PERIODICAL ROOM RAR GENERAL LIBRA : 1 ; UNIV. OF MICE AYE I 0 1934 The NATIONAL ELEMENTARY RINCIPAL BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION AIDS TO TEACHING IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK JUNE 1934 Vol. XIll, No. 5 THE NATIONAL ELEMENTARY PRINCIPAL BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPAL Published In October, December, February, April, and June by the Departm fi : of Elementary School Principals of the National Education Association of United States. The payment of $3 active membership dues entitles a member to attend all | meetings of the Department, to hold office, and to receive the Bulletin. Two dollam of each membership fee Is for a year’s subscription to the Bulletin. Subscriptiog 4 to nonmembers is $3 per year; single copies, 25 cents; and Yearbook, $2. Entered as second-class matter November 20, 1922, at the postoffice at Washiz : ton, D. C., under Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rat of postage provided for In Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917, authorized Decer ber 18, 1922. Executive and Editorial Offices, 1201 Sixteenth Street, Northwest, Washington, D. - Eva G. Pinkston, Editor. 3 Yearbook Prepared by Editorial Committee. OFFICERS OF THE DEPARTMENT 1933-34 President, Aaron Kline, Pullman Public School, Chicago, Illinois First Vicepresident, Elizabeth McCormick, Timothy Howe School, Superior, Wis- consin Second Vicepresident, Mason A. Stratton, Brighton Avenue School, Atlantic City, New Jersey Third Vicepresident, M. Emma Brookes, Miles School, Cleveland, Ohio Fourth Vicepresident, Ernest L. Markley, Webster Platoon School, Wheeling, West Virginia Fifth Vicepresident, Margaret C. Macki tosh, Public School 140, Brooklyn, N York Executive Committee A. B. Heacock, Los Feliz School, Los Angeles, California Herbert C. Hansen, 1045 Lockwood Ave, Chicago, Illinois Cassie F. Roys, 2609 Bristol Street, Omaha, Nebraska Earl R. Laing, Burt School, Michigan Detroit Executive Secretary, Eva G. Pinkston 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W., Washington, D. C. The contents of this Yearbook are listed in the Education Indez. COMMITTEES Committee on International Relations A. B. Heacock, Chairman, Los Angeles, California Committee on Necrology Elizabeth McCormick, Chairman, Su- perior, Wisconsin Ernest L. Markley, Wheeling, West Virginia Margaret C. Mackintosh, New York, New York Mason A. Stratton, Atlantic City, New Jersey Committee on Resolutions Herbert C. Hansen, Chairman, Chieagay Illinois a Cassie F. Roys, Omaha, Nebraska Earl R. Laing, Detroit, Michigan ; M. Emma Brookes, Cleveland, Ohio ~ Editorial Committee for 1934 Yearbook & John S. Thomas, Chairman, Detroitys Michigan ‘ Bess Clement, Clarksdale, Mississippi ; Helen B. Shove, Minneapolis, Minnes Committee on Professional Ethics Mason A. Stratton, Chairman, Atlantic City, New Jersey THe Frontisp1ecE—Elementary-school children aboard the BEAR, former Coast Guard cutter of the Alaskan patrol. What a school journey long to remember! This famous barkentine, built in Greenock, Goce in 1874, was purchased by the United States Navy in 1884 for use in the relief of the Greely expedition. Her length over all is 198 feet, beam 284 feet, and draft 18 feet, with a displacement of 1700 tons. She is built of oak, especially constructed to withstand the shocks when working with ice. On April 24, 1884, with a crew of thirty-four officers and men, the BEAR left Brooklyn for the Arctic regions. She returned in August with the Greely expedition. The vessel was then turned over to the Coast Guard and continued in this service on the Pacific Coast until 1928. The stories of heroism and adventure associated with the BEAR are many. Hardly a season went by that the crew of one or more whaling vessels was not rescued and returned to civilization. During the gold rush of 1896 the crew maintained order and cared for many until the Army and civil authorities assumed responsibility. The BEAR established a splendid reputation among the Alaskan natives as the symbol of the power and justice of the federal government. In 1912 Stefansson was brought out of the Arctic regions on the BEAR. At one time or another a number of famous persons have been passengers, including General Funston and Captain Amundsen. It was a commander of the BEAR, Captain Healy (1887-1895), who first suggested that reindeer be introduced into Alaska to furnish clothing and food for the natives. In 1928 the BEAR was retired from the Coast Guard service. Admiral Byrd obtained the ship for his latest Antarctic expedition. According to recent reports the BEAR has unloaded its supplies at Little America and is now waiting at Australia for the time when the expedition returns to civilization. The picture was supplied by the school system of Oakland, Cali- fornia. The information about the BEAR came from the Head- quarters of the United States Coast Guard thru the courtesy of Oliver M. Maxam, chief of the division of operations. AIDS TO TEACHING IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL Thirteenth Yearbook THE NATIONAL ELEMENTARY PRINCIPAL Bulletin of The Department of Elementary School Principals, National Education Association Vol. XIII, No. 5 June 1934 Price $2.00 CopyRiGHT, 1934 By NaTIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 1201 SixteentH Street, N. W., Wasninaton, D. C. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED PUBLISHED AvuGusT 1934 — o> ~ PREFACE LEMENTARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS constantly seek to improve instruction. For some time supervision has been con- sidered as the most important function of the principal. Today, there is a definite trend to consider supervision as the function of the principal; administration, clerical duties, and other activities are fitted into the function of supervision as component parts. Everything that the principal does touches the learning processes in some vital way. Previous yearbooks of the Department have helped to raise the professional understanding and standards of principals. In this, the Thirteenth Yearbook, direct emphasis is placed again upon the improvement of instruction. Thruout this yearbook are many excellent descriptions of practises in the provision and use of aids to teaching. It seems on careful study, however, that the greatest values in the articles are the implica- tions of progressive thinking and planning for a better education. During times of adversity, principals evidently display resourceful- ness and leadership. The contributions in the 1934 yearbook are a tribute to supervision and a prophecy of better instruction. The Editorial Committee is grateful to all persons who made this yearbook possible by the articles and suggestions submitted. It is regretted that economies in space and limitation of subject made necessary the return of some manuscripts. For editorial advice and for research assistance in the preparation of the yearbook appreciation is expressed to Dr. Frank W. Hubbard, associate director, Research Division, National Education Associa- tion. Eva G. Pinkston, executive secretary of the Department, has given great assistance. To the many others who have helped make this yearbook a reality is due the sincere acknowledgment of the Department. The Department loses the services of Helen B. Shove, who has served the three-year Editorial Committee term, and gains the help of Dr. Samuel Berman of Philadelphia, the new appointee. THE EDITORIAL COMMITTEE Joun 8. Tuomas, Chairman for 1934, Clippert School, Detroit, Michigan Heten B. SHove Bess CLEMENT Minnehaha School Eliza Clark School Minneapolis, Minnesota Clarksdale, Mississippi [117] OUR YEARBOOKS TD cect DEPARTMENT of Elementary School Principals adds each vear one volume to its epoch-making studies in the field of elementary education. What is more hopeful in American edu cation than this study of their problems by the nation’s principals ¢ What an array of interesting and vital problems have been studied in this field of education during the thirteen vears of the life of this Department ! This year the Department inquires about teaching aids. Every principal is interested in this problem. What are teaching aids ¢ How can they be obtained? How can they be used so as to insure the maximum educational value? How ean the principal and teachers evaluate the results of such use? These and many other aspects of the problem are presented in this volume. However well you may have met your situation there are certain to be some new suggestions from your fellow principals. Nothing would be more helpful to the Department than reports on how principals use these yearbooks. What about them do you find desirable and helpful? What would you change if you were editing them? Many principals give them an important place in their pro- fessional library. The Department hears from colleges and public libraries concerning the use they make of our yearbooks. It would help if you write also. The yearbooks have been used by some principals as a basis for faculty meetings. Articles of vital interest to teachers are read and diseussed. Other articles are read and reported on by faculty mem- bers or by committees of the faculty. Principals clubs have used our yearbooks as-a basis for their pro fessional study for the year. Thus practical and valuable suggestions are made available to the whole group. You have read the yearbooks and made use of them. Why not tell your fellow principals about how you have used them and how they have helped you? By so doing you will help both your friends and the Department. Aaron Kune, President Desntnenl of Elementary School Principals [118] CONTENTS PAGE POW TROP EMOS 6.5 oc cc cscs cncacencccsevcesuscccecusucieesuieadileiuddendnee 113 IN iin wine. she isin Hse ns nck ia esd Gide nae enleccntie Ridde dkidhata ace’, atadaaen ee 117 The Editorial Committee PRESIDENT’S MESSAGE TIE, 5 5:8.05.0cins 460des'scardocleVoinn sansa vemeasédestancnasact tinea 123 Cnaprer I—Arms 1x Mopern Epucation ENRICHMENT Turvu AIDS TO TEACHING..............cccscccccccccccces 136 Frank N. Freeman, Professor of Educational Psychology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois TIEN IRIN 5a ca xin vn seg ah Bie Suki ts ddd ah cd bevel a babanlnace i aca aled 140 Frank Cody, Superintendent, Public Schools, Detroit, Michigan ‘Fiee Te EO, A VIBOAE: Bais 6 soc ccad Sedisddis ccoescakoheseevcmes 144 Dudley Grant Hays. Director Emeritus of Visual Education, Public Schools, Chicago, Illinois Cuaprer []—OrGaANIZATION FOR THE Use oF Alps A Survey or tHE Use or TEACHING AIDS............ccccecccvecscccccvecs 150 Suppityina Arps In Crry ScHOOL SYSTEMS. ...........cccccccccccccceees 160 GETTING THE Facutty MACHINE MINDED...............ccccccccceccecs 167 Floyd G. Hoek, Principal, Longfellow School, Teaneck, New Jersey MAKING Alps AVAILABLE WITHIN THE SCHOOL.............cccceccecscece 171 Ella Gross, Principal, Public School 133, Brooklyn, New York TH SERVICES OF A CENTRAL DEPARTMENT... 2.0... 0c cccccscccccssccces 175 W. M. Gregory, Director. Educational Museum, Public Schools, Cleveland, Ohio FUNCTIONS OF A CENTRAL VisuAL EpuCATION DEPARTMENT...........-..: 185 W. W. Whittinghill, Assistant Director, Department of Visual Educa- tion, Publie Schools, Detroit, Michigan Cnuaptrer I1]—Picroriaut anp Grapuic AIps PREPARING AND Firinc Mountep MArsRIALS..............0¢ceccceceees 194 Marie E. Alexander, Supervisor, Training School, State Teachers College, Harrisonburg, Virginia Pe teh Se TRE FOI Goines. 60k in Hi TAD imnKeeeLE Sed oRE ek Paaee A 199 E. A. Brown, Principal, Kuhio School, Honolulu, Hawaii TBACHING GEOGRAPHY THRU PICTURES. .........cccccccsccccccvccsecesces 204 Benita R. Blood, Principal, Fuller School, and Elizabeth J. Kaasa, Principal, Northrop School, Minneapolis, Minnesota SELECTION AND EvALUATION OF Maps, GLoBEs, AND CHARTS...............005 209 Erna Grassmuck, Head, Geography Department, State Teachers Col- lege, Indiana, Pennsylvania ene: ee OR OUNCE POPU on ces vic cee Sinn 04s ke ste ewes 214 Nannilee Saunders, Principal, Judson School, Greenville, South Carolina [119] PAGE ON iis a raines weeks SHEL OAS neh nude ekemEa REN eemeR eRe 219 E. Winifred Crawford, Director of Visual Education, Public Schools, Montclair, New Jersey An EvaLuaTIon or GrapHic INSTRUCTION MATERIALS.................00% 228 R. A. Harper, Teacher, New Trier Township High School, Winnetka, Illinois, and Henry J. Otto, Assistant Professor of Education, North- western University, Evanston, Illinois Cuaptrer [1V—Ossect MaTerRIALs Arp FROM MusSBUMS IN ELEMENTARY TEACHING...........0.0000c0cueuee 240 Laurence Vail Coleman, Director, American Association of Museums, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. PREPARATION OF Hasitat Groups FOR SCIENCE AND THE SociaL Stupies.... 244 Grace Fisher Ramsey, Associate Curator of Education, American Museum of Natural History, New York, New York INSTRUCTIONAL VALUE OF SCHOOL EXHIBITS.............000000ceeceueees 253 Florence Wolf, Principal, Grant School, Detroit, Michigan EOUGRIG & DOCMOOL, BEUONOIES oink ccc cc devec cede sicaswccedscagecsscsces 258 C. E. Travers, Principal, Public School, Titusville, New Jersey How Scuooits Use THE CHILDREN’S MUSEUM.......... 00.0 cce cee eeeeees 261 Rowena Smith Walker, Librarian, A. L. Holmes School, Detroit, Michigan Use or Broces rn Primary GRADES... . 22... ccc ccc ccc cc ccc ccc ccececes 267 O. E. Heaton, Principal, Logan Platoon School, Spokane, Washington Cuapter V—Excursions AND F1e._p Trips THE ORGANIZATION OF FIELD EXCURSIONS.............000 cece ccuceceeees 274 Armin K. Lobeck, Professor of Geography and Geology, Columbia University, New York, New York Out oF THE CLASSROOM INTO LIFB........... 0000 cece ccc cccee sececees 278 H. Eloise Bryan, Principal, Cinnaminson Township Schools, Riverton, New Jersey EXCURSIONS IN APPRECIATION IN THE SMALL TOWN SCHOOL............... 284 Blanche Elliott, Principal, Washington School, Coshocton, Ohio EXCURSIONS IN A METROPOLITAN CENTER...........0cccccccccccccceeuces 289 David A. Weaver, Lecturer in Education, College of the City of New York, New York yo og 295 Sybil L. Daniels, Teacher, Paul Revere School, Revere, Massachusetts Concert Music To WIpEN EXPERIENCES...........ccccccccccececcesees 299 Russell V. Morgan, Director of Music, Public Schools, Cleveland, Ohio A Srupy oF THE VALUES OF FIELD TRIPS.......... cc ccc cceccececececees 302 R. H. Price, Principal, Junior High School, State Teachers College, Whitewater, Wisconsin Cuaptrer VI—Suipes, Stitt Fitms, ann Opaque PrRowJEcTION "SUPE AND USM OF PROSMOTONB. «.oo5c ccc scscceccnsccesssdccccccevesece 308 W. F. Barr, Dean, College of Education, Drake University, Des Moines, Iowa THE STEREOPTICON AND ITS USES..........ccccccccccccccccccscccccseucs 313 Gardner L. Hart, Supervisor of Visual Education, Public Schools, Oakland, California EFrectivE Sitipes Mabe py TEACHER AND PUPIL.............0.000eee eee 319 William A. Bonwell, Principal, Waco Elementary School, Wichita, Kansas ee Eerie TRAIN. io oonadi iis ovina cad cdonvcdivedicsaccccenase 325 W. T. R. Price, Teacher, Scarborough School, Scarborough-on-Hudson, New York [120] = THE OPAQUE PROJECTOR IN THE SCHOOLROOM...........ccccceccecccecens 330 Erma L. Engel, Principal, White School, Detroit, Michigan CuapteR VII—SiILent anp Sounp Motion Pictures Tue Morton Picrurs ss A BAsic TEACHING TOOL...........0ceececceees 338 B. A. Aughinbaugh, Supervisor of Visual Education, State Department of Education, Columbus, Ohio STANDARDS FOR THE SELECTION oF CLassrooM Morion PIcrurgs........... 344 Edgar Dale, Research Associate, Bureau of Educational Research, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio An Errective LEARNING TECHNIC Usina Morion PIctTurgs.............. 349 John A. Hollinger, Director, Department of Science and Visualization, Public Schools, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Usin@ THE SounpD FILM IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL............s0e0008 353 V. C. Arnspiger, Director of Research, Erpi Picture Consultants In- corporated, New York, New York Moron PICTURES I THE ABGBMOLT « «o.oo. ccicscccvievssstcccacdesssie backs 359 Orville B. Hayward, Principal, Irving School, Hammond, Indiana Cuapter VI1I—Dup.uicating Macuines anv TYPEWRITERS TEACHING MATERIALS PropUCED WITHIN THE SCHOOL..............e0ee0 366 Charles A. Spacht and Mrs. Leonore Lewis, Principal and Secretary, Henry Barnard School, New Rochelle, New York Ams Propucen sy DuPLicaTING DEVICES. ...... 0. ccc cccccccccccsscececes 371 Edith D. Wright, Principal, Hawthorne School, Houston, Texas DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TYPED AND HANDWRITTEN COMPOSITIONS.......... 374 John J. Forester, Principal, Bradford School, Montclair, New Jersey Cuaprer IX—Rapio anp Sounp EquipMENT SHovutp I Brina Rapio into My ScCHOOL?...........cccccecccecccscecces 380 Cline M. Koon, Senior Specialist in Education by Radio, U. S. Office of Education, Washington, D. C. PLANNING FOR EFFICIENT USE OF THE RADIO.............cccccccccscccces 383 Gilbert M. Banker, Supervising Principal, Union Free School, Hillburn, New York INTEGRATING Rapio ProGRAMS WITH SCHOOL SCHEDULES.............eee0% 388 Julia M. McCarthy, Viceprincipal, Marey School, Detroit, Michigan IMPROVING OuR JUDGMENT OF BROADCASTS. ..........cccccccsceccesceeves 391 Francis K. Strohoefer, Principal, Public School No. 8, Bayonne, New Jersey anes Eiemnwcriens 26 CLAVMEAND oii o.6iigicd esses adcdnaecevanceaesaanae 394 H. M. Buckley, Assistant Superintendent, Public Schools; William L. Connor, Chief, and Gertrude Celestia Hawkins, Research Assistant, Bureau of Educational Research, Public Schools, Cleveland, Ohio EDUCATIONAL BROADCASTING RESOURCES...........ccccccccccccccccececes 403 Tracy F. Tyler, Secretary, National Committee on Education by Radio, Washington, D. C. SurraB~ewe Rapro ProGRaMs FOR. SCHOOLS. .......0. ccc cccccccencccccecenes 407 F. H. Lumley, Bureau of Educational Research, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio SuRVEY OF THE ScHOOL USE or SOUND EQUIPMENT............0ceeceecees 418 Don C. Brockway and William W. Brockway, Engineers, Crown Am- plifier Company, Los Angeles, California Tue Use or PHoNoGRAPHIC REcoRDING IN IMPROVING CHILDREN’S SPEECH.. 426 Helen L. Hultz, Teacher, Fox Meadow School, Scarsdale, New York CHapTreR X—SumMary oF RESEARCH EFFECTIVENESS OF AIDS AS SHOWN BY RESEBARCH..........cccccecceveres 434 [121] Cuaprer X1—Sources or Alps ADVERTISING IN THE CLASSROOM............. 000 cce cee ceccccccc cee ceeee. 456 Samuel Berman, Principal, J. R. Ludlow School, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania GOVERNMENTAL AGENCIES SUPPLYING VISUAL AIDS....................... 460 Edith A. Lathrop, Associate Specialist in School Libraries, U. S. Office of Education, Washington, D. C. Sources OF PicTURE MATERIALS..............ccccc cece ccccccccccccccccee 470 Ann V. Horton, Museum Instructor, Museum of Arts, Cleveland, Ohio ROOUWMGMS GF “TRACING AMDB... o.n.c os ccc cvcccsccnccvccccctececcccecccccecs 474 Ellis C. Persing, Assistant Professor of Elementary Science, Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio RECORDS AND INFORMATION LocaL PRINCIPALS ORGANIZATIONS. ........0...c0ccecceccecces raites eiues weeeeees 478 SraTe PRINCIPALS ASSOCIATIONS..........0000cc0cccccecccceccccce. ..... 484 List OF MEMBERS.............0cccccccccceece ccecueeeecce TTT TT. WINS irre, shia atara vedas ro ach 80psa Usdin dome arabactese debra gees hein eeba-ccclora. domino 406 .... 526 1122] au RESUME! Fach year the Editorial Committee presents the reader with this concise statement of the yearbook. An attempt is made to touch upon the major contribution of each author and occasionally to raise perti- nent questions. Judgment on any article should not be based upon the following summary but upon careful reading of the author's full statement. It is hoped that this preview will lead principals and others to extensive explorations of the yearbook’s contents. OCIETY, whether primitive or civilized, provides some way for the introduction of the young into the wisdom and responsibili- ties of group life. In civilized communities this socialization process takes place to a large extent in institutions known as “ schools.” Schools are directed by “ teachers” who select from the world the activities, facts, concepts, and ideals which the learner is to examine, to study, to experience, to memorize, to select, to evaluate, and to use. Obviously in any school learning situation there are three major factors: (1) the learner, (2) the teacher, and (3) the thing to be learned (curriculum, facts, subjectmatter, activity, unit of work, or center of interest). The proper interaction between the three major factors results in learning. The pupil makes an “ adjustment ’”’—he identifies himself with the thought and spirit of the thing to be learned. He develops and changes. As soon as the learner and the teacher start to learn or to teach (depending on the viewpoint) other factors are called into the process. Of major importance among these secondary factors are: (1) devices or aids, (2) methods, (3) principles, and (4) technies. All are im- portant parts of the total learning process. No one type can be used to the exclusion of the others. No one is more important than the others to education, altho any one or several may be more dominant in a particular lesson or activity. . This yearbook centers attention on the first type of the secondary factors, namely, devices or aids. The purpose is to bring details into sharp focus. By so doing it will not be possible to exclude discussion of methods, principles, and technics. However, these phases of the learning process are not given primary attention. In concentrating upon devices or aids the Editorial Committee will obviously disappoint those who deplore attention to these so-called 1 The résumé has been prepared by the Research Division of the National Education Association for the Editorial Committee. Page numbers of any article may be found readily by locating the author’s name in the index at the back of the yearbook. [123] 124 ELEMENTARY Scuoon PRINCIPALS s routine and “ petty’ phases of teaching. These persons sometimes contend that devices and aids are necessarily extraneous. This year- book shows that aids may be integral parts of the learning process. Every teacher is wise when he gives thought to the conerete and mechanical aspects of his duties. By so doing he may discover im- provements which will release more time for the contemplation of the so-called “ higher ” realms of his duties. It is true that if devices are used purely by imitation, or by rule of thumb, the teacher has become a dumb slave to things. When a teacher gets to this stage he should leave the profession but no onus should fall upon the mechanics of instruction. After all, devices are tools which may fall into the hands of either idiots or geniuses. AIDS IN MODERN EDUCATION ” Freeman emphasizes the value of aids as a means of enriching the learning experiences of children. In many instances it may be impossible to prove that teaching aids save time or money, but the broadening of the child’s experiences is individually and socially worthwhile. Cody believes that aids often simplify the learning process and thereby reduce the amount of effort required to understand abstrac- tions. More than this, thru various aids school and life outside are more closely integrated. Hays urges a new deal in education leading to the wider use of visual aids, particularly the motion picture film. He is greatly im- pressed by the industrial film as a means of acquainting pupils with the real processes in idustry, business, and manufacturing. Some readers will feel that too much enthusiasm for the industrial film may result in objectionable advertising in the schools. ORGANIZATION FOR THE USE OF AIps *—The Editorial Committee with the assistance of the Research Division of the National Eduea- tion Association obtained replies from about 360 principals as to the aids used in their schools. Maps, globes, slides, and similar devices are used rather widely. Motion pictures and other devices requiring costly equipment are usually found in the large schools. About one- third of the principals indicated that they had no special interest in devices. Outside agencies, such as public libraries and museums, are ‘alled upon to supply many aids. Almost half of the principals re- ported that all of their courses of study specified the use of various devices. Altho not specifically revealed by the inquiry one receives the distinct impression that there is a gap between the potential class- room equipment as recommended by courses of study and the actual conditions provided by administrative authorities. 2 See Chapter I. a 3 See Chapter II. : THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 125 A second inquiry was sent to 320 superintendents of schools in cities over 30,000 in population. Over 61 percent returned inquiry blanks in useful form. About 30 percent of those replying indicated that they depend on a decentralized visual education department to supply teachers with aids. Thirty-three percent use a centralized school library. The aids most frequently supplied are lantern slides, pictures, books, silent motion picture films, and maps. The aids be- lieved by the group as a whole to be used most effectively are, in order: lantern slides, pictures, maps, books, and silent films. Super- intendents believe that principals need to enrich instruction thru aids to teaching (1) by inspiring teachers to use aids, (2) by organ- izing within each school the machinery for using aids efficiently, and (3) by acquiring a wide selection of aids for teachers to use. Hoek believes that it is necessary for the principal to help teachers to overcome a certain inertia in connection with mechanical aids. Some teachers, of course, do not want to undertake “ new” things but a majority are simply unskilled in the operation of special equip- ment and therefore unwilling to use it. Gross outlines briefly the necessity for systematic and expeditious use of visual equipment. The first step is for the teachers to list the aids which would be helpful in supplementing the course of study. This information is carefully cataloged by months, school subjects, and teacher, and filed in the office. Requisitions to the central office are made out by the school office from these cards. When the materials arrive, monitors distribute, shift, and return them in accordance with published schedules. Gregory summarizes the services of the central educational mu- seum of Cleveland. The specific descriptions of how materials are purchased, cataloged, adjusted to learning, shipped to schools, and maintained in first-class shape should be helpful to principals. A principal can cooperate better within each school when he under- stands some of the problems of the central organization. Whittinghill tells of the function of the central visual education department in Detroit. He points out first that the size and type of central organization supplying aids to teachers should vary in ac- cordance with the needs of the school system. Some attention is given to the preparation of courses of study showing the necessity of mak- ing devices a part of the plans which teachers ultimately use. Picror1aAL AND GRAPHIC Arps “Alexander begins the chapter with some practical suggestions on how flat pictures should be mounted for use and filing. It is obvious from this article that every school *See Chapter III. 126 ELEMENTARY Scuoo.t PRINCIPALS could have a helpful file at very little cost. It is clear too that the key to efficient use of flat pictures is a workable system of filing. Brown suggests that pictures may be mounted in albums. The plan has very definite advantages in providing recreational and reference materials for individuals or small groups. However, for instruction in large groups the individually mounted pictures seems to be a more flexible system of filing. Blood and Kaasa give specific examples of the use of pictures in connection with the teaching of geography. They suggest the follow- ing uses for pictures: (1) as sources of information, (2) as review materials, and (3) as testing materials. Many principals will find the suggestions on the use of pictures for testing particularly new and original. Grassmuck discusses the standards to be kept in mind in selecting and evaluating maps, globes, and charts. Her suggestions as to the basic equipment for the elementary school deserve careful checking with the actual equipment of the typical school. Who, more than the principal, is responsible for maintaining the instructional supplies in first-class, up-to-date condition ? Saunders points out some of the possibilities of using maps with young children. Her suggestion that the simple construction maps of the local community help children to develop background for more complicated maps is something to be remembered. Construction ac- tivities which appear to the untrained eye as “ play” are often the means for experience which integrate and enrich life. Such facts might be pointed out to skeptical laymen. Crawford helps one to understand the possibilities of the pupil- made map. Her standards for map construction are useful general guides. Her specific instructions on why and how to have pupils pre- pare maps can be easily followed. Maps, like all other visual aids, must be made important parts of large instructional units. Harper and Otto describe an effort which they made to measure the value of graphic instructional materials. Several groups of children studied a geographical unit in the usual manner, including textbooks, discussions, special reports, and projects. The experimental groups used the same content and methods but also had the advantage of supplementary charts and diagrams. Altho the results of the experi- ment are not particularly conclusive, the technics of the study, includ- ing the graph test, should lead principals to attempt similar investigations. Ww] ok cu m al al hi th in es) a nF & me THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 127 Ossect MATERIALS °—Coleman points out the natural affinity which exists between schools and museums because they both find objects useful in carrying out their respective functions. He dis- cusses the two major types of teaching procedures in connection with museum materials. First, instruction from exhibits at the museum, and second, the use of objects in the classroom. It should be obvious from this article that children will benefit greatly when public schools and museums work together toward certain common purposes. Ramsey describes in considerable detail how children can prepare habitat groups for science and the social studies. Her explanation of the intricacies of plaster of paris, cardboard, and other materials used in the construction of exhibits should prove particularly helpful to classroom teachers. Wolf discusses the various types of school exhibits. Among those described are the curio exhibit, the summer activity exhibit, the planned activity exhibit, the district exhibit, the single purpose ex- hibit, and the exhibit of snapshots. Each of these has its own definite purpose and must be planned accordingly. Travers tells about the establishment of a museum within a single school. He reports how various kinds of materials may be mounted for display purposes. It is obvious from this article that almost every school could have object materials mounted in such a way as to be of great interest to children. Walker describes the operation of a centralized children’s museum in a large school system. This museum supplies materials to each school and in the case of this particular article the system is handled by the librarian. The key to the success of such a plan seems to be clean-cut organization, records, and definite schedules. Heaton reminds us of the possibilities of blocks in the teaching of young children. He points out that many visual-sensory aids are not useful in the lower elementary grades because of the necessity for reading and other skills which the children have not yet acquired. Blocks, however, are relatively simple and seem to appeal to almost every child. Trips AND ExcuRsiIoNs °—Lobeck insists that the success of a field excursion depends in the first place upon planning. The person in charge must know first of all what the purpose of the trip is to be and must then lay out the whole procedure, step by step. Each person on the excursion must feel some responsibility and must have a definite goal. 5° See Chapter IV. ® See Chapter V. 128 ELemMEentTarY Scuoot PrINcIPALSs Bryan reminds us that the excursion is increasing in importance because of the necessity of bringing children into contact with genu- ine life experiences. Her brief descriptions of several excursions which took place in her school, together with their outcomes, clearly show that first-hand contacts arouse and develop worthwhile interests in children. It is up to each principal to administer his school so that excursions may become a regular part of the instructional activities. Elliott shows us the possibility of excursions in the small town school. Parents, children, and teachers cooperated in visiting places of interest and in bringing back into the school exhibits and ideas for projects. A check-up of the year’s activities revealed many splendid additions of the school’s array of illustrative instructional materials. Weaver suggests the possible types of excursions and field trips which could be taken in a large metropolitan city. He believes that the school journey may be the means of enlivening the traditional school of today and of bringing it in closer harmony with dynamic social change. Daniels presents something of the thrill experienced by the mem- bers of her class when it went on an excursion to the beach. She tells of the original plans to study the characteristics of sea gulls, how weather conditions made this plan impossible, and how it was neces- sary to shift the purpose to a study of sea moss. This new-found interest led to the use of the sea moss in food which was served at a party. The party gave an opportunity for simple lessons in courtesy. The journey was obviously enjoyable as well as educationally worthwhile. Morgan reminds us of the possibility of concert music. It should be possible to bring together hundreds, if not thousands, to a central point to listen to the best available artistic talent. He believes that these contacts with great artists hold possibilities for enjoyment and growth which cannot be found thru the ordinary musical activities of the classroom. Price reports a survey made of the field trips carried on in 268 public elementary schools, located in forty-five states and the District of Columbia. He found that about one-third of the schools were utilizing trips to civic buildings, to industries, to parks, to museums, and to libraries. Relatively few of the schools were sponsoring trips to newspapers, banks, commercial offices, and institutions of higher education. Principals rated most of the field trips of great value. The types of excursions rated of highest value were those to libraries and museums. One of the great values of the excursion according to Pri« eval S brie his and eacl lim: ] in i tior of t in ¢ ] and an pu] ] can of tag to. the ha’ aul tea the na pr the m« co. an m ac efi sO uy ‘ THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 129 Price is the opportunity given to the children to plan, execute, and evaluate their own activities. SLIDES, STILL FILMS, AND OPAQUE PROJECTORS ‘—Barr discusses briefly the various types and uses of projectors. He devotes most of his article to the problems associated with lantern slides, still films, and similar types of visual materials. This treatment shows that each type of projector has its very important uses and definite limitations. Hart discusses in great detail the specific uses of the stereopticon in instruction. He shows how lantern slides may be used in connec- tion with geography, drawing, and other classroom activities. One of the unique suggestions has to do with the use of the lantern slide in connection with the teaching of reading. Bonwell tells of the advantages of slides which are made by teachers and those that are made by the pupils. Not only do these slides give an outlet for creative interest, but they suggest the possibility of the pupils teaching one another. Price devotes most of his article to an explanation of how pupils can make lantern slides. He describes rather fully the different types of materials which are used and tells the advantages and disadvan- tages of each. This article should be of considerable practical value. Engel turns the attention of the reader from the lantern slide type to the opaque projector. It is probably true that fewer schools have the opaque projector than have the stereopticon. Both instruments have their advantages and both have rather definite limitations. The author convinces us that the opaque projector can be one of the teacher’s most effective visual aids. SILENT AND SOUND MOTION PiIcTURES "—Aughinbaugh discusses the motion picture as a basic tool in teaching. He considers it a natural development from the early pictographs developed by the prehistoric man. Man has always sought to record events exactly as they occurred and the motion picture is the answer to that wish. The motion picture and the printed page are the two greatest tools at the command of the teacher for communicating ideas. Dale suggests some standards to be used by principals in selecting and in purchasing educational motion pictures. Pictures should har- monize with the objectives of the school; they should be factually accurate; they should be technically satisfactory; they should be effectively presented ; they should be photographically accurate; and so on. These standards will suggest other criteria which may be set up by administrators for use in their own school systems. 7 See Chapter VI. § See Chapter VII. 130 ELEMENTARY ScHoot PRINCIPALS Hollinger discusses at some length an effective technic for using motion pictures in the classroom. This procedure was developed by actual classroom use in Pittsburgh. He also suggests some general principles to be observed in the use of films in auditoriums. Arnspiger discusses the advantages and uses of the sound film in the elementary school. He gives some of the minimum essentials as to the rooms to be used and the types of equipment. The réles of the pupils and the teachers are discussed. Hayward believes that the motion picture has important uses in assemblies. In the first place it can be used for the purpose of teach- ing facts. In some instances it is an aid to culture. It also has uses in connection with patriotic programs, safety instruction, and general entertainment. DuPLICATING MACHINES AND TYPEWRITERS °—Spacht gives a sys- tematic discussion of the possibilities of producing instructional ma- terials within each school. He tells how arrangements were made for the school clerk to give a portion of her time to the preparation of tests, puzzles, blanks, and various other materials for use in connec- tion with classroom instruction. One interesting turn to this idea is that the school secretary often attended professional lectures and her notes were transcribed for the benefit of the teachers of the school. In other cases notes, taken by one teacher at a professional meeting, were reproduced for all of the teachers of the school. Wright points out the advantages of aids that are produced in the school by means of the mimeograph, the gelatin pad, and other simi- lar devices. Her list of aids which can be used in reading, geography, and other school subjects should be helpful to some principals. Forester describes an experiment wherein one group of pupils wrote compositions on typewriters and another group wrote them in their usual longhand. The question was to determine whether the typewriter, a device for duplicating, was a satisfactory instructional tool in the elementary grades. It was found that chiefly in the quality of the content of the compositions did the experimental group using the typewriters surpass the control groups. There was also some im- provement in neatness and arrangement of the compositions due to the limitations placed by typewriters. One point, not discussed by this author, is whether or not the experience with typewriters in the elementary school develops bad habits which cannot be eliminated when later the person attempts to learn stenography for commercial purposes. *See Chapter VIII. whe poi! inte tion the eTa effe di st sch in: me for on art wi de aft gi the sti ac ar th ef pe THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 131 Rapio AND souND EQUIPMENT *°—Koon discusses the question of whether or not a principal should bring the radio into his school. He points out the need to enrich classroom instruction, to bring pupils into contact with life activities, and to train pupils in‘ the apprecia- tion of good radio programs. At the same time the author appreciates the fact that there is some reason for believing that many radio pro- grams are far from being constructively valuable as educational aids. Banker makes some suggestions as to how the radio may be used effectively. Early in the school semester he had his own teachers discuss whether or not they should bring radio programs into the school and how they might be used. With certain objectives definitely in mind certain radio periods were agreed upon. After some experi- mentation it was found useful to prepare the pupils in advance even for radio lessons in music appreciation. Other practical suggestions on the management of the programs have been briefly set forth in the article. McCarthy discusses the problem of integrating radio broadcasts with the schedule of the school. She also has found it necessary to develop certain very definite technics for use before, during, and after the broadeasts. Only by following these principles can the time given to broadcasts be used as effectively as the same time used for the regular classroom activities. Strohoefer describes a procedure for improving the ability of the students to discriminate in choosing radio broadeasts. His school acquired a portable radio set with a microphone attached. Pupils arranged programs which they could broadeast to other children of the school. They were encouraged to be very critical of their own efforts and to study the regular commercial broadeasts for the pur- pose of discovering effective technics as well as methods to be avoided. Buckley and Connor describe some phases of radio instruction in Cleveland. They tell briefly how the work developed, how it has been used to teach pupils number work and many other subjects. As a result of this classroom instruction the conclusion has been reached that the ordinary radio lesson is probably more important as a supervisory device than as a teaching aid. That is to say, the usual radio lesson is so well organized and so purposeful that it sets a model for teachers to imitate in their regular class activities. The authors present the scripts of a science and a music broadcast which show a number of the rules which must be followed in an effective radio presentation. Tyler lists and reviews briefly some of the available radio pro- grams for general school use. He also reports a study of the broad- 10 See Chapter IX. 132 ELemMentARY Scuoort Principars casting activities of so-called educational broadcasting stations. These stations operated usually by universities are of greatest potential value in the education of older pupils and adults. Lumley made a study of seventy-five school broadcasts. He found that they fell into four different types: dramatizations, narratives, musicals, and talks. All of the broadeasts had certain very definite defects which the author discusses at some length. The author also tells of the different types of radio broadeasting which may be used effectively in connection with the schools. Brockway and Brockway report a survey of sound equipment found in various schools. They located about four hundred schools that had purchased centralized sound apparatus, and cireularized them with a questionnaire. Quite a large percent of these schools answered their questions, among which there were a number of ele- mentary schools. In summarizing the types of equipment which have been installed and the uses made of this equipment, the authors make numerous suggestions which will be of value to those who contemplate purchasing any equipment of this general nature. Hultz reports an interesting study of the use of the phonograph in improving children’s speech. The experiment was made with fourth- grade pupils who were allowed to record their oral narratives. In the course of telling stories every child made errors, such as incomplete sentences and repetition of words. By playing back the phonograph records the child was able to hear the nature of his difficulties and the teacher was able to assist him in overcoming bad habits. After a period of training it was possible by means of the phonograph to make other records which indicated clearly that definite progress had been made. The usefulness of the phonograph as a device in the improvement of speech is one which elementary-school principals may explore with great interest. SuMMARY OF RESEARCH *'—The Research Division has summa- rized in brief and interesting form the nature and results of a num- ber of experiments with aids to teaching. Altho this summary makes no pretense at being inclusive of all the studies which have been made, it will do much to bring principals in contact with some well-known investigations. It should be clear from the material presented that every type of visual and auditory aid has its advantages. It should be also equally clear that each of these aids has certain definite limi- tations. The wise principal will of course utilize and evaluate aids to teaching with these limitations clearly in mind. There is need, of course, for further research in the field of aids to teaching. Many 11 See Chapter X. of | the to bee thi: ti0! rev val use im thi de tr ad ni ju pr Vv | oo = THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 133 of the studies that have been made need to be repeated in exactly the same form so as to verify the conclusions. Other studies need to be made with slight variations from those which have thus far been reported. There is no better place for organizing and conducting this research than in the typical elementary school under the direc- tion of a competent principal! Sources or arps'*—Berman begins the chapter with a_ brief review of the types of teaching aids which may be obtained from various business and philanthropic organizations. He points out the usefulness of many of these devices and hastens to indicate the danger involved. It should be clear to any teacher or principal after reading this article that he cannot afford to allow the children in his school to be exploited either thru advertised products or thru any other device designed to advance some well-organized group. While it is true that the principa! must be alert to the danger of propaganda and advertising, it is also true that these dangers offer splendid opportu- nities for teaching the children when and how to exercise critical judgment. If we learn by doing we certainly must learn to discount propaganda by understanding its methods and its content. Lathrop presents a detailed list of the governmental agencies sup- plying visual aids. She points out that many state universities, libraries, and museums have visual aids to lend to schools. Perhaps the most helpful part of this article is the space given to the materials which are available from federal sources. Many principals are find- ing the leaflets and bulletins of the federal departments, not to men- tion motion pictures and slides, of inestimable value. A report of the new aids which are available is made from time to time in School Life, official journal of the federal Office of Education. Horton reports on some of the agencies supplying picture materials. These sources have been discovered thru years of work in connection with public museums. Persing summarizes some of the sources of teaching aids and presents a list of some of the well-known lists of available aids. Sev- eral of these masters lists should be included in the library of every principal. Some of them are issued annually, while others only report the results of a single investigation. SumMMaARY AND concLustons—The use of devices and aids in teach- ing has existed from the very beginning. No matter whether the first teacher is considered as being a prehistoric caveman or some later historie figure, the fact remains that in conveying a message to his listeners he used some visual or auditory device. Often he drew upon 12 See Chapter XI. 134 ELEMENTARY Scuoot PRINCIPALS the sands of the seashore, or arranged stones in a certain order, or made sketches on the wall of the cave, or used one of a dozen different ways of conveying ideas by an appeal to the senses. Thus it has been true that aids to teaching came into use as integral parts of instruction. There have been times, of course, when a few teachers have been so carried away by the possibilities of a single device that they have attributed to it universal and “ cure all” properties. This tendency has led others to minimize the use of de- vices almost to the point of their complete neglect. It is apparent from the articles of this yearbook that both extremes are wrong. Devices and aids are tools which should be available to very teacher insofar as they may be useful. It is evident from the present vearbook that the elementary-school principal has an important place in connection with devices in teach- ing. He should be the one to encourage the use of time-saving and effective aids in the classroom ; he may be the one to train his teachers in how to use devices most effectively ; he will be the one to purchase, and select in many instances, the visual and auditory equipment which is to be placed in the school; he must be the one who, thru the administration and organization, makes those aids available to every classroom ; and he should be the one who will evaluate the use of the aids to determine why they are effective and how they can be made even more useful. Aids to teaching are the means of enriching instruction, and there- fore are essential in the instructional processes. They make it possi- ble for the teacher to present ideas from many viewpoints and with many different appeals. Thru their use, every child, regardless of his personal limitations, will have an opportunity for unimpaired learning thru a variety of experiences. HE INDEX at the end of this vearbook includes the topics and the names of contributors. Avail yourself of the key to the volume.