a. V. White, McKinley School, Burlingame. SQQTT op ms eens ge ee Ys ‘I. (2) Clara Bolei, Fremont School, Menlo Sect a SCHOOL PRIN- 8 Park. CENTRAL MIssouRI ELEMENTARY n- Santa CLARA County ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Roy E. Frank H. Gorman, Edueation Building Simpson, Gilroy. (2) James Moon, teeiunaiiaitne. 2 pen ye Ne ol ager oY R- S wat ; University of Missouri, Columbia. (2) ae I . od . Ralph W. House, Central School, Jef- Ss SANTA CLARA CouNTY SCHOOLMAS Seno. ary. y; TERS’ CLuB. (1) Roy E. Simpson, Gil Saint Lovis County ELEMENTARY reg. (3) Lewis Bi. Betton, Saw love. PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. (1) Ward Barnes, ol aa lana Tt vO. Garfield School, Normandy. (2 r. a. , a ASS IAT N. Me e » ] 7A larchi r Se T iversi » 6 Rourke, Cotati. (2) Edith Peterson, aad. Tigen, Pershing School, University . County Superintendent's Office, Santa 7 Rosa. NEW JERSEY — ELEMENTARY SCHOOL N- STANISLAUS COUNTY ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION, 22 SCHOOL PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) BURLINGTON COUNTY PRINCIPALS’ or, Reese E. Bert, Roosevelt School, Mo- CLuB. (1) Ingeborg Horton, 426 Lip- desto. (2) Lawrence Miller, Lowell pinecott Ave., Riverton. (2) Ruth Mat- School, Turlock. chett, Jobstown School, Riverton. 10- TULARE COUNTY ELEMENTARY SCHOOL NORTH HvupDSON SCHOOLMASTERS’ bn PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Theo- CLus. (1) William G. Fiedler, Wash- rt dore R. Nickel, Earlimart. (2) Thelma ington School, Union City. (2) Nathan E. Dawes, Visalia. Devine, Union City. jas IF LORIDA—ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRIN- NEW MEXICO—CEnTRAL NEW MEXICO nd CIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. (1) Caroline ir - DapE Country PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. Schmidt, 610 W. Cool, Albuquerque. (1) Mrs. Elsie Delaney, 1224 S. W. (2) Ona Schupp, 223 N. High, Albu- 20th St. Miami. (2) Claribel Cason, querque. 265 N. E. 26th Ter., Miami. NEW YORK—ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRIN- : DUVAL COUNTY ELEMENTARY ScHOOoL CIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. PRINCIPALS. (1) Mrs. Edith B. Norris, DuTcHESS CouNTY SCHOOLMEN’S AS- ns 414 E. Sixth St., Jacksonville. (2) SOCIATION. (1) Herbert Campbell, Mrs. Lola M. Culver, Panama Park Highland. (2) Clayton Seiber, Arling- School, Jacksonville. ton. od JACKSONVILLE BRANCH, DEPARTMENT NASSAvu CounTY ELEMENTARY PRIN- OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS. CIPALS’ ASSOCIATION, (1) George E. (1) Margaret C. Fairlie, 1035 EK. Bay Graff, Junior High School, Hicksville, St... Jacksonville. (2) Mrs. Lola M. Long Island. (2) Henry H. Bormann, N- Culver, 2035 Silver St., Jacksonville. East Rockaway Schools, East Rock- R- ORLANDO-WINTER PARK ELEMENTARY away. N. PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. (1) Mrs. Melissa ROCKLAND CouNTY ELEMENTARY PRIN- 2 Stafford, Concord Park School, Orlando. CIPALS’ ASSOCIATION, (1) A. Carr, PINELLAS COUNTY PRINCIPALS’ AS- Springvalley. (2) R. E. Day, Hillburn. - SOCIATION. (1) G. V. Fuguitt, 906 SouTtH EASTERN ZONE. (1) William : Pine St., Clearwater. (2) Natalie Thomas, Lincoln School, New Rochelle. ms Sterling, 555 17th Ave. S. E., St. (2) Luke C. Rhodes, Columbus School, “ Petersburg. Mount Vernon. 594 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS NORTH CAROLINA — ELBMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. NorkTH CENTRAL District. (1) Mrs. E. L. Shearon, Swift Creek School, R. F. D. 3, Raleigh. (2) Mrs. R. E. Harris, Mount Vernon-Goodwin School, Raleigh. NORTHEASTERN District. (1) J. E. Miller, John Small School, Washington. (2) Mary H. Bridgers, Central School, Tarboro. NORTHWESTERN District. (1) Mrs. Dan R. Schroder, Elm Street School, High Point. (2) Mrs. R. F. J. Johnson, Ray Street School, High Point. SOUTHEASTERN District. (1) I. A. McCary, Jr., Bradley’s Creek School, Wilmington. (2) Gladys Currie, Fort Bragg School, Fort Bragg. SoutH PrepMoNT District. (1) R. Brown McAllister, Coltrane School, Concord. (2) Mrs. E. S. Brown, Plaza Road School, Charlotte. WESTERN DISTRICT. (1) John E. Rufty, Brevard School, Brevard. (2) Mrs. M. L. Nesbitt, Glady School, Candler. OKLAHOMA—NorrTHeast District ELE- MENTARY PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) A. O. H. Setzepfandt, Barnard School, Tulsa. (2) Mary Shirley, Se- quoyah School, Muskogee. OREGON—CLACKAMAS CouNTY ELEMEN- TARY PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Brenton Vedder, Sandy. (2) Ethel Lansdowne, Gresham. PENNSYLVANIA—ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. PRINCIPALS’ ROUND TABLE OF ALLE- GHENY CounTy. (1) M. G. Morris, 1221 Freeport Rd., Tarentum. (2) M. A. Steiner, 59 Danvers Ave., Pittsburgh. Tr1oGaA COUNTY PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIA- TION. (1) T. A. Williammee, Wellsboro. TEXAS—ELEMENTARY PALS’ ASSOCIATION. HASKEL CounTY RuRAL SCHOOL PRIN- CIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) R. T. Penn. (2) Hope Haynes. ScHOOL ScHooL PRINCI- County ELEMENTARY AND SUPERVISORS’ ASSO- Effie Piland, Millard School, Beaumont. (2) Susie Dunn, Lamar School, Port Arthur. VIRGINIA—ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS OF District M EpucaTIONAL ASSOCIATION. (1) Mrs. Irene C. Bunting, 502 Walnut Ave., S. W., Roanoke. (2) Harriett L. Simpson, 715 Maiden Lane, Roanoke. WASHINGTON—ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. FORTNIGHTLY CLuB. (1) H. A. Me Kean, 3801 N. 18th St., Tacoma. (2) T. A. Lind, 1116 N. Lawrence St. Tacoma. PuGET SOUND SCHOOLMASTERS’ CLUB, all of Washington, west of Cascade Mountains. (1) George R. Curtis, 3102 N. Proctor, Tacoma. (2) Frank Farrar, 4703 11th Ave., N. E., Seattle. JEFFERSON PRINCIPALS’ CIATION, (1) WHATCOM COUNTY PRINCIPALS’ LEAGUE. (1) Osear Nelson, Rt. 2, Bellingham. (2) Irene Marz, 1313 High St., Bellingham. WEST VIRGINIA—-ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION, CABELL COUNTY ELEMENTARY PRIN CIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) J. Leo Wright, 1814 Sixth Ave., Huntington. 2) Dora Searff, Oley School, Hunting ton. DopDRIDGE COUNTY TEACHERS’ ASSO- CIATION. (1) W. B. Van Scoy, West SCHOOL Union. (2) Arel E. Powell, Morgans ville. MARSHALL COUNTY ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. (1) H. E. Car- michael, Moundsville. (2) Retta Founds, Moundsville. NICHOLAS COUNTY PRINCIPALS’ ASSO- CIATION. (1) Earnest Mearns, Summers- ville. Ocelus Fitzwater, Richwood. RANDOLPH COUNTY PRINCIPALS’ AND TEACHERS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Henry Hamilton, Elkins. (2) Charles Godwin, Montrose. HAWAII—PRINCIPAL’S CLUB. (1) Charles N. P. Henry, Pepeekeo. (2) Mrs. Hazel P. Spalding, Hawaii National Park. STATE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS ASSOCIATIONS In the following roster the symbol (1) is used to indicate the person reported as president and (2) is used to indicate the secretary. ARKANSAS — ELEMENTARY PRINCAPALS’ Section. (1) H. W. Means, Little Rock, (2) Lula Davis, Pine Bluff. CALIFORN I A—ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) William J. Burkhard, Coloma School, Sacra- mento. (2) Mrs. Blanche Lucas, Dos Palos. CONNECTICUT — ELEMENTARY ScHOoOoL PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) O. Ward Satterlee, Greenwich. (2) Emma Mink, Stratford. FLORIDA—DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS. (1) Ernest W. Cason, Winter Park. (2) Ethel Cornwright, Marks Street School, Orlando. GEORGIA—ELEMENTARY Scnoon PRIN CIPALS’ DIVISION. (1) Robert Dewar, Valdosta. (2) Maude A. Rhodes, 185 Westminster Dr., N. E., Atlanta. INDIAN A—-ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS’ CLusB. (1) Ernest Lefforge, Lawrence. (2) W. Harold Gossett, 630 E. 5ist St., Indianapolis. TOW A—ELEMENTARY TION. (1) Hale C. Reid, 3616 Univer sity Ave., Des Moines. (2) Elizabeth Keerigan, 1216 Seott St., Davenport. KANSAS—ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS’ AS SOCIATION. (1) Howard E. Mock, Hutchinson. (2) Ferne Reynolds, Ar kansas City. PRINCIPALS’ SEc KENTUCKY—DEPARTMENT OF ELEMEN- TARY SUPERVISORS AND PRINCIPALS. (1) Bianca Esch, 1857 Princeton Dr., Louis- ville. (2) Bonnie Howard, 1311 Chero- kee Rd., Louisville. MASSACHUSETTS—ELEMENTARY PRINCI- PALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Sara BE. Chase, Washington School, Springfield. (2 Mary C. Carney, Eastern Avenue School, Springfield. MICHIGAN—DEPARTMENT OF ELEMEN- TARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS. (1) Eliza- beth Welch, Fairview Sehool, Flint. (2) Glenn Lockwood, Ann Visger School, River Rouge. MISSISSIPPI—ELEMENTARY AND SUPERVISORS’ DIVISION. Lester, Jackson. (2) Mrs. Ford, Louisville. PRINCIPALS’ (1) Laura Minnie B. NEBRASKA—ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRIN- CIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Mary Austin, Miller Park School. Omaha. (2) Maude Compton, Highland School, Omaha. NEW JERSEY—ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Mrs. Helen C. Brear- ley, 57 Princeton Ave., Princeton. (2) Albert L. Hartman, 104 Haddon PL, Upper Montclair. NEW MEXICO—ELEMENTARY ScHOOL PRINCIPALS’ SeEcTION. (1) William T. Seoggin, Jr., Las Cruces. (2) Mrs. Maynor D. McGee, Las Cruces. NEW YORK—STATE ASSOCIATION OF ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS. (1) Fred H. Duffy, George Washington School, Ken- more. 2) Charlotte West, Elementary School, Mt. Kisco. NORTH CAROLINA—ELEMENTARY PRIN- CIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Mrs. A. R. Wilson, Lakewood School, Durham. (2) Mrs. Dan R. Schroder, Elm _ Street School, High Point. SratTE PRINCIPALS ASSOCIATIONS 595 NORTH DAKOTA—SUPERINTENDENTS’ AND PRINCIPALS’ SECTION. (1) J. Lloyd Stone, Drayton. (2) Lloyd Elias, Har- vey. OKLAHOMA—DEPARTMENT OF ELEMEN- TARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS. (1) R. V. Jennings, Oklahoma City. (2) Mrs. Jessie Bagley, Ada. OREGON—ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS’ AS- SOCIATION. (1) K. A. Westenhouse, Junction City. (2) C. E. Ferguson, 3833 N. E. 77th Ave., Portland. PENNSYLVANIA—ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS’ CLUB. (1) William J. Laramy, Haverford Township, Upper Darby. (2) Reinhold W. Goll, 18380 W. Lindley Ave., Philadelphia. RHODE ISLAND—ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) John F. Brown, Providence. Baldwin, Pawtucket. SOUTH CAROLINA—DEPARTMENT OF PRINCIPALS. (1) W. H. Grayson, Jr., Simonton Public School, Charleston. (2) J. Andrew Simmons, Booker Wash- ington High School, Columbia. SOUTH DAKOTA—ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS’ AND SUPERVISORS’ ASSOCIA- TION. (1) Mabel E. Cummings, Rapid City. (2) Maude Rasmussen, Aberdeen. TEXAS—ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS’ AND SUPERVISORS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) L. M. Fertsch, 606 Highland Ave., Austin. (2) Corinne Nash, 1912 Washington Ave., aco, (2) Elizabeth VIRGINIA—ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS’ DE- PARTMENT. (1) F. L. Fentress, Prin- cess Anne. (2) Cc. B. Givens, Helen Dickenson School, Richmond. WEST VIRGINIA—ELEMENTARY PALS’ ASSOCIATION. (1) Byron Fairmont. (2) W. E. Lawson, burg. PRINCI- Miller, -arkers- LIST OF MEMBERS THE DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS For THE YEAR 1936-37, CorRECTED TO JUNE 1, 1937 t Indicates the Life Members of the Department One asterisk (*) indicates the City, County and District Enrolment Chairmen of the Department Two asterisks (**) indicates the State Enrolment Chairmen of the Department ALABAMA Alvarez, Mabel L., 15 N. Reed Ave., Mobile Alverson, Evelyn, 309 S. 19th St., Bessemer Ansley, Foster, 7620 Division Ave., Birm- inhgam Brown, Eura, 912 Walnut St., Gadsden Brown, Gregory B., Jr., 5117 S. Seventh Court, Birmingham Bryant, Mrs. Fred B., Anniston Calhoun, E. ham Couch, Malcolm G., Parrish Cox, George D., 1408 N. 20th St., 2025 Leighton Ave., B., Norwood School, Birming- Birming- ham Creel, John Jaul, Box 300, Sylacauga Flock, Mrs. Elizabeth C., 7 N. Bayou St., Mobile Flurry, Bruce, Box 137, Dothan Follis, Hattie, 3013 Ave. F, Ensley, Birm- ingham Gardner, J. R., Jr., The Lakeview School, 28th St. at Ninth Ave., 8., Birmingham Hall, William R., R. F. ’D. 5, Box 63-B, Birmingham Hamil, E. Cranston, 1814 Hunter Ave., Mobile Hanlin, J. Paul, Inglenook School, 4120 Inglenook St., Birmingham Hill, R. Voyt, Martin School, 1201 14th Ave., N., Birmingham Hopper, Jessie, Madison St., Huntsville Hurlbert, R. D., 879 Sixth St., W., Birm- ingham Hutchens, Mrs. N. B., 167 Williams St., Mobile Johnson, Harold B., Fairview School, Birmingham ** Johnston, Robert C., 2030 Magnolia Ave., S, Birmingham Jones, Lenore, 1606 Monterey PI., Mobile Keenon, Edgar, Jr., Central Park School, Birmingham Kegley, T. M., Minor School, 2425 Ave., S., Ensley, Birmingham Kelly, F. L., The Graymont School, 300 Righth Ave., W., Birmingham Knight. Myrtle W., Cotton Valley Ft. Davis Landers, E. J., Jacksonville Lee, Farley, Teachers Training Library, Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn McDonald, Wilbur M., Dadeville McLatchy, Gertrude E., Elyton School, 100 Tuscaloosa Ave., Birmingham MaeMillan, Emma, 120 Cramer Ave., Mont- gomery Martin, Ralph, Kennedy School, 120 63rd Mobile St., Birmingham Matzenger, Lena, 1058 Selma St., Meigs. Mrs. Mary S., 1209 Glenwood Ter., Anniston Mellette, W. F., Route 1, Gurley Mills, H. T.. Route 1, Enterprise Murphree, Mrs. Myra B., Prattville School, Norton, H. B., Robinson School, 8400 First Ave., S., Birmingham Ozzier, W. C., Moore School, Ensley Parris, H. E., East Tallassee 1401 Ave. G, Patrick, Charles A., 2227 22nd St., Ensley, Birmingham Pogue, James J., Gibson School, 956 50th St. , Birmingham Price, N. H., 300 N. Sixth St., S. W., Birm- ingham Renene, W. A., Wylam School, Birming- Reynolds, Mrs. Nellie D., Box 74, Northport Richards, Henry G., 506 N. Walnut St., Florence Rives, Janie L., 5 High St., Montgomery Rollings, Alexine, Box 692 >” Andalusia Sanders, E. O. 2745 Pike Ave., Birmingham Sapp, Ella F., 1511 Fourth Ave., Bessemer *Sheffield, Mrs. Frances L., 10 N. Ann St., Mobile Snoddy, W. T., North Birmingham School, Birmingham Underwood, C. Price, 7830 Third Ave., S.. Birmingham Vaughan, Joseph T., 5521 First Ave., S., Birmingham Verner, Mary B., 1521 Tenth St., Tusca loosa Wiener, Florence E., 252 S. Ann St., Mobile Wilder, L. Virgil, 720 McMillan Ave., Birmingham *Williams, J. D., 5708 Sixth Ave., S., Birm- ingham Woodall, Mrs. J. B., 308 S. Greene St., Huntsville Wright, Theodore R., Barker School, 1230 23rd St., N. Birmingham ARIZONA Aldridge, A. C., Dunbar School, Phoenix Ballfinch, Loy, 439 FE. Benedict, F. J., Benson Brown, Clarence S., Box 137, Ajo *Carlisle, O. L., Grammar School, Somerton Court, Grace, 2005 W. Washington, Phoenix *Dexter, Mata E., 113 N. Pleasant St., Prescott Doepke, Lydia M., Box 127. Cl»erkdale Dyer, Mrs. Gussie, Primary School, Hayden Fide, Edna E., 203 Union St., Prescott Fisher, Marjorie E., 203 Union St., Pre seott *Keen, Julia C.. 1905 FE. Fourth St., Tucson King, J. W., 358 N. 15th St., Phoenix *Kinsey, Lura, Box 54, Flagstaff *Kirby, Wesley D.. Coolidge Landry, P., Box 3613, Phoenix *Martin, Aileen, 325 S. First St., Globe Meyers, George L., Klagetoh Area Schools, Klagetoh Mitchell, A. J., Box 1751, Nogales Ott, Ann, Stevenson School, Phoenix First St., Tucson Benson Grammar School, [ 596 ] Porter, M. D., Holbrook Public Schools, Holbrook Riggs, Edward L., Dysart School No. 89, Peoria Robertson, Ellen M., 828 E. Fifth St., Tucson Schmitt, P. N., Keams Canyon Sheldon, Mrs. Lina K., McKinley School, Phoenix *Soule, H. M., 3999 Cleveland Rd., Phoenix Stinchfield, Bess, Kenilworth School, Phoenix *Sullivan, W. R., Public Schools, Palo Verde Taylor, Ebbie Lee, 233 N. Alarcon St., Prescott Thomas, John Q., Supt. of Schools, Flag- staff Townsend, Salome, Roskruge Elementary and Junior High Schools, Tucson **Wickliffe, Chester, Balsz School, Route 10, Phoenix ARKANSAS Abbott, T. C., 2014 Schiller, Little Rock Arnold, F. B., Box 144, Midland Conte, Mrs. Lelia M., 290 Woodlawn, Hot Springs Cordell, Thyra, Rogers School, Ft. Smith Evans, Bessie, 1005 McGowan St., Little Rock Futrall, Alma, Dept. of Education, Mari- anna Jinske, Henry W., 124 Fox St., Hot Springs National Park : **Jones, Ralph School, Ft. Smith } Ledwidge, Annie, 714 N. Walnut St., Little Rock Maddux, Alfred, Box 56, Crawfordsville Means, Hendree Winston, Peabody School, Little Rock ; Moore, Rosa E., Box 114, Morrilton Smith, R. L., Box 427, Eureka Springs Washington, Ruby, Duval School, N. 14th St., Ft. Smith Webb, Victor L., 1514 W. 20th, Little Rock Williams, Mollie, Belle Point School, Ft. Smith Woods, Ethel, 1205 Madison St., Jonesboro CALIFORNIA Aarup, Mrs. Margaret B., 949 Sycamore Ave., Tulare Abbott, Robert B., Oakland Adams, Mrs. Ida James, 3516 Buena Vista Ave., Glend»le Addicott, Irwin Oliver, 3408 Balch Fresno Alexander, Mertie, 4227 S. Hoover St., Los B., Peabody 1043 Glendora Ave., Ave., Angeles cg 2 *Alexander, Roxie E., 920 Virginia St., Vallejo Allen, Robert H., Jefferson School, 1400 E. Lindsay St., Stockton Anderson, Adda, 2511 E. First St., Long Beach Anderson, Emma C., 7830 S. Harvard Blvd., Los Angeles Andreen, Earl P., Brooklyn School, San Diego Andrews, Mary A., 810 S. Ross St., Santa Ana Andrews, William C., San Jacinto Elemen- tary School, San Jacinto Ashley, Margaret, Route 1, Box 340, Lodi Aultman, Mrs. Lela W., 6161 Barrows Dr., Los Angeles Bailie, Mrs. Lorraine, 2624 N. Common wealth Ave., Los Angeles Baker, Ethel I., 1517 40th St., Sacramento Bancroft, Roscoe, Ripley *Barber, Mrs. M. Ellen C., 1156 22nd St., San Diego List oF MEMBERS 597 Barclay, Berthile, Wilson School, 2038 Bush, Santa Ana *Bardarson, Otto W., Box 600, Carmel Barnard, Nora Margaret, Malabar School, 3200 Malabar St., Los Angeles Barnes, Mrs. Agnes Caldwell, 2415 Hollister Ter., Glendale Barnes, George P., 1120 Oak St., Colusa Barnes, Mrs. Jessie Baldwin, 407 E. State St., Long Beach Barrows, Jeannette, Hillside School, Buena Vista and LeRoy, Berkeley Bartlett, Beulah D, 3345 S. San Gabriel Blvd., San Gabriel Bartlett, Mrs. Louise, 1414 Eighth St., Sacramento Bateman, L. W., 1615 Linwood St., San Diego Bates, Elizabeth, 365 S. Highland Ave., Los Angeles — — Ann, 452 Holland St., Los Angeles my, Jesse J., 826 Cleveland Ave., Oak- anc Bedford, Rowena, San Timoteo Rd., Box 61, Redlands Benner, W. A., 1670 Grand Ave., Piedmont Benning, A. Irene, 141 Nieto Ave., Long Beach Benson, Albert N., Hawthorne School, 1700 28th Ave., Oakland Berard, Elvina L., Commodore Sloat School, ag Ave. and Sloat Blvd., San Fran- eisco ee Lloyd D., Chico State College, Chico Berry, Bertha Irene, 1261 Maripsoa Ave., Glendale *Bert, Reese E., 135 Hackberry Ave., Modesto Biffer, Mary C., 1253 W. Fifth St., Los Angeles Billups, Lillian H. B., 847 Levering Ave., West Los Angeles *Birch, J. E., Elementary School, Willows Blakemore, Edith E., 1030 W. Second St., Pomona Blanchard, Alice, 235 E. Alvarado, Pomona Bliss, George C., 3432 Guido St., Oakland Boettcher, Nita Toney, 8955 San Juan St., South Gate Boone, G. N., 1654 Francisca St., Pasadena Borden, Mary Gray, 1219 Eye St., Modesto Borden, Nellie G., 2219 San Joaquin St., Fresno Katharine H., 8069 Castro Borneman, Valley Blvd., Hayward *+Bowen, Wayne F., Box 455, Compton Bowman, Robert C., 1657 Beulah Pl., Oak- land Bowman, Samuel H., 6917 Converse Ave., Los Angeles *Bowring, H. F., 133 High St., Modesto Boyer, Mrs. Edith, 2488 Altura St., Mont- rose Bradley, Anne M., 412 68rd St., Oakland Bragg. Mrs. M. Fanny, Delhi School, 1143 S. Parton, Santa Ann Breen, Ellen R., 1067 Lincoln Ave., San Diego Brems, Edna M., 312 W. Laurel St., San Diego Brimmer, Naida, 300 N. San Marino Ave., San Gabriel Britto, Ethel A.. 425 Eastern Ave., Taft Brown, Bessie Olive, 4053 Irving P1., Culver City Brown, Evelyn K., 615 Solano Ave., Los Angeles Brown, William Earl, 15246 Budlong St., Gordena Brubaker, David E., 2320 Greenfield Ave., West Los Angeles *Buckalew, Harry L., 408 N. Fulton St., Fresno 598 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS *Bullard, Lyrel D., Maxwell Union Gram- mar School Dist., Maxwell Burkhard, William J., Coloma School, Sacramento *Burns, Jane B., Route 2, Box 3817, Petaluma Burr, Marjorie F., 308 Myrtle St., Red- lands Burton, Katharine, 10545 Helendale Ave., Tujunga Bushnell, Rose J., 545 Wheeling Way, Los Angeles *Buttner, Mrs. Ella, Mill Valley Butzine, Fred C., Diego Calder, Jessie, Burekhalter School, 3956 Burckhalter Ave., Oakland *Callahan, Mrs. Stelia M., 212 N. Alta Vista, Monrovia Campbell, Florilla, 825 N. Baker St., Stock- ton Carmichael, Bessie M., 348 Louisburg St., San Francisco Carver, Mary H., Diego Catlin, Ruby, 816 Kern St., Kingsburg *Chamberlain, Clarence W., 955 N. First St., Banning Chamberlain, Mary B., 1039 Atlantic Ave., Long Beach Chandler, Mrs. Myrtle B., 1234% W. Fifth St., Los Angeles Chapin, Alice C., Los Angeles Chase, Ethel E., 912 S. Chevy Chase Dr., Glendale Christensen, Serena P., 661% St., Los Angeles Clayton, Mrs. Rose C., Alhambra Clemens, K. F., Box 2 Clifford, Charles A., 2 Los Angeles 7Cobb, De Roy F., 1218 N. Chester Ave., Pasadena Coffey, Julia C., 240 Montalvo Ave., San Francisco *+Cokeley, John Wesley, Jr., 505 E. Live Oak St., San Gabriel 7Coleman, Mrs. Ida Fulton, 10334 Ten- nessee Ave., Los Angeles Colerick, Mrs. Mabel S., 296 Foothill Blvd., Altadena Coelestock, Grace B., Sixty-sixth Street School, 309 E. 67th St., Los Angeles Collis, Alma A., 2110 Santa Clara Ave., Oakland *Compton, John L., Bakersfield Connor, Edith A., 5121 Brynhurst Ave., Los Angeles Connors, Anne B., Burnside Avenue School, 1515 Burnside Ave., Los Angeles Conwell, Delsy Dyche, 847 S. Genesee St., Los Angeles Cook, Isabel M., Box 215, San Anselmo Cookman, Mrs. Grace Olive, 618 W. 49th St., Los Angeles 135 N. Kenwood St., Cornwell, L. May, Glendale *+Correll, Vincent I., 1838 McKenzie St., Long Beach Cotter, M. Elsie, Lazear School, 29th and Elmore Sts., Oakland Couchman, H. H., 717 W. 80th St., Los Angeles Cowan, Rose E., 200 N. Los Angeles Cox, Arthur W., 775 Molino Ave., Long Beach Cox, Vivian Kathleen, 112 W. Newmark Ave., Wilmar Craig. Mary D. S8., 8680 Colonial Ave., Venice Homestead School, 1795-B Titus St., San 3825 Sixth Ave., San 610 N. Kenmore Ave., N. Berendo 1821 Pepper St., . Wasco ) 143 W. 74th St., Washington School, Rampart Blvd., Crane, Clarence B., Webster School, Oak- land Crane, R. L., Jr., Dist. Supt. of Schools, 344 Santa Barbara Ave., Daly City Crapser, Jessamine, 1826 S. Mansfield Ave., Los Angeles Crawford, Bertha T., 3027% S. Hoover St., Los Angeles 7Crawford, Lawrence T., College Elemen- tary School, State College. Chico Creedon, Mrs. Elma M., 732 York St., Vallejo Crookshank, Sara A., 1027 W. 46th St., Los Angeles Crose, Leah, Webster School, nut St., Pasadena Cross, Flora, 248 N. Towne Ave., Pomona Cross, Irvin N., 1520 Van Buren Ave., San 320 E. Wal- ego Crowley, Mrs. Viola W., Box 222, Canoga Park Culver, Harriet E., 402 W. 5ist St., Los Angeles Curley, Laura, 1121 Trestle Glen, Oakland Curran, Eleanore, Box 397, Willowbrook *Curtis, Lawrence C., 565 Chapman Court, Santa Clara Cuthbertson, Ernest J., 219 Mt. View, Taft Danielson, Eva, 2306 Edgewater ‘Ter., Los Angeles *D’Anna, Joseph A., 7 Jefferson St., Watsonville Dannemann, Matie, 437 E. Maple Ave., Orange Dastarac, Frances, 659 W. 18th St., San Pedro Davin, Mrs. Bernice, 3237 Goldsmith St., San Diego *Davis, Barney J., Union School, Lake- port Davis, Burton Elsworth, 1848 Veteran Ave., Terminal Island Davis, Mrs. M. E., Box 595, Exeter Davis, Mrs. Vivian Klene, 233 Roswell Ave., Long Beach