—-Editorial Committee. ing use ins ha’ Th che edi the me of sit tes ex st he CHAPTER I ATDS IN MODERN EDUCATION EDITORIAL COMMENT HERE ARE two common viewpoints regarding devices or aids among presentday educators. One group considers most aids as tricks which delude the unwary teacher into believing that teach- ing is a magical process. A second group believes that aids may be useful tools if their uses are fully understood by the classroom instructor. Persons holding the first opinion are not very much interested in having teachers take courses in educational methods and devices. They urge teachers to study child nature, to delve deeply into psy- chology, and to take a broad viewpoint as to the social function of education. They believe that under this extensive type of training the teacher is better prepared to guide children. He is believed to be more adaptable in his technics than the teacher who has been exposed to direct and specific instruction in the use of devices. Advocates of the second viewpoint are interested in the mechanics of teaching. They like to analyze the elements in the total learning situation—curriculum, methods, instructional materials, learner, and teacher. They seek to replace inefficient elements with those shown by experience to be more effective. They believe that the teacher must study the uses and kinds of materials of instruction just as surely as he does the laws of learning. The Editorial Committee believes that both groups often tend to extremes. The first group may become so theoretical as to lose touch with the practise of instruction. The second group may become so mechanical as to destroy the buoyancy of teaching. Surely some- where between the two there is a combination of learning opportuni- ties which is the best that human intelligence, skill, and imagination can provide. The contributors to the first chapter appear to take a middle ground. They are not afraid of devices. They consider all such aids as means to a better type of learning. They do not glorify or allow themselves to be hypnotized into an unthinking admiration of the mechanics of teaching. They believe that teaching moves forward not only because teachers have a broader social vision and a deeper understanding of child nature, but because teachers utilize more and better material aids in instruction.—Hditorial Committee. (135) 136 ELEMENTARY Scuoot Principats ENRICHMENT THRU AIDS TO TEACHING Frank N. FREEMAN Professor of Educational Psychology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois T IS HIGHLY APPROPRIATE that a yearbook of the Depart- ment of Elementary School Principals should be devoted to visual education. It is appropriate, first, on account of the im- portance of the subject. Ample evidence exists on the lack of con- erete experience possessed by the average child as a basis for compre- hending the principles of the physical, biological, and social sciences, or for appreciating works of literature and art. Evidence is also at hand to show that the various forms of visual instruction can supply this lack, if not as effectively as first-hand experience, at least much more effectively than can verbal description. The direct, first-hand acquaintance of the child with the rich and varied life of the world is extremely limited. A few better favored children have the opportunity to explore the more prominent features of their own neighborhood and even by travel to extend the bound- aries of their observation to other parts of their own country or to other countries. The automobile has served as a great widener of the range of experience for children as well as for adults. The widening of experience thru travel may give much less enrich- ment, however, than it would appear superficially to give. It may give breadth at the expense of thoroness and detail. It is a mistake to assume that even a well-informed adult has a thoro acquaintance with his own neighborhood. The story is told of Louis Aggasiz that when asked where he expected to travel one summer he replied that he looked forward to a tour of his backyard. There was enough there which he did not know to occupy his attention for a whole summer. The child’s ignorance of his environment may be accepted as a fact. No one, I think, at least no teacher, will question it. It will also be pretty generally agreed that the child cannot learn all he should know about his environment by first-hand study. Much can be done to acquaint him with it by excursions, formal and informal. He will learn a good deal by his own spontaneous exploration, alone and in company with other children or his parents. But excursions are too expensive and time-consuming to meet the need. Something can be accomplished by bringing objects into the classroom; but the possi- bilities in this direction are also limited. More economical and rapid means must be used to give the child an acquaintance with his world. For some unexplained reason, it seems commonly to be assumed that the necessity of supplying substitute or vicarious concrete experi- ence is chiefly present in the upper grades or above. It is important in on is ¢ aid the bee for mc pr sol fo: hi: pe sli ad su co al of di tv THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 137 in the later grades, but our earliest and still most striking evidence on the poverty of the child’s acquaintance with the physical world is drawn from studies of the child on entering school. Perhaps visual aids are thought to be less important for younger children because the particular materials which have been most widely used have not been designed for younger children. The captions on motion pictures, for example, cannot be read by them. But this does not indicate that motion pictures and other aids suitable for young children cannot be prepared. It simply points to a technical problem which needs to be solved. That appropriate forms of aids to teaching may in part make up for the unavoidable meagerness of the child’s direct knowledge of his environment has been repeatedly shown by careful scientific ex- periments. These experiments have shown that well-selected pictures, slides, stereographs, silent motion pictures, or talking pictures may add from 10 to 25 percent or more to the scores on tests of the subjects which have been studied. Not every question concerning the contribution which may be made by visual aids to education has been answered, but enough has been done to establish beyond the shadow of a doubt their great potential value. If the value of visual aids has been established, why is an extended discussion of the subject particularly appropriate at this time? For two reasons. First, to establish their value is very far from providing schools with desirable visual aids. Many serious obstacles have to be overcome and many practical problems have to be solved before the schools can take advantage of this established fact. Second, the practical obstacles to taking advantage of the proved serviceableness of aids are especially formidable just now. The ax of economy dur- ing the recent unpleasantness has fallen with the most devastating blows on the newer branches of the educational tree, and it is going to take the most patient cultivation to grow again the tender shoots which have been so ruthlessly cut off. The older branches have had a chance to harden with time and to acquire the sanctity of age, so that even the dead and withered parts are protected from a whole- some pruning. But the new is always suspect, and hence it is sacri- ficed with only enough examination to establish its newness. The danger to which all newer procedures are exposed is so fresh in our minds that it does not need further emphasis. The practical difficulties which stood in the way of the development of visual methods, even before they were hit by the economy wave, and which will persist even after recovery has taken place, deserve a few addi- tional comments. 138 ELEMENTARY Scuoout PRINCIPALS Tho it has been established that visual material suited to particu- lar parts of the curriculum adds much to the effectiveness of teach- ing, it has not yet been determined in detail just what parts of the curriculum may be thus aided or just what materials are best suited to each part. Nor has the adaptation of the various aids to the sue- cessive stages of development of the child been fully worked out. Experiments have shown that aids which are not well adapted some- times fail to improve instruction. The problem of the curriculum in relation to visual aids, therefore, needs further study. The same may be said of method, including under this term the construction and organization of the materials themselves as well as the way they are incorporated into the complete process of instruc- tion. Two isolated examples will illustrate the point. Is it or is it not desirable for the teacher to comment on a motion picture film while it is being shown? This is a disputed matter, with enough opinion or evidence on the two sides to make the question a real one. Again, should films be used in large or small units, or sometimes in large and sometimes in small? The answer has a marked bearing on the general procedure of using films. One of the most formidable obstacles to the full utilization of the potentialities of visual aids lies in the fact that the teacher is not prepared to take advantage of them. The fundamental difficulty is lack of preparation. The fact that the teacher does not know how aids may be used in connection with his subject, that he does not appreciate their advantages, that he does not know how to manipulate projectors, and that he is inhibited by a general feeling of strangeness and the inertia of continuing in accustomed ways, conspire to make the introduction of visual aids difficult. Teachers in service must be given an opportunity to learn their possibilities as well as gain some familiarity with their technic. The oncoming generations of teachers must be taught their importance and use in the teachers college. Neither problem is as yet adequately dealt with. I shall not do more than mention the problem of administrative organization. It will doubtless be treated in the yearbook. I close with the comment that we must expect the use of visual aids, like most other improvements in education, to add to its cost. The notion that we shall be able to save the cost of visual aids because pupils can learn more rapidly with these aids than without them, is fallacious. What other cost can be reduced because of them? Because the pupil learns more rapidly, will he leave school earlier? Assuredly not. Can we dismiss some of the teachers? No. The visual aid does not take the place of the teacher. Can we dispense with any other equip- ment? Not so far as I know. but has it ¢ run the THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 139 We must justify visual aids, not on the ground of money saving but on the ground of the enrichment they afford. When the nation has learned how to manage its resources intelligently it will find that it can afford to pay for an enriched education, and that, in the long run, enriched education will pay, not thru immediate saving, but thru the increased productiveness of its citizens. HE TERM “ visual instruction ” has been loosely and often narrowly interpreted. Many seem to have accepted it as meaning the use of picture projection on an illuminated screen. Furthermore, because of the novelty and great popu- larity of the motion picture, many seemingly extravagant claims have been made for visual instruction, which have not as yet been substantiated by careful experimentation. Indi- viduals who make such sweeping statements as “ Visual in- struction will speed up civilization ten centuries in twenty years” or “ Visual instruction will displace books in our schools ” certainly have failed to keep in mind the fact that genuine learning results only from prolonged purposeful self- activity, in response to the challenging situations of a social and natural environment. Broadly speaking, visual instruction is not, of course, a separate subject nor even a new procedure in the teaching process. It is rather merely a means to an end. Visual instruc- tion simply means the presentation of knowledge to be gained thru the “ seeing experience.” The “ seeing experience ”’ has always been man’s simplest and most natural means of gaining information.—Anna Verona Dorris, Visual Instruction in the Public Schools, Ginn and Co., 1928, p. 6. 140 ELEMENTARY Scuoot PrINcIPALS EDUCATION ENLIVENED Frank Copy Superintendent, Public Schools, Detroit, Michigan HE MOST IMPORTANT AID to teaching a generation ago . the hickory stick. Now its use is prohibited in almost every classroom in this country. It is one of the few aids to teaching considered ineffective today. Recently, some selfish groups have advo- cated the return of public school education to that of our fathers. The question that should be raised with such groups is whether or not this return to former methods will include resurrection of that compelling rod upon which the schoolmaster placed so much reliance. The problems of discipline grow rapidly fewer in the modern progressive public school. As such problems decrease there results a larger amount of time for children and teachers to work together constructively. Natural interests of children are recognized. Teachers understand the needs of children more sympathetically. Teachers know that children differ. They bring to children a wide variety of materials and devices to help them grow in human relationships as well as in formal knowledge. Schools and classrooms become increasingly attractive places in which children may spend a large part of their days. There is a homelike, livable atmosphere that fits a variety of needs. Equipment is adapted to children. Walls are no longer barren and drab. There is an attempt to bring beauty and inspiration into all activities. In themselves, many of the decorations and pieces of equipment now found in most classrooms are fine aids to teaching. Not so long ago the whole business of the school was thought to be drilling children in large amounts of formal knowledge. Most of the teaching was done with books. The rest was dependent upon written blackboard work or oral words of the teacher. We still believe that there is much basic knowledge of a formal kind that has to be learned. But we have found that different children and different people learn the same things in different ways. Teachers use a variety of things to teach the same ideas. Pictures amplify the words of books. Minia- tures and models improve understanding over the pictures in some cases. Trips are made to the actual places to see real objects in some other lessons. Altogether, teachers use many supplemental materials to help children understand the ideas about which they read in their books. The aids to teaching are used generally as additional learning material. Probably one of the reasons for the introduction of many of these aids in schools is that similar devices or plans have been found effec- de ee THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 141 tive in business and industry. Many of the aids used by skilful teachers incorporate the basic principles of commercial advertising. In modern advertising, the picture tells the story. Color helps to draw the attention. The comparatively short printed story in the usual advertisement describes or amplifies the picture. School exhibits are similar in many ways to displays of merchan- dise in stores. Attractiveness helps to heighten the interest of the observer. The display of the actual materials in cases or on open shelves is certainly more interesting than a printed description of the articles offered for sale. Use of real materials in schools helps to give pupils a clearer idea in the same amount of time, probably in less time, than it would take to read about these same things. Many schools build up museums of their own. Articles placed there are either made by children or collected by them thruout the community. This activity makes a fine contact between the home and the community. Children learn that the school is not an isolated institution that has no connection with the rest of their lives. Parents are often interested in the work of their children when they are asked to help in the search for articles to be placed in the school museum. In turn, parents become more interested and cooperative in the activities of the school. As our whole social organization changes, the school changes with it. The school takes over functions formerly cared for by the home and its environment. As industrial conditions change, the school has to change its whole curriculum to adjust to new ways of living and working. Materials and methods used in the school change constantly in an attempt to meet the needs of a rapidly changing social order. A comparison of the materials and methods of business, industry, and the home of today reveals almost a total dissimilarity to those of the same institutions of a generation ago. In the same way, materials and methods of the school have changed during that same time to fit better into the whole organization of the life in which the school is established as an integral part. Many of the general values of aids to teaching now in use are rather easy to discover. Probably the most important value is that derived thru an enrichment of the materials of learning. Just as the early schools were barren in appearance and opportunity judged by present standards, so were they barren in materials for learning. As an example, social science in the elementary grades was the accu- mulation of a series of memorized and incompletely understood facts of geography. Now geography has been extended into social science that deals with a better understanding of man and his social relation- ships, the interdependence of man and his environment, and the 142 ELEMENTARY ScHoot PRINCIPALS necessity for cooperative activity of all kinds. Social science classes use practically all of the different kinds of aids. Geography books are still the basic source of information. Maps of new and better kinds are increasingly important. More pictures and better pictures interpret facts difficult for children to understand. Moving pictures are brought into the classroom to provide even greater reality and interest. Radio programs are utilized to advantage. Materials and products of all kinds are exhibited. Posters are made by children. Models are constructed. Museum materials are collected and mounted for immediate study and future reference. Altogether, the abstract and difficult ideas and discussion of the textbooks are enlivened and reinterpreted in many different ways. The use of many aids provides opportunities for children to learn in their differing ways. Those children who do learn most easily by reading have more books and better books than ever before. Other children learn better with some other kinds of teaching materials. It is quite generally granted that better learning results when pupils are exposed to a wide variety of teaching aids from which they are allowed to choose those which make the greatest individual appeal. A fine example of the use of pictures is found in methods now used to teach beginning reading. Some methods depend almost en- tirely upon association of pictures and words. Children have a speak- ing vocabulary when they enter the first grade. Their speaking vocabularies vary according to the environment in which they have lived. Young children also recognize pictures of things with which they are acquainted. They can apply to these pictures or other tangi- ble objects the words or names from their speaking vocabularies. The next step is quite simply the teaching of the written symbol which represents the picture or object and attaching the word to it. In the later stages of such beginning reading methods, emphasis is changed from the pictures to words and sentences. Even then reading is ex- tended into a wider activity which is closely interrelated with the use of a number of aids to teaching. In teaching arithmetic also it is believed that more is accomplished when the abstract number combinations are made real. Little chil- dren, first learning to add, count and manipulate objects of a concrete kind. Fractions are introduced by dividing real objects into halves and other fractional parts. Drill in addition and substraction is given real life interest by setting up an imitation grocery store in the class- room where purchases are made and computations carried out in con- nection. The list of activities of a real kind is almost as endless in the subject of arithmetic as in any other subject. As the number and type of aids increase and improve in schools, teachers become less di ec m THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 143 likely to teach subjects and more inclined to work with children as human beings. ’ Elementary-school principals constantly improve in their under- standing of the true meaning of supervision. Training programs have pointed attention to the real business of the principal as that of help- ing to improve instruction. Intelligent use of a great number of aids will make a fine school. The aids described in this yearbook do not replace other means of teaching. They enrich the whole teaching program. They simplify the learning processes and reduce the effort required to understand abstract written and oral descriptions. They save time for the teacher in explanation and give him greater oppor- tunities to be human with the children. As principals and teachers discover new and better ways to use existing aids and as they dis- cover new materials and methods for teaching, so will they help to make the school a broader and more closely integrated part of the whole social pattern. dares EDUCATION represents a grouping of educa- tional materials or devices and an organized department of instruction which is based, not upon subjectmatter, but upon a method of presentation. This method has as its essen- tial feature the fact that it belongs to one of the senses. Such a situation is without parallel. We do not have departments of auditory education, of tactual, kinesthetic, gustatory, or olfactory education. What is the cause of this unique position of visual education and of what does visual education consist ? We may get at the fundamental cause of the unusual situa- tion in which visual education finds itself by glancing at its history. Visual education, in the broad sense of the term, is, of course, not new. Models, maps, diagrams, pictures, all have been used for generations.—Frank Nugent Freeman, Visual Education, University of Chicago Press, 1924, p. 4-5. 144 ELEMENTARY Scuoout PRINCIPALS THE NEW DEAL AND VISUAL AIDS Duptey Grant Hays Director Emeritus of Visual Education, Public Schools, Chicago, Illinois DUCATIONAL WORKERS thruout the nation are striving E as never before to avail themselves of the most efficient means of instruction. They realize that the demands of the public to prepare the youth of our communities to take their places in the ranks of noble workers for the good of all call for the best available aids in their teaching endeavors. They agree with President Roosevelt that our schools are not as efficient as they should be. Like him they are willing to try a new deal, and if their experiment does not pro- duce satisfactory results, they, like the President, are willing to make adjustments to meet new conditions. Every day triumphs of human achievement are brought by radio to our ears from all parts of the world. Into our eyes is flashed im- pressive photography of the activities of human beings in science, industry, exploration, manufacture, art, and transportation. The appeals to the mind thru the eye by the display of human achievement at the Century of Progress cannot be forgotten by the millions who were privileged to attend the Fair of 1933 in Chicago. To see those sights millions of attendants spent much time, energy, and money. Had they remained at home, they could have heard the addresses, the choruses, the bands, and the orchestras over their radios, but they would have missed the appeals thru the eye, and that was the impelling reason that brought them to the Fair. They came fo see things and those sights cannot be erased from their memories. Learning thru the senses—Fundamentally, the only way to reach and develop the mind is thru the senses. There must be a reaction of the mind upon the impressions it receives, and this reaction must result in some bodily activity on the part of the receiver. The impres- sion coming thru the senses is the foundation for the reaction. The more pronounced and clear the impressions that are made upon the mind of the learner, the more efficient will be his development. The sense of sight is the most acute, far-reaching, and the quickest of all senses. Thru it, aided by the telescope, the remotest material things are brought into consciousness. The microscope reveals the tiniest things of the universe known to mankind. The eye is the essential gateway thru which these instruments bring the impressions to the mind. Concepts of intermediate things are largely brought to the mind thru sight. Visual appeals, by presenting objects, models, charts, photographs, stereographs, lantern slides, and motion pictures, furnish the pupil wi we ra ou les pr re’ ar to si¢ nc se in to ar ar ca st th al be Ww at \w \w —_—_— —- lOO THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 145 with impressions for which language is simply a symbol. Whether we consider language in connection with literature, history, geog- raphy, or science, the foundation consists of sense impressions. With- out numerous, first-hand impressions words are practically meaning- less—hence the difficulty which pupils have in understanding the printed page. We believe that slow progress in school work, and often failure, result from faulty presentation of fundamental impressions, which are essential to all study. The laborious efforts sometimes put forth in the schoolroom to draw out expressions from the pupils, suggest to us that teachers have failed to lay a foundation thru clear impres- sions of those things they wish the children to discuss. Visual instruction provides the concrete element for fundamental notions in educational work. The great field so essential for good school work is that of training the powers of observation, and develop- ing the ability of interpreting correctly. To lead children literally to see things and to trace the relationship between causes and effects are two of the great basic ideas we should not forget. These thoughts are emphasized in visual instruction as in no other way. The value of visual instruction—To throw light upon all subjects required in the curriculum—in other words, to illustrate—is a prime notion underlying visual instruction. The Century of Progress was a demonstration of visual instruction on an enormous scale. Let us consider impressive lessons therefrom. In the visits we made to the Century of Progress, we were deeply impressed by the many observers at the various booths wherein were being shown motion picture films portraying the production of so- called raw or basic materials, their harvesting and processing in all stages, and their final distribution to ultimate consumers. The fact that the beholders could see human beings and machinery in action, and fashioning the materials into articles of usefulness, seemed to be the center of interest for both old and young. The masses of people before such booths were absorbed in watching the film demonstrations. We were led to recall schoolroom experiences where visual aids were consistently used. Keeping in mind the fact that we are now addressing ourselves to those engaged in teaching, we wish to revert for a few moments to classroom experience wherein suitable films were used as the basis for lesson presentation, development, and intel- ligent understanding of the subjectmatter under consideration. The question had been raised in recent years as to whether or not there was a gain in teaching efficiency enough to justify the cost in time, energy, and money in equipping schoolrooms for using films in teach- 2 146 ELEMENTARY Scuoon PriIncipaus ing. The answer was sought by a very wealthy man who was willing to defray all expenses attendant upon a worthwhile experiment cover- ing a nationwide group of schools and for a period of time a to instruction in geography, science, industry, and health in suitable grades for such study. The lessons were given daily Hom ten con- secutive weeks to eight classes in each of twelve cities. The same carefully outlined subjectmatter was presented to all of the classes, but one-half of them had the presentation by means of suitably pre- pared films, while the other half did not have the film lessons. The classroom teachers of these groups had nothing to do with outlining the lessons, preparation of examination questions on the same, or marking the answers. It was a long, thoro experiment and final re- sults showed that the film-taught classes excelled in comprehension of the lesson contents more than 24 percent over those not using the film method. Their sustained interest in the lessons was marked to a gratifying degree.* Such a percentage of gain in efficiency in teaching should enlist our efforts to bring about a new deal in school work. Any industrial institution that can bring about such a gain in output by a change in its operation will not delay long in putting in new equipment to attain such an end. Special values of scientific and industrial films— © a re fro qi 80q e781 . . . . . . . . wimnaesnur 31% a. ee ee ee TT. 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In the majority of cases these devices were obtained from the public libraries or the local museums. (5) One hundred and ninety-five principals indicated that help could be secured from non-school agencies but the particular type of aid was not specified. Keeping abreast of progressive tendencies in the development of aids to teaching—How do principals keep their schools informed as to the nature and the use of the various new developments in the field of aids to teaching? The replies to this general question are given in Table 8. TABLE 8S—MeEans UseEp To Keep Scnoot ABREAST OF MopeERN VISUAL AIDS 56 Schools 171 Schools 139 Schools 366 Schools . over 1000 500-1000 under 500 all sizes Means i Num-| Per- |Num-| Per- |Num-| Per- | Num-| Per- ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) No special means.......... 4 \ 8 | 4.7 2 1.4 14 3.8 Principal keeps up.........| 31 | 55.4 | 84] 49.1 71 | 51.1 | 186 | 50.8 Reports and bulletins.......| 35 | 62.5 | 94] 55.0 | 80] 57.6 | 209 | 57.1 Committee of teachers...... 20 | 35.7 63 | 36.8 41 | 29.5 | 124 | 33.9 Each teacher helps......... 15 | 26.8} 59] 34.5 56 | 40.3 | 180 | 35.5 Intervisitation............. 23 | 41.1 62 | 36.3 51 | 36.7 | 136 | 37.2 Miscellaneous.............. 1 1.8 10 5.8 9 6.5 20 5.5 It is interesting to note the following points in Table 8: (1) Fifty-seven percent of the principals utilize various professional reports and bulletins. (2) In 51 percent of the cases the principal himself assumes major responsibility for keeping informed. (3) About one-third of the principals reported each of the following procedures in insuring modern practises in their schools: (a) intervisitation of teachers, (b) dependence upon each teacher to keep up, and (c) activities of a committee of teachers. (4) Almost 4 percent of the principals reported that they made no special effort to keep their school abreast of new aids to teaching. (5) Principals in the large schools appear to depend more upon bulletins and reports than do executives of small units. The latter, however, reported more frequently that reliance was placed on each teacher keeping himself informed. The course of study and devices in teaching—Principals receiving the inquiry form were asked to indicate whether or not their courses of study suggested the use of specific aids to teaching. The replies are summarized in Table 9. Points to note in Table 9 include the following: (1) Almost 92 percent of the principals reported that the courses of study in their communities specified the use of various aids to teaching. Half of these indicated that devices were recommended in all of their courses. 158 ELEMENTARY Scuoot PRINCIPALS (2) Seven percent reported that their courses made no recommendations as to the use of aids to teaching. (3) Relatively more of the administrators of large schools over one thousand in enrolment reported “devices specified in all subjects.” There is great proba- bility that these large schools are in the biggest cities where there is likely to be a detailed and printed course of study. TABLE 9—Extent Tuat Alps To TEACHING ARE SPECIFIED BY CouRSES oF Stupy | 56 Schools | 171 Schools 139 Schools 366 Schools | 500-1000 | over 1000 | | under 500 | all sizes Answer Sa | “ seach hel Num-| Per- | Num-}| Per- | Num-| Per- | Num-| Per- ber cent ber cent ber cent ber | cent (1) (2) | (@) | (5) (6) (7) | (8) (9) $e | ? No.. a ae tenes > acd 1; 1.8 12 7.0 13 9.4) 26 aon Yes in a few subjects | 20) 35.7 | 78 | 45.6) 69 | 49.6 | 167 | 45.6 Yes in all subjects....... 34 | 60.7 80 | 46.8 55 | 39.6 | 169 | 46.2 No anewef.........:5. | 1s | 1 6 2 1.4 | t cs Summary and conclusions—Three hundred and sixty-six princi- pals of schools located in the various states, Alaska, and Hawaii, answered an inquiry form on aids and devices in teaching. Some significant points were as follows: (1) Maps, globes, phonograph records, pictures, charts, slides, posters, and exhibits were (in this order) the devices used most regularly by schools of all sizes. Large schools enrolling over one thougand pupils reported more frequent] the use of motion pictures, sound films, and other equipment requiring costly projection devices. Would it be possible thru a centralization of equipment to provide small schools with a greater variety of aids? (2) About 50 percent of the principals reported a special interest in slides and still films. Not more than one-third of the principals reported a special interest in any other kind of device. Interest in “sound movies” was reported by less than 2 percent. Apparently a large proportion of principals have no special interests in the field of devices in teaching. Does this imply a lack of interest in the specific and detailed aspects of instruction? (3) School systems supply regularly such common devices as globes and maps. Less than 50 percent of the systems provide such devices as slides, phonograph records, pictures, and silent movies. Does this indicate a tendency for the purchasing of supplies to fall into fixed grooves and ruts? (4) About 47 percent of the principals reported that pictures were obtained from the teacher, the P. T. A., and sources other than the local school system. Other devices (posters, phonograph records, exhibits, charts, and aquariums) were supplied by the outside agencies in about one case in four. This fact seems to link up with the implication of the previous paragraph—that the administration falls into ruts when it comes to supplying schools with teaching aids and that non-official sources must be used to break down traditional practises. (5) Pupils obtain or make posters as aids to teaching according to 51 percent of the principals. Also, in more than one-third of the schools the pupils make or obtain exhibits, charts, and pictures. Types of devices which might be obtained or made by pupils in greater numbers than reported include slides, maps, schoo! museums, and aquariums. (6) chief order device (7) leafle Abou instal made Does in de (8) atten perce a his inter T to f givi teac enol pro THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 159 (6) The public library, the local museum, and the school department are the chief sources of devices for most schools. Pictures, charts, and slides (in this order) are the devices most frequently borrowed by schools. Relatively few devices were reported as borrowed from business or industry. (7) About 60 percent of the principals depend upon professional bulletins and leaflets to keep them informed as to developments in the field of aids to teaching. About one-third of the principals expect the teacher to help himself—in many instances probably with the principal’s guidance. About 4 percent of the principals made no special effort to keep their schools abreast of the new developments. Does this link up with the fact that a number of principals had no special interest in devices? (8) A majority of principals reported that their course of study gave some attention to the aids to teaching which should accompany the content. Seven percent of the courses were reported as not really dealing with devices. Is there a hiatus here which might be taken up if more principals developed a special interest in devices? The present study has tried to isolate certain specific devices and to focus attention upon particulars. To some this will seem to be giving attention to the mechanics, “ tricks,” and routine aspects of teaching. This point is developed elsewhere in the yearbook. It is enough to say here that no skilled workman ever made a mistake in providing himself with selected, sharpened, and sufficient tools. N SELECTING MATERIALS, one should bear in mind the particular type or types of contribution each item is qualified to make to geographic training. Pictures and actual landscapes contribute chiefly by giving concrete concepts of observable cultural and natural features that are elements in geographic thinking. Maps contribute chiefly by giving ideas of location, distance, direction, elevation, slope, size, and distributions of cultural and natural features. Graphs and statistics contribute chiefly ideas of quantitative comparisons relating to cultural and natural items. Reading matter con- tributes in some measure in all the aforementioned ways, and may have high utility as.a tool for directing the use of the materials presented. It is valuable as a check on informa- tion gained from other sources; it supplements information acquired elsewhere; and it aids in unifying, summarizing, and fixing groups of impressions gained by various means.— Edith Putnam Parker, ** Investigating Miscellaneous Aspects of the Teaching of Geography,” Thirty-second Yearbook, Na- tional Society for the Study of Education, Public School Publishing Co., 1935, p. 162. 160 ELEMENTARY Scuoo.t PRINCIPALS SUPPLYING AIDS IN CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS* \* INQUIRY FORM on aids to teaching was sent in September 1933 to the 320 superintendents of schools in cities over 30,000 in population. One hundred and ninety-six or 61 percent re- turned the blanks with the data requested. The purpose of the inquiry was to determine whether or not those in administrative authority in school systems were making system- atic efforts to encourage the use of aids to teaching. If so, what agencies in the school system supply these aids? What sum is ex- pended annually to support the agency or agencies? Which aids appear to be used most frequently and with greatest effectiveness ? What do superintendents think principals should do further to enrich the curriculum thru aids and devices ? Tue ANALYSIS OF THE Data The replies of the superintendents to the inquiry will be sum- marized briefly under each question. What agency or agencies are organized as a part of the school sys- tem for the purpose of supplying teachers with visual and auditory aids to teaching?—In other words, do superintendents * believe that various aids are so valuable that a distributing agency in the schools is necessary? How far have the city school systems advanced in establishing departments of visual instruction? Which agencies within the system can be used to supply teachers with devices? Data bearing on all of these questions are shown in Table 1. Points shown in Table 1 include the following: (1) Almost 30 percent of those replying to the inquiry reported that they had departments of visual education, and one-third reported central school libraries. (2) Visual education departments were reported most frequently in the cities over 100,000 in population. The central school library dominated in cities of less than 100,000 population. (3) School system museums were reported by about one in five of those school systems in cities over 100,000 returning the inquiry form. This form of organiza- tion was relatively unimportant in cities under 100,000 in population. (4) A decentralized plan (usually meaning a room or library in each school) was reported on 11 percent of the blanks returned. If this item had appeared in the checklist on the inquiry form no doubt some of those reporting “ none ” would have checked this item. * Prepared for the Editorial Committee by the Research Division of the National Education Association. ?Some of the blanks were filled out by assistant superintendents, directors of research, and supervisors—evidently at the superintendent’s request. an eve pel bas rer Ti A & C& THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 161 (5) Twelve percent of the replies reported a heterogeneous array of bureaus and committees as supplying aids to teachers. Doubtless some of these will eventually develop into centralized departments of visual instruction or similar permanent agencies. TABLE 1—AGENcIES ORGANIZED AS A REGULAR Part or City ScHoou SysTEeMs To Suppty Aips To TEACHING 65 Cities | 70 Cities 61 Cities over 100,000 | 50,000-100,000 | 30,000-50,000 | Total group in population | in population | in population Agency Num-| Per- |Num-| Per- |Num-| Per- |Num-| Per- ber cent | ber cent ber cent ber cent (1) (2) (3) | (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) Department of visual re 23 35 19 a7 13 21 55 28 Central school library....... 18 28 | 25 36 | 21 34 | 64 33 School system museum... .. 11 17| 3 4 2 3 16 8 Decentralized organization in each school........... 6 9 8 11 Y 11 | 21 11 Miscellaneous bureaus, committees, etce..........} Il 17 7 10 6 10 24 12 a ai eS 20 31 33 47 | 29 48 | 82 42 Read table: Twenty-three of the sixty-five cities over 100,000 in population reported departments of visual education. This number is 35 percent of the sixty-five cities. Percents are calculated on the basis of the number of replies rather than the totals to columns 2, 4, 6, and 8 because several cities reported more than one type of agency. How many employees are required to administer the agencies reported ?—Superintendents were asked to indicate the number of each type of employee required to manage the agencies reported in Table 1. As shown in Table 2 data were supplied on both full-time and part-time employees. Points of interest shown in Table 2 are as follows: (1) The agencies in the largest cities (those over 100,000 population) have technicians and mechanics not found in the smaller cities. (2) Most of the employees in the cities over 100,000 devote their full time to the work, while in the smaller cities the various workers give only part time to the administration of visual and auditory aids. (3) On the average the agencies reported do not employ a large personnel: cities over 100,000 population, about six employees; cities 50,000-100,000 popula- tion, about two employees; and cities 30,000-50,000 population, about twe em- ployees. These averages include both full-time and part-time workers. What sum of money is included in the annual budget to pay current expenses of the agencies?—An attempt was made to ascertain the approximate current annual cost of the agencies supplying teachers with visual and auditory aids. Apparently the question is not a simple one for superintendents to answer. Of the cities over 100,000 in population only twenty-seven out of sixty-five gave estimates of current costs. These estimates ranged 162 ELEMENTARY Scuoow PRINCIPALS TABLE 2—NvuMBER AND TYPE OF EMPLOYEES IN AGENCIES Suppiyine Alps To » haere ScHooL TEACHERS 45 Cities 37 Cities | 32 Cities over 50,000- 30,000- Total group 100,000 | 100,000 | 50,000 | 114 cities . | in population | in population | in population | with agencies Type of Position |wit agencies*) with agencies | with agencies | ——————— es cmneemegecamnaan — ‘ews! Num- | Num-| Num- | Num- Num- | Num- | Num- | ber ber | ber ber | ber ber ber ber | FT| PT+| FT | PT | FT | PT | FT | Ptr (1) |@/@)|@)} oo) 6) |) ®) ® ae 23; 7| 10] 11 7; 10| 45] 28 ee ee 70 8 5 14 2 9 | 77 31 Stenographer............. ical oe 8 | 2 am; «(6 4 18 | 23 eee 14 | 6 13 1 11 15 30 Technician......... 17 17 Mechanic........ Pole es he 7 Se - — 7 a Librarian........... Rear e: 1 | 3! 71 6 1) 19) ‘8 Miscellaneous... . . . ee et 87 | 4 ee 3 ee a 239 | 29| 211 56. 30. 35. 290. 120 Average........... '5.3| .6] .661/1.5! .9|1.1]2.5/ 1.0 Read tc table: wn ‘the sixty-five cities over 100,000 in catalan there are twenty- weight full-time and seven part-time directors of agencies supplying teaching aids. « The total number of cities with agencies is obtained by subtracting the number reporting ‘‘none’’ in Table 1 from the total number of replies. + FT, full-time. ¢ PT, part-time. from less than $1000 to more than $20,000, with a median at approximately $7500. In the group of cities of 50,000 to 100,000 population only twenty out of seventy attempted estimates. These figures ranged from less than $1000 to $15,000 with a median at $2500. In the cities of 30,000 to 50,000 population only fourteen out of sixty-one cities attempted to give estimates as to current annual expenditures. The range of these estimates was from less than $1000 to $10,000 with a median at about $2500. The above figures are from scattered communities and are probably estimates in most cases. Apparently the agencies reported in Table 1 are more clearly evolved administratively than they are financially. Superintendents seemed uncertain as to where a line might be drawn in the records of actual costs. For these reasons the ranges and medians are probably only generally indicative of actual conditions. What aids to teaching are most frequently supplied by the agen- cves?—In other words, what aids or devices are the teachers most likely to ask for? What devices do actual experiences seem to indi- cate are most useful’ Data on these questions are shown to some extent by the summary in Table 3. in ¢ and (! freq gray (3 lant (2 the mer mol exh (i tion has cent ten to TuHirtTEENTH YKARBOOK 163 TABLE 3—Atps anv Devices Most FREQUENTLY PROVIDED TO TEACHERS BY THE SCHOOL SysTEM AGENCIES 44 Cities 35 Cities 31 Cities ee over 100,000 50,000-100,000 30,000-50,000 otal group con saan * ea | 110 cities Aide ood Devic | a naa. | Sees | Sigeeeietes | with aaencter Num-| Per- |Num-| Per- |Num-| Per- |Num-| Per- ber cent ber cent ber cent | ber cent (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) | (6) (7) (8) (9) ee 26 | 59 30 86 27 87 83 75 L ae tees 27 61 14 40 | 19 61 60 55 eS eee .| 24 55 16 45) #15 48 55 50 Globes....... PE ee 18 41 19 54 14 45 | 51 46 Lantern slides 39 89 32 91 | 27 87 98 89 Maps...... a 18 41 21 60 21 68 60 55 Museum collections 21 18 8 23 7 23 36 33 Pictures. oss 29 66 31 89 27 87 87 79 Phonograph ree ords 15 34 21 60 18 58 & 49 Posters... . 17 39 14 410) 19 61 50 45 Silent movies. . . Serrkeiece aa 84 23 66 18 58 78 71 Sound movies 3 7 t 11 2 6 9 8 Radio... . 7 16 12 34 14 15 33 30 Still films. ................ 6 14 3 9 2 6 11 10 Stereographs pisses *- 5 11 3 9 re 8 7 Miscellaneous S bekathitokud 6 14 1 3 } 13 11 10 Read table: Of the forty-four superintendents of cities over 100,000 population who answered the question, thirty-nine or 89 percent reported lantern slides as the device or aid to teaching most fre- quently supplied to teachers by school system agencies. Percents are figured on the basis of the number of su erintendents answering the specific question. he number of cities in each size group answering this question. b While 114 cities reported agencies which supplied devices, only 110 indicated the kinds of aids most frequently distributed. Points of particular interest in Table 3 are as follows: (1) In cities over 100,000 in population the devices reported most frequently in order of mention were: lantern slides, silent movies, pictures, charts, books, and exhibits. (2) In the second group of cities (50,000-100,000) the devices reported most frequently were: lantern slides, pictures, books, silent movies, maps, and phono- graph records. : (3) In the smaller cities the aids to teaching reported most frequently were: lantern slides, books, pictures, maps, charts, and posters. (4) Apparently the lantern slide is the outstanding device for distribution by the centralized agencies of the school systems. Next, but somewhat less frequently mentioned, are pictures, books, and silent movies. Other devices mentioned by more than 50 percent of the entire group of cities include: maps, charts, and exhibits. (5) Radio sets appear with greater frequency in the smaller cities. This condi- tion probably means that in the cities over 100,000 in population each school has its own set, while in the smaller cities instruments are sent out from the central agency as needed. What aids or devices are most valuable and effective ?—Superin- tendents were asked to list the six aids or devices which they believed to be most useful in their school systems. It was thought that this i { ! \ 164 ELEMENTARY Scuoot PrIncrIPats might give a clue to devices which, tho mentioned less frequently in Table 4, were used with special skill in certain cities. The summary to this question is given in Table 4. TABLE 4—Atns or Devices Reported As Most VALUABLE AND EFFEcTIVE IN City ScHooi SysTeMs 53 Cities 56 Cities 48 Cities | Total aroun over 100,000 | 50,000-100,000 | 30,000-50,000 | “ps5! Broul in population? | in population | in population Aids and Devices Mito: Wiel ie Dain Num-| Per- |Num-| Per- | Num-| Per- Num-| Per- ber cent ber cent ber cent | ber cent (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) | (9) A Re: 29| 55] 40/ 71] 33| 69| 102] 65 Bulletins, leaflets, and printed materials.........| 4 8 1 2 5 10; 10) 6 I eh pa a) 6 nods bs'G--o go 0 St 23 43 20 36 18 38 61 39 NS Siow ad's. hia gan ays 9 17 2 4 2 4 13 8 og 5 oda Sd 6 b-sie aan 20 38 | 20 36 18 38 | 58 37 as xapacys waited 17} 32| 21| 38] 10} 21| 48| 31 RTE fbi sind a.dw 6.0 0ae Ke 1 2 v ais ? a a oe Lantern slides............. 44! 3! 44] 79| 33] 69] 121 | 77 | I ei 3 6 2 4 4 l ni. Oy Se OES 29} 55| 40] 71] 36| 75 | 105| 67 Museum collections........| 21 40 13 23 2 | 4| 36 23 AAs cap ddd ww wn eis 35 66) 41 73 | 32) 67) 108) 69 Phonograph records. ....... 15 28 | 25 45; 15| 31] 55| 35 Posters and cartoons....... s 15 13 23 13 27 | 34 22 aR 10! 19| 18| 32] 17| 35! 45| 29 Silent movies.............. 34 64 | 29 52 21 44 | 84 54 Sound movies.............. 5 9 4 z ; a 6 IS we oon Sins wine bel’ 9 17 2 4 1 2} 12 8 i ee 9 17 5 9 3 6| 17 11 Miscellaneous.............. 14 26 3 5 8 17 25 16 | Read table: Twenty-nine or 55 percent of the fifty-three superintendents in the largest cities who answered the question included books as among the six most valuable devices used in their school systems. Percents are figured on the basis of the number of superintendents answering the specific question. * The number of cities in each size group answering this question. Of interest in connection with Table 4 are the following points: (1) In the cities over 100,000 in population the devices mentioned most fre- quently as effective and valuable are the following: lantern slides, pictures, silent movies, books, and maps. (2) In the cities of 50,000 to 100,000 in population the devices mentioned most frequently are as follows: lantern slides, pictures, books, maps, and silent movies. (3) In the smaller cities the aids to teaching listed more frequently are the following: maps, books, lantern slides, and pictures. (4) For the entire-group of cities the order in which the devices were reported as most useful was as follows: lantern slides, pictures, maps, books, and silent movies. There is more than a casual interest in comparing the results of Tables 3 and 4. In the first of these tables we have listed the devices most frequently furnished to teachers and in Table 4 the devices be th pl ar pé be E Ir S ci te THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 165 believed by superintendents to be most effectively used. On the whole, then, the superintendents believe that the devices (lantern slides and pictures) most frequently supplied to teachers by the central agencies are those most effectively used. Books and silent movies are believed to be supplied somewhat in excess of their effective use. Maps ap- parently are believed to be rather valuable. Charts and exhibits are believed to be supplied in proportion to their effectiveness. What can elementary-school principals do to enrich instruction thru the use of many devices?—Superintendents were asked to write on the inquiry blank specific suggestions as to how principals might improve instruction thru the use of devices. Only 103 of the 196 blanks contained any suggestions. After these comments were classi- fied under general headings they were summarized as shown in Table 5. TABLE 5—SvuacGEsTIons BY SUPERINTENDENTS OF WAY IN WHICH PRINCIPALS Can ImpROvVE INstTRUCTION THRU AIDS TO TEACHING ai | as a 35 Cities 33 Cities 35 Cities over 100,000 |50,000-100,000 | 30,000-50,000 | Total group in population | in population | in population Suggestions ae Se — Num- | Per- |Num-| Per- |Num-| Per- | Num-/| Per- ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent (1) (2) | (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) Encourage pupil activity in | making and using devices. Inspire and encourage teachers to use aids in | their teaching............ 17 49 Ue 52 9 26 43 42 Organize within the building | so that teachers will be able to use the available | aids with maximum effectiveness............. 16 46 6 18 9 26 31 30 Keep informed as to availa- ble devices and best ee 12 34 3 9 4 11 19 18 Purchase or otherwise acquire aids for the teachers to use é Supervise the use of aids... . 3 9 5 15 9 26 17 Thru meetings and confer- ences help teachers un- derstand how to use aids. . 15 3 9 8 8 uo —_ w w vo) w w “I jee) Oo mb ~10 bo or) vo) ve) 20 “J Read table: Seventeen superintendents or 49 percent of those answering the question for the largest cities thought that principals should do more to encourage teachers to use aids and devices in their teaching. Percents are figured on the basis of the number of superintendents answering the specific question. ’ @ The number of cities in each size group answering this question. 166 ELEMENTARY Scuoot PriIncrpats Points of interest in Table 5 are as follows: (1) It is rather amazing that only a little over half of the superintendents who returned the inquiry form had specific suggestions to make to principals. (2) Superintendents in the cities over 100,000 in population urged principals (a) to inspire and to encourage teachers, (b) to organize the administrative machinery within each school to insure effective use of devices, and (c) to keep informed as to available aids. (3) Superintendents in the largest cities placed the inspiration and encourage- ment of the teachers first, but followed second with the suggestion that principals should “ purchase or otherwise acquire aids for teachers to use.” (4) It is a point for interesting speculation that the possibility of the pupils making devices was suggested only by cities under 100,000 in population. SumMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS An inquiry on the management and the use of teaching devices was sent to about three hundred cities over 30,000 in population. About 61 percent returned the blanks with the questions partially or wholly answered. It appears from these replies that centralized agencies have been established in about two-thirds of the city school systems for the ad- ministration of various aids to teaching. These agencies most fre- quently established in order of preference are: (1) department of visual education, (2) central school library, and (3) school system museum. On the basis of the replies these agencies average about $7500 annually for current expenses in the cities over 100,000 in popula- tion, and they cost on the average about $2500 per year in the cities between 100,000 and 30,000 population. These figures are acceptable only as general estimates. In the largest cities about six persons give all or part of their time to the centralized agencies engaged in administering the aids to teaching. In the cities under 100,000 in population about two employees on the average are required. Lantern slides and pictures are the aids most frequently supplied by the central agencies and also those considered most valuable by superintendents. As next steps for the enrichment of instruction thru devices super- intendents urge principals (1) to inspire and to encourage teachers to use more devices, (2) to organize within each school for the effec- tive use of aids, and (3) to acquire more devices for teachers to use. me tak ma 10 alc effi of Th wo pu ble of wr hei cat att su] Wwo bu tio res tio cla fon) ~I THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 1 GETTING THE FACULTY MACHINE MINDED Fioyp G. Hork Principal, Longfellow School, Teaneck, New Jersey HE FACULTY of a school is usually perturbed when faced Tits the problem of using mechanical equipment for increasing the efficiency of its teaching aids. Average teachers are not mechanically minded and one cannot expect those so constituted to take the initiative in mastering the intricacies of labor-saving machines. The knowledge of the service that these machines can give does not encourage the daily use of them by the majority of teachers. How can the principal get his faculty to approach these “ monsters” and to make them servants? The faculty usually hopes to have the ma- chines operated by someone other than themselves. Of course there are those who never wish to tackle anything entailing any effort or extra work. It is not the writer’s purpose to discuss that phase of the problem, but rather, to discuss how to guide the “ open-minded ” members of the staff in the task of learning the fundamentals of operating labor-saving machines. Teaching the use of the mimeograph—The mimeograph requires no apology for its appearance on the “‘ preferred list ” of mechanical aids. Before its use in the schools it had increased the administrative efficiency of the industrial world. So its use in the schools is a matter of applying business methods to increase our “ producing power.” The mimeograph has innumerable uses: the printing of tests, seat- work, pictures, teaching forms, and the school paper. For the latter purpose alone it would be worth its initial expense. It is indispensa- ble for printing assignments developed by the teacher who is desirous of teaching thru individual methods. The usefulness of the type- writer as a supplementary aid to the mimeograph merits its inclusion here. The speedograph and duplicator are also of value. The first step, in my estimation, in getting the faculty to use dupli- cating equipment, is to do the work for them and create the helpful attitude so necessary in launching the project. Of course, this pre- supposes on the part of the principal or the one assisting him in the work, a knowledge of not only the pedagogical value of the equipment but, equally important, proficiency in its operation and manipula- tion. Many teachers who would use duplicators are surprised at the results achieved and the speed of production. There comes a realiza- tion that here is something that would be of inestimable value in the classroom. Soon, those with initiative and ambition will ask how to 168 EvLemMentary Scuoot PrIncrPats do this work themselves. It is here that the first opportunity is afforded to start them on the road of self-help. In the writer’s experience it is important not to attempt to help more than one teacher at a time and by all means not to teach every- thing about the machine in one lesson. Too many times teachers have been discouraged by the number of intricacies of the equipment whereas there are but few fundamental things to know about the handling of any duplicating machinery. At first there appears to the novice that there is a great deal to learn and to do because of the gadgets which appear and disappear. The instructor should carefully explain intricacies, a few at a time. Furthermore most of the work should at first be done by him, the teacher looking on and assisting only in little things. In all cases the instructor, tho he does not need to be an expert, must have sufficient knowledge so that the problems which arise can be answered and the necessary mechanical adjust- ments made to carry on the work. Secure the confidence of the teacher by actually being present and doing as much as the ability of the pupil requires. Let the teacher see that you are only too glad to help and are interested in having him master the operation of the machine. To do this requires con- siderable time on the instructor’s part, but he is well repaid when eventually the faculty utilizes the equipment in doing a creditable piece of work. When a teacher has become proficient, he can be asked to instruct others. Some teachers are more at ease if a fellow-worker does the teaching without the principal present to supervise the procedure. When insurmountable difficulties are encountered the principal should go cheerfully to the teachers’ aid and make light of their mistakes. Encouragement is important at this point, and the teachers react just as the childien in their classes. It should be emphatically repeated, however, that the individual, learning to use a duplicating machine, be taught only the fundamentals, as the more technical part can be acquired later. In all probability the average teacher may never need it—so why burden him and make the learning more complicated / When the individual has acquired the general principles and seems to be well on the road of self-help, by all means let him alone to work it out for himself. Suppose he does make a mistake and does spoil some work. Who has not spoiled some material when beginning in a new field? Once the teacher has been shown how to manipulate the duplicator, doing the work for him will serve only to deaden his interest and to lengthen the period of dependence on others. Let him run into difficulties. Experience is often the best teacher. Necessity is not only “ the mother of invention ”—it brings about the personal ex an of pu of of ci] we THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 169 experiences that result ultimately in the acquisition of a proficiency in the use of tools. Let the person see the results of his own work and he will be aware of the need for further knowledge in the mastery of these desirable tools. Teaching the use of motion picture equipment—Sometime ago we purchased a motion picture projector for our school. When the matter of its use was brought before a faculty meeting, the general opinion of the teachers was that they would be most happy to have the prin- cipal operate the machine for them. Many were relieved when they were assured that assistance was to be given them. No more was said until the machine arrived and was put into use. Then “ good old inquisitiveness ” came to the rescue. Inquiries came as to why the teachers could not learn to operate the projector. This interest was what was needed. Before long some volunteered to undergo the necessary training and the instructor was ready to begin his work. The first things to do are to get the projector in good running order and to show the teacher how to start and to stop it. It is to be expected that the novice will not at first learn all that is required, but he will get the essential ideas. At this point the writer deliberately leaves the room—thus trying to create a feeling of “do or die.” This apparent “ brutality” is absolutely necessary, as one must develop self-reliance in those who are to operate equipment independently. After this step, each teacher should be taught individually as one hesitates to let a co-worker see his seeming stupidity. After having assisted in the various steps of preparing the film, adjusting the speed, and fixing the focus, it is well to allow the teacher to go thru the procedure without further suggestions. When a mistake occurs, show why it happened. Do not expect to have him tell what caused the difficulty for if the learner really knew he would not have per- mitted it to happen in the first place. Analyze the situation in a manner that avoids offended feelings. Later have the teacher take the projector to the classroom in order to give him the opportunity of “doing” alone without the close scrutiny of the principal. The main point here is to encourage confidence in its use rather than uncertainty thru fear of making mistakes. Teaching the use of the stereopticon—The use of the stereopticon is not as difficult to learn as the motion picture projector. Yet this machine is one of the greatest helps in classroom instruction. Any teacher can be taught to insert the plug in the electrical outlet, to put the slides correctly into the machine, and then to focus the lenses. After some practise in setting up the projector and inserting slides into the frame the instructor should allow the “ beginner ” to experi- 170 ELEMENTARY Scuoont Princrpars ment alone. Again the writer repeats, give the teachers experience, or else they never acquire confidence and independence. An easy way to get the faculty to use this apparently “ formidable ” machine is to give a class demonstration with slides chosen by the teachers. The principal should do only the mechanical work and not the teaching. Why? Almost every teacher dislikes to be known as helpless, especially in the eyes of his principal or the other teachers. After the demonstration, the teacher will usually ask how to do the projecting as well as the lecturing and teaching. He prefers to be alone and, with knowledge of how to manipulate the machine, will feel less self-conscious about the teaching. Often a teacher will train a pupil to operate the stereopticon. This skill can be acquired by children of the first grade. By making the manipulation of the projector a series of routine steps these little helpers can do them well. Since this is true, it is obvious that the average teacher, with a desire to progress in his work, can learn with ease how to use the stereopticon in the classroom. Conclusion—The excellent libraries of films and slides made by various agencies for educational purposes are of inestimable value to a teaching program. Without a working knowledge of the ma- chines requisite to the use of these aids in teaching, there is no value in knowing that these things exist. Without a complete knowledge of the use of visual equipment, such aids cannot be made a part of curriculum experiences. It is only with these machines that we are able to have a program which encourages the child to desire more knowledge and to seek the real thing that has been pictured before his eves. After all, “ seeing is believing.” Every possible means should be used to encourage the faculty to become machine minded. Only then will they realize the vast re- sources that are at their disposal. These materials, in many instances, are so well organized that little effort is needed for presentation by the teacher. The teachers ‘ must be shown,” and rightly so. It takes definite organization and ability on the part of the principal to help others with mechanical phases of teaching technic. Are we, in the teaching field, ready to admit that we are growing too old to see the light of new educational standards and new teach ing technics? It is self-evident that progress is realized only thru those individuals who, eager for the acquisition of better tools, ap- praise each new device, and, finding one of value, take the initiative to use it in the schools. th he te th te ay THirteEENtH Y KARBOOK 171 MAKING AIDS AVAILABLE WITHIN THE SCHOOL ELLA Gross Principal, Public School 133, Brooklyn, New York OW MANY PRINCIPALS have heard teachers complain that visual and other aids are not readily available even in well- equipped schools? A typical conversation among teachers goes something as follows: “Of course we believe in aids to teaching and we should like to use them regularly, but ..... oi “ But it’s such a nuisance to get the material.” “Yes, and then to return it to the supply room.” “Tf you want to use slides it is so difficult to set up the projector.” “ Yes—and so difficult to fit the use of aids into your classroom plans.” Such objections must be faced by every principal who believes that the use of visual and auditory aids enriches instruction. No matter how many aids are available they tend to collect dust unless the teachers can use them effectively and conveniently. In attacking this problem of internal management within our school the principal’s office has assumed full responsibility. We have under- taken to deliver to every classroom the materials and equipment appropriate for the instruction of each week. Preparing card indexes Our first problem was to select for every grade the set of slides or films which conformed with the term plan of the week. In our term plans, each subject is arranged by weeks. It was a laborious but relatively simple matter to combine each sub- ject by weeks for all grades on cards (Set A), as follows: (1) For the first week of nature study First grade—Seasonal changes Second grade—Seasonal changes Third grade—Seasonal changes Fourth grade—Seasonal changes Fifth grade—Household insects Sixth grade—Seasonal changes—eclipse, equinox, ete. (2) For the first week in geography 4A—Milk, cows, how we live 4B—Poles, Equator, Eskimos, Congo 5A—Gulf of Mexico, Atlantic and Pacific 5B—South central states and industries 6A—Canada, Labrador, Newfoundland 6B—Europe, general. (3) For the first week in history 4A—Hudson River, Hendrik Hudson 4B—Norsemen, Viking ships 5A—Columbus, Indians, explorers 5B—Explorers and discoverers 6A—Original thirteen states 6B—Life in the South—plantations, customs, ete. 172 ELEMENTARY Scuoont PrINcIPALs Consulting the museum catalog we made another set of cards (Set B) for each subject. Each card represents one group of slides and looks like this: Nature The seasons—fourth grade American Museum of Natural History The various catalogs were dealt with in similar fashion, and as additions are made to the catalogs new cards are made out and filed. Sets A and B were now combined, obtaining the following result: Card A under “ Nature” is followed by three cards, listing: Fourth grade—The seasons Fifth grade—Harmful household insects Sixth grade—The moon and its eclipses. Card A under “ Geography ”’ is followed by six cards, listing: 4A—Milk from farm to home 4B—Strange shelters of strange people 5A—Atlantic seaboard 5B—Cotton plantations to mill 6A—Across Canada by C.P.R.R. 6B—Countries of Europe—map study. Card A under “ History ” is followed by four cards, listing: 4A—New York Harbor—Hudson River 4B—Lief Ericson 5A—Voyage of Columbus 5B—Life on southern plantations—Old South. Preparing the school program—With our needs carefully cataloged we are ready to prepare the complete school program in visual aids for the entire term. This schedule is posted on every floor of the building for ready reference by the teacher, who then knows the exact nature of the material that will be sent to him and the exact time of delivery. He can prepare the class work accordingly. More- over, the material is always in the building at least one day before it is to be used, and the teachers have opportunities for previews. The requisition for aids to be obtained from the central museum is prepared in advance for an entire term, and is sent at least two months before the new term begins. In this way the materials are reserved for the time when they are needed. Another phase of this second problem is that of arranging for a definite time at which each class is to use one of the projectors. We make out the time schedule similar to the one illustrated below. In THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 173 each teacher’s time schedule the period entitled “ visual instruction ” coincides with the school schedule. It is then a simple routine to deliver the visual aid material to the various classes, and also to trace anything not returned on time. VisuAL INSTRUCTION SCHEDULE Time Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday 9: 00 2A-2 2B-2 pend 1A-3 3B-2 9: 30 Paters 2B-3 basa 1B-3 ree 10: 00 5B-2 ee sate hee 3B-3 10: 30 re 6B-3 nea 1A-x er 11: 00 4A-3 6A-2 a Kg-1 3A-3 11: 30 or 6B-2 aa er ee 1: 00 5A-3 4A-2 ee Kg-2 ees 1: 30 ane 4B-3 Aner 1B-x 2A-3 2: 00 5A-2 6A-3 beeen 3A-2 2: 30 5B-3 4B-2 re Distributing aids and equipment—Our third problem is that of preparing the visual aid material for delivery to the classes and for return to the museum. When the material arrives at the school (the schedule above shows no program on Wednesday because that is the day of delivery) it is checked with the requisition, and a card is prepared for each set. On this card the classes are listed in the order in which they are to receive the set, with the time for delivery in each room, as follows: Baby Birds at Home Friday —2A-3—1: 30 Monday—2A-2—9: 00 Tuesday—2B-2—9 : 00 Tuesday—2B-3—9: 30 Two boys belonging to the monitorial staff are assigned to deliver the materials to the classrooms. They are supplied with card copies of the school schedule of visual instruction. They find all of the material in one closet in the office. The cards on each set identify it. The boys select the set for the grade listed on the schedule and deliver the machine with it. They also call for aids at the end of the period and deliver them to the next class. As each teacher returns a set of aids he initials the card schedule. The last class to use the set each day returns it to the office where it is looked over and prepared for further deliveries. KkLeMENTARY Scnoont PRINCIPALS Conclusion—-We have found the above routine easily enough esta) lished and maintained. Two months before the end of each term we look over the teacher’s criticisms of the various aids so as to eliminate some, to re-order others, and to substitute new materials. In this way we cooperate with both the museum and the teacher. The museum gets one complete order from the school, and the teacher has no trouble getting his material or returning it to the museum; he always gets the projector with the material; and he always (well, almost always) gets material that fits in with his term plan. HE APPEAL OF THE EYE may be stressed in teach- ing in utilizing all of the resources of the average class- room equipment with little or no expense. The blackboard is for the use of teacher and pupils and not for ornamenta- tion. It should be used to illustrate the subjectmatter of the grade so far as this is possible. Greater use should be made of the modern map, as it contains a wealth of information. Here may be found the location of places, transportation routes, topography, climatic influences, distances, and _re- sources that contribute to man’s necessities. Much more may be learned from the map than is ordinarily taught. More should be made of the picture illustrations that abound so freely in the modern textbook. Here is a fruitful field of work where the surface has hardly been scratched.—Balcom, A. G.. N. EB. A. Proceedings, 1925, p. 302. ee. a eee THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 175 THE SERVICES OF A CENTRAL DEPARTMENT W. M. Grecory Director, Educational Museum, Public Schools, Cleveland, Ohio RINTING, rapid communication, cheap travel, and photography in still and motion pictures have revolutionized all phases of social life. These powerful aids to learning have been responsi- ble for the rapid world progress of recent times, and should be freely utilized in the schools. School is something more than a book. In the old days of the little red schoolhouse there was a book and a rod which were used for a few months each year. Then, most of the real ideas in life were gained by long hours of labor in the field or in the home. Today pupils do not have these opportunities to obtain clear ideas of labor and living, as there is no work for them in either field or home. Modern specialized industry calls for special training and provides no place for youth to obtain the ideas of life so essential to human welfare. Hence, school training should be based upon the actualities of life and should provide learning tools which impart life experi- ences with speed and accuracy. Interest in the worthwhile things of life should be early given to children thru the medium of modern learning tools under the guidance of the teacher skilled in the tech- nie of using aids to shorten and clarify the learning process. The value of modern learning tools—It is true that the first ‘‘ magic lantern ” was a novelty of small value in the work of the school. Like- wise, the first motion pictures were entertaining and not instructive. The educational value of the learning aids has been the object of scientific research and the gist of the findings is that the learning process is stimulated, speeded up, made more accurate, and lessened in cost.’ The results of research have shown that the image is a powerful instrument of instruction for the young. It is well, therefore, that learning aids help in the speedy and accurate acquisition of useful knowledge and that the laborious technic of lesson preparation and presentation be replaced by opportunities to train the child’s power of imagery of the things needful in his experience. Factors which determine the success or the failure of learning aids—Some of the fundamental factors which determine the value of the learning aids are: (1) Correct technic—The aids are useful in the learning process only when used with the correct technic by the teacher. A review of the courses of visual instruction as given in teacher-training institutions? reveals that they do not give 1See Chapter X of this yearbook for reviews of important research studies. 176 ELEMENTARY Scuoou PRINCIPALS enough of the classroom technic to enable the teacher to make effective use of the most important tools. (2) Wise selection—Learning aids cannot be successful if placed in a school system under a “ hit-and-miss” plan. To be successful they must be carefully evaluated thru classroom experiments of expert teachers and technicians. It should be a basic principle that the purchase of any aid to learning is made because it is an essential tool to aid the pupil in learning with speed and economy. (3) Purposeful organization—The lack of definite and purposeful organization of aids means a failure to obtain their benefit. Schools can easily accumulate piles of specimens, colored pictures, expensive apparatus, motion picture machines and stuffed animals, all of which is so much junk unless each has its distinct use in the activity of the schoolroom. School executives should insist that the educa- tional value of learning aids be determined before their purchase, and that as part of the school equipment they have a definite place in the curriculum. Thus, some definite procedure should be established in a school system for checking the value of all materials to be purchased. | (4) Educational value—The educational value of aids is somewhat different from that of textbooks or supplies. Generally, the learning aids give the curriculum its vital sparks of interest. In the elementary school, learning to read is difficult and the book is frequently boresome. A live specimen, however, or a picture, or an object has a stimulating appeal to the imagination and immediately attracts and interests. Economy of a central bureau for the educational organization and distribution of learning material—The necessary work of collecting, organizing, and distributing learning tools of high standard is far beyond the reach of a single school, not to mention the individual teacher. When teachers are under the necessity of obtaining objec- tive material for their own classes they frequently accept for their use miscellaneous advertising materials which are more a menace than a help. Recently the authorities of a large city made a careful survey of such materials and concluded that schools were not bene- fited. Consequently, they have refused admission of such materials. The problem of vital aids to learning is not easily solved, for there have been but very few studies as to how the different types of learn- ing aids meet the average classroom conditions. Sometimes excellent tools of instruction are ineffective as they are not used at the grade level for which they are best adapted. For example, complex motion pictures in the lower primary grades are not as effective learning tools as the simple still picture. All aids to learning should receive very careful consideration before their citywide use. Some school systems regard a hasty purchase of any type of material to aid learn- ing as an educational risk. Many large cities, as well as small ones, have central bureaus for the purpose of collecting and adjusting learning materials to the course of study and the classroom. The educational museum of Saint Louis is one such institution in the United States. Detroit, Chicago, Pittsburgh, Buffalo, and Cleveland also have definite organizations for ust the Ot fol Ot fol loc me ed wl mé m1 ai wl THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 177 for providing the learning materials of a high standard for classroom use. Some of these organizations do no more than buy and distribute the materials. Some depend upon local museums for their materials. Other cities have departments of films which are frequently on a forced circuit, with results not conducive to educational growth. Other organizations buy, test, and adjust the various aids to learning for use in the schoolroom. Some of the city organizations, due to local customs, have their materials divided between different depart- ments or outside agencies, which is a loss in efficiency and an increase in cost. In Cleveland the low cost of this service is obtained by the educational museum which serves as a central clearing department which purchases, supplies, repairs, organizes, and distributes all materials for classroom use. The function of the educational museum in Cleveland—The learn- ing aids are organized and distributed to the public schools by the educational muscum, which was founded in 1909, as a part of the school of education. It is now a separate department of the public school system. It is well to call attention to the basie reason for the organization of the educational museum in Cleveland: The term educational museum is seemingly somewhat ambiguous as any museum has more or less educational value. The additional emphasis on that value in this title is intended to define more clearly its field of activity. This museum undertakes to supply pupils and teachers with illustrative materials which are carefully selected and organized as an effective aid to actual school work. The educational museum of Cleveland organizes and supplies on demand the essential learning aids for classroom use. It is the clear- ing-house for all types of materials that are to be used in the public schools. Its growth has been consistent with the gradual improvement in the technic of using learning aids and the modern organization of the curriculum that requires that these essential tools be used. The preparation of learning aids by the educational musewm—Our educational museum has four objectives in the preparation of aids to learning: (1) to supply at low cost the essential aids to the classes at work; (2) to meet the objective requirements of each course of study; (3) to obtain the type of material best suited to attain the desired results ; and (4) to organize material to be used at the different grade levels of learning. These important objectives guide the activities of the educational museum in the collection, preparation, and organization of the lesson aids. Courses of study are carefully analyzed to ascertain the learn- ing aids necessary in the units to be taught. Only those are chosen which are of greatest value to pupils. The type selected depends 3 178 ELemMEeNTARY Scuoo.t PrIncipars upon the subject, pupil, grade, and cost. The technic of preparing aids to learning is based entirely on the objectives named above. The use of the learning aids by the ‘pupil i is the final criterion that deter- mines the type of material and its organization. Sometimes a very inexpensive and simple aid is the most effective in the classroom; whereas, frequently the very expensive apparatus or exhibit is out of place, soon deteriorates, or becomes more or less an educational novelty. In the following paragraphs some of the above principles followed by the educational museum are presented in detail as they relate to pictures, specimens, lantern slides, and motion pictures. (1) The picture as a learning aid—The picture is used with such a low efficiency in learning that it demands some careful considera- tion. Pictures are a fundamental force in creating accurate ideas and in arousing enthusiasm. Teachers should be more fully conscious of this power of pictures in aiding learning and realize that they are not an incidental but an essential core in the lesson to be taught. In arranging pictures in units, each set should be definitely limited to a single subject ; for example, “ Iron Mining in the Lake Superior Highlands ” is more effective as a tool than general pictures on “ Tron Mining.” Pictures should be selected for inclusion in a unit set only when they are dated, located, authoritative, and accurate as to facts. After the picture is chosen for a unit set, it is made to the 8x10 inch size which classroom experiments have indicated is best suited toa small group. Each unit set has about twenty-five pictures, which number, experience has shown, furnishes suitable material for the average class for one week. On the reverse of each picture there is placed the following study guide which is graded for the pupil’s use: (1) study guide questions; (2) a game or puzzle (this is a test); (3) selected vocabulary; (4) information paragraph; and (5) check-up test. The following is a sample illustration of the study guide that is printed on the reverse of the picture of Lauterbrunnen Valley from the unit set of the geography of Switzerland. Srupy Guipe ror Pupt. 2 (1) Questions on the Village of Lauterbrunnen, Switzerland. (a) For what is the land most used by these people? (b) Does the picture suggest how these people make a living? (c) What is growing on the slope nearest you? (d) What seems to be the most common crop of this region? 