Day, Mrs. Mylitta Morris, 608 De La Vista Ave., Santa Barbara Dean, Anastasia E., Pinole Dean, Ray B., David Lubin School, 36th and K Sts., Sacramento Delmet, Don Thomas, 854 G St., Norwalk Desmond, Lucile H., Pershing School, Madera Des Roches, Pauline, 1323 Woolsey St., San Francisco Doak, Helen Perry, 119 N. Rosemont Blvd., San Gabriel Dodson, Mrs. Helen F. Cochran, Los Angeles Dormeyer, Therese C., 512 W. Cressey St., Compton Dreier, Mrs. Grace M. Mogle, 1622 S. Can- field, Los Angeles, Dust, Gertrude, 5322 Lockhaven Ave., Los Angeles Eads, Evelyn, 11659 Foothill Blvd., Fernando Earl, Claude E., 966 Elizabeth St., Pasa- dena Clarke, 1320 S. San Edgecomb, George, 1645 S. Date Ave., Albambra Edmands, Mrs. Ruth, Colusa Edwards, Ernest F., 631 E. Mill, Santa Maria Edwards, Eva D., Elementary School, Claremont Egger, Walter A., 846 N. Van Ness St., Santa Ana Eilers, Johanne, Lincoln School, 415 Har- wood Pl., Santa Ana *Elwood, Roby T., 201 8S. Chapel St., Alhambra *Emley, H. W., Box 391, Garden Grove List oF MEMBERS 599 Enfield, Mrs. Celesta Gertrude, Fairburn Avenue School, 1403 Fairburn Ave., West Los Angeles : 408 San *Engvall, Willard R., Box 998, Corcoran Eskey, Nettie Dagley, St., Francisco Farrington, Mrs. Rae Lee, Ave., Hollywood Enfield, O. D., 426 S. Union Dr., Ensign, Olive Leona, 3736 Arlington Ave., Ave., N., North Hollywood Farnum, Martha F., 1520 Glorietta Blvd., Dr., Pasadena ;Field, Mrs. M. Blizabeth, 6017 Franklin Angeles Los Angeles 11532 Hartsook *Estes, Charlotte, 2420 Gough Coronado 1708 Beverly Feazell, Ruby Caroline, 1633 N. Formosa Ave., Hollywood Fikes, Edith E., 472 Ocean St., Santa Cruz *Finchy, Katherine, Frances H. Stevens School, Palm Springs Finney, Grace E., 1919 W. 2ist St., Los Angeles *Finney, J. J., Crystal School, Suisun Finney, Mrs. Myrtle S., Route 1, Box 504, Chula Vista +Floyd, Mrs. Mary L., 1018 Seward St., Los Angeles +Flynn, Mary C., Box 679, El Monte Foley, Ellen J., Box 157, Benicia Fraser, Jessie M., 716 Columbia Ave., Los Route 2, Angeles Fratis, Mrs. Sue L., Fruitvale School, 83200 Boston Ave., Oakland Fuller, Grace M., 581 Yosemite Ave., Fresno *Fulmore, Elizabeth, Ferndale Fulwider, Alice Ethel, 400 N. Gardner St., Los Angeles +Gamble, Mrs. Leo May, 3838 S. Hobart Blvd., Los Angeles Gant, Minnie, 416 Orange Ave., Long Beach Gardner, Elizabeth M., 618 Paseo Del Mar, San Pedro Gardner, Mary Ellen, South School, Lawndale Garrison, Dora L., 1641 S. Orange Dr., Los Angeles Gearhardt, Jessie M., 230 N. Breed St., Los Angeles Geddis, Terence B., 2536 K St., San Diego George, Edna, 1409 W. 37th St., Los Angeles : Gibson, Charles D., Supt. of Schools, 222 Mountain View Rd., El Monte Gibson, Robert E., Box 476, Walnut Creek Gilbert, Carl E., 114 S. Santa Anita Ave., San Gabriel Gilson, Mrs. Blanche, South Dos Palos Gist, Arthur S., Pres., Humboldt State College, Arcata Glenn, I. Maude, 55 N. Pasadena *Glenn, Ray F., 980 Arrowhead Ave., San Bernardino Glissman, Henrietta M., 136 S. Common- wealth, Los Angeles Glover, Mrs. Percy F., Fremont School, Fourth and Termino Ave., Long Beach *Goodwill, Glen, Bloomington Graf, Louise, 1250 S. Carmona Ave., Los Angeles Granger, Roy T., 302 Piedmont Gray, Avery J., Div., School Savings Sec- tion, 1205 W. Pico St., Los Angeles Gray, Robert, Route 1, Box 34-C, Colton *Greene, Lucy B., 418 Jefferson Ave., Pomona Grimsley, V. H., 2150 47th Ave., Oakland Meredith Ave., Magnolia Ave., Grinnell, Frances G., 4755 Keniston, Los Angeles — Charles C., 610 E. 19th St., Oak- an Groves, Mary O., Cabrillo Avenue School, San Pedro Haas, Nelle M., Box 894, Lomita Hagenburger, Marion A., Box 14, Chats- worth ; Haigh, Anne B., Cabrillo School, 25th Ave., San Francisco Hale, Ralph I., Dist. Supt. of Schools, ne Elementary School, Atasca- dero Hale, Mrs. Verne L., Gravois Avenue School, 5400 Gravois Ave., Los Angeles Hall, LeRoy, 569 Michigan Blvd., Pasa- dena Hamm, Max, 5961 Buena Vista Ave., Oakland —— Julius C., 842 E. 19th St., Oak- anc *Hammond, Mrs. Gertrude Best, 7316 Crenshaw Blvd., Los Angeles Hammond, Ida M., 3004 Champion St., Oakland jHanna, Paul R., Assoc. Prof. of Educ., Stanford University, Stanford Uni- versity Hanson, Edith J., 1448 Martel Ave., Los Angeles Harris, Mrs. Alta., 5445 Anza St., San Francisco Harris, Beecher H., Whittier School, Berkeley Harris, Ella M., 242 F St., San Bernar- dino Hartman, Zafon A., Route 2, Box 196, Hartshorn, Edna, 1011 W. 70th St., Los Ventura Angeles Hauselt, Elisabeth E., 2199 California St., San Francisco **+Haw, Harry Huber, 1413 Golden Gate Dr., San Diego 4646 Winona Ave., Hawks, William J., San Diego Hayes, Mildred L., 716 Avila St., Los Angeles Hayward, Mrs. Lucy M., 3521 E. First St., Long Beach tHeacock, A. B., 709 E. Windsor Rd., Glendale *Heche, Arthur, 1521 Union St., Alameda Heffernan, Helen, State Dept. of Educa- tion, Sacramento *Heisner, H. Fred, 128 East F St., Colton Helbach, Merle, 1543 W. 88rd St., Los Angeles Helm, Mrs. Florence G., 4314 Seventh Ave., Los Angeles —,_ T., 1109 Roosevelt Ave., Rich- mone Henderson, Adin D., 2533 39th St., Sacra- mento Hendrick, Orra Leta, 2129 S. Alsace Ave., Los Angeles Henley, Grace, Polytechnic School, Pasadena *;+Herrington, Katie A., 962 Lincoln Way, Auburn Hewitt, Mrs. Ida F., 2690 Ellendale P1., Los Angeles Hill, Beulah P., 152 S. Berendo St., Los Angeles Hilton, Eugene, 3918 Everett Ave., Oakland *+Hoffman, Mrs. Howardine G., 392 River- side Dr., Chino Holland, Minnie L., 20 E. Los Olivos St., Santa Barbara Holleran, Nora, 1846 Crenshaw Blvd., Los Angeles 5216 Longfellow St., Elementary Hollowell, Hazel, Los Angeles 600 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS jHolmes, Edith M., 1811 W. 41st Pl., Los Angeles Homan, Rose, 1633 College Ave., Hoogner, Edna Viola, Brockton School, West Los Angeles Hooker, Ora Whitley, 947 W. 30th PIL, Los Angeles Hopkins, Clarence G., 5139 Argus Dr., Los Angeles Hopley, Nettie M., Lincoln School, Fourth and Q Sts., Sacramento School, 1330 Horne, Henrietta, Logan Houston, Edith L., 790 Calmar Ave., Oak- Fresno Avenue Garnsey, Santa Ana land *Howard, Mrs. George G., 615 Manchester Ter., Inglewood Howell, Etta H., Roosevelt School, 15th and Linden, Long Beach tHowk, Charles D., 344 Flower St., Pasa- dena Hudspeth, Charles E., 759 59th St., Oak- land Hughes, Mrs. Mary E., 847 Campus Way, San Bernardino *tHummel, Leonard G., Dist. Supt. of Schools, Box 184, Palos Verdes Estates Huntington, Henriette L., 1206 O St., Sacramento Huntoon, Mrs. Georgie K. Miller, 1017 Browning Blvd., Los Angeles Hurley, Mrs. Josephine E., Los Cerritos School, Clearwater Hurley, Morris E., 3144 Claremont Ave., Berkeley Hymer, Evangeline, Menlo Avenue School, 4170 S. Menlo Ave., Los Angeles Ireland, Frances, 1043 E. Broadway, Long Beach Irwin, Kathryn, 322 Seventh St., Antioch Irwin, Sue J., 1010 Delaware Si., Berkeley jIversen, Ida Christine, 349 N. Wilton Pl, Los Angeles Janes, Hattie E., 2439 Mariposa St., Fresno es Letha F., Ross Grammar School, ss Jensen, Elsie M., 2609 E. Glenoaks Blvd., Glendale Johns, Charles L., 11215 La Maida St., North Hollywood Johnson, Mrs. Ethel S., 600 37th St., Sacramento *Johnson, Frank R., Dist. Supt. of Schools, Guadalupe Johnson, Henrietta, 285 Van Buren Ave., Oakland Johnson, Kenneth Harra, 1447 Idlewood Rd., Glendale Johnson, Ruth P., 4690 Victoria Riverside *Johnson, V. Bernard, Box 338, Pleasanton Ave., Jones, Mrs. Anna B., 741 El Morada Court, Ontario Jones, Clara E., 5917 Lillian St., Los Angeles Jones, Elizabeth A., 2818 Flower, Hunting- ton Park jJones, Mrs. Camarillo Joseph, Manuel T., 1201 Ninth St., Mon- terey Judkins, Mrs. Frances, Pismo Grammar School, Pismo Beach Kaems, Lester, 841 W. 21st, Los Angeles Kahl, Minnie, 608 Excelsior Ave., Oakland Kaler, J. E., Sierra School, Sacramento Kelly, Florence M., 1801 New Jersey St., Los Angeles Kelly, Mrs. Irene E., 1500 Sutter St., San Francisco Kelly, Julia M., Los Angeles Kilton, Inez G., John G. Whittier School, 17th and Walnut Ave., Long Beach Onorinda, Pleasant Valley, 1801 New Jersey St., Kimball, Harold, 920 Rosecrans St., San Diego +Kimes, William F., Box 176, Avenal Klaus, Bertha J., 3655 Broderick St., San Francisco Kottinger, E. W., Durant School, Oakland Krebs, Grace Edith, 8218 Palmer Dr., Eagle Rock Kretsinger, R. W., Lincoln School, Tenth and Alice Sts., Oakland Kyes, Mrs. M. D., 6211 Beard St., Los Angeles jKyte, George C., Haviland Hall, Uni- versity of California, Berkeley Lacy, Helen J., Melrose School, Oakland Lages, Dora, Jefferson School, Oakland Laurendeau, Mrs. Lulu B., 252 Cherry Ave., Long Beach Lawrence, Mabel M., 221 N. Ave. 52, Los Angeles *Lawson, Oliver C., Box 803, Pittsburg *Learned, Roy E., Box 274, Elk Grove *Le Chien, Elizabeth, 642 N. Newlin Ave., Whittier *Lee, Mrs. Iva Reeves, 477 N. Shaffer St., Orange Lefever, Mrs. Ruth B., 2909 Hope St., Bessie C., 117 N. Ave. Huntington Park Lenvig, Angeles *Liddicoat, Roy L., 530 Laurel Ave., Palo Alto Lighton, Bertha B., Glen Alta School, 3410 Sierra St., Los Angeles Lindsay, Isabel F., 22 Halladay St., Santa Ana Lockhart, Ruth M., 5006 Los Angeles Lofstedt, Christine, Garfield School, 1021 Concha St., Altadena 55, Los S. Normandie, Lothrop, Mary, 667 S. Hoover, Los An- geles Lounsbery, Sophia M., 2713 McConnell Dr., Los Angeles Love, M. Lily, 15 Paloma Ave., Ingleside Ter., San Francisco *Lucas, Mrs. Blanche, Dos Palos *tLyon, Harley W., 95 N. Sierra Bonita Ave., Pasadena McCarthy, Aileen, Fremont School, Mce- Allister near Baker, San Francisco McChesney, P. C., Newton Booth School, 26th and V Sts., Sacramento McCleery, Ella G., Crocker School, 17th and Vallejo Way, Sacramento McCleish, Nellie, 3722 Elmwood Court, Riverside McClure, Martha, Reseda School, Reseda McCotting, Mrs. Kathryn, 2308 W. 22nd St., Los Angeles McDonald, George J., 1802 Rd., Los Angeles McEachin, Mary W., Trinity Hotel, 851 S. Grand, Los Angeles *McGinley, Mrs. Ethel, Box 840, Eureka Wellington MecGivney, Genevieve, 1677 Dolores St., San Francisco McGraw, Mrs. Margaret A. F., 5137 Angeles Vista Blvd., Los Angeles MelIntosh, Margery, Box 702, Victorville McMahon, Mrs. Minnie M., 928 W. Fifth Ave., Pomona *McMaster, J. F., 347 W. Garfield Ave., Glendale MeMurray, Vera Elena, 2111 Menlo Ave., Los Angeles MacMillan, Jean, Ramona School, 1100 N. Normandie Ave., Los Angeles Magnuson, Henry W.,.Melrose School, 540 Mandana Blvd., Oakland Maguire, S. Edna, 165 Elm St., Mill Valley Maland, Mrs. Emma W., San Francisco 769 Page St., Manley, Edna T. H., 1049 S. Mansfield Ave., Los Angeles Mannatt, Earnestyne W., 4721 Ninth Ave., Los Angeles *Manner, Carl B., Box 1291, Vallejo *;Marbut, John W., 1140 Mahar Wilmington Marchant, Maud, 400 Montclair, Oakland Marcotte, Pauline, 3018 Kansas St., Oak- land St., Martens, A. N., Burrel Union Grammar School, Burrel Martin, A. H., Burnett School, Atlantic and Hill Sts., Long Beach Martins, Victor L., 1721 W. 25th St., Los Angeles Mason, Bessie H., 1005 W. Sixth St., Los Angeles Mead, Mildred, 601 S. Ross St., Santa Ana Meeks, Ida V., 1252 14th St., San Diego Miller, Douglas B., Lafayette School, Uak- land Miller, Mrs., Elsie De K., 2850 Hawthorne, San Diego Miller, Laurence L., 122 Merrett St., Turlock Mishler, Grace M., 577 E. Pasadena St., Pomona Mixsell, Frank H., 1010 E. Wilson Ave., Glendale Mock, Thomas M., 443 El Camino Rd., Beverly Hills *Molony, Mrs. Edith H., 232 N. Almont Dr., Beverly Hills Morris, Perry S., 443 Barbara Ave., Azusa Morrison, Mrs. Isabelle W. C., 14615 Mag- nolia Blvd., Van Nuys Mosher, John A., Magnolia School, Beau- mont *Mount, Mrs. Florence D., 3113 Sparr Blvd., Glendale Munce, Tillie C., 14 Glenn Ave., Fresno Murray, Mrs. Katherine K., 206 East G St., Ontario Nagle, Mary I., Toland Way School, 4545 Toland Way, Los Angeles Netz, Joseph, 2311 Tenth Ave., Los Angeles Newman, Mrs. Ethel B., 2214 Ocean View Ave., Los Angeles Newman, Laura J., 2142 Arrowhead, San Bernardino Nichols, Roy T., Golden Gate Junior High School, Oakland Niegosch, Helena G., 656 W. St., Los Angeles *Nugent, Michael, Jr., Gridley Nye, Martha E., 3445 28th St., San Diego, O’Bannon, Mary B., 137 Ardmore Rd., ley Mrs. Selma B., 108 N. Third 36th Olinder, St., San Jose *Olson, Oscar H., 1452 Vancouver, Bur- lingame O'Reilly, E. P., William Land School, llth and U Sts., Sacramento O'Rourke, E. V., Box 201, Cotati Orr, Jane C., Ninety-Second Street School, 9211 Grape St., Los Angeles +Orth, Fred W., 2031 Arlington Ave., Los Angeles Ott, Eva M., 61 Agnes St., Oakland *Owen, William E., Jefferson School, 1400 E. Lindsay St., Stockton Paine, Arthur E., 2834 Grand, Huntington Park Mae L., 131 W. 42, Paine, Angeles *Palmer, J. H., Box 106, Placerville Palmer, Mabel, 86 N. Catalina Ave., Pasa- dena *Parker, Bertha Mae, 957-B Seventh St., Santa Monica Patten, Mrs. Nina S., Compton Ave. Los 905 Hickory St., List oF MEMBERS 601 Peck, Mrs. Kathryn H., 957-B Seventh St., San Monica Peddie, Mrs. Gertrude W., 4725 Victoria Ave., Los Angeles Pennycook, Annie, 744 Ohio St., Vallejo *Peters, W. J., Hester School, San Jose Phoenix, Hattie B., 329 W. Micheltorena St., Santa Barbara Pitkin, Mrs. Virginia R., 411 S. Occidental Blvd., Los Angeles Plagemann, Dora E., 1869 Hyde St., San Francisco Pogson, Mrs. Viola L., 6974 Hawthorne of In- Ave., Hollywood Pollich, Raymond Elliott, Dir. struction, Los Angeles Schools, 1055 N. Fairfax Ave., Los Angeles Poore, Margaret I., 1121 Wellington St., Oakland Poulsen, Esther R., 1823 Grand Ave., Santa Barbara Preston, C. W., Melrose Avenue School, 731 N. Detroit St., Los Angeles *Pullis, Mrs. Jessica K., 1132 Fremont, South Pasadena *Pursell, Arthur L., 738 E. King St., Tulare he Mrs. Mabel C., 900 B St., Peta- uma Quick, Cyrus F., Long Beach Racek, Mrs. Josephine Wilkes, 530 Cali- fornia Ave., Venice Radley, J. E., Route 1, Box 60, Sanger Ransom, Mae, 1705 S. Sixth St., Alhambra Rasmussen, Mrs. Eva Hale, Box 714, Auburn Rector, William G., 5957 Chabolyn Ter., Oakland Redden, Albert, South Gate —— Mrs. Erma B., Woods School, Wood- ridge Reinke, Gertrude H., 5063 Floristan Ave., Los Angeles Reynolds, Mrs. Christine Marsh, 1824% 125 Claremont Ave., 8668 Evergreen Ave., Manhattan Pl., Los Angeles Rice, Mrs. Jenne W., Washington School, Santa Monica Richards, Marcella, 1125 Kipling Ave., Los Angeles = A. H., 3720 Pershing Ave., San diego Riecks, Eva A., 492 Larkin St., Monterey Riese, Ella L., 2800 Walnut St., Hunting- ton Park Riggins, Mrs. Mildred E. M., 1607 S. Fair- fax Ave., Los Angeles Ritchie, Georgina D., Corona Avenue School, 3825 Bell Ave., Bell Ritchie, Mary Levan, Hoover’ Street School, 867 S. Hoover St., Los Angeles Ritter, Mrs. Blanche P., 640 N. Normandie Ave., Los Angeles Robbins, S. P., 3480 Seventh St., Chico Roberts, Bertha, 2151 California St., San Francisco Roberts, Eulia S., 10325 Orton Ave., West Los Angeles Rose, Jennie, 1427 S. Mansfield Ave., Los Angeles Ross, Maurice B., 2945 33rd St., Diego Ross, Mrs. May S§., 3922 Park Blvd., San Diego Roth, Minnie J., 1625 O St., Sacramento Rowell, Mary Grace, 271 S. Oak Knoll, Pasadena +Rusling, Mrs. Cora §8., 7830 Victoria Ave., Los Angeles *Ruth, Clarence, Dist. Supt. of Schools, Lompoc *+Rutherford, H. C., Dist. Supt. of Schools, Box 55, Orcutt Ryan, Jane, 575 Pierce St., San Francisco San 602 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS ae See. | me of Instruction, 115 . Ave Saxton, M. hon 115% Virginia Pl., Glendale Scalapino, William, 1315 Alta Vista Rd., Santa Barbara Scharf, Mrs. Eva Pearl, 834 Nowita Pl., Venice Schultz, Henriette M., 412 N. Granada, Alhambra Schweitzer, Charles G., 5933 Miramonte, Los Angeles Scott, Leta M., 245% Eureka St., Red- lands Seavey, Josephine, 2300 Van Ness Ave., San Francisco a Stella, 1459 Harding Ave., Alta- ena Shafer, ee F., 2234 Hollister Ter., Glendal Shaw, RR 739 S. Chevy Chase Dr., Glendale *Sheldon, Mrs. Inez T., Box 580, Ojai Shepard, Anne Loomis, 928 Eighth Pl, Los Angeles Siewert, . R., 1022 La Cadena Ave., Arcadia Singletary, Mattie S., Fremont School, 1900 Main St., Riverside — 1 nae A., Roosevelt School, Clear- Sletten. Theresa C., 933 Lincoln Blvd., Santa Monica +Sloane, Boyd praeein, 1421 Dominion Ave., Pasaden Smith, * Agnes . 421 Ninth St., Hunting- ton Beach Smith, Blanche B., 701 New Hampshire Ave., Los Angeles Smith, Effie E., Frank McCoppin School, - oem Ave. and Balboa St., San Fran- cisco Smith, F. B., John Muir School, 3215 Riverside Blvd., Sacramento Smith, Lucile, 118 W. 4ist Pl, Los Angeles Smith, Margaret H., 546 W. 1ith St., Corona Smith, Marion C., 540 28th St., Oakland — Mollie A., "2274 Virginia St., Berk- smith, Rose M., 695 S. Ardmore, Los Angeles Snow, Irene, 2270 Main St., Napa 7 Peter H., 3844 Belmont Ave., San sagen, R. W., 546 Rosal Ave., Oakland Spani, Kate i561 Niagara Ave., San ~—— +8 encer, Mrs. Hattie Bin ‘Hotel t assen, Susanville Spraul, Erna M., N. Kenmore, Los Angeles Starr, A. G., 1963 Oakview Dr., Oakland Stearns, Aletha, 1524 Martel Ave., Holly- wood 7Steelhead, Bert Francis, 523 Clement Dr., Glendale Stephens, Ross, Garfield School, Pasadena 7Stevens, Mrs. Kathleen H., 1285 Burn- side Ave., Los ne 7Stevenson, Gordon K., 4722 Bancroft St., San Diego Stewart, Mrs. Emma P., 2108 Cedar Ave., Long Beach *Stewart, Hugh B., Box 26, Arcata Stewart, Margaret E., 612 N. Marguerita Ave., Alhambra *Strand, Bernard J., 709 Oak St., Bell- flower Stull, Helene M., 418 W. 14th St., Santa Monica Sutton, Lulu H., Marin County, Novato {Sylvester, Helen Katherine, 3729 Indiana St., San Diego Tarbell, Della R., 614 N. Brand Blvd., Glen- dale Tardelli, Agnes R., Sherman School, Union and Franklin Sts., San Francisco Taylor, Nelle C., 3907 Dalton Ave., Los Angeles Teach, Charles Elden, High School Build- ing, San Luis Obispo Thompson, Mrs. Rose V., 1616 Garth St., Los Angeles Thornquist, Mrs. Marie Noye, 339 N. Har- vard Blvd., Los Angeles Tibbetts, Mrs. Alice B., 3355 Canfield Ave., Los Angeles Tibby, Ardella Bitner, Abraham Lincoln School, Compton Tillman, Florence, 2725 Prince St., Berk- eley *Tiner, Hugh M., Los Angeles County Schools, 240 S. "Broadway, Los Angeles Tingley, Grace W., 4937 Palm Dr., La Canada — Doty, 6915 Hawthorne Ave., Holly- woo *?Trott, Frederick L., Jr., 145 N. Teyunga Ave., Burbank *Tudbury, Mrs. Ethel W., Washington School, Berkeley Turner, Grace M., Albion School, 220 S§. Ave. 18, Los Angeles Upton, Anne Hale, 1675 Oakdale St., Pasa- dena *Vail, Vesta E., 356 Laurel St., Santa Cruz Van De Goorberg, Wilhelmina, 1606 N. Ave. 55, Los Angeles Van Loenen, C. Addison, 1640 Carmelita, Laguna Beach *+Vans, Mrs. Oda Beardsley, 1051 Mag- nolia Ave., Gardena Vineyard, Julia Marie, 1933 Third Ave., Los Angeles Voiles, Mrs. Stephenia Hill, 1932 N. Wilton Pl., Los Angeles Von Hatten, Emma A., 1017 30th St., Sacramento 7Wacaser, Mrs. Helen D., 4962 Iowa Ave., Fresno Wahilquist, G. L., Box 56, Lone Pine Waldo, Raymond B., 1509 Weymouth Ave., San Pedro Walker, Mrs. Nellie L., 4867 Santa Cruz Ave., San Diego Walker, Stephen L., 130 N. Angus S8t., Fresno Leak Maude, 374 Hanover Ave., Oak- nd walsie Alice A., 1325 17th Ave., San Francisco Walter, Robert Bruce, 711 Domingo Dr., San Gabriel Walton, Miles P., Dist. Supt. of Schools, Box 459, Manhattan Beach Ward, Susie A., 198 Hancock St., San Francisco Wassum, Clara, 608 W. Main St., Turlock *Weakley, Guy A., 1200 Main St., El Centro Webster, Mrs. Barbara Miller, 716 Vir- ginia Ter., Santa Paula Weeks, Mrs. Emma Firestone, 283 Redondo Ave., Long Beach Weiser, Anna E., Box 263, Bakersfield Welday, Samuel O., 2117 Chapala St., Santa Barbara 7Weller, Louise E., 3607 Pershing Dr., San Diego *Wells, Verna E., Roosevelt School, 924 Halladay, Santa Ana Wemken, Nellie Opal, 638 Heliotrope Dr., Los Angeles Whedon, Mrs. Marion F., 312% S. Spald- ing Dr., Beverly Hills’ Whitaker,’ Forrest M., 2842% Sunset PIl., Los Angeles Hol List OF MEMBERS 603 Whitcomb, Mrs. Irene B., 2449 Gladstone Ave., Covina Wickersham, Jessie B., 982 Valencia St., Los Angeles *Widemann, Grace V., Box 134, Gonzales Wienke, Helen May, 3210 Huntington Blvd., Fresno Williams, Ruth C., 903 W. Center St., Anaheim Wilson, Mrs. Ethel C., 206 S. Third St., Alhambra Wilson, I. C., 4425 E. 11th St., Long Beach *Wilson, Ray Rollin, 330 Jones St., Ukiah Winters, Louise R. V., 143 N. Coronado, Los Angeles Wisler, Mrs. Enima C., 6542 Bella Vista Way, Los Angeles Witman, Ann M., 1936 Ave., Glendale Witman, Elizabeth H., South Park Avenue Orchard School, 455 E. Manchester Ave., Los Angeles Wolleson, Helen S., 124 N. San Marino Ave., San Gabriel Wonders, Winifred M., 333 Esther St., Long Beach Wood, Thomas P., 8028 Hill St., ton Park Hunting- *Wright, Helen R., 711 Third St., Santa Rosa Young, A. C., 2225 Van Ness Blvd., Fresno Young, D. M., 1449 Lincoln St., Kings- burg ; Young, George Arthur, 5122 Meridian St., Los Angeles *+Young, Sarah L., 2451 Seminary Way, Oakland Zimmerman, Bruce L., Longfellow School, Berkeley *;+Zimmerman, F. B., 8500 Mountain Blvd., Oakland COLORADO Abbott, Carlotta ver *Abbott, G., Argonaut Hotel, Den- Irene, 3260 S. Broadway, Engle- wood Barkley, Dell, 32 Carlisle Pl., Pueblo sennett, Aubrey, 1314 Monaco St., Denver Bland, Rose, 627 N. Nevada Ave., Colorado Springs Brown, Ethel L., 216 N. Cascade Ave., Colorado Springs Carson, Mary G., 1229 Cook St., Denver Chapman, James M., 402 N. Walnut St., Colorado Springs Combs, Ethel L., 2928 W. 28th Ave., Denver Cordingly, Elizabeth, Thatcher School, Denver Cornish, Lydia R., 1420 Logan St., Denver Doull, Frances, 1250 Logan St., Denver Ellis, Douglas B., 1200 Newport St., Den- ver Erb, Edith M., 2870 Raleigh St., Denver Evans, Dave D., 3821 W. 38th Ave., Denver Eyer, Myrtle, 307 W. Abriende, Pueblo Fitzpatrick, Jessie K., 986 Mapleton Ave., Boulder Ginn, Carl, 2729 W. 35th Ave., Denver Godsman, Mrs. Charlotte J., 1625 Downing St., Denver Gormley, Celia, 2410 N. Nevada Ave., Colorado Springs *Graham, E. Ellis, Portland *Greear, H. L., Sargent School, Monte Vista Hamilton, Dwight, 3642 S. Bannock St., Consolidated Englewood Herrington, Eugene H., 4601 W. 31st Ave., Denver Holmes, Ethel, 2610 §S. Sherman S&8t., Denver *Johnson, Dllen R., 8860 Idlewild St., Wheatridge Johnstone, Mrs. Clara F., 2086 Grape St., Denver Keller, Elizabeth M., 1410 Grant St., Denver Ketner, Sarah P., Washington Park School, Mississippi Ave. and 8. Race St., Denver Kirkwood, Helen G., 1413 Mesa Ave., Colorado Springs Klein, Louise, Columbian School, **7Lind, Nellie V., Stedman School, 29th and Dexter St., Denver *McKay, Mrs. Edna A., 728 State St., Ft. Denver Morgan McMeen, George M., 1800 E. Arizona St., Denver Morgan, Kathryn J., 1101 N. Corona, Colorado Springs Morton, Max D., Thatcher School, poe Nelson, Monell V., 430 Lake St., 2 Morgan *Newton, Estella, 412 Maple St., Eaton Noar, Frances, 1101 Columbine St., Denver Noce, Lillian, 3726 Vallejo St., Denver 0’ Boyle, Lila M., 829 Fiilmore St., Denver Orvis, L. B., 1140 Grand Ave., Grand Junction Peterson, Carrie, 1450 Grant St., Denver Queree, Pearl, 2914 W. 29th Ave., Denver *Remick, Nellie A., Acacia Hotel, Colorado Springs *Ricketts, Blanche, 522 Arapahoe Ave., Boulder Rishel, John B., Barnum School, Denver Romick, Nelle, 2140 RE. Schmalbeck, Lee O., Grand Junction *Selig, Mrs. La Vonne N., 14th Ave., Denver 816 Grand Ave., Box 23, Mont- rose Shute, William C., 2651 Vine St., Denver Simpson, Genevieve, 736 Race St., Denver Slavens, Leon E., 707 E. Tenth Ave., Den- ver *Smith, Luna I., 1513 Ninth Ave., Greeley Smith, Mrs. Margaret M., 1522 Lafayette St., Denver Strach, Caroline, 216 E. Routt, Pueblo *Storey, Ethel M., 411 S. Fifth, Lamar Stryker, Mary M., 1622 18th St., Boulder Swanzey, Linah, Bessemer School, Pueblo Sweet, Mayme, Twenty-fourth Street School, Denver Swinehart, Blanche L., 308 W. Grant, Pueblo Walsh, Delia, 404 N. Fifth St., Rocky Ford Watts, Lillie E.. 2246 Eudora St., Denver Weymouth, Edith, 1032 Clarkson St., Denver Wheatley, George, 730 Columbine St., Denver White, Mrs. Julia M., 1557 St. Paul St., Denver Wiles, Jennie G., 716 W. Baca St., Trinidad Ww web Gilbert S., University Park School, Jenver Williams, Mrs. Addie M., 1629 Walnut St., Boulder CONNECTICUT Adams, Dorothy R., Long Lots Rd., West- port Allen, Elizabeth, 516 Columbus Ave., New Haven *Anderson, May F., 396 Main St., Nor- walk *Baker, Frances E., South Grammar School, East Hartford Baldwin, Lillian T., Honeyspot School, Stratford Barnes, Percival S., High School Building, East Hartford Barry, Lena F., 68 Hanover St., Bridgeport Baumgarat, Maude, Wintergreen Ave., Hamden 604 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Beard, Charles A., New Milford Bennett, Ada Gray, 186 Courtland Hill, Bridgepo Bestick, Gacee V., 229 Wells St., Bridge- ort Blackham, Florence E., 303 E. Main St., Bridgeport Blackmer, Victor A., 64 North St., Dan- bury Bowes, Lillian E., 550 Hamilton Ave., Waterbur Brennan, el A., 182 Lloyd St., New Haven *Bridgett, — E., 654 N. Colony Rd., Wallingfor Sen, elen F., 4 Hillside Pl., Winsted Carrington, Ralph W., Bunker Hill School, Waterbury : Carroll, Elizabeth, 203 Lakewood Ter., Westville, New Haven a Anna A., 74 Garden St., Stam- Sy ee a mn, Broad Street School, Plain- ma D. Giles, Box 94, Tariffville Donovan, Anna C., 32 Girard Ave., Hart- a Margaret M., 95 Harmony St., Dyer WP. 30 Sefton Dr., New Britain Ellis, Eugene W., Farmington High School, a Tae E., 1167 E. Main St., Panning, Mary A., Washington Rd., Wood- bu Vieniase, Alice R., 516 Orange St., New Haven Fish, Stanwood S., 49 Cumberland St., Hartford Fraser, George L., Byram School, Green- ich Freeman, Edward S., 34 Powell Pl., Stam- ford French, Harold R., Png Jennings School, Burlington Ave risto Gessner, Plizabeth E., 124 Mansfield St., New Haven 2 Greners, Ellen M., 19 Mead St., New Canaan Hart, Harry T., 137 Post Rd., Darien Hasbrook, Clinton F., 172 'Wetherstield Ave., Hartford Hayes,’ saemeaaed A., 624 Orange St., New Hav Holroyd, Ida G., 33 Dora Circle, Bridge- Hull, Grace B., 27 Pythian Ave., Tor- Po Abel E., Smalley School, New —— William G., 15 Hebron Ave., a ay ~ C., 102 W. Main St., Judd. wawin B., 17 Russ St., Hartford Keefe, Margaret L., Hamden High School, Kate Saude S., 317 Edgewood Ave., Kright, Elton E., 87 W. Elm St., New Haven Knowlton, Lillian D., Benton School, 900 Whalley Ave., New Haven *Linn, Maynard W., Riverside School, Greenwich Lockhart, Charles E., Morgan Ave., East aven Lyon, Louisabelle, Ridgefield Rd., R. D. 36, Wilton McCall, Harold, 93 Glenbrook Rd., Stam- ford McDermott, Millicent R., Ferry Street School, New Haven McDonnell, Julia M., 436 High St., Tor- rington McGrath, Elizabeth M., 1770 Park Ave., Bridgeport *Madden, Grace E., New Street School Danbury **Malcolm, Elizabeth R., 181 Blake St New Haven Mink, Emma Freda, 214 Palisade Ave., Bridgeport Monahan, Julia A., Washington School. 