2Only 10 of the 19 study guide questions are given here for illustrative purposes. The check- up test is omitted in this section because it is not printed on the reverse of the picture. (2 the clas the whe TuirTEENtTH YEARBOOK 179 (e) Why are the chalets in the field? (f) For what are the chalets used? (g) Find the small village or the cluster of hotels and pensions along the stream. (h) Do any features suggest reasons for the location of this small village of Lauterbrunnen? (i) Do you see any danger in the steep, high cliffs of bare rock? (j) Is there any evidence of former avalanches from these steep cliffs? (2) Swiss Puzzle. Match the parts of sentences. Cay Tee: SNe Ge. TCO oa i ois dies opie 93505 06R 2 Wi Sade we ROA Co SN I Bis cine. o hash ses, cd drew deeeamaA een e eater Tae Cy NE Sh OEE CN ooo. 05s 5s cs odin nin ad apumarawonnaeeeseeaieTt Cee Renee NE NINO WI. ois nus oicdcocd ererdup aca. 6 alist oe heme ewe ee SIBLE O (e) There are small glaciers...... SP ry eee ee BP ye ees er ren GN: SI RN NN I oo ok: 5 s5:08 eens, dni e en oyna wee ee eres Cy ee ee Ok Oe oii se aa dacs sie nactadabaedsuaeimnes aes arcs Ce SE CIE BE Fo iio none ein dun darknseatacdesseennenemabnes (1) in the Alps (2) on the mountains in the distance (3) north temperate zone (4) is U shaped (5) mountainous country (6) add to the scenic beauty of Lauterbrunnen (7) forest covered (8) river valley (9) of wood. (3) Vocabulary Building. (a) Find in the pictures the features listed below. (b) Write sentences about your pictures using these words: valley floor trail . hanging valley chalet U shaped Alpine hayfield falls snow-capped peaks Alp (4) Information about Lauterbrunnen Valley, Switzerland. The Swiss village of Lauterbrunnen is in the deep, steepsided, U shaped valley along the Lauterbrunnen stream. This glacial stream joining others forms the head waters of the Rhine River. The Staubbach Falls is formed as the water drops 980 feet from the Alp above to the valley floor. Its water turns into a misty spray as it falls and it appears as a delicate lacy curtain spread on the side of the dark valley wall. The contrast of the white snows, the bright blue sky, the green of the grassy Alps, and the deep valley are all combined in this small valley of the Lauterbrunnen. Snow- capped peaks, among which is the Jungfrau, are in the background high above the valley. The scenic beauty of this valley attracts many tourists who find in the village guides and lodgings. Dairying and tourists are sources of income to these Swiss people. These study guides enable the pupil to do individual work while the teacher may supervise the activities of the different groups in the classroom. The study guides on the reverse side of the picture enable the teacher to use them to accomplish definite results. Such material when thus prepared is an influence in aiding instruction and when it 180 ELEMENTARY Scuoou. PRINCIPALS is distributed citywide thru a central organization like the educa- tional museum, it sets the standards of learning in a school system. On the reverse side of the mounted picture in the upper right cor- ner, is the catalog code number which classifies the picture so that confusion is prevented. Each picture is mounted on grey tagboard, eut to 9x12 inches and the study guide printed on the reverse side. Grey tagboard is chosen for its strength and non-soiling qualities. Each picture is mounted by a wax adhesive sheet under heated elec- tric press which prevents warping and curling. The completed set of pictures is enclosed in a heavy tagboard envelope which is used to save wrapping in the shipping room. Such picture study units are filed and ready on demand for citywide distribution. Duplicates of these units are easily prepared as the educational museum owns the original negatives. Such picture units are more widely used than any of the learning aids. (2) Lantern slide units—The lantern slide has the advantage of placing before a class the enlarged picture so that it can be clearly seen, and thus focuses the interest and attention of the entire class. The lantern slide is invaluable in presenting pictorial material for geography, history, elementary science, and nature study. Besides the pictorial presentation, the lantern slide provides an economical substitute for charts, graphs, maps, and other graphic presentation. For the Cleveland schools, the lantern slides are made into unit sets as required by the school curriculums. These unit sets contain about twenty-five slides. Each set of slides includes diagrams, maps, and sketches where these add to the ideas of the units. Such units are organized for the clearness with which they present the essential facts and their relationships. After lantern slides have been selected for a unit they are placed in a small compact shipping case, properly indexed and accompanied by title sheet, which suggests definite class uses such as: pretesting, introducing new words, ideas for building initial concepts, opportu- nities for original first-hand observation, checking ideas by observa- tion, exercises to develop skill and abilities, testing the results, and checking the facts. Some units of lantern slide sets are prepared in duplicate as required to meet the demands. This can be done at small cost as the educational museum owns the negatives. When the requests for the lantern slide unit sets are high it has been found feasible to prepare special sets and loan them for an en- tire semester. The map set is an illustration of these sets prepared for a semester loan. It consists almost entirely of colored physical maps, with some black and white sketch maps. These lantern slide . > ot ee eee ee ee ae — —- 4 Faust wt nw“ THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 181 maps have been carefully selected so that all the continents and the countries which are studied in elementary geography are represented. They remain the property of the educational museum and at the end of each semester are returned to the museum, where the slides are cleaned, broken ones replaced, and any changes required by the cur- riculum are easily made. It is well to direct attention to some phases of the technic of slide selection and organization. A few slides of quality which are authori- tative and attractive are superior to a mass of highly colored, out-of- date slides provided en masse for a system. Study guide slides which contain the directions or questions to be used by the class are made by typing the material upon cellophane and mounted in a slide, and when projected can be clearly seen by all members of a large class. Thus, each student can copy the material from the projected study guide slide for use with the following slide picture. Some sets have the study guide slides and pictures in alternate order. Some dia- grams on the slides are incomplete and when projected on the black- board are to be finished by the instructor to illustrate and emphasize the essential points. This type of slide has value in general science, both in instruction and in testing. Some map slides are made to aid ‘the pupil in map construction by tracing a portion of the map which is projected on the blackboard or a large piece of paper. Thus, a series of history slides is easily prepared to show the gradual west- ward migration of people in this country. If these are traced on large sheets of paper by projection from the map slides a record of this movement is made as it is studied by the class. The lantern slide requires a skilled technic in its preparation for use. It should be fitted to the classroom requirements and the course of study. The selection of the photographic pictures for a lantern slide unit involves the rejection of much material and the retention of that which will be useful. This demands the service of skilled classroom teachers, who know and are familiar with the pupils’ needs. The slide must be free from photographic defects, properly mounted, matted with square corners, indexed, and boxed in units convenient for distribution. The above results can be accomplished only by a trained staff of some central school organization. In Cleveland the organization of the lantern slides has been done entirely by the educational museum and the gradual increase in the class use of lantern slides has been the result. At present the educatiorial museum supplies some 42,633 lantern slide units per year to the schools. Each school, on the aver- age, uses 272 unit sets each year. It would be impossible to stock each school with these slides because of the cost and the labor neces- 182 ELEMENTARY Scuoot PRINCIPALS sary in their care. Hence it appears that a central clearing-house has a definite place in a school system because of its educational stimulation and its economy. (3) The motion picture—-The motion picture is an educational in- fluence and a teaching tool that requires the most intelligent consider- ation by the school officials. Perhaps more blunders have been made in spending tax money for motion pictures than for any other school equipment. That the motion picture has a great influence upon the ideals and attitudes of children has been found by the research of the Payne Memorial Fund.* The school will use in the future more and more of the new educational motion pictures but not the com- mercial films which are designed for entertainment and not instruc- tion. This is a distinction not made often enough by educators. The motion picture is in two forms for use in the schools: the silent and the sound, either of which may be in 35 mm. or 16mm. The 35 mm. sound motion picture is too expensive for the ordinary school and so has not become a classroom tool. This expense of the 35 mm. film is due to the cost of the projector, the necessary fireproof booth, the trained operator, and the rental of film. Such expensive equip- ment has its use only in the large school auditorium and its cost should not be charged to the budget for classroom learning aids but rather to entertainment and recreation. The 16 mm. or narrow width film with sound is not yet perfected for class use at a reasonable cost. The 16 mm. silent motion picture film has reached such a standard of simple projection and low cost, that it may be considered a classroom tool. The vital point in the 16 mm. film as an aid to the lesson is its simple projector and the subjectmatter of the film adapted to classroom use. It is only within the last five years that earnest efforts have produced 16 mm. films suitable for school use. It has been demonstrated by scientific tests, that the film lesson is a superior method of presenting certain ideas of action. The adjustment of the film lesson to the learning ability is being done in many schools with excellent results. In Cleveland some of the problems of films and projectors have been partly solved by the educational museum which has established a film library and purchased the projectors which are loaned for a semester. The film library. consists almost entirely of 16 mm. silent subjects in the geography, science, history, and other school subjects. Many of these films are in duplicate in the film library. The cost of each film varies from $10 to $20 each. Some films have been shown two hundred times and they are still in excellent condition due *See Chapter X of this yearbook. THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 183 to the expert care given them. By this circulating library of films, the schools use more than 5000 classroom film lessons each month. The Cleveland system operates like any central clearing-house and it gives a citywide low cost service. At the beginning of each semester the films are carefully scheduled as requested by the programs sub- mitted by the different schools. Each film is loaned for one week and this period seems to cover the necessary needs for even the largest schools. The 16 mm. motion picture projectors are owned and serviced by the educational museum. These machines are simple, sturdy, and reliable. The repair, renewal of lights, and adjustments are done at the museum which also trains the teacher in the simple operation of the machine. The plan for making citywide use of the 16 mm. film from a cen- tral organization can be applied to a county or to a state, because the 16 mm. film is non-explosive, light weight, and can be shipped by mail at a very small expense. Inventory of educational aids in the educational musewm—An in- ventory of all aids stocked in the educational museum is summarized in Table 1. A unit is a set of materials that is used to aid learning. It may consist of several pictures, of many lantern slides, or it may be an exhibit with several specimens. TABLE 1—Unirs or EpucationaL Alps IN THE EpUCcATIONAL MUSEUM, 1933 Number Number Subject of units Subject | of units MINIS pits 3 ca ewt es csee ne 110 Elementary Science ......... 1682 IE ene rk on far cn cn teiears 2 CE bc ctagupevieerens 3049 BD a diececcwabunyscde sa 168 BOOED. ti accawtncckorneotioch 976 Physiology ..... reaialaan aa ae 120 EE itch maneadpecedeas 108 SY pedi ann gnekenmaeasier 26 General Sciences ............ 228 EN a nacin tke a imcees 6 ome xa aicks Farce os ikea s ate coon 964 BUD wiandi dakan aad 7530 MI cited bere cued charcue oes 91 To prepare the above units the following materials have been ‘necessary: 85,950 lantern slides arranged in 2865 lesson units; 90,570 mounted pictures arranged in 3019 lesson units; exhibits and specimens arranged in 1189 lesson units; motion picture lessons in 16 mm. films, 589. Circulation statistics—In 1920-21 the educational museum circu- lated 5556 units. Five years later 17,332 units were distributed. In 1932-33 the total had risen to 156,045 units. The average turnover of all units is 22 per year. 184 ELemMEenTARY Scuoo.t Princrpars The average service to each school building for a year shows how wide-spread the service is thruout the school system. Each school building received, on the average, during the school year 1932-33 the following units: 934 sets of materials, 272 lantern slide sets, 242 mounted picture sets, 134 exhibits, and 170 motion pictures. On the average, each school building used 5000 lantern slides, 6000 mounted pictures, and 170 motion picture films. It would be im- possible for each school in Cleveland to stock in their building the materials which they used during the year. Cost of educational museum service—In 1925 Cleveland expended a total of $23,013 for its educational museum. This expenditure increased steadily to a total of $44,838 in 1930. In 1932 the general financial crisis had reduced the outlay to $15,793. The outlay for capital investment during the above years has been a little more than half of the total budget; while operation, breakage, repairs, and replacement have consumed the remainder. It is of interest to know that breakage and repairs are small. The method of mounting pictures and the type of material used has made the pic- tures last unusually long. Some of them have been in circulation more than fifteen years and are in good condition at present. This brings the cost very low on the circulation. The cost per unit of the circulation from a central organization is a very important item in this plan of providing learning aids to a school system. Computing on the basis of the actual number of units circulated and the total budget, the cost for each unit circulated was $1.22 in 1925; $.41 in 1930; and $.08 in 1932. The high cost of the first year recorded is due to the large amount expended for the capi- tal investment and the low cost for 1932 is due to the large increase in circulation and the low budget. T IS NOT ALONE the man on the street who questions changes in our schools. There are elementary-school prin- cipals who do likewise. Afraid of an experimental method which must sort that which is effective from what is ineffec- tive, ultra-conservatives want, at all costs, to remain static, undisturbed, untroubled by “ new-fangled ” innovations.— Bryan, H. Eloise, see p. 278 of this yearbook. n THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 185 FUNCTIONS OF A CENTRAL VISUAL EDUCATION DEPARTMENT W. W. WHITTINGHILL Assistant Director, Department of Visual Education, Public Schools, Detroit, Michigan EARLY THREE CENTURIES AGO Comenius, the Mora- N vian educational reformer, urged the use of pictures and prints to give concreteness to the subjectmatter of the schools. His program was not labeled visual education. However, it was identical in many respects with our presentday principles and practises of visual education. During the last fifty years the record of educational progress is dotted with the introduction of many visual aids. In the last fifteen years visual education has attained a recognized place in the public schools. Today it is an integral part of the curriculum. It is a curricular science which animates the printed page, the most fre- quently used of all modes of communication. Simultaneously with this development as an integral part of the curriculum, many cities thruout the nation have established central departments of visual education. DEPARTMENTS VarRY witH Locat NEEDS Surveys of visual education departments reveal many types of organization. The main factors which determine personnel organiza- tion are: school population, city area, administrative organization, supervisory organization, teacher training, finance, equipment stand- ards, visual aid libraries, and service facilities. In a city where visual aid libraries are placed in each school it is logical for a direc- tor of visual education to guide the program with the full coopera- tion of principals and teachers. In some cities teachers of science direct the visual education program in addition to other duties and responsibilities. These two plans are characteristic in the small city or town. One city with a department personnel of forty members carries out a very fine program of visual education. Here a central department directs and coritrols visual education on a citywide basis. In addi- tion to the central department libraries of visual aids, each school also has a partially complete library. The department selects, dis- tributes, and supervises the use of visual aids in the classrooms and the auditoriums. Quantities of visual aids are produced in the depart- ment’s headquarters. Such a large program of work necessitates a large personnel. 186 ELEMENTARY Scuoo.t PrRiIncriPats In another city comparable in size to the one just described the central department numbers ten or fifteen persons. They too direct and control a citywide program of visual education. However, they do not direct the program of supervision. This program is handled directly by a staff of specialists already organized for the supervi- sion of instruction. This same staff of supervisors is responsible also for the course of study organization and the selection of visual aids. Cooperation is the keynote which determines the success or failure of any department regardless of size. Local factors including those mentioned above determine the proper personnel for central departments. THe ORGANIZATION IN Detroit Centralized departments of visual education vary in form of or- ganization according to the needs of the schools they serve. On the other hand, there seems to be considerable uniformity in expressed functions of these departments. The balance of this article describes some of the major functions of the department of visual education of the Detroit public schools. They are typical of the functions of central departments in a number of city school systems. At the present time the Detroit Department of Visual Education directs and carries out eleven definite programs. They are: teacher training, selection of visual aids, film program, slide program, exhibit program, photographic program, equipment program, delivery ser- vice program, equipment service program, phonograph record pro- gram, and radio program. Use of films—The film program activities include the review of all films with the instruction committees. Those films approved are recommended for purchase. Complete inspection is given to all films by the department. Films are stored in a vault and all films are dis- tributed direct to schools in accordance with the requests of teachers. Films are often produced by the department which, of course, requires scenario writing, evaluation, and completion. TABLE 1—Tue Number or Firms USED AND THE PERCENT OF CHANGE As ComParRED WITH Previous YEARS Years Reels Percent -tGivdednceKeanawnesey 5,560 pine I 258 :k oik ¥hiown a emo e need 6,763 +216 CG tng hisadinaamnmaneeas 11,030 + 63.1 Ls tends uaedw he ea eeie 10,312 — Gs 1932-33 (Nine months) ....... 14,034 + 36.0 THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 187 Table 1 shows the number of films used during the five school years beginning in 1928-29. Except for the year 1931-32 the increased use of films was rapid. Use in 1932-33 was 152 percent higher than in 1928-29. The number of films shown in 1932-33 was almost 42 percent of the number used in the four previous years. Selection of visual aids—First-hand experiences for children in the classroom are difficult to secure. One of the best ways to vitalize the program of instruction is thru the use of properly selected visual aids. For example, in the science program sponsored by the public schools it is necessary to bear in mind the minimum and maximum requirements in the use of visual aids. A careful diagnosis of any unit of a subject or grade should result in a balanced “ prescription of visual aids ” necessary for the teaching of this unit. Care and cau- tion should be exercised in filling this prescription. .The visual aids selected should reinforce the regular methods of the teacher. They should not be used for the sake of visual aids alone. A practical procedure to be used in the science program involves selection of visual aids by a committee. The group should include the director of science, the head of the science department of the school, two science teachers, and the city director of visual education. The committee should survey the field of available aids which relate to this unit. These aids should be obtained and presented to the committee for previewing purposes. After the visual aids have been previewed the score sheet will reveal the recommendations of the committee. This procedure utilizes the special skills of the committee personnel and should guarantee the best visual aids. Thus, we will have available visual aids in the form of films, slides, photographs, film slides, still films, exhibit material, charts, maps, and museum materials. A similar procedure should be followed in selecting visual aids for all subjects of the curriculum. The ultimate result of scien- tific selection is a specialized library of visual aids of inestimable value to all teachers. Course of study organization—The course of study should include a plan for visual aids in accordance with the fundamental principles of organization in that course of study. In this way teachers when developing a particular unit of work, will find listed in the course of study the available visual aids for the unit. The listing of these visual aids by units enables a teacher to use those which are best suited to her particular technic of teaching. The use of too many visual aids may confuse rather than clarify instructional activities. Teachers who use visual aids have an additional set of tools by which they are able to present education in its more natural setting. 188 Exementary Scuoot Princrpars Another important reason for having visual aids woven into the courses of study is that such organization makes possible a standard procedure for the ordering and use of the materials. At present, teachers have a very heavy teaching load. Unless visual aids are properly organized in the courses of study, the teachers are con- fronted with just one more irritating problem. Distribution of visual aids—The plan of distribution of visual aids is of course determined by the number of schools to be serviced and the number of requests from each building. A visual aids request blank, made for the purpose of ordering visual aids, facilitates any plan of distribution (See Figure 1). When visual aids are distributed from a central department, it is necessary that the request blanks be received at the department one semester in advance of the date of use. This procedure enables the department to make reservations for all requests and also to return to teachers copies of their requests. After copies of requests have been received by teachers they have no further responsibility relative to obtaining these visual aids. The aids are delivered to the office of each building. The teacher simply gets the material from the office and returns it to the school office as indicated by the time period on the schedule. The distribution of visual aids in any city, small or large, should be carried out in a manner that relieves the teachers of all mechanical routine responsibilities. Equipment facilities—In addition to the scientific selection of visual aids and the proper organization of these aids in the courses of study it is quite essential that there be made available minimum equipment facilities in each building. The person in charge of the central department of the school system should be a member of an equipment committee. This committee selects equipment for all buildings. There has been a great amount of discussion as to the minimum visual education equipment for elementary, junior and senior high schools. It is not unusual to find in some cities a large amount of equipment, some of which is partly covered with “ gold” dust. Therefore, each school should have equipment facilities which will answer the requests of the teachers as partially determined by the type of curriculum. Standard equipment for an elementary, junior- and senior-high school becomes a part of the regular budget expenditure. Equipment service—At the present time there are 736 complete units of visual education equipment in the Detroit schools. This equipment includes 16 mm. motion picture projectors, 35 mm. mo- THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 189 ry EDUCATION — VISUAL AIDS REQUEST BLANK ae Garfield 1235-1236 List only one type of Visual Aid on this blank SCHOOL TEACHER DATE Reserve Classroom Fiims Auditoriurn Films Lantern Slides Victrola Records. only on date specified or as soon as available General information and complete directions are given on reverse side. Please follow these directions in ordering Visual Aids DO NOT USE THESE COLUMNS te TITLE CALL NO. DATES OF USE 8 DELIVERY Gi) DATE FIGURE 1—Form Used. in Detroit for Requesting Aids from the Visual Education Department. 190 ExLemMentary Scuoout PrRINcIPALS tion picture projectors, stereopticons, combination opaque and slide projectors, micro-projectors, and micro-attachments. The visual edu- cation department services this equipment by daily inspection and repair. Teachers operate and use this equipment in classrooms and auditoriums. Since teachers are teachers, not mechanicians, they should be relieved of this technical work. Research studies—The department of visual education cooperates with principals and supervisors in carrying out a broad program of research studies. Some of these studies are as follows: (1) Proper objectives for a broad program of visual education. (2) Relative values in a general program of instruction of the following visual aids: slides, film slides, still films, auditorium films, classroom films, exhibits, photographs, charts, maps, and museum materials. (3) The degree of differentiation which should be made between the visual aids used for classroom instructional purposes and those used for auditorium purposes. (4) The degree to which visual education can be made a factor in bringing about local, national, and international relationships. (5) Organization of a program of supervision accompanied by measurements of the use of visual aids. (6) Organization of state and city departments. (7) Exhibit standards. (8) Educational talking pictures. Visual education handbook—lIt is essential to have a handbook on visual education. In this handbook may be incorporated instructions and suggestions on how to use visual aids; rules and regulations for ordering materials; rules and regulations for operating equipment ; and care of films, slides, screens, and projectors. Budget—The visual education department budget is made up an- nually. This budget covers all phases of the eleven programs directed by the department. It is classified under the division of visual educa- tion in the board of education budget and receives the same considera- tion as any other division therein. Supervision and teacher training—Evidence points clearly to the fact that the technic of teaching must be enriched by expressing class- room and auditorium methods more completely in terms of social activities. The advancement of science in education during the last twenty years has aided materially in establishing a better under- standing and interpretation of the diversified objectives and outcomes of life. The proper use of visual aids gives a greater variety of experiences to all pupils than could otherwise be obtained and also serves as an interpretative basis for their environment. Visual aids are an unusual agency for establishing reservoirs of retentative power whi edu gi01 pur cip: mu Fu cip edt C00 the ing to req wi the THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 191 which may be used to orient the most complex problems of public education. These positive results cannot be attained without proper supervi- sion. The program of supervision must take into consideration the purposes underlying the use of visual aids. Supervision by the prin- cipal, the director of science, or the head of the science departments must be a cooperative program in which the teachers participate. Furthermore, it is very desirable to hold the viewpoint that all prin- cipals and teachers are members of the local department of visual education and that the department exists with and for them. This coordinated plan of procedure improves the teaching and develops the whole child in a balanced education. The department of visual education directs an equipment train- ing program for all principals and teachers. Demonstrations on how to operate equipment are given to teachers in all buildings at the request of the principal. These demonstrations acquaint the teacher with the operation of the equipment and are similar in purpose to the demonstrations given of courses of study and textbooks. HE FULL POTENTIALITIES of visual aids have not been realized in most cases because of certain unsolved problems involved in their use. The problems have been un- solved largely because teachers and administrators have failed to realize fully the importance of the technical or mechanical side of the device. They have not made the aid a ready servant in the teaching process. The teacher must know just when and why the device is to be used. It should enable him to do that particular part of teaching with that device better than in any other way.—Stoddard, A. J., V. #. A. Proceedings, 1933, p. 789-90. 192 ELEMENTARY Scuoot PRINCIPALS 1. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19, SELECTED REFERENCES ApraMs, ALFRED W. “ Visual Instruction in New York State Schools.” Edu- cation 52: 284-87; January, 1932. . AucuinsaucH, B. A. “ Progress of Visual Instruction in Ohio.” Ohio Schools 7: 240, 246; June, 1929. . Batcom, A. B. “The Organization of Visual Instruction.” Proceedings, 1925. Washington, D. C.: National Education Association,. 1925. p. 302-305. . Burner, Avice V. “Value and Administration of Visual Education.” Volta Review 34: 496-502; October, 1932. . Camppect, Laurence R. “Introducing Visual Aids.” School Executives Magazine 50: 432, 444; May, 1931. . Craxes, C. R. “Organizing and Administering a Visual Instruction Pro- gram.” School Executives Magazine 52: 11-13; September, 1932. . Dick, Grace I. “ New Opportunity for Librarians; Cataloging Visual Aid Materials.” Library Journal 58: 772-73; October 1, 1933. . Emmert, Wizsur. “Core Course of a Visual-Sensory Aids Program.” Pro- ceedings, 1932. Washington, D. C.: National Education Association, 1932. p. 790-93. . Evans, Marian. “ Budgeting for Visual Instruction.” School Executives Magazine 53: 19-20; September, 1933. Gasriet, P. “ Visual Aids to Instruction.” Journal of Education 114: 93-95; September 14, 1931. Geary, CaTHERINE E. “Successful Visual Teaching Program; How It Oper- ates.” Nation’s Schools 11: 39-42; February, 1933. Ho.uncer, Joun A. “The Administration of Visual Aids in Education.” American School and University, 1932-33. New York: American School Publishing Corp., 1932. p. 210-14. Hornina, S. D. “ Programming in Visual Education.” Educational Screen 11: 203; September, 1932. Know ton, Daniet C. “ Equipping for Visual Education.” Junior-Senior High School Clearing House 4: 198-202; December, 1929. Knox, Rose B. School Activities and Equipment.. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1927. 386 p. Roacu, Cuarues. “ Visual Instruction Service in a City System.” Proceed- ings, 1929. Washington, D. C.: National Education Association, 1929. p. 942-43. Sicman, James G. “ Minimum Standard Equipment for Visual Education.” Educational Screen 9: 43-44; 70-74; February-March, 1930. Sropparb, A. J. “ Visual Aids and the Economic Situation.” Proceedings, 1933. Washington, D. C.: National Education Association, 1933. p. 789-91. STRAYER, Georce D. “The Administration of Visual Education.” School and Society 22: 234-35; August 22, 1925. ZIMMERMAN, Bruce L. “Visual Aids in City Schools.” Sierra Educational News 27: 12-13, 59; October, 1931. Li Ov te CHAPTER III PICTORIAL AND GRAPHIC AIDS EDITORIAL COMMENT HE USE of pictures extends far back into the history of the human race. By means of pictures the early caveman left the story of his exploits and descriptions of prehistoric beasts. The Egyptians developed a picture-language whereby, according to Van Loon, we know better the story of the Nile Valley than we know our own Mississippi Valley. The Chinese writing of today retains charac- ters which are based upon early pictographs. The attitude of the child of today toward pictures is succinctly ex- pressed by Alice in these words: ‘“‘ What is the use of books without pictures?” Indeed, what would be the attraction of almost every type of elementary-school work without pictures? This fact is clearly revealed in the articles of this chapter. Several contributions tell how to collect, to mount, and to file flat illustrations. One article shows the application of a picture technic to the subject of geography. Two articles describe in detail how to teach pupils to make and to use maps. The final discussion indicates how graphs and diagrams may be used effectively in testing the knowledge of pupils. There are obviously three aims behind the use for pictures in the elementary school: (1) recreation, (2) the acquisition of knowledge, and (3) the development of appreciations and attitudes. Undoubt- edly good teaching combines all three of these purposes often in the same activity. This happy combination is found abundantly in the research-library technic so fully set forth in the 1933 yearbook of our department. Now this 1934 yearbook adds further to the field by filling out the details of the technics for using pictures effectively. Thus the supervisory backgrounds of the members of the Department are given perspective, depth, and character. As in the use of all aids the care and administration of pictures is an important item. Pictures of ephemeral value must be collected quickly, used while they are vital, and dispatched with promptness. Pictures of more permanent value must be carefully mounted, prop- erly labeled, and made easily accessible. Few principals should over- look this opportunity to enrich instruction at relatively little cost. The bibliography at the end of the chapter contains many citations which will further enlarge upon the aspects of the topic discussed in this chapter.—Editorial Committee. [193] ELEMENTARY Scuoout PRINCIPALS PREPARING AND FILING MOUNTED MATERIALS Maria E. ALEXANDER First Grade Supervisor, Training School, State Teachers College, Harrisonburg, Virginia HIS IS THE DAY of enriched materials in teaching. Teachers are collecting pictures and clippings at little or no cost, but the big problem is “ What should be done with them?” They can- not be used effectively unless they are put in usable form. In the main, these materials fall in two large classes—ephemeral and permanent. The term “ ephemeral ” is applied to those materials which are of a transient nature and need revising and discarding from time to time. Pictures and clippings cut from magazines and newspapers are example of such materials. “‘ Permanent ” materials are materials which will be of use indefinitely, such as pictures of famous musicians or reproductions of works of art. It is the purpose of this article to outline methods of treating only those ephemeral and permanent materials which should be mounted and filed.’ Mounting Erpuemerat MareriAts’ Pictures—The pictures are usually those obtained from news- papers, magazines, travel booklets, descriptive folders, or rotogravure sections. Simple steps in mounting such pictures for filing are: (1) Cut out the picture neatly—preserving the title or description to be pasted on the back of the mount. (2) Select a mounting which is suitable for the picture: (a) Gray, tan, brown, and dull green are the best colors to use. (b) The color should echo or repeat one of the dominant colors in the picture.” (c) The color of the mounting should be within range of the picture— not lighter than the lightest area nor darker than the darkest spot.* (d) The color of the mounting should be dull enough in intensity to give the picture a chance to be seen. (e) Mounting boards may be any cardboard or stiff paper which is sub- stantial enough to keep shapely corners with use. The following are examples of such boards: (1) Bristol board—may be obtained in sheets 224” x 284” at forty to seventy cents per dozen sheets depending upon the weight. (2) Strawboard—This may be obtained in sheets 123” x 13” at fifty to seventy cents a dozen sheets. (3) Chipboard—The cost of this board is usually seventy to eighty cents for a dozen sheets 22” x 28”. For further details see the following: Goldstein, Harriet and Goldstein, Vetta. Art in Every Day Life. New York: Macmillan Co., 1925, 465 p.; Mathias, Margaret E. The Beginnings of Art in the Public Schools. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1924, 119 p.; and Mathias, a E. The Teaching of Art. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1932, 356 p. 2 Mathias, Margaret E. The Beginnings of Art in the Public Schools. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1924, p. 92. * Mathias, Margaret E. Op. cit., p. 92. Zi 10 ti th Ww THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 195 (4) Heavy weight construction paper costs about $1.20 for a dozen sheets 20” x 26”. (5) Construction paper—A package of fifty sheets 12”x18” can be bought for approximately forty cents or a package of 9” x 12” for twenty cents. (f) When there are two pictures or a picture and a poem which should be kept together, some teachers prefer to paste them in a letter-size manila folder—one on each side. This folder can then be filed with the correct title written on it. (3) Cut the mounting two to four inches larger than the picture to be mounted. The thicker boards should be cut with a sharp knife guided by a steel-edged ruler. (4) Place the picture on the mount so that the bottom margin will be slightly wider than that at the top and sides. The margins at the top and sides of the picture should be equal if the picture is square. If the picture is longer vertically, the bottom margin should be widest, the top margin next in width, and the sides narrower. If the picture is longer horizontally, the bottom should be the widest, the side margin next, and the top narrowest. (5) When the picture is exactly straight on the mount, hold it in place and put a bit of paste under each corner and press it down. Or, put a light dot with a pencil at each corner of the picture, turn it over to put the paste on each corner, then paste it on the mount with the corners exactly on each dot. The picture should be pasted well at the four corners. (6) Place the freshly mounted picture under a heavy weight to be pressed until dry. This will prevent warping. If the pictures are pressed between news- papers care should be taken to put plain white paper over the picture since print sometimes rubs off on the damp picture. Newspaper and magazine articles—Our newspapers and maga- zines often contain articles which are of great value as reference material. Such articles can be made available and durable by mount- ing and filing them. A very good way to mount them is as follows: (1) Cut out the article carefully. (2) Write on it the name and date of the publication from which it is clipped. (3) Cut the article in pieces as long as the folder or envelope in which it is to be filed. (4) Cut a piece of manila tag board the size and shape of the article before it was cut, thus allowing for margins on each side. (5) Paste the article on the tag board as it was before it was cut—leaving a space of about one-eighth inch between pieces for bending. (6) Now, bend the tag board the length of the folder or envelope in which it is to be filed. (7) Put the pasted article under a weight to press until dry. Mountine Prints Good reproductions of works of art should be mounted substan- tially because they are “ permanent” materials. For the color of the mount follow the principles listed in the section on pictures above. For mounting boards, select two mounting boards—heavy and light weight. The heavy board may be a cheap board while the light-weight 196 ELEMENTARY Scuoot PRINCIPALS board should have a better finish. In mounting the pictures the following procedures will be found useful: (1) Cut a heavy and a thin board for each picture, making each board four to six inches larger than the print. It is desirable for filing purposes to make all mounts uniform in size; so some of the margins will necessarily be wider than others if the pictures are different sizes. (2) Place the print on the board with the better finish leaving margins as indicated in the section on pictures. (3) Mark very lightly around the print and cut out a hole in the board about one-fourth inch smaller than the size of the print, making the hole one-eighth inch less on all sides than the print. In cutting out the hole, slant the blade of the knife away from the center of the board so that an edge similar to the beveled edge of a mirror will be next the picture. A frame has thus been made for the picture. (4) Now paste the picture on the heavy-weight board with exactly the right margin at the bottom, sides, and top to put the picture in place for the frame which has been cut out of the better grade of mounting. (5) Paste the frame of the better grade of mounting on the heavy mount. Paste well around the outer edges. The print now has a beautiful, durable mount and can be filed. A Srvpwiriep System or Fitina Mountrep Mareriats Ephemeral materials—The following suggestions will be found to be practical : (1) Classify the mounted materials under suitable headings. Try to get func- tional headings. To do this ask such questions as these: “ What will the teacher call for when she needs this material?” Then, give it that heading. A few sug- gested headings are listed here: Africa, Airplanes, Animals, Boats, Children of Other Lands, Designs for Dishes, Furnished Rooms, Indians, Meteors, Money, and Toys. (2) Write on the back of each piece of material the heading under which it is classified and a number. For example, Toys 1 would mean that the picture or article should be put in the envelop or folder marked Toys and that it should be the first piece of material in the front. Thus, when a piece of material is taken out of the file, it can be replaced quickly. (3) Write each heading on a folder or a large envelope. The envelopes are preferable and they can be made from heavy brown wrapping paper or they can be bought. The 11}” x93” envelopes cost $3.75 per 100. Those 143” x94” cost $4.05 per 100. (4) Put the materials in their proper folders or envelopes according to names and numbers. All clippings and pictures on one topic will be together. (5) The folders or envelopes prepared in this manner should be placed accord- ing to subject headings in a filing box or case behind alphabetical guide cards. For example, Africa, Airplanes, and Animals should be in the order indicated behind guide card A. (6) If there is mofe material on a subject than one envelope will hold, make two or more envelopes for one subject and letter them as Animals A, Animals B, Animals C. Then, Animals B3 on the back of a particular article would mean that it should be placed in the second folder or envelope on animals and it would be the third piece in the folder or envelope. (7) A card file of all materials which are in the large file should be kept. It enables one to find the materials more quickly. blue | (9) cards P: not guid writ artis othe M the » the 1 of tl drav the the stud writ of t pict prix plac k “Fr Life nati it @: tair sar’ Mil Yo THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 197 (a) Use a 3” x5” filing card. In the middle of the top line write the subject heading under which the picture or article is filed. (b) On the second line, using about half that indentation, write the name of the picture or article using lower case letters except for beginning the first word and for proper names. Skip a space below that line and write the number of the filing drawer or box, the name of the folder, and the number of the piece of material. Drawer 3, Animals B3 on a card would tell exactly where to locate the material. (8) Colored filing cards may be used to distinguish clippings from pictures, as: blue for pictures and yellow for clippings. (9) File these 3” x5” cards according to subjects behind alphabetical guide cards in a 3” x5” filing box. Prints—Provide a separate drawer or box for prints. They should not be mixed with ephemeral materials. Place the prints behind guide cards made for the nationality of the artists. For example, write Hnglish on one guide card and place all prints of English artists’ work behind this card. In the same way file the prints for other nationalities. Make two 3”x5” filing cards for each print. On the first, write the nationality of the artist on the top line for the subject heading, the name of the artist with his dates on the second line, and the name of the picture on the third line. Below this write the number of the drawer in which the print may be found. On the second card, write the topic with which the picture would be classified. For example, the picture ‘“ Woman Churning” by Millet could be used with a study of home life; therefore the subject “ Home Life” would be written on the top line. The second line should contain the name of the artist with his nationality, and the third line the name of the picture. Below on the card the number of the drawer in which the print can be found and the name of the guide card behind which it is placed should be written. File the first 3”x5” card in the filing box behind the guide card “ Prints.” File the second 3”x5” card behind the guide card “ Home Life.” Thus, the picture could be found by looking under the nationality or if pictures are needed to use in a study of home life, it can be located by looking at the cards on that subject. Sources oF MarerrtaAts For MountTine AND FILine Mounting boards, construction paper, and tag board may be ob- tained at reasonable prices. Ask the following companies for neces- sary catalogs and samples: Practical Drawing Company, Chicago; Milton Bradley Company, Philadelphia; and Prang Company, New York. 198 ELEMENTARY Scuoo.u PRINCIPALS Clipping envelopes, guide cards, and filing cards of different colors may be obtained from Gaylord Bros., Ine., Syracuse, New York, or from local dealers in library supplies. Filing boxes and metal cases may be obtained from local houses dealing in office supplies and from book stores. The small letter-size cardboard filing boxes range in price from fifty cents to one dollar. Larger cardboard boxes and metal cases may be bought at prices which range from two dollars up. Very good filing drawers can be made by a local carpenter. Care must be taken to have the drawer made deep enough to permit it to be opened without “ hanging ” or “ catching ” the folders. Orange boxes make very good filing cases if they are lined with paper and covered so as to keep out dust. By using home-made filing cases, a collection can be started with small cost. ARLY IN THE GRADES we begin to give the children a knowledge of lands other than our own and of the people who live in them. Without pictures, we should be sadly at a loss to convey to them more than the vaguest and most erroneous notions of those people. We seek not only to know something about peoples, but to understand why they are different from ourselves, to be able to see these differences as difference, not necessarily as inferiority, to recognize the things they have in common with us.—Israel, Marion L., N. E. A. Proceedings, 1931, p. 955. T: s note efficic oppo! equi} of ut that libra: Th sify, comp ing ] use © other H that | out t cloth these inche midy sera} Tl conte by pi in pi cent from put ¢ the ¢ soon shou hour on e to al the « THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 199 ALBUMS AS TEACHING AIDS E. A. Brown Principal, Kuhio School, Honolulu, Hawaii HE VALUE of mounted pictures as an aid to teaching is so familiar to teachers that little emphasis need be given to the de- sirability of making them a factor in education. It is well to note in passing, however, that many teachers fail to enhance the efficiency of their services because they do not take advantage of their opportunities to make mounted pictures an important part of their equipment. Their attention should be directed to the demonstrations of utility vital to education, thru the meditim of mounted pictures that are to be witnessed in classrooms, school libraries, and public libraries. The question of chief concern with teachers is how to collect, clas- sify, and mount pictures so that they will serve their purpose most completely. This paper will be confined to a consideration of mount- ing pictures in albums. The writer has for some twenty years made use of the plan to be suggested and is convinced that its adoption by other teachers will prove helpful. ; How to make albums—The practise of tailoring establishments that do a large mail order business is to provide clothing stores thru- out the country with large, well-bound books containing samples of cloth from which men’s suits are made to measure. The pages in these books are very heavy. They measure about sixteen by eighteen inches. The books are useless to the merchant after the close of the midyear season. They can be procured for the asking and make ideal scrap albums for schoolroom purposes. The clothing samples are torn from the pages. The advertising contained on each page and other undesirable features are covered by pasting a good quality of art drawing paper over the page. Dealers in paper will cut these sheets to fit the pages at approximately one cent per sheet. An excellent paste can be made with flour and water from recipes that are easily obtainable. Care should be taken to put a small amount of cresol or other poison in the mixture to prevent the destruction of the book by insects that have a taste for paste. As soon as the drawing paper has been pasted on the pages, the book should be laid on its side and a heavy weight placed on it for a few hours until the moist papers are set. Then the book should be stood ° on edge with the pages open to the air until the paste is thoroly dried, to avoid mold that will otherwise ruin the book. Advertisements on the covers may be obliterated by one or more coats of black enamel 200 ELemMentary Scuoot Principas paint. -On this background the title of the book may be painted in white. The book is now ready to receive pictures. Sources of pictures and their arrangement—Pictures may be se- cured from many sources without expense. Discarded magazines fur- nish a wealth of material. The art supplements of newspapers supply many valuable pictures. These should be cut from the publications and trimmed with special care. An album, properly made, will be for many years a source of pleasure and information for a class of children and will repay the painstaking teacher for the best skill put into it. The pictures should be carefully classified. Those pertaining to animal life should be placed in a book by themselves. Likewise a separate book should be filled with pictures of home life. One book might illustrate American history, one might be devoted to war, one to adventure, one to butterflies and others to insects, and one to plant life. Few children possess the ability to justify their being intrusted with the making of such an album when it is to become a permanent and important part of the teacher’s equipment or a useful addition to the school library. But children should be encouraged to make albums for themselves. Their books will be less pretentious and less durable, but the makers will derive much benefit from the experience of creating something of their own. Albums as teaching aids—Our school has one such album contain- ing pictures of the Great War. It was made during the conflict. The pictures were procured from the New York Times, the Pictorial Review, the Ladies’ Home Journal, and other publications. Most of the pictures are in colors. Pupils never tire of this album. It has been in constant use since it was made. It is worn and mussed from the thousands of little hands that have turned its pages but is still one of the most attractive volumes in our library. Pupils derive from it a vivid understanding of incidents in the terrible struggle which it portrays. They are impressed by the humanitarian scenes represent- ing activities of the nurses, the American Red Cross, and the dogs bearing the sign of the Red Cross. They are horrified at the views indicating the cruelties and suffering that are inseparably connected with bloodshed. “They are moved to a deep sense of sympathy for the war orphans that are presented so graphically. They experience the moods and sensations that are incident to war. They are led to decry the folly of war and to declare themselves the friends of the children of the entire world, regardless of race or country. This book is one of sensations. It arouses emotions during school periods that are de- —— vote occ \ inte tior per the of { col tin the fin is to Re re] im E: se by es fr of st —_ ~~ eS THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 201 voted to “ browsing ” and provides reference material that is needed occasionally in the pursuit of a project. We have an album filled with pictures that appeal to the esthetic interests of children. It shows child life in many interesting rela- tionships. Its chief usefulness is found during the “ browsing” period. It is “dreamy” and restful. Pupils enjoy its pages when they do not feel inclined to read. It seems to fill a need in the lives of the children better than any other book. One album illustrates American history. Most of the pictures are colored. Many of them are copies of paintings that appear from time to time in our leading magazines. They are arranged to present the story of American civilization in its proper sequence. The pupils find this picture book attractive and helpful with their projects. It is one of the most used volumes in our library. It introduces pupils to a copy of the painting by Millais entitled “ The Boyhood of Raleigh.” “ Elizabethan Galleons” as painted by N. C. Wyeth is represented in striking colors. Incidents in the life of Columbus are impressively pictured. Plymouth Rock is made real to the children. Experiences of the Pilgrims and other colonists are objectively pre- sented. The relationships of the Indians to the settlers are illustrated by prints of masterpieces in a manner to arouse and maintain inter- est. The manners and customs of the people, changing significantly from period to period, are contrasted and clarified in the imagination of the pupils. The colored prints of the revolutionary period are of striking interest. The life of Lincoln is made dearer and more realis- tic by the wealth of art collected and preserved in this book. Thus the pupils are fascinated by the pictorial study of the United States from its first settlement thru the remarkable career of Woodrow Wilson. What teacher will entertain a doubt that the pages of the ordinary text in history will be more intensely interesting after such a charming introduction! The book on animal life is introduced by the presentation of but- terflies in colors. Pigeons and other domestic fowls are shown in their most attractive appearances. Fishes, turtles, and crocodiles in- vite the attention of children. The Portuguese man-of-war, which is so well known to our island swimmers and greatly dreaded by them, is beautifully illustrated. The horse and the dog, of many breeds, are presented in their most friendly relation to the human family. The deer, the rabbit, the moose, and other wild beasts are shown in their natural environment. The cow family, with its many variations, is reproduced in connection with its many contributions to the enlight- enment of children and adults. Song birds and birds with beautiful plumage that excite the admiration of us all are not omitted. Ani- 202 ELeMENTARY ScHoo.t PRINCIPALS mals of the jungle—the elephant, the leopard, the tiger, the lion, the monkey, and many others—are given their full measure of represen- tation. The sheep, the domestic goat, the wild mountain goat, the | ° ; wolf, the reindeer with his Eskimo master, and bears of many kinds, | possess an attractive appeal to old and young, and all have a place in this album. Teachers express their amazement at the constancy and earnest- ness with which pupils study the illustrations in this collection. If such interest could be induced thru ordinary class procedure, dis- ciplinary problems would cease to exist and pupils would acquire the study habit so fully that its continuance during their entire lives would be assured. Surely, this is a teacher’s activity that deserves promotion. It will pay big returns on the money and energy invested in it. One album contains keepsakes of interest to pupils and teachers. Photographs of classes, of groups of pupils who participated in a playlet or game, of the faculty, and of other organizations are pre- served in this book. Pupils demonstrate their pride in their own pictures and the pictures of their brothers, sisters, and friends. Other mementos included in this volume are certificates of award in compe- titions and ribbons won at fairs. We were at a loss to know how to care properly for these valuables as the accumulation became burden- some, until we decided to put them in a scrapbook. Now they worry us no longer. They constitute just another book in our library. They | are conveniently located for examination and their safety is assured. At one time we procured about one hundred valuable pictures | representing Hawaiian life from the discovery of the islands thru | “ a century and a half to the present day. They were “ photostat ” reproductions of original drawings, engravings, lithographs, aqua- | tints, and photogravures. There are pictures of the early Hawaiian village; of the grass house of primitive times and later, showing the | influence of foreign tools and building materials. There are pictures | & of Honolulu and other villages at various periods of time; of harbors at the time of the first visits of foreign ships and later, showing the many changes due to the rapid growth of trade in the Pacific. Many pictures illustrate the manners, customs, dress, occupations and modes of transportation of primitive times. There are pictures also of men and women prominent in the history of Hawaii. Only a limited number of sets of these important pictures were available. Their preservation presented a real problem. After mature deliberation, we decided to paste them in one of our albums. They varied in size. Some required an entire page of the big book. Others could be dis- posed of by mounting several on one page. When the task was done, reco prac of ¢ greé as a and rec! LL ion, the presen- at, the kinds, | a place arnest- | on. If | e, dis- ire the | 3 lives | Serves vested chers, | in a e pre- > own Other om pe- ow to rden- vorry They ured. tures thru tat - I 1qua- tlian r the ‘ures bors - the [any odes men ited heir ion, ize. dis- ne, opr: TuHrrtTEENTH YEARBOOK 203 it proved to be completely satisfactory. The pictures are in good condition after several years’ use and they give promise of being serviceable for some years to come. Conclusion—It is with pronounced enthusiasm that the writer recommends the mounting of pictures as indicated herein. Such a practise over a period of time will provide the teacher with a wealth of objective teaching material that will vitalize his teaching and greatly improve the results of his professional efforts. It will serve as an inducement to him to be alert for pictures of practical worth | and will enable him to realize double returns on his professional and recreational reading. HE POSTER can be an organization of mental vision producing a harmony, a rhythmic organization of di- verse things into a whole. It does offer stimulation to recog- nize the great breadth and importance of the art field. In the first place the poster is an expressive form of Ameri- can art. The poster, with its direct appeal, is indeed the artistic language of the practical American people. Nothing probably expresses the American mind better than a good poster.—Smith, Marrow, Fourth Yearbook, Department of Classroom Teachers, 1929, p. 15. 204 ELEMENTARY Scuoot Princrpats TEACHING GEOGRAPHY THRU PICTURES Benita R. Bioop Principal, Fuller School and EvizaBeTtH J. Kaasa Principal, Northrop School, Minneapolis, Minnesota ONCRETE IMAGERY is fundamental to clear geographic C thinking. If from the beginning the child is given concrete images in the way of real landscapes or of landscape photographs upon which to base his reasoning, he soon proves that he can do a high type of thinking of a geographical nature. The best means of knowing peoples is to live for a time among them and watch them at their work and play. As we cannot take classes to see actual regions we bring landscapes to them thru photographs. The child is guided to work with a picture as the geographer does with a real landscape when he selects signs of man’s work (cultural features) and seeks to relate these to the natural features. Use of pictures as source material—The child must be trained to look upon pictures as primary sources of facts needed to understand the people about whom he is studying. Hence pictures must be used as first-hand source material and not merely for supplementary inter- est-adding use. The assignment should lead the child to a purpose- ful study of a few carefully chosen views. It should give him a defi- nite geographic end to reach which will guide him to select the cul- tural features in each scene and to search for their relation to the natural features. Thru this work, the child soon discovers that pictures tell some things and suggest other topics for further study and research. Maps and reference books are sought to clear hazy concepts and to answer questions where the desired information cannot be gleaned from the pictures. The results of this landscape study are ehecked by some simple interesting means such as the listing of the features observed, the making of captions to fit the pictures, and the comparison of the pupils’ captions belonging to the views. For example, in the fourth grade, when beginning the study of the Congo Region as a type region of the world, seven or eight scenes may be hung at eye level for pupil study, with the following direc- tions to guide the work: As you look carefully at these scenes in the Congo Region, list at least eight ways in which you find people of this land are living differently from the people you saw living in Arabia. As you study the pictures try to find in the landscape reasons for each difference which you note. 1l¢ te hs THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 205 At a higher grade level in the study of the Western States of the United States, the following directions may be given: As you study these western scenes, give each picture a title that tells what you think it shows some people in this section do to make a living. When you have finished, compare the titles you gave each picture with the list you will find on the bulletin board and correct any title in your list which does not have the same meaning as the corresponding title in the checklist. Return to the pictures and try to find reasons why people in this section have chosen the work indicated in each view. When you have a question concerning anything in the picture which you cannot answer, write it down and try to find the answer in some of your reference books. Use of pictures as review material—Pictures serve as excellent review material. For instance, in introducing a unit, scenes are sometimes studied with the purpose of finding similarities or differ- ences between life in the new region and life in a land which has been studied. When a unit of work in the social studies is completed, the children may select pictures they wish to exhibit. They invite classes to their room and entertain them by explaining the scenes to them. Use of pictures for testing purposes—Pictures are used for test- ing purposes to check pupils on their grasp of geographic concepts and on their ability to acquire landscape imagery in connection with the regions studied. Several illustrations follow indicating the direc- tions given to the pupils and the scenes used in each test. To test what the fourth-grade survey of typical regions of the world has given the child in the way of a concept of the effect of latitude on climate, native vegetation, and the life of man: Directions to pupils: Arrange Scenes 1 thru 5 as one might see them in a southward trip across North America from Arctic Canada thru Central America, Scenes to be used with above test (1) Negroes at work in cotton field (2) A native village in the jungles of Guatemala (3) Prairie wheat field (4) Canadian trapper near home in forest (5) Eskimos with dog sled near igloo. To test understanding of the effect of rainfall on vegetation: Directions to pupils: The landscapes shown in Scenes 1 thru 5 differ from one another in the amount of annual rainfall each receives. Beginning with the scene where little or no rain falls, arrange these views in order of amount of moisture each landscape receives. Use scene numbers to indicate the order in which you place the pictures. Scenes to be used with above test (1) Jungle scene with natives at work in village (2) Herd of cattle grazing on Great Plains (3) Traveler in desert (4) Open forest in California (5) Rural scene in central states. 206 ELEMENTARY Scuoot PRINCIPALS To test understanding of the effect of altitude on vegetation : Directions to pupils: Use scene numbers to indicate the order in which you might see the landscapes pictured in Scenes 1 thru 4 were you to climb from a low altitude to a very high altitude. Scenes to be used with above test (1) Heavily forested mountain side below timber line (2) Farm in mountain valley (3) Snow-capped peak above timber line (4) Cattle grazing on the Great Plains. For use at close of unit on the Rocky Mountains and Great Plains region : Directions to pupils: Use scene numbers to answer questions: (1) Select scenes which show two reasons why so small an area of this vast region is used for farming. (2) Select a scene belonging to the region of heaviest rainfall. (3) Which scene is in a very dry area? (4) Select scenes which show two natural obstacles men meet in constructing highways and railways in this region. , (5) Which scene belongs to an irrigated section? (6) Which scene belongs to the Great Plains section? (7) Select four scenes which show the opportunities the mountains of this section offer men for earning a living. (8) Arrange three scenes as you would probably see them in traveling from a low to a very high altitude in this region. Scenes used in above test (1) Ranch on Great Plains (2) Health resort in mountains (3) Power plant near falls in mountains (4) Heavily forested mountain side (5) Mining in mountains (6) Desert vegetation (7) Snow-capped mountain peak above timber line (8) Farm in mountain valley. The following test on the United States as a whole might be used when a group have completed their study of the various regions of the United States: Directions to pupils: These are photographs which have been taken in various parts of the United States. Arrange places on your paper for four lists of views. Head one list Western States, the second list North Central States, the third list Southern States, and the fourth list Northeastern States. Place in each list the numbers of the views which belong in the section of the United States designated by the heading Scenes used with above test (1) Pueblo homes in New Mexico (2) Loading ore on lake boats (3) Aeroplane view of New York harbor es th THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 207 (4) Orange groves in mountain valley (5) Cotton field with negroes at work (6) Sheep grazing among sagebrush (7) Irrigation project in western mountains (8) Cattle grazing on the Great Plains with cowboys in scene (9) Cypress trees growing in swamp (10) Levees with steamboat on Mississippi River (11) Salmon trap on Columbia River (12) Raisin vineyard in south central California (13) Giant logs leaving forest for sawmill (14) Gathering oysters in Chesapeake Bay (15) Sandy desert in southeastern United States (16) Extensive cornfield in Iowa (17) Iron ore pit in Minnesota (18) Moss hung trees in the South (19) Sugar cane in Louisiana. Geographic understandings may be checked thru the use of a single picture. For example, the children are shown the picture of a cotton field with negroes at work harvesting the cotton. Directions to pupils: Check the square which precedes the correct answer for each question. This picture might have been taken in The Northeastern States New England Manitoba Georgia. The growing season here would be at least Three months long Five months long Seven months long. The season when this view was taken was The spring The winter The summer The autumn. Here the summer weather is [——~] Fairly uniform in temperature with much sunshine and abundant rainfall Cool with many sunny days and heavy rainfall Dry and hot. The winter season in this region would be Long and cold Short and cool Long and mild. 208 ELEMENTARY Scnoot Prtncipats After the study of the Western States and Great Plains Region the following test may be used with one picture: b] Directions to pupils: ‘ ” After you have studied this scene carefully, check “yes” or “no” for each statement. The scene used is a picture of the Great Plains showing the foothills of the Rocky Mountains in the background and cattle grazing on the sparse grass. Yes No (1) The population is very dense in this section. Yes No (2) There are probably large sheep ranches in this region. Yes No (3) The rainfall here amounts to about thirty-five inches a year. Yes No (4) Manufacturing is carried on extensively in this section. Yes No (5) Little land is used for farming in this section. Yes No (6) The farms here are very small. Yes No (7) You would be likely to find irrigated land near this scene. Yes No (8) Lumbering is an important industry in this section. HE PLACE OF VISUAL EDUCATION in our ele- mentary curriculum is a topic of much discussion today. While it is recognized that teachers have always used pictures, slides, postal cards, and other visual aids in connection with their regular school work, these materials have not been organized in any systematic way. . . . . The motion picture has the advantage in cases where understanding of the action of the object requires that it be shown in motion, while still pictures appear to have the advantage where a keener study attitude is required.—Meador, Mildred, Educational Method, November, 1931, p. 97. on ach the ‘ar. THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 209 SELECTION AND EVALUATION OF MAPS, GLOBES, AND CHARTS ErNA GRASSMUCK Head, Geography Department, State Teachers College, Indiana, Pennsylvania ESSONS with visual aids can produce more destructive results in L education than lessons without visual aids unless teachers have been fully prepared to distinguish between good and bad ma- terials, between truth and error. Attractive pictures, maps, and other sensory aids, giving one-sided or distorted concepts of regions, peoples, things, or conditions, may be more malicious than oral word descrip- tions by pupils or teachers. Their very attractiveness may be a menace and result in the learning of errors. It is not a matter of having a map or a picture but of using effec- lively the geographical or historical map, or geographic, scientific, or social picture that will produce in the pupil’s life the desired attitude or skill. Standards for maps—A map is in essence the representation of a portion or all of a given area. After a long period of experimenta- tion and thoughtful study, the following standards for maps in the elementary- and secondary-school levels have been evolved and adopted by many teachers, supervisors, and administrators. Characteristics of a good map which must also be simple, accurate, and clear are: (1) Meaningful title: Corn Production in U. 8. 1930 (2) Seale (actual or approximate): 500 miles=1 inch (3) Key or legend: symbols either standard or fully explained (4) Parallels and meridians indicated on margins or edges of sheet, except equator and other similar sun behavior lines: Tropic of Cancer, Tropic of Capri- corn, Arctic Circle, and Antarctic Circle, which may be drawn lightly across sheet (5) Source of data used on map: U.S. Department of Agriculture Yearbook, 1931 (6) Date, where advisable: 1930 (7) Coast lines, except in case of islands, continued to margin or edge of sheet. Equipment for a typical school—Since the understanding of human behavior in any given place is closely related to the elements of the natural environment of that place be it climate, topography, water and mineral resources, soil, or some other “ nature” element, the early needs for the elementary school are physical-political maps, not political maps.’ They are basal materials for studying not only geography but also other phases of the curriculum, especially history. Generally speaking, world maps are the first need for each school whether it is in an urban or a rural district. The minimum needs 1See: Thirty-Second Yearbook, 1938, National Society for the Study of Education, p. 398 and other parts of Chapter XXV. Also Chapters XV, XVI, XXII, XXIX, and XXX. 4 210 ELEMENTARY Scuoo.t PrincrpPays for initial learning purposes are two world wall maps: (1) a map showing physical regions, in colors, according to the color legend or key for the International Map of the World and superimposed thereon the major political boundaries by means of standard line symbols; and (2) a map showing predominant land uses thruout the world. Great care must be exercised in the selection of a projection for world maps. The Mercator projection, tho useful to navigators, is discouraged for public school use. This projection badly distorts continental and ocean shapes (hence areas and distances) and enor- mously expands areas in polar latitudes. Also, the poles themselves cannot be represented on the Mercator projection. Equal area pro- jections are urged; for example, the interrupted homolosine and homolographice world projections by Dr. J. Paul Goode. Less accu- rate, but fairly satisfactory ones are the van der Grinten, Boggs, and Molleveide world projections. In a typical schoolroom, maps on a sufficient scale should be avail- able for such areas as the pupils are studying. They are needed for in- dividual study and socialized presentation, hence should be constantly available in that room. These tools are usually “continent maps ” selected to fit the curriculum of each given grade and should deal with both physical and political aspects as suggested in the case of the world maps. For example, a fifth-grade classroom would have physical-political maps of North America and probably one of the United States; a sixth-grade room, Europe and any other continent areas of which parts are to be studied by the pupils of that grade. In addition to these continent maps, world maps should be available when the need arises. For the history learnings, the political boun- daries shown on a map should be accurate for the historical period under consideration. If these human items are superimposed on a physical base map, maps are produced that will aid the pupils in understanding better the human behaviors of those historical periods. Wall and desk outline maps, when used during the study work, have distinct value as media for helping the pupils to acquire more accurate concepts of: (1) the localization of individual facts both of the nature phase, or natural layout, of a given region and of the human use, or cultural layout, of the region, and (2) the existence of a relationship between one or more of these human (cultural) features, activities, or conditions and one or more items in nature in a given region. Since testing of concepts is quite as essential for achievement as is initial development of concepts, it is necessary that the minimum equipment should include wall and desk base or outline maps which are to be used purely for testing purposes. This activity is particu- Tuirteentriu YEARBOOK 911 larly functional in geographical education. Again, a world wall map, frequently referred to as a blackboard outline map, is a real essential for testing as well as initial learning purposes. Then some continent maps; for example, North America for fifth grade, Europe for sixth grade, and so on according to the specific curriculums of the given grades in the school. The same blackboard map can be used for any subject provided the amount of detail appearing thereon permanently is limited. However, care must again be exercised in selecting a world map. In no case should a Mercator projection be used. As with maps, so with globes, both physical and political items should be shown. A sixteen-inch globe with not too much detail is recommended. Only such items as are suited to the elementary- school level should be printed thereon. The color schemes for water depths and land elevations adopted for the International Map of the World and the generally accepted line symbols for such items as rivers, coast lines, and political boundaries should appear. If grades seven and eight are included in a given school, a second globe show- ing more detail and having a movable meridian will be found useful. In the case of charts, proportion is particularly essential. Charts should be accurate in the facts presented and also should conform with principles of structure in the matter of English and art. Charts should be definitely distinguished from cartoons and other distorted visual material. In this connection, caution is urged in the use of “ picture maps ” and of books containing picture maps. A map expresses space. This space can and should be accurately represented, or at least, propor- tionately drawn. Also, it is highly essential that people living in our complex civilization so largely dealing with areas, should acquire during their school days a keen sense of space. In picture maps, to which some pupils are being exposed in the elementary school, the picture appears on a scale much larger than the scale of the map. Thus, the picture covers far more area, or territory, as it is printed on the map than is the actual situation. Hence the pupils acquire inaccurate, disproportionate, and incomplete concepts of that area. Also, the very attractiveness of these picture maps deepens the incor- rect image which the pupil acquires, and great difficulty is encoun- tered in having the pupil correct that error. If a teacher is impelled to use such picture maps because they are “ so lovely and attractive,” one urges its use after correct concepts of the area have been acquired by the pupil thru the use of carefully selected pictures and words and truthful maps. Even then, the picture map should be used as a test medium and the pupils required to state the omissions and other errors found on the map. 212 ELemMEentTARY Scuoot Princrpats Materials for making graphs, both desk and wall sizes, as well as a slated graph chart are recommended. Many teachers, supervisors, and administrators have contributed in formulating the character- istics of a good graph, for example: (1) Meaningful title: Grain crops of the World, 1930 (2) Key or legend: 1 block= 500,000,000 bushels (3) Seale: vertical and horizontal (4) Source of data used in the graph: World Almanac, 1934 (5) Date, where advisable: 1930 (6) A common base line or point used as starting place for each item indicated. Gradations in maps, globes, and charts—Scientific investigations have shown the value of gradations in learnings, hence it is strongly urged that there be a definite recognition of gradation in complexity of map, globe, and chart tools to which a pupil is exposed as he pro- gresses in his school career. A globe that is functional in the seventh and eighth grades is not the preferred one for the lower grades. Since the earth’s surface is not smooth, and since the younger pupils are more conscious of variations in land forms than they are in political boundaries, pupils of the lower grades should have opportunity to use a simple globe that shows, by means of color, the variation of elevations in land and depths in the oceans, rather than a globe that shows in colors the extent of political divisions. Furthermore, a globe that shows elevations and depths by means of color may have political boundaries also indicated thereon and yet not be too com- plicated for use in the lower grades. Organization and storage—Careful organization is necessary in each school building to ensure effective use and proper storage for maps, globes, and charts. The scheme depends in a measure on the size of the school. In general, a dry, and so far as possible dustless, closet or room, which need not have windows, will be satisfactory. Racks functionally labeled by: (1) title and nature of the map and in some instances, to show gradation in complexity of the maps, (2) grade or grades in which the map or chart is especially useful according to the school’s curriculum. If the storage space is insuffi- cient for racks, a screw of a thickness appropriate to the thickness of the wood used in the wood rods of the map-mounting can be in- serted at one end of one of the rods of each map and the map can be suspended by hooks from the under side of a shelf built across the closet or attached to hooks placed along the wall. Maps rolled on wooden rods may be suspended horizontally with wall pegs under each end. Or the ends may be fitted in notches in strips of wood which have been mounted the proper distance apart on the walls or in cabinets. Others prefer to have small compartments —_ = = THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 213 in cabinets into which the rolled map may be inserted. In all of these arrangements labels should be placed as aids in locating the desired maps and in keeping the set in systematic order. Flat charts or maps should be filed preferably in flat drawers of appropriate size. Where these are not possible, the materials are hung in a special cabinet to protect them from dust. It will be found worthwhile to cover globes during the vacations. Dust can readily obliterate an essential item printed on a globe. Of course, the globe should not be covered during school time. Collections of materials really require a “ curator” and a system of recording the loans of material, so that any article may be traced speedily at any time. One or more pupils of the highest grade in the school who have mechanical aptitudes often enjoy the opportunity of keeping maps, charts and, in fact, other learning media in good condition. Some janitors take pride in helping to maintain these materials in good repair and in working organization. When a map has been torn and insufficient space remains for remounting it, it is wise to consult the company which published the map for specific instructions. Equipment made by pupils—There is character education value in encouraging each class of pupils to contribute at least one worth- while map or chart that will increase the permanent equipment of the school. The map, graph, or chart should conform with the stand- ards stated above and should deploy items of real importance. A map, or relief model, made by an individual child who evidences special aptitude may have true social worth for the entire school. Individual productions of maps and charts must, however, be varefully evaluated before being accepted for the school collection. Care should be exercised to distinguish between: (1) maps made by pupils as means (a) for learning initially a new concept, (b) for checking ideas that have also been expressed in words, pictures, or statistics, or (c) for testing the pupil’s accuracy of a given concept ; and (2) maps made by a group of pupils for more permanent and wider social use by subsequent classes in the school. In conclusion, visual aids should be carefully graded on the basis of the educational levels. Adequately prepared and experienced teachers and supervisors in education are the only persons competent to select and use materials that will develop in our young and older citizens a functional geographic thinking and feeling so outstand- ingly demanded in presentday living—vocational and avocational. 