466 Howard Ave., New Haven Monroe, Marion E., 185 Jefferson St., Hartford Mooney, Mary J., 784 Elm St., New Haven Morehouse, Helen B., 84 Mansfield Ave., Darien Mereey. Katherine T., Cove School, Sram ’ Murphy, S. Maria Rose, 267 Franklin St., New Haven *Newton, Fred L., Jennings School, New London O'Connell, Clara T., 27 Pleasant St., Bristol *O’Loughlin, Thomas F., Chauncey Harris School, 540 New Britain Ave., Hartford Patterson, Thomas H., Thomas H. Patter- son School, First School Dist., Bristol Rawson, Sarah J., 79 Sargeant St., Hart- or Riggs, F. B., Indian Mountain School, Lakeville Robie, Everett E., Rice School, Stamford Sherman, Anne K., 55 Rusling Pl., Bridge- port Sherman, Jeanette B., Quinnipiac School, 805 Quinnipiac Ave. New Haven ee Anna M., 80 ‘Charles St., Water- Smith Minnie H., 201 Center St., West Haven Steele, Julia M., 45 Holbrook St., Ansonia Steele, Sarah M., 64 Filbert St., New Haven Thompson, Audrey M., Hindley School, Darien Tompkins, Harriett D., Pequot Rd., South- port Weaver, Alice M., 189 Main St., Norwalk Whitman, Helen H., 48 N. Main St., West Hartford *Young, Mrs. Ethel B., Newhall Street School, Hamden Young, George W., 269 Lyme St., Hart- ford DELAWARE Devine, Sarah S., 421 W. 22nd St., Wil- mington Diviney, Anna V., School No. 19, Oak and Harrison Sts., Wilmington Doud, Emma M., 1708 Pennsylvania Ave., Wilmington *Dugan, Mrs. Elva M., 420 W. 2Iist St., Wilmington Pritchett, Mrs. Elizabeth W., 2709 Madi- son St., Wilmington Riggin, M. Grace, 437 S. Union St., Wil- mington Stahl, H. E., Supt. of Schools, Claymont DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA Aiton, Maude E., 2624 Garfield St., N. W. Ballenger, Lou B., 1801 16th St., N. W. maenee’. Caroline F., 1705 Lanier Pl, Bishop, Mrs. Angella B., 1908 15th St., meaner, nid Virginia, 4504 Douglas Brown, Mrs. Bernice B., 415 T St., N. W Brown, Miss W. F., 1923 15th St.. NW. > a a | Georgia West, Bryant School, Sioux y McBroom, Maude, University Elementary School, Iowa City Mary, Sister Ruth, Laboratory School, Mount St. Francis, Dubuque Matthews, Laura P., 5115 Grand Ave., Des Moines Michael, Sister Mary, Holy Ghost School, Dubuque Montillon, Adeline B., 1402 First Ave., N. W., Cedar Rapids *Newcomer, Mrs. Mabel, 123 S. Fourth St., Clear Lake North, W. T., Supt. of Schools, Corydon Olson, Lillian B., Box 173, Spencer Parr, Cora A., 1353 Ninth St., Des Moines Pendray, Mary E., 321 N. Market St., Oskaloosa —. Ruth, Public Schools, Cedar a Dp Porter, Willis P., Horace Mann School, Iowa City Quigley, Georgia, 928 30th St., Des Moines *Rownd, Nellie M., 1113 W. 23rd St., Cedar Falls Samuelson, Agnes, State Supt. of Public Instruction, State Capitol, Des Moines Shedd, Harry P., Anthon Stoddard, George D., Graduate College, State University of Iowa, Iowa City Stohlgren, Anna, 1918 FE. 13th St., Des Moines Taff, Lucy, Wahkonsa School, Ft. Dodge Tapper, Inga B., 348 Forest Dr., S. E., Cedar Rapids Toohey, Blanche V., 3607 Ingersoll Ave., Des Moines Troutner, Grace, Victoria Hotel, Des Moines Umpleby, Frances, 2936 Brattleboro, Des Moines Walker, Minnie M., 1315 Maple St., Des Moines Walters, Marjorie, 325 16th St., N. E., Cedar Repids Wilcox, Leona, 1916 44th St., Des Moines Winzer, Paula B., 327 S. Garfield Ave., Burlington 2208 Grand- Zinn, D. D., Webster School, view, Sioux City KANSAS Adams, Alice, 2122 State, Kansas City Adams, Lillie, 422 Parallel, Kansas City Allen, Lora, 708 S. ow St., Pittsburg Anderson, Melonee, 2115 N. Fifth, Kansas Cit Arnold, Viola, Clara Barton School, Kansas Benschetat, Ella, 227 W. 12th St., Hutch- nson Boner, Helen, iexias School, Kansas City Bonwell, w. A. 45 ¥. Volutsia, Wichita *Botkin, Ethel, 102 BE. 17th St., Hutchin- son Brown, Dora, Ingalls School, Kansas City Browne, Margaret, Hotel Kansan, Topeka ee Nina, 422 S. Millwood, Wichita Camp ell, Cora’ G., Box 304, Junction City Comer, Mrs. Lena, Emerson School, Kansas City Comstock, Roy C., Grade School, Sedan Conway, Agnes C., 1243 Coolidge, Wichita Crump, Leah, Kealing School, Kansas City Dowd, Gertrude, 424 S. Millwood, Wichita Drisko, Carrie, 2119 State St., Kansas City Easter, Bruce C., Dunbar School, Salina Eastman, Grace, 28 W. Ninth St., Hutchin- son Elliott, Virginia, Lincoln School, Kansas City Erickson, Anna, Major Hudson School, Kansas City Evans, Esther, 421 W. Harvey, Wellington **Evans, Myrtle M., Abbott School, 15th and Troup Ave., Kansas City Glasgow, Mattie, 429 N. 17th St., Kansas City Gray, Maude, 236 N. 18th St., Kansas City Harris, A. H., 617 Stewart Ave., Kansas City Hartford, May, 108 E. 14th St., Hutchin- son *Hefflefinger, Lillie, 226 W. Second, June tion City *Henry, Emma L., 323 S. Bluff Ave., An- thony Hillerman, Vina E., 501 Exchange St., Emporia Hogue, Charles F., 917 W. Sixth St., Ottawa Hubanks, Mrs. Estella, 434 N. 15th St., Wichita Hudson, Jane, 408 E. First Ave., Hutchin- son *Hunt, Ira E., 116 Iowa Ave., Holton Jarvis, Claire, 793 N. 32nd St., Kansas City *Jones, Lucy, Gould Hotel, Kansas City Kauffman, L. L., Randolph School, 1336 Duane, Topeka Kier, Hazel, Parker School, Kansas City King, Eva A., 1% E. Main St., Chanute = Gladys, 438 N. 18th St., Kansas t Kiser, Florence, R. R. 4, Lawrence Kittell, Mrs. Martha, 1902 West St., To- peka Lamb, Clara S., Gould Hotel, Kansas City Langford, Nellie, Central Park School, Topeka Lewis, Daniel W., 1204 Everett, Kansas City McConnell, Mabel, 385 N. Kansas City — Bertha, 3111 Parallel, Kansas ‘ity MeNaughton, Lola, Frances Willard School, Kansas City Mahaffie, Ella M., Park School, Kansas City Mann, Harriet, "3920 Cambridge, Kansas City Martin, Mrs. M. R., 312 N. Lincoln, Cha- nute Martin, Minnie, 1118 Haskell, Kansas City Meeks, Hazel, Snow School, Kansas City Miller, Elizabeth, Grund Hotel, Kansas i City Miller, Elizabeth S., 4132 Rainbow Blvd., Kansas City Miller, Frederic N., R. R. 6, Kansas City Moore, Wilmie, 329 E. Sherman, Hutchin- Seventh St., 3904 Carlisle Rd., son Murphy, J. W.., Nelson, Mary C., Cit Supt. of Schools, Augusta Bancroft School, Kansas y Nelson, Sarah, 3944 Cambridge, Kansas Cit Norton, Leslie L., Prin. of Elementary Schools, Richmond Peed, Julia A., 414 Crescent Blvd., Hutch- inson ol, AS t., a8 ity 3a Bi aad List oF MEMBERS Perkins, Josie, 205 W. 14th St., Hutchin- son Peyton, Mrs. Pearl K., 1029 S. Evergreen, Chanute *Pfefferkorn, Mary M., 744 Leavenworth *Ratzlaff, L. M., School, Plains Rebstein, Clara O., 511 N. Wichita Reynolds, Ferne, 701 North B St., Arkansas City Rice, Pearl, McKinley School, Kansas City Rippey, Winifred, Box 214, Kansas City Roach, Herschel M., Grade School, Bluff City Roberts, Grace, Longfellow School, Kansas City Robinson, Ella V., 1216 Washington Blvd., Kansas City Sare, Mrs. Emma H., 717 S. Lafayette St., Chanute Saunders, Jessie M., B. T. School, Kansas City Sheffer, W. E., Supt. of Schools, Manhattan Singer, Mrs. Mary J., 341 N. Topeka Ave., Wichita Smith, Aura, 2007 Sandusky, Kansas City Sparks, Elizabeth A., Central School, Kan- sas City Streeter, Helen, 400 N. 16th St., Kansas City Sunter, Ethel, 1603 Dodd, Kansas City Tebow, Eric T., Supt. of Schools, Harper Thomas, Zoe, 202 N. 23rd St., Kansas City Thornburg, Mrs. Winnie C., 817 S. Spruce, Wichita Tribue, Leota, Phillips School, Kansas City Vincent, Mary, Elementary School, Fowler Vogenitz, Mrs. May H., 420 E. 15th Ave., Hutchinson *Wine, E. C., 1147 Perry, Wichita KENTUCKY Bowling, J. D., Lothair *Boyd, Fred, 416 N. Limestone, Lexington *Bradner, J. W., Supt. of Schools, Middles- boro Brown, G. H., 314 Pearl St., Louisville Chapman, Edith A., Crabbe School, Ash- land Cole, Mary I., Western Kentucky Teachers College, Box 165, Bowling Green Coons, Etta B., 173 Woodland Ave., Lex- ington Daugherty, R. E., Louisville Edmonds, Mrs. Eva F., 710 Central Ave., Lexington — Bianca, 1857 Princeton Dr., Louis- ville Ewan, Mrs. I. V., 228 Irvine Rd., Lexing- Osage St., Plains Consolidated Belmont, Washington Board of Education, on Faulkner, Hattie M., Means School, Ash- land Giles, Henry, 123 River St., Harlan **Gotherman, Edward E., Jefferson Davis School, Lexington Greene, C. G., Box 383, Harlan *Haney, Mrs. John F., Box 444, Catletts burg Hill, Mrs. W. C., Wylie School, Ashland *Howard, Willis, Harlan City Elementary School, Harlan Huskey, John F., Ninth District School, 82nd and Graff Sts., Covington Johnson, Sheila, Samuel Woodfill School, Ft. Thomas Kelley, Annelle, 352 S. Broadway, Lexing- on *Kelley, Nora S., I. N. Bloom School, Lucia Ave., Louisville Lancaster, J. W., City town Lovely, Lucile, 141 Owsley Ave., Lexington Schools, George- 613 Lowe, Mrs. Herman, The Training School, Western Kentucky State Teachers Col- lege, Bowling Green *McClelland, Bertha L., 3204 Winchester Ave., Ashland *McDaniel, Lottie, Virginia Street School, Hopkinsville Martin, Pearl, Box 122, Simpsonville Masner, Olie, 132 W. High St., Lexington a E. M., Loyall High School, soya Parsons, Curtis, Kitts Perkins, Montez, Box 213, Stanford Pitt, F. N., 4435 Fifth St., Louisville Procter, Sue, 906 N. Ft. Thomas Ave., Ft. Thomas Rees, Rupert S., 25 W. 32nd St., Covington *Reibert, Lydia, 1306 Highland Ave., Louisville *Rippetoe, B. Elford, Box 494, Middles- boro *Robertson, Louise, 1879 Tyler Park Dr., Louisville Rouse, Julia A., Park Hills School, Coving- ton Schultz, M. J., Middletown Elementary School, Middletown Smith, Jean L., 140 E. Maxwell St., Lex- ington Smith, Mrs. Lucy H., Booker T. Washing- ton School, Lexington Smith, R. L., Covington *Spurgin, Lucy, 1416 Brook St., Louisville *Stutz, Elsa, 2210 Sherwood, Louisville *Tate, Virginia, 220 Broadway, Madison- ville *Taylor, Mrs. Ellen L., 2329 W. Walnut St., Louisville *Toliver, Mrs. Edna L., School, Danville *Von Donhoff, Ida, R. F. D. 2, Box 193, Louisville Walker, Mary V., Belmont School, Hopkins- ville Ward, Nora H., Southgate Street School, Newport Weaver, Helen, California School, 1638 W. Kentucky St., Louisville *Weibel, Elise, 2210 Sherwood, Louisville *Wellenvoss, Nora E., 1612 Beechwood Ave., Louisville *Whittinghill, R. T., Hazard Willett, Mattie M., 2319 Hale Ave., Louis- ville Winebarger, W. L., Graham Consolidated Maple Avenue School, Graham LOUISIANA Abrams, Octavie E., Andrew H. Wilson School, 3617 General Pershing St., New Orleans 2735 Octavia St., Abrams, Orleans Aiken, E. S., Rapides Parish School Board, Alexandria Anderson, Oscar B., Union Grove School, Route 3, Ruston Armstrong, Maude C., 2738 Milan St., New Orleans .- tailey, O. K., Sterlington tains, Mary, Box 248, Shreveport sarrett, Ellen T., Robert E. Lee School, 1607 S. Carrollton, Ave., New Orleans Bartholf, Harriet, 842 Prospect Ave., Leonie, Shreveport Baudint, A. 4849 Chestnut St., New Orleans Becker, Ernest O., Thomas Jefferson School, 4716 Annunciation St., New Orleans Selma, New Bell, Charles B., 2907 Milan St., New Orleans Betzer, Emma, Lakeview School, 5931 Milne Ave., New Orleans Bourgeois, Lionel J., McDonogh School No. 18, 1133 St. Ann St., New Orleans 614 E LEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINC IPALS Brandao, Eva A., McDonogh School No. 9, 1650 N. Rocheblave St., New Orleans Burney, W. H., Municipal Boy’s Home, 5420 Franklin Ave., New Orleans Causey, J. P., 502 S. Washington St., Bastrop Christian, Josephine C., Gentilly School, 4035 Frenchmen St., New Orleans Coburn, Ida M., McDonogh School No. 12, 3800 St. Claude Ave., New Orleans Coghill, Mary D., 2113 Lapeyrouse St., New Orleans Cohen, Miriam, A. D. Crossman School, 4407 S. Carrollton Ave., New Urleans Collette, Mrs. Ida R., 704 Iris St., Lake Charles Collins, Mrs. Lorna K., Box 473, Rayville Council, Sallie, 2237 Octavia St., New Orleans Danner, Elizabeth L., McecDonogh School No. 14, 1116 Jefferson Ave., New Orleans Dardis, H. C., Washington School, St. Claude Ave. and Alvar St., New Orleans Dedeaux, Maude R., 3425 La Salle St., New Orleans Delaney, J. M., Pineville Grammar School, Pineville Dieck, Elfrieda, John Dibert School, 4217 Orleans St., New Orleans Dingle, Mary M., 612 Egan St., Shreveport *Dixon, Florence E., 2624 Verbena St., New Orleans *Doerr, Loretta R., 721 St. Philip, New Orleans Dudenhefer, Mary A., Thomas J. Semmes School, 1008 Jourdan Ave., New Orleats Ferran, Rose, 930 N. Broad St., New Orleans Goldenberg, Rachel, 1128 Dalzell, Shreve- port Grehan, Carrie, 1691 Robert St., New Orleans Hanley, Agnes, McDonogh School No. 23, 719 S. Carrollton Ave., New Orleans Harte, A. M., 340 8. Olympia St., New Orleans Hildebrandt, Josephine E., 3650 Constance St., New Orleans **+Hinrichs, Amy H., Orleans Howe, Mary H., 1736 Valmont St., New Orleans Jackson, Eleanor ©., Frank T. Howard School No. 2, 3601 Camp St., New Orleans Karr, Edna, Belleville School, 813 Pelican Ave., New Orleans Keitz, Henrietta C., Gentilly Terrace School, 4720 Painters St., New Orleans Kennedy, Anna F., McDonogh School No. 16, 1815 St. Claude Ave., New Orleans Leclare, Virginia V., 5493 Canal Blvd., New Orleans Leverich, Fanny I., 1663 Soniat St., New Orleans Limmer, Evie D., 828 Second St., New Orleans Littlejohn, Augusta Pugh, 1221 Leontine St., New Orleans Lum, J. L., Longstreet McBride, A. A., Lafayette McCloskey, Mary I., Beauregard School, 4621 Canal St., New Orleans Magendie, Estelle L., 731 Dauphine St., New Orleans Markey, Ruth, McDonogh School No. 19, 5909 St. Claude Ave., New Orleans Molony, Alice J., 2306 Peniston St., New Orleans Moore, Loretta, Robert C. Davey School, 1307 Dryades St., New Orleans Murphy, Ellen L., MceDonogh School No. 11, 2009 Palmyra St., New Orleans 7336 Hurst St., New Nuttall, Mrs. D. J., 2949 Midway, Shreve- port O’Connor, Alice, William O. Rogers School, 2327 St. Philip St., New Orleans Perry, Ruby V., 5625 Loyola Ave., New Orleans Peterson, Ingree, Donner School, Donner Pfeiffer, Henrietta O., 5720 Dauphine St., New Orleans Poncet, Aimee J., 800 N. Rendon St., New Orleans Roger, Rita M., McDonogh School No. 10, 2407 Baronne St., New Orleans Rordam, C. J., Orleans Schuster, Hattie L., 1538 Creswell St., Shreveport Short, Alice, 118 E. 73rd St., Shreveport Smith, Mrs. H. P., Box 3206, West Monroe Stockley, Callie L., 1817 Calhoun St., New Orleans Strassel, May, 220 Verret St., New Orleans 7Sullivan, Violet M., 1105 Jefferson Ave., New Orleans Sylvest, Murphy J., Franklinton Elemen tary School, Franklinton Thomas, Josephine, 4512 Baudin St., New Orleans Tubre, B., Rosenthal School, Alexandrin Turner, C. B., Supt. of Schools, Baton Rouge Vaughan, Mary G., 229 Bermuda St., New Orleans White, Mariah D., 901 Cherokee St., New Orleans Whitlow, Fannie R., Laurel-McDonogh School No. 1, 2232 Laurel St., New Orleans Will, Alma, Alexander Dimitry School, 716 Felicity St., New Orleans Williams, Fannie C., 1922 Louisiana Ave., New Orleans Wilson, Florence, Lafayette School, 2727 S. Carrollton Ave., New Orleans Wright, L. Zenobia, 2515 St. Philip St., New Orleans MAINE 521 Exposition Blvd., New Cullen, William M., 178 College St., Lewis on Pratt, Mrs. Edna L., Box 107, Topsham Teague, Grace L., 137 College St., Lewis ton MARYLAND Adams, Margaret, 5301 Bosworth Ave., Baltimore Baskerville, Esther V., 2231 Madison Ave., Baltimore *Beckenbaugh, Isabella, 2208 Virginia Ave., Hagerstown Bell, Mrs., Edna Correll, 2932 St. Paul St., Baltimore Blonskey, Lula M., 407 Valley St., Cum berland Botsford, Mrs. Jane E., 305 Decatur St., Cumberland Bourke, — S., East Linthicum He ‘ights Boustead, Jessie, 723 W. North Ave., Balti more Brain, Earl, Hill Street School, Frostburg Broening, Mary L., 2 Millbrook Rd., Balti more Bryant, Slater W., Jr.. Pasadena Consoli dated School, Pasadena Burger, Mary H., Washington Street School, Frederick Carroll, Agnes, 451 Henderson Blvd., Cum berland Carroll, James G., Hampstead Hill School No. 47, Linwood Ave. and Fleet. St. Baltimore Carter, Estelle B., The Teacherage, Anna polis St., Annapolis Cleaves, Frances M., 221 Howard St., Elk ton ss ed List oF MEMBERS 615 *Click, Rosalie R., Oakland Elementary School, Oakland Copes, Ella, 9138 Thornhill Rd., Silver Spring Coulbourne, Alice Mae, Elementary School, Princess Anne Craig, Madie E., 21 Hamilton St., Brent- woo Crawford, Ethel, Elementary School, ‘Uhur- mont Dellone, Augusta, General Beadle School No. 238, Gough and Wolfe Sts., Baltimore Dennis, Mrs. William E., 2008 Druid Hill Ave., Baltimore Didier, Claudia B., 4 E. 30th St., Balti- more Dowling, Nell, Westernport Eckhardt, Myrtle, 105 S. Center St., Cum berland Fatkin, William G., Publie School, Luke Fuller, Althea R., 830 Green St., Cumber- land Gains, Helen O’Boyle, Mitchellville Gareis, Margaret, 4511 Martield§ Ave., Baltimore Glantz, Minnie M., 2002 Kennedy Ave., Baltimore Goode, Hazel N., 311 W. Potomac St., Brunswick Griffin, Edna Grooms, 1601 McCulloh St., Baltimore Griffin, Mrs. Helen Albright, 115 Grand Ave., Cumberland Griggs, William T., School No. 119, 2039 Division St., Baltimore Harney, Margaret A., 1412 Reisterstown Rd., Pikesville Henderson, Elmer A., School No, 101, Caroline and Jefferson Sts., Baltimore *Hill, Mary C., 400 Camden Ave., Salis- bury Hoover, L. Mabel, 1771 Homestead St., Baltimore *Hopkins, Mrs. Marguerite E. L., 586 East- ern Ave., Eastport, Annapolis Iden, Josie M., Crellin Jones, Charles W., 1143 N. Carey St., Baltimore Jones, E. Romaine, School No. 107, Lau- rens St. near Gilmor, Baltimore Jones, Robert W., Jackson School, Lona- coning Jones, Rosena C., East Salisbury School, Pittsville Kerr, Mary C., 2130 Bolton St., Balti more *Krieg, Ella V., Parkway School, Fred- erick Landon, Oscar B., Pine St., Crisfield McCall, Mildred L., Riverdale School, Riverdale MeGeady, Loretto, Box 605, Cumberland McKnight, Sue, 101 Columbia St., Cum- berland Magers, Ida R., 1801 Poplar Grove St., Baltimore Manley, John F., Public School, Frostburg *Manning, Annie Lee, 3421 Mondawmin Ave., Baltimore Morgan, Gertrude E., Grammar School, Centreville Morris, Frances B., R. D. 2, Chestertown Muesse, Katherine F., 1248 N. Broadway, Baltimore *Nichols, Dorothy V., 6402 Connecticut Ave., Chevy Chase Howell, Margaret L., Tracy’s School, Shady Side Pryor, Glen, Lantz Puffinberger, Irene, 119 Fifth St., Cum- berland *Reed, Mrs. Catherine T., Mt. Rainier School, Mt. Rainier *Riggin, Mrs. Marion N., 7 BE. Chesapeake Ave., Crisfield toberts, Clarence J., 2323 Ivy Ave., Balti- more Robinson, Louise, 631 Tunbridge Rd., Balti- more Roland, Mrs. Elsie Hill, Flintstone Rose, Anna F., Chevy Chase Elementary School, Rosemary St., Chevy Chase Sanders, Grace §S., 2111 St. Paul St., Baltimore Schaut, M. Grace, 3312 W. North Ave., Baltimore Schluderberg, George W., S. Playfield St., Dundalk — Isabelle, Narrows Park, Cumber- anc en, Mary E., 523 E St., Sparrows ,oint Smithson, Clara E., 3306 Clifton Ave., Baltimore Stabler, Mrs. Mary C., Ednor Stevenson, Mrs. Margaret C., 2733 N. Charles St., Baltimore Stieg, May L., Elementary School No. 88, Wildwood Pkwy. near Edmondson Ave., taltimore Stromberg, Helen, 3505 Taney Rd., Balti- more Stromberg, Martha, 3505 Taney Rd., Balti- more Sultzer, Mary F., School No. 51, 34th and Frisby Sts., Baltimore Taliaferro, Sallie C., School No. 83, Lake- wood Ave. and Fayette St., Baltimore Thompson, A. May, 402 S. Second St., Denton Tilghman, Helen G., School No. 231, Balti- more Turnbull, Josephine, 2102 Rosedale St., Baltimore Tyson, Mildred E., 2709 Hamilton Ave., Baltimore *Upham, Mrs. Margaret S., 211 Washing- ton St., Cumberland Waesche, Mrs. Charlotte S., Mitchellville Watkins, Lida E., 626 Orpington Rd., Baltimore Watts, Adah, 813 N. Fremont Ave., Balti- more Weglein, David E., Supt. of Schools, Madi- son and LaFayette Aves., Baltimore Wenner, E. Virginia, Middletown Elemen- tary School, Brunswick White, Sue B., Hampstead Hill School No. 47, Linwood Ave. and Fleet St., Balti- more Wiers, Mary M., School No. 48, Hollins and Monroe Sts., Baltimore Willison, Mildred E., 401 Decatur St., Cumberland MASSACHUSETTS Alderman, Etta L., 39 Hanover St., West Springfield Allen, Grace A., 25 Bacheller St., Lynn Annis, Ruth E., 120 Bellingham Ave., Revere Atkins, Robert S., Thomas N. Hart School, South Boston Austin, W. Scott, 10 Pontiae Rd., Quincy Barrows, Howard F., Box 82, Falmouth Sarry, Agnes E., 1961 Commonwealth Ave., Brighton tarry, Mary A., 58 Proctor St., Salem Barry, William J., 108 Warren St., Rox- bury Sates, William Lester, Lowell School Dis- hea Center and Mozart Sts., Jamaica *lain Saylies, Stella H., 80 Hanover St., Fall River Bemis, Fanny M., Robert O. Morris School, Springfield Billings, Catharina W., 32 Coolidge Rd., West Medford 616 ELE MENTARY ScHOOL PRI NCIPALS 233 Arnold St., New 161 High St., Spring- Bozoian, K. Merton, Century Grade School, Belchertown Brassil, Theresa N., Bright School, Wal- tham, Briggs, Elizabeth M., Ingraham Donaghy Schools, New Bedford —oo, B. R., 15 Ashburton PL, on Bulkley, panels A., 21 Washington St., Glouceste Burnell, Martha M., 12 Maple South Bliss, Carrie W., Bedford Bowker, Rosa M., field and Bos- Ave., Bridgewater Burt, Martha G., South Amherst Canty, William P., Everett Carbee, Katharine L., Balch School, Amherst School, Horace Mann School, Nor- wood Comnel’ Mary C., 196 Central St., Spring- e Caton, Anne J., 35 Converse St., Wake- field Chase, Sara E., Washington School, Springfield Cheney, Mrs. Bessie B., Priest Street School, Leominster Chevalier, Ada E., Pierce School, Brook- line Churchill, Clarence E., Ralph Waldo Emer- son School, Newton Upper Falls Clagg, J. Henry, Centre School, Everett ee =" Kathrine M., 108 Dudley St., Med- a Linna E., 12 Arbella Rd., Cook, Louis D., Coptandé, Janet F., Dorches- 2 Morgan Ter., New Bed- School, Dean Stone- ham Corish, Gertrude L., 86 Mill St., New Bedford Cota, Ardell M., Cary School, Chelsea Cragin, S. Albert, 156 S. Main, Reading Cronan, Mary UH.,_ Robinson-Valentine Schools, Chicopee Cunningham, Mary E., Worcester oo, William G., 181 South St., Tatnuck School, Hyan- nis *Cushing, Lena, Jonathan Maynard School, Framingham Daniels, Laura, Acushnet Avenue School, Springfield — Nellie F., 56 W. Elm St., Brock- ton Davis, Bertha S., 43 E. Emerson St., Mel- rose Davison, Mrs. Louisa M., LaFayette School, Shute St., Everett Davison, Margaret J., Samuel Bowles School, 24 Bowles Pk., Springfield Desmarais, Laura B., 206 Main St., South- bridge Vivian A., 20 Ware St., Dingley, bridge Dodge, Gertrude M., 28 Channing St., Worcester Doherty, Alice M., 4 Gilmore St., Everett Donovan, James .. 855 EB. Fifth St. .. South Boston Doyle, Blanche E., 44 Crosman Ave., Beach Bluff Fall Cam- Easton, Norman S., Quequechan St., River en Edith W., to Enright, Helen A., 22 Jean Rd., Arlington Fisher, G. Milton, ‘Woodland Street School, Worcester Russell School, Arling- Flagg, Sadie E., 36 Temple St., Springfield Fleming, John P., A. B. Bruce Grammar School, Lawrence Fletcher, Helen M., 31 Springfield Forbush, L. Mabel, 9 Alder St., Thompson St., Waltham Forster, Bertha E., Brooks School, West Medford Fuller, Flora E., 107 Appleton St., Arling Fram- 2-A Marble St., Wor- 9 Washington St., ton iy Mary A., Roosevelt School, n Gaiamean, Edith A., cester Gartland, Emma L., New Bedford Gay, Florence I., Supvr. of Elem. Educ., Dept. of Educ., State House, Boston Goodnow, Mrs. Gladys L., 216 Davis St., Greenfield Goodspeed, Alice L., Capen School, Ded- ham Gorman, John F., 60 Bellevue Ave., Win throp Graham, Elizabeth, Job C. Tripp School, Fairhaven Graham, John H., 15 Huron Ave., Cam- bridge = Elizabeth G., 23 Essex St., Bev- erly Hatch, Bertha C., 3 Mt. Vernon St. Mel- rose Hathaway, Bertha A. C., 43 Ocean St., New Bedford Hawkinson, Emma S., 29 Crosby St., Webster Hayes, Mary A., 64 Prichard St., Fitch- burg Hedberg, Agnes H., Winslow School, Nor- wood Henderson, Grace H., Winslow School, Tyngsboro a + Jennie M., 57 Birch St., Ros lindal Hicks, Edith M., 17 Conomo Ave., East Lynn **Higgins, Effle Grace, 27 Marianne Rd., Waltham Hardy School, Arlington Highland Ave., Higgins, Ethel G., Hill, Benjamin J., 757 Needham Heights Hogan, John J., John R. Lawrence Holman, Hilda, Annie F. Wellesley Hills Rollins School, Warren School, Howard, Stella M., Chapin School, Wil limansett Hunt, Nellie B., 32 Great Woods Rd., Lynn Jenkins, Emma F., 56 Perry St. Brookline Jenkins, Florence S., 70 Maywood St., Worcester Jenney, Charles A., Russell School, Brock ton Johnson, Ethel M.. 11 Burrill Ave., Lynn 36 Curve St.. Waltham Jones, Helen P., 14 Maple St., Framing Joyee, Helen M., ham Kanter, Marion R., R. W. Emerson School, Roxbury Keenan, Vineent A., 59 Bellevue Hill Rd., West Roxbury Keller, Roy E., Supt. of Schools, Manches- ter Kerrigan, Katharine FE., 2 Clement St., Worcester Lahan, Anna F., 51 Birchwood Rd., Me- thuen Larrabee, Ernest A., Bruce Ave., Shrews berry Latehford, Mary E., 578 Pleasant St., Worcester Lawlor, Edward A., Gilbert E. Hood School, Lawrence Leach, Luthera M., 42 Ellis St., Brockton Leach, Roland M., Still River Rd., Har- vard Legro, Edna §S., 14 Elsmere Ave., Lynn WOR Ae BS: IRE TANS ws Sik hE a eee ‘Se ST i fae pee RR n st line St., »ck- nn ing- ool, Rd., hes- St., Me- ews: St., Iood kton Har- n Leonard, Eliot B., 810 Main St., Wakefield Lusk, L. Elizabeth, 1802 Beacon St., Brook- line McAvinnue, Joseph A., 339 Mammoth Rd., Lowell McCarthy, Stella L., Jireh Swift New Bedford McIntire, Ralph A., 18 Park St., Florence McMullen, Charles B., Centerville Estates, Centerville School, MacCallum, Mildred, Frederick Harris School, Springfield Mathews, Maud A., 71 Philips St., Fall River Metcalf, Lucie A., 9 Washburn Ter., Brook- ine Mileham, Hazel B., Mayflower Inn, Need- ham Miller, Florence M., 54 Bloomfield St., Dorchester Molly, Mary G., 146 Veazie St., North Adams Morrissey, Ellen E., 246 Main St., Indian Orchard Newell, Elizabeth T., 65 Spring St., Med- ford Niland, Anna M., 202 Byron St., East Boston O’Brien, Julia R., 4 Railroad Ave., Nor- wood Oliver, Grace E., 31 Millbrook H, Wor- cester O'Rourke, Helen M., 23 Gardner St., Pea- body Patterson, Wilhelmina, 266 Pleasant St., Marblehead Perkins, Mary I., 586 Eastern Ave., East Lynn Phemister, Alice G., 308 High St., West Medford Pierce, Arthur E., Box 9, Reading Potter, Zulette, 101 Beach St., Revere Pottle, Annie C., 89 Adams St., Waltham Preston, Alice M., 292 Dodge St., Beverly Priest, Maud B., Thomas Hill School, Waltham Ramsdell, Alice E., Topley School, Spring- field Raymond, Ward, Weir Grammar School, Taunton Reddy, Joseph A., William E. Endicott Dist., Glenway and Harvard Sts., Boston Reid, Gertrude L., 50 Randall Ave., East Weymouth Remon, Ruth E., 13 Juniper Ave., Salem Richardson, Bertha, 56 Ft. Pleasant Ave., Springfield Richardson, Mary E., 50 Fairview St., Past Dedham Riese, Helen M., 22 Allerton St., Plymouth ayan Nellie A., 19 Pleasant St., Spring- fiele Salmon, John J., 27 Blake St., Cambridge Sauer, Edith, Kensington Avenue School, Springfield Sears, Louise B., 9 Williams St., Taunton Seward, Elsie P., 15-A Jason St., Arlington Sherman, Lida F., No. County Rd., Oster- ville Silva, Theodore R., Adams School, Quincy Small, Lillian G., Lewis School, Lynn Southmayd, Pearl A., 15 Armory St., Springfield Starkey, Netty A., 7 Moore Ave, Worcester Stott, Helen Maud, 388 Crescent St., Franklin Stratton, Alice I., Woodrow Wilson School, Framingham Stuart, Herman H., Coolidge School, Main St., Melrose Sullivan, Annie G., 349 Whipple St., Fall River Sullivan, Mary V., 2 Lucian St., Worcester Sullivan, Maude H., 29 Holbrook St., North Adams List oF MEMBERS 617 Swasey, Marion H., 58 Maple St., New Bedford Sweeney, Joanna, 146 Cottage St., New Bedford Sweeney, Margaret E., 73 Main St., Quincy Sweet, Emily, 22 Hammond St., Waltham Taylor, Charles H., Edward Devotion School, Brookline Towne, Lillian M., 15 Barrows St., Allston Vaughan, Louise W., 20 Nixon St., Dor- chester Vose, Wilda L., Callahan School, Norwood Wainwright, Lottie W., 533 Broadway, Fall River Washburn, Anna C., 3 Mt. Vernon St., Melrose Wentworth, Florence A., Box 255, Walpole Willard, Addie I., Edward B. Newton School, Winthrop Williams, Winnie M., 24 Bertram St., Bev- erly Wilson, Sara E., 25 Crandall St., Adams Wingate, Louise, State Teachers College, Fitchburg Wood, Francis O., 72 Whittier Rd., Med- ford Woodbury, Charles H., 4 Lakecroft Court, Melrose Woodward, Mrs. Lovina H., Lawrence Street School, Framingham Yeomans, Rosa A., 118 Revere Ziersch, Anna L., 55 Linden St., Allston Atlantie Ave., MICHIGAN Alexander, E. Kirby, Detroit Allan, Jennie, 2136 Harding, Detroit Allmendinger, W. H., 17501 Brush, Detroit Alt, Mary A., 1120 St. Beaumont, Detroit Alward, Marian E., Vetal School, 14200 Westwood, Detroit Anderson, Elsie I., 905 Merton Rd., Detroit Anderson, Jennie, Sylvester Manor, 224 EK. Court St., Flint Andries, Ida K., 2000 Edison, Detroit Andrus, Beatrice, 2632 Chicago Blvd., De- Mary Loretta, 15 troit Arehard, Ira J., 11315 Rosemary Ave., Detroit Armstrong, Donald C., Higgenbotham School, 20119 Wisconsin, Detroit Atkinson, F. H., Ford School, Highland Ayres, F. M., Supt. of Schools, Dundee Bachman, Sophie C., Majeske School, 2139 Trombly Ave., Detroit Baird, James, Lingemann School, 567 Montclair Ave., Detroit Baker, Guy L., 113 W. Kenilworth, Royal Oak Bammel, Romelda, 311 LaFayette Ave., Bay City tarlow, Carl J., 947 Seward, Detroit tates, Guy, Marshall School, 1255 State Fair, Detroit Bates, Helena M., 9594 American, Detroit Bates, Warner, J., Pulaski School, Ham- tramck Beard, Harriet E., 237 California, Detroit Beattie, Grace E., Marxhausen School, 5082 Cadillae, Detroit techtold, R. H., Longfellow Elementary and Junior High School, Flint Beck, Carl G., 8100 Curtis, Detroit Beckman, Edith A., 5393 Linsdale, Detroit Begole, Jenniebelle, 3421 W. Chicago Blvd., Detroit Beier, Mildred M., 171% Crocker Blvd., Mt. Clemens Belisle, John H., Winterhalter School, 12121 Broad St., Detroit 618 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Benette, Fred L., 920 Washington Ave., Escanaba Bergener, Pauline, 3993 Humboldt, Detroit ——_ Abraham Donn., 16150 Ohio, De- roit Birkham, George, Coolidge School, 4875 Greenway, Detroit Bloom, Walter, 13141 Twelfth, Detroit Bolton, Frederick R., Moore School, 1000 Alger, Detroit Booth, Evelyn, 14223 troit Boston, Fannie E., 587 Emerson, Detroit Bott, Helen, 3917 McClellan, Detroit Bowen, Harold D., 8203 Morris Circle E., Detroit Bowles, Maude 8., 1413 Field, Detroit Bradley, Mrs. Fanny, Kearsley Street School, Flint Braude, Esther, 2740 Richton, Detroit Brewer, Jessie M., 18 Porter St., Pontiac Brice, Mrs. Tillie, 3916 Montclair, Detroit Broegger, E. J., 3730 Seminole, Detroit Broehm, Clara, 4833 Ogden, Detroit **+Browe, Herman, 1354 Broadway, De- troit Browe, Walter, 9206 Avis, Detroit Brown, Mary M., 5536 St. Antoine, De- troit Brown, Harold E., 12067 Findlay, Detroit Buckley, Dorothy, Angell School, Ann Arbor Burgwin, Mignon, 3622 Pulford, Detroit Burk, Helen J., 5116 S. Martindale, De- troit Burke, E. A., Route 1, Belleville Burns, Hortense FE., 2202 Calvert, Detroit Burt, Ethel V., 16611 Lawton Ave., Detroit Bushnell Nina M., 507 Thomson St., Flint Buxton, Elaine, 16411 Curtis, Detroit Campbell, Charlotte, 634 E. Channing, Ferndale Carlson, E. C., 260 N. Perry St., Pontiac Carlson, Eileen, 2800 EB. Davison, Detroit Carpenter, Ralph R., Van Zile School, 2915 Outer Dr., E., Detroit Carroll, Agnes, 1651 Atkinson Ave., Detroit Carroll, Mae B., Guyton School, 1651 At- kinson Ave., Detroit Southampton, De- Carter, Winifred J., 7479 Stockton, De- troit Caswell, Inez E., 13120 Wildemere, De- troit Charbonneau, Anna M., 2934 Clairmount, Detroit Chase, Martha B., 808 Bush St., Jackson Church, Frank H., Lincoln School, Detroit Cleveland, J. Arlene, 278% Auburn Ave., Pontiac +Clow, Jennie M., 2924 Ferry Park Ave., Detroit Coates, Elizabeth M., lint Cobel, Florence, 16745 Lamphere Ave., De- troit 2705 Lapeer St., Collar, Lovina, Holbrook School, Ham- tramck Collins, Florence, 81% S. Johnson Ave., Pontiac Collins, Oard, 1471 Maple, Detroit Cooney, Joseph, 7840 Wagner, Detroit Correvont, H. Earle, Harding School, Kal- amazoo Cousins, 3318 Whitney Detroit Cox, Agnes L., 61 Fairgrove Ave., Pontiac Crane, Mrs. Mary E., 1592 Fifth St., Muskegon Creswell, Grace O., 2464 Lothrop St., De- troit Crisman, Sarah, 8869 W. troit Crosby, Bertha E., 5917 Vermont, Detroit Esther J., Ave., LaFayette, De- Cross, Sydnie M., 13130 Grove St., Detroit Crudder, Lillian, 15755 Bremen, Detroit Crull, Howard D., Acting Supt. of Schools, Board of Educ., Birmingham Crumley, Josephine V., 9084 Court, Detroit Crysler, Rose, Courville School, 144 Long- _ wood Ave., W., Detroit Culhane, Josephine, Martin School, Flint Curtis, Eva M., 1030 Grand ‘Traverse, Flint Curtiss, Dale, 14034 Abington St., Detroit Curtiss, Florence E., 205 Tuxedo, Detroit Davis, Irene C., 905 Merton Rd., Detroit Davison, Ann §., 4607 Seebaldt, Detroit Davison, Ethel, Houghten School, 16745 Lamphere, Detroit Dawson, Dorothy, 2311 Linden, Detroit Dawson, Edwin, 10825 Fenkell, Detroit Deacon, Wallace G., 38 Wellesley Dr., Pleasant Ridge, Royal Oak Dealy, Etta R., 823 Military, Detroit Dell, George, 5220 Spokane, Detroit De Manigold, Mary L. G., 1031 Weyburn Ave., Detroit Dixon, Walter E., 4833 Ogden, Detroit Docter, Agnes C., 1191 Virginia Pk., De troit Doherty, Mary C., 5244 Spokane, Detroit Donovan, Alice H., 94 W. Willis, Detroit Dorland, Ida, 301 N. Chilson St., Bay City Doyen, Gertrude, 1251 17th, Detroit Drouillard, Axie, 4390 W. Jefferson, Ecorse Drouillard, Mary G., 3518 W. Warren, De troit Drouin, Alice, Pointe Park Dunbar, Helen, 2141 Belvidere, Detroit Dumon,. Lucie, 6006 Seneca, Detroit Dunn, Ida, 15125 Schoolcraft, Detroit Eck, Ruth J., 100 E. Hancock, Detroit Edmonson, J. B., School of Education, Uni- versity of Michigan, Ann Arbor Egan, Nora L., 2672 W. Grand Blvd., De troit Egeler, Ethel E., 35246 Park St., Wayne Elliott, Myrtle A., 1087 Ashmun St., Sault Ste. Marie Ellsworth, Bert B., 3840 Russell St., De King School, Beverly 1063 Beaconsfield, Grosse troit Elisworth, Mrs. Edith Shaw, 6533 16th St., Detroit Ellsworth, Frank E., Teachers College, Kalamazoo Engel, Erma IL., White School, 5161 Charles, Detroit Erman, Lillie, 2431 Pingree Ave., Detroit Estabrook, Eudora P., Diamond School, Grand Rapids Evans, Lucille, 1821 Cherry, Detroit Fairbairn, Miss Marion D., 2110 Ave., Detroit Falvey, Stella K., 1464 E. Congress, De troit Farr, Helen, 40 Davenport, Detroit Feaheny, Adele, 8100 Curtis, Detroit Fee, Lena M., 712 S. Oakley St., Saginaw, VW. S Park W. S. Fernette, Adele M., 2110 Philip, Detroit Firestone, Mrs. Myrtle Bevan, University Elementary School, Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor Firth, Roxie Andrews, 7346 Dernes Ave., Dearborn Fleming, Jennie M., 1971 Longfellow Ave., Detroit Ford, Marian M., 10059 Crocuslawn, De- troit Forner, 8211 Hazelwood, De- troit Forsman, Bertha L., 100 Pallister, Detroit Fouch, Mrs. Jennie B., 217 Burr Oak St., Kalamazoo Robert R., Fowles, Maude, Grossé Pointe Park Fox, Louise, 4865 Newport, Fraser, Marjorie F., 2189 troit Frederick, Magdalene, Birmingham Froelich, Dorothea E., Royal Oak Froh, Alma, Fuller, Burns, Geletzke, Emma, Geyer, Eldon C., Sattle Creek Gibbons, Jane Winifred, Jones School, N. Division St., Ann Arbor Gibson, Ruth A., 721 N. Ninth St., St. Clair Gifford, Ilah B., 3250 W. Chicago, Detroit Gilday, Jane A., McFarlane School, 8919 N. Clarendon, Detroit 1374 Somerset Dr., Detroit Montelair, De Quarton School, 504 Hendri Blvd, 1168 Seward, Detroit 17583 Fielding, Detroit 530 Colonial, Detroit Willard Library Building, Gladden, Theron A., 11682 Birwood, De troit Gonne, Edythe, 2281 W. Grand Blvd., De troit Gordon, Donald C., 211 Westminster, De troit Gragg, H. H., 12316 Ohio, Detroit Graham, Albert A., 901 Calvert, Detroit Grahman, Eunice J., 1406 Field Ave., De troit Grant, Margaret Detroit Gregory, Park Green, Loa, 247 N. Green, Minnie Gow, Green, Tamar, 2775 Maybury, Detroit Greene, Myrtle, 730 Fifth St., Jackson Grettenberger, R. A., Imlay City W., 9765 N. Martindale, Arnold, Raupp School, Lincoln Rose St., Mt. Clemens 8348 Kipling, Berkley Guild, Ella M., 224 E. Court St., Flint Guilloz, Mabelle E., 4900 E. Hildale, De- troit Halama, James A., Box 506, Bessemer Haley, Nelle, 920 Court St., Saginaw, W. S. Hall, Isabell, 288 Josephine Ave., Detroit Hamilton, Esther, 16545 Huntington Rd., Rosedale Pk., Detroit Hanlon, Eunice M., 15369 Gilchrist, De- troit Hansen, Meta, 16315 Log Cabin, Detroit Hardie, Frances §S., 16250 La Salle Blvd., Detroit Hardie, Katherine, 2170 E. Jefferson, De troit Hardy, Minnie C., 3420 Cass, Detroit 8710 Radford, Detroit Florence, 1016 Ann Arbor Harris, Zita A., Harrison, Mrs. St., Flint ‘Hartung, Urban, Jr., Detroit Hazel, F. M., Supt., Lakeview School, 300 Highland Ave., Battle Creek Healy, Oliver B., 561 Brady, Detroit Henchey, Leona A., 916 EF. Grand Blvd., Detroit Hermann, Ruth A., St. Joseph Herrig, oo W., 820 inaw, W. Hilborn, a ‘Clara M., Flint. Hirschman, Esther, 94 W. Willis, Detroit Hoag, Grace §S., 3329 Wabash St., Detroit Hodge, Gertrude M., 18080 Santa Barbara, Detroit Hodges. Duncan C., 6836 Georgia. Detroit Holland, Mary N., 7630 Harper, Detroit Holt, Miss Gilberte, 3420 Cass, Detroit Horgan, Mary, 744 W. Adeline, Detroit Horn, C. M., Dowagiac Public Schools, Dowagiac Horton, Mrs. Jeannette, Garfield School, Superior Blvd., Wyandotte 2205 Fischer Ave., 834 Greenwood Ave., Adams St., Sag- 2005 Francis Ave., List oF MEMBERS James, Jones, 619 Hosner, Marion, 40 Davenport, Detroit Howlett, Helen C., 14 Ballard, Ypsilanti Hubbard, Evelyn B., 3020 Burns, Detroit Hungerford, Richard, 10040 Yellowstone Detroit Hupp, Hattie H., 2928 14th, Detroit Huston, Emma G., 8915 N. Clarendon, Detroit Itsell, Lillian C., Oak Park School, Lansing Elsie E., 922 Belmont, Flint Jennings, Elsie J., 848 Pingree, Detroit Mrs. Daisy Pryal, 706 Hazelwood, Detroit Kane, Ruth F., 266 Philip, Detroit Keeler, L. W., 1135 Granger Ave., Ann Arbor Kelly, Mary M., 301 W. Third Ave., Flint Kemp, Maude E., 2111 Mullane, Detroit Kepperling, Inez, 12938 Wark N. W., De- troit Kerwin, S. Theel, Kessler, Florence A., Dr., Detroit Ketcham, Alice E., 55 Highland Park Kilander, Mrs. Pansy, Detroit (Knighton, Detroit Knuth, Clara, tramck Koopman, G. 19030 Wildemere, Detroit 17330 Warrington Highland Ave., 14149 Coyle Ave., Edward J., 9047 Beverly Court, 3385 Norwalk St., Ham- Robert, Division of Curricu- lum Research, Dept. of Public Instrue- tion, Lansing Kraatz, Marion Terry, 1415 Lawrence Ave., Detroit Krug, Marguerite C., Detroit Kuhn, Florence E., 5963 Cadillac Ave., 954 Nottingham Rd., 2270 Leslie Ave., Detroit Kull, Charlotte A., Detroit *Laing, Earl R., Detroit Lamport, Harold B., Highland Park Pub- lie School, Highland Park Landskov, N. L., Central School, Ironwood Lang, Miss Marion M., 533 E. “it. Hope Ave., Lansing 16265 Westmoreland Rd., Lannin, Jean, 15721 Ashton Rd., Detroit Lawrence, Aina, eu Fifth St., Bay City Leavenworth, *., 8334 W. Hudson, Royal Oak Le Bost, Mrs. Anna, 6131 Iowa, Detroit Lennox, Abigail D., 8425 W. MeNichols Rd., Detroit Levis, Luetta, Livie, Edna B., 3250 Chicago, Detroit 2281 W. Grand Blvd., De- troit Locker, Marie R., 3319 Pingree, Detroit Lockwood, Glenn O., Ann Visger School, River Rouge Lokie, Isabel J., 700 Whitmore Rd., Detroit Lorenz, Ida, 9511 MeQuade, Detroit Lown, Venna A., 10125 King Richard, Detroit Lustfield, Alma, 1851 W. Grand Blvd., De- troit McAdam, Alice H., 2525 Brooklyn, Detroit McAsey, Nell E., 2920 Palmer E., Detroit 840 Waterman. Detroit 18272 San Juan Dr., Clara E., McCallum, Jessie, McCarthy, Julia M., Detroit McConnell, Detroit McCoy, Margie L., 670 Pingree Ave., J. B. Ford Elementary School, Hudson St., Wyandotte McDevitt, Rosabelle, 734 Delaware Ave., Detroit McDonald, Lucile, 1415 Parker, Detroit McEwen, Vera D., 4037 Vicksburg, Detroit McGowan, Margaret C., 2535 Atkinson Ave., Detroit 620 IXLEMENTARY ScHoont PRINCIPALS he Genevieve, 1202 25th St., De- tr McGuinness, Mae E., 17211 Northlawn, Detroit McKenny, Laurence, 15600 State Fair E., Detroit McKinney, Rachel, 5130 McKinley Ave., Detroit McLaughlin, C. W., 9699 E. Maple, Warren MeMahon, Mary, 13185 Pinehurst Ave., Detroit MeMahon, Rachael, 13185 Pinehurst Ave., Detroit MeMillan, Irene, 5161 Charles, Detroit McSweeney, Mary C., 4240 Buena Vista, Detroit MeVean, Gertrude, 327 Perry St., Pontisve MacDonald, Margaret, 2545 Virginia Pk., Detroit Mackay, Mary B., Macomb School 12021 Evanston Ave., Detroit Magee, Marjorie, 15 E., Kirby, Detroit Maher, Anna J., 1056 Lenox, Detroit Maher, Geneva V., 320 E. Grand Blvd., Detroit Maher, Julia H., 1665 Lawrence Ave., De- troit Mahoney, Margaret, 1963 W. Grand Blvd., Detroit Mahony, Mary M., 2963 Arndt St., Detroit Malone, Kathryn J., 16935 Sorrento, De- troit Marcerean, Zella H., 17610 Warrington, Detroit Marlin, Hazel M., 15516 Pinehurst, Detroit Marsh, Mrs. Lettie, 1012 Cherry St., Grand mothe Thekla, 10415 Lakepointe, Detroit Mayrend, Earl, 16876 Sorrento, Detroit Menger, Hilda, High Street School, Lansing Messner, Clarence J., Richard School, 130 McKinley, Grosse Pointe Michkan, Ina, 14566 Tuller, Detroit Minahan, Lucey C., 11543 Linwood, Detroit Miner, Mae C., 5530 Grayton Rd., Detroit a Mrs. Estella, 13346 Lauder, De- Mitvelfetd, Lucey L., 1214 Rademacher, De- troit Monroe, Thomas O., 14829 Stansbury, De- troit Montgomery, Rhoda, 4058 Clements St., Detroit Morley, Lillian C., 42 E. Willis, Detroit Morse, John A., 1450 E. Jefferson Ave., Detroit Morse, Mabel E., 4043 Blaine, Detroit Morth, Clemence V., 9330 Dexter, Detroit Moss, Helen A., 919 Lapeer St., Flint Mumford, Edgar H. E., George W. Ferris School, Highland Park Munroe, Jessie M., School No. 1, Labodie and High, Ecorse Murphy, Anna E., 2233 Clements Ave., De- troit Mygatt, Cynthia J., 4311 Cortland, Detroit Netzorg, Sadie, 1: 2115 >) Griggs Ave., Detroit Newman, Ethlyn, 3400 Wreford, Detroit Nicholls, Mrs. Mabel, 16824 Parkside, De- troit Nill, Louise K. B., 483 Keelson Dr., De- troit Nixon, B. E., Kosciuszko School, Fleming and Burger Sts., Hamtramck Norton, Mae, 2700 Pingree, Detroit Obel, Henry, 1000 Alger, Detroit O’Brien, Edna, 209 N. Linn, Bay City O’Connor, Margaret, 1992 Morrell, Detroit O'Dell, Mrs. Iva, Donelson School, Pontiac O’Hara, Mae, 2800 W. Grand Blvd., De- troit O’Harrow, Ina, 10 Moss Ave., Highland Park O'Keefe, Nora, 3250 W. Chicago Blyd., De- troit O'Leary, Hannah W., 5244 Spokane, De- troit Oliver, Jean, 2988 Columbus Ave., Detroit Osborne, Agnes W., 18685 Woodingham Dr., Detroit Ostrander, Margaret, 100 Parsons, Detroit 7 Otto, Henry J., W. K. Kellogg Founda- tion, Battie Creek Page, Florence, Mason School, 11870 Ohio, Detroit Pardon, M. Lynde, 9551 Prairie, Detroit Parker, Claudia, 2141 Belvidere, Detroit Parker, Florence, 5474 Trumbull, Detroit Parker, Helen M., 1255 State Fair E., De- troit Parker, Howard L., 22926 Nona Ave., Dearborn Pascoe, May F., Lincoln School, S. Sag inaw St., Flint Patterson, Laura C., 18947 Pennington Dr., Detroit Pearl, Norton H., 11624 Wise a Detroit Pearson, ee Carolyn A., 321 E. Newell St., Fli nt Peatling, Ella M., 1666 Atkinson Ave., De troit Perdue, Mrs. Viola H., Carpenter Street School, Midland Petry, Harriet, 14565 Hubbell, Detroit Pettitt, Jay S., 21532 Curtis, Detroit Pickett, Mrs. Lillian H., 111 W. Baker St., Flint Pierce, Vernon P., 15376 Hartwell, Detroit Plumb, Alberta E., 1503 Mott, Saginaw Popp, Mrs. Cleo E., Hazelton School, Flint Pringle, May R., 4248 Seebaldt, Detroit Pullman, Lucile V., 486 W. Palmer, De troit Pyle, Margaret I., 11851 E. Outer Dr., De troit Quandt, Verna, Stellwagen School, 11450 Outer Dr., Detroit Quinn, Evelyn, 3917 McClellan, Detroit Raiss, Edna K., 3916 Montclair, Detroit Randall, Leo M., 3952 Bewick, Detroit Rankin, Paul T., Supvg. Dir., Curriculum and Research, 1354 Broadway, Detroit Raynor, Florence, 3347 Wabash, Detroit Reardon, Anna T., 306 N. Linn, Bay City Reaume, Rhoda, 6141 Stanton Ave., Detroit Redman, Mabel M., 75 Avalon Ave., Detroit Reynolds, O. D., 14909 Cleophus, Allen Park, Dearborn — Caroline M., 655 Hazelwood, De- troit Rietzkat, Bertha Nell, 3379 Scovel Pl., Detroit Rietzkat, Marie B., 3379 Scovel P1., Detroit Riley, Etta, 4365 "Newport, Detroit Robinson, Henrietta A., Clippert School, 4725 Martin St., Detroit Robinson, O. J., Copernieus Junior High School, Hamtramck Robison, Alice E., 103 Hazelwood, Detroit Roethke, Louise W., 6131 Iowa, Detroit Rogers, Alex R., 1981 McKinstry, Detroit Rogers, Esea B., 121 Arbor St., Kalamazoo Rohrer, Pauline C., 2263 Montclair, De- troit Rosenthal, Aimee A., 4261 wensington Rd., Detroit Ross, Meta, R. F. D. 2, Rochester Rouse, Jessie H., 2503 S. Washington Ave., Saginaw Rowe, Julia Gulliford, 6145 12th St., De- troit Rudduck, Lillian W., 15125 Schoolcraft, Detroit Russ, Marjorie, 2915 E. Outer Dr., De- troit Ryan, Lenora M., 429 Eighth St., Escanaba Sage, M. K., 702 Harding, Detroit List oF MEMBERS 621 Schoolcraft, Pearl T., 2328 Oakland Dr., Kalamazoo Schulz, Mary C., 19185 Bretton Dr., De- troit se Schumaker, Frances B., 1350 E. Jefferson, Detroit Schwesinger, Alda, 3790 Columbus, De- tro Scollay, Lois A., 2281 W. Grand Blvd., De- troit Seavitt, Roy W., 4340 W. Jefferson, Ecorse Seebeck, Elizabeth, 1008 Harrison St., Bay City Seipp, William C., 14896 Stansbury, De- troit Shattuck, Alice B., Baldwin School, Pon- tiae Sheahan, Stella M., Hamilton School, 4311 Avery Ave., Detroit Sheldon, Carrie M., 153 E. Chureh St., Adrian Shenstone, Anna H., 325 Burr Oak St., Kalamazoo Sheridan, Margaret E., 1727 Glynn Court, Detroit Sherman, Ione, 16411 Curtis, Detroit Shields, Mary, 630 Bellevue, Detroit Short, Mrs. Mabelle I., Washington School, Flint Sievewright, Agnes, 3421 Chicago Blvd., Detroit Simpson, Helen, 17550 Greenlawn, De- troit Simpson, Mary, 17550 Greenlawn, De- troit Smith, Anna F., 814 Washington St., Mon- roe Smith, Hattie, Longfellow School, Royal Oak Smith, Julia C., 2028 Adams _ Blvd., Saginaw Smith, Margaret M., 7724 14th St., De- troit Smith, Mrs. Mildred S., 2281 W. Grand Blvd., Detroit Smith, William A., Route 1, Box 124, Belleville Spinks, Grace C., 629 Webb, Detroit Spooner, Janet, Jacoby School, 13210 Main, Detroit Springman, John H., Pierce School, Bir- mingham Staley, Florence, 292 E. Brown St., Bir- mingham Starling, Mabel C., 8811 Quincy, Detroit Stauch, Rose K., Dickinson School, Ham- tramck Staudacher, Ethel, 910 Salzburg Ave., Bay City Steeds, Ivah, 4237 Larchmont, Detroit Steele, Frank N., 615 S. West End, De- troit Steger, Gertrude, 3020 Burns, Detroit Stemmelen, Owen F., 2234 Junction, De- troit Stepanik, Mrs. Wanda, 1731% E. Grand Blvd., Detroit Stevens, Roy W., 18724 Gainsborough, De- troit Stevenson, Ethel §S., 1214 Military, De- troit Stolinski, Blanche T., 7508 Wykes, Detroit Stout, Grover, 1851 W. Grand Blvd., De- troit — Betty McBryde, 2202 Calvert, De- troit Sturm, Mrs. Gladys F., 4261 Kensington Rd., Detroit Sullivan, Irene F., 7601 Palmetto, De- troit Sullivan, M. Lilian, 2202 Bewick, Detroit Sullivan, Mary C., 3217 W. Grand Ave., Detroit Sweeney, Angela, 13 Oakland Park Blvd., Pleasant Ridge Sweeney, Anne M., 8411 E. Forest, De- troit Tardy, Elizabeth, 420 Seven Mile Rd., De- troit Taylor, Mygleetus, Holbrook School, Ham- tramck *Thomas, John S., 18295 Oak Dr., De- troit Thompson, Anne A., 2963 Arndt, Detroit Thompson, Florence, 4546 Vancouver, De- troit Thompson, Paul, 163 McKinley Rd., Grosse Pointe Farms Thomson, Marion, 1170 Burlingame, De- troit Toomey, Katherine E., 17167 Northlawn, Detroit Trombly, R. C., 899 S. Lakepointe, De- troit Tucker, Ethel M., 52 Kerby Rd., Grosse Pointe Farms Tucker, Lillian, 2643 17th St., Detroit Tuomey, Margaret W., 1459 Lawrence Ave., Detroit Unruh, Leah B., Parkland School, North St. at Pasadena, Flint Van Adestine, Gertrude, 6045 Stanton Ave., Detroit Vandenbergh, Ora H., 28 Collingwood, De- troit = Dyk, Henrietta, 3498 Beniteau, De- roit Van Every, Alice M., Petoskey Van Gallow, Helen, 8575 Dumbarton Rd., Detroit Van Horn, Laurence B., Inwood Consoli- dated Schools, Cooks Varty, Violet, 13115 E. Jefferson, Detroit Voorhees, James H., 3801 Pasadena Ave., Detroit Walcott, E. Forrest, 340 Frazer Ave., River Rouge Walsh, Margaret M., 1623 Church, Detroit Wareham, Lucille E., 212 Moran Rd., Grosse Pointe Park Warner, Frances L., The Wardell, 15 E. Kirby, Detroit ba ~~ ae Wyia A., 224 E. Court St., “int — Laura A., 19480 Lowell Dr., De- troit Waugh, Nellie A., 13538 Mendota, Detroit Weber, Ernest, Training School, Richland Weidemann, Mathilde, 269 Erskine St., De- troit Welch, Edith, 3310 Vinewood, Detroit Welch, Elizabeth, 1616 Ohio Ave., Flint Wenzel, Brigetta, 5503 Lakepointe, Detroit wees, Thomas F., 6254 Schaefer Rd., Dear- orn vee Grace E., 513 S. Troy St., Royal ak Whistle, Mrs. Retha Clark, 613 Clifford St., Flint = Muriel M., 114 Oak St., Wyan- dotte bah = Charlotte A., 6016 Linwood, De- ro Wilson, Adelaide M., 524 W. Greendale, Detroit Wilson, Claudia V., 524 W. Greendale Ave., Detroit Wilson, Grace, 224 BE. Court St., Flint Wingertszahn, Laura, 2610 14th St., De- troit Winslow, Catherine M., Tilden School, 1314 Kirby W., Detroit Woody, Clifford, School of Education, Uni- versity of Mich., Ann Arbor Woolfenden, Elizabeth, Leland School, 1395 Madison Ave., Detroit Woolfenden, Grace F., Oakman School, 12920 Wadsworth, Detroit Wuennecke, Laura, 623 LaFayette, Grand Haven 622 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Wyatt, Ifie, 2170 Jefferson, E., Detroit Wynne, Julia, Ruthruff School, 6311 W. Chicago, Detroit Yager, Gretchen J., Woodruff Elem School, Wyandotte Detroit 7364 Churchill Ave., entary Yokom, Merle C., 61 Clairmount, Young, Amelia D., Detroit Young, Dorah, Oak Grove Club, Flint Yuergens, Delia, 7479 Stockton, Detroit MINNESOTA Bauer, Harold C., Lakefield +Becker, Elsa, 1732 E. Fourth St., Duluth Benson, Gudrun, 1900 Park Ave., Minne- apolis aelae, Mrs. Agness, Lyndale School, Min- neapolis Butler, Margaret F., Webster School, St. Albans and Holly Ave., St. Paul Cross, C. Willard, Supt. of Schools, Fari- bault Dosdall, Bertha A., 1332 Dayton Ave., St. 1 Paul Drohan, Gertrude, 2716 Portland Ave., Minneapolis Dutton, Mrs. Jean U., 1222 W. 3ist St., Minneapolis Frederickson, Mrs. Claire L., Howe School, 43rd Ave., S., and E. 88th St., Min- neapolis Gundlach, Lucy, 1726 Lincoln Ave., St. Paul Hamilton, Katherine, 615 City Hall, St. Paul *Hanson, Lillian C., Schools, Duluth Harger, Lena Minneapolis Hawkinson, Mabel J., Pine City Heinrichs, Evelyn K., 3152 37th Ave., S., Minneapolis Herrly, Dora J., Box 964, Grand Rapids Holtz, Jennie F., Irving School, 17th Ave., S. and 28th, Minneapolis Johnson, Jennie U., 393 Bates Ave., St. Paul Keck, Malcolm B., Prescott School, Lowrie Ave. and Taylor St., Minneapolis Keckefoth, Ethel H., Washington School, Eighth Ave. and Sixth St., 8., Minnea- polis Kirk, A. W., Jackson School, Edmund and Arundel Sts., St. Paul Bryant and Monroe 4235 Grimes Ave., S., **Knox, Bess June, 516 University Ave., S. E., Minneapolis Knudtson, O. E., Supt. of Schools, Pipe- stone Lichtenberger, James F., Windom School, Minneapolis McAlister, Gladys M., 905 W. 44th St., Minneapolis McNaughton, Edith L., Lindsay School, 310 Pleasant, St. Paul Mallory, Blanche, 715 E. First St., Duluth Mather, Helen, 2011 Third Ave., S., Min- neapolis Murray, Albert Sherman, 1242 W. Minne- haha St., St. Paul Murray, L. C., Supt. of Schools, Aitkin Nyhus, Ellen, Curtis Hotel, Minneapolis Pahr, Mrs. Ida C., 3118 E. 22nd St., Min- neapolis Peters, Leone E., 2809 Park Ave., Min- neapolis Petersen, Mrs. Edith Barney, Motley School, Dartmouth Ave. and Erie St., S. E., Minneapolis Peterson, Hulda V., 622 E. Summit Ave., Fergus Falls Porcher, Maria R., 3549 Dupont Ave., S., Minneapolis Probst, Ella M., Min- neapolis Calhoun School, Ralph, Mrs. Jessie Fawcett, 4405 S., Minneapolis Ave Ringdahl, N. Robert, 3220 Tenth Ave., § Aldrich ’ Minneapolis Rossman, Mabel A., Washburn School, Duluth Ruddy, Harriet E., Phalen Park School, 650 E. Rose St., St. Paul Sand, Anna, 103 W. 36th St., Minneapolis TShove, Helen B., 3116 Clinton Ave., §S., Minneapolis Stanley, Elizabeth A., 749 N. E. Madison St., Minneapolis Staudemaier, W. W., Tuttle School, Tal- madge and 18th Ave., S. E., Minneapolis Steffensrud, E. R., Washington and Lin- coln Schools, Chisholm Strate, Nettie M., 3032 Colfax Ave., S., Minneapolis Taylor, Edith B., St. Paul 1430 W. Minnehaha St., Tucker, Ermina, 305 City Hall, Min- neapolis Wallar, Beulah H., Greeley School, 26th St. and 12th Ave., S., Minneapolis Walton, Matilda K., Horace Mann School, Chicago Ave. and 34th St., Minneapolis Weld, Paul A., Cobb-Cook School, Hibbing White, Zada A., 107 W. 52nd St., Min- neapolis Wilder, Mrs. Leone, Cooper School, Ave., S. and 33rd St., Minneapolis Wilkinson, Sarah H., Whitney School, e., N. E. and Pierce St., MISSISSIPPI Witherspoon 44th 19th Minneapolis Archer, Ellie, dian Baker, Quintard, bg ag Fill, Bishop, G. J., 33 W. Beach, School, Meri Jackson Gulfport Bourdeaux, Away 2126 23rd Ave., Meri- dian Brown, Virginia, South Side School, Meri dian Burney, Georgia L., Carter, Mrs. Laurie School, Meridian Charissia, Sister M., St. Pines, Chatawa *Clement, Bess Rogers, Eliza Clark School, Clarksdale Dempster, Alice, 1607 Van Cleave Mae, Oakland Heights Mary of The 24th Ave., Meridian Dickins, Hattie, Box 172, Leland **Doolittle, Laurie, 44 Victoria Ave., Cleveland Duling, Lorena, 718 N. Congress St., Jack- son Gaston, Evelyn, Tuxedo School, Meridian ae pa R. H., 905 University Ave., Ox- Horn, Lizzie, 404 College St., Houston, Miss Gabriel, 111 W. Clarksdale Key, Mary Belle, Lester, Laura R., 5, Jackson McGee, D. A., Grenada Second St., 321 Dunbar St., Jackson Woodlawn Pl. R. F. D. Pocahontas Majure, Ursula, Highland School, Meri- dian Milner, Bessie, 720 E. Beach, Gulfport Mounger, Lurline, O’Bannon, Mrs. Greenville Ray, Clara N., 909 Franklin St., Ritch, Alma, 211 Lameuse St., Biloxi Smith, Irene, Chalk School, Meridian Stewart, E. B., The Consolidated School, State Line Stokes, Mary M., Thornton, Mattie, Meridian Varnado, Effie, 612 Washington St., woo Varrado, Luella B., 313 North St., Box 117, Clarksdale Fred, Sterling School, Corinth Box 344, Columbus Marion Park School, Green- Jackson on dD. ol, ith ol, ol, pn- son MISSOURI Andrews, F. E., 900 E. Argonne, Kirkwood Annin, Mrs. Anna W., 3815 McCausland Ave., St. Louis Arnold, Leah, Sandusky School, Liberty Baker, Beulah N., Kennard School, 5031 Potomac 8St., St. Louis Baker, Linnie C., 309 Pine St., Liberty Baker, Olive, Arlington School, 1617 Burd Ave., St. Louis Barley, Ida L., 83700 Washington St., Kan- sas City Barnes, Mrs. Abbie C., 513 N. Noyes Blvd., St. Joseph Barnes, Ward E., Normandy Consolidated School Dist., 6701 Easton Ave., St. Louis Bays, John A., Pestalozzi School, 1428 8. Seventh Blvd., St. Louis Bender, Ethel D., 5 Hillcrest Pl., Kirkwood sjenson, J. R., 61381 Magnolia Ave., St. Louis Beumer, Edward H., 646 N. Kirkwood Rd., Kirkwood Bick, Anna, Lowell School, 1409 Linton Ave., St. Louis Blackburn, Lulu, 414 Wallace, Kansas City tjoyd, Anna B., 5330 Pershing Ave., St. Louis Boyd, Sarah L., 5330 Pershing Ave., St. Louis Bracken, John L., Supt. of Schools, Clay- ton Brand, Mrs. Bessie, 1229 Amherst PI., St. Louis Brooks, Fred E., 7313 Melrose Ave., Uni- versity City Brossard, Julia E., 240 W. Argonne Dr., Kirkwood Brown, Charles H., Wheatley School, 4239 Papin, St. Louis suchanan, William D., 5511 Vernon Ave., St. Louis Burke, Mary J., 5321 Harrison St., Kan- sas City Capp, Theresa I., 2531 Faraon St., St. Joseph Chiles, E. E., Harrison School Patron’s Assn., 4163 Green Lea Ave., St. Louis Connery, Julia M., Central Institute for the Deaf, St. Louis Cozean, Grover M., 5118 Vernon Ave., St. Louis Cramer, Roscoe V., 3819 E. 62nd St., Kan- sas City Crawford, Miss Cecil, 709 N. 24th St., St. Joseph Creek, E. G., 813 N. 24th St., St. Joseph Cullen, Blanche, 5370 Pershing Ave., St. Louis Curry, A. R., Hale H. Cook School, 7302 Pennsylvania, Kansas City Cusack, Alice M., 210 Library Bldg., Ninth and Locust Sts., Kansas City De Board, S. Lee, 2420 Woodson Rd., Overland Deffendall, P. H., 8034 Madison St., St. Louis County ‘Denham, Charles T., 810 S. Liberty, In- dependence Denham, Nicholas F., Blue Summit School, 23rd and Scott, Independence Detwiler, O. L., Central Elementary and Junior High School, 906 Center St., Hannibal Dickey, H. B., Fremont School, 2840 Wis- consin Ave., St. Louis Dickson, Mamie A., 3045 Lambdin Ave., St. Louis Ditmars, Thomas, 3802 E. 36th St., Kan- sas City Dolan, Elizabeth, 500 Huntington Rd., Kansas City List or MEMBERS 623 Downs, Harold T., Lockwood School, Web- ster Groves Drayer, H. C., 6933 Columbia Ave., Uni- versity City Drury, M. F., Jackson Park School, Uni- versity City Edmiston, H. H., 6146 Westminster P1., St. Louis Egan, Mrs. Anna H., 4111 Warwick Blvd., Kansas City *Elliott, Mrs. Elsie M., 970 Prospect Ave., Springfield Ewers, A. F., 3411 Pestalozzi St., St. Louis Falke, Clara, 806 E. 41st St., Kansas City Farrar, George W., Marion School, Marion and Midland Ave., Overland Fleming, C. I., 6605 Neosho St., St. Louis abe Elizabeth, 101 E. 51st St., Kansas ‘ity Foristel, Margaret S., 4900 S. Broadway, St. Louis Foster, W. H., Caruthersville Grade School, Caruthersville Gaeser, Lillian, Central School, Creve Coeur Gaines, I. A., 604 Bonita Ave., Webster Groves Garman, Catherine, 1016 E. Broadway, Sedalia Gartenbach, Margaret, 3196 Morgan Ford, St. Louis Gentry, Thomas F., 421 Edgewood Dr.. Clayton Gidinghagen, Walter, 6115 Swope Pkwy., Kansas City 7Gilliam, M. J., 4369 W. Belle Pl., St. Louis Girault, Leonide M., Woodward School, 725 Bellerive Blvd., St. Louis Godbey, Walter A., 3825 Utah Pl. St. Louis Gooch, Emory L., 2303 Big Bend Blvd., Maplewood Goode, Lenna, Frances Willard School, 5010 Garfield, Kansas City Gorman, Frank H., University Elementary School, Columbia Goslin, W. E., High School Building, Web- ster Groves Grace, John F., 1845 S. Spring Ave., St. Louis “—., G. H., 6189 Kingsbury Blvd., St. souls Green, Howard E., Herzog School, 5830 Mimika Ave., St. Louis Griffin, Margery M., Clay School, 3820 N. 14th St., St. Louis Hailey, J. R., Avery School, Bompart and Marshall, Webster Groves Hamilton, Mrs. Alva R., 7245 Ward Pkwy., Kansas City — Edward D., 1118 Aubert Ave., St. souls Hamilton, Mrs. Sarah T., Central School, Ferguson Hanson, George W., Goodall School, Chest- nut and Percival, Webster Groves Henderson, Perry B., The Glenridge School, 848 Glenridge, Clayton > hae Louise, 2832 Spencer Ave., Over- lanc Hickey, P. J., Board of Education, 911 Locust St., St. Louis Hill, Stanley, 4038 Palm St., St. Louis Hoffman, Dora E., 5446 Harrison, Kansas City Holliday, Frances, 409 W. Fifth, Maryville — E. A., 6031 Southwest Ave., St. souls Hooker, Minnie L., 1007 Linwood, Kansas City Hooss, Ida M., Meramec School, 2745 Mera- mec St., St. Louis 624 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS House, Ralph W., 411 Argonne, Jefferson y Howard, J. E., 600 De Mun, St. Louis Humphrey, Nelly, Esther Ilgen, V. Carl, Pershing School, 6761 Bartmar St., University City Jackson, Euris J., Cote Brilliante School, 2616 Cora Ave., St. Louis — W. H., 6839 E. 15th St., Kansas ty Jones, Clara F., Samuel Cupples School, 4908 Cote Brilliante Ave., St. Louis Kegelman, Lillian, Iveland School, Dyer and Lackland, Overland a —~ Jennie G., 5469 Maple Ave., St. Lou Kerns, "Nancy M., 4246 Agnes St., City Lamkin, Uel W., Pres., The Northwest Missouri State Teachers College, Mary- ville Langston, John M., 2354 Michigan Ave., St. Louis Large, Grace M., 6236 Waterman Ave., St. Louis Lewis, Nellie K., 5252 Walsh, Louis Lomax, Gladys, Humboldt Se bee Second and Cherry, St. Joseph *+Longshore, W. Greenwood School, 3711 E. 27th St., Kansas City —* Abigail, 4026 S. Benton, Kansas City Lyon, Perey A., Scullin School, 4160 N. Kingshighway, St. Louis McCafferty, Estella H., Hamilton School, 1514 Campbell St., Kansas C ity McCallister, Mabel, 3238 Marshall St. Louis McCarthy, Nellie, Tauseig, Sree Air School, 154 Grand Blvd., Louis McCaslin, E. E., 50: 27 hv nn Ave., St. Louis McKinney, Marjorie, Cairo MeNabb, H. H., Marshfield Mack, Inez L., E. C. White School, 11 Brookside Blvd., Kansas City MacKay, James L., 573 S. Clay Ave., Kirk- wood Marston, C. E., 7012 The Paseo, Kansas 3850 E. 60th Ter., Kan- 4116 Warwick Blvd., Kansas A ve., ty Martin, Arthur E., sas City Martin, William H., Kansas City Mecker, H. H., 4946 Devonshire, St. Louis Melcher, George, Supt. of Schools, 201 Li- brary Bldg., Kansas City Milan, Fred s., 6352 Washington Ter., St. Louis ee, Ben C., 5428 Holly Hills Ave., St. Louis Moore, Mary, 2809 Sacramento St., St. Joseph Morrison, A. F., 7637 Carswold Dr., St. Louis Mumm, 1027 Felix St., St. Joseph Murphy, Nora G., Deslog Nelson, Minnie, 1315 x Tenth St., St. Josep Neville, Lucy B., Girls Independence Nicholson, Nell Grant, Ave., St. Louis Emma O., Parental Home, 6410 San Bonita Nowlin, Egbert W., Bristol School, Web- ster Groves O’Connell, May, J. C. Nichols School, 69th and Oak, Kansas City Oliver, Stanley C., State Teachers College, Springfield Osborne, John F., Thacher School, 5008 Independence Ave., Kansas City Patterson, M. J., 319 Westover Rd., Kan- sas City Perkins, Bessie, 622 E. Tenth St., Sedalia ah May B., 1403 Edmond St., St. Joseph Peters, Alvina, Charless Shenandoah St., St. Louis Purdom, J. Leslie, Adams School, 1311 Tower Grove Ave., St. Louis 7Purnell, John H., Marshall School, 4342 Idine St., St. Louis Puyear, Hugh C., 735 W. Fifth St., ington Quirk, Margaret, Washington School, St. Joseph Pp Reason, Arthur W., L’Onverture 2612 Papin, St. Louis Rennison, A. M., South Park School, and Belle, St. Joseph Reynolds, Leolia, 1109 Fulton Ave., bal Rhetta, H., 4541 Garfield Ave., St. Louis Riedel, Marcel T., New Overland Se hool, Woodson and Palmer Ave., Overland Ritchie, Frances O., 1201 N. Second St., St. Joseph Robeson, James A., 4147 Kansas City School, 22296 Wash- School, 17th Hanni- Montgall Ave., Rucker, Thomas J., 5564 Maple Ave., St. Louis Sanders, James A., Elementary School, Leadwood Schlueter, W. H., > mg Hill School, 4300 Morganford Rd. Louis Schrader, Alma, 315 oN Girardeau Scott, James Armstrong, 2840 Lucas, St. Louis Seitz, R. E., Normandy Consolidated School Dist., 6701 Easton Ave., St. Louis Sellman, William N., Wyman School, S. Theresa Ave., St. Louis Sexton, L. J., Baden School, 8 Ferry Rd., St. Louis Middle St., Cape Banneker School, 1547 724 Halls Shewman, W. D., 853 Atlanta Ave., Web- ster Groves Shores, Roscoe V., Asst. Supt. of Schools, Public Library Bldg., Kansas City Smith, Joe, Normandy Consolidated School Dist., 6701 Easton Ave., St. Louis Smith, Margaret J., Arnold Se hool, Lex- ington Smoot, de 4011 Baltimore Ave., Kan- sas Smoot, Viola, 2118 Byers Ave., Joplin Stephens, C. E., 5550 Page Ave., St. Louis Normandy Consolidated 6701 Easton Ave., St. Stephens, EK. E., School Dist., Louis Steuber, F. J., Rose Fanning School, Grace Ave., St. Louis Strachan, Lexie, Public Library Bldg., Ninth and Locust Sts., Kansas City Strickler, R. E., 2748 Henrietta St., St. Louis Thomas, Miles C., Border Star School, 6321 Wornall Rd., Kansas City 1111 McCausland Thompson, Mary A., Ave., St. Louis Thompson, Stella, 1459-A Laurel St., St. Louis Trice, Daisy Mae, 1921 EF. Kan- sas City —* “Mabel, 4046 #Tucker, Isabel, Festus Wade School, Ss. Vanderventer, St. Louis 3417 24th St., Warwick, Kansas 2030 Usher, James L., 3401 Wyoming St., St. Louis Vining, Fannie L., 3675 Jefferson Ave., Kansas City Wahlert, Jennie, 2918 Harper, St. Louis Watrous, Mary L., 2640 Euclid Ave., Kan- sas City Wells, Mrs. Annie L., 1 Summit Pl, St. Joseph List oF MEMBERS 625 Wells, Jessie O., 4233 Enright Ave., St. Louis White, Mabel A., Sherwood School, 29th and Edmond, St. Joseph Whitney, Lucy G., Martin School, 416 Gar- land, Kansas City Williamson, Ruby M., R. R. 5, Box 207, Independence Wilson, Albert M., 3630-A Shaw Blvd., St. Louis Witter, Charles E., 5182 Maple Ave., St. Louis Wohlschlaeger, Tom, Rock Springs School, 3974 Sarpy, St. Louis Wolfe, Inez M., 3415 Euclid Ave., Kansas City ty Young, Myrtle M., 3012 Bellefontaine, Kansas City Zimmerschied, Ada, Gladstone School, 335 N. Elwood, Kansas City MONTANA **Anderson, Katherine, Stukey Apts., Great Falls Berges, G. A., 102 S. Jordan, Miles City Boehme, Ione M., Box 403, Great Falls Chamison, Goldie, Tripp and Dragstedt Apts., Butte Edgerton, Helen, 908 Third Ave., N., Great Falls Fairbanks, E. L., 38 N. Atlantic, Dillan Flores, Mrs. Zella K., Box 412, Lewiston Holgren, Mabel Grant, 403 Eddy Ave., Missoula Lausted, Alice, 205 N. 26th St., Billings Lausted, Hulda, 205 N. 26th St., Billings Lewis, H. P., Supt. of Schools, Conrad Lyman, Mrs. Emily D., Box 454, Hamilton Miller, Ruby A., Supt. of Schools, Choteau Moser, Dexter H., 504 N. Wallace Ave., Bozeman Munson, Alma N., Box 53, Bozeman Neal, Russell LeRoy, Randall Apt., Mis- soula Robertson, Garry E., 705 W. Evelyn St., Lewistown Rulien, Esther M., Box 28, Bozeman Schaefer, M. Louise, 120% Tenth St., N., Great Falls Stegner, W. E., Supt. of Schools, Plenty- wood Stevenson, Mrs. May E., 2720 First Ave., N., Great Falls Thompson, Grace M., McKinley School, 1617 Sixth Ave., N., Great Falls NEBRASKA Austin, Mary N., 43 Drake Court, Omaha Baird, Sadie, 1219 S. 26th, Lincoln Baker, Nina, Sheridan School, 30th and Wendover, Lincoln Beal, Mamie G., 2514 B St., Omaha Beattie, Merle M., Board of Educ. Office, Lincoln Bedell, Bess C., 630 Park Ave., Omaha Blackmore, Ida, 5022 Izard St., Omaha Bottorf, Blanche, 212 E. 11th St., Grand Island Bracken, Angeline, Monmouth Park School, Omaha Bratton, Mrs. Anna M., 3200 Center St., Omaha Brissenden, Inez M., 721 W. Second St., Grand Island Brooker, Florence, 4529 S. 19th St., Omaha Burnham, Archer L., Supt. of Schools, Scottsbluff Chapman, Johannah, 5427 LaFayette Ave., Omaha Clark, Mrs. Mae T., 703 W. 15th St., Grand Island Compton, Maude, Highland School, 27th and Adams Sts., Omaha Craig, Nell, 3115 Creighton Ave., Omaha — R. B., 1811 138th Ave., Central City Dixon, Minnie E., Woodbine Apts., Au- rora Eldridge, Ethel G.,° 2221 S. 32nd Ave. Omaha **Ellett, Virginia, 4814 Webster St., Omaha Fay, Gaynelle, Monroe School, Omaha Ferguson, Grace L., 910 W. Second St., Grand Island Forsyth, Fannie, Blackstone Hotel, Omaha Foster, Mary E., West Side School, 32nd and U Sts., Omaha Galleher, Lillian G., 1908 First Ave., Scottsbluff Gepson, E. D., 4240 Grant St., Omaha Grant, Josephine, Rome Hotel, Omaha Griest, Mary Ruth, Train School, Sixth and Hickory Sts., Omaha Griffith, Grace, 5810 Rees St., Omaha Healey, Anna T., Venetian Court, Omaha Holmes, Stella, Bancroft School, River- view Blvd., Omaha a Mrs. Martha, 3212 Vine St., Lin- coin Isakson, Edith, 5022 Davenport St., Omaha Langenheder, Matilda, 105 N. Sycamore St., Grand Island Longsdorf, Helen M., 630 Park Ave., Omaha Lynn, Ethel A., 8111 Davenport St., Omaha McGee, R. R., Kramer High School, Co- lumbus F MeNamara, Mary, 2420 N. 45th Ave., Omaha Mathews, Mrs. Lulu B., 602 N. 47th St., Omaha Matthews, Marie, 1515 Park Ave., Omaha Miller, Glenn E., 1306 N. Washington, Lexington Mills, Mrs. Clara S., 5105 Underwood Ave., Omaha Morley, Mrs. May, Prescott School, Lin- coln Myers, Fannie, Mason School, 24th and Mason Sts., Omaha Newell, Ethel K., 2555 Ellison Ave., Omaha Newlean, Jeannette, 914 S. 36th St., Omaha Partridge, H. R., Supt. of Schools, Alli- ance Pearson, Emelia, Minne Lusa School, 28th Ave. and Ida St., Omaha Petersen, Bertha, 144 S. 38th Ave., Omaha Peterson, Mrs. Alice C., 820 S. 58th St., Omaha Pickard, Anna B., 5148 Franklin |_St., Omaha Pollock, Ruth, Colonial Hotel, Omaha Pritchard, Lula, 6334 N. 30th St., Omaha Pyrtle, E. Ruth, Bancroft School, Lincoln Rasmussen, Maren, 630 Park Ave., Omaha Reap, Edna M., 5119 Hamilton St., Omaha Reed, Mabel L., 4229 Douglas St., Omaha Rousseau, Maude, 1245 S. 26th, Lincoln Roys, Cassie F., 2609 Bristol St., Omaha Shepard, Catherine, Dir. of Teacher Train- ing, Union College, Lincoln Skinkle, James, Chadron Slocum, June M., 4512 S. 22nd St., Omaha Smith, Mrs. Elsie M., 5612 Florence Blvd., Omaha Thompson, P. T., 4519 N. 36th Ave., Omaha Tope, Donald, 4724 Davenport St., Omaha 626 Velte, C. H., Supt. of Schools, Crete Waterman, Mrs. Edna H., 5109 Under- wood Ave., Omaha Weldon, Dossie D., 1703 W. Keonig St., Grand Island Wetzel, Marie C., 192 Drake Court, Omaha Whitehouse, Pattie, 150 Drake Court, Omaha Ki Wilson, Clara O., Teachers College, Uni- versity of Nebraska, Lincoln NEVADA Knudson, K. O., 216 N. Sixth St., Las Vegas NEW HAMPSHIRE Clark, Guy H., Durham Junior High School, Durham DeGross, Mary E., 249 Islington St., Portsmouth Goodwin, Alice D., 16 Abbott St., East Rochester Hicken, Blanche FE., 81 Pennacook St., Manchester Janvrin, Charles F., School, Seabrook Keir, Jean, 12 Front St., Rochester Lewis, Della I., 145 Clinton St., Concord Mulvanity, Mary T., Quincy Street School, Nashua NEW JERSEY South Junior High Achenbach, Anne, 61 Hawthorne Ave., East Orange yjAdams, Mrs. A. Ave., Vineland Atkinson, Bertha I., School, Pitman Atkinson, Viola E., Mt. lington Axtell, Paul H., Leonardo Ayres, Malcolm B., 319 E. Westfield Bannerman, Helen, Public School No. 15, Dwight St., Jersey City Barnes, Thomas L., 39 New St., East Orange *Beck, Ferdinand L., School No. 3, S. Grier Ave., Linden *Bigelow, Merrill A., 115 Bloomfield Boney, C. Dewitt, Nassau School, 330 Cen- tral Ave., East Orange Bosshart, John H., Supt. of Schools, South Orange Bourlier, Mrs. Helen T., 93 Johnson Ave., Hackensack Boyer, B. J., 621 E. Union Ave., Bound Virginia, E. Landis Avenue Rd., Summit Holly Bur- Board of Education, Dudley Ave., Spruce St., +Brady, William, Washington School, 175 Sanford St., East Orange Bragg, Mrs. Martha H., Clifton Grade School, Lakewood Brandenburg, Edna A., Brayton Summit +Brearley, Mrs. Helen C., Ave., Princeton Avenue School, 57 Princeton Breisch, Lulu I., 121 E. Union Ave., Bound Brook Brinkerhoff, George I., Webster Street School, Newark Brown, Gladys D., Lincoln School, Dunel- len *Bryan, H. Eloise, Cinnaminson Township Schools, Riverton Bryson, Jennie V., 610 N. Fifth St., Cam- den Buchanan, Margaret, 53 S. Windsor Ave., Atlantie City Budd, Francis H., 36 Chapman PIL. Glen idge ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Buffington, E. A., 86 Linden Ave., Bloom field Bush, Fred S., 145 Washington St., Bloom field Bustard, Joseph L., Chestnut Stree School, Roselle ce? Cadoo, Sarah Elizabeth, 5 Parmley Pl Summit ; Cassel, Lloyd S., Supt. of Schools, Free hold — Mabel M., 341 Union St., Jersey y ; Christie, James H., M. J. Donohoe School, Dodge St., Bayonne Cline, Anne V. A., 115 Francisco Ave Rutherford Cole, Alice K., LaFayette School No. 6, Elizabeth Cowie, George H., Jr., Hurden-Looker School, Hillside Cowperthwait, Elizabeth R., 22 Branch St., Medford Crane, J. Ernest, Summer Avenue School, Newark Cressman, Alice M., 128 Rutherford David, Vivian 0., Bound Brook Davie, Ethel M., Grammar Grades, Schoo! Administration Bldg., Atlantic City Dengler, C. F., 514 Rahway Ave., Wood bridge Dennis, Emma T., 30 Marion St., Trenton Dietz, Charles E., School No. 3, Main near Slater St., Paterson Dix, William L., Jefferson School, Trenton Dolan, John J., Longfellow School, Oak dene Ave., Teaneck Dorsey, Belle E., School No. 1, Perth Amboy Dowling, Mrs. M., Columbus School, Cart Chestnut St., LaFayette School, State St., eret Dowling, Verna, 114 S. Broad, Penns Grove Dransfield, J. Edgar, 78 Shaler Ave., Cliffside Duplak, Nellie P., Jefferson School, Lynd hurst Egan, Mary B., 719 Morgan Ave., Palmyra Emmet, Martha M., Lincoln School, Engle wood Fenimore, Mary A., 215 N. Fourth St., Camden Fennimore, Roland, 844 River Rd., Fair Haven Fiedler, William G., 921 Cottage Pl., Union City Finger, Mary H., Gregory School, Ruther- ford Ave., Trenton tFlower, Frank R., Albany Apts., Atlantic City Floyd, James R., 1231 Thornton Ave., Plainfield Francis, George B., 916 Bay Ave., Point Pleasant Beach Freeland, Grace A., 119 Summit Ave., Summit Galloway, Carl H., Franklin School, Metuchen Gerlack, Luella, 110 N. Second St., Mill- ville Gerow, Aline, Public School No. 10, Paterson St. and Pierce Ave., Jersey City Glennie, Alexander J., Miller Street School, Newark Green, Lilian M., John Marshall School, Magnolia Ave., Elizabeth Gremont, Helen C., 370 South Ave., Bridgeton *Gronde, Franklin J., 218 Fourth Ave., Bradley Beach Haines, Jennie F., 59 Elmwood Ave., Union Hambright, John B., Maple Avenue School, Newark Hamilton, Ella J., Supvr., Kindergarten and Primary Grades, School Administra tion Bldg., Atlantic City Hammell, Ethel C., Junior High School, Atlantie City ‘ Hammond, D. Stanton, 309 E. 42nd St., Paterson Harding, Ernest A., Dept. of Publie In struction, Trenton Hargrove, William B., Charlton Street School, Newark Hartman, A. L., 104 Haddon PI., Upper Montclair Harvey, Mrs. Loretta, Woodrow Wilson School No. 19, Edgar Rd., Elizabeth Hay, George A. F., Ridgewood High School, Ridgewood Hegel, Lizzie C., 66 S. Tenth St., Newark Heller, Lillian, South Eighth Street School, Newark Hermann, Barbara V., 137 Roosevelt Ave., Carteret Hermann, Catherine B., 137 Roosevelt Ave., Carteret Herron, John S., Robert Treat Junior High School, Newark Hibbs, M. Gregg. Jr., 617 Beechwood Ave., West Allenhurst Hice, Mae, 431 E. Second St., Plainfield Higgins, E. May, 589 Mountain Ave., Bound Brook Hinman, S. T., Columbus School, Myrtle and Grandview Aves., Westfield Hobrough, Mrs. W. W., 142 Broad St., Matawan Horton, Ingeborg M., 426 Lippincott Ave., Riverton Howard, L. Frances, Box 37, Springfield Howard, Margarette E., 119 Summit Ave., Summit *Hulse, Henry S., Jr., 650 Parker St., Newark Hummer, H. Myrtle, 28 Wall St., Trenton Jacob, Walter, Jr., Emerson School, Plain- field Jenkins, Albion U., 357 E. 37th St., Pater- son Johnson, Alberta M., 8 N. Providence Ave., Atlantic City Johnson, Sara G., Rand School. Montclair Johnston, Ruth S., George Washington School, Ridgewood Jupp, Estelle S., Washington School, Rutherford Keller, Ethel M., 711 Glen Ave., West- field Kelly, M. Agnes, 269 Chestnut St., Nutley Kelly, Ruth Bryan, Kelly Ave., West Creek Kineaid, Stella M., 88 Essex Ave., Glen Ridge Klein, Mrs. Anna L., Public School No. 1, Guttenberg Knowles, Mrs. Margaret A., Madison-Mon- roe School, North Ave., Elizabeth Koerner, Grace E., Seth Soyden and Maplewood School Districts, Maplewood +Kurtz, Louise, 126 Kingsland Rd., Nutley La Vance, Laura F., 147 Hadley Ave., Clifton Leahey, P. Joseph, Rushmore Ave., R. F. D. 2, Plainfield Lee, Eleanor R., 554 Bellevue Ave., Tren- ton Lee, Ethel M., 673 Fairview St., Camden Lehlbach, Emma, 394 S. Belmont Ave., Newark Lesh, William S., 20 Stephen St., South River List or MEMBERS 627 Levy, Harold, 875 Ave. C., Bayonne Lilley, Edna J., 1215 Eldridge Ave., West Collingswood Lindbloom, Ray L., Kenilworth School, Ridgewood Logan, Mary G., Box 106, Kingston Long, John IL., School No. 4, Columbia Ave., Cliffside Park *7McConnell, Ralph C., Texas Avenue School, Atlantic City McLean, William, Mt. Hebron Junior High School, Upper Montclair McQuade, Francis A., Jefferson School No. 7, North Bergen — Jean F., 722 Montrose St., Vine- anc Male, Keene B., No. 7 School, Myrtle Ave.., Passaic Meade, Mary P., 108 Smith St., Perth Amboy Michael, Raymond, Junior High School No. 8, W. State St., Trenton Miller, Mrs. Eva P., Spring Garden School, Nutley Miller, Paul S., Stockton School, East Orange Milligan, John P., Watsessing School, Bloomfield Miner, Benjamin €., Central Avenue School, Newark : Mombert, Eleanor, 313 15th Ave., Pater- son Moore, Anita, Ridge Avenue School, Nep- tune Morrison, Howard D., Court House Annex, Trenton Mosby, Rosa M., 231 Washington St., Mt. Holly Moulton, O. J., Neptune High School, Ocean Grove Mulford, Mrs. Clara T., Vine Street School, Bridgeton Munson, Ruth W. First Street School, South Orange Meyers, Robert S., 17 Roosevelt Ave., East Orange Neulen, Lester N., 360 Warwick Ave., West Englewood Nickum, C. Edith, 311 Montgomery St., Highland Park Oakes, Grace S., 337 Bellevue Ave., Ham- monton Owen, Katharine E., Robert Morris School, Cross Ave., Elizabeth *Patz, Gustav, 2033 Balmoral Ave., Union Paulmenn, Helen G., 54 Sayre St., Eliza- beth Peffer, Ernest M., Maxson School, Plain- field Peters, Mrs. Mary V., 22 S. Baltimore Ave., Ventnor City Petersen, Anna J., 10 Suydam St., New Brunswick Petty, Letitia, Washington School, Lynd- hurst Pierson, Margaret, 20 Reeger Ave., Tren- ton Pollard, Louise E., 1399 North Ave., Eliza- beth +Potter, Floyd A., Massachusetts Avenue School, Atlantic City Powell, Mrs. Lou B., Roseland School, Roseland +Predmore, R. L., 7 Hornsby Ave., Fords Pringle, Adeline H., 175 Harrison Ave., Jersey City Pyle, Olga M., 4426 Cove Rd., Merchant- ville Quig, Emily Hart, 5 Parmley Pl., Summit Quinn, Guy L, 2106 Bangs Ave., Neptune Reimer, George R., 954 Caldwell Pl.. Union 628 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Reynolds, Emily C., Kuser School, 181 Nottingham Way, Trenton Rice, Thomas W., Laning Avenue School, ‘Verona Ricketts, Ella S., 842 Arnold Ave., Point Pleasant Riley, Mrs. Georgia M., Grammar School, Highstown Roys, Lineoln J., Franklin School, 215 Dodd St., East Orange Rudiboec, Mari B., 876 8S. 14th St., New- r ark St. Thomas, George E., Broadway School No. 1, Hackensack Saliey, Mrs. Alice B., 1894 Brunswick Ave., Trenton Samuels, Ethel Mae, 115 N. Seventh Ave., New Brunswick Sanderson, Ethel H., Kearny Public School, Kearny Saurman, Mrs. Bertha M., Liberty School, Tenafly Rd., Englewood Savage,, Sue E., 1280 Salem Ave., Hillside Sehmitz, E. Winifred, Memorial School, Madison St. and Gregory Ave., Passaic Seott, Anna C., Leonia Public Schools, Leonia Seott. Dorothea A., Midland School No. 1, Rochelle Park Serven, Edward J., McKinley School, Newark Serven, Isaac A., School No. 37, Parania Ave. and Erie St., Jersey City Sexton, Wray E., 23 Hoffman St., Maple- wood ; Seybold, Arthur M., Dir. of College High School, State Teachers College, Mont- clair Shoe, John M., Vocational School No. 2, Perth Amboy Shotwell, Fred C., Supvg. Prin. of Public Schools, Franklin Sickler, Edna F., 61 Pitman Ave., Pit- man Simons, Mrs. Myrtle H., 67 Salem Ave., Burlington 4 Smith, Mrs. Flora H.. Public School No. 5, Merseles and Fourth Sts., Jersey City f Smith, Martha A., Lincoln School, South River *Smith, William R., 270 Highland Ave., Newark Somerville, I. B., Administration Bldg., Cottage Pl, Ridgewood Southard, Mrs. Maud B., 425 Trinity Pl., Elizabeth Sozio, Pasquale, 99 Clifton Ave., Newark Stalter, Ethel, School No. 2, Montvale Stiles, Hazel B., 122 Wildwood Ave., Pit- man Stillwell, Donald R., Browns ‘Mills Stone, Mary E., 15 Clarke St., Jersey City **+Stratton, Mason A., 272 Huron Ave., Absecon Strohoefer, F. K., 813 Ave. C., Bayonne Stuart, Byron D., 601 Chestnut St., West- field Stull, Anna G., LaFayette School, High- land Park, New Brunswick Summers, Mrs. Katherine W., William Livingston School, Union Ave., Eliza- beth Taistra, Mr. Lucyan J., Public School No. 8, Seventh and Adams St., Hoboken Thatcher, Alfred W., Somerset School, North Plainfield Traua, BE. G., 524 Mountain Ave., North Caldwell *Troy, Ann A., 293 Chestnut St., Nutley Tufts, Mrs. Kathleen C., Essex Fells Pub- lic School, Essex Fells Turnbaugh, E. L., Clinton Avenue School, Irvington Van Auken, William D., 102 Bamford Ave., Hawthorne Van Syckle, Blanche, Public School No. 9, ‘ Lawrence St., Perth Amboy Ventres, Shailer W., Hamburg Turnpike, R. F. D. 1, Paterson Voorhees, Ada Y., 32 Ross St., Somerville Wade, Mrs. Edith Van G., Elmora School, Magie Ave., Elizabeth. Walton, Rebecca Eyre, Moorestown Friends School, Moorestown *Wamsley, Mrs. Jessie M., Walls School, (Pitman Warwick, Raymond, Bradley Park School, Neptune *Wein, Dorothea M., Boyd St., Cape May Court House ; Weldon, O. K., Tenakill School, Closter Wharton, Agnes, South Tenth Street School, Newark Whitford, Everett T., School No. 6, Pater- son Wilde, Anna A., Union Street School, 174 Union St., Ridgewood bef Edith W., Public Schools, West- ville Williamson, Robert D., 39 Division St., Newark —— J. Wade, 1129 W. Sixth St., Plain- e Wine, Chester H., 242 Gregory Ave., West Orange Winkworth, Jessie L., 220 Ninth Ave., Haddon Heights Witteman, Anna M., 39 N. Reid St., Eliza- beth Worrall, Lillie, 621 Kings Highway, Swedesboro Wright, Norman A., South Avenue School, Bridgeton Wright, Stella J., 154 Welton St., New Brunswick Wylie, Mary T., Oliver Street School, Newark NEW MEXICO Arledge, Ellen H., Prin., Old Town School, Old Albuquerque Bobo, Mrs. Irma, 309 Buena Vista Ave., Albuquerque Calkins, Fred M., R. F. D. 2, Box 368, Albuquerque Clegg; J. T., Junior High School, Tucum- car Hogrefe, Harry, 1807 E. Gold, Albu- querque **Kiker Stella, 240 S. Fifth St., Raton McCaw, Linna K., Box 653, Artesia McCollum, J. R., 1124 E. Silver Ave., Albuquerque Mills, Charles L., Box Y, Hobbs Pircher, Bertha, Swastika School, Swas- tika Schupp, Ona E., 223 N. High St., Albu- querque Tireman, L. S., University of New Mexico, Albuquerque Watson, Dorothy, Elementary School, Han- over NEW YORK Adams, Norma A., 406 Turin St., Rome Alexander, Cartér, Teachers College, Co- lumbia University, New York Alt, Florence M., John Van Duyn School, 401 Loomis Ave., Syracuse Alter, Harvey E., 100 Ft. Stanwix Park .. Rome Anderson, Ellen R., State Normal School, Potsdam Andrews, W. B., Van Hornesville LIsT OF Arnold, Mary I., 124 E. Court St., Ithaca Ayres, George R., 305 Union Ave., Mama roneck Baker, Harold V., Daniel Webster School, Glenmore Dr., New Rochelle Banker, Gilbert M., Hancock Banta, Katherine A., 25 Marathon PL, Port Chester Barber, Elon L., Little Falls -~ E. Olive, 110 N. Main St., Glovers- ville sarnett, I. Irving, Public School No. 25, Manhattan, 330 E. Fifth St., New York Barth, Mark, 45 W. Sist St., New York Battershall, Minnie J., 1012 Albany St., Schenectady Beaumont, Florence, 3323 S5th St., Jack- son Heights, New York Becker, Helen L., Public School No. 26, The Bronx, New York Becker, Johanna L., Public School No. 233, Ave. B and E. 94th St., Brooklyn Benedict, Mildred F., 5 Poole Ave., Gloversville Bernstein, Louis, Publie School No. 80, 2830 W. 17th St., Brooklyn Betzner, Jean, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York Blair, Mary M., Public School No. 20, Heberton Ave., Richmond, Staten Island, New York *Blood, John T.., Kemble St., Utica Bloomfield, M. Elizabeth, 40 Whitfield Ter., New Rochelle Bolen, John K., 800 Park Ave., Monroe Street School, Kemble School, 1604 Asst. Supt. New York of Schools, Borrell, Victorine E., 148 Loring Ave., Buffalo Bostick, Eva Gibbs, Rochambeau School, White Plains Braine, Elizabeth M., 78 Cambridge P1., Brooklyn *Brett, F. Henrietta, School No. 25, 196 Morton Ave., Albany brill, Edith V., 233 E. Main St., Malone srogan, Helen A., 182 N. Broadway, Yon- kers Brown, Zadie, 67 Bond Ave., Brownell, Mrs. Ave., Syracuse Bruck, John P., 218 Potters Corners Rd., Buffalo Buckley, Mary M., 1632 West St., Utica Bugbee, Mrs. Nellie A., R. D. 2, Oneonta Bullock, Caroline M., Cleveland Avenue School, Niagara Falls surger, I. Victor, 160 Douglas Rd., Staple- ton, Staten Island Burns, Arthur D., School No. 4, Madison Ave. and Ontario St., Albany jurns, Mrs. Lillian O., Columbus School, Rome Butts, Franklin A., Benjamin School, Poughkeepsie Carl, G. Harold, School No. 82, 300 Easton Ave., Buffalo Carlson, Clara H., 90-42 206th St., Queens Village, Long Island Carroll, William L., Junior High School No. 156, Sutter Ave. and Grafton St., Brooklyn Cassavant, Howe K., School No. 23, White- hall Rd., Albany Chambers, A. Frances, 541 Congress St., Troy Chatfield, Hazen, Public School No. 1827 Archer St., New York **Clark, Giles D., School No. 20, N. Pearl and N. Second Sts., Albany Clarke, Bertha E., 24 Columbia Binghamton Malverne Winifred E., 100 Wood Franklin 102, Ave., MEMBERS 629 Clarke, Martha H., 60 W. Broad St., Mt. Vernon Clifford, Mrs. Barbara M., Nathan Hall School, 8S. Fifth Ave. and Sixth St., Mt. Vernon Cochrane, Lyda S., 413 E. Main St., Batavia Coffin, Rebecca J., 106 Morningside Dr., New York Cohan, Ella, S. B. School, Schenectady Cohen, Irving L., Public School No. 33, Queens Village, New York Howe Elementary Coldwell, Mabel D., Alplaus School, Alplaus Coleman, Georgia Avis, Colonial School, Pelham Collie, Mrs. Gertrude, Elementary School, Depew Connolly, Minnie, 156 Sidney St., Oyster Bay, Long Island Conroy, John F., 690 E. 188rd St., New York Conroy, Marie R., 75 Stapleton, Staten Mountainside Rd., Island *Cooper, George W., Lyell Ave., Rochester 1305 Corbin, Mrs. Jessie E., School No. 19, West Albany Cordes, Mrs. Edith B., School No. 5, Mt. Vernon Corey, Clara A., School No. 35, 156 Field St., Rochester Costello, Helen A., School No. 2, Troy Coughlin, Catherine, School No. 17, Second Ave., Albany Coulson, Austin R., Board of Education, City Hall, Albany Craig, Christine, 14 Elm St., Whitesboro Craig, Gerald S., Teachers College, Co- lumbia University, New York Crittenden, Harold C., Armonk Public School, Armonk Crump, Grace L., Wolden Arms, Wolden Rd., Ossining Dalton, Kathryn H., School No. 5, Troy Dano, Anna M., 200 William St., Water- town Darmstadter, Charlotte, 562 Pkwy., Buffalo Davidson, Flora T., 1565 New York Ave., Brooklyn Davis, Grace L., Lineoln School, E. Lin- ecoln and Archer Aves., Mt. Vernon Davis, Victor H., 210 S. Grand Ave., Poughkeepsie a Ralph Emerson, Terrace Ave., Hill- urn Delaney, Mary C., School No. 8, 157 Madi- son Ave., Albany Demmon, Ruby G., 21 Mechanie St., Balls- ton Spa Dempsey, Mary A., Wetmore Street School, Wetmore St., Utica Deveson, Addie E., Public School No. 32, Manhattan, 357 W. 35th St., New York Devine, Mary J., 19 Clinton St., Norwich DeVinney, Mabel A., Brighton School, 2200 S. Salina St., Syracuse Dodge, M. M., Public School No. 30, Wes- terleigh, Staten Island Donlin, Margaret E., 41 Woodward Ave., Buffalo Donnelly, Ella Marie, Hutchinson School, Pelham Donohue, John J., 4550 Carpenter Ave., New York Donovan, Esther, Cathedral School, Garden City Duffy, Fred H., George Washington School, Kenmore Dukeshire, Yonkers Dunn, Rachel, 41 S. Pine Ave., Albany Humboldt Avenue Stanley C., Rockledge Manor, 630 Dwyer, Mrs. Mary M., Patterson Ebeling, Elsa, Public School No. 208, Ave. D and BE. 49th St., Brooklyn Ebert, Jessie D., 108 Union St., Schenec- tady Eckhardt, Florence, 45 Lake St., Ham- burg ; . Ehrenfeld, Abraham, 251 W. 92nd St., New York Elliot, Elizabeth M., Public School No. 14, Yonkers English, Amy A., Public School No. 5, 122 Tillary St... Brooklyn Erdwurm, Lucey, 430 KE. 86th St., New Yor Ernst, Christine C., 366 Quail St., Albany Faucett, Edith T., 206 Stewart Ave., Ithaca Fay, Mamie, Public School No. 122, Dit- mars and Van Alse Ave., Long Island City it) Felicitas, Sister M., St. Ephrem School, 74th St. and Ft. Hamilton, Brooklyn Finkelstein, Mary E., Public School No. 42, 71 Hester St., New York Fitzell, Ruth T., Public School No. 5, Queens, Long Island City Fitzgerald, Catherine, School No. 21, Albany Flanders, Jesse K., 36 W. Seneca St., Oswego Fletcher, Mrs. Eudora, Homewood School No. 180, 56th St. and 16th Ave., Brook- lyn Flynn, Margaret E., Fifth Street School, Niagara Falls Forssell, Alva E., 119 College Ave., Wes- terleigh, Staten Island Forsythe, Edmund M., School, Port Chester Foster, Electa L., North Roslyn Elemen- tary School, Roslyn Fox, Benedict, Public School No. 45, Queens, 150th St. near Rockaway Blvd., South Ozone Park Fox, Henry W., Public School No. 74, 189th St. and Crotona Ave., New York Frail, Jennie A., Theodore Roosevelt School, Johnson City Friedman, Shirley, 157 W. 79th St., New York Gallup, Jackson, School No. 17, 223 Orange St., Rochester Gardner, Willard B., 320 Lawrence Gates, Arthur A., 14 Main St., Port Byron Genske, Emma, No. 4 School, 752 Central Ave., Dunkirk Gewirtz, Max, Public Albemarle Rd. and Brooklyn Gifford, Mary E., Publie School No. 25, Warburton Ave., Yonkers Goldin, Myron R., Public School No. 187, 65th St. and 12th Ave., Brooklyn Abraham Lincoln Mulry Lane, School No. Gravesend 230, Ave., yoldstein, Henry M., Public School No. 238, E. Eighth St. and Ave. P., Brook- lyn Gorham, Mary E., 308 N. Brandywine Ave., Schenectady Gottlieb, Ida R., 122 Bay 26th St., Brook- lyn Gould, Clifford M., 20 Kenwood Dr., Ken- more *Gouldin, Henry C., Washington Irving School, Syracuse Grady, Joseph E., 1127 Dewey Ave., Rochester Graff, George E., Junior High School, Hicksville Graham, Minnie S., 357 N. Fulton Ave., Mt. Vernon tepesehang, Joseph, 449 Second St., Brook- yn ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Guerry, G. Mercer, 85 Nassau Ave., Mal- verne, Long Island Haggerty, Marie, 430 Barry Ave., Mama- roneck Hakes, W. Gaylord, Grade School, Hyde Park Hall, Ava M., Center Street School, Oneonta Hall, Mrs. Margaret M., 205 Seventh Ave., N. Troy Halligan, Thomas C., Public School No 164, Manhattan, 401 W. 164th St., New York Halpin, Mary A. C., School No. 13, Troy Handley, Mrs. Myrtle (., 21 Trumbull Pkwy., Batavia Harris, Daisy M., 1826 Valley Dr., cuse Hartill, Rufus M., Public School No. 87, Queens, Brooklyn Hathaway, Edna E., Park Street Gloversville Hatton, May C., 256th St. and Bronx, New York Haven, Mabel, 272 S. Broadway, Yonkers Hawks, Burt D., Wetmore School, 2645 Oneida St., Utica Hayden, Mrs. Rena C., John Lewis Childs School, Floral Park Healey, Gertrude M., Public 26, The Bronx, 101 W. New York Hemstreet, A. Earle, Ontario St., Buffalo Hickok, Mary K., 39 Montgomery St., Ilion Higgins, Gordon H., School No. 70, Buffum St., Buffalo Hinderland, Laura J., 14 Beach Rd., Great Neck, Long Island Hirschbeck, Loretta M., 365 Putnam Ave., Port Chester Hirsdansky, Simon, Public School No. 4, 1701 Fulton Ave., New York Hoefling, Careline E., Public School No. 19, The Bronx, Katonah Ave. and 237th St., New York Hoffman, Josephine L., 371 Rochester Hogan, A. Elizabeth, 2 Hogg, Elizabeth, 40 hamton Holmes, William H., Supt. of Schools, 60 S. Third Ave., Mt. Vernon Hopkins, Amelia M., 245% Mohawk Ave., Scotia Horset, Antoinette, Pringle School, Bata- Syra School, Public Riverdale School No. 81, Ave., The School No. Burnside Ave., School No. 60, 238 Lake Ave., 2 Judson St., Albany Floral Salt Lake City Harris, Mr. Marion L., 1337 McClelland, Salt Lake City Hendricks, Nellie U., Ogden Jensen, N. Howard, 45 N. One W., Tooele Kelsey, Ella, 656 S. Fourth E., Salt Lake City Kendell, Edith E., Lake City Kesler, A. B., 1155 Yale Ave., Salt Lake City Layton, Margaret, Lowell School, St., Salt Lake City Light, Edith M., 2636 Gramercy, Ogden McCoy, Mrs. Evelyn R., Wasatch School, 1115 E. South Temple, Salt Lake City Morgan, Margaret E., 3 Clifton Apts., Salt Lake City Morris, Zeta, 223 W. North Temple, Salt Lake City Nielson, Lester J., 724 Windsor St., Salt Lake City Paxton, W. A., Fillmore Peirce, M. June, Box 566. Ogden Poulson, Frank G., 1521 S. Ninth E.,, Salt Lake City Poulson, Fred N., Hawthorne School, 1632 S. Seventh E., Salt Lake City Prosser, W. D., 627 S. First W., Salt Lake City Ryberg, Edith, Onequa School, 513 N. Tenth W., Salt Lake City Steele, Jesse F., High and Junior School, Tooele Stewart, I. Daniel, 740 E. Third S., Salt Lake City Whelan, Lillian H., 411 Belvedere Apts., Salt Lake City Young, Sara H., Ensign School, Salt Lake City 1534 Gartield Ave., Salt 2324 Adams Ave., 928 E. 21st S., Salt 119 E High VERMONT Sargent, William A., Meldon School, Rutland VIRGINIA +Adair, Cornelia S., 6208 Hawthorne, Richmond Akin, Ellajoe, State Teachers College, East Radford Bauserman, James E., Box 51, Fairfax Berry, DeWitt C., 3203 First Ave., Rich- mond Bibb, Mrs. E. K., 506 Moore St., Bristol Blackwell, Lessie, Route 2, Richmond Bleight, W. Carter, Chimborazo School, 33rd and Marshall Sts., Richmond Brewbaker, J. J., 422 Westover Ave., Norfolk Brown, Mrs. John S., Robert E. Lee School, 1017 Highland Ave., Bristol Bryant, Alice G., Hampton Institute, Hampton Buford. Florence, 1021 W. Main St., Charlottesville *Burnley, Carrie C., 920 E. High St., Charlottesville Butler, S. R., 1806 Farragut Ave., Nor- folk Carmichael, Omer, 1101 Court St., Lynch- burg 7Clark, Norris B., Booker T. Washington School, Newport News Dadmun, Charlotte, 418 W. 19th St., Norfolk Dinwiddie, Sarah, Consolidated Rural School, Mitchells Dodsworth, Mrs. J. E., Route 1, Richmond Box 389, e Dunaway, C. H., John B. Cary School, Richmond Dunlap, Henrietta C., 24 Edmonson Ave., Lexington Ellis, Elsie B., 3412 21st Ave., N., Arling- ton Frayne, Mrs. Lucy B., 1112 Wise St., Lynchburg Givens, C. B., Helen Dickinson School, Richmond Goodwin, Mary A., Patrick Henry School, 8411 Semmes Ave., Richmond Gorham, Mrs. Pauline C., Washington School, Alexandria Harris, Mrs. Viola B., Virginia State Col- lege, Ettrick Harrison, Lucille, 406-A N., Sheppard St., Richmond *Harvey, M. Lizzie, Garland-Rodes School, Lynchburg Hoge, Mrs. Dorothy, Mt. Vernon Elemen- tary School, Alexandria Holt, Lucy Mason, Ocean View School, Norfolk Hook, Paul G., Moddy Public School, Clifton Forge Howdershell, Mrs. J. N., R. F. D. 3, Alexandria Hurt. Jemima C., 512 Campbell Ave., Roanoke **+Johnson, Lillian M., 404 Chestnut St., Norfolk Johnson, Lou Anna, 121 Mars St., Peters- burg *Joynes, Mrs. Edith B., 410 W. 14th St., Norfolk Keeling, Lucy G., 319 W. Bute St., Nor- folk *Kellam, Mary R., Virginia Beach School, Virginia Beach Lane, Bessie, Villa Heights School, Nor- Lawson, Lena E., 906 Campbell Ave., S. W., Roanoke Le Grande, Anna D., Biggers School, Lynchburg *Lewis, Mrs. Virginia S., Dupont School, Hopewell Livermon, Ruth, Meadowbrook School, Norfolk Lohman, Mrs. Florence Minor, 425 N. 31st St., Richmond Malloy, Mrs. Florence B., 118 Mt. Pleas- ant Ave., Norfolk Malloy, Mary L., R. E. Lee School, Peters- burg Marx, Mrs. E. M., 525 Graydon Pk., Nor- olk Massey, Mabel C., 405 Lincoln Ave., Roa- noke Miles, Agnes, Route 1, Petersburg Moran, Sarepta A., Venable School, Charlottesville Nixon, John L., 609 E. Leigh St., Rich- mond *Ober, Merrill J., James Monroe School, 29th and Newport Ave., Norfolk *Pope, Lona, McHerg Elementary School, Radford Robertson, A. Zuleime, Nathaniel Bacon School, 35th and O Sts., Richmond Robinson, M. P. S., James Madison School, Norfolk Richardson, H. R., 31 Alexandria Ave., Alexandria *Seott, Katherine K., Oak Grove School, 2200 Ingram Ave., Richmond Scott, Lannie V., Stonewall Jackson School, Petersburg *Sheppe, Mrs. A. L., 519 Lee St., Bristol Simpson, Harriet L., West End School, Roanoke List or MEMBERS 645 Sinclair, Katherine L., City Point Court, Hopewell Smith, R. L., Harrison School, Roanoke Spies, Robina W., Ruffner School, 407 N. 12th St., Richmond *Starritt, Bertha W., 1820 Chapman Ave., Roanoke Stone, Clara, New River Depot Swartz, Bessie, Bentonville Taylor, Ethel L., Box 463, Newport News Thompson, Ethel, 1000 W. Marshall St., Richmond Thompson, T. Roger, John Marshall School, Newport News Urquhart, Helen D., T. C. Miller School, Lynchburg *Vaughn, Eva, Jefferson School, Pulaski Walton, Mrs. Lily F., 206 W. Main St., Danville *Wilson, Elsie E., Magruder School, New- port News *Woodward, Mrs. Louis P., 318 S. Lee St., Alexandria Wray, Charlotte D., 1106 W. Grace St., Richmond WASHINGTON Allen, E. M., Box 185, Monitor Allen, Nell B.. Box 35, Hoquiam Allen, Zella E., 519 W. Ray St., Seattle Arnold, E. O., 1127 Hoyt Ave., Everett jay, W. D., 202 N. Sixth St., Mt. Vernon Beardsley, Albert R., 2223 F St., Van- couver senson, Mary Lou, Horace Mann School, Howard and Sharp Ave., Spokane Blair, William A., Lafayette School, Seat- tle Blauert, Arthur, Columbia School, Spo- kane Boyington, Jo Mae, Wilson School, Spo- kane Bowsher, Arthur E., Roeder School, Bell- ingham Bradley, Florence, Lincoln School, W. 25 Fifth Ave., Spokane Budde, Charles A., 3049 E. 94th, Seattle Cassidy, H. A.. Alki School, Seattle Caughlan, J. C., Grade School Principal, Enumclaw Chamberlin, L. B., Nob Hill School, R. R. 4, Yakima Copeland, Eunice, 2020 Miller St., Seattle Curtis, George R., 3102 N. Proctor St., Tacoma Denman, H. W., Field School, Princeton Ave. and Ash St., Spokane Dimmitt, Beniah, Brighton School, Seattle Drake, Pauline, Washington School, Spo- kane *Dunham, Cecil J.. Whitman School, Wen- atchee Durham, M. E., Pacific School, Seattle Elder, Raymond W., Maple School, Lucille St. and 17th Ave., S. W., Seattle English, Elsie, Lineoln Grade School, Tacoma Erickson, Howard, Concord School, Con- cord St. and Bighth Ave., S., Seattle *Evans, E. H., Lincoln School, Everett Farnsworth, Mabel V., W. 738 Park PI. Spokane Farrar, Frank, 4703 11th Ave. N. E., Seattle Fitzgerald, Marie, Hutton School, 901 Plateau Rd., Spokane Forsyth, Lydia E., Dunlap School, Seattle Fowler, Ivan A., 620 N. Alder, Aberdeen Glover, 0. K., 1811 Shelby St., Seattle Goldback, H. K., Laurelhurst School, Seattle 646 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Cupam, Charlotte, 1007 E. Marion, Seat- tle Guthrie, Viletta H., Stevens School, 418 Fifth St., Wenatchee Hamber, Nona, 1216 W. 13th St., Spokane ar ~S Orlando M., Lowell School, Seat- tle Hart, Emma C., 1205 Spring St., Seattle Heaton, O. E., Logan School, Spokane Hebeler, Amanda, Dir. of Training, Wash- ington State Normal School, Ellensburg Hemenway, Julia S., Kennewick Ele- mentary School, Kennewick Hemphill, Lena, Martha Washington School, 57th Ave., S. and Holly St., Seattle Henderson, Frank D., Central School, Seventh Ave. and Madison St., Seattle Henderson, Grace Clara, Loyal Heights School, Seattle Hermann, Ida M., 845 Bellevue Ave., N., Seattle Herren, Dora S., Montlake School, Seattle Hoagland, Lois E., Box 324, Omak Horrall, Pansy, 3612 Grand Blvd., kane Johnson, Elsie Marian, Paul Apts., Van- couver Kelly, L. Maxine, 326 Queen Anne Ave., Seattle Knaack, R. H., Bemiss School, Bridgeport and Stone, Spokane neeeen, K. J., T. T. Minor School, Seat- tle Lacy, Susan M., 204 Euclid Ave., Spokane Langley, Rosa A., Sheridan School, Spo- Spo- kane Larrabee, Emma D., F. A. MeDonald a Latona Ave. and E. 54th., Seat- tle Lowman, J. Guy. Whittier School, 5703 Palatine, Seattle McCliney, Eleanor, E. 1116 Fifth Ave., Spokane McClure, Worth, Supt. of Schools, Seat- tle McDonnell, E. L., Jefferson School, Seattle Mellravy, Frank D., 1433 38th Ave., Seat- tle McKenzie, Clara E., Columbia School, Ferdinand and 37th Ave., S., Seattle Mackintosh, John J., Webster School, Seattle Mader, Clara E., E. 1110 Fifth Ave., Spokane Mahon, Ada J., 942 27th Ave., Seattle Marquette, Elizabeth, Latona School. E. 42nd and Fourth, N. E., Seattle Martin, Sarah A., 1920 Broadway, Van- couver Matheson, Anna May, West Queen Anne School, 900 Queen Anne Ave., Seattle Melvin, Belle, Box 481, Everett Meyer, Florence, S. 1323 Browne, Spokane Mohney, Ruth, Pacific Hotel, Spokane .Most, Ida D., 607 Cleveland Ave., Spokane Neiswender, J. A., Route 8, Box 636, Seat- tle Nettleton, Lulie, 2815 Boylston, N., Seat- tle Norby, Theo J., 3400 E. Tenth, Vancouver Oliver, Fred L.. Route 2, Box 20, Kelso O’Neil, Helen C., W. 2012 Third Ave., Spokane Palmer, J. Lee, E. 1415 14th Ave., Spo- kane **Parker, Isabelle C., S. Spokane Perry, Bella, Youngstown School, Seattle Petite, J. Edward, J. B. Allen School, Seattle Pierron, Richard P., 2205 Washington St., Bellingham 180 Cannon St., Pinckney, Paul W., Columbia School, Bell- ingham Pratt, Orville C., Supt. of Schools, Spo- kane Purinton, Estelle, Holmes School, ran and Sharp Sts., Spokane Radcliffe, W. O. E., Roosevelt School, 437 21st St., Bellingham Coch- Reeves, Lester L., 3843 Ashworth Ave., Seattle Richardson, Margaret, S. 180 Cannon St., Spokane Robinson, Beatrice, 1308 22nd St., Everett Roblee, Lester R., 506 N. 7ist St., Seattle Selby, Kenneth, University Heights School, Seattle *Shambley, Centralia Shannon, J. F., 23 S. King St., Seattle Smith, Byron B., 9021 View Ave., Seattle *Smith, Gerald, 2008 Broadway, Van- couver Smith, Herman, 3921 Linden St., Seattle Smith, Lila, Whitman School, Spokane Stanton, Edgar A., 3302 E. Mercer St., Seattle Stoecker, Seattle Strite, Adelaide, W. 207 23rd Ave., Spo- kane Robert, Rock Street Apts., Mamie B., MeGilbra School, Swedine, Elmer, 4105 Brooklyn Ave., Seattle Tanner, Blanche, Highland Park School, 2815 Boylston, Seattle Tharp, Elizabeth, Waldorf Hotel, Seattle Thomson, John A., 130 Garden Ave., Renton Thune, Elmer T., 311: Towner, Earl M., 5719 38th Ave., Seattle Travis, Ivan, Box 757, Kirkland Turnbull, F. A., 1812 W. Sixth St., deen Turner, Bess, Franklin School, Mt. Vernon Sts., Spokane N. 29th, Tacoma E Aber- 17th and Vetting, Ida F., 305 Bellevue Ave., N., Seattle Warren, J. S., Garfield School, Spokane Weisman, Frances, S. 726 Jefferson St., Spokane Weisman, Sara E., S. 726 Jefferson St., Spokane Welden, Carrie R., 3317 N. Audubon, Spokane *White, Clara A., Roosevelt School, Yakima Wilson, Mabel V., Laurelhurst School, E 45th and 46th St... N. E., Seattle Witt, Lena E., 328 W. Eighth Ave., Spo kane WEST VIRGINIA Artrip, J. B., Miller School, Huntington Auvil, G. G., Mercer Street Grade School, Princeton Bailey, Dallas C., 820 Hood Ave., Shinns- ton Barrett, Mary T., 522 Elm St., Huntington Bias, Mrs. Nettie, 1814 Seventh Ave., Huntington Black, S. J., Le Sage Blake, Geneva, Milton Boster, J. M., Lower Greenbottom School, Le Sage Brake, Clifford, Route 3, Buchannon *Brooks, R. F., 2142 Ninth Ave., Hunting ton *Brown, Stanley, 155 Camden Ave., Buck- hannon Calloway, Mrs. Ruth, 1025 Ninth St., Huntington *Carey, Fred M., Westmoreland Elemen- tary School, Huntington List oF MEMBERS 647 Carmichael, H. E., 1805 Sixth St., Mounds- ville Cartle, C. H., R. R. 4, Huntington Chapman, Clara, Milton Chapman, Guy M., 928 28rd St., Hunt- ington Childress, Emma, 1670 Fifth Ave., Hunt- ington Christian, Walter V., 2714 Highlawn Ave., Huntington Colabrese, Felix A., Collins, Virgel. R. R. 1, Albert Milton *Dent, Mrs. Geraldine S., Prin., Grades and Junior High, Spencer Dilworth, Mrs. Minnie F., 1351 13th St., Huntington Dodd, M. R., Thomas Jefferson Junior High School, Charleston Dodrill, Allen, R. D. 1, Wellsburg Doss, Harvey J., Route 2, Box 69, Hunt- ington Drummond, Myron, Barboursville Evans, A. F., Le Sage Fette, Bertha M., Washington 501 Main St.. Wheeling Fife, L. K., R. R. 4, Huntington Fizer, M. Z., Culloden Freeman, Alice, Emmons School, 401 28th St., Huntington Garrett, Wilburn, Gates, Cecil R., Morgantown Gillespie, Margaret, 165 Huntington Glover, Gertrude, Charleston School, Culloden Second Ward School, Ricketts Pl, 306 Washington St., *Gray, Rex C., West Union *Grose, Mary V., Craigsville Hall, Mrs. H. C., 2221 Tenth Ave., Hunt- ington Harper, Fay, Montcoal *Harpold, George W., Ripley Hatfield, Orlan, Beatrice Hensley, Myron, 220 Seventh Ave., Hunt- ington James, E. W., Lawton Jamison, Mrs. Robert, Emmons Apts., Huntington Johnson, LeRoy, 618 W. Third Ave., Huntington Kline, David H., 2142 Ninth ington Lasley, Mrs. Pleasant ae, ©. W., Tet Fitth St... W., Licklider, tessie B., Kanawha Charleston Lilly, F. E., Milton Lilly, Franklin, Grandview Grade School, Grandview Ave., Hunt- Flora B., Box 398, Point Huntington School, Lilly, Paris I., 220 Center St., Princeton Lohse, Minnie K., 2143 Market St., Wheel- ing Long, C. Darl, 2956 Staunton Rd., Hunt- ington Lowry, H. D., 2865 Collis Ave., Hunting- ton McCue, E. B., Thorpe Public School. Thorpe McDermott, A. H., Milton McGinnis, W. F., Box 181, Milton *McKisson, Elsie A., Main Street School, Sisterville Matheny, Charles L., Route 27, Parkers- burg Moore, Iva L., 2751 First Ave., Huntington Morris, F. E., Barboursville Mowry, Hazel S., 9 Riverside Dr., South Charleston Newman, Winifred, 211 Charleston Niflen, Myra, Keyser Beauregard St., Odgers, H. E., 804 Fairmont Ave., Fair- mont Porter, Sarah, 210 Ash Ave., Moundsville Powers, Orville, R. R. 2, Huntington Preston, Edna B., 2577 Collis Ave., Hunt- ington Reed, J. H., Ingleside Ave., White Sulphur Springs 1201 Third St., W., **+Richards, R. H., Huntington Robinson, Fred D., 308 Kirby St., Grafton tobinson, Luey A., Towers School, Clarks- burg Sanford, Alice W., 1111 Fifth St., Mounds- ville Searff, Dora W., 425 11th St., Huntington Scharf, Estella M., 37 Greenwood Ave., Wheeling Smith, Rex M., 834 College Ave., Morgan- town Swann, Mrs. Myrtle, R. R. 1, Barbours- ville Walker, Q. E., Barboursville Wilkinson, Renick, Wayne Wilson, Grace, Gallaher School, Hunting- ton Wood, Jennie A., 446 Sixth Ave., Hunting- ton Wright, J. ington Wyatt, Marion, 1428 Fifth Ave., Hunting- ton Zeiler, Leo, 1814 Sixth Ave., Hunt- Melissa, Box 67, Vivian WISCONSIN Almy, Shirley D., Lapham School, 1432 E. Dayton St., Madison Anderson, William V., Seventh School, Fifth Ave., Eau Claire Armstrong, Miss Nano E., Lee Milwaukee Atwood, Abbie A., 209 S. Janesville Ward School Jackson §&t., +Axtell, Annie D., 229 Clifford Court, Madison +Ballou, Ethel L., 2338 Ogden Ave., Su- perior Becher, William O., 2219 S. Fifth St., Milwaukee *Benson, Josephine E., 202 E. Eighth St., Superior Berto, Thomas J., 2130 W. Center St.. Milwaukee Best, Margaret M., 209 Port Washington Bickler, Peter, 615 N. 28th St., Milwaukee Birong, V. T., 2222 N. 71st St., Wauwatosa sirr, O. A., North Ninth Street School. N. Ninth at W. Vine St., Milwaukee +Boyce, Thomas W., Cass Street Rotary School, 1647 N. Cass St., Milwaukee Boyington, Georgiana, 407 Third Ave., N.. Hurley Brill, Laura, Silver Spring School, 5073 N. Green Bay Ave., Milwaukee 3rooks, George F., Supt. of Merrill suboltz, William F., 3000 N. Murray Ave., Milwaukee Wisconsin St.. Schools, Campbell, Sue, Hogan School, 803 East Ave., S., La Crosse Chapin, Daisy W., Cunningham School, Beloit Clark, John A., 4504 W. Montana St.. Milwaukee Cleary, Margaret E., Washington School, West Allis Clock, Lucile, 1626 Madison St., Madison Colbert, Cecilia A., 2825 N. 50th St., Mil- waukee Derse, Robert M., Milwaukee 6610 W. Capitol Dr., 648 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Dougherty, Ruth M., 440 Chippewa St., Eau Claire Ehlert, Edward, McKinley Elementary School, Manitowoc ingelke, Walter W., 621 Crandall St., Madison Fleming, Vera A., 800 Wisconsin Ave., Beloit Fritschel, Max C., Jr., 1516 W. Forest Home Ave., Milwaukee **Gardner, Ethel M., 816-A S. Milwaukee Geil, Phillip H., 2941 S. Wentworth Ave., Milw:ukee Gesell, O. W., Henry Clay School, 1144 E. Henry Clay St., Milwaukee Hagen, Marie E., 325 W. Main St., Madi- son Hahn, William H., Thirty-eighth Street School, 38th and Clarke Sts., Milwaukee Heffernan, Jesse E., 2112 S. Ninth St., Sheboygan Hein, Fred W., Walter Allen School, 1657 S. Third St., Milwaukee 2ist St., Hoole, Patricia, 932 S. 60th St... West Allis Horton, S. C., 8007 Warren Ave., Wau- watosa Houston, Walter C€., Twelfth Street School, 2669 N. 12th St., Milwaukee Howard, Virgie M., 8509 Stickney Ave., Wauwatosa Jones, J. E., 3703 FE. Allerton = Ave., Cudahy Jones, Renette, 410 W. Wilson St., Madi- son Kappelman, Mary, 1312 N. 27th St., Mil- waukee Kaross, Ella B., North Fratney Street School, 3255 N. Fratney St.. Milwaukee Karst, Walter Fay, 2151 N. 73rd St., Wauwatosa Kavanaugh, Katherine, 3950 N. Farwell Ave., Milwaukee Kellar, Laura E., 1918 E. Menlo Blvd., Milwaukee Kibbe, Delia E., St»te Dept. of Public Instruction, Madison Knoelk, William C., 1111 N. Tenth St.. Milwaukee Kolb, Philip A., 1850 N. 73rd St... Wau- watosa Kottnauer, Annette, 4038 N. 24th PL, Milwaukee Krebs, Iva M., 2980 S. 50th St... Mil- waukee La Budde, Frank, 1535 N. 40th St.. Mil- waukee Laiser, Paul L.,. Court House, Juneau Lantry, Alice F., 1924 E. Park Pl., Mil- waukee Leard, Margaret, North School, Milwaukee Leiser, Else, 1242 N. 16th St.. Milwaukee Leistikow, G., High School, Winneconne Leroux, Pearl, Doty School, Madison Loveland, Lena, Wright Street School, 5522 W. Wright St.. Milwaukee Lowe, O. H., 502 Bluff Ave., Sheboygan Luening, Edwin G., 2160 N. 60th St., Milwaukee Lutze, Charles F., 801 S. 15th St.. She- boygan McCabe, Amber, 721 Oakland Ave., Wau- kesha +McCormick, Elizabeth R., Bartlett Avenue Howe School, Cor. 23rd St., N., and Banks Ave., Superior Manion, M. E., 19 Cottage Ave., Fond Du Lae Marks, Hannah, 920 E. Mason St., Mil- waukee Meyer, F. Clifford, 833 Main St., Racine Millmann, Anna, 6025 W. Adker St., Mil- waukee Milnitz, Lillie, Tippecanoe Sehool, Mil- waukee Moffett, Mae, East Hartford Avenue School, 2227 E. Hartford Ave., Milwau kee Morse, Alice C., Dover Street School, 619 E. Dover St., Milwaukee Mumm, Edna E., 830 Harrison Ave., Beloit Neubauer, Paul F., 1210 W. Mineral St., Milwaukee Nichols, William E., 387 Waugoo St., Oshkosh O’Connell, Thomas F., 2308 W. Nash S8t., Milwaukee Oesau, Theodore J., 2544 N. 41st Sr., Milwaukee Olson, Landa R., 733 Georgia Ave., She boygan Osius, William F., 309 E. Howard Ave., Milwaukee Owens, Sadie L., Binner Sehool, Mil waukee Parizak, Liel, 803 Derby Lane, Route 6, Green Bay Parrott, Jessie, R. R. 4, Box 49, Merrill Parsons, Emily R.. 15 N. Webster St.., Madison Payne, Florence I., Lapham Park School Wauwatosa Pierce, A. K., 2211 S. 60th St.. West Allis Powell, Harley J., Mt. Horeb Pranke, Helen M., Garden Holmes School, 4456 N. Teutonia Ave.. Milwaukee Pratt, Velmer D., 2303 E. Washington Ave., Madison Ralph, H. Thoburn, Washington 2166 N. 68th St... Wauwatosa School, Regan, Julia A., 2209 N. 26th St., Mil waukee Reichert, C. Lorena, 2134 Keyes Ave.. Madison Rogers, Barton J., 110 Locust St., Ocon omowoc Rood, Mrs. Alice E., Randall School, Madi son Rothlisberg, Priscilla, 430 Grand Ave Merrill Schleck, Leo P., Emerson School, Madison Schnell, Fred S., 2722 Highland Ter., Sheboygan Schnell, Henry S., Mitchell School, 1728 S. 28rd St., Milwaukee Schriver, George H., 320 Douglas St., New London Schwartz, Carrie E., Humboldt Park School. 3230 S. Adams Ave., Milwaukee *Shaw, George E., 1605 John Ave., Su perior Smithyman, W. Kinley School, waukee Sperling, Hugo E., _ Sheboygan Swartz, David L., 5436 N. 35th St.. Mil waukee Tabert, Anna H., Mary Hill School, 529 N. 27th St., Milwaukee Thies, Lillian C., 1943 E. Milwaukee Van Heuklom, George E., Supt Box 857, Mellen Webster, B. T.. Public School, Rosendale Weiss, Mrs. Edith, 192 Fourth St.. White Water William Me 2ist St.. Mil Lineoln, 1306 N. 1311 Maryland Ave Trowbridge. of Schools, Weltzien, Lena M., 1548 S. Second St Milwaukee Williams, Howard J., 3003 N. S2nd St Milwaukee Zeiler, Edward J.. 5070 N. Hollywood Ave., Milwaukee WYOMING **Chambers, Margaret J., Grant School Casper List oF MEMBERS +Dean, Blanca, Box 330, Rawlins Dunlap, Mrs. Nona Udell, Willard School, Casper Eddleman, Minnie L., Box 644, Casper England, Mrs. Martha Shelby, Lincoln and Roosevelt Schools, Casper Follstad, Margaret, Box 908, Midwest McLaughlin, Eleanor, McKinley School, Casper Rains, F. Omer, Ft. Washakie Robertson, Edith, Box 620, Green River Stinson, Adelle T., Jefferson School, Casper Thacker, Eula J., Box 314, Evanston Winter, Mae I., Park School, Casper Woodle, Mozelle, Harding School, Casper ALASKA Prin., Elementary Armstrong, Philip C., Longwood School, and High School, Kodiak Berges, Homer, Supt. of Schools, Haines Bloom, W. H., Fairbanks Coleman, John E., Valdez **Karnes, Anthony E., Commissioner of Education, Juneau Kelly, Hobart R., Supt. of Schools, Box A-10, Ketchikan Ripley, J. Loyd, Buckland Thuma, Harold L., Palmer Westall, A. J., Cordova Wright, Ralph G., Box 1314, Ketchikan CANADA Stafford, Harold D., Box 24, Kimberly, British Columbia Wheable, G. A., Board of Education, Lon- don, Ontario HAWAII Angus, Myra W., Pohukaina School, Pohukaina and Keawe Sts., Honolulu Auld, Lily K., Pahala Bachman, Ross, Maunaloa, Molokai *Beers, Mrs. Maud O., Kapiolani School, Box 646, Hilo Benson, E. C., Kahuku School, Kahuku, Oahu Bohenberg, Rebecca, 506 Waianuenue Ave., Hilo Boyum, Louise V., Wailuku School, Wailuku, Maui **Brown, Elmer A., Kuhio School, Hono- lulu Carter, Mrs. Alice Armeda, School, Waipahu, Oahu Elementary Waipahu Clopton, Robert W., Kaumana School. Hilo *Dostal, Joseph, Kaunakakai School, Kaunakakai, Molokai *Dotts, Cecil K., Elementary School, Pahala, Kau *Dyson, Clarence B., Box 53, Aiea, Oahu Engle, Mary Ella, 1095 Spencer St., Hono- lulu Faulkner, Robert Mardis, Kawananakoa School, Honolulu *Fleming, Mary Elspeth, Paia School, Paia, Maui Fraser, Mrs. Edith P., Puunene, Maui Giugni, Mrs. Kealoha H., Pearl City School, Pearl City, Oahu Haia, William P., Hana School, Hana, Maui Hendry, Mrs. Robert, 3015 Kalakaua Ave., Honolulu Hobby, Mrs. Eleanor C., Eleele School, Box 255, Eleele, Kauai Holtberg, Myrtle H., Robello School, Honolulu *Hugelen, Reinhart L., Paauilo School, Paauilo Inaba, Albert Y., Kilohana School, Box 34, Pukoo, Molokai Kekapa, William K., Honolulu Kellogg, Eleanor A., Ewa School, Ewa, Oahu jLacy, Mrs. Mabel V., 3440 Leahi Ave., Honolulu Lai, Mrs. Carlotta Stewart, Hanamaulu School, Hanamaulu, Kauai 1219 Center St., Lecker, George T., Laie School, Laie, Oahu Lane. W. Harold, 1411 Alapai St., Hono- ulu **Luiz, John C., Waialae School, 19th and Harding Aves., Honolulu *Marcallino, Mrs. Mina M., Kekaha School, Kekaha, Kauai Marciel, Mrs. Lily A., Kaupo, Maui Kaupo School, Nobriga, Francis J., Liholiho School, Honolulu Peterson, Francis, Supvg. Prin., West Hawaii, Kamuela Powell, Mrs. Velma S., Koohumann School, Honolulu Sabin, Mrs. Cora E., Leahi Home School, 3400 Leahi Ave., Honolulu Seobie, Mrs. Bess, Aliiolani School, Seventh and Waialae Ave., Honolulu Scott, Mrs. Ada M. B., Kilauea School, Kilauea, Kauai Sheldon, Mrs. Louisa P., Olohena School, Kapaa, Kauai Silva, Anthony C., Koolau School, Kilauea, Kauai Sisson, Mrs. Maud C., Emma St., Honolulu *Skinner, Franklin E., Kahului, Maui Spalding, Mrs. Hazel P., Keakealani School, Honomu Vance, Mrs. Agnes B., Holomua School, Kaunakakai, Molokai Vincent, Joaquin, Kealahou School, Waia- koa, Maui Webling, G. H., 1411 Alapai St., Honolulu Royal School, Wise, Cosmo Clyde, Wahiawa School, Wahiawa, Oahu INDIA Chartrand, C. R., A. B. Mission High School, Taunggyi, F. S., Burma IRAQ Ismail, K., Director General of Education, Ministry of Education, Baghdad NOVA SCOTIA Aquinas, Sister M., Mount St. Vincent, Halifax PHILIPPINE ISLANDS Marcelino, Lucban, Tayabas Ugong, Pasig, Rizal Deveza, Santos, Eugenio S., PUERTO RICO Rodriguez, A. Seaz School, Box 87, Colon, Juan Humacao De Cianchini, Coamo Duprey, Luis A., Isabela Feliberty, Angel R., Box 170, Cabo Rojo Morales, Mrs. Ana Maria, 12 De Diego Ave., Santurce Rodriguez, Antonio, Jr., Puerto Rico, Rio Piedras Rodriguez, Mrs. Marina F., Box 225, Canovanas Angela Anselmi, Mora Vocational Unit, University of 650 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS LIBRARIES AND EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS Dean's Office, College of Education, Uni- versity of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Ark. ee Pacific Union College, Angwin, alif. Lange Library of Education, Haviland Hall, University of California, Berkeley, Calif. Superintendent’s Office, Burbank City Schools, 320 W. San Fernando Blvd., Burbank, Calif. ear =~ State Teachers College, Chico, Calif. Library, Fresno State Teachers College, Fresno, Calif. Elementary Library, 411 E. Wilson Ave., Glendale, Calif. Teachers Library, Board of Education, 715 Locust Ave., Long Beach, Calif. Library and Textbook Section, City School Library, 1205 W. Pico St., Los Angeles, Calif. Los Angeles Public Library, Serials Di- — 530 S. Hope St., Los Angeles, alif. Contra Costa County Free Library, Mar- tinez, Calif. Oakland Free Library, 659 14th St., Oak- land, Calif. Teachers Professional Library, Adminis- tration Bldg., 1025 Second Ave., Oak- land, Calif. Westridge School for Girls, 324 Madeline Dr., Pasadena, Calif. University of Redlands, Redlands, Calif. Orange County Free Library, Court House The Treasurer, State Teachers College, San Professional Reference Library, 825 Union St., San Diego, Calif. 1333 Sixth St., Superintendent’s Office, Santa Monica, Calif. Library, School of Education, Stanford University, Stanford University, Calif. Ventura County Free Library, Elizabeth R. Topping, Librn., Ventura, Calif. Carlile School, V. H. Volgamore, Prin., Pueblo, Colo. Yale University, Department of Educa- tion, Graduate School, New Haven, Conn. American Youth Commission, Homer T. Rainey, Dir., 744 Jackson Pl. N. W., Washington, D. C. Library, Wilson Teachers College, 11th — Harvard Sts., N. W., Washington, Cc Public Library, Periodicals Division, Wash- ington, D. C. 7. University of Florida, Gainesville, a Library, University of Georgia, Athens, Ga. Teachers Reference Library, Miss A. M. Massengale, Librn., 13th Floor, City Hall Library, Emory University, versity, Ga. Library, Eastern Illinois State Teachers College, Charleston, Il. Chicago Public Library, Accessions De- partment, 78 E. Washington St., Chi- eago, Ill. Editorial Department, Rand McNally Com- pany, 536 S. Clark St., Chicago, II. John Crerar Library, J. C. Bay, Librn., 86 E. Randolph St., Chicago, Il. Library, Board of Education, 228 N. La Salle St., Chicago, Il. The University of Chicago Libraries, Periodical Division, M 22 Harper, Chi- eago, Il. Emory Uni- Board of Education, County, Glencoe, III. Library, State Normal University, Eleanor W. Welch, Librn., Normal, Il. General Office, Supt. of Public Instrue- — 100 Centennial Bldg., Springfield, District 35. Cook Illinois State Library, General Library Division, Springfield, Ill. Indiana State Library, 301 State House, Indianapolis, Ind. Library, Purdue University, W. M. burn, Lafayette, Ind. Library, Indiana State Teachers College, Terre Haute, Ind. Hep- Library, Iowa State College of Agricul- ture and Mechanic Arts, Ames, Iowa Library, Bethany College, Lindsborg, Kansas Wichita City Library, Wichita, Kansas Library, University of Kentucky, Lex- ington, Ky. Library, Eastern Kentucky State Normal — and Teachers College, Richmond, y. Lake Charles School Board, Ward Ander son, Supt., Lake Charles, La. New Orleans Principals’ Association, Amy H. Hinrichs, Cor. Secy., 7336 Hurst St., New Orleans, La. Library, University of Maine Enoch Pratt Free Library, Periodical De- partment, Baltimore, Md. Library, Johns Hopkins University, Balti- more, Md. Maine, Orono, Public Library, Milton E. Lord, Dir., Boston, Mass. Library, State Teachers College, Salem, Mass. Massachusetts Elementary Principals As sociation, L. E. Fuller, Jenkins School, Scituate, Mass. General Library, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. Library, Western State Teachers College, Kalamazoo, Mich. Library, Board of Education, 315 Cit) Hall, Minneapolis, Minn. Minneapolis Public Library, Hennepin Ave. and Tenth St., Minneapolis, Minn Sharp School, Moorhead Public Schools, Moorhead, Minn. Library, State Teachers College, St. Cloud, Minn. St. Paul Public Library, Periodical De- partment, St. Paul, Minn. Library, State Teachers College, Mildred Engstrom, Librn., Winona, Minn. Library, University of Mississippi, versity, Miss. Library, Southeast Missouri State Teach ers College, Cape Girardeau, Mo. Independence Principals’ Club, Almer W. Sheehy, Secy., Columbian School, In- dependence, Mo. Kansas City Public Library, Kansas City, Mo. Elementary School Principals Association, Miss Percy A. Lyon, Treas., 4160 N. Kingshighway Blvd., St. Louis, Mo. St. Louis Public Library, Traveling Li braries Department, Olive, 13th and 14th Sts.. St. Louis, Mo. Teachers Library, Hadley Vocational School Bldg., 3405 Bell Ave., St. Louis, Mo. Library, Nebraska State lege, Kearney, Nebr. Library, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebr. Nebraska State Teachers’ Association, 605 S. 14th St., Lincoln, Nebr. Uni- Teachers Col- List OF Board of Education, State House, Con- cord, N. H. Free Public Library, Chatham Public School No. 1, Bayonne, N. J. Chatham, State Normal School, J. J. Savitz, Glass- boro, N. J. Free Public Library, Beatrice Winser, Librn., 8 Washington St., Newark, N. J. State Normal School Library, Paterson, ao A Library, State Teachers College, Trenton, N William A. Elementary School No. 11, and Poplar Mackey, Prin., Doat St. Ave., Buffalo, mo. The Grosvenor Libr: ry, ward Sts., Buffalo, N. — St. Lawrence University, Franklin and Ed- Canton, State Normal School, Fredonia, N. Y. Main Library, State Normal School Geneseo, N. Y. The Queens Borough Public Library, Periodicals Division, 89-14 Parsons Blvd., Jamaica, N. a de Fordham University, New York, Library, New York University, _Washing- ton Square, New York, N. Library, Rockefeller Foundation, 49 W. 49th St., New York, N. Y. > State Normal School, Plattsburg, Rochester Publie Library, Order Division, 115 South Ave., Roc hester, N. Women's College Library, Rochester, Rochester, Horace Mann School, eker, Prin., Craig St. Schenect ady, ms Es University of B... X Elizabeth S. Schneu- and Lincoln Ave., Library, Syrae use University, Wharton Miller, Librn., Syracuse, N. Y Asheville City Schools, David Millard Asheville, N. prea ‘Ohio Cincinnati, Cin- 30x 690, Ohio University, Library, University of cinnati, Ohio Public Library Serial Department, Ohio Teachers College. Calhoun St., Cincinnati, Ohio toard of Education Library, H. P. Lewis, 1380 E. Sixth St., Cleveland, Ohio Library, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio Superintendent's of Education, wood, Ohio Toledo Public Toledo, Ohio Library, University of Oregon Bldg., Library, Periodical Cincinnati, of Cincinnati, Vine St., Athenaeum of Ohio, 28 Lakewood Board Lake- Office. 1456 Warren Road, Library, Oregon, Eugene, Library, Eastern Oregon Normal School, La Grande, Oregon School District No. 49, Medford, Oregon Library, Oregon Normal School, Mon- mouth, Oregon Library Association of Portland, Order Department, 185 Tenth St. at Yamhill, Portland, Oregon Oregon State Library, Library, State Teachers boro, Pa. Department 312, Education Oregon Edin- Salem, College, of Publie Instruction, Room Bldg., Harrisburg, Pa. Library, State Teachers College, Indiana, Pa. Library, State Teachers College, Lock Haven, Pa. MEMBERS Order Department, 651 Periodicals Division, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. Pedagogical Library, Board of Education, Keystone Annex, 19th and Ludlow Sts., Philadelphia, Pa. Library, 160 Administration Bldg., Pitts- burgh, Pa. Library, Frick Teachers Training School, Fifth Avenue and Bouquet St., Pitts- burgh, Pa. Library, State Teachers College, Shippens- burg, Pa. Library, State West Chester, Pa. Providence Publie Library, ton St.. Providence, R. I. Library, Eastern State Teachers Madison, S. Dak. Lawson McGhee Library, Knoxville, Tenn. The Library, George Peabody College For Teachers, Nashville, Tenn. Library, Teachers College, 229 Washing- College, Library, University of Texas, Austin, Texas Adams School, 1890 Cedar St., Beaumont, Texas Library, West Texas State Teachers Col- lege, Canyon, Texas Sonora Grammar School, Boyd Caffey, Sonora, Texas Grantsville High School, Grantsville, Utah Board of Education, Casche County School Dist., 179 N. Main, Logan, Utah Department of Public Instruction, Capitol, Salt Lake City, Utah Library, of Utah, Salt Lake State University City, Utah Johnson Publishing Company, Richmond, a. Librarv, State Normal School, Cheney, Wash. Library. Washington State Normal School, Ellensburg, Wash. Library. State College of Washington, W. W. Foote, Librn., Pullman, Wash. School District No. 3, P. B. Hanawalt, Puyallup, Wash. Box 327. University of Supt., of Education, Department Washington, 113 Education Hall. Seat- tle, Wash. y Periodical Department, Seattle Public Library. Seattle, Wash. Spokane Public Library, George W. Fuller, Librn.. Spokane, Wash. State Teachers College, Fairmont, W. Va. State Teachers College, Glenville, W. Va. Marshall College. Huntington, W. Va. Coal River Roundtable, Madison, W. Va. Shepherd State Teachers College, Shep- herdstown, W. Va. Library, State Teachers College, Mil- waukee, Wisc. Public Library, 814 W. Wisconsin Ave., Milwaukee, Wisc. Library, State Teachers College, Platte- ville, Wise. Library, M. Louise Hunt, Wisc. Fred G. Racine Public Librn., Racine, soard of Education, Two Rivers, Wisc. State Teachers College, Whitewater, Wisc. Institute of Educational Research, Sun Yatsen University, Canton, China Library, University of Hawaii, Mary P. Bishop, Supt.. Pringle, Librn., Honolulu, Hawaii sonifacio Teachers Club, Bonifacio Ele- mentary School, Manila, P. The Superintendent City Schools, Box 772 Manila, P. I. INDEX ACHIEVEMENT, ACADEMIC, effect of retar- dation on, 273 ADJUSTMENT, PUPIL, measurement of, 508 ADMINISTRATIVE AND SUPERVISORY PRO- CEDURES, appraisal of, 291; appraisal of policies regarding failing marks and retentions, 303: appraisal of policies with regard to school entrance age, 298: appraisal of reports to parents, 313; evaluating methods of contact between school and home, 310: evaluation of program for testing reading readiness and visual efficiency, 317; references on appraisal of, 321; values of coopera- tive, 292 ALSCHULER, ROSE H., 502 APPARATUS, experimenting with, in teach- ing division of fractions, 419. See also Equipment, School APPRAISAL, SCHOOL, administrative organ- ization, 255: assignment of teachers, 260; basic considerations with refer- ence to school organization, 255; by ex- perimental method, 248, 578: by his- torical method, 582: by observation of newer school practises, 377: by survey technic, 572: by whom, 234: contact between school and home, 310; criteria for grouping pupils, 286; criteria for tests, 485; essential elements of testing program, 465; guiding principles, 233: increasing usefulness of technics for, 584; instructional organization, 259: of apparatus for teaching division of fractions, 419; of clubs, 456; of “co- operative group” organization, 275: of health education methods, 390; of in- formal dramaties, 435; of informal re- ports to parents, 313: of libraries, 459; of methods of teaching, 376; of motion picture equipment, 558; of program for testing reading readiness and visual efficiency, 317; of pupil progress, 464; of reading instruction in the interme- diate grades, 399; of remedial reading, 412; of school newspapers, 453; of so- cial studies curriculum, 345: of social- izing experiences, 434; of spelling vo- eabulary, 350; of supervised study, 427: of the curriculum, 322; of text- books, 539, 547: of traditional grading system, 263, 268; philosophical ap- proach to, 584: program for teaching division, 361; pupil organization, 257; records and reports, 261, 313; refer- ences on technics of, 587; review of technics of, 567; size and type of staff, 256; special classes, 256; technics ap- plicable to, 248: the platoon school, 280; types of technics employed for, 569; use of results, 237; values of co- operative administration, 292; when to be made, 235 ARITHMETIC, achievement in successive grades, 263; evaluating the program for teaching division, 361; experimenting with apparatus in division of fractions, 419 AVERILL, WILLIAM A., 539 BERMAN, SAMUEL, 226, 227 BIBLIOGRAPHY. See References, BREED, FREDERICK S., 350 Brown, EDYTHE J., 228 BROWNELL, WILLIAM A., 485 Busna, A. S., 530 Selected CASE-STUDY TECHNIC, as a means of school appraisal, 251; illustrations of use, 328 CHART, self-rating, for teachers, 428 CHECKLISTS, as survey technics, 574 CLUBS, SCHOOL, an informal appraisal of, 456 Coss, W. K., 313 CooK, WALTER W., 470 COOPERATIVE GROUP, experiment with, as form of departmental organization, 275 COURSE OF stuDY. See Curriculum COXE, WARREN W., 255 CRAWFORD, C. C., 310 CRITERIA, for evaluating classroom tests, 485; for evaluating textbooks, 539; for grouping pupils, 286; for judging suc cess of a school program, 240; formu lation of, for textbook evaluation, 547 CUMMINGS, MABLE E., 317 CURRICULUM, appraisal and revision of, in the social studies, 345: appraising poetry thru children’s reactions, 369; appraising the program for teaching di- vision, 361: case-study method of ap- praisal, 324; difficulty of evaluating, 323: evaluating for the _ individual pupil, 323; means of evaluating, 322: program for evaluation of content, 331: references on evaluation of, 375; rela tion of tests to, 479; school subjects preferred by children, 336; selection and gradation of spelling vocabulary, 350; vocabulary studies as basis for spelling course, 350 Dawson, MILDRED A., 408 DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS, chairmen of committees, (inside front cover); list of members, 596; officers of, (inside front cover): officers of local, sectional, and state principals organizations, 589, 592, 594; scope of 1937 yearbook, 238; yearbooks listed, (inside back cover) DEPARTMENTAL ORGANIZATION, cooperative group plan, 275; platoon school, 280 Dickey, JOHN W., 419 DotcH, E. W., 263 DRAMATICS, appraisal of, 435 EDITORIAL COMMENT, appraising adminis- trative and supervisory procedures, 291: appraising methods of learning and teaching, 376; appraising the school or- ganization, 254; estimating the effi- ciency of teachers, 523; evaluating so- cializing experiences, 434; evaluating the curriculum, 322; judging school equipment, 538; measuring the progress of pupils, 464 EpITORIAL COMMITTEE FOR 1937 BOOK, members of, 226; preface by, 22 YEAR- [ 652 } INDEX 653 EFFICIENCY OF TEACHERS. See Teachers ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL PERIOD, length of, as a consideration in school appraisal, 255 ENGLEMAN, F. E., 435 ENTRANCE AGE, SCHOOL, relation to suc- cess in first six grades, 298 EQUATING OF GROUPS, in observational study of school practises, 380 EQUIPMENT, SCHOOL, analysis and selec- tion of textbooks, 539; appraisal of motion-picture, 558; experimenting with apparatus in teaching division of frac- tions, 419; plan of textbook evaluation, 547; references on appraisal of, 566 ETHERIDGE, MABEL WILKINSON, 459 EVALUATION OF SCHOOL PROGRAM. See Ap- praisal, School EXPERIMENTAL METHOD, applications of, 273, 283, 310, 361, 377, 390, 419: as means of school appraisal, 248, 578; limitations of, 581; one-group technic, 579; parallel-group technic, 579; rota- tion technic, 580 EXTRACURRICULAR ACTIVITIES. See izing experiences Social- FARLEY, EUGENE §S., 268 FERTSCH, L. M., 226, 227 FOSTER, RICHARD R., 227 FRITZ, RALPH A., 369 GALVIN, CECELIA, 227 GARMAN, JOHN T., 558 GINSBURG, Morris B., 514 GRADING, evaluating the traditional sys- tem of, 263; influence upon pupil devel- opment, 268 GROSSNICKLE, FOSTER E., 361 HAINES, JAMES CLAYTON, 310 HARDY, MARTHA CRUMPTON, 390 HATTWICK, LABERTA WEISS, 502 HEALTH EDUCATION, appraising of, 390 HISTORICAL METHOD, as means of school appraisal, 582 Hopson, Cioy S., 323 HOLMES, ETHEL E., 336 HOME AND SCHOOL, evaluating between, 310 methods contacts INSTRUCTION, appraising organization of, 259; futility of premature, 269; meth- ods of evaluating the quality of, 530: program of, in reading, 408. See also Methods of learning and teaching INTERVIEW, as survey technic, 576 JACOB, WALTER, JR., 303 JacoBs, R. C. T., 227 KEENER, EDWARD E., 453 KILzer, L. R., 427 KuMPF, CARL H., 292 KuMPF, CECILE LAFOLLETTE, 292 LAWSON, DoveGLas E., 331 LEARNING. See Methods of learning and teaching LEE, J. MuRRAY, 465 LIBRARIES, SCHOOL, judging adequacy of, in rural areas, 459 LINDQUIST, E. F., 479 McBROOM, MAUDE, 226 MACKINTOSH, HELEN K., 345 MANNERS, measuring pupil in, 514 MARKS, SCHOOL, a study of failing, 303 MEASUREMENT. See Appraisal, School; Testing: and Tests MEMBERSHIP LIST, Department of Elemen- tary School Principals, 596 METHODS OF LEARNING AND TEACHING, ap- praisal of apparatus in teaching divi- sion of fractions, 419; appraising health education, 390; effect of tests on, 471: evaluating by observational meth- od, 377: evaluating supervised study, 427: evaluation of reading instruction in the intermediate grades, 399; ex- periment with combination of, in teach- ing reading, 408: procedures for ap- praising remedial reading in Grade VII, 412: references on appraisal, 433 METHODS OF RESEARCH. See Technics of research MOTION PICTURES, appraisal of equipment for school use, 558: reports from ele- mentary-school principals on use of, 563 improvement NETTLETON, LULIE, 456 NEWSPAPER, SCHOOL, judging the success of, 453 NORMS, determination of, 250 OBJECTIVES, EDUCATIONAL, for elementary schools, 240, 399, 496: measuring at- tainment of newer, 493 OBSERVATIONAL METHOD, advantages and limitations of, 388: instruments for use in appraisal by, 573; use of, in evaluat- ing newer school practises, 377 OFFICIAL INFORMATION, introductory statement, 588; list of members, 596: local principals organizations, 589; sec- tional principals associations, 592; state principals associations, 594 ORGANIZATION, SCHOOL, administrative, 255: basic considerations in apprais- ing, 255: departmental, 275, instruc- tional, 259; of pupils, 257; of records and reports, 261: platoon, 280; promo- tional policies, 268: references on ap- praisal of, 290; traditional grade sys- tem, 263, 268 ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINCIPALS, local, 589: sectional, 592; state, 594 PAINTER, FRED B., 286 PARENTS, value of informal reports to, 313 PARTINGTON, H. M., 298 PERSONALITY, effect of retardation on, 272 PINKSTON, Eva G., 227 PISTOR, FREDERICK, 377 PLATOON SCHOOL, evaluation of, 280 Poetry, children’s reactions to certain types, 369 POWERS, LEVERSIA L., 240 PREFACE, to yearbook, 227 PRESIDENT’S MESSAGE, 228 PRINCIPALS ORGANIZATIONS. See Organiza- tions of principals PROGRESSIVE SCHOOLS, appraisal of newer practises, 377 654 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS PROMOTIONAL POLICIES, influence upon _ pupil development, 268 PUBLICITY, methods compared, 310 PUPILS, appraisal of poems by, 369; cri- teria for grouping within grades, 286; effect of failure on, 270; effect of re- ports to parents on, 314; evaluating curriculum for the individual, 323; evaluation of school subjects by, 336; grouping for emotional and _ social growth, 258; grouping for intellectual development, 257; individual differ- ences in development, 480; influence of grading and promotional policies upon development of, 268; measuring im- provement of, as means of judging teachers, 531; measurement and im- provement of adjustment, 508; or- ganization of, 257; promotional poli- cies, 258; references on measuring progress of, 522; results of sharing in responsibility for classroom surround- ings, 443; school subjects preferred by, 336 QUESTIONNAIRE, as survey technic, 576; as used in curriculum appraisal, 347 Ravtpu, H. THosurn, 508 RATING SCALES, for measuring behavior of nursery and_ kindergarten’ children, 502; for use in Grades I to VI, 505; used as survey devices, 574 READING, achievement in successive grades, 265; children’s reactions to poetry, 369; evaluation of instruction in intermediate grades, 399; evalua- tion of program for testing readiness, 317; experiment with a combination of methods of teaching, 408; procedures for appraising remedial, 412 RECORDS AND INFORMATION, DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS. See Official information RECORDS AND REPORTS, criteria for ap- praising, 261 REFERENCES, SELECTED, appraising ad- ministrative and supervisory proce- dures, 321; appraising methods of learning and teaching, 433; appraising the school organization, 290; estimat- ing teacher efficiency, 537; evaluating socializing experiences, 463; evaluating the curriculum, 375; judging school equipment, 566; measuring pupil prog- ress, 522; review of the technics of appraisal, 587 REPORTS, SCHOOL, appraisal of informal, to parents, 313 RESEARCH DIVISION OF THE NATIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION, 227, 233, 567 RESEARCH TRBCHNICS. See Technics of re- search RETARDATION, effect on pupil personality, 272 REYNOLDS, HELEN M., 443 SCHOOL APPRAISAL. See Appraisal, School ScHOOL cLUBS. See Clubs, School SCHOOL LIBRARIES. See Libraries, School ScHOOL NEWSPAPER. See Newspaper, School SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. See Organization, School SCHOOL SUBJECTS, preferred by children, 336 ScCORE-CARDS, for evaluating textbooks, 550; used as survey technics, 574 SHANNON, J. R., 524 SIGMAN, JAMES G., 558 SmirH, Harry P., 248 SOCIALIZING EXPERIENCES, appraisal of informal dramatiecs, 435; appraisal of school clubs, 456; evaluation of, 434; judging the rural school library, 459; judging the success of the school news- paper, 453; references on evaluation of, 463; results of pupil sharing in respon- sibility for classroom surroundings, 443 SOCIAL STUDIES, appraisal and revision of, 345 SPECIAL CLASSES, with reference to ap- praisal of administrative organization, 256 SPELLING, selection and gradation of vocabulary, 350 STAFF, SCHOOL, size and character of, as element in school appraisal, 256 STANDARDIZED TESTS. See Tests, and Test- ing Stuart, Byron D., 275 STUDY, SUPERVISED, evaluation of, 427 SUPERVISORY PROCEDURES. See Adminis trative and supervisory procedures SURVEY TECHNIC, as means of school ap- praisal, 572 TEACHER PARTICIPATION, fields of, 292 TEACHERS, assignment of, with reference to appraisal of school organization, 260; difficulties in estimating efficiency of, 524; methods of evaluating quality of instruction, 530; references on esti- mating efficiency, 537 TEACHING. See Methods of learning and teaching TECHNICS OF RESEARCH, adapting to prac- tical school situations, 585; applicable to appraisal of school practises, 248; applied to dramatics, 437; case-study, 251; experimental method, 578; for appraising the curriculum, 324, 332; historical method, 582; increasing use- fulness of, 584; influence of improved, on school evaluation, 567; observa- tional method, 377; references, 566; review of, 567; self-rating chart for teachers, 428; types of, 569 TESTING, essential elements of program for, 465; planning the program for, 466; program of laboratory schools, 473; use of, in supervisory program, 470 Tests, criteria for selecting adequate, 476; measuring attainment of newer educational objectives, 493; of capacity or intelligence, 467; of good manners, 514; of pupil adjustment, 508; stand- ardized achievement, in relation to cur- riculum, 479; standardized, of educa- tional achievement, 467; types of, 466; used as survey technic, 576; used in remedial reading program, 412; use of, INDEX in supervisory program, 470; uses in a laboratory school, 472. See also Test- ing; Rating Scales; and Checklists TEXTBOOKS, analysis and selection of, 539; plan of evaluation, 547 TRAXLER, ARTHUR E., 412 VISUAL EFFICIENCY, evaluation of testing program for, 317 VOCABULARY STUDIES, in relation to spell- 655 ing, 350; principles of word selection, WATERMAN, IVAN R., 547 WoRLTON, J. T., 399 WRIGHTSTONE, J. W., 493 YEARBOOKS, Department School Principals, YUNKER, J. C., 280 of Elementary (inside back cover) YEARBOOKS OF ‘THE nee DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHO oe — [ATION : pba. Yearbook 416 Pages A 1935 | Contents Boesatination as a Function of the Elementary Seal Assemblies. Abeba ARE PR Plays and’ Pageants Bee ke Ree Rae Red-Letter Days oy aap ere Music and Rhythms ree is SE School Clubs es ee Pupil Participation in School Management Rey Bee Socializing Opportunities in Physical Ednoation : Pode. com The Elementary-School Newspaper Be hn The Activity Program ; Ce COR ried Cooperative Commiinity Activities ESSE ae Fifteenth Yearbook (second printing) eR a PERSONALITY ADJUSTMENT OF THE ae ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL CHILD so, 448 Pages 1936 ConTENTS The Nature and’ Needs of the Child . Out-of-School Factors. Affecting Child Adjustment Adapting:the School to Children’s Needs The Teacher’s Influence on Pupil Personality etn oe Types and Symptoms of Pupil Maladjustment =< 64) ~ Discovering and Evaluating Causes of Behavior’ Problems Applying Specific Remedial Measures, © we ‘The Service of Specialists in Child Care’and Adjus aaa of Selected Research Studies” DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 1201 Sixteenth St N;W., Washington, D.C.