214 ELEMENTARY Scuoot PRiNciPALs USING MAPS WITH YOUNG PUPILS NANNILEE SAUNDERS Principal, Judson School, Greenville, South Carolina APS ARE as essential to good teaching as are books themselves. M The little child six years old begins the idea of direction as it applies to his own position. Later he gets the idea of the loca- tion and position of other things not present to the senses but near at hand. From this beginning, the individual learns to interpret vari- ous forms of maps which represent realms that are unfamiliar. So maps are nothing more than tools for picturing concretely in one’s mind physical or political areas, local or distant, which cannot possi- bly be seen clearly otherwise. The map is one of the few things used thru school that is an essen- tial to man’s intelligent interpretation of current happenings. The road map of the present day is a great educative factor in American life. The average eight- or ten-year-old child delights to use a map as he makes a trip of a few hundred miles. The American good road with the automobile and much traveling of the average man have increased the importance of the school giving a clear understanding of maps and their use. It has indeed made this a necessity if we are thinking of real life in school. A school without maps is a school failing to provide one of the most effective means for giving the student a definite conception of certain geographic facts backed by a reasoning knowledge of their significance. It fails to create in the best way an interest in man’s existence which will make of the citizenship of tomorrow etlicient contributors to world betterment. Maps for first- and second-grade levels of development—Many of us have not had the vision to see what a map is like on the first- and second-grade level. Actually we didn’t know that there was such a thing. Maybe the first experience bearing in the direction of maps for the beginner in school is when he helps to plan the arrangement of the furniture in his own room. He sees that the tables have a definite relation to each other, that each chair has its place, and that the circle in the room has a definite location. His first school activity has to do with things within his experience. He learns the best way to go home from school (our children do because luckily their mothers can’t come for them in automobiles). He learns what traffic rules he must obey. He learns the streets where he must be careful. He takes a trip in the vicinity of the school to see someone’s pet squirrels. He visualizes the route taken and counts the blocks to see how far he had to go. He goes two blocks in one THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 215 direction and one block in another. A suggestion is offered to build a home in the room. The plan of this home is indeed a map. A group decides to study about “ ways to go places ” and gets into a transportation unit. Because they have not ridden on a train they decide to go to Easley (15 miles away). They see where Easley is in relation to Greenville and where the station is in relation to the school because they must take the train at the station. A crude repre- sentation of the trip is made. Regardless of crudeness it means development for the children. A farm is built. The children decide to have a farmer and his family live on the farm. The farmer and his wife plan their home, its location, the location of barn, silo, garage, and well. A plan is made, the buildings are finished and arranged according to plan. The road in front runs north and south. The farmer goes south to reach Greenville with his vegetables and chickens for sale or with his cotton, perhaps. Direction is introduced. Where is south from the school ? One direction is established. North is opposite. Another direction is found. Figure 1 illustrates the farm unit. The second grade plans a city. They go on an excursion thru the city locating the parks, important buildings, railroad station, and residential and industrial sections. They decide on their return what buildings are needed. A trip is made to a lumber yard in the com- 216 ELEMENTARY Scuoont PRINCIPALS munity to get materials. Distances and routes are discussed. The buildings are finished. The city is laid off. The streets are named and marked E. and W., N. and S., from the main streets. Figure 2 illustrates this project. The children begin to study the food supply of the people and workers in the city. The source of these is considered. They find that fresh vegetables in winter come from a warm region or a region south of us. Another and new meaning is given to directions. Rela- tion of places and sections to us is found. So map interpretation continues. FIGURE 2—A City is Planned. In this period, then, we say that the following fundamentals of map study come. The children learn that: (1) Every home, farm, and city has a definite plan or pattern. (2) Home and school are found in definite relation to each other. (3) By using standard directions, places may be located. (4) Spatial relations can be seen in one’s mind; that is, one can imagine a distant place with eyes closed. (5) All directions may be determined approximately from the sunrise or sunset (6) One city is in a definite direction from another. Maps for the third-grade level of development—lIn the third grade the formal map is introduced to the child. He is interested in peoples. He studies the Eskimo of the Far North, the people of hot lands, the Dutch, the Japanese, the Swiss, the Chinese, and the Arabs. TurrTeEeENtH YEARBOOK 217 The child learns that there are zones on the earth. He sees the globe. He learns the shape of the earth. He locates the poles. He sees the equator. He finds the continents in different hemispheres. He locates Holland or Japan. He studies India. The teacher intro- duces an outline map of North America so that he ean see where the plains Indians and Southwest Indians lived. A child brings in a piece of Mexican pottery. Mexico is located. One pupil asks about South Carolina Indians. South Carolina is located, drawn into the map, and Greenville is located. In the child’s mind he is now gradually getting an image of North America as a continent. He is getting the location of his own state and city on this continent. Perhaps a United States map is used for the Indian study or the United States is carefully outlined on North America so as to impress the child. A base map may be used to show kinds of homes used by Indians in different areas. Pictures of homes may be put on in these locations. Care must be taken to have accurate outlines so that children’s first impressions are correct. Someone brings a picture of an adobe house. After much study it is decided that one can be built. This is done and all of the surround- ings are arranged to portray the life and activities of the Hopi Indians. This is a real picturization of such an Indian habitat. Another group decides to show the life of the tepee Indians by use of pictures. They decide on a western sunset background so that they ‘an show the Indians’ activities at sunset. They plan the north and south part of the picture. Both of these are most worthwhile from the map viewpoint. So in the third-grade period the student finds that: (1) There are zones around the earth. (2) North is toward the North Pole. (3) South is toward the South Pole. (4) People in temperate zone are more energetic, ambitious, and progressive. (5) Continents are large areas of land with definite boundaries. (6) South Carolina is a part of southeastern United States. (7) Maps are made to scale. (8) A map pictures a large area which we cannot otherwise imagine. (9) The earth is round. Conclusion—Thus the work in the primary school in regard to maps is designed to develop in the child a clearer conception of areas not seen by the eye. He develops a spatial imagination. His experi- ence reaches out from home to an understanding of larger areas. He has been made to feel that the printed map is a tool for his use. This tool serves as an interpreter of facts learned about people. Besides this, students learn that a map may be a means of self-expression— it may be made to depict certain conditions and facts about which the 218 Kk LEMENTARY Scuoon PRINCIPALS pupil has learned. He may create a map to express his own ideas of a section. The maps which may be used for the first three grades have been briefly discussed in this article. All cannot be given, however, because the number is unlimited depending on the ingenuity of the teacher. The use of maps is something which is seen constantly in everyday life, even from the beginning of the child’s first school or kindergarten experience. ICTURE APPRECIATION in the school should help children thruout life to evaluate and enjoy fine ex- amples of art. The fact that a youngster looks at some one picture, hears a description of it, is told a story about it, and reads something concerning the artist’s life may lead him to appreciate the picture in question but will not help him much if he walks into a museum to see entirely different pictures. Many teachers of picture study hesitate to teach the more technical elements of appreciation. Some consider such in- struction impossible below the junior high school. It is the belief of the writers that even in the elementary school these factors in technic can be made the foundation for an apprecia- tion of all good works of art. The technical elements are the common language of artists and can be made the common key to appreciation for all normal children. The results of this experiment seem in agreement with this belief—Waymack, Eunice H. and Hendrickson, G., Hlementary School Journal, December 1932, p. 276. THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 219 PUPIL-MADE MAPS E. Wrnirrep CrawFrorp Director of Visual Education, Public Schools, Montclair, New Jersey EAUTIFUL old handmade maps have always been valued for their information and for their workmanship. Some of the sketched directions or maps of the early navigators and some of the very old elaborate maps which hang on the walls of geographi- cal or historical societies or museums, indicate that for centuries many kinds of maps have been made by hand to express thought and to record research. The world, which today is a neighborhood in con- trast with olden times, is talked about and written about in terms of maps. This discussion will be limited to the possibilities of maps that pupils make. These maps may be of several types: those made by individuals, groups, classes, or the school ; of several kinds: sketched, drawn, traced, constructed, or modeled ; and for several uses: momen- tary illustration, prolonged study, or enjoyment. Princietes Unpertying Map Maxine Maps which conform to the following principles will be of intrinsic value to the understanding and interpretation of the children’s school work : (1) Fulfill a purpose—From the teacher’s angle the making of maps should give the pupils experiences not obtainable in any other way. From the pupils viewpoint map making may have one or more of several purposes : (a) To tell a story, as is done by a pictorial record and map of Lindbergh’s recent trip. (b) To explain a truth, such as done in a map of the streets and traffic safe- guards of the local school district. (c) To record the results of research, such as the causes of the westward move- ment in the United States and the reasons for each overland route. (d) To classify and to organize knowledge, such as the careful plotting of the route taken by migratory birds, the measurement of the distance traveled, and similar procedures which fill in the details of general knowledge. The time taken to make maps should be commensurate with the values to be obtained. A particular map may be a rough sketch or an intricate piece of art. Both types have value as long as they are integral parts of the unit of work and utilized for clearly understood purposes. (2) Adapled to the ability of the pupils—A single idea should be represented on each map, for too many items are apt to confuse both 220 ELEMENTARY Scuoon Principats the maker and the reader. The motor and artistie abilities of the pupils must also be considered in the preparation of maps. If the type of drawing or construction is too intricate for the grade level the pupils may be disappointed with the results. (3) True to thought—It is desirable that children obtain correct impressions of shapes, areas, locations, and relationships when they look at maps. Maps of continents and the world need particular at- tention. Mercator’s projection of the world on which Greenland appears almost as large as South America should never be used. For most continents Lambert’s Azimuthal and for most countries the conic or polyconic projections will give the most accurate impressions. The interrupted homolographie projection for a world map is best for plotting such routes as the one now being taken by Admiral Byrd. A pupil-made map should be correctly proportioned by having latitude, longitude, and altitude on the same scale. In pictorial maps it is often necessary for articles to be out of scale with the chart itself. Usually, everyone understands this exaggeration and the values far outweigh the objections. Insofar as possible, however, proportions should be maintained. Proportion should be observed, too, in the seale used in construct- ing maps. If the children make a model or sketch of the local dis- tricts, distances should be clearly indicated and fully understood. The symbols and colors of the map should be planned so as to give correct and useful visual impressions. (4) True to art—Arrangement of the spaces on the map requires careful thought. Since the physical features and directions of con- tinents are fixed it is often necessary to include varying amounts of the surrounding land and water to get a balance effect. The name, scale of miles, legend, and points of the compass may also be used to make pleasing arrangements. The opportunity to judge what and where materials are to be placed is excellent training. Margins should always be considered, for no map should be made without them. The side margins should be equal, the lower margin the widest, the upper margin narrower than the side margin if the map is in a horizontal rectangle, and the top margin should be wider than the side margin if the map is in a vertical rectangle. The top margin should equal the side margins if the map is in a square. On large maps a border to form a frame is effective but even then margins are needed within the border. Maps should be lettered from left to right so all words read on horizontal planes unless there is a definite geographic reason for a different arrangement. Letters of the same size and style should THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 221 stand for things of equal value. Capital letters of the same size may represent the countries. Capitals and small letters of the same size may be used to indicate all cities. When this principle is followed in making maps, children will find reading of maps more meaningful. The right use of color helps make maps artistic, attractive, and comprehensive. Legibility is important because a map is a visual story. Groups of lettering of equal value should be equally legible at any given distance away from the map. Some Trecunics ror Pupits Technics are important in making maps. When‘ the children once become familiar with them they find great enjoyment in making many kinds of maps. Knowing the principles of how to make maps gives opportunity for experimentation and for using the maps to indicate many ideas. Sketched maps—There are a few distinct technics to consider when the children make their own sketched, drawn, traced, constructed, or modeled maps. Chalk, crayon, or pencil may be used on the black- board or on paper to sketch a rough map which will be discarded almost as soon as it has been sketched. A sketch of the area around the settlement of Jamestown makes clear some of the reasons for the hardships of the colony. Children should be encouraged to illustrate their work by means of these quickly and roughly sketched maps. Drawn maps—Drawn maps differ from the sketched maps in that they need definite planning. The idea that the map is to repre- sent and how the idea may be expressed by means of a map should be talked over and clearly understood. Little children may draw a map, perhaps of their school neighborhood, to help them under- stand map construction. These maps when drawn on large sheets of paper may include the streets, railways, schools, and houses. Guidance is needed in plotting out the map and in drawing it. Proper propor- tions and, with older children, a seale need to be understood. The commercial outline map may be used in many of the ways suggested for other maps. Older children enjoy using the shading, hachures, and crossed-line effects when making physiographic maps. Traced maps—The enlarged traced map is very easily made from either a stereopticon map slide or a printed map. A pantograph is difficult for children to use and takes considerable time. After decid- ing on the desired size of the map—for any size may be projected— prepare the paper. Hang it on a smooth place on a wall so that the tracing may be done over a flat surface. Then focus the light of the 222 ELEMENTARY ScHoout PrincIPALs stereopticon projector on the paper so that the lighted area is a little larger than the size of the desired map. Place the map slide with the thumb mark in the upper right-hand corner in the stereopticon. Then bring to a keen focus the projected image of the map on the paper. Move the machine nearer the paper if a smaller map is de- sired, farther from the paper if a larger map is wanted, and up or down as needed. Each time the projector is moved the focus must be adjusted. Third- or fourth-grade children soon become accustomed to setting up a stereopticon machine for a desired size picture. A dark room is not necessary, pulling down the ordinary window shades will help, tho if a room faces north this may not be necessary. The map is now ready to be traced with pencil. If a large map of the world or a continent about six by ten feet is being made perhaps six children can work at the same time tracing the outline, rivers, or whatever is desired. Caution should be taken, while the children are tracing the outline, not to jar the stereopticon or trip over the cord, because it is very difficult to reset the machine so that the image of the map coincides with the traced lines on the paper if the projector is jarred. When the children have finished tracing, carefully switch off the light, then examine the large map or the paper to see that everything desired has been traced. If not, turn on the light and finish the map. A dark crayon, India ink, or paint may be used over the lead pencil tracing to give a firm, clear cut outline to the map. Some teachers prefer to use chalk instead of pencil for the first trac- ing. Maps may be projected in this way on the blackboard, muslin, cardboard, or any other materia] that can be drawn upon. If a commercial lantern slide of a desired area is not obtainable, a map may be traced on etched glass, clear glass, or cellophane.’ Maps may be projected directly from a map in a book with the aid of an opaque projector. The same general principles of projection may be followed as those outlined for using the lantern slide. A dark or nearly dark room is needed for best results when an opaque projector is used. When many small maps of the same outline are desired a dupli- cator is easy. A stencil may be made from a map by using a mimeo- scope. Mimeographed maps are good substitutes for commercial outline maps. Constructed maps—Children take considerable interest in the con- structed map, that is, the map they can manipulate. One group con- structed the streets and buildings of their immediate school neigh- borhood on the’ floor of the classroom. Excursions around the 1 For an explanation of how to make slides see Chapter VI of this yearbook. Tuirtreenru YEARBOOK 223 neighborhood and play in the living map enabled the children to draw a map of the school area, which they hung over the play map. Children interested in science enjoy making electrical maps. The outline is made directly on a piece of beaver board according to any one of the several suggestions already given. This type of board will permit the easy boring of holes thru it for the electrical wiring. The science teacher will be glad to assist the children with wiring the map and connecting the battery if necessary. Older children who have been using either the United States or state topographic maps enjoy constructing tag board maps which show altitude by means of contours. A definite physiographic fea- ture such as the formation of natural levees along a stream and delta may be selected. Have two topographic sheets of the area, cut from one the small area to be used for the map, and keep the other for reference. The maps are made by tracing the contour lines. Have a piece of tag board on a board as a base. Draw on this the rectangle of the small section of the topographic map to be used. On the topo- graphic map cut around the lowest contour. Place this cut-out map on a piece of tag board, trace around the contour line and cut out. The piece of tag board will be the exact shape of the outline of the lowest contour line on the map. Paste this on the baseboard to cor- respond exactly by the points of the compass with the same contour on the topographic map. Repeat this with next lowest contour. Not always will the contours be continuous. Proceed in the same way with every contour. A medium grade of tag board will make a twenty-foot contour almost in proper altitude proportion. The map should be kept under press during construction and afterwards until thoroly dried. Children will seldom make maps which require great height, in such a map a small brad may help hold the layers of tag board together. Proper legends should be attached and the map painted if desired. Modeled map—The modeled map has the advantage of showing altitudes in relief. The scale is the most important factor to con- sider, for the altitude must be in proper ratio to the latitude and longitude distance to give an accurate impression. Maps of small areas will show the altitude on much more detail than maps of conti- nents. Children have little need for making maps which use two scales. Many different types of materials may be used, sand, clay, plas- ticene, paper pulp, salt, and flour. For the method to use in prepar- ing these plastics consult any recent manual arts book. These ma- terials except plasticene may be painted. Schools situated near 224 ELemMentary Scuoot PRINCIPALS brooks, which have made sandy flood plains, will find children delight in modeling fairly large maps in the brook’s flood plain. Manipula- tion when making maps gives the children a feeling for relief that they can get in no other way. Some Uses or Pupitt-Mapre Maps Because of the aim of this discussion and because so many types of uses of pupil-made maps have been indicated in the illustrations of this article, this section will be limited to a brief statement regard- ing some individual, group, class, and school pupil-made maps. Maps made by individuals in the class, for either group or class reports in units of work, or for indicating research, and filed in note- books, are mostly used from the fourth grade upward. Figure 1 illus- trates a map of Egypt, one of a series compiled by individuals to record their studies and investigations in ancient history. A number of groups studying a unit of work on New Jersey used maps to illustrate their studies. Among the maps made were several on natural resources, others on industries, population, recreation, history, literature, and the arts. Each group was interested in the findings of the other groups, often sharing information or pictures with them. The culmination of the unit of work took the form of a play, each group contributing a scene and the summary of the study was the giving of the play at an assembly period. A class making an intensive study of South America made a pic- torial map of its imaginary trip around that continent. This map was in process of making during the entire time of the study. One result, of the study and selecting of pictures to illustrate their trip on the map, was the making of original sketches of the things they saw on their journeys. A marionette show, with background pictures they had painted, depicted their travelings in an animated way. Thus map work was an integral part of a larger unit and not a single study in itself. Figure 2 illustrates this point. A school map that held the interest of the children during the remainder of the year was made for Book Week. A fifth-grade class, in their social studies and art work, made a map of the world, about nine by fifteen feet, which was hung in the hall. The class invited ’ the other classes of the school to paste on the various countries of the world the names of books read that fall, whose stories were about peoples in the different countries. The interest in the geographical side of literature was greatly increased and the map continued to be used after Book Week. ht at THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 225 4% ee Sea / ~~ Com rg ree $ sey, . > ity, EY | | alt Siwa J Cairn”, =\¥( Desert Dy WINS “=~ Shrine of mon a2py Clute tonne of al age e 4 ~ r. ony" ASIA MINOR Sympel ot Re CSumn Ged) Sen ner // Mere a” }; wW E at AFRICA ‘ Caravans \ Se of donkeys a up Nile into Sudan, bn, FIGURE 1—An Outline Map for Notebook Work. ELEMENTARY Scnoor PRINCIPALS emp a) _ lows ae , a ~ ot ft — FIGURE 2—Maps as Integral Parts of Large Units. THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 227 The uses of pupil-made maps are many and varied. Maps are parts of units of work and not isolated things. When the purpose for which the map has been made has been accomplished, either give the map to the child or discard it. A beautiful map may be enjoyed, if appro- priately hung, for a time after the unit of work has been finished. Care should be taken to keep the map in proper condition. It may be shared with another group or used at a teachers’ gathering. Some StranpArRDS FoR Evatuating Puprt-Mapr Maps A casual glance at a pupil-made map tells very little of its worth. A map which quickly catches the eye may not be nearly as educa- tional as a map which is less pronounced. A few standards to use as a measuring rod when evaluating the maps children make may be helpful. (1) Have the children grown in their knowledge, appreciations, and under- standings thru making the map as one part of a study? (2) Can the children interpret the meanings indicated by the map and not tell just the obvious? (3) Does the map (a) Have educational value commensurate with the time spent in mak- ing it? (b) Make clear its purpose to the observer? (c) Indicate that the materials used have been evaluated? (d) Speak the truth? (e) Give an artistic appearance? (f) Indicate that efficient technics have been used? Conclusion—Today a map is a recognized way of expression the same as a paragraph or a picture. Oral directions may even be called a verbal map. Thru the easy access to maps, we are becoming a map-minded people. The maps that the children make themselves in school under the guidance of their teachers, besides being of intrinsic worth to their studies, have a lasting life meaning for the children. The work goes beyond that of the school into the realm of apprecia- tion and spiritual values for our youth. 228 ELEMENTARY Scuoot PRINCIPALS AN EVALUATION OF GRAPHIC INSTRUCTION MATERIALS R. A. Harper Teacher, New Trier Township High School, Winnetka, Illinois and Henry J. Orro Assistant Professor of Education, Northwestern University, Evanston, I[linois HE EXPERIMENT reported herewith attempted to measure, Ts objective means, the value of instruction in the interpretation of simple graphs. The pupils were taught to interpret graphs which directly supplemented one unit of geography in the fifth grade and one unit in the sixth grade. Tests were given before the unit was started and at the completion of the unit to measure the pupils’ general knowledge of geography, their knowledge of the geography studied in the experimental unit, and their ability to interpret graphic materials. The final conclusions indicate some of the values which might be expected to result from the extensive use of supplementary graphic materials in instruction in the fifth and sixth grades. The use of graphic materials in schools—The use of graphs as one phase of visual instruction has developed recently in magazines, news- papers, and books. In advertising, graphs are frequently used to illustrate some point. With graphs playing an important réle out- side the school with apparent success, the scientific evaluation of their use inside the school is important. It is essential that we know the nature and extent of any values which may be expected to accrue from the use of graphs in the school- room. Further, we must know the way in which children react to graphs, their interest in them, and the ease with which they use them. We must also know what types of information the graphs will give the children. A graph may be defined as a diagram representing the successive values of a changing quantity, or the relative values of two or more like quantities. There are several different kinds of graphs. The simplest is the pictogram. Bars, lines, and circles are also used in expressing relationships.’ The various studies which have been carried on involving the use of graphs have been interested chiefly in the grade placement of these materials.” Three generalizations can be drawn from these experi- 1 For a technical discussion of graphic methods consult: Williams, J. Harold. Graphic Methods in Education. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. 1924. 319 p. 2 Consult particularly: Dorris, Anna V. Visual Instruction in the Public Schools. Boston: Ginn and Co., 1928. 481 p.; Mathews, C. 0. The Grade Placement of Curriculum Materials in the Social Studies. Contributions to Education, No. 241. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1926. 152 p.; Rathmann, Carl G. Visual Education in the Saint Louis School Museum. U. S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1924, No. 39. Washington, D. C.: me or mé jee tio art tel tal th th wl an ha ex th in M in si: an on ex m en W 1 al LS re, on hs de Lit ls’ hy ie ch ry ds in he ia TuirRtTEENtH YEARBOOK 229 ments. Children at the fifth-grade level and above can interpret oraphic materials when they are submitted in a simple form. Graphic materials should be constructed to meet the abilities in the tool sub- jects of the pupils who are going to use them. Drill or special instruc- tion increases markedly the proficiency with which these materials are used. The writers have suggested incidentally that graphic ma- terials can be of considerable value as teaching devices for the presen- tation of factual material. But the point of emphasis of the studies has been on the grade placement of the materials, rather than upon the nature and extent of the values arising from their use. It is highly important therefore that some scientific study show the value of the use of these materials, and the nature of the use which can be made of them. To know that children can understand and use graphs is not sufficient; we must know whether the graphs have educational value. Character of the experiment—In order to show the nature and extent of the values which might accrue from specific instruction in the interpretation of graphic materials, an experiment was carried on in the public schools of Wilmette, Lllinois, during February and March of 1933. Four separate experiments were carried out involv- ing the teaching of geography in the fifth and sixth grades over a six weeks’ period. Three of the experiments had two control groups and one experimental group. One experiment had one control and one experimental group. A total of 365 pupils were involved in the experiment. The control and experimental groups were picked on the basis of median intelligence scores. In no case was there a significant differ- ence in the median scores between the groups in any one experiment. During the experiment in the fifth grade, the pupils studied a unit on the geography of southeastern United States. The control groups covered this material in the usual manner, including reading and study of the textbook, class discussions, outside reading, special reports, and projects. The experimental groups used the same con- tent and methods of study with the exception of attention given to eighteen supplementary graphs. Each graph related directly to the discussion in the text. The graphs were mimeographed so that each Government Printing Office, 1924. 36 p.; Sister M. Callista. Visualizing and Vitalizing the Content of Geography. Educational Research Bulletin, No. 10. Washington, D. C.: Catholic Uni- versity of America, 1928. 26 p.; Thomas, Katheryne Colvin. ‘‘ The Ability of Children to Interpret Graphs.” The Teaching of Geography. National Society for the Study of Education. Bloomington, Ill.: Public School Publishing Co., 1933. p. 492-94; Thorp, Mary Tucker. ‘‘ Studies of the Ability of Pupils in Grades Four to Eight to Use Geographic Tools.”” The Teaching of Geography. National Society for the Study of Education. Bloomington, Ill.: Public School Pub- lishing Co., 1983. p. 494-506 ; and Weber, Joseph J. Comparative Effectiveness of Some Visual Aids in Seventh Grade Instruction, Chicago; The Educational Screen, Inc., 1922, 131 p. 230 ELEMENTARY Scuoot PRINCIPALS pupil could receive one copy of each. The pupils were given the graphs when they would be of most use (as judged by the teacher) in emphasizing the material in the text. Usually the graph was dis- tributed after the pupils had read and discussed the section to which the diagram related. The graphs were used to present the material from a different angle and to serve often as a review and a summary of the material. Each graph was discussed rather thoroly at the time it was given to the children. Each child kept in his notebook the graphs which he received. Often the pupils colored the charts with crayons. Thus the different parts of the graph were made to stand out more vividly and the children were enabled to see better the relations expressed. This pro- cedure made the work more interesting. Each diagram had a few questions written below it. The children answered these on the sheet and made other comments concerning facts which the graph showed them. The sixth-grade experimental unit covered the geography of Ger- many. In the experimental group a supplementary set of twelve graphs was used in the same manner as were the graphs in the fifth grade. The materials used in the sixth grade were a little more com- plicated than those used in the fifth grade. Each grade received graphs of the three types: bar, line, and circle. The outcomes of instruction were measured by three sets of tests, and by other less objective means. Growth in the knowledge of geog- raphy was measured by two tests; namely, The New Stanford Ge- ography Test, and a curriculum test prepared locally. The curricu- lum tests used in the experiment were developed directly from the textbooks in use. Each test contained one hundred objective factual questions. The questions covered very closely the subjectmatter as it was discussed in the text. It was necessary to use factual questions of this type as this was the only knowledge which would be common to all groups. While the graphs used in the experiment followed the text closely they did present new facts and relations which the text did not discuss. The curriculum test did not measure the acquisition of these new facts except insofar as the graphs enabled the experi- mental group better to master the information presented in the text. A special test of six graphs was developed to measure the growth in the ability to interpret graphic materials. The test included the three different types, bar, line, and circle, which were used in the supplementary materials. (See Figure 1.) The questions asked concerning the graphs were of the completion type. In some cases the choice of two possible answers was suggested ; 7. v., more or less. Grea exe Wi) Ke! a a ae the er ) dis- Lich rial ary ime ent the rO- ew eet ved er- lve th THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 231 Name Date first neme last name Grade School Teacher This is a test to see how well you can widerstand graphs. Here are two examples. Study how the first question is answered, then see if you cen answer the second one correctly. SIZE OF NORTH SHORE TOWNS IN THOUSAND OF PEOPLE $3; 2@# &eeeerFTFesthUhHO RP RR Sa Rew t + 1 a ‘ ’ rY ' '‘ ] ‘ ' ’ a ' j Wilmette L Kent1worth [———} 1. How many thousand people live in Kenilworth? 2 The correct answer is of course 2}. This is shown by the length of the bar after the neme Kenilworth. You see that it reaches halfway be- tween two and three. Therefore the answer is 2%. Now try to answer the second question. 2. Which town is larger, Kenilworth or Wilmette? Now here is another kind of a graph. Study this one the same way you did the first one. DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION IN le Where did more people live in THE UNITED STATES IN 19350 1950, in the country (rural) or in the cities (urban)? Urban The answer is of course Urban be- cause that is the largest part of Urbden the circle? Now see if you can answer the second question. 2. Where did less than half of the people live in 19507 The questions on the following pages are very mich like these. Answer then as best you can but do not spend too long on any one question. Try to ans- wer all the questions. Do not ask any questions unless you do not know the meaning of a word. DO NOT BEGIN UNTIL YOU ARE TOLD TO DO SO. FIGURE 1—First Page of Test To Measure Ability To Interpret Graphic Materials. ~~ - 232 ELEMENTARY Scuoot PRINCIPALS In all, fifty answers were possible. The same test was given in both the fifth and sixth grades. There were two general types of information called for in the questions in the graph test. The first was the relative type of infor- mation. For example, a line graph showing the amount of rainfall per month in Iowa was used. Two questions of the relative type asked were: “ What month had the most rainfall ? ” and “ What month had the least rainfall?” Another type of information asked for was the concrete or statistical type. For the same graph, examples of this type are “ How many inches of rainfall were there in September ?” and ‘** How much more rainfall was there in July than in April?” The difference in the manner in which these two types of questions were handled will be discussed later. Pretests and final tests of the three different types used were given to all groups.* The pretests were given just before the unit was com- pleted. In the standardized geography test Form V was used as the pretest and Form W as the final test. In the curriculum and graph tests the same form was used before and after the experimental period. A record was kept of the time required to teach the unit in the various groups in order to see if the additional materials required more time to teach, or if there was any economy of time due to its use. The interest of the pupils in this type of material is important. It was studied thru the observation of the teachers. Any change of interest in geography or in other school subjects due to the use of the graphic materials would be important. Evidence of this change will be reported. Results of the study—A summary of the results of the three sets of tests is given in Figure 2. This figure shows the increase of median scores of each group on the three different tests. With the single exception of one group on the pretest, all median scores of the standardized geography test were above the norms for the respective grades as given by the makers of the test. These grade norms are expressed in tenths of a year so it is possible to compute the increase that normally should take place between the giving of the pretest and the final test. The normal increase for the fifth grade during the time of the experiment was two points and for the sixth grade one point. Referring to Figure 2, it is found that there are three groups which failed to make this increase. All other groups increased more than the normal amount. * Copies of the informal tests used and of the supplementary graphic materials used may be secured from R. A. Harper, Wilmette, Illinois. 233 “q89}oIgd WO Sal00g UBIps|y 1J9AO 4so [ [vuly UO Ssa100g UBIps|y jo wsBIIDUT—Z qynyold dnozo toxiv0o dnoxo Teswemrszedeg [————] [THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK r both see], qdeip 98eL ENTNoOTIANg 480% pezTprepuess 9 + 8 o os ob Oo o8 oT 9 + & a- ¥ A * is , , J ¥ . AJ as AJ s CI ovz - or“ es %& w 0°0 S*t s*2 *¢ mA 7" o°6¢ os © 8y om Cl Oe o*Ls os )60 6% hum O° 0° oF cy tt mu o°t o°ss 0°% ty mu vemos | 7 o°6s oo )6C od 8x sO o°8 0°92 os %@ A orot s*ss o*t ay oA s*ot C o°as oes oy 06tr A a <> aici $*3- — Wioa epern oa ITU a So LZ_Zawwe ese sa DR ae va ae a F * Ss q da *S | _ of 4 ae ro a — € ) oo - a < - LX ae ~ SSF sSsdgem F CHES AS BHF BSHSsS & sS& Ss 8 SSH eave 3 234 ExLemMentTAaRY ScHoout PriIncIPALs The significance of these scores for the purpose of this experiment is not in the increase but in the difference in increase between the control and experimental groups. It is found that three of the experi- mental groups increased more than did their respective control groups, while one experimental group did not increase at all. When the prob- able errors of the median scores are taken into consideration, how- ever, it is found that none of the differences in increase is statisti- eally significant. The differences indicate a very slight trend in favor of the experimental groups but this cannot be taken as conclusive evidence. As should be expected, all groups made significant increases on the curriculum test. These increases are also shown in Figure 2. Here it is the difference in growth between the control and experimental groups that would be of significance to the experiment. It is found that two experimental groups increased slightly more than did their respective control groups, one experimental group increased about the same amount as did its control group, and the other experimental group increased less than did its control group. Thus the curriculum test gives no conclusive evidence as to the value of the use of graphs as supplementary materials. The results are in no case of positive or negative statistical significance altho there is slight evidence that the experimental groups increased the most. As measured by this test there is no evidence that the supple- mentary materials were highly valuable, nor is there any evidence that they distract from the normal learning procedures. As has been stated before, the curriculum test measured only the factual knowledge presented in the text. The graphs may have pre- sented additional geographic knowledge to the experimental groups which the control groups did not receive. If this additional knowl- edge was present, it was not measured by the curriculum test. Pupils acquire knowledge thru a large group of factors, of which the graph is only one. The text, pictures, maps, drawings, extra read- ings, special reports, and class discussions, all should contribute some- thing to the sum total of knowledge. If the graph added a little to this, or if the time spent in its use was wasted, the implements used to measure the change were too crude or the change too small to be indicated. The results of all the pretests in the ability to interpret graphic materials showed a rather good comprehension of these materials in both the fifth and sixth grade. Out of a possible score of fifty the median scores in the fifth grade ranged from twenty-five to thirty- three, and in the sixth grade the median scores ranged from thirty- Ww ti er nent the er i- ups, rob- 1OW- isti- avor sive the [ere ntal und heir out ntal the ults tho the ple- nee the pre- ups ywl- ich acd- me- > to sed . be hic in the rty- rty- Tuirteentu YEARBOOK 235 five to forty-one. The results of this pretest are similar to those secured by other experimenters in this work and emphasize again the fact that children who have not had any special work or study in the use of graphs can interpret them rather well when they are constructed to meet the abilities of the pupils in the tool subjects. The effect of the supplementary material on the ability of the children to interpret graphs is shown by the increase of median scores on the final test over the pretest. These increases are shown in Figure 2. It is seen from the figure that while one experimental group did improve significantly more than did the control group, in three experiments the control groups increased as much or more than did the experimental group. It is clearly evident that pupils in three experiments did not improve noticeably in their ability to interpret graphs because of the supplementary materials, while one group did increase a great deal. The median score on the final test for this latter group was forty-eight out of a possible fifty. It thus appears that improvement is possible. The cause for this difference in improvement for the one group lies in the method used in presenting and discussing the graphs. Two types of information can be obtained from graphs, ‘the relative or comparative type and the concrete or statistical type. The one group which improved so much was given considerable drill in the use of the scale to obtain statistical facts. As twenty of the fifty questions on the graph test were of the statistical type the pupils who had re- ceived this special instruction made better scores than did those pupils who had not received such instruction. All of the experimental groups received training in the use of the graphs to obtain relative information. However, this ability is already rather highly developed and did not improve a great deal during the experimental period. The responses of a control group on the final test were analyzed and it was found that while 84 percent of all the questions were answered correctly, 90 percent of the relative type were correctly answered and only 72 percent of the statistical ques- tions were answered correctly. The implication is that the pupils have the ability to draw gen- eralizations from graphs, such as the most important and the least important, by the time they reach the fifth and sixth grade. This ability has developed with very little training on the part of the school and is rather well developed by this time as additional use of it does not produce great improvement. The ability to draw statistical information from graphs has not developed by the time the pupils reach the fifth and sixth grades. 236 ELementary Scuoot Principars This ability must be developed thru specific instruction, as it is ap- parent from this experiment that the ability does not develop from incidental use and association with graphs. The high interest of pupils in the use of graphs was indicated in all the experiments. The pupils enjoyed doing the test both times regardless of whether they had had the supplementary material or not. The experimental groups were also quite enthusiastic concern- ing the supplementary material. Two of the experimental groups became interested in collecting graphs which were printed in maga- zines and newspapers. These they pasted in their notebooks. Other children made graphs of their own as special projects. One of the graphs in each set given to the pupils was incomplete. The necessary figures and directions for finishing it were given and the pupils completed the graph. They found this very interesting and requested that they be allowed to make others. This took a good deal of time, however, and only one graph was presented in this manner. This interest in graphs carried over to the study of geography. The teachers reported that two experimental groups which had been notice- ably lacking in interest before the experiment started improved until they equaled or surpassed the respective control group in interest. There was no evidence that this interest carried over to any of the other school subjects. The average time spent in presenting each of the graphs was not over ten minutes. Some of the first graphs required more explana- tion than did the latter ones, which could be presented more rapidly because the pupils had become familiar with this type of material. The groups which received the supplementary graphic material did not spend any more time on the experimental unit than did the control groups. The time spent in discussing the graphs was made up by spending less time in other discussions or review. Conclusions—The results of this study seem to indicate that the graph presents a different kind of information than is generally pre- sented in the textbooks in geography. The texts used in this study seldom discussed the relative importance of various factors, the type of information which the graph presents. When in the course of geography study it is found desirable to present this type of comparative information, it would seem that the graph is the best median to use. Children in the fifth and sixth grades can derive this type of information from the graphs readily and are quite as much interested in graphs as they are in pictures or other rom a. ——__.. 3 ap- ‘rom d in imes il or ern- ups aga- ther lete, and ting rood this The Lice- ntil ‘est. the not ina- idly ‘ial. rial the ‘up the pre- udy ype > to the des are her THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 237 types of visual materials. Very little time need be spent in mstruc- tion in the use of graphs. The statistical type of information is of less value to geography. The use of the graph to secure statistical information perhaps be- longs in the arithmetic course. If accurate figures are necessary in geography they may best be presented in a table of figures. The graph is a valuable form of visual presentation for certain types of information. Its value to a course in geography, or to any other course in which it is used, will depend on the importance of the facts which it presents. This study has shown that relative or comparative facts can be presented to the children by means of the graph in a form which is economical in the time required for its dis- cussion, economical in the space required, considering the number of facts presented, and economical in its cost. Beyond this, the children are as interested in graphs as they are in pictures or in other forms of visual instruction. Altho the results of this experiment do not show distinctive edu- cational contributions accruing to the experimental groups because of supplementary instruction in the interpretation of graphs, it must be remembered that the results at least point in the direction of increased achievement for the experimental groups and that the atti- tudes of teachers and pupils were distinctly in favor of the use of graphs. Perhaps a repetition of the experiment with more carefully controlled conditions and more selective measures will reveal such advantages as may exist. Also, one must not condemn without further research the value of graphs as an agency for education. The present study did not compare children who had had no experience with graphs with children who had learned to interpret graphs; it was rather a comparison of two groups, both of which had previously had ‘experiences with graphs, but only one of which was given intensive supplementary instruction. A OTHING WOULD BE MORE HELPFUL to the De- partment than reports on how principals use these year- books. What about them do you find desirable and helpful ? What would you change if you were editing them ?—Kline, Aaron, see p. 118 of this yearbook. 238 Kk LEMENTARY Scuoout PRINCIPALS or ~I 10. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 18. 19. SELECTED REFERENCES . Dusoc, Jessis L. “Some Questions Teachers Ask Concerning Map Study in the Intermediate Grades.” Journal of Geography 32: 245-49; Septem- ber, 1933. . Evprives, A. G. and orners. “ Maps and Map Standards.” The Teaching of Geography. Thirty-second Yearbook. Bloomington, Ill.: Public School Publishing Co., 1933. p. 395-405. . Fregman, G. L. and Freeman, R. S. “Selecting Books for the Nursery Child.” Childhood Education 10: 68-72; November, 1933. . Gitman, Giapys L. “ The Camera and the Teacher.’ Grade T'eacher 48: 690- 91, 731, 749; May, 1931. Grayson, E. V. K., Picture Appreciation for the Elementary School. Toronto: J. M. Dent and Sons, Ltd., 1929. 302 p. . Hamuinton, Grorce EK. “ Stereograph in Education.” New York State Educa- tion 20: 381-83; February, 1933. . Hicks, Heten E. “Stereograph as a Visual Aid.” Sierra Educational News 28: 45-46; October, 1932. . Hown, F. G. “ A Study of the Ability of Elementary-School Pupils to Read Maps.” The Teaching of Geography. Thirty-second Yearbook. Bloom- ington, Ill.: Public School Publishing Co., 1933. p. 486-92. IsraEL, Marion L. “ Picture Helps for Smaller Schools.” Proceedings, 1931. Washington, D. C.: National Education Association, 1931. p. 953-57. Keiru, Mrs. R. G. “A Visual Method of Library Instruction.” Welson Bulletin 6: 694-700; June, 1932. . Kuss, Devi E., Rexnsrranp, JANE, and Busu, M. G. Piclure Study for Elementary Schools. Milwaukee, Wis.: E. M. Hale and Co., publishers, 1928. 211 p. Mrapor, Mivprep. “Are Pictures an Effective Aid in the Teaching of Geog- raphy?” Educational Method 11: 97-103; November, 1931. MeLLINGER, Bonnip E. Children’s Interests in Pictures. Contributions to Education, No. 516. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1932. 52 p. Neatp, Oscar W. Picture Study in the Elementary Grades. Chicago: Lyons and Carnahan, 1933. 363 p. Smepiay, Eva A. “Using Posters in Reading and Geography.” Normal Instructor and Primary Plans 40: 56, 80; November, 1930. SmirH, Marrow. “School Posters.” Creative Teaching and Professional Progress. Fourth Yearbook. Department of Classroom Teachers. Wash- ington, D. C.: National Education Association, 1929. p. 15-19. . Turauis, Z. A. “Selection and Use of Pictures.” Journal of the National Education Association 21: 247-48; November, 1932. Waymack, E. H. and Henpricxson, G. “Children’s Reactions as a Basis for Teaching Picture Appreciation.” Elementary School Journal 33: 268- 76; December, 1932. Witson Buuterin (bibliography). “Pictorial Maps Useful in the Study of U. S. History.” Wilson Bulletin 7: 121-23; October, 1932. —_ a a | study item- ng of school rsery hool. luca- Jews tead om- 931. 3-57. lson for 1ers, 20g- ; to sity, ‘Ons mal nal ish- mal aSIS 168- of CHAPTER IV OBJECT MATERIALS EDITORIAL COMMENT HE DESIRE of humans to handle and to look at objects de- je at an early age. Gradually the ability of the young child expands until he is able to show an interest in a number of objects. Gesell recently revealed this increasing interest in things by a series of motion pictures taken of a young baby. At a few weeks of age the baby showed an interest only in a single cube even tho other cubes were within reach. A few weeks later the child reached for and played with several cubes. Still later he picked up all of the cubes within reach, piled them on top of one another, and other- wise manipulated them in somewhat systematic fashion. The contributors to the present chapter deal with the use of object materials on a high instructional level. One article indicates the possibility of cooperation between public museums and public schools. Another describes the functions and activities of a central museum within a school system. Several articles tell how the pupils may mount specimens and prepare exhibits. Another contributor reminds us of the possibilities of the many experiences to be had by the primary child simply with blocks. As in the ease of all of the devices discussed in this yearbook the value of objects depends almost wholly on the extent to which they are made integral parts of learning situations. Every teacher is aware of the waste involved in literally dragging children thru a welter of “ things.” It is essential first that the displays should be so arranged and systematized that inquiring minds may find quickly interesting materials. Second, the pupil must be helped to prepare himself for what he is to see. Then he must be guided thru the ex- hibit in terms of his needs, interests, and abilities. Finally, there should be some evaluation of the whole process to discover the need for further experiences and the possibility of improving the whole procedure. What of the educational possibilities of collections made by the pupils themselves? Almost every child develops at some time an in- tense desire to collect stamps, stones, flowers, butterflies, bottles, and even bugs. How can these interests be linked with instruction ? For those who have other interests in the general field the list of references at the end of the chapter should prove most interesting.— Editorial Committee. [239] 240 ELEMENTARY Scuoot Princrpats AID FROM MUSEUMS IN ELEMENTARY TEACHING LAURENCE VAIL COLEMAN Director, American Association of Museums, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. Bani op SCHOOL AND MUSEUM there is a natural af- finity springing from the fact that objects—the materials with which museums deal—are useful in teaching. As a consequence, cooperative relationships between schools and museums have grown up and are now well established in all but a very few of the larger cities and in most of the smaller places where museums are to be found. Two major types of teaching procedure are: (1) instruction from exhibits at the museum, and (2) use of objects in the classroom. These two branches are as separate in purpose as they are distinct in character. When a class visits a museum for instruction, the children are taken on an intellectual or emotional exploration and they have a chance to broaden their experience beyond the horizon of the home, the classroom, and the street. They are plunged into radi- cally new surroundings, and they emerge from the experience changed in the same way that adults are—or can be—changed by travel. On the other hand, when a museum lends visual material to a school, the children who use it have occasion to realize that their studies are not detached bookish exercises but real concerns which relate to the real world. These two objectives—the excursion into new experiences at the museum, and getting upon firmer ground in the school—have come clearly into view as the result of nearly two decades of trial and fail- ure (and success) in many places. Methods need no longer be hap- hazard as they were in the beginning; they have been much refined already, and now they are gaining further in effectiveness as a result of a widespread interest in studying them experimentally. Such mat- ters as preparing the class for its visit, conducting discussions and demonstrations at the museum, using illustrative material at the school, and follow-up in the classroom are now subjects of scientific analysis and scholarly report. Technic of museum visits—In a museum study-room an instruc- tor begins by leading the group in discussion of a few selected mu- seum objects. This introduction to the topic of the day raises ques- tions. The discussion is centered upon objects and is not just a detached talk with objects brought in to illustrate it. After a half- hour, the group moves to an appropriate exhibition hall and the children—having first been shown the lay of the land—are asked ba Ee ol oan Ae SE a a! t so = ; al as ol of of Ce fi th ot mM at th af- ith ce, wn rer be om ym. net the nd di- red On the not eal the me il- ap- ied ult nd the fie THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 241 questions that only independent observation will answer. The ques- tions may be given to the children one at a time or in sets. They may be spoken by the teacher or handed out on sheets, but, in whatever form, the work involves independent inquiry, and it has the advan- tages of a quest by actual motion, and a communication of findings partly in writing and partly by speech and gesture in reporting to the leader. This combination of a discussion and a search—simple and unecaleulated as it may appear—embodies the fundamentals of good instruction. It teaches under the stimulus of interest. It in- vokes independent thought based upon observing with a motive. It provides a channel for active expression. Classroom technic—The other plan, that of lending illustrative material to teachers, is equally individual. Its technie—part of the technic of visual aids in the classroom—is a major subject of this present yearbook. Museum materials represent the three museum subjects: science, history, and art. (Industry, as dealt with by mu- seums, is compounded of the first two of these with the emphasis strongly upon contemporary life.) The sciences and history are easily represented by natural objects and artifacts, and also by pic- tures for large objects, intractable things, and general views. Sets of material, models, and miniature museum habitat and historical groups are commonly used also. Art is represented by reproductions in photograph, color, or cast, and also by ceramics, samples of tex- tiles, and a limited range of other original objects. Lantern slides, which are only one kind of projectable pictures, are museum materials because museums have many of the subjects as well as the special facilities for making the slides. Motion picture films are not essentially museum materials except as they are based on museum objects; but films, like slides, are in demand and are offered by many museums. The interpretation to be put on objects in the classroom is a museum concern partly because the use dictates the character of the objects offered and prescribes the contents and arrangement of the printed catalog. In this connection it should be noted that the subject-classi- fication suggested by the curriculum has only an indirect relation to the subject-classification of museum thinking, and this fact, among others, gives reason for close attention to teaching procedure from museum educational departments. The correlation of museum ser- vice to curriculum is an obvious prerequisite for any effective cooper- ation, and it is a matter which deserves more intimate general study than so far it has had. 5 242 ELEMENTARY Scuoout PrINcIPALS Administrative principles—There are well-recognized administra- tive specifications for effective school-museum work. Instruction of classes at a museum should be arranged in such a way that at least the middle grades are reached systematically; the fifth and sixth grades are considered the most important to be served. Topics should be planned in relation to school programs even tho, by design, museum instruction goes beyond the scope of classroom instruction. Visits should be prepared for and followed up in the classroom. Material for lending to schools should be assembled with reference to the pre- cise needs of curriculum work. Objects should be lent at the request of teachers and should desirably be of the teacher’s choosing. The machinery of lending should be quick and simple, and therefore there should be a printed catalog and frequent motor truck deliveries. These requirements can be met fully only where there is reasonably adequate support. Altho school-museum relations absorb a large share of museum energies, they are, on the whole, far from being developed to a point of adequacy. However, extension is inevitable and it will come as fast as educators appreciate progress that has been made in methods, and as people generally realize the important results that follow from a fair degree of public support for the work. There should be cooperation between museums and schools in every city, but there cannot be adequate cooperation except in the presence of strong public museums and really interested school departments—city sup- port being a natural outgrowth of that healthy state of affairs. In short, school-museum relations are not solely the concern of museums. They are equally the responsibility of museum administrators and of school administrators. Two serious problems—Many teachers are not able to take entire adyantage of illustrative material because they lack the background which alone can simplify the selecting of objects from a catalog and the using of these objects in the classroom. It is a clear indication of the importance of illustrative material, and not an argument against it, that background is required for its choice and that chil- dren make searching demands upon teachers in the presence of such objects. This teacher-training problem is one for the normal school— and also for the museum in cooperation with the normal school. The attention now being given to it is not enough. A more deep-rooted problem of a very different kind is the inelina- tion among museums to reach all the school children in their commu- nities even tho this requires sacrifice of soundness in method. Their eagerness is prompted too much by the need for developing public support which is conceived—and quite rightly, alas—to respond bet- ter Thi mus ares thar chil wor diffi not H conr real. not _— Tre THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 243 ter to a slogan than to a record for sound tho restricted performance. This difficulty is one which all educational institutions face. If a museum could serve well a limited number of schools or a restricted area, it would be doing greater justice to itself and to its community than it could possibly do by superficial contacts with all the school children in the city. Support would then increase—in an ideal world—as means towards extending the range of the work. How this difficulty can be overcome, save perhaps in the wisdom of decades, is not easy to see. However, at present, it is the serious duty of educators, whether connected with museums or with schools, to study such problems realistically—in the best sense of what realism here involves—and not to be content with the easiest way. HILE A GREAT DEAL ean be said for the visits of classes to museums and the systematic help on the part of the museum in the actual class work, whether in the class- room or in the museum itself, there are many who believe that individual work with children, not in large groups but singly or with two or three children together, is possibly more im- portant than the handling of pupils of any age in large num- bers. . . . . It is to such children and to grown people too that many museums give really very wonderful service in - education.—Toothaker, Charles R., V. FE. A. Proceedings, 1930, p. 925. 244 ELemMeENTARY Scuoout PRINCIPALS PREPARATION OF HABITAT GROUPS FOR SCIENCE AND THE SOCIAL STUDIES! Grace FisHeR RAMSEY Associate Curator of Education, American Museum of Natural History, New York, New York CIENCE PROJECTS often come as a response to need in the minds of children. They reach a stage in the development of a unit of work where they feel an urge to express some phase of the unit. For young children, an intimate appeal is possible and impor- tant. Whatever they can see, hear, and touch, fascinates them. Every- thing is so new to them. At the right time, the making and using of visual-sensory projects will aid in clarifying their ideas and give them a desirable opportunity for self-expression. And for sheer en- joyment, there is nothing to equal the fun boys and girls have in creating their own models. Nor need any teacher ever hesitate to allow children to work out their ideas because of the apparent cost of construction. An ingeni- ous teacher can help, if the boys and girls need such help, in finding ways of using all kinds of materials at little or no cost in the prepara- tion of their projects. Expensive and complicated apparatus has no place in elementary science work. A few tools, plenty of bottles, jars, glass tubing, old window shades (to serve as charts), bits of cord, old newspapers, discarded cardboard, left-over paints, and tin cans have endless possibilities for elementary science projects. The homes of the children, the ten-cent store, the drug store, the waste heaps in any department store, printer’s shop, carpenter’s shop, or hardware store, are excellent and inexpensive sources of supply. Let the boys and girls solve everyday problems with everyday materials. CHILDREN ARE INTERESTED IN Makina LIFELIKE REPRESENTATIONS A habitat group accurately reproducing, often in miniature, a scene in real life, is not too difficult for boys and girls to construct successfully. Such a group can be made with a natural or an artifi- cial groundwork, and a painted background. Specimens of real life can be used, such as birds, dragon flies, butterflies, Or moths, and, in some cases, miniature models of mammals modeled in plasteline. Preliminary plans—The first thing to do in constructing a habitat group is to have the children plan very carefully what they wish to represent and draw a sketch to show how the accessories and forms of animal life are to be arranged in the group. Community life of ani- 1 Ramsey, Grace F. Project Making in Elementary Science. New York: American Museum of Natural History, 1934. 25 p. ~ se iS Th at to of ‘i of THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 245 mals can be shown very well by means of a small group which repro- duces their natural habitat. The beaver is an animal which interests children so greatly that they are most enthusiastic over the construc- tion of a habitat group in miniature, showing the winter lodge with its dome-shaped roof rising above the water in a stream which has been flooded by the beaver dam just below. The life history of the dragon fly can be worked out nicely and without a great amount of time. A section of a pond can be repre- sented containing a few water weeds and a voracious dragon-fly nymph with its amazing lower lip ready to grasp an unsuspecting insect. Another nymph can be shown on the stem of a water weed, molting for the last time and emerging in the adult form with its beautiful gauzy wings. An adult can be shown in flight over the weeds, at the edge of the water, and ready for its prey of mosquitoes and gnats. The construction of a habitat group which will show the interde- pendence of plant and animal life is a project which will require much careful thought and planning by more advanced pupils, but when completed, they will surely vote it a most worthwhile activity. Material for a bird habitat group must be given careful considera- tion as so many of our birds are protected by both state and federal laws. Usually, only museums can secure a permit to use some of these protected birds for public exhibition purposes. Have the boys and girls secure a list of the protected birds and plan the group so that none of these will be included. The taxidermy of birds is not described here as it is clearly given in many books on the subject.’ Groundwork—For the groundwork of a habitat group the first es- sential is a smooth board cut to the desired size and one-half or three- fourths of an inch thick. This board will form the foundation for the entire group. In some cases the groundwork can be built on the smooth board but very often an irregular surface is desired to pro- vide for a pond or a slope of ground. This rough surface can be produced in several ways. Small pieces of thin wood or cardboard may be cut into irregular shapes and tacked on to the baseboard. The edges should then be beveled to form a gradual slope. If any irregularities of different heights are desired, a piece of screening propped at intervals by pieces of wood can be tacked to the baseboard and then covered with plaster of paris. Fairly thick plaster should be worked well into the screening and allowed to dry completely. Then apply a coat of shellac to its surface. 2 For example: Chapin, J. P. Preparation of Birds for Study, New York: American Museum of Natural History, 1923. 45 p.; Rowley, John. Taxidermy and Museum Exhibition. New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1925. 331 p.; and Hornaday, William T., Taxidermy and Zoological Collect- ing. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1929. 364 p 246 ELeMENTARY Scuoowt PrincIPAts The effect of earth can be made by coating the groundwork with some strong glue and sprinkling fine sifted earth on the wet glue. Pat this loose earth into the glue and allow it to dry. The surplus earth can then be blown off or shaken off. Another method is to omit shellacking the plaster and apply fine earth soaked in a solution of glue and water, one part glue to eight parts water. First coat the plaster with glue sizing before applying the earth and glue mixture. Then smear the mixture over the surface, tamping it down with a brush. Bits of leaves can be added to give it a very realistie appearance, If you wish the effect of snow, ordinary paraftin can be melted and sprayed over the groundwork by dipping a stiff scrubbing brush into hot paraffin and then drawing a stick at right angles across the ends of the bristles. Very natural effects can be produced in this way. In case a pond is to be a part of the habitat group, glass can be used. A piece of old window pane will answer the purpose nicely. Pieces of thin wood or compo-board should be built up at the sides of the baseboard and cut so as to taper off and thus give a gradual under- water slope toward the bottom of the pond. Shellac mixed with fine earth, to give a fairly heavy consistency, can be applied to the under- water portion and allowed to dry thoroly. As this dries, it gives a wet, muddy appearance which is very realistic. Now place the glass in position and treat the surrounding ground with glue and fine earth as stated above. It is usually best to leave the final coating of earth until the construction of the group is well started. This practise varies with the type of materials to be used in the group and should he considered in the first planning. Accessories—In planning the accessories for the group, the pupils should realize that often some substitute must be found which will imitate the real thing. This substitution is especially necessary when the habitat group is to represent life in miniature. In the case of grass, many substitutes can be used—short lengths of hemp, flax, bristles, or fine dried grasses. Fine excelsior is usually the most satisfactory material even if the scale of your group is an inch to the foot. The excelsior can be pulled into almost any shape desired. It ean also be curled and will take colors well. Small holes should be drilled into the groundwork wherever the clumps of grasses are to be placed. Several strands of the substitutes are then tied together at one end and this end is dipped into glue. Set the glue-covered ends into the drilled holes and allow to dry. When the bundles have dried in place, they can be cut to shape and colored with oil paints. nt wt «=—ClUf i. oh ond ao THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 247 The construction of a miniature tree presents a problem rather too difficult for the children as there is a great amount of work in creat- ing an artificial tree which is accurate in every detail. However, there are substitutes which will answer very well. The common sponge is a favorite substance to use, especially for a shrub where no trunk is necessary. The sponge can be cut into almost any shape desired and colored with oil paints to suit the purpose. For the trunk of a tree, a twig or branch of the right diameter (considering the seale being used in the group) may be used. Wild pepper-grass (Jepidium virginicum) which has been dried and colored with oil paints can be used for imitation trees. Other small plants which will not fall apart when dried can also be used to good advantage. If dried foliage is to be used, it should first be dried carefully. Then soak the dried specimens in hot water for fifteen minutes and immediately immerse them in a solution made by mix- ing two parts of formalin, twenty-five parts of glycerine, and the remainder water. After the material has soaked for about half a day, remove from the solution and allow to dry carefully. It usually requires about a week for this drying but in the meantime other kinds of work can be done on the group. After being thoroly dried, the material can be colored with oil paints. Evergreens and mosses as well as grasses can be preserved by this formula. For a still more realistic tree, let the boys and girls search for a branch with twigs set at the proper intervals. They can cut this to size and make small leaves cut from paper and glued to the twigs with some quick drying cement or ordinary glue. If glue is used, have them pin the leaves into position until it is thoroly dried. Here again oil paint may be used for coloring. Small pieces of colored sponge may also be used for leaves by gluing them to the twigs. Wire of different sizes twisted into the shape of a tree and then coated with a mixture of ambroid and plaster of paris, mixed into a paste, will often serve for a tree. When dry, oil colors will give the effect of bark. Then the leaves can be constructed and fastened as previously described. No doubt the most attractive and accurate foliage can be made from wax. Background—Do not forget that a painted background is essen- tial for the group. Indeed, it is taken for granted that this fact has been carefully considered in the preliminary sketch groups and that the foreground has been constructed accordingly. Often when the foliage in the foreground is exceptionally thick, a painted sky will do nicely for the background. But when the foliage is thin, a com- plete background is necessary. Either a painting may be made or a 248 ELEMENTARY Scuoout PRINCIPALS carefully selected enlarged photograph colored with soft tints of water colors may be used. The semicircular background will give the most realistic effect to the group. The foreground in this case must also be made semicircular so the background will cover the entire curved portion. Several methods can be used in attaching the background to the group. If the children have made the group rectangular, the picture may simply be attached at the rear and the foreground sloped up to it by means of plaster. This sloping is not always necessary, depending upon the type of foreground used. If the more effective semicircular background is used, get a piece of black sheet iron and paint directly upon it with oil paints, after first giving it two coats of plain white lead. To protect the group from dust and careless handling, have the children place it in a straight-sided case with a glass front and the top covered with a piece of ground glass. This latter is used only if interior lighting effects are desired. Lighting the group—lIf you have electricity in your school, by all means plan to light the habitat group. A simple arrangement is to place an ordinary electric light bulb in a three-sided box directly above the group so the light will shine down thru the ground glass top, thus being evenly diffused over the interior of the group. If varied lighting effects are desired, as the soft glow of a moonlight evening, the bright sun of midday, or the rosy tints of dawn, have the pupils make a simple cylindrical frame, the sides being made of lengthwise strips of crepe paper alternating the colors of blue, vellow, and red, with one-third of the cireumference being given to each color. Slip this frame over the electric light bulb and attach it to an outside knob so any child may turn it to give the special lighting effect he wishes. Habitat group for social studies—Let us turn now from the natural history phase of habitat groups to the preparation of a group that will be useful in the social studies. Your pupils may decide that they wish to construct a group which will contain miniature human figures and a simple type of shelter. For miniature figures, a wire frame is almost always necessary. This frame can be constructed by twisting two fairly stiff wires together at their centers. These will form supports for the arms and legs. Where the two arm wires join, another wire is twisted into place to form a brace for the head. Plasteline can be used for modeling the figure but this remains soft for such a long time that it is not always practical. However, if a plasteline model is constructed, and several figures are needed for the group, a mold and a series of casts can be made from the one an ee ee. ee ee ~ oe = = OH >; —~-> —- —lC flo o— ok ak OU THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 249 model. The figure should be modeled with the arms and legs out- stretched. Then lay the model flat on its back with one half embedded in a flat piece of plasteline around which a wall of the same material has been built to a height of at least one inch over the highest portion of the figure. Now into a mixing bowl put an amount of water equal to four-fifths of the quantity of plaster needed. Sprinkle the dry plaster slowly into the water until it has a uniform consistency thru- out. Remember that plaster should always be put into the water; never pour water into the plaster. To obtain the best results, have the children mix the plaster thoroly with their hands. For the pur- pose required here, the plaster mixture should be just thick enough to pour. Now pour the plaster mixture into the framework prepared. After the plaster has set, the plasteline base and wall are removed, leaving the model in place, with one-half embedded in the plaster. Cut tapering holes about one-half inch in diameter and three-eighths of an inch in depth, into the surface of the plaster. These are to be used as keys in fitting the two halves of the mold together in correct rela- tion to each other. The next step is to build a wall of plasteline around the finished half-mold. This wall should be as high above the surface of the completed half-mold as this half-mold is thick. The surface of the plaster is now to be coated with vaseline, a thin oil, a soap solution, or clay water, and plaster for the other half of the mold to be poured in. In making the soap solution, dissolve soap chips in water to make a thin syrup. The clay water is water clay considerably thinned out with water. When the plaster has set, remove the wall and gently pry the two halves apart at the seam. You can now easily remove the model, leaving only the impression in the mold. Extend the cavity made by one of the legs down to the edge of the mold on each of the halves so it may serve as a duct into which you can pour melted beeswax in making duplicate figures. When completely dry, place the mold in hot water and leave it until it reaches the temperature of the water. While the mold is soaking, the wax should be melting. When the mold is warmed, remove it from the water and dry it with a sponge or cloth. Into the cavity of the mold place a simple wire frame around which some cotton has been wrapped. Leave the wire of one leg long enough to extend down the duct to the edge of the mold. Tie together the two halves by wrapping a piece of cord around them and pour the melted beeswax thru the duct. The wax can be hardened quickly by immersing the mold in cold water for several minutes. Now pry open the mold and remove the cast figure. With a warm knife blade cut away the excess wax on the one leg where the duct was used. A 250 Evementary Scuoot Princrpas great number of casts can be made from the one mold and their positions changed as desired by dipping the wax figures into warm water and bending the legs or arms into the special attitudes needed in the group. To provide for fastening the figures firmly to the groundwork, use the wire extending from the one leg. If no wire frame has been used for the figure, run a wire part way up each leg. By heating the wire slightly you can force it gently up the center of the leg. Allow it to project at least one and one-half inches below the sole of the foot. As the wax hardens, the wire will be held firmly in place. Another method which may be preferred, is to insert a wire into the duct while the wax is still soft, making sure that the wire is long enough to reach the middle of the leg. After this casting is finished, the figure will need some touching up. Almost any kind of a pointed tool such as an ice pick, awl, or nail will answer, altho tools for this purpose are on the market. Ask your dentist to give you some of his cast-off tools. Many of them will be excellently adapted for this work. The tool should be heated and the surface of the wax smoothed out. To give the wax a very smooth surface, fine sandpaper may be used to take off the rough spots and then a soft cloth dipped in turpentine may be used for polishing. As turpentine dissolves beeswax, this cloth must be used very carefully. Costumes can be made of porous paper dipped in wax and then put in place before the wax cools. Small pieces of cloth or fur can be used very easily. Hold these in place by softening the surface they are to cover with a hot tool and then hold firmly in place until the wax cools. When the figures are completely clothed and trimmed, paint them with oil colors. To mount the figures on the groundwork of the group, drill two holes to correspond with the leg wires and then set the figure in place. Next bend the wires at right angles under the baseboard and clinch them together. For very small figures, the wire frame coated with a thin paste of ambroid and plaster or hot wax gives fairly good results. Features and costumes may then be made on the figures by adding a bit of ambroid and plaster mixture or wax wherever necessary. Oi] paints can be used in coloring the figures. Dwellings—Types of native dwellings in various parts of the world differ so much that only materials and their uses will be de- scribed here. In discussing what material is to be used for a primi- tive dwelling let the children realize that much care must be taken THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 251 in its choice as proportion is such an important factor in the accuracy of a group. Plaster is an ideal material for the construction of some types of dwellings as an igloo or an Indian pueblo. A mold and cast may be made but a framework of wood covered with screening and then coated with plaster will often answer the purpose. Thick plaster is used for the outer coating. This should be put on in several coats. [t is then worked into shape as much as possible before the plaster sets. The rough portions can be smoothed down with a knife or other tool. To imitate block of stone or ice, cut grooves into the surface. An ordinary wood screw used as a file is an excellent tool for this purpose. The size of the groove will determine the size of the screw to be used. A coat of shellae will give the plaster a hard surface and it may then be painted as desired. For many dwellings a framework of wood is necessary. Thin twigs or pieces of old discarded wicker furniture can be used where a rough effect is needed. Even pieces of wire coated with an ambroid elue and plaster mixture can be used. When wire is being used thruout, the whole strueture may be erected and then the coating applied to the wire. Oil colors will give the natural effect. For fastening the wooden framework, a quick drying glue is use- ful altho size must be considered as an important factor here. If the framework is fairly large, nails can be used but they should be placed so as not to be conspicuous in the finished dwelling. Often it is necessary to fasten the framework together with small strips of bark or strong grasses so it will be realistic. Strands of flax, hemp, dried grasses, or straws from a broom can be used for thatching. Care must be taken to see that the size of these materials is in proportion to the rest of the structure. The material may be tied into small bundles or glued into strips and then fastened to the roof starting at the lowest point and working across the struc- ture. Attach the next row so the free ends will cover the fastening places of the first row and so on until the entire roof has been covered. The actual methods of attaching the thatch to the roof varies aecord- ing to the type and construction of the framework. Conclusion—The complexities of our modern civilization cause many children to lack that guidance from direct observation which the cave boy of paleolithic times secured from his parents who taught him how to fashion flints over the open fire. But the minds of our children are the same today as they were in paleolithie times. They need the same direct contact with things and natural phenomena which their cave ancestors had. This contact with nature and the 252 ELEMENTARY Scuoout PRINCIPALS phenomena of their environment may be given our modern boys and girls thru an effective program of science instruction if such a pro- gram at all times emphasizes pupil experience both in the subject- matter and the method of instruction. The framework of a plan in elementary science should be so flexible that it can provide for the immediate use of the children’s discoveries and experiences. If a teacher is sympathetic and uses initiative, he can so direct the chil- dren that they can work out for themselves science projects which will illustrate fundamental ideas of science far more important to them than any textbook lesson. There are many projects which might be described but the basic technics involved in their construction have been given above, so the problem is simply a matter of adapting these technics to the special materials the children wish to use, always keeping in mind the basic principle in all of this work; namely, that accuracy and simplicity in the story represented are the first considerations. Lack of special equipment in a school will not hinder enthusiastic boys and girls from expressing their ideas in many interesting, concrete forms. N A TIME when the radio, the movie, and the auto threaten to occupy the “ lion’s share ” of our leisure time, it is im- portant that leaders in the community make an effort to promote ways in which we may engage not only in passive enjoyment, but in activities which demand self-expression.— Outealt, Adele M., 1932 Yearbook, p. 388. Col hav tiol the a § pic bec me ne: all sta hil pli are an int to ap tri of or TI or pl wi a T se THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 253 INSTRUCTIONAL VALUE OF SCHOOL EXHIBITS FLORENCE WoLF Principal, Grant School, Detroit, Michigan HE CHINESE early recognized that one picture was worth a yg words. With the advent and the success of motion pic- tures, methods of presenting knowledge were revolutionized. Commercial organizations quickly realized the effect on human be- havior of presenting facts thru light, action, and pictures. Educa- tional exhibitors following their lead, began to display material with the underlying purpose of getting certain knowledge and ideas before a group in a convincing manner thru posters, models, charts, and pictures. We learn not only by doing but by seeing. People have become increasingly visual minded. Exhibits now help to vivify and to impress facts that before were merely memorized or gleaned with much effort from books. The next best thing to visiting things and places is to portray them visu- ally. Thru exhibits, new ideas and thought relationships are con- stantly introduced to pupils whose experiences are inadequate. Ex- hibits may be the product of activities that show the work accom- plished and the processes by which it is achieved. The curio exhibit—The types of exhibits and their uses in schools are numerous. Perhaps one of the most far reaching and valuable is the exhibit of curios which ties the school with the community and forms a closer contact between home and school. Parents are interested most actively in whatever pertains to their children and to themselves. Personal curios and possessions when assembled in a school exhibit can be used to show foreign-born parents that we appreciate and respect the culture, art, and handicraft of other coun- tries. In this way we can foster a more respectful attitude on the part of children toward their foreign-born parents. In one school the mothers were invited to send to the school rare or antique curios which they had at home. The response was splendid. The articles were arranged in rooms according to the country of origin. Children acting as guides took parents thru the exhibit ex- plaining the different articles on display. Some of them gave speeches worthy of a museum curator. Over three hundred and fifty mothers came. Several of them, in native costumes, assisted in serving tea. The exhibit promoted cooperation and interest between home and school. Summer activity exhibit—This type of exhibit, usually held in September, can be used to develop an interest in nature on the part 254 ELEMENTARY Scuoot Princrpats of both children and adults. Usually the exhibit includes bird houses, garden products, fruits, and other evidences of home activity. It may emphasize various hobbies such as model airplanes, stamps, but- terfly collections, and scrapbooks. Experience shows that it is well for the teachers and the pupils to discuss possible summer activities in the spring before school closes. This planning usually means that the school will be flooded with exhibit materials when school opens after the summer. The scheme not only stimulates children to pursue worthwhile pastimes in their leisure, but it helps to keep the children off the streets. The planned activity exhibit—Perhaps the most familiar school exhibit is the one culminating in a project, which permeates the whole school. It represents prolonged concentration on a central unit, not a haphazard and hastily gathered collection of material. At the beginning or at the close of a semester a committee of teachers may select some particular topic as the major subject for study during the year. The regular work is interpreted then in terms of that central unit or idea. As a culmination, the exhibit of the work done gives definite purpose to the study and activity. Among the topics of a general school project are the following: fabrics and clothing, foods and utensils, the history of the state, the history of the community, and the development of literature, art, or music thru the ages. The needs of the school and community many times deter- mine the subject to be used. A number of tentative suggestions may be given to the teachers from which they and their classes choose as many as the needs and capacities of the pupils call for. Sometimes, after work begins on a project, newer and better ideas suggest themselves and are incor- porated. In order to be successful, careful plans must be prepared and a procedure worked out. In the vital period of preparation many mediums are used such as clay, sand tables, cardboard, paper, soap, and crayons. Activities of all kinds are going on, construction work, composition, writing, reading, and art, with the central idea in mind of giving new life to old facts. It is well to remember that it is not the finished products we are working for but the creative expression of the children. How- ever crudely expressed the pupil’s own work is what really counts. We know that a unit of work is real to a child only as long as new meanings are added and new possibilities are developed. Therefore, there is a need for wise guidance and stimulation by the teacher. Oftentimes viewing portions of the exhibit assembled in the various rooms serves to maintain or to reawaken interest. de th m al a od Oot it f r Be \w PS aS wae THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 255 The material for an activity exhibit is composed usually of work done by children in school but things made at home by a child, even tho assisted, should be encouraged. These non-school accomplish- ments show a transition of interest from the school to the home. For instance, in a study of different homes a group of pupils was plan- ning to show Washington’s home and its surroundings. Two brothers, assisted by their father, built models of the house while the rest of the group planned and constructed the grounds. The presentation of the exhibit is usually placed in charge of a committee. They decide on a uniform mode of mounting, color scheme, concise labeling, and arrangement of materials, so that units of work will fit together in sequence and a manner to attract interest. Children may assist in the arrangement, thereby gaining an oppor- tunity to use their knowledge of design, balance, proportion, color, and emphasis. If possible, a central place as the library, gym, or vacant room should be used to assemble the exhibit. The presentation ought to be, as nearly as possible, self-explanatory. If there are phases which need further elucidation, much value and enthusiasm may be added by allowing the children to help in showing the exhibit. These inter- preters should study the exhibit and be ready to clarify it for specta- tors. They may suggest to visitors ways of viewing the exhibit as well as calling attention to important facts and ideas. To add anima- tion to the exhibit a class may prepare series of slides, composed of pictures made with either colored pencils or India ink on etched glass. These home-made captions, supplemented by commercial slides, may be shown by means of the automatic balopticon or an ordinary stereopticon. Arrangements are usually made for all of the pupils of the school to view the exhibit and to have it explained. A time should be set aside for the people of the community. A teacher in charge, with the assistance of several children, can impart information about the preparation of the exhibit. In this way valuable contacts are made. The school is interpreted to the community, and the home thru its renewed interest will tend to cooperate more closely and to grow in appreciation of the aims of modern education. A district exhibit—An exhibit given by a group of schools in a district may be as instructional and stimulative to teachers as a demonstration lesson. In one district an exhibit was held for the purpose of presenting as many different ideas on charts, graphs, and blackboard display devices as could be found in the district. It was hoped that the teachers might find something that could be used in 256 ELEMENTARY Scuoot PRINCIPALS the future to vary their work. Directions pertaining to types of material desired, and ways of mounting, were sent to the various schools. Materials were selected, duplications eliminated, and the whole arranged by a committee. A short meeting was held before opening the exhibit to describe certain features to be looked for and to sum up briefly the use of charts and graphs. Splendid coopera- tion was shown thruout the district and the teachers felt that it was worthwhile. Single purpose exhibits—Other means of exhibiting are the dis- play cabinets and the bulletin boards. Many of the newer schools have display cabinets built in the corridors. The schedule may be arranged by teachers of various departments to allow definite time for stimulative displays of teaching methods, the work of the chil- dren, or both. Bulletin boards in the rooms are often arranged by committees of children. The borders of rooms above the blackboards may provide space for children’s work which can be used as a reading activity. Sometimes bulletin boards display a combination of stimulative work and the children’s products resulting from such stimulation. Where there are several bulletin boards in the corridors of the school, a committee of teachers may assign certain weeks to each room at which time that class displays material of interest to the other children of the building. If a chenge is desired, teachers ar- range it with the committee. Seasonal topics, charts showing school progress, compositions, health and safety activities, and other sub- jects may furnish stimulation. For example, the children of a fifth grade planned a project emphasizing the effect of good position in handwriting. Slides were shown in the room portraying correct posi- tion but these could not be shown on the bulletin board. Since the children wanted pictures, the teacher took snapshots of good posi- tions. With these as a nucleus the children decided what to place on the board under the main caption, “ Is your writing position com- fortable and healthful ? ” In all types of display we should remember that it is the children’s expression with which we are most concerned. Their contribution however slight should be commended. The more children’s work can be shown, the greater incentive they will have to progress. Exhibits of snapshots—Photography as a form of exhibiting chil- dren’s activities is rapidly coming to the fore. It is now possible, with the improved films and cameras, to get interior pictures of group activities. The facilities for taking flashlights have also been improved so that now we may obtain pictures of creative work in [eee at... een aed THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 257 places where the light is not ordinarily sufficient, as in the auditorium, the gymnasium, and the kindergarten. Snapshots may be used as an incentive for health by taking pic- tures of children exemplifying good posture, or of toothbrush drills. Pictures may include those who have accepted responsibility of good leadership in the safety patrol or the student council. There are countless ways in which photographs may help. Photographs may be shown thru an opaque projector, placed on bulletin boards, or put in a permanent exhibit of the school’s activi- ties, such as a scrapbook. These books are always of interest to chil- dren and to parents. Some values of exhibits—An exhibit prepared jointly by various classes and groups often brings about better cooperation and more cordial relations. Working together on concrete projects is a stimulat- ing process that promotes unity within a building. Many more chil- dren are given the opportunity to express themselves in a creative way than in the regular school work. Children learn to observe, to evaluate their work, and to study its presentation to others. They acquire attitudes of cooperation, de- pendability, responsibility, and the feeling of sharing in a common project. Their attention is focused on the numerous phases of a given topic thereby developing a lasting impression, a cultural background, and an appreciation of the work of other people. The child’s stock of fundamental concepts, such as ideas of nature, children’s own inter- ests, and the world’s work on land and sea, is inereased. Not only do the community and the children need the stimulation but also the teachers. Exhibits have become a popular and necessary part of conventions and conferences to demonstrate certain problems and to serve as an exchange of ideas. The results and influences of exhibits are immeasurable for they are the products of men’s ideas and activities. They show the inter- dependence of men and tend to enrich the developmental experiences of childhood. 258 ELeMENTARY Scuoor PRINCIPALS HOUSING A SCHOOL MUSEUM C. E. Travers Principal, Public School, Titusville, New Jersey ISUAL AIDS of all kinds have been used for centuries as effec- Viiv means with which to convey correct impressions of the ob- ject or topic under discussion. The textbook without appropriate illustrations is becoming a thing of the past. It is therefore neces- sary to supplement the textbook with aids suitable to the material at hand. This need may be fulfilled by means of a school museum made up of various exhibits, historical, geographical, and scientific in character. The organization of exhibits should follow closely the course of study so that displays may be set up according to the large units set forth in the curriculum. This plan will greatly facilitate the use of the museum. When displays are so organized, there will be less chance of a great demand for a particular exhibit at any one time during the school year. How we starled—The museum which was started in our school was the outgrowth of a trip about the schoolgrounds by our science club, of which the writer is faculty sponsor. A specimen of rock which proved to be a piece of granite was noticed by one of the group. While this rock is not found in this particular locality it did how- ever develop an interest in rocks. Students became more observing of rocks and a project of rock collecting was under way. During subsequent field trips more of the various rocks were collected and as the project became organized, contributions were made by club members until a considerable number were collected. This interest naturally led to a study of Indian implements made from rock and so an arrowhead collection was started. From this point on, the desire to collect grew and spread to the various subjects, und classes became interested in exhibit materials which could be used in the various studies—as history, geography, nature study, and science. A committee was organized whose function was the gathering of materials from industrial concerns, who were very co- operative and contributed generously. Needless to say the museum was well under way being supplied by field trips, interested parents, und companies.’ , Housing the exhibit—In order that a museum may be of value, a plan should be devised so that collections pertinent to the lesson under 14 number of schools obtain materials by exchanging specimens with schools in other countries or states. For example, pupils in California might send samples of redwood trees to children in Virginia in exchange for samples of the boxwood which grows near many historic shrines. The number of interesting specimens which may be exchanged without great cost is almost without limit.—Editorial Committee. ~~ eg 6 ewer TP ag oF TuirRTEENTH YEARBOOK 259 discussion may be easily and quickly brought before the children to assist in the lesson at hand. The housing of a school museum is there- fore tremendously important if classes are to derive the greatest benefit from such visual aids. It has been found that small cases are much to be preferred to the usual large glass cases with heavy plate glass and indirect lighting which are both expensive and less useful for immediate classroom use. The most satisfactory cases measure 24 inches in length, 14 inches in height, and 6 inches in depth, and are covered on the front with glass and on the back with beaver board or plywood. This size is very convenient for class use and oceupies but little space. All ex- hibit materials are fastened to the back board with wire, screws, or nails. In this way there is little danger of the displays being damaged. If closer examination is desirable the entire back board may be removed and all exhibits in the case brought within closer view. After the collection is properly placed in containers, labeled, cata- loged, and installed in the individual exhibit cabinet it then is availa- ble to other classes. Teachers reserve the use of the exhibits well in advance and they are delivered at the proper time for study. When an exhibit is not in use it has its place in the hall for general exhibi- tion, for this reason the small cabinets mentioned have proved them- selves extremely convenient and adequate for the purpose. Exhibits are securely held in place so that there is no possibility of breakage. In housing small vials they are securely wired to the backing of the cabinet as are wood collections and the like. The greatest problem presented itself in the fastening of rocks and minerals. This dificulty was solved by making plaster of paris pedes- tals in which the mineral was set and a small block of wood placed so that it could be serewed on to the cabinet backing. In the.ease of small vials of pond life which are corked, sealing wax was used to prevent the cork from loosening and the possibility of the contents spilling. Each case has been so carefully and sturdily constructed there has not been any mishap in which exhibits have been rendered useless. As our museum continues to grow and more exhibits are added, more of these cases may be brought into service. The simplicity of these cases makes it possible for any manual arts classes to construct them easily at very little cost. The approximate cost for each case averages about fifty cents. The price depends upon the type of wood used as well as the thickness of glass. However, it can be readily seen that the expenditure is within the sphere of any ele- mentary school. 260 ELEMENTARY Scuoot PRINCIPALS As the various cases are used thruout the term it may be necessary to find a place where they may be stored until needed. This in no way presents a problem for there are innumerable places where they may be stored and still be on display and therefore be of use to children to peruse in leisure moments. The long, usually empty halls offer great spaces where they may be hung by means of stout screw eyes fastened in the top of the case. In this way they will help to take up large empty spaces and also provide something of interest to the children. Outcomes of museum study—The value of this museum cannot be overemphasized for it has supplied much interesting material to as- sist the pupils in their studies. A clear conception of the cotton boll for example, has unquestionably been formed, likewise the cotton seeds which have been placed in small mayonnaise jars and suitably labeled. These jars are very convenient receptacles in which to place small seeds, grains, liquids, preserved pond life, and countless other materials. In a short time children will have brought to the school many jars and vials useful in keeping displays. A grain collection sponsored by the rural children is a very interesting one and presents to the children a conception of the types of farming carried on in our outlying districts. Again a value of the study of environment is brought out thru such collections. A follow up of our farming study will be the collection of soils peculiar to this locality. A study of the forest has yielded a group of suitably labeled and mounted pieces of wood found within this area. This project will also lead to a closer cooperation with the park officials to secure name plates for the trees and shrubs in our park. In this way we shall also have a natural exhibit of trees and shrubs within a short distance of the school. The study of local industries has also enlarged our museum thru visits at the factories where the children were able to see the various processes thru which rubber, for example, passes to the finished product. To assist the classes who have not as yet been studying this product, interesting exhibits have been motivated in this way. The same holds true with the trip taken to the paper mill within ten miles of our school. A few of the collections planned by our science club for the future include: a weed seed collection; a study of birds as destroyers, their nests and habitat; wild flowers of this locality; and insects injurious to farm crops. tu ar an in of ce eu me an on rei Sse] the an est tw eve be; sel mé ne an tel na eX) mé mi $01 for THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 261 HOW SCHOOLS USE THE CHILDREN’S MUSEUM RoweENA SMITH WALKER Librarian, A. L. Holmes School, Detroit, Michigan HE CHILDREN’S MUSEUM is one of Detroit’s distinctive pps in visual education. It had its beginning about fourteen years ago in two basement rooms of the old Art Insti- tute building, sponsored jointly by the board of education and the arts commission. Since that small beginning the museum has grown and developed to such an extent that its value as an aid to teaching is inestimable. In 1925 the museum came under the exclusive control of the board of education. It is now housed in a three-story building in the art center of the city. Its staff has grown to include, in addition to the curator, several assistants and delivery boys with trucks. The museum has two main lines of activities, a lending depart- ment which provides teachers with material for classroom use, and an exhibit department where both permanent and temporary exhibits on topics of interest to boys and girls are shown. Activities of the lending department—The lending department reaches approximately three-fourths of the schools. Requests are sent in by all parts of the school system from the kindergarten thru the college. The lending collections consist of specimens, pictures, and all sorts of illustrative material on almost every subject of inter- est to children, including geography, nature study, history, art, litera- ture, health, and safety. The museum delivery service delivers collections to each school every two weeks. Delivery dates for the semester are sent out at the beginning of the term so that any teacher wishing to make a semester schedule of requests may do so. Every attempt is made by the museum to reduce the amount of “ red tape” for teachers desiring to secure materials. The teacher may mail the request, telephone it, or, when necessary, go in person to select special material. Every collection sent out is tagged with the name of the teacher and school to which it is going. With every collection a list of con- tents is sent. Every article is marked. In addition to the statistical nature of the listing form, there is an opportunity for tlie teacher to express his approval or disapproval of the museum’s choice of his material. Such an expression is, of course, of future help to the museum staff. Museum material is usually delivered to the school office or to some other designated room. Each school has its own organization for carrying on museum work within the building. Sometimes it is 262 ELEMENTARY Scuoot PrRINcIPALS taken care of in the office by the clerks, sometimes in the auditorium by the auditorium teacher. In our school as in many others, the school librarian has charge of museum work for the entire building, and does the clerical work attendant to it, communicating with the museum by telephone when necessary. It is felt that by unifying the museum work and making one person responsible, much time is WHAT MAY THE LIBRARY DO FOR YOU? Teacher's Name... .cccescoocccccccescccceWeek Beginning....ceecs Section Number... cccccccccccccccscccccccceNO, DayS In Umit...coce Sibject to be taught Books or references desired Museum exhibits "600" set Remarks FIGURE 1-—School Library Service Blank. saved and waste eliminated both for the individual teacher and for the staff at the museum. In the actual handling of the material the librarian is assisted by the student library club. Messenger service incidental to the museum work is also a part of the club’s duties. Our method is as follows: At the beginning of the term museum delivery dates and all other essential information are placed in the hands of each teacher. When- ever necessary, additional notes are placed on the office bulletin board. eee RT ET Bagger, ee Tu IRTEENTH Y EARBOOK 263 Usually a reminder is given in this way the day before the material is to be collected. Every week library service slips (See Figure 1, “What May the Library Do for You?”) of which museum work Material for different dates must be placed on separate order blanks, Orders for material should be in the Museum one week before delivery date. O ORDER BLANK FOR MATERIAL FROM O THE CHILDREN’S MUSEUM 96 PUTNUM AVENUE School Teacher School delivery date when exhibit is desired Do not . Use SUBJECT Grade All material must be in the school office by 8:30 A.M. on the day it is collected by the Museum. Requests to keep the material addi- tional time may be made by telephone (Co. 3195) two days before the O collection is due. The name and number of each collection to be ex- tended must be given. The Museum trucks go to your school once every two weeks. To avoid confusion in dating your orders, please use exact date on which delivery is to be made at your school. FIGURE 2—Order Blank for Museum "Materials. is one part, are sent to the teachers at bell time. One week before the museum delivery these slips are collected. Requests for museum material are copied on museum request blanks (See Figure 2, “ Order 264 ELemMentTARY Scuoot PRINCIPALS Blank for Material”) by the librarian and mailed to the museum four or five days prior to the next delivery date. The librarian keeps a notebook record of all requests for reference (See Figure 3, ‘ School Library Record of Museum Materials”). Then, except for stray telephone messages to people who have forgotten dates, or misunder- standings of any nature, her work is done until the next delivery date, when all material to be returned must be collected in the office ready for the delivery boy when he brings the next installment. Our col- lections vary in number from 10 to 100 items with each delivery. The teachers feel that the museum is a storehouse upon which they may draw to enrich their teaching. Their use of the illustrative ma- terial is wide and varied. For example, when the music teacher is stressing music appreciation, a scene from the opera may be requested. Teacher returned Requested | Received | Returned Number Exhibit FIGURE 3—School Library Record of Museum Materials. If the auditorium wants to have a safety bulletin, a set of posters is often desired. A lower grade literature teacher may wish pictures of circus animals for a composition unit. An upper grade literature teacher may need a picture of Robin Hood and his Merry Men and an illustration for ‘“ Sea Fever.” In science when the children are studying the contributions of Greece and Rome to our modern civili- zation, large pictures of a Roman aqueduct and a Greek temple are sent with other relative material. If the homeroom of the fourth grade is trying to discover the natural resources of Michigan the pupils are helped greatly by specimens of iron ore, copper, salt, and lumber. Perhaps wheh a class wants to achieve a decorative effect, the figures and-tapestries of foreign countries from the museum may be used to lend color and charm to the room. Of course, the nature study teacher would be handicapped without the museum’s collec- tion of bird and animal specimens. she qu the Be ill ha me an in in of of eC of te iseum keeps school stray nder- date, ready r col- very. they > ma- er is sted. ~ ———— s is res ure ind are ili- are rth the nd THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 265 When the general arts course lays special emphasis on clothing and shelter, specimens of textiles and examples of architecture are re- quested from the museum. The library itself in its desire to broaden the children’s interests draws upon the museum very often. During Book Week, exhibits of the literature of other countries are planned. The museum is called upon to supply some little, interesting, typical illustration for each, such as a wooden shoe, a lace handkerchief, a hand-tooled book binding, or an elephant tusk. Book talks are much more interesting when accompanied by pictures of the author’s home and fireplace and desk. The librarian has in mind the building of interests that will prove a constant source of joy in the ever increas- ing leisure time of her students when they are grown. Exploration of other libraries and museums is suggested by lovely large prints of interiors of the Library of Congress and the British Museum. Many of the schools have locked glass display cabinets in their corridors. In these the teachers may show material of a costly or fragile nature which would otherwise be inaccessible to the majority of the children. These exhibits include antiques, fine carvings, pot- tery, weaving, glass, and articles of like nature. Teachers and supervisors may make suggestions to the museum staff regarding the desirability of materials. As the courses of study change, the museum collections change to meet the new requirements. When new courses are published there is a statement as to what help- ful material may be obtained on a given topic. The museum is pre- paring sectional catalogs for its lending collections. Permanent exhibits—At the museum the permanent exhibits cen- ter around the interests of young people. On the first floor exhibits relate to arts and crafts. In one room important processes of pottery are illustrated, with examples of some of the world’s great pottery works. A room is devoted to various forms of peasant art from Russia, Germany, Czecho-Slovakia, Switzerland and other countries. Another -room is given over entirely to textiles and weaving. Children are ‘always interested in Indian life. The museum has consequently ac- quired considerable material relative to it, including Indian costumes, occupations, and crafts. There are two bird rooms and one mineral room on the second floor. The museum has a wealth of natural history material which is not permanently available, due to lack of space. The exhibits on the third floor relate to world history beginning with the depicting of prehistoric life in Europe. This display in- cludes a series of pictures, specimens, and models in miniature. This part of the exhibit ends with the showing of miniature models of the 266 ELEMENTARY Scuoont Princrpears landing of Columbus, an Indian village characteristic of the Detroit area, and Detroit as a trading post under Cadillac. Other important events in the history of the city will be shown when funds are available. Temporary exhibits are set up at the museum covering subjects of seasonal and timely interest to children. At Christmas time thru the courtesy of the state conservation department, it is possible to exhibit and to send out to the schools various types of Michigan evergreens. A pottery wheel has been set up under the direction of a practical potter, and experience in its operation given to the children. Looms have also been used in the same way. Other activities of the museum are the conducting of clubs and art classes on Saturdays.. The clubs aid in the development of inter- ests and hobbies. The art classes are for gifted children and are under the direction of a trained art teacher. Concluston—The value of the lending collections are obvious, but of what value are these permanent collections and other museum ae- tivities to the classroom teacher? The answer is, that by encouraging the young student to take part in these activities the teacher may help him to acquire an appreciation of both nature and art, to start a hobby that will be a lifelong interest, and to develop within him- self resources which will be of everlasting pleasure and satisfaction. LL OVER THE UNITED STATES we find the larger cities and many of the smaller progressive towns estab- lishing departments of visual edueation in connection with their school work, and what is more eneourging we find in the last five years a better understanding of the term visual edu- cation. It does not mean education by motion picture only, but is now understood in its broadest sense. Today we realize that visual education is carried on preferably by object il- lustration, and only secondly by pictorial illustration. The desire for investigation on the part of the child must always be awakened when presenting museum material. The teacher should use this material in such a way as to arouse the spirit of curiosity and research.—Meissner, Amelia, N. E. A. Proceedings, 1929, p. 403-05. cl roit ant are : of the ibit ns. cal ms nd er- are mut ac- ng ay irt M- Sec SS coe THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 267 USE OF BLOCKS IN PRIMARY GRADES OQ. E. Heaton Principal, Logan Platoon School, Spokane, Washington ISUAL AIDS as generally understood by teachers consist of anything where the greater part of the educative ideas come thru the sense of vision. In many eases the idea is linked very closely with one or more of the other senses; for example, the sense of touch gives the child the idea of solidity and the sense of taste that of agreeableness or of repulsion. But back of these is the sense of sight which acts as a coordinator to bring the other senses into a harmonious whole and receives the primal information and ideas that go to build up the child’s background. Blocks easily adapted to young children—Children of the preschool and primary grades greatly limit the use of visual materials. Their senses and minds have not been trained to a point where they can appreciate and assimilate many visual aids. Therefore, it is neces- sary for the teacher to select carefully the type of visual aid that conforms best to this stage of the child’s development. Cumulative aids that will keep leading children forward in the educative process are the best type to select. Since the preschool child does not have the guiding hand of the teacher to help procure the right kind of play materials, the teacher ean do much thru association with parents in preschool circles, parent- teacher associations, social clubs, and other personal contacts to guide parents in choosing the right play materials and toys. There is a vast amount of harm done by well-meaning parents because they do not understand the psychology underlying visual aids that apply to children of this age. Montessori, one of the greatest modern exponents of visual aids among preschool and lower grade school children, spent a great deal of time, thought, and effort in developing a type of building blocks that would fill this need. Since then many other educators have de- veloped sets to meet the same need, and educators today have quite a large collection of blocks from which to choose. These blocks vary from the small red-faced letter type to the large mechanical blocks from which an unlimited variety of things may be constructed. The simplest, most variable, and most easily handled blocks should be used in the preschool and in the lower primary grades. Then as the grades advance, the more difficult—more thought-provoking and those that lend themselves to a wider range of uses—should be supplied. Stimulating the imagination—The unimaginative child is a diffi- cult educational problem and is handicapped all thru life by his in- 268 ELEMENTARY Scuoot Princrpats ability to see things in their correct relationships. This inability is particularly noticeable in mathematics. One of the most important values of block work is to develop the imagination of the child. If the imagination of the child is to grow naturally, he must have some opportunity to try it out and see if the real thing, after it has been produced, conforms to what he thought it would before he began to build it. In many eases he will find during the construction process that some things cannot be done which he thought could be, and that in many respects it does not look as he had it pictured, so he builds it over again. This process is kept up all thru the primary grades. These vivid pictures of reality become the guiding element in the de- velopment of the imagination. Much of the weirdness of the imagina- tion of many children, built up thru the wrong kind of stories and literature, is absent here. Developing leadership—Helping reticent children to develop leadership qualities is most difficult, and yet they are the greatest assets a child can have. If he can meet his fellow students easily— has that magnetic pull, winning way, and pleasant manner in meet- ing people—he has gone a long way toward success. There are few things in primary work that give the opportunity for this develop- ment as do building blocks. Here the children meet in groups to work out problems, usually of their own choice. They have their own planning to do; assigning work to each in the group; seeing that the plan they are working out is followed—insisting that when changes are necessary, they be made in an orderly way; providing the type and kind of blocks best fitted for particular places; and watching their efforts develop and grow into a finished project. These activities provide opportunities for the boy or girl who has that peculiar make-up of natural leadership to take charge and carry on. It also gives the teacher, by shifting the personnel of the group, an oppor- tunity to form groups of lesser ability where some child will naturally take the lead and thus receive the training and development that he so badly needs. This shifting process may be carried to the point where practically every child in the room has had the benefits and the inspiration of doing something a little better than someone else. He has experienced the thrill and satisfaction of leadership, of plan- ning and helping someone else not quite his equal in that particulai field. We sometimes wonder whether the things that children show a special talent for in the schoolroom carry over into their outside activities. If we think for a moment, most of us can call to mind many examples of this carry-over. In fact, it is the rule and not the exception. Not only do we find the academically-minded bright - PST et- WwW ip- to ir ‘vy th Oe Site hitent ata, aie mmaaeell poe THIRTEENTH YEARBOOK 269 children monopolizing the leadership, but we find also many children who fail in academic work doing a good job at leadership because of the training they have had in activity and so-called extracurriculum work. Much of this training, particularly in block work, begins with the activity program in the primary grades. Developing the ability to observe—Another educative value of block work is the training of the pupil in observation. Here he is all attention. He must see every little detail, must see what shape of block will fit in a certain position, and must decide whether to use long, short, round, square, large, or small blocks. Sometimes his eyes will deceive him; then he must determine the right one by trial. It may be necessary for him to pick up several blocks before he gets one that will fit. Sometimes he must put two or more together to fill a certain place. If he is working with colored blocks, he has another problem to eare for—color. Here his block work integrates with art. He learns combination and arrangement of color in working out any color scheme. His number work is also improved. He must know how many blocks, of whatever color he uses, go to make up the different parts of his pattern. He is learning to see things in their right per- spective and is building up a clear and definite foundation for visual accuracy. Developing originality—Creativeness is a virtue of which anyone may be proud. With many children it is most difficult to acquire. Children are naturally imitators and followers. As a rule it takes much time and patience to develop originality, and yet no child can be a good student without it. Originality is the base of progressive work. The earlier this trait is developed in the child the greater his chances are for outstanding work and success. The child starts his educative process by following and mimicking, and it is all too true that some children never get very far away during life. True edu- cation teaches children to think, to depend upon themselves, to wrestle with their own problems, and when they win, to experience that pleasurable satisfaction which comes only thru one’s own success. Building blocks, in furnishing a child an opportunity to work out things for himself, lay a solid foundation for the training and de- velopment of originality. Here he handles the blocks, he places one upon the other, he changes or moves them to another place, he studies the result, and, if not pleased, he changes them to still another posi- tion. He thinks and plans. He tries out new combinations; the out- side world is shut out from him—he is laying the foundation for original thinking, and he is doing an exceptionally good job. 270 ELEMENTARY Scuoou PRINCIPALS Developing independence—Many children, when they enter school, have no clear conception of taking hold and doing things by them- selves. Their initiative, if they have any, has been neglected and lies undeveloped. They do not know how to begin new things. They have depended upon their parents to show them how to begin. The parent, thinking he is doing the child a good service, directs the activity thru to the end. In other words, unknowingly or because it is the easiest thing to do, the adult often direets the child’s activities to the point where what little initiative the child has is destroyed. If the child is to do outstanding work in school as well as later in life, his initiative must be developed. If his initiative is weak, it cannot be developed by giving him too much responsibility and expecting too much of him ut the beginning. He must be guided, and there is no better way of doing this than by working with others of about his same ability where he can take the lead in at least a few things and experience satisfaction thru success. Most children are active and like to do things with their hands. Block work gives them this opportunity, and rarely is there a case in which it does not bring results. They are permitted to go their own pace, in their own way, thinking it out, und doing it as they think it should be done. They are learning to do things on their own initiative, and the educative process takes on an entirely new meaning to them. No doubt many children be- come * problem children ” thru the non-development of their initia- tive. Let us be careful, as far as it is possible, to supply children with the best materials and conditions thru which the initiative may be developed. Developing mechanical skills—Since this is essentially a mechani- cal age, it is necessary that children be trained to some extent along mechanical lines. There is no place in the school where this can be started quite as well as in block work in the primary grades. Here the child is able to work out the things he hears his folks talk about at home, the things he sees from day to day and yet does not under- stand, and the things he reads about in his school work. How curious a child must be to know what is on the inside of things to make them act as they do, how things are built up, how the different parts are put together, and how to arrange the whole to get certain results. Build- ing blocks furnish adaptable material with which he can try out his mechanical ingenuity. If his fancy happens to be the construction of a train, he becomes so interested in it that he asks his teacher, his folks at home, and others what to do. He reads what he can find about it, he looks at pictures and cuts, he is becoming mechanically minded. The developing of such intense interest leads to other fine I